1 Glass Book THE HANDBOOK SERIES STUDY OF LATIN AND GREEK THE HANDBOOK SER IES $1.25 Agricultural Credit Americanization, 2d ed, #1.80 Closed Shop #1.80 ! European War. Vol. II #1.25 Immigration #1.80 Industrial Relations Employmt Managemt, #2.40 Modern Industrial Move- ments #2.40 Problems of Labor, #2.40 League of Nations, 4th ed. , #L50 Prison Reform #1.25 Short Ballot $1.25 ; Socialism #1.25 Vocational Education #2.25 ! THE HANDBOOK SERIES SELECTED ARTICLES ON THE STUDY OF LATIN AND GREEK COMPILED BY LAMAR T. BEMAN, A.M., IX. B. Attorney at Law, Cleveland, Ohio NEW YORK THE H. W. WILSON COMPANY London: Grafton & Co. 1921 (^ I A I I ??* PUBLISHED, SEPTEMBER 1921 Printed in the United States of America EXPLANATORY NOTE The Classical Association of the Atlantic States published in 1915 a forty page pamphlet entitled "The Practical Value of Latin" in which were given the opinions of many prominent people advocating the study of Latin and Greek, with an intro- duction that endeavored to answer most of the more common objections to the study of the dead languages. Three copies of this pamphlet were sent to each member of the association to- gether with a leaflet that asked for their co-operation "to get the pamphlet into the hands of those who need it most, the pupils and the parents who have to face the problem whether Latin shall be elected." Lower prices were charged for the pamphlet where a larger number of copies were taken for distribution. The leaflet further stated, "It is hoped that many members will purchase copies to be distributed as widely as possible. Mem- bers who are not in a position to distribute copies themselves may wish to- contribute to a fund for the distribution of copies ; such contributions will be most welcome." The pamphlet, on the inside of the first cover, states frankly that it is "published in the hope that children and parents both may be guided to a wise choice of studies in school and college by the aid of these convictions of persons of distinction." No criticism is offered here of this organized propaganda, and this is only one small phase of the propaganda carried on by the teachers of the dead languages, but the opinion is ex- pressed that it is seldom possible to reach a wise conclusion on any question that is a matter of public controversy by reading only one side of that case, and that this is particularly true when the ex parte statement is so largely a matter of opinions that have been compiled by interested parties. Children and parents may be, not "not guided to a choice," but rather given an oppor- tunity to get for themselves the facts that will enable them to decide upon an even wiser choice of studies if they have at their disposal a little volume that presents fully and fairly "the con- victions of oersons of distinction" on both sides of this old and vi EXPLANATORY NOTE long discussed question, a volume that endeavors to eliminate all bitterness and slurs, a volume in the preparation of which is no element of self interest or effort to lead the reader to the conclusion that the editor desires to create in his mind, a volume that endeavors to give so far as possible all the facts and the best of the "convictions" (that is, opinions) on both sides. Such is the general plan of the Handbook Series, in accordance with which this volume is compiled. Following the general plan of this series, the present volume endeavors to bring together the best that has been written on both sides of the old controversy over the value of the study of the Latin and Greek languages, to give bibliographical references to a wider field of the best literature of the question, and to include debaters' briefs in which the whole argument on each side is presented in skeleton form. Lamar T. Beman February I, 1921. CONTENTS Briefs Affirmative Brief ix Negative Brief xv Bibliography Bibliographies and Briefs _ xxix General References xxix Affirmative References xxxiii Negative References xliv Introduction General Discussion Classical Studies (Sonnenschein) 9 Mediaeval Universities (Walsh) 13 Requirements for the Bachelor's Degree (John) 17 Brief Excerpts , 23 Affirmative Discussion Case for the Classics (Shorey) 25 ^ Worth of Ancient Literature (Bryce) 52 Value of the Classics to Students of English (Denney) 70 u "llust the Classics Go? (West) 76 Measurements of the Effect of Latin (Perkins) 88 Classics in British Education 92 L-^Value of Latin and Greek (Cole) 107 Brief Excerpts 114 Negative Discussion VValue of the Classics (Bain) 125 t^Liberal Education Without Latin (Snedden) 149 Value of Studying Foreign Languages (Starch) 168 Education as Mental Discipline (Flexner) 175 Teaching of English (Chamberlain) 193 Classical Literature Through Translations (Sisson) 202 Why I Have a Bad Education (Hall) 205 t Examples^ of Dead Language Propaganda 213 Brief Excerpts 216 One group of educators sturdily defends the traditional class- ical course, with its great emphasis on Greek and Latin, while ■another group as urgently insists that if any foreign languages are taught, they must be the modern ones. These opposing schools of thought are profoundly sincere in their conflicting be- liefs. Each side is absolutely certain that it is right and is un- alterably of the opinion that there is no other side of the question to be even so much as considered. Anything that agrees with its own side is based on reason; anything opposed is but ignorant prejudice. Under the circumstances the disinterested outsider may well suspect that where there is so much sincerity and conviction, there must be much truth on both sides. And undoubtedly this is the case. — Franklin Bobbitt, "What the Schools Teach and Might Teach," p. 96. Cleveland Education Survey, 1915. The presumption in favor of any belief generally entertained has existed in favor of many beliefs now known to be entirely erroneous, and is especially weak in the case of a theory which enlists the support of powerful special interests. The history of mankind everywhere shows the power that special interests, capable of organization and action, may exert in securing the acceptance of the most monstrous doctrines. We have, indeed, only to look around us to see how easily a small special interest may exert greater influence in forming opinion and in making laws than a large general interest. — Henry George, Protection or Free Trade, p. 12. BRIEFS Resolved, That a wise choice of studies in .high school or college would include Latin (and Greek.) Affirmative Brief Introduction. A. Historical statement. . . ;.-„■_■ , i. The modern study of the ancient classical lan- guages dates from the fall of Constantinople in 1453- 2. It was introduced into England in the following century. 3. It was brought to this country from England with our other institutions and customs. 4. From the founding of Harvard College until quite recently the study of the ancient classical lan- guages was recognized as the pillar of the curricu- lum in every institution of higher education. 5. The ancient, classical languages have gained ground during the past few years. : B. The purpose of higher education is to" disseminate true culture, 1. Culture is knowing the best thathas been thought and said in the whole history^jH^nkind. 2. A cultured person is one who fH V his mind and tastes a permanent source Of sSWaction and en- joyment. 3. Culture is obtained from a liberal education, one that develops all the faculties and qualities of the mind. C. The affirmative will prove that the study of the an- cient classical languages: 1. Gives a superior mental training. 2. Is the foundation of all true culture. BRIEF 3. Is exceedingly valuable for the knowledge it gives. 4. Is the best foundation and preparation for other studies. 5. Is approved and endorsed by most of the great educators and the men and women who have been leaders of thought and action. I. The study of the ancient classical languages gives a su- perior mental training. A. The classics have stood the test of time as a formative study. 1. They have been so recognized for more than three hundred years in all civilized countries. 2, They are today the pillars of almost every high school course in America. (a) More than half a million students in our public high schools are now taking Latin. (b) This number is constantly increasing. (c) The pupils who take Latin are the more substantial and serious minded students. B. The classic languages supplement science, mathema- tics, and history to make a well rounded course. C. The study of the ancient classical languages develops all the powers and faculties of the human mind. 1. It gives the best known memory training. 2. It develops accuracy and precision in the use of language. 3. It trains and perfects the judgment. 4. It enlarges the vision. 5. It develops the reasoning powers. 6. It quickens the powers of observation and per- ception. 7. It gives concentration of mind. 8. It develops breadth of sympathy. 9. It enlarges the understanding. 10. It develops habits of thoroughness and industry. D. The unquestionable results of classical training are absolute proof of its superior value as a form of mental training. BRIEF xi 1. Students with a classical education invariably do the best work in the professional and scientific schools. (West, Value of the Classics, p. 364-86) 2. Most of the great men of the world within the last three hundred years have had a classical education. 3. Students who enter college without any classical preparation are not nearly as well equipped for col- lege work and do not accomplish as much in col- lege as those who have taken Latin and Greek in the preparatory schools. (University of Colorado Bulletin. Sept. 1914, and North American Review 138:161. Feb. 1884.) II. The study of the ancient classical languages is the founda- tion of all true culture. A. It is universally so recognized. 1. So recognized for three hundred years. 2. So recognized in all civilized countries. 3. So recognized by most of the great educational leaders. (a) Nicholas Murray Butler (Meaning of Edu- cation, p. 173.) B. It gives polish, grace and refinement. 1. It gives one the power to understand and enjoy the best of our own literature, (a) English literature, especially poetry, abounds with references to ancient mythology and literature. C. It gives the power to appreciate the beautiful in art and architecture. 1. By developing the power of observation and per- ception. 2. By developing the imagination. D. It gives poise and mental equilibrium. I. Men and nations whose leaders have a classical education do not yield to hysteria in times of crisis or excitement. E. It gives one a sense of pleasure and satisfaction in his own mind. xii BRIEF III. The study of the ancient classical languages is very valu- able for the knowledge it gives. A. It reveals ancient civilization at first hand, it is his- tory by source material, i. The laws, customs, and institutions of the foun- dation civilizations are revealed. B. It gives the student first hand information concerning the best of the world's literature. 1. No poet has ever equalled Homer, and no one really understands and appreciates Homer who has not read him in the original. C. It brings the student into direct contact with the na- tions that produced the best of the world's art and architecture. IV. The study of the ancient classical languages is the best foundation and preparation for other studies. A.. It contributes to success in the professions and sciences. i. It is a great help in the legal profession. (a) The phrases and maxims of the law are largely in Latin. (b) A knowledge of Latin makes a splendid in- troduction to the study of the civil law, which has come down to us from ancient Rome. 2. It is very valuable for the medical profession, (a) Latin or Greek words make up the termin- ology of anatomy, pharmacy, botany and some other sciences. 3. It is necessary as a preparation for the priesthood or the ministry. (a) The exact meaning of many passages of the scriptures can be ascertained only by one who has learned Latin and Greek. 4. It is very helpful to most of the sciences. „ (a) Latin or Greek words make up the terminol- ology of most of the sciences. BRIEF xiii 5. Most of the men who have achieved eminence in the professions and sciences in recent centuries have had a classical education. B. A knowledge of the ancient classical languages greatly facilitates the acquisition of the Romance languages. 1. In any class in the Romance languages in any col- lege, the best work is done by those students who have mastered the classics. 2. French, Spanish, and Italian are very largely de- rived from the Latin. (Sabin, The Relation of Latin to Practical Life, p 35) 3. Students and teachers of Romance languages are unanimous in their statements of the benefits of a classical preparation for the Romance languages. C. A knowledge of the ancient classical languages is es- sential to a thorough mastery of English. 1. This is the testimony of professors and teachers of English. 2. About half of the words in the English language are derived from Latin or Greek. 3. Careful translation gives a peculiar command of English. (a) It enriches the vocabulary. (b) It teaches the exact meaning of words. (c) It enables the student to grasp the meaning of many words without reference to the dic- tionary. (d) It greatly facilitates the use of the prefixes and suffixes. 4. Latin or Greek Grammar gives new meaning to English Grammar. (a) It gives accurate knowledge and understand- ing of the English sentence. V. The study of the ancient classical languages has been ap- proved and endorsed as the best possible education by most of the great educators and by many of the great leaders in all fields of thought and action. West, Value of the Classics). BRIEF A. Educators. 1. President Lowell of Harvard. 2. President Hadley of Yale. 3. President Hibben of Princeton. 4. William T. Harris, former U. S. Commissioner of Education. 5. President Butler of Columbia. 6. Chancellor Day of Syracuse. B. Statesmen. 1. James Bryce. 2. Theodore Roosevelt. 3. Woodrow Wilson. 4. William E. Gladstone. C. Lawyers and Jurists. 1. William H. Taft. 2. Elihu Root. 3. Roscoe Pound. 4. A. Mitchell Palmer. D. Clergymen. , 1. Hugh Black. 2. Benjamin D. Warfield. 3. John DeWitt. 4. William D. McKenzie. E. Writers and Authors. 1. James Russell Lowell. 2. John Stuart Mill. 3. Lyman Abbott. 4. Henry Van Dyke. F. Physicians. 1. Victor C. Vaughan. 2. Mayo Brothers. ^5^ 3. William S. Thayer. 4. Charles S. Dana. G. Business men. 1. James Loeb. 2. William Sloan. 3. Alba B. Johnson. 4. S. S. McClure. 5. George H. Putnam. BRIEF xv H. Engineers. 1, Charles P. Steinmetz. 2. John N. Vedder. Negative Brief Introduction. A. Almost all conditions of life have changed funda- mentally in the three hundred years since the study of the dead languages was introduced in England. 1. Then there was relatively little else to study. (a) Such knowledge as did exist was largely locked up in the dead languages. 2. Then the study of the dead^ languages was warmly supported and encouraged by despotism and in- tolerance. 3. Now there are many useful studies. (a) The English language. (x) A good command and an elegant usage of English are now a necessity to all educated people. (y) The literature of the English language is now the best in the world. (b) There is now a vast body of important sci- entific knowledge. (w) Physical science, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy^ geography, etc. (x) Biological sciences, botany, zoology, bacteriology, physiology, hygiene, etc. (y) Social sciences, economics, political science, sociology, etc. (z) Applied science, industrial arts, agricul- ture, commerce and engineering in its various branches. (c) History (d) Philosophy. (e) Mathematics. B. The meaning of the question. 1. For practical purposes this question refers only to the study of Latin, for Greek has practically dis- BRIEF appeared from our high schools and colleges, so that most of the students could not take Greek even if they wanted to do so. C. The true purpose of education. Lapp and Mote, Learn- ing to Earn. Chap. I. 1. To prepare each individual for a life of service. 2. To develop the natural capabilities of each and every person, so that he may fill a useful place in society. D. The Negative will prove i. That the study of the dead languages is very harm- ful as a form of mental training. 2. That the knowledge acquired from the study of the dead languages is absolutely useless to the aver- age person. 3. That the study of the dead languages is not neces- sary for nor materially helpful to other studies. 4. That the study of the dead languages entails an enormous social waste. 5. That the study of the dead languages is strongly opposed by the majority of the able and disinter- ested people. The study of the dead languages is very harmful as a form of mental training. A. It gives a narrow one-sided training. 1. It is chiefly memory training. (a) It expends rather than trains the memory. (Bain, Education as a science p. 367) 2. It encourages acquiescence. (Spencer, Education; Intellectual, Moral, and Physical, p. 79) 3. It develops narrowness and snobbishness. (Class- ical Journal 13 : 147) 4. It does not develop initiative^ B. It does not develop the intellectual powers. 1. The power of logical reasoning. 2. The power of original thinking. 3. The power of independent inquiry or bold investi- gation. BRIEF xvii 4. The observing and reflective powers. (Adams, A College Fetich) C. It turns attention away from the realities of the world. 1. Language is merely a tool of value as we make use of it. 2. The intensive study of the dead languages uses the best years of the student's life on grammar, syntax, inflections, vocabulary, and translation of a few fragments of ancient literature. 3. It is chiefly the few language-minded students who take more than a mere smattering of the dead languages, and these are the ones above all others who do not need this form of training. 4. Language study does not develop the habits and the qualities of mind necessary for men of thought and action in the affairs of life in the twentieth century. D. The universal use of illegitimate helps makes abso- lutely impossible the good results that are claimed to follow from the slow and tedious grind of study- ing the dead languages, but instead makes the study conducive to dishonest methods in other things as well as making the so called culture very superficial. 1. Handy literal translations. 2. Interlinear translations. E. Claims often made and never proved that students who have taken the dead languages do better work in other studies, even if proved, would not prove any superiority for the training obtained from the study of the dead languages. 1. As a general rule it is the abler students who take and continue work in the dead languages. (a) Other students are not wanted. Classical Journal 13 : 147 Dec. 1917. (b) Many weaker students change their course or leave school discouraged. 2. In the professional and scientific schools compar- isons are usually meaningless. xviii BRIEF (a) Students who have taken the dead languages in high school and college are compared with those who have never been to college. F. The men of this generation who have taken Latin and Greek through high school and college have accom- plished less in life than men with a practical mod- ern education. II. The knowledge acquired from a study of the dead lan- guages is absolutely useless to the average person. A. Direct use of this knowledge is seldom if ever made. 1. The knowledge acquired consists of : (a) Details of inflection, grammar, vocabulary, etc. of a dead language. (b) More or less ability to translate slowly and tediously. (c) A smattering of the facts of ancient history. (d) Some acquaintance with primitive pagan civilization, with its highly immoral mythol- ogy and childish superstition, its human slavery of white men, its gladiatorial fights, its very corrupt government and society, its brutal dungeons, its horrible warfare with spear and sword, its frequent murders, its wholesale robbery of its colonies, its utter intolerance and contempt of the rights of other nations. 2. Not one student in a hundred makes any use at all of any of these facts. 3. All students soon forget practically all of this in- formation. * 4. It is outrageously absure* for high school and col- lege students to go through the dull and dismal grind of learning all this useless nonesense. B. Most of the high school students taking the dead lan- guages do not pursue them long enough to get their supposed benefits. 1. The head of the Latin department at Adelbert Col- lege said in 1915 "It is of course foolish for any- one to take Latin without Greek," but over half BRIEF xix a million students in American high schools are doing so. 2. About one third of the students in high schools take Latin, but most of them do not take more than two years of it. (Lankester, Natural Science and the Classical System in Education, p. 201) (a) Many never complete one year of it. (b) Many take only two years to make the re- quirement of the colleges. (c) Some high schools are only three year schools. C. All beautiful or useful thought in the dead languages has been well translated. 1. To know the facts of ancient history it is not necessary to learn the dead languages. 2. Persons who study Plato, Aristotle, or Cicero for the knowledge to be obtained from their works, invariably do so by reading a translation. 3. It had never been considered necessary to know Latin or Greek to read understandingly the Holy Scriptures. III. The study of the dead languages is not necessary for nor materially helpful to other studies. A. It is neither necessary nor helpful to the learned por- fessions. 1. Many of our ablest lawyers, jurists, physicians, surgeons, clergymen, engineers, authors, editors, business men, etc. never studied any dead language. (a) Abraham Lincoln. (b) William Shakespeare. (c) W. D. Howells. (d) T. B. Aldrich. 2. The fact that the terminology of some of the sci- ences and some of the words and phrases used in the law are Latin or Greek words does not prove that it is necessary or even helpful for one to go through the long, dull, dismal, and stupifying grind of learning the dead languages in order to make a success of one of these sciences or profes- sions^ BRIEF (a) Such Latin phrases as "habeas corpus" "ex- post Facto" "in quo warranto" are no more difficult to understand that such terms as "right of eminent domain." "Garnishee" or "legal tender." (b) Practically all knowledge of the dead lan- guages is so soon forgotten as to make any- professional man who has studied the dead languages just as much dependent upon his dictionary as his associate who never wasted any time on them. (c) To most scientific and technical terms a knowledge of the Latin or Greek root would give little meaning and would often cause confusion. (Bain, Education as a Science. P- 375-6) 3. Useful and practical studies would be a far better preparation for the professions and sciences. The study of the dead languages is not necessary nor helpful to an elegant and forceful use of English. (Bain, Education as a Science, p. 374-8) 1. Many persons who have used English most ele- gantly, forcefulry and most accurately never studied a dead language. (a) Abraham Lincoln. (b) William Shakespeare. (c) Henry George. (d) W. D. Howells. 2. The claim that without studying the dead lan- guages or at least Latin it is impossible for the average person to gain a complete mastery of Eng- lish is ridiculously absurd. (a) This claim for the dead languages was not made until quite recently. (b) While this statement has often been made, it has never been proved. The Negative asks for proof, for some real evidence. (c) Opinions do not make proof, especially is this true of the biased opinions of financially interested parties. BRIEF xxt (d) Latin and Greek are too unlike English. (e) It would be just as reasonable to say that it is necessary to study astronomy in order to prepare for dentistry. (f) When the classical group ruled our schools and colleges, it was necessary to take both languages throughout the high school and college course, and the result was that prac- tically no English was taught in the high schools until about twenty-five years ago. (g) The fact that many English words are de- rived from Greek or Latin roots, does not prove that it is necessary or even helpful to a complete mastery of English for one to spend years at the dull drudgery of learning the dead languages. (v) It might just as well be said that one must learn the original Anglo-Saxon from which many English words are also derived, (w) Many English words now have a very different meaning than the Latin or Greek roots from which they were originally derived, (x) There are no words in the English lan- guage of which any high school boy or girl cannot easily and quickly obtain the exact meaning, (y) Any person who has studied the dead languages so soon forgets them that they are of very little help in under- • standing or using English, (z) Latin vocabulary of most students is too small to be of real help. The only way to learn English so as to have a good command of it, is by studying English, (a) Nobody uses English elegantly and well un- less he has read some of the best works in English literature and has associated to some extent with educated and cultured people. xxii BRIEF (b) Nobody writes elegant and forceful English unless he has had practice in doing so. (c) The student who has taken Latin and Greek gives just as much time in high school and college to the study of English as the student who has never studied a dead language, (x) If the study of the dead languages were any real help to English, cer- tainly the high school courses would be so arranged as to require less English work of the classical students than of others. 4. The study of Latin at the high school age is very injurious to English. (Mackie, Education during Adolescence, p. 99 et seq.) C. The study of the dead languages is not really helpful, much less necessary, to a study of the modern lan- guages. 1. Half of the time spent on the dead language would be sufficient to learn a modern language. 2. Most of the students who learn the dead languages thoroughly do not have time to take up the modern languages. D. The study of the dead languages does not excite the intellectual interests of modern students. 1. It does not lead to interest in other allied studies, or to the acquisition of other knowledge. 2. The dead languages are not interesting or inspir- ing in themselves, nor do they excite a student to continue his study. (a) The study of the dead languages is never continued after a student leaves high school or college. (x) Occasionally we hear it said that some person enjoyed reviewing them in his ^_ dotage, but who can tell of a particular J case where this was true. (y) For every case of a person who en- joyed reading Homer in his dotage, a thousand boys have left high school in BRIEF xxiii disgust over the dry bones of tKe dead languages. (z) Both John Adams and Thomas Jeffer- son, after they were seventy years of age, spent some time on the Greek clas- sics and exchanged letters of dissatis- faction and disgust. (Adams, A Col- lege Fetich) (b) Teachers or teaching methods are often blamed for making the dead languages dull and uninteresting. (x) This is most absurd, because the teachers of the dead languages as a rule are superior teachers, (y) Only superhuman power can restore life to the dead. (z) Teaching methods were criticised by Milton, Heine, and have been criticised continually ever since. IV. The study of the dead languages entails an enormous so- cial waste. A. It prevents the student from taking important and use- ful subjects and getting knowledge which every person ought to have. 1. It is possible to cover only sixteen units in a high school course of four years. 2. Every high school student taking a cultural course ought to get at least: (a) Four units of English. (b) Two units of physical science. (c) Two units of biological science. (d) Two units of social science. (e) Three units of history. (f) Three units of mathematics. (g) Some modern language might be included for those who will make use of it. (h) Some practical science. 3. About half of this must be omitted by the student who takes the Latin-Greek course, and one quarter of it by the student who takes Latin without Greek. xxiv BRIEF 4. If any foreign languages are taken, they should be the modern languages, for these have the possi- bility of being of some use to the student. 5. Students taking dead language in high school are compelled to give it most of their time and effort in their study hours, neglecting the practical and useful studies. B. The study of the dead languages retards and prevents the education of many pupils. 1. It is a dull and dismal grind that takes a student away from the realities of the world and compels him to labor tediously at memorizing, conjugating, cramming rules of grammar, syntax, meanings of words, idioms, and slowly translating bits of an- cient writings. (a) Many boys leave high school in disgust, robbed of their education. (G. Stanley Hall, School Review 9:656 Dec. 1901) (b) Many pupils do not make progress and change their course. (c) None of the pupils can consider the study as connected with the realities of the world. C. The study of the dead languages has retarded the prog- ress of civilization. • 1. The progress of civilization has been enhanced by the great inventions, discoveries, and reforms made in the fields of science, including the physical sciences, that is', chemistry, physics, engineering, transportation, communication, mining, agricul- ture, etc., and also including social science, that is, government, industrial relations, social service, etc. 2. The study of the dead languages diverts the atten- tion of many of the best minds away from these things to" the details of ancient history, grammar, and philology. (a) The grind over the dead languages unfits a person for a life of useful service in the world. (b) The careful student of the dead languages cannot be the best type of "a good citizen in a twentieth century democracy. BRIEF XXV (c) He is either a bookworm, or he has lost the best of his student hours in the pedagogical treadmill of the dead languages. 3. By turning attention away from the realities of the world, the study of the dead languages has retarded the progress of civilization by more than a century. D. The study of the dead languages creates snobbishness in education. 1. It was originally designed in England to create gentlemen of leisure, who considered themselves above ordinary people and who showed their loftiness of mind by the occasional use of a Latin quotation. 2. In our high schools today the "classical" teachers and "classical" students assume an attitude of lofty superiority and look with contempt upon all who waste none of their time on the dead languages. (Classical Journal 13: 147 Dec. 1917.) 3. The better forms of education have been attacked and ridiculed for a hundred years by persons whose motive was to preserve their own positions teaching the dead languages. (a) Practical and useful studies have been de- nounced as "low utilitarianism" and "a mess of potage." (b) An organized propaganda has been carried on for several years by teachers of the dead languages. (w) The pamphlet "The Practical Value of Latin" By the Classical Association of the Atlantic States published in 1915 is an example. (x) The files of the Classical Journal and the Classical weekly contain articles telling the benefits of the study of the dead languages and giving teachers of these subjects ideas as how to carry on the work of proselytism (Classical Journal 10:267), (Classical Weekly 5:1, Oct. 7, '11 and 6:210-12 May 17, '13.) cxvi BRIEF (y) Most of the books and magazine arti- cles defending the study of the dead languages have been written by teach- ers of these subjects. (z) Personal and individual work has been carried on by teachers in an effort to persuade or to influence individual students to take the dead languages. (Lankester, Natural Science and the Classical System in Education, p. 202) V. Although opinion evidence cannot be given great weight in any debate, the preponderance of the able and disin- terested opinion is strongly opposed to the study of the dead languages. A. Opinion evidence is one of the weakest forms of evi- dence. 1. Opinion evidence is admitted in a court of law only after the witness has been qualified as an expert. 2. The "best evidence" rule of the law rules out of court poorer evidence when the best evidence is obtainable. (a) Opinion evidence on the value of the study of the dead languages can only be construed as meaning a total absence of any real proof. (b) Opinion evidence on this question can have little weight because the dead languages have been studied for over three hundred years and if the results are as good as claimed, then it would be easy to present better evi- dence than opinions in their defense. 3. All opinions of teachers of the dead languages as to the value of their study must be considered as the biased testimony of persons financially in- terested in the subject of the controversy. 4. Many of the opinions given in the propaganda of the Classical associations endorse a "thorough" or a "complete" course in Latin and Greek, and not a smattering of Latin, which is all that the average high school student gets. BRIEF xxvii B. The opinions of many able and financially disinterested persons can be cited against the study of the dead languages. 1. Herbert Spencer, the great English philosopher. 2. Prof. Alexander Bain. 3. Charles W. JEliot, former President of Harvard University, and one of the greatest of all Amer- ican educators. 4. David Starr Jordan, Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity. 5. Thomas H. Huxley . 6. Lord Rosebury. 7. Abraham Flexner, 8. G. Stanley Hall, President of Clark University. 9. H. G. Wells7~the eminent English writer. 10. Sir E. Ray Lankester, the eminent English sci- entist. 11. Alexander Winchell. 12. Benjamin Franklin. 13. Prof. Edward A. Ross. 14. President Holmes of Drake University. 15. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 16. - Charles Francis Adams. BIBLIOGRAPHY An asterisk (*) proceeding a title means that the article is reprinted at least in part in this volume. A dagger (t) is used to indicate a few of the other best references. Bibliographies American Classical League, Publications of. Leaflet 4 p. Dean Andrew F. West, President, Princeton, N. J. Askew, John B. Pros and cons. G. Routledge & Sons. 1908. p. 104. Greek compulsory in the universities. Syllabi and references. Bennett, Charles E. and Bristol, George P. The teaching of Latin and Greek in the secondary school. Longmans, Green & Co. 1901. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Classified bibliography. Type- written. 1920. Clark University Library, Publications of. 4:33-4. D '14. Latin in the high school and methods of teaching it. Joseph V. O'Connell. Game, Josiah B. Teaching high school Latin. University of Chicago Press. 1916. p. 7. Summary of Results. Syllabus. Matson, Henry. References for literary workers. A. C. Mc- Clurg & Co. 1907. p. 252-8. The classics and a liberal education. Syllabi and references. Rowton, Frederic. How to conduct a debate. Fitzgerald Pub. Co. p. 190. Which are of the greater importance in education, the classics or mathematics. Syllabi and references. p. 216. Is a classical education essential to an American gentleman? references. General References Books and Pamphlets Butler, Nicholas M. The meaning of education. Macmillan & Co. 1898. p. 172-7. Greek and Latin. Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton & Co. 1910. p. 32-4. Latin literature in the church. Paul Lejay. xxx BIBLIOGRAPHY Eliot, Charles W. Educational reforms. Century Co. 1898. Fletcher, Alfred E. Sonnenschein's Cyclopedia of education. Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. 1906. p. 59-61. Classical studies. John, Walton C. Requirements for the bachelor's degree. U.S. Bureau of Education. 1920. Kiddle, Henry and Schem, Alexander J. Cyclopedia of educa- tion. Sampson Low & Co. 1877. p. 139-42. Classical studies. fParker, Charles S. On the history of classical education in essays on a liberal education. Macmillan 1867. Reprinted as Chap. II. p. 14-90 in Sir Ray Lankester's Natural Science and the Classical System in Education. William Heinemann. 19 18. Ruediger, William C. The principles of education. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 1910. Sandys, John E. A history of classical scholarship. G. P. Put- nam's Sons. 1909. ^ *Walsh, James J. Education, How old the new. Fordham Uni- versity Press. 191 1. Periodicals American Journal of Science. 15 : 328-36. 1828. Report on a course of liberal education, Yale College Faculty. Atlantic Monthly. 101:788-98. Je. '08. The case of Greek. Albert G. Keller, f Atlantic Monthly. 121 : 222-31. The case for humility. R. K. Hack. Blackwood's Magazine. 169:529-35. Ap. '01. The jeopardy of Greek. H. W. Auden. Blackwood's Magazine. 179:667-75. My. '06. Grammar to the wolves. P. A. W. Henderson. Century. 6:203-12. Je. '84. What is a liberal education. Charles W. Eliot. Chautauquan. 43 : 200-1. My. '06. Classical language and edu- cation. Classical Weekly. 10:217-20. My. 21, '17. Classical ideals and American life. Albert Shaw. Current Opinion. 63:117-18. Ag. '17. The new world-war that rages around Greek and Latin literature. Current Opinion. 64:114-15. F. '18. Practical importance of the war between science and the classics. BIBLIOGRAPHY xxxi Dial. 56 : 94-5. F. 1, '14. Revivifying the classic languages. Nathan H. Dole. Education. 30:500-8. Ap. '10. Secondary education. B. F. Harding. Educational Review. 32:461-72. D. '06. The position of Latin and Greek in American education. Francis W. Kelsey. Educational Review. 33 : 36-45. Ja. '07. Humanistic versus real- istic education. Friedrich Paulsen. Educational Review. 33 : 162-76. F. '07. Latin and Greek in our 'courses of study. Francis W. Kelsey. Educational Review. 34 : 144-50. S. '07. Classical studies. T. E. Page. Educational Review. 41:489-98. My. '11. The poor results in Latin teaching. J. Remsen Bishop. Educational Review. 53:483-9. My. '17. Function of Latin in the curriculum. J. Crosby Chapman. Fortnightly Review. 9:95-105. Ja. '68. Shall we continue to teach Latin and Greek? T. Fowler. Harper's Monthly. 139 : 761-4. O '19. The classics and the practical argument. F. M. Colby. fHarvard Graduates Magazine. 28:69-74. S. '19. Study of the ancients. Albert Bushnell Hart. Independent. 35 : 1009-10. Ag 9, 83. Mr. Adams's arraignment of the Greek language. Independent. 35 : 1645. D. 27, '83. The university of Berlin and the Greek question. Independent. 55 : 47-8. Ja. 1, '03. Classics and the teachers of them. Independent. 82:59. Ap. 12, '15. Latin or science, flndependent. 99: 185. Ag. 9, '19. An educational hope. Frank- lin H. Giddings. Literary Digest. 55 : 31-2. D\ 8, '17. The classics on trial for their lives in Britain. Nation. 83 : 6. Jl. 5, '06. Practical side of the classics. Nation. 94:354-5. Ap. 11, '12. An apostle of Greek. Nation. 104:676. Je. 7, '17. The battle of the classics. Nation. 108:112. Ja. 25, '19. Language, literature, or history. National Educational Association, Proceedings and Addresses, 1908. p. 584-91. A shifting of ideals respecting the efficiency of formal culture studies for all pupils. J. Remsen Bishop. xxxii BIBLIOGRAPHY New Republic. 6: 295. Ap. 15, '16. Books and things. New Republic. 13: 177-8. D. 15, '17. Prudence and the classics. Emily J. Putnam. Outlook. 107 : 952-3. Ag. 22, '14. Classical studies. Outlook 107:798-805. Ag. I, '14. That bad education. Outlook. 107 : 957-62. Ag. 22, '14. The classics and a bad edu- cation. Outlook. 121 : 365. F. 26, '19. Boys and Latin. A. W. Shepherd. Outlook. 122 : 463. Jl. 23, '19. Classics and culture. Outlook. 122:498. Jl. 30, '19. The classics and reconstruction. Popular Science Monthly. 70: 530-41. Je. '07. The acquisition of language and its relations to thought. Alexander Hill. fPopular Science Monthly. 79:369-84. O. '11. Language study and language psychology. E. W. Fay. Princeton Review, n. s. 13 : 127-40. Mr. '84. Our colleges be- fore the country. William G. Sumner. Putnam's Monthly. 3 : 418-24. '08. A classical education. Emily J. Putnam. School and Society. 5 : 608-12. My. 6, '17. The classicist or the utilitarian. Walter H. Siple. School and Society. 7: 174-8. F. 9, '18. Classical studies. Gon- zalez Lodge. School and Society. 8 : 61-8. Jl. 20, '18. The inaugural address of the president of Smith College. William A. Neilson. School and Society. 8:171-3. Ag. 10, '18. Humanistic studies and their relation to liberal education. David Snedden. School and Society. 9:119-28. Ja. 25, '19. The present status of Greek and Latin as requirements for the A. B. degree in American colleges and universities. Gregory D. Walcott. *School Review. 14 : 660-3. N. '06. Classical literature through translation. Edward O. Sisson. . School Review. 20 : 254-61. Ap. '12. The status of Greek. A. A. Trever. School -Review. 21 : 618-26. N. '13. Greek and Latin in the schools of Belgium. John G. Winter. School Review. 22:45-7. Ja. '14. Effect of the non-requirement of Latin for graduation upon the Latin classes of the high schools. W. R. Pate. Unpopular Review. 5:281-93. Ap. '16. "Efficiency" and effi- ciency. William C. Greene. BIBLIOGRAPHY xxxiii Westminster Review. 162 : 92-9. Jl. '04. Greek and Latin as a modern study. M. E. Robinson. Yale Review n. s. 6: 135-49. O. '16. The case of Latin. A. G. Keller. Yale Review n. s. 6 : 150-66. O. '16. Greek in the new university. Thomas D. Goodell. Affirmative References Books and Pamphlets Adams, James. The vitality of Platonism and other essays. University Press. 191 1. Chap. 6. The moral and intellectual value of classical education. American Classical League. Dean Andrew F. West, President, Princeton, N. J. Among the pamphlets printed or reprinted and sold "slightly below cost" are: Why study Latin, Willis A. Ellis. Our need of the Classics, John H. Finley. Greek in English, Rev. Francis P. Donnelly. High Schools and Classics, Frederick Irland. The study of Latin and Greek in a democracy, Alfred Croiset. An engineer's view of classical study, John N. Vedder. Why the full Latin requirement should be kept, Latin departments of Mt. Holyoke, Smith, Vassar, and Wellesley Colleges. Ashmore, Sidney G. The Classics and modern training. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1905. Babbitt, Irving. Literature and the American college. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1908. Bennett, Charles E., and Bristol, George P. The teaching of Latin and Greek in secondary schools. Longmans, Green & Co. 1901. Chap. I. The justification of Latin as an instrument of secondary education. Bristed, Charles A. Five years in an English University. G; P. Putnam & Sons. 1873. p. 476-505. The advantages of classical studies, particularly in ref- erence to the youth of our country. *Bryce, James. The worth of ancient literature to the modern world, General Education Board. 1917. Byars, William V. The practical value of the Classics. Nixon- Jories Co. 1901. Chamberlain, D. H. Not a college fetich. Willard Small. 1884. Clarke, John. The school and other educators. Longmans Green & Co. 1918. Chap. 10. The place of the classics. xxxiv BIBLIOGRAPHY *Classical Association of the Atlantic States. The practical value of Latin. 1915. Classical Association of the Middle West and South. Various pamphlets issued by the publicity committee. deTocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. Colonial Press. 1900. Second Part, First Book, Chp. XV. (Vol. 2, p. 65-7). The study of Greek and Latin literature peculiarly useful in democratic communities. Forbes. Charles H. The sham argument against Latin. Class- ical Association of New England. 1917- Fouillee, Alfred. Education from a national standpoint. D. Ap- pleton & Co. 1892. Book 3, p. 94-135. The classical humanities from the national stand- point. Game, Josiah B. Teaching High School Latin. University of Chicago Press. 1916. Chap. 1. Latin's immediate service in education. Chap. 2. Latin's larger service in education and in life. Chap. 3. Classical studies on the defensive. Chap. 16. Questions with answers and suggestions. Hamilton, William. Discussions on philosophy and literature. Harper & Bros. i860. p. 325-44. On the conditions of classical learning. Harrington, Karl P. Live issues in classical study. Ginn & Co. 1910. Jebb, Richard C. Humanities in education. Macmillan & Co. 1899. Jebb, Richard C. Essays and addresses. Cambridge University Press. 1907. P- 545-9- O n present tendencies in classical studies. p. 609-23. An address delivered at the Mason College. Johnston, Charles H. High school education. Scribners. 1912. Chap. 13, p. 257-66, Latin. fKelsey, Francis W. Latin and Greek in American education. Macmillan & Co. 1911. Kiddle, Henry and Schem, Alexander J. Cyclopedia of educa- tion. E. Steiger. i877- p. 139-42. Classical studies. Knox, Vicesimus. The works of Rev. V. Knox. J. Mawman (London). 1834. Laurie, S. S. Lectures on language and the linguistic method in the school. James Thiu (Edinburgh). 1893. Chap. 9. p. 126-35. Reasons for teaching Latin. Supplement, p. 179-97. Language vs. science in the school. BIBLIOGRAPHY xxxv ■[Livingstone, R. W. A Defense of classical education. Mac- millan & Co. 1816. Mill, John Stuart. Dissertations and discussions. Henry Holt & Co. 1874. Vol. 4. p. 332-407. Inaugural address. ^Ministry of Reconstruction (British). The Classics in British education. 1919. Murray, Gilbert. The religion of a man of letters. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1918. Owen, William B. The humanities of the education of the fu- ture. Sherman, French & Co. Osier, Sir William. The old humanities and the new science. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1920. Rouse, W. H. D. Classical work and method in the twentieth century. Nicola Zanichelli. Bologna. 1908. Rouse, W. H. D. Machines or mind. Wm. Heineman. 1816. fSabin, Frances E. The relation of Latin to practical life. Mad- ison, Wis. 1916. Taylor, Samuel H. Classical study, Its value illustrated by ex- tracts from the writings of eminent scholars. W. F. Draper. 1870. Thring, Edward. Theory and practice of teaching. Cambridge University Press. 1883. Urquhart, D. H. Commentaries on classical learning. London. 1803. fWest, Andrew F. The value of the Classics. Princeton Uni- versity Press. 1917. West, Andrew F. The war and education. Princeton University Press. Wickersham, James P. Methods of instruction. J. B. Lippin- cott & Co. 1865. p. 275-80. Instruction in the dead languages. Periodicals American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Transactions of. 28: 1103-31. Jl. 1, '09. The value of the Classics in engineer- ing education. Charles P. Steinmetz et al. American Institute of Instruction, Lectures, 1867. p. 81-7. Place of science and the classics in a liberal education. Albert Harkness. xxxvi BIBLIOGRAPHY American Institute of Instruction, Lectures, 1876. p. 39-50. Moral instruction and discipline in the study of the classical languages and literatures. M. H. Buckham. Arbitrator. 1:3-6, II. S. '18. The immortal conflict. Andrew F. West. Atlantic Monthly. 51 : 171-9. F. '83. Herbert Spencer's theory of education. E. R. Sill. Atlantic Monthly. 53 : 71-9. Ja. '84. The study of Greek. A. P. Peabody. tAtlantic Monthly. 119:793-801. Je. '17; 120:94-104. Jl. '17. The assault on humanism. Paul Shorey. fAtlantic Monthly. 124 : 47-53. Jl '19. High schools and Classics. Frederick Ireland. Bibliotheca Sacra. 42 : 327-50. Ap. '85. Greek among required studies. William G. Frost. fBlackwood's Magazine. 109 : 182-94. F. '71. Lord Lyttelton's letter to the Vice Chancellor of Oxford on the study of Greek. Chautauquan. 43 : 121-32. Ap. '06. The influence of the Classics on American literature. Paul Shorey. Chautauquan. 43 : 141-3. Ap. '06. The influence of the Classics in the lives of well known moderns. Vincent V. Beede. Classical Journal. 1 :35-6. Ja. '06. M. Ingres on the value of classical education. Classical Journal. 2 : 5-22. N. '06. Our problem and a platform. Thomas D. Goodell. Classical Journal. 5 : 232-6. Mr. '10. The aims of classical train- ing. J. J. Schlicher. Classical Journal. 5 : 322-7. My. '10. The classics and the pupil. J. J. Schlicher. Classical Journal. 7:174-80. Ja. '12. Culture and cult. Charles H. Forbes. Classical Journal. 7:349-51. My. '12. An Exhibit in answer to the high school boy's question; "What's the use of Latin?" Frances E. Sabin. Classical Journal. 8:230-3. Mr. '13. What's the use of Latin. Frances E. Sabin. fClassical Journal. 9:94-101. D. '13. The value of the Classics to students of English. Joseph V. Denney. Classical Journal. 10 : 126-37. D. '14. The practical bearing of high school Latin. H. R. Fairclough. BIBLIOGRAPHY xxxvii Classical Journal. 11:208-15. Ja. '16. The Latin in English, or interest that will stick. M. A. Leiper. Classical Journal. 13 : 309-13. F. '18. The stupidest of losses. Classical Weekly. 1: 186-8. Ap. II, '08. Classics in the modern school. W. H. D. Rouse. Classical Weekly. 1 : 194-6. Ap. 25, '08. Classics in the modern school. W. H. D. Rouse. Classical Weekly. 2:74-7. D. '^9, '08. Mr. Asquith on classical culture. Classical Weekly. 3 : 18-22. O. 2, '09. The value of the Classics ; an outsiders view. W. W. Comfort. Classical Weekly. 3:175-6. Ap. 2, '10. On the Value of the Classics in Engineering Education. Charles J. Steinmetz. Classical Weekly. 4:211-13. My. 13, '11. Why Study Greek? Charles H. Weller. Classical Weekly. 6 : 146-9. Mr. 15, '13. The Classics. George M. Lightfoot. Classical Weekly. 8 : 2-4. O. 3, '14. Liberal Studies in the high school curriculum. Katherine M. Puncheon. Classical Weekly. 10 : 8. O. 2, '16. Three early defenses of the Classics. William Chislett. Classical Weekly. 11: 129-31. F. 25, '18. A plea for the Classics. Contemporary Review. 34 : 802-15. Mr. '79- On the worth of a classical education. Bonamy Price. Contemporary Review. 117:673-81. Ap. '20. The reconstruction of public school education. E. C. E. Owen. Dial. 66:390-3. Ap. '19. University reconstruction and the Classics. Royal C. Nemiah. Eclectic Magazine. 99 : 550-9. O. '82. Literature and Science Mathew Arnold. f Education. 23 : 257-69. Ja. '03. The advantages which accrue from a Classical education. Caroline R. Gaston. Education. 23 : 347-55. F. '03. The advantages which accrue from a Classical education. Caroline R. Gaston. Education. 31:652-6. Je. '11. Some uses of the Classics to a modern student. Preston S. Moulton. fEducation. 32:51-7. S. '11. A brief for the Classics. Edward P. Davis. Education. 33:11-8, S. '12. Shall Latin go? Alice Ranlett. xxxviii BIBLIOGRAPHY Education. 37:440-4. Mr. '17. More than two years of Latin. Carrie B. Allen. fEducation. 38:668-84. My. '18. "The modern school." Paul Shorey. Educational Review. 17:313-6. Ap. '99. A brief for Latin. William T. Harris. Educational Review. 22:162-79. S. '01. Imagination in the study of the Classics. Gonzalez Lodge. Educational Review. 23:407-19. Ap. '02. The Classics in mod- ern education. William Baird. Educational Review. 29:185-90. F. '05. A plea for Caesar. Katharine Darrin. f Educational Review. 33 : 59-76. Ja. '07. The value of Latin and Greek as educational instruments. Francis W. Kelsey. Educational Review. 39:342-50. Ap. '10. The case of Greek again. Hamilton F. Allen. Educational Review. 42:304-7. O. '11. Business men and the Classics. Educational Review. 43 : 449-60. My. '12. May the modern lan- guages be regarded as a satisfactory substitute for the Class- ics. C. F. Kayser. Educational Review. 47 : 279-90. Mr. '14. Greek at Princeton. Andrew F. West. Educational Review. 49: 37-47. Ja. '15. The teaching of English and the study of the Classics. Lane Cooper. Educational Review. 52: 174-82. S. '16. The purpose of college Greek. Virginia C. Gildersleeve. fEducational Review. 52:501-6. D. '16. Measurements of ef- fect of Latin on English vocabulary of high school students in commercial courses. Albert S. Perkins. Educational Review. 53 : 248-64. Mr. '17. Some reflections on the liberal curriculum. Grace Goodale. Educational Review. 54:177-83. S. '17. Is American higher education improving. Nicholas Murray Butler. Educational Review. 54:293-306. O. '17. Classics and the re- former. H. C. Nutting. fEducational Review. 54:433-8. D. '17. Our Birthright or a mess of pottage. Andrew F. West. Educational Review. 54:439"So. D. '17. The passing of the Classics. Grace H. Macurdy. BIBLIOGRAPHY xxxix fEducational Review. 54:500-3. D. '17. Is the study of Latin advantageous to the study of English? M. Theresa Dallam. Educational Review. 56:117-32. S. '18. Latin as a utility. Al- bert S. Perkins. Educational Review. 56:230-54. O. '18. Our common Latin heritage. Frank G. Moore. Educational Review. 57:129-40. F. '19. Post Bellum Latin. Frank G. Moore. Educational Review. 57:141-52. F. '19. The humanities after the war. Andrew F. West. Educational Review. 59:113-22. F. '20. Education versus ap- prenticeship. John M. Vedder. Engineering Magazine. 46:97-9. O. '13. The Classics in engi- neering education. Charles P. Steinmetz. Fortnightly Review. 31:290-300. '79. Shall we give up Greek? Edward A. Freeman. fFortnightly Review. 78: 866-80. N. '02. Are the Classics to go? J. P. Postgate. Fortnightly Review. 98: (n. s. 92) 427-37. S. '12. The Classical spirit. H. Belloc. *Fortnightly Review. 107 : 551-66. Ap. 2, '17. The worth of an- cient literature to the modern world. James Bryce. Harvard Graduates Magazine. 27 : 171-5. D. '81. In behalf of the Classics. Fred B. Lund. Independent. 36 : 336-7. Mr. 13, '84. The Popular Science Monthly and the Classics. Independent. 55 : 104-5. J a - 8, '03. The Classics and the historic sense. Independent. 62 : 107-8. Ja. 10, '07. Scientific versus Classical education. International Review. 1 : 781-95. N. '74. Study of the Greek and Latin Classics. Charles Elliott. Johns Hopkins Alumni Magazine. 7:147-56. Mr. '19. The fu- ture place of the humanities in education. Kirby F. Smith. Literary Digest. 55:32 N. 10, '17. How war saves the Classics. Living Age. 154 : 579-88. S. 9, '82. Literature and Science. Mathew Arnold. Living Age. 266:433-7. Ag. 13, '10. Humanistic education not without Latin. W. H. D. Rouse. Living Age. 268: 103-6. Ja. 14, '11. The place of the Classics in secondary education. W. H. D. Rouse. xl BIBLIOGRAPHY Living Age. 275 : 144-52. O. 19, '12. The Classical spirit. Hilaire Belloc. *Living Age. 293 : 522-34. Je. 2, '17. The worth of ancient liter- ature to the modern world. James Bryce. > Living Age. 302 : 37-41, Jl. 5, '19. The humanities in education. Lord Charnwood. fMichigan Alumnus. 13 : 13-23 and 60-70. O. and N. '06. A symposium on the value of the humanistic, particularly class- ical, studies as a preparation for the study of medicine and of engineering from the point of view of these professions. Francis W. Kelsey et al. Nation. 92:164-5. F. 16, '11. Greek and Science. Charles D. Adams. Nation. 92: 213-14. Mr. 2, '11. Science and the Classics. H. H. Yeames. Nation. 93:210-11. S. 7, '11. The efficiency of the student of Greek. J. W. Hewitt. Nation. 95:229-30. S. 12, '12. Learning English thorugh the Classics. W. H. D. Rouse. Nation. 96 : 465. My. 8, '13. Latin and modern languages. Philo M. Buck. Nation. 102:705. Je. 29, '16. Dr. Flexner's modern school. H. R. Fairclough. Nation. 104:122-3. F. 1, '17. Bryce on education. Nation. 108 : 13-4. Ja. 4, '19. The modern world and the Latin classroom. Richard M. Gummere. Nation. 108:354. Mr. 8, '19. Another plea for the Classics. Jacques W. Redway. Nation. 109:11-2. Jl. 5, '19. Measuring the immeasurable. Grant Showerman. Nation. 109:163. Ag. 9, '19. The great laboratory. National Educational Association, Proceedings and Addresses, 1873. p. 131-40. Classical studies. Edward S. Joynes National Educational Association. Proceedings and addresses, 1874. P- 187-204. A defense of Classical studies. James D. Butler. National Educational Association. Proceedings and Addresses. 1902. p. 462-7. Round table conference. Lafayette Bliss et al. National Educational Association. Proceedings and Addresses. 1903. p. 470-6. Classical conference. Henry W. Callahan et al. BIBLIOGRAPHY xli New Englander. 35:222-50. Ap. '76. The value of Classical studies. Daniel H. Chamberlain. fNineteenth Century. 12:216-30. Ag. '82. Literature and sci- ence. Mathew Arnold. Nineteenth Century. 68: 1082-6. D. 'io. The place of the Class- ics in secondary education. W. H. D. Rouse. Nineteenth Century. 85 : 927-42. My. '19. The Classics and democracy. Foster Watson. fNorth American Review. *li : 413-23, O. 1820. The study of the Classics. fNorth American Review. 101 : 578-84. O. '65. Classical and sci- entific studies. fNorth American Review. 104 : 610-8. Ap. '67. Classical and utilitarian studies. fNorth American Review. 112:229-35. Ja. '71. Classical study. fNorth American Review. 138: 151-62. F. '84. Must the Classics go?. Andrew F. West. North American Review. 212 : 355-6i. S. '20. The case for the humanist. Percy H. Houston. Outlook. 93 : 87-8. S. 18, '09. The value of the Classics in engi- neering education. Outlook. 107:285-91. Je. 6, '14. That bad education. Outlook. 107 : 398-408. Je. 20, '14. The Classics as an engineer sees them. Elmer L. Corthell. Outlook. 120 : 409-12. N. 13, '18. A Classic instance. Henry Van Dyke. Outlook. 121 : 10. Ja. 1, '19. What scientists think about the Classics. Outlook. 121 : 318-20. F. 19, '19. What Latin is good for. A. W. Burr. Popular Science Monthly. 21 : 737-51. O. '82. Literature and science. Mathew Arnold. f Princeton Review n. s. 12 : 105-28. S '83. A college fetich. Noah Porter. Princeton Review n. s. 13: 111-26. Mr. '84. The study of Greek. George P. Fisher. Princeton Review n. s. 14 : 195-218. S. '84. Greek and a liberal education. Noah Porter. St. Mary's College Bulletin (St. Mary's, Kansas). 2:8-36. Ja. '06. Study of the Classics. xlii BIBLIOGRAPHY fSt. Mary's College Bulletin (St. Mary's, Kansas). 6:3-24. Ja. '10. Popular errors about Classical studies. Rev. Thomas E. Murphy. Saturday Review. 31 : 266-7. Mr. 4, '71. The use of Greek. Saturday Review. 31 : 433-4. Ap. 8, '71. Greek and Latin. School and Society. 2:251-2. Ag. 14, '15. A study in the rela- tion of Latin to English composition. Lynn H. Harris. School and Society. 3: 361-6. Mr. 11, '16. Is there still room for the humanities in a college of liberal arts? William A. Webb. School and Society. 4 : 858-9. D. 2, '16. The Cumulative argu- ment for the study of Latin. H. C. Nutting. School and Society. 5 : 261-2. Mr. 3, '17. General discipline and the study of Latin. H. C. Nutting. School and Society. 5:707-9. Je. 16, '17. On the Classics in translation. H. C. Nutting. School and Society. 5 : 709-10. Je. 16, '17. The battle of the Classics. School and Society. 7:121-6. F. 2, '18. Latin and the A. B. Degree. H. C. Nutting. fSchool and Society. 7:413-17. Ap. 6, '18. The humanities and the sciences in England. Charles Knapp. School and Society. 8 : 31-5. Jl. 13, '18. The immortal conflict. Andrew F. West. School and Sociey. 8:215-20. Ag. 24, '18. The need to define anew the values of Latin. Milton E. Blan chard. School and Society. 8:564-6. N. 9, '18. Vocational and human- istic. H. C. Nutting. fSchool and Society. 9:391. Mr. 29, '19. The passing of the Classics. New York Times. School and Society. 9: 565-6. My. 10, '19. Classical training and efficiency. Alexander Duane. fSchool and Society. 10:54-5. Jl. 12, '19. High schools and Classics. Frederick Ireland. School and Society. 10:97-9. Jl. 26, '19. Embattled Greek. Lewis R. Harley. School and Society. 11 : 310-3. Mr. 13, '20. Educational ideals of today. Lewis R. Harley. School Review. 6 : 630-42. N. '98. The true spirit of classical culture. Andrew F. West. School Review. 12 : 604-6. S. '04. The study of the Classics in relation to modern life. G. George H. Locke. BIBLIOGRAPHY xliii School Review. 13 : 441-57. Je. '05. The nature of culture studies. R. M. Wenley. School Review. 14:389-414. Je. '06. A symposium on the value of classical studies as a preparation for the study of medi- cine and of engineering. Victor C. Vaughan et al. School Review. 15 : 409-35. Je. '17. A symposium on the value of classical studies as a preparation for the study of law. Merritt Starr et al. School Review. 16 : 370-90. Je. '08. A symposium on the value classical studies as a preparation for theology. William D. Mackenzie and A. J. Noak. School Review. 16 : 533-7. O. '08. Classical studies as a prepara- tion for the study of theology. Hugh Black. School Review. 16:561-79. N. '08. Greek in the high school and the question of the supply of candidates for the ministry. Francis W. Kelsey . f School Review. 17 : 369-403. Je. '09. A symposium on the value of classical studies as a preparation for men of affairs. James Bryce et al. School Review. 17:498-501. S. '09. Classics and modern life. James B. Scott. School Review. 18:441-59. S. '10. The Classics in European education. Edward K. Rand. School Review. 18: 513-29. O. '10. The Classics and the elective system. R. W. Wenley. fSchool Review. 18:585-617. N. '10. The care for the classics. Paul Shorey. fSchool Review. 19:657-79. D. '11. The practical value of humanistic studies. William G. Hale. School Review. 20:179-81. Mr. '12. Must Greek go? Edwin L. Miller. School Review. 20:161. Mr. '12. Must Greek go? Martin L. D'Ooge. fSchool Review. 20: 186-90. Mr. '12. The psychological value of the Classics. A. E. Bartlett. Teachers College Record. 18: 111-21. Mr. '17. The value of the classics in training for citizenship. Gonzalez Lodge. fUniversity of Colorado Bulletin. 14:1-37. S. '14. Latin and Greek in education. Nine articles by members of the faculty. Unpopular Review. 8: 64-75. Jl. '17. A lost ideal. C. A. Cornel- son. xliv - BIBLIOGRAPHY Negative References Books and Pamphlets fAdams, Charles Francis, Jr. A college fetich. Lee and Shep- ard. 1883. This memorable address, delivered before the Harvard Chapter of the Fraternity of Phi Beta Kappa, originally printed as a pamphlet, has been reprinted (1) Three Phi Beta Kappa Addresses, Houghton, Miff- lin _& Co., 1907. (2) Modern eloquence, Vol. 7, p. 10-22, The University Society, 1900. (3) The Independent, 35:997-1000, Aug. 9, 1883. Atkinson, William P. Classical and scientific studies and the great schools of England. Sever & Francis (Cambridge). 1865. *Bain, Alexander. Education as a science. D. Appleton & Co. 1899- Chap. X. The value of the classics. Chap. XI. The renovated curriculum. Benson, Arthur C. Cambridge essays on education. Cambridge University Press. 1918. Benson, Arthur C. From a college window. Smith, Elder & Co. (London) 1906. Chap. IX. p. 154-77. Education. Benson, Arthur C. The house of quiet, an autobiography. John Murray. 1907. p. 30-42- fBigelow, Jacob. Modern inquiries. Little, Brown & Co. 1867. tBigelow, Jacob. Remarks on Classical and utilitarian studies. Little, Brown & Co. 1867. p. 37-89. On classical and utilitarian studies. Burman, Peter. Oration against the studies of humanity. J. Roberts (London). 1721. Cooke, Josiah P. The Greek question. 1883. Cooke, Josiah P. Scientific culture and other essays. D. Apple- ton & Co. 1881. Cooke, Josiah P. Credentials of science the warrant of faith. Robert Carter & Bros. 1888. Eliot, Charles W. Latin and the A. B. degree. General educa- tion board. 1917. - Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Journals of R. W. Emerson. 1883-5. Farrar, Rev. F. W. Essays on a liberal education. Macmillan & Co. 1868. Chap. 2. The theory of classical education, Henry Sidgwick. Chap. 9. On the present social results of classical education, Lord Houghton. BIBLIOGRAPHY xlv Flexner, Abraham. A modern school. General education board. 1916. Hall, G. Stanley. Youth, its education, regimen, and hygiene. D. Appleton & Co. 1907. Vol. II. p. 454-9- Hall, G. Stanley. The psychology of adolescence. D. Appleton & Co. 1905. Hodgson, W. B. Classical instruction, its use and abuse. John Chapman (London). 1854. Huxley, T. H. Lay sermons. D. Appleton & Co. 1871. Huxley, Thomas H. Science and culture. D. Appleton & Co. 1882. Huxley, Thomas H. Science and education. D. Appleton & Co. 1894. fLankester, Sir E. Ray, Natural science and the Classical sys- tem in education. Wm. Heineman. 1918. Lankester, Sir. E. Ray. Science and education. Wm. Heineman. 1917. Chap. 6. The case against the classical languages. H. G. Wells. .Chap. 7. A modern education. H. G. Wells. Lapp, John A. and Mote, Carl H. Learning to Earn. Bobbs-Mer- rill Co. 1915. Leacock, Stephen. Behind the Beyond. John Lane Co. 1913. p. 183-95. Homer and Humbug, an academic discussion. M.E. How much longer are we to continue teaching nothing more than what was taught two or three centuries ago? J. Hatchard & Son (London). 1850. fMackie, Ransom A. Education during adolescence. E. P. Dut- ton & Co. 1920. Rosebury, Lord. Address to students of University of Glasgow. 1900. fRumford (pseud). The claims of Classical learning examined and refuted by argument and by the confessions of scholars. Monroe & Francis (Boston). .1824. Rush, Dr. Benjamin. Essays, literary, moral, and philosophical. T. & S. F. Bradford. (Philadelphia). 1798. Sidgwick, Henry. Miscellaneous essays and addresses. Macmil- lan & Co. 1904. Chap. 12. p. 270-319. The theory of classical education. Smith, Rev. Sydney. Works of Rev. Sydney Smith. London. 1839. Vol. i, p. 211-30. Professional education; too much Latin and Greek. xlvi BIBLIOGRAPHY fSpencer, Herbert. Education : intellectual, moral, and physical. D. Appleton & Co. 1865. Stevenson, W. Remarks on the very inferior utility of classical learning. H. D. Symonds (London). 1796. Thorpe, Francis N. Franklin's influence in American education. 1902. Printed in report U.S. Commissioner of Education. 1902. Vol. 1, p. 91-190. See p. 117-8. Youmans, E. L. et al. The culture demanded by modern life. D. Appleton & Co. 1867. Wells, H. G. The outline of history. Macmillan & Co. 1920. Vol. 2, p. 390-1, 427-31. Winchell, Alexander. Shall we teach geology? S. C. Griggs. 1889. Chap. 6. p. 55-82. Classics and culture. The relative importance of ancient and modern languages con- sidered as branches of general education. D. Appleton & Co. 1856. Periodicals American Institute of Instruction, Lectures, 1867. p. 87-91. Place of the sciences and the Classics in a liberal education. Wil- liam P. Atkinson. Arbitrator. 1:7-13. S. '18. New schools -for old. Alexandei Fichandler. Atlantic Monthly. 104:260-73. Ag. '09. A classical education in America. Homer Edmiston. Atlantic Monthly. 119:352-61. Mr. '17. The case against com- pulsory Latin. Charles W. Eliot. Atlantic Monthly. 119:452-64. Ap. '17. Education as mental disipline. Abraham Flexner. Century. 28:203-12. Je. '84. What is a liberal education. Charles W. Eliot. Contemporary Review. 35:832-42. '79. The classical contro- versy. Alexander Bain. Contemporary Review. 60: 582-92. O. '91. The position of Greek in the universities. J. E. C. Welldon. Current Literature. 29 : 1-3. Jl. '00. The educational drift. Edinburgh Review. 15 : 40-53. O. 1809. Edgeworth's "Profes- sional education" or too' much Latin and Greek. Rev. Sydney Smith. BIBLIOGRAPHY xlvii Education. 25 : 421-7. Mr. '05. The unsettling of the doctrine of formal discipline. James H. Harris. Education. 38:659-67. My. '18. The modern school. Charles W. Eliot. . fEducation. 39:521-36. My. '19. The Classicists and nature's law. Henry L. Clapp. Educational Review. 33 : 467-85. My. '07. The educational value of the classical languages. Irving King. fFortnightly Review. 107:567-74. Ap. 2, '17. The case against the classical languages. H. G. Wells. •{■Independent. 35 : 997-1000. Ag. 9, '83. A college fetich. Charles Francis Adams, Jr. Independent. 96:41. O. 12, '13. The cruel government. Literary Digest. 44:1345-6. Je. 29, '12. The uselessness of Greek. Literary Digest. 53 : 1709-10. D. 30, '16. War on the classics in Germany. Living Age. 246:806-11. S. 23, '05. A classical education. Arthur C. Benson. Living Age. 248 : 461-8. F. 24, '06. From a college window. Arthur C. Benson. Living Age. 264:737-42. Mr. 19, '10. Humanistic education without Latin. Arthur C. Benson. Living Age. 267:666-73. D. '10. The place of Classics in second- ary education. Arthur C. Benson. •{Living Age. 269:606-18. Je. 3, '11. Compulsory science versus compulsory Greek. Sir Ray Lankester. Living Age. 305 : 607-9. Je 5, '20. The Classics and Classical humbug. E. R. Dodds. Methodist Quarterly. 49 : 221-36. Ap. '67. Educational qualifica- tions for the ministry. Rev. B. H. Nadal. Nation. 34 : 32-3. Ja. 12, '82. Classical and non-classical. A. L. K. Volkmann and C. A. Eggert. Nation. 105:65-6. Jl. 19, '17. Latin in the schools. George F. Miller. Nature. 83 : 161-2. Ap. 7, '10. Classics and science in education. A. E. Crawley. fNature. 94:125-35. O. 1, '14. Educational science. John Perry. Nature. 97:120-1. Ap. 6, '16. Science versus Classics. E. A. Schaefer. xlviii BIBLIOGRAPHY Nature. 97 : 230-1. My. 11, '16. Science in education and the civil services. Nature. 97:251-2. My. 18, '16. Science and classics in modern education. Sir Edward A. Schaefer. Nature. 99: 1-2. Mr. 1, '17. Classical education. Nature. 99 : 141-2. Ap. 19, '17. Education and research. H. G. Wells. Nature. 99:361-2. Jl. 5, '17. The classical system of education. E. A. Schaefer. Nature. 103 : 234-5. My. 22, '19. Science and the Classics. Nature. 103:3878. Jl. 17, '19. Reconstruction problems. National Educational Association, Proceedings and Addresses 1873. P- 141-63. Liberal education of the nineteenth century. W. P. Atkinson. fNew England Magazine n. s. 36 : 246-8. Ap. '07. The passing of the linguist. Austin Bierbower. New England Magazine n. s. 37 : 167-73. O. '07. The culture- value of modern as contrasted with that of ancient languages. G. Stanley Hall. New Republic. 5 : 328-30. Ja. 29, '16. The Classical compromise. Meyer Cohn. Nineteenth Century. 57:244-51. F. '05. Compulsory Greek as a national question. J. Westlake. Nineteenth Century. 68:868-76. N. '10. The place of Classics in secondary education. Arthur C. Benson. Nineteenth Century. 69:499-514. Mr. '11. Compulsory science versus compulsory Greek. Nineteenth Century. 83 : 810-23. Ap. '18. A defense of the mod- ern humanities. Cloudesley Brereton. fOutlook. 106:848-52. Ap. 18, '14. Why I have a bad educa- tion. Walter P. Hall. Outlook. 107 : 339-43. Je. 13, '14. That bad education. Frank B. Rowell et al. Outlook. 107:408-11. Je. 20, '14. The Classics as an educator sees them. A. F. Nightingale. Pedagogical Seminary. 9:92-105. Mr. '02. Adolescence and high school English, Latin, and Algebra. G. Stanley Hall. fPedagogical Seminary. 9 : 161-8. Je. '02. The teaching of Eng- lish. Alexander F. Chamberlain. fPedagogical Seminary. 12 : 1-26. Mr. '05. Latin in the high school. Edward Conradi. BIBLIOGRAPHY xlix fPedagogical Seminary. 19:492-509. D. '12. A critique of high school Latin. Clarence L. Staples. Popular Science Monthly. 1 :707-i9. O. '72. English against the Classics. Popular Science Monthly. 7 : 402-10. Ag. '75. The higher edu- cation. F. W. Clarke. Popular Science Monthly. 15 : 631-42. S. '79. The classical con- troversy. Alexander Bain. fPopular Science Monthly. 17 : 145-55. Je. '80. The Classics that educate us. Paul R. Shipman. Popular Science Monthly. 18: 412-4. Ja. '81. The study of Greek at Cambridge. Popular Science Monthly. 23: 116-20. My. '83. Greek and Latin against nature and science. fPopular Science Monthly. 24:1-6. N. '83. The Greek question. Josiah P. Cooke. fPopular Science Monthly. 24:117-22. N. '83. The current study of Classics a failure. fPopular Science Monthly. 24 : 265-9. D. '83. Dead language studies necessarily a failure. Popular Science Monthly. 24 : 269-71. D. '83. Queer defenses of the classics. Popular Science Monthly. 24 : 289-306. Ja. '84. The classical question in Germany. Edmund J. James. Popular Science Monthly. 24 : 412-4. Ja. '84. "Church and State" Function of dead languages. fPopular Science Monthly. 24 : 414-6. Ja. '84. Learning one lan- guage by studying others. fPopular Science Monthly. 24 : 558-60. F. '84. Education with- out dead languages. Popular Science Monthly. 24 : 674-5. Mr. '84. Science versus the Classics. C. A. Eggert. Popular Science Monthly. 24 : 702-6. Mr. '84. Collegiate influ- ence upon the lower education. Popular Science Monthly. 25 : 124-9. My. 84. Yale professors on college studies. Popular Science Monthly. 25:412-4. Jl. '85. President Eliot on liberal education. Popular Science Monthly. 25 : 566. Ag. '84. Sir John Lubbock on Classical and scientific education. 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY Popular Science Monthly. 25:701-4. S. '84. The college fetich once more. fPopular Science Monthly. 26 : 20-30. N. '84. German testimony on the Classics question. Frederick A. Fernald. Popular Science Monthly. 31 : 14-19. My. '87. Present status of the Greek question. Edmund J. James. Popular Science Monthly. 31 : 271-3. Je. '87. The Greek ques- tion again. fPopular Science Monthly. 73:28-31. Jl. '08. The high school course. David Starr Jordan. fPopular Science Monthly. 77 : 554-60. D. '10. Classics and the college course. John J. Stevenson. Popular Science Monthly. 77:561-9. D. '10. Learning Foreign Language. Charles W. Super. School and Society. 2:750-1. N. 20, '15. The relation of Latin to work in English. Paul J. Kruse. f School and Society. 6:58-60. Jl. 14, '17. Does the study of high school Latin improve high school English. Myron J. Wilcox. School and Society. 8:518-21. N. 2, '18. The importance of the Classics in education from the standpoint of medicine. John L. Heffron. f School and Society. 0:390-1. Mr. 29, '19. The passing of the Classics. New York Tribune. . f School and Society. 10: 163-6. Ag. 9, '19. Classics. John J. Stevenson. School and Society. 10 : 263-4. Ag. 29, '19. A real value of Latin. Quintus II. School and Society. 10:387. S. 27, '19. A real value of Latin. W. A. Merrill. School and Society. 10 : 464-6. O. 18, '19. A real value of Latin. Charles C. Peters. School and Society. 11:405-6. Ap. 3, '20. Greek at Oxford. School Review. 9:649-65. D. '01. How far is the present high school and early college training adapted to the nature and needs of adolescents? G. Stanley Hall. School Review. 16 : 360-9. Je. '08. Substitute for the Classics. Fred N. Scott. *School Review. 23 : 697-703. D. '15. Some experimental data on the value of studying foreign languages. Daniel Starch. BIBLIOGRAPHY li *School Review. 26:576-99. O. '18. Liberal education without Latin. David Snedden. Science. 11:801-7. My. 25, '00. Should Latin and Greek be re- quired for the degree of Bachelor of Arts? John J. Steven- son. fScience n. s. 45 : 481-2. My. 18, '17. Science and classical edu- cation. H". G. Wells. t Westminster Review. 4 : 147-76. Jl. 1825. Present system of education. George Jardine. Westminster Review. 53 : 393-409. '50. Classical education. Westminster Review . 60:450-98. O. '53. The school claims of languages, ancient and modern. Westminster Review. 72 : 1-41. Jl. 1, '59. What knowledge is of most worth. SELECTED ARTICLES ON THE STUDY OF LATIN AND GREEK INTRODUCTION The classical system of education may be said to date from the fall of Constantinople in 1453. When the eastern capital was taken by the Turks, the scholars fled and scattered over west- ern Europe, carrying with them many ancient manuscripts, which contained, locked up in the dead languages, the best of the knowledge and the literature that then existed in the world. Through the next hundred years the study of the ancient class- ics, then called the new learning, was slowly, often reluctantly, accepted as the basis of education. It was the Jesuit Fathers who first proved to the world the educational value of the study of Latin and Greek. To England, and from England to America, the classical sys- tem spread. The institutions of higher education in this country were truly classical until quite recently. As a rule both Latin and Greek were required for admission to college and were pre- scribed studies in college. From the founding of Harvard Col- lege in 1636 until past the middle of the nineteenth century a College course was made up very largely of the study of Latin, Greek, Ancient History, Philology, and Mathematics. Shortly after the middle of the nineteenth century the de- mand for modernized higher education began to affect the cur- ricula of American colleges and universities. The Morrill Act, approved by President Lincoln on July 2, 1862, provided that the Federal Government should give a tract of land to any state that would maintain at least one "College where the leading ob- jects shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in such manner as the legislature of the State may respectively pre- scribe in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions 2 SELECTED ARTICLES of life." The older colleges slowly adjusted themselves to the new competition and to the popular demands for modern edu- cation by the gradual adoption of the elective system and by de- creasing the amount of the dead languages required for admis- sion or prescribed during the college course. At the close of the first decade of the twentieth century many of our colleges and universities require no dead language study either for admission or for graduation, while scarcely any hold to the old require- ments. Latin is now being studied by about two fifths of the students in our high schools and academies and by a very much smaller percentage of the students in the colleges and universities. Greek, on the other hand, has practically disappeared from our educational system, being now studied by less than one per cent of the students in our secondary schools. The following table, arranged from figures given in the report of the U. S. Commis- sioner of Education for 1916 (p. 487-9), shows these facts as regards the public high schools in America during the past thirty years : AMERICAN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS Number Number Per cent Per cent Total Studying Studying Studying Studying Year Students Latin Greek Latin Greek 1890 202,963 70,411 6,202 34-69 3-05 189S 350,099 153,950 10,859 43-97 3-io 1900 530,425 262,767 14,813 50.61 2.85 1905 679,702 341,248 10,002 50.21 1.47 1910 739,143 362,548 5,5n 49-05 •75 1915 i,i65,495 434,925 3,35i 37-32 .29 Although the private high schools in 1915 had less than one tenth of the total high school enrollment, still in that year they were giving instruction in Greek to more than twice as many students as were the public high schools, as is shown in the fol- lowing table. PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES Number Number Per cent Per cent Total Studying Studying Studying Studying Year Students Latin Greek Latin Greek 1890 94,93i 29,733 6,667 31-32 7.02 1895 u8,347 51,056 11,300 43-14 9-55 1900 188,816 52,089 10,056 46.92 9-77 1905 107,207 49,819 7,156 46.47 6.67 19 10 78,510 42,954 5,228 54-71 6.61 1915 125,692 69,060 7,320 54-94 5.82 These two tables may be combined to produce the following statement : LATIN AND GREEK PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS Number Number Per cent Per cent Total Studying Studying Studying Studying Year Students Latin Greek Latin Greek 1890 297,894 100,144 12,869 33-62 4-32 189S 468,446 205,006 22,159 43-76 4-73 1900 719,241 314,856 24,869 49-47 3-95 1905 786,909 391,067 17,158 49.69 2.18 1910 8i7,6S3 405,502 io,739 49-59 1. 31 1915 1,291,187 503,985 10,671 39-03 .83 From these figures we see that more than ninety-nine per cent of the high school pupils in America are not studying Greek, and that more than sixty per cent of them are not taking Latin. It is unfortunate that similar figures for the colleges and universi- ties are not available, and that these figures should begin with so late a date as 1890. Were it possible to give figures covering both the high schools and the colleges for the past hundred years, they would tell a most interesting story. The following table gives the percentage of students in the public and private high schools combined who were studying each of the subjects 'named during the years stated. It is the best data available on this point, but it does -not by any means convey to the average mind an accurate idea. Rather it seems to give the impression that in 1915, for instance, about one half of the students enrolled were taking the algebra offered in the schools, about two fifths were taking the . Latin offered, and about one fourth the geometry. Latin is usually a four year study while algebra and geometry are usually one and a half year studies, but only one year studies in some schools. If a high school had just four hundred students, and these were equally divided with one hundred in each of the four years, and if each student took at the appointed time the full four years of Latin and the full year and a half of algebra and geometry, then that school would appear in the following table with these re- sults; Latin 100 per cent, Geometry 50 per cent, Algebra 50 per cent, while the fact is that each -student is taking all of each of these subjects that the school gives. In other words, the max- imum percentage that geometry or algebra could make in such a table is somewhat over fifty as the number of first and second year students is always more than half of the total enrollment. When this table states that the percentage of students taking Eng- lish Literature was 56.07 in 1915, it does not mean that only about 4 SELECTED ARTICLES half of the students are taking English literature, but rather that the average student takes it only during about half of his course. PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS IN THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS TAKING THE STUDIES NAMED 1890 English literature Rhetoric History 27.83 Algebra 42.77 Latin 33.62 Vocal Music Geometry 20.07 German 11.48 Drawing Physical geography .... Physics 21.36 Domestic economy. . * .. Manual training French 9.41 Physiology Botany Civil government Chemistry 9.62 Civics Agriculture General biology Bookkeeping Zoology Spanish Trigonometry Psychology Industrial Greek 4.32 Geology Astronomy 189S 3i-3i 34-65 52.40 43.76 24.51 12.58 22.44 22.15 9-77 28.03 3-25 3-35 4-73 5.52 5-27 1900 41.19 37-70 37.80 55-08 49-97 26.75 15-06 10.43 26.96 21.09 8.00 2.42 3.19 3-95 4.02 3-43 1905 48.14 47-30 40.50 56.43 49.69 27.84 20.34 21.05 15.66 11.40 21.84 17.85 7.04 2.18 2.62 1.71 1910 57-05 56.59 55-67 56.92 49-59 30.87 23.60 19.14 14-79 4.14 11.70 15-76 16.34 15-99 7-13 4-55 7.88 -65 2.18 1-35 1.31 1.38 .88 1915 56.07 55-6i 51.46 49.26 39-03 32.19 26.80 24.19 23.04 14.66 14.28 12.69 10.64 10.54 9.94 9-15 8.81 7-63 7.20 6.92 6.61 3-29 3-24 2.T2 1.74 1-43 1. 12 .83 •59 •45 Would a wise choice of studies in high school and colleges now include Latin and Greek? Is the study of the ancient classics still the best form of a liberal education, or is it totally unsuited to the educational needs of the twentieth century? Does the study of the dead languages give a superior form of mental training, one that is the best foundation and preparation for the study of the professions and the sciences? Is it indis- pensable to a thorough understanding and a fluent command of good English? Is it, indeed, our "birthright," as the Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton University puts it. Or is it, on the other hand, a dull and dismal grind that tends to unfit a person for a successful or useful career, a process of "Wear- ing away the energies of youth in mental gymnastics" as Prof. Edward A. Ross of the University of Wisconsin characterizes classical education, a study from which "The average American high school boy gets less than out of any other study in the cur- LATIN AND GREEK 5 riculum" as David Starr Jordan, President of Leland Stanford Junior University wrote of Latin a few years ago? It is an old, old controversy, so old that Rev. Sydney Smith said in the Edinburgh Review one hundred eleven years ago (October 1809) in a review of Edgeworth's Professional Edu- cation, after he had agreed with the author that the main fault in the then existing system of education was "Too much Latin and Greek," that "We are well aware that nothing very new can remain to be said upon a topic so often debated." The wis- dom of studying the dead languages has always been more or less of an open question. Only slowly and reluctantly was the system introduced, and practically ever since it has been subject to periodical attacks of more or less severe criticism. It was two hundred years ago (Feb. 8, 1720), that Peter Burman on quitting the rectorship of the University of Leyden, delivered his famous "Oratio in humanitatis studia," the English title of which is "Oration against the studies of humanity, showing that the learned languages, History, Eloquence and Critik are not only useless, but also dangerous to the study of law, physick, philos- ophy and above all, of divinity, to which last poetry is a special help." Benjamin Franklin is named as another of the early op- ponents of the classical system. In 1866 Herbert Spencer pub- lished his great work on education with its vigorous attack upon the classical system and its recommendation of science as the proper basis of education. At the commencement exercises of Harvard University in 1883 Charles Francis Adams, Jr., de- livered his famous Phi Beta Kappa oration entitled, "A College Fetich," in which he said that he had been handicapped in his life work by his classical education at Harvard, that in requiring its students to devote so much time to Latin and Greek the col- lege stood in the position of a parent whose child asked for bread and was given a stone. In 1912 the United States Commissioner of Education said in his annual report, "The current educational Criticism considers Latin as distinctly unnecessary in a people's school." Charles W. Eliot, one of America's greatest educators, Abraham Flexner, H. G. Wells, President G. Stanley Hall, and Thomas H. Huxley are among the others who consider both Greek and Latin as non-essentials. These are only a few of the hundreds who have sharply criticised the classical system, and every criticism has brought forth brilliant and able replies from such men as John Stuart 6 SELECTED ARTICLES Mill, James Russell Lowell, James Bryce, William E. Gladstone, Mathew Arnold, and hundreds of those who are or have been engaged in teaching the classics, among the most prominent of whom may be mentioned Andrew F. West, Paul Shorey, Francis W. Kelsey, Frances E. Sabin, Josiah B. Game, R. W. Livingstone, Gilbert Murray, W. H. D. Rouse, and H. C. Nutting. For generations and centuries the controversy has continued. Although the classics have slowly but surely lost ground during the past half century, nevertheless there is still "much that may be said on both sides." In few subjects for debate is it so important to make sure of the force and validity of the arguments, as it is in any debate on the value of the study of the dead languages. It seems unneces- sary to say that a mere assertion without proof does not make an argument, and yet the literature of this question abounds with such assertions. That Latin or Greek or both are necessary or at least very helpful to an understanding or a command of good English is a claim that has often been made and often denied, but very seldom has there been even an attempt to prove the proposition. Witness the following from Dean West's "The Value of the Classics." (p. 29) "But for the mass of English speaking men, rare spirits excepted, the best use of English is not attained without knowing the sources whence our mother tongue draws its life. Nearly half of it is Latin. The better we know Latin, then, the better our use of English." No proof is given or even attempted. Again, an editorial in the Cleveland Plain Dealer for June 6, 191 7 says, "It is as clear as day that the most exhaustive study of English must be deficient if it is not based on some knowledge of Latin and Greek." So clear that it is unnecessary to give even a suggestion of proof ! However, a conscientious judge in a debate will give little credit to a debater who does not prove such an assertion. Another precaution for the debater is in regard to the use of opinion evidence. The opinion of even an eminent man cannot be considered - ^ making the basis of a valid argument unless it can be shown that he is an expert in the subject under discussion, and even then opinion evidence must be considered as one of the weakest forms of argument. Opinions for or against any propo- sition are always easy to obtain, the same as letters of recom- mendation or signatures to a referendum petition. Opinions LATIN AND GREEK 7 when used in a debate certainly cannot be considered as having the same weight as conclusions reasoned out and proved. The whole controversy over the value of the study of the dead languages will in actual debate often turn on the question of the purpose of education. Does higher education exist for the pur- pose of creating a well developed personality, one capable of en- joying the beautiful in art, architecture, and literature, or is its purpose rather to prepare each individual to fill a useful place in his community and enable him to render the greatest service to society? In any debate on this question there might well be an interpretation, acceptable to both sides, which would define edu- cation and the purpose of education. Lamar T. Beman. GENERAL DISCUSSION CLASSICAL STUDIES 1 Since the revival of learning the place of honor in the edu- cational systems of Europe has been occupied by the study of the classics. During the period of scholasticism (until the end of the fifteenth century) interest in Greek and Latin literature had been decaying; the impulse given by Charlemagne in found- ing schools for the study of Latin and also of Greek died out, and Latin was cultivated for practical purposes only, and as a matter of necessity; for Latin was the only universal medium of communication, and was the language of the church and the law. The Renaissance — that great reaction against medisevalism - — resulted in the first place in a revived study of Greek and Latin; the Classics were studied in the spirit of Schiller's poem Die Cotter Griechenlands, as embodying the wisdom and beauty of a lost order of things, as a voice from a higher world. For the practical study of Latin was substituted the study of Greek and Latin literature. At the present day (1906) the classics may be said to be engaged in the struggle for existence. Both in England and abroad there is a strong party claiming as a right the abolition of the classics, or at any rate their relegation to a subordinate position.. The main contention of the supporters of a modern educa- tion is that so many other subjects of modern growth demand recognition in a scheme of education, that time cannot be spared for the long discipline of Greek and Latin, that time devoted to the classics would be sufficient to embrace a complete cycle of the physical sciences. Modern languages are a discipline in lan- guage, and might, from that point of view, make good in part, if not entirely, the loss of the classics, while their practical utility cannot be left out of sight by a commercial nation like ourselves. The study of English literature would, it is maintained by Prof. Huxley, be a far better school of literary taste and culture than that of the writers of Greece and Rome; "The ascent of Par- 1 Sonnenschein's Cyclopedia of Education, p. 59-61. io SELECTED ARTICLES nassus is too steep to permit of our enjoying the view", and few reach the top. What there is of good in the classics could be better studied, from the aesthetic point of view, in translations. "I should just as soon think of swimming across the Hudson in a coat of mail when I can take a penny steamer," cries Emerson, "as of studying the classics in the original when I can read them in the admirable translations of Mr. Bohn." "The classics," says Prof. Huxley, "are as little suited to be the staple of a liberal education as palaeontology." The great aim of education, he holds, is to impart a knowledge of the universe as governed by law. Nature he compares to a beneficient angel playing a game of chess with man, in which defeat means death. Science is a knowledge of the laws of the game. Thus the demand is for what has been called an "Autochthonous" education — an educa- tion rooted in modern life and modern needs. That such an education is a possibility is proved by the example of Greece, herself. From the point of view of training, Mr. Herbert Spencer and Mr. Ruskin maintain that "The science which it is the highest power to possess, it is also the best exercise to ac- quire ;" in fact, that there is a sort of pre-established harmony between utility and educative value. On the other hand, the classics are not without powerful champions. John Stuart Mill, not himself a blind worshiper of "authority," held most strongly that nothing could replace Latin and Greek as educational instruments. He defended them mainly on the score of formal training. "The distinctions be- tween the various parts of speech are distinctions in thought, not merely in words. The structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. The languages which teach the laws of universal gram- mar best are those which have the most definite rules, and which provide distinct forms for the greatest number of distinctions in thought. In these qualities the classical languages have an in- comparable superiority over every modern language"; it might be added over Hebrew and Sanskrit. Again, in perfection of literary form the ancients are pre-eminent; the "idea" has thoroughly penetrated the form and created it. Every word is in its right place — every sentence a work of art. Modern liter- ature lacks the simplicity and directness of the ancient classics. What they would have expressed in a single sentence, a modern writer will throw into three or four different forms, presenting it under different lights. In fact, Mill claims for classical liter- LATIN AND GREEK n ature what Hegel claimed for classical art, that the form and the matter are adequate one to the other. But even though the stage of literary enjoyment be not reached, there are many who hold that the training involved in a mastery of the elements of Latin is invaluable. Modern languages are too like our own to give the degree of emancipation from the thraldom of words which comes from comparing classic with English modes of ex- pression. To translate "I should have spoken" into dixissem is more of a lesson in thought than to translate it into Ich wiirde gesprochen haben, or J'aurais dit because the form is more dif- ferent. Still greater stress is laid upon the educational value of the higher kinds of composition. The recasting of the thought, the exercise of the vis divinor involved in clothing an idea in Greek or Latin, has been called the microcosm of a liberal edu- cation. (A. Sidgwick) Perhaps the strongest testimony of mod- ern times to the value of a classical education is the Berlin memorial of 1880, addressed to the Prussian Minister of Educa- tion, on the question of admission of Realschuler to the univer- sities. This memorial represents the unanimous views of the members of the faculty of philosophy (i.e. arts and sciences) and was signed by Hoffman, Helmholtz, Peters, Zupitza, etc. as well as by the classical professors. The memorial insists upon the value of classical philology in cultivating the ideality of the sci- entific sense, the interest in science not dependent on nor limited by practical aims, but as ministering to the liberal education of the mind and the many sided exercise of the thinking faculty. To hold the scales between views so strongly held and so ably maintained is a difficult task, but must be attempted here. In the first place, it may be well to dispose of certain fallacies which rest upon popular prejudice rather than upon any basis of reason or experience. I. That the classics train only the mem- ory, not thought or observation. It may fairly be replied that though memory is involved, it is not necessarily involved more than in any other discipline. The learning of grammar by rote is falling out of favor; the dictionary meanings of words are learned not by a conscious exercise of the portative memory, but in the same way as the names of flowers or animals in study- ing natural history. The syntactical structure of Latin and Greek is more logical in its character than anything in the disci- pline of physical sciences. Observation — not, of course, sense- observation — is constantly exercised in translation and' composi- 12 SELECTED ARTICLES tion. Nor is it practically found that classical scholars are less capable, as thinkers, than physicists. 2. That classics foster a blind adherence to authority. But no one nowadays holds that the classic writers are all equally worthy of admiration, or claims any special consideration for the opinions which they express. Grammar is not the arbitrary creation of schoolmasters, but the record of law discovered by patient observation, and liable to re- vision by any competent inquirer. Mill held precisely the op- posite opinion as to the effects of classical study. 3. That there is something grotesque and mediaeval in classical studies. It has been shown above that so far from being mediaeval, the classics have established their position in our schools and uni- versities by a revolt against medievalism. 4. That the methods of teaching the classics cannot be further improved. So far is this from being true, that the scientific problem of constituting the rules of grammar is still only in the process of solution, and the existence of the didactic problem of determining what and how much should be taught at each stage has only begun to be realized in its full import. On the other hand, the champions of physical science do not always have fair play. It is popularly supposed that "science" consists in accumulation of information such as that when a candle burns water and carbonic acid are produced, and that the good of physical science may be got by studying its results in books. This is to misunderstand and underrate the discipline of the laboratory. The value of training in the physical sciences is not to be measured by the possession of so many useful facts about gases, plants, and animals. If richly pursued, it involves not only a power of sense-obsexvation, without which a man must be considered as so far maimed and defective, but also a habit of mind and attitude towards the universe, which have a very direct bearing upon both the criticism and the conduct of life. The man or woman who has physiological knowledge will be so far in a better position to make a study of health, and to bring up children wisely; will be less likely to ignore "the laws of the game," to believe in the domination of chance, and to make rash experiments in amateur medicine. For to be scientific is to know one's limitations, and this is a power. The practical question is, to what extent can we afford to make education as complete as possible, and, supposing that something has to be sacrificed, what is it best to sacrifice? That LATIN AND GREEK 13 the literary side of education cannot be even relatively complete without classics may be taken as demonstrated. Our study of Greek and Latin is not so much the study of a foreign culture as the study of our own past ; so intimately is modern culture connected, through the Renaissance, with Greece and Rome. We stand to the classics in a different relation from that in which they stood to anterior civilizations. Greek culture was, generally speaking, autochthonous ; modern culture is not. And the man who has no Latin or Greek finds himself unable to prosecute his literary studies far, or to be a master even in the literature of his own country. Still the question remains, can we afford to pur- chase this completeness at the price which it costs — a less com- plete developement in the direction of modern studies? The answer to it must depend upon the aim which people set before themselves in life — upon utility in its broad sense — and upon the length of the school course. For those whose tastes are literary or artistic, classics may be the most useful of studies ; for those who have to contemplate an early entrance into practical pursuits, they may well be a luxury of too high a cost. At the present day the classics retain a firm hold of our higher English schools, and Latin, at any rate, is becoming recognized as an important item in the education of girls. MEDIAEVAL SCIENTIFIC UNIVERSITIES x We are prone to think of the old-time universities as classical or literary schools with certain limited post-graduate features, more or less distantly smacking of science. The reason for this is easy to understand. It is because out of such classical and literary colleges our present universities, with their devotion to science, were developed or transformed during the last generation or two. It is to be utterly ignorant of mediaeval education, how ever, to think that the classical and literary schools are types of university work in the Middle Ages. The original universities of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries paid no attention to language at all except inasmuch as Latin, the universal language, was studied in order that there might be a common ground of understanding. Latin was not studied at all, however, from its literary side; to style as such the professors in the old mediaeval 1 Walsh, James J. Education, How Old the New. p. 103-8. 14 SELECTED ARTICLES universities and the writers of the books of the time paid no at- tention. Indeed it was because of this neglect of style in litera- ture and of the niceties of classical Latin that the university men of recent centuries before our own, so bitterly condemned the old, mediaeval teachers and were so utterly unsympathetic with their teaching and methods. We, however, have come once more into a time when style means little, indeed, entirely too little, and when the matter is supposed to be everything, and we should have more sympathy with our older forefathers in education who were in the same boat. We have inherited traditions of mis- understanding in this matter, but we should know the reasons for them and then they will disappear. As a matter of fact, exactly the same thing happened in our modern change of university interests during the latter half of the nineteenth century as happened in the latter half of the fifteenth century in Italy, and in the next century throughout Europe. With the fall of Constantinople the Greeks were sent packing by the Turks and they carried with them into Italy man- uscripts of the old Greek authors, examples of old Greek art and the classic spirit of devotion to literature as such. A new educa- tional movement termed the study of the humanities had been making some way in Italy during the preceding half-century be- fore the fall of Constantinople, but now interest in it came with a rush. The clergymen, the nobility, even the women of the time became interested in the New Learning, as it was called. Private schools of various kinds were opened for the study of it, and everybody considered that it was the one thing that people who wanted to keep up to date, smart people, for they have always been with us, should not fail to be familiar with. The humanities became the fashion, just as science became the fashion in the nineteenth century. Fashion has a wonderfully pervasive power and it runs in cycles in intellectual matters as well as in clothes. The devotees of the New Learning demanded a place for it in the universities. University faculties perfectly confident, as uni- versity faculties always are, that what they had in the curriculum was quite good enough, and conservative enough to think that what had been good enough for their forefathers was surely good enough also for this generation, refused to admit the new studies. For a considerable period, therefore, the humanities had LATIN AND GREEK 15 to be pursued in institutions apart from the universities. Indeed it was not until the Jesuits showed how valuable classical studies might be made for developmental purposes and true education that they were admitted into the universities. Note the similarity with certain events in our own time in all this.- Two generations ago the universities refused to admit science. They were training men in their undergraduate depart- ments by means of classical literature. They argued exactly as did the old mediaeval universities with regard to the new learn- ing, that they had no place for science. Science had to be learned, then, in separate institutions for a time. The scientific educational movement made its way, however, until finally it was admitted into the university curricula. Now we are in the midst of an educational period when the classics are losing in favor so rapidly that it seems as though it would not be long before they would be entirely replaced by the sciences, except, in so far as those are concerned who are looking for education in literature and the classic languages for special purposes. It will be interesting, then, to trace the story of the old mediaeval universities as far as the science in their curriculum was concerned, because it represents much more closely than we might have imagined, or than is ordinarily thought, the preced- ing phase of education to the classical period which we have seen go out of fashion to so great an extent in the last two genera- tions. We shall readily find that at least as much time was de- voted in the mediaeval universities to the physical sciences as in our own, and that the culture sciences filled up the rest of the curriculum. Philosophy, which occupied so prominent a place in older university life, was not only a culture science, but phys- ical science as well, as indeed the name natural philosophy, which remained almost down to our day, attests. Physical science was not the sole object of these mediaeval institutions of learning, but they were thoroughly scientific. The main object of the universities in the olden time was to secure such discussion of the problems of man's relation to the universe, to his Creator, to his fellow-creatures and to the material world as would enable him to appreciate his rights and 'duties and to use his powers. Huxley declared that the trivium and quad- rivium, the seven liberal arts studied in the mediaeval universities, probably demonstrate a clearer and more generous comprehen- i6 SELECTED ARTICLES sion of what is meant by culture than the curriculum of any modern university. Language was learned through grammar, the science of language. Reasoning was learned through logic, the science of reasoning; the art of expression through rheto- ric, a combination of art and science with applications to prac- tical life. Mathematics was studied with a zeal and a success that only those who know the history of mediaeval mathematics can at all appreciate. Cantor, the German historian of mathe- matics, in hundreds of pages of a large volume, has told the story of the development of mathematics during the centuries be- fore the Renaissance, that is from the thirteenth to the fifteenth, in a way that makes it very clear that the teaching at the uni- versities in this subject was not dry and sterile, but eminently productive, successful in research, and with constant additions to knowledge such as live universities ought to make. Then there was astronomy, metaphysics, theology, music, law and medicine. The science of law was developed and, above all, great collections of laws made for purposes of scientific study. Of astronomy every one was expected to know much, of medicine we shall have considerable to say hereafter, but in the meantime it is well to recall that these mediaeval centuries maintained a high standard of medical education and brought some wonderful developments in the sciences allied to medicine and above all in their applications to therapeutics. Surgery never reached so high a plane of achievement down to our own time, as during the period when it was studied so faithfully and developed so marvellously at the mediaeval universities. It was inasmuch as a knowledge of physics was needed for the develop- ment of metaphysics that the mediaeval schoolmen devoted them- selves to the study of nature. They turned with as much ardor and devotion as did Herbert Spencer in the nineteenth century, to the accumulation of such information with regard to nature as would enable them to draw conclusions, establish general prin- ciples and lay firm foundations for reasonings with regard to the creature and the Creator. It is, above all, this phase of mediaeval teaching work, of the schoolmen's ardent interest that is misunderstood, often ignored and only too frequently mis- represented in the modern time. LATIN AND GREEK 17 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE x (a) College Entrance Requirements Colonial Period Latin and Greek. — The history of college entrance require- ments in the United States begins in 1642, when Harvard Col- lege published the following announcement: When any scholar is able to read Tully or such like classical Latin Author extempore, and make and speak true Latin in verse and prose (suo (ut aiunt Marte), without any assistance whatever and decline per- fectly the paridigms of nouns and verbs in ye Greek tongue, then may hee bee admitted into ye College, nor shall any claim admission before such qualifications. The foregoing is a translation from the Latin of a part of the college statutes. In the College of William and Mary, Latin and Greek were the only subjects required for entrance at the beginning of its career in 1693, although no definite statement of the requirements is given. As early as 1720, Yale College made the following announce- ment : Such as are admitted Students into ye Collegiate School shall in their examination in order thereunto be found expert in both ye Latine and Greek grammars, as also skilful in construing and grammatically resolving both Latine and Greek authors and in making good and true latin. As time progressed some difficulty was found at Harvard in keeping up that part of the requirement which obliged the candi- dates to speak Latin. In 1734 this obstacle was removed, and in 1790 the word "translate" was substituted for the word "construe." Yale followed suit in 1795. Arithmetic. — In 1745, Yale College added common arithmetic to the entrance requirements. At the same time the moral char- acter of the candidates was not overlooked, as is shown by the following: "And shall bring sufficient testimony of his blameless and inoffensive life." Princeton, in 1746, based the entrance standards on the same grounds as those of Harvard and Yale, but did not include arith- metic until 1760. This subject, however, seems to have dropped 1 Walton C. John. Requirements for the Bachelor's Degree. (Chap, i.) 18 SELECTED ARTICLES out until 1813 when the student was supposed to know the subject as far as the rule of three. Columbia College, which began as King's College in 1754, pre- scribed Latin, Greek, and arithmetic for entrance. Both Brown and Williams had essentially the same requirements. Entrance examinations (oral). — During the colonial period most students prepared for college at the Latin-grammar schools which were closely related to the colleges. The examinations were oral and not so strict as might have been expected. The Nineteenth Century Geography. — In 1807, geography and arithmetic were added to the usual requirements at Harvard College, and there is evi- dence of greater care in stating the terms of admission. The amount of work in each subject was more clearly indicated. Neither was quality overlooked when we find within small com- pass such expressions as these : "Thoroughly acquainted with the grammar of the Greek;" "properly construe and parse," etc.; "be well instructed in the following rules of arithmetic;" "have well studied a compendium of geography." Geography found a place as an entrance requirement before 1830 in Princeton, Columbia, Yale, and other colleges. English grammar. — The next preparatory subject introduced was English grammar. Princeton led out with this subject in 1819, being followed by Yale in 1822, Columbia in i860, and by Harvard in 1866. Algebra and geometry. — Harvard was the first college to ex- tend the entrance requirement in mathematics beyond arithmetic. In 1820 elementary algebra was added as far as geometrical pro- gressions. Algebra was prescribed for entrance by Columbia in 1821, by Yale in 1847, and by Princeton in 1848. In 1844 Harvard added geometry and additional topics in algebra. Between 1856 and 1870 geometry was added to the entrance requirements by Yale, Princeton, Michigan, and Columbia. History; physical geography. — History was required for en- trance by Harvard and Michigan in 1847; by Cornell in 1868. Physical geography was found in the requirements for Harvard and Michigan in 1870. LATIN AND GREEK 19 The Modern Period Modern languages. — Harvard College was the first to make French an entrance requirement for the regular college course, although in the early part of the nineteenth century Columbia College had recognized this language as a prerequisite to its courses, in science. By 1875, both French and German had equal recognition as entrance subjects at Harvard. Yale added French in 1885, Columbia in 1891, Princeton in 1893, and Cornell in 1897. English composition and rhetoric. — English composition was included in the entrance requirements of Princeton in 1870. The colleges next to add this subject were Harvard in 1874 Michigan in 1878, Columbia and Cornell in 1882, and Yale in 1894. Rhe- toric had been required by the University of Michigan from 1874 to 1878, while Princeton added the latter subject in 1884. Sciences. — Although Harvard and Michigan had already in- troduced physical geography in 1870, Syracuse University was the first to prescribe natural philosophy. Natural science was added to the requirements by Harvard in 1876, Cornell followed with physiology in 1877, and Michigan included natural science and botany in 1890. It is apparent that the order of importance of prescribed en- trance subjects has been completely reversed in recent years. Until a few years ago Latin and Greek had always occupied first place, but since 1885 English has gained the ascendancy. Start- ing out with simple grammar the subject has been developed so as to include composition, rhetoric, and a broad range of study in the best of both English and American literatures. Latin and Greek still have a place in college entrance requirements, but they are seldom required unless it be in combination with modern languages. The present tendency is to consider all languages under one general group; the privilege is then given to the stu- dent to make suitable electives in harmony with the specific pur- pose of the college course. Mathematics is the only entrance subject that in the long run of years has maintained its place. Next to English it appears most frequently on the list of prescribed subjects. Science and history are well established, although they are considered as electives by nearly one-half of the institutions of our list. 20 .SELECTED ARTICLES The most recent development is the growing recognition of a large group of vocational subjects which command within cer- tain limits equal credit with the literary subjects. (b) College Graduation Requirements Colonial Period The establishment of Harvard College on the banks of the Charles in 1636 is the outstanding event in the history of higher education in the United States. As the mother of American col- leges and universities, Harvard College has been inseparably connected with the developments of collegiate education that have taken place during the past three centuries. Compared with the present standards of graduation the following requirements, taken from the laws of Dunster (1642), seem very simple indeed: Every scholar that on proof is found able to translate the original of the Old and New Testament into the Latin tongue, and to resolve them logically, and shall be imbued with the beginnings of natural and moral philosophy, withal being of honest life and conversation, and at any public act hath the approbation of the overseers and master of the college, may be invested with his first degree; but no one will expect this degree unless he shall have passed four years in college and has maintained therein a blameless life and has sedulously observed all public exercises. The first year shall teach rhetoric, second and third year dialectics, and the fourth year shall add philosophy * * * In this course of four years each one shall dispute twice in his public schools and shall respond twice in his own class; which if he performs, and is found worthy after the regular examination, he shall become an A.B. William and Mary College was founded in 1693, at Williams- burg, Va., by James Blair, who modeled the curriculum some- what on the plan of the University of Edinburgh. The principal subjects of study were the classics, Hebrew, philosophy, arith- metic, geography, and anatomy. Yale was established at New Haven, Conn., in 1701. The subjects prescribed for the A. B. degree at that institution were the classics including Tully and Vergil, also logic, physics, Greek, New Testament, and Hebrew. Disputations were held two or three times a week. Princeton College received its charter in 1745 and closely fol- lowed the programs of Harvard and Yale. The University of Pennsylvania was a direct offshoot from the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Franklin was the father of this school and he bore testimony in his early day to the use- lessness of Latin and Greek in the educational requirements of the schools. To him foreign languages were but the tools of knowledge, and if the vernacular gave all necessary information, other tools were needless. The course of study at the Phila- LATIN AND GREEK 21 delphia school was unusually strong in science, and contrary to the desires of the founder, it was equally strong in the classics. Columbia University, founded as King's College in 1754, en- larged the college curriculum and laid the foundation for a very broad course of study. The following summary of college re- quirements announced by the president in the year 1754 is of .spe- cial interest: The college aims to instruct and perfect — In the learned languages; In the art of reasoning correctly; In writing correctly and speaking eloquently; In the arts of numbering and measuring; In surveying and navigation; In geography and history; In husbandry, commerce, and government; In knowledge of all nature in the heavens above us and in the air, water, and earth around us and the various kinds of meteors, stones, mines, and minerals, plants, and animals; In everything useful for the comfort, the convenience, and elegance of life in the chief manufactures. To lead them [pupils] from the study of nature to the knowledge of themselves and of the God of nature, and their duty to Him, themselves, and one another; And everything that can contribute to their true happiness, both here and hereafter. The Revolutionary Period, and French Influences (1780 to 1840) About the time of the Revolutionary War when the influences which gave birth to the Nation were at their height in this coun- try, several important State-supported colleges were founded. These reflected to a considerable extent the French practices of organization, especially in the States of New York, Georgia, Michigan, Wisconsin, Louisiana, California, and Maryland. The colleges were, in most instances, the centers of the several State systems of education. To a certain extent the elective sys- tem, as we now understand it, was attributed to French in- fluences. Jefferson in reorganizing education in Virginia showed the result of his contact with the newer ideas which have made a lasting impression on higher education in this country. The curriculum of the University of Virginia, as adopted in 1824, is, doubtless, next to the founding of Harvard College, the most significant event in the history of American college education. George Ticknor, who was called to the chair of languages at Harvard College in 1817, urged radical changes in the administra- tion of the curriculum on accepting his post, and he sponsored not only the elective system but urged the organization of de- partments with separate heads. About the middle of the nineteenth century President Way- 22 SELECTED ARTICLES land, of Brown University, was successful in broadening the scope of the college curriculum. He stood also for a better quality of instruction. Meanwhile the sciences, chemistry in particular, were finding a permanent place in college require- ments, having appeared first at Yale and Harvard shortly after the year 1800. Mathematics was being developed under the in- fluence of the great French mathematicians. Political economy was first taught at Harvard in 1820, and Yale, Columbia, Dart- mouth, Princeton, and Williams all added this subject within 15 years. The first chair of history was founded by William and Mary in 1822 and Harvard followed suit in 1839. While French had been a side issue in some of the colleges, Bowdoin established a chair of modern languages, under H. W. Longfellow, in 1825. In the same year German was added to the course at Harvard. It was also taught at the University of Virginia. The Civil War The Civil War gave a setback to several of the old State in- stitutions which had' arisen under the national movement. But at the same time a very important movement in higher education was launched by Senator Morrill, of Vermont, who was father of the principal enabling acts of the land-grant colleges. These colleges were not only to give a liberal education in the arts and sciences, but were especially devoted to developing agricultural and engineering education of a high order. The States were not slow in complying with the conditions of the Morrill and subse- quent acts, so to-day we find 68 land-grant colleges in successful operation all over the United States. German Influence The influence of the German universities on a small group of prominent American thinkers and educators before the outbreak of the Civil War led to the further development of the principle of freedom of election of college studies. President Eliot, of Harvard, in the year 1869, led out in this movement which has with little resistance spread over the United States. Some reac- tion to extreme views on this question has been manifest, the present tendency being to safeguard the student's work by a more restricted plan of election which will insure the most profitable combination of studies. LATIN AND GREEK 23 BRIEF EXCERPTS The conflict of science and Classics is a dead issue. Science has won an overwhelming victory, Paul Shorey, Atlantic Monthly 120:97 July 1017. If there be one thing more certain than another, it is that Latin and Greek -no longer hold the place as educational agen- cies which they occupied one hundred or, indeed, even fifty years ago. Sidney G. Ashmore, Professor of Latin, Union College, The Classics and Modern Training, p. 1. Fifty per cent of the crime today can be traced to the public school system and the manner in which it turns the children out into the world, without a vocation and without the necessary training to fit them for the work that they are to do. Mayor Darius A. Brown, of Kansas City, Buffalo Courier Sept. 11, 1920. The classics a few generations ago, held indisputably the commanding position among all other subjects of the school and college curriculum. Mathematics and philosophy shared with the ancient tongues almost the entire time of the student. The recent development, however, of the natural and physical sci- ences, the rise of good modern literature and the commercial spirit of the age have retired Greek and Latin to a place co- ordinate with or subordinate to the modern subjects, and have even forced, them to defend their right to remain. No longer is there any necessity for one or two studies to sway the curricu- lum, and even the friends of the ancient languages do not desire to have them restored to their former dominion. Edward P. Dams, Education 32:52 Sept. ion. By the head of the Department of Latin in Adelbert College is given this statement, "All interest in matters classical and all belief in their value have ceased to exist in the community and the same condition obtains in college. About twenty per cent of the freshmen take Latin during their first year, not because they wish to do so, but because it seems easier than anything else under the present arrangements. Two or three or four students continue a year longer, — practically nobody after sophomore 24 SELECTED ARTICLES year. There is therefore no incentive for advanced work in this institution in classics, for Greek is worse off than Latin, and it is of course foolish for anyone to study Latin without Greek and quite impossible to carry on the work in the former without the latter." Annual Report of the President of Adelbert College and Western Reserve University, Western Reserve Bulletin 18:48, Sept. 1915. AFFIRMATIVE DISCUSSION THE CASE FOR THE CLASSICS x No subject is too stale for a "rattling speech," and the mere praise of the classics and the exposure of the adversary still sup- ply good matter of rhetoric. 2 But this paper is to be printed, and I hope with the aid of footnotes to make it a sufficient, though of course not exhaustive, historical resume and a reper- tory of temperate arguments adapted to present conditions. 3 To this end I am prepared to sacrifice not only its temporary effect on an audience but any ambition I might feel to attain the sym- metry and classicism of form which befit a classicist speaking in his own cause and which are so admirably illustrated in the apol- ogies for classical studies of Mill and Jebb and Arnold. 4 The situation has improved since I had the honor of speak- ing here fifteen or sixteen years ago, and many topics which I dwelt on then may be lightly enumerated today. The wearisome controversy has educated the participants on both sides. 5 Both are more careful in their dialectic and more cautious in the 1 Professor Paul Shorey. School Review. 18:585-617. Nov. 1910. 2 Cf. Professor Forman's Humble Apology for Greek, Cornell Univer- sity, ici04, printed privately. 8 Cf. infra, p. 600-1. Even in 1868 Professor Gildersleeve had to make the same point (Essays and Studies, 5: "Dr. Bigelow is fighting the shadows of the past," etc. — Ibid., 10). 4 Mill, "Inaugural Address," Dissertations and Discussions, IV, 332 ff. ; Jebb, Essays and Addresses, 506 ff. ; Humanism in Education, 545 ff. ; Present Tendencies in Classical Studies, 560 ff., 609 ff., 636 ff; Arnold, "Literature and Science," Discourses in America, 172 ff. To these might be added Lowell's. "Harvard Anniversary Address," Prose Works, VI, 139, 160, 165: "Oblivion looks in the face of the Grecian Muse only to for- get her errand," 166, 174; and Latest Lit. Essays, 139, the speech in which the greatest professor of modern languages told the Modern Language Association: "I hold this evening a brief for the modern languages and am bound to put the case in as fair a light as I conscientiously can." See the fine chapter on "Reading" in Thoreau's Walden. And for further bibliography of books and papers referred to in this address cf. infra, P- 59i. S87, 599- 5 Huxley (Science and Education, 83) stretched "nature" to include "men and their ways," and Arnold with more justice made "letters" in- clude Copernicus and Darwin (their results, not their processes). 26 SELECTED ARTICLES abuse of exaggeration and irrelevancy. 1 Our opponents have grown very shy of the kind of logic which delivered them into our hands, though they still grotesquely misconceive the nature and aims of our teaching. 2 But only a few incorrigibles still harp on the false antithesis of words and things. 3 The recollec- tion of Lowell's eloquent protest (VI, 174) if nothing else would make them eschew the precious argument of Herbert Spencer and Lowe that Greece was such a little country, "no bigger than an English county." Some of them are beginning to apprehend the distinction between education and instruction, formation and information. 4 And if any of them still believe that the intrinsic excellence of classical literautre is a superstition of pedants they rarely venture to say so in public in the fearless old fashion of the Popular Science Monthly. 5 We have won a victory at the bar of educated opinion in which we may feel some complacency, though we must beware of overestimating its practical signifi- cance. The man in the street has not changed his opinion of dead languages, and the great drift of American education and life toward absorption in the fascinating spectacle of the present has not been, perhaps cannot be, checked. A stream of tendency cannot be dammed by argument. As Professor James says: 1 Huxley, op. cit., 163; Jebb, op. cit., 537. No rational advocate would now recommend either Latin or botany on the ground that it exercises the memory. See Gildersleeve, op. cit., 28. 1 Cf. President David Starr Jordan, Pop. Sci. Mo., 73 (1908), p. 28: "Once the student cuts entirely loose from real objects and spends his days among diacritical marks, irregular conjugations, and distinctions without difference his orientation is lost." So Tyndall once demanded "a culture which shall embrace something more than declensions and con- jugations." What would President Jordan think of a classicist who char- acterized the study of science as cutting loose from human interests and counting fish-scales? See Zielinski's rebuke of Father Petroff, p. 200-1; Lowe, "Speech at Edinburgh," November 1, 1867: "We find a statement in Thucydides or Cornelius Nepos who wrote 500 years after and we never are instructed that the statement of the latter is not quite as good as the former. . . . The study of the dead languages precludes the inquiring habit of mind which measures probabilities" [sic~\. Cf. infra, p. 594-97- * Lowe at Edinburgh, November, 1867; Spencer, passim; Jordan, Pop. Sci. Mo., 73 (1908), p. 29; cf. Youmans, 5, "The relation between words, and ideas ... is accidental and arbitrary." Cf. contra Masson apud Taylor, p 306; Mill, 347-8. 'Gildersleeve, Essays and Studies, 13: Zielinski, 28; Brunetiere, Ques- tions Actuelles, 51 ff., 62, 74-75, 404-5. 8 23, 701: "The Dead Language Superstition," a diatribe called forth by Mill's "Inaugural." See in like strain Mach, Open Court, November 22, 1894; Bierbower, "Passing of the Linguist," N. E. Magazine, n.s. 36, 246 ff. LATIN AND GREEK 27 "Round your obstacle flows the water and gets there all the same." 1 The majority still believe that modern civilization can find not only entertainment but also all the instruction and all the culture which it requires in the contemplation of moving pictures of itself whether in the five-cent theater or the ten-cent magazine or the one-cent newspaper. But among the thoughtful there is a reaction in our favor. They may not accept our esti- mates of the transcendental worth of the classic literatures or the unique discipline of classical studies. But they have lost forever the illusion that the mere suppression of Greek and Latin will bring in the educational millennium. 2 They are ob serving with mixed feelings a Greekless generation of gradu- ates and wondering what a Latinless generation will be like. They admit with some natural reserves the breakdown of the elective system. 3 They recognize that a real education must be based on a serious, consecutive, progressive study of something definite, teachable, and hard. 4 And while they may not agree with us that no good substitutes for Greek and Latin and the exact sci- ences can be found, they are not quite so certain as they were that sociology, household administration, modern English fiction, short stories as a mode of thinking, and modern French and German comedies are "equally as good." Thirty or fifty years ago they could contrast with our ideal the actual results of that classical training for which we claimed so much. 5 It is now our turn to challenge the results of the new system. 6 Addressing myself to a generation thus chastened in spirit 1 For an effective answer to this fatalistic vox populi vox Dei argu- ment, see Zielinski, Our Debt to Antiquity (Eng. trans., E. P. Dutton), 3-8; cf. Lowell, "Harvard Anniversary Address," Works, VI, 162: "I have seen several spirits of the age in my time," etc. Paulsen (II, 370) says that in 1770 Kant would never have foreseen that in 1820 Greek would lead science in the schools. Yet he himself ventures the pre- diction that a third renaissance of classics will never come (p. 634-35). '"Harking Back to the Classics," Atlantic Mo., 101 (1908), 482; L. R. Briggs, "Some Old-Fashioned Doubts about New-fashioned Education," Atlantic Mo., 86, 463; Williams, School Review (1909), 383-84. Gayley, Idols of Education; Barrett Wendell, The Mystery of Education; see Brunett&re, op. cit., 399-400. 8 Already Lowell, op. cit., VI. 161: cf. Shorey, "Discipline in Edu- cation. "_ Bookman, March, 1906, See the entire recent literature of des- satisfaction with the colleges. 4 Huxley, op. cit., 414; cf already the admirable words of De Mor- gan in Youmans, The Culture Demanded by Modern Life, 442. " See Contemp. Review xxxv, 833. ' Paulsen in Educat. Review, xxxiii. 39, says (of classics) that we must consider what the average graduate gets, not ideals. Well, what has the average graduate been getting from the "bargain-counter, sample room, a la carte" system of the past two decades? 28 SELECTED ARTICLES and exercised in the dialectics of educational controversy, I need not do more than enumerate some of the hoary fallacies and irrelevancies which it was once necessary to refute in detail. I may take it for granted that we must compare either ideals with ideals or actualities with actualities ; that from the standpoint of the ideal all subjects are badly taught, imperfectly learned, and quickly forgotten ; x that the classics are on the whole among the better-taught subjects, 2 and that middle-aged business men who complain that they cannot read Greek and Latin for pleasure would not distinguish themselves if examined on mediaeval his- tory, conic sections, old French, organic chemistry, or whatever else they happened to elect in college. As George Eliot says, "the depth of middle-aged gentlemen's ignorance will never be known for want of public examinations in this branch." It is known in the case of the classics only because they regret that they have lost them and so betray themselves. Similarly we may assume a general recognition of the distinc- tion between the higher and the lower sense of "practical," 3 of the fact that the most practical of studies are useful only to those who are to use them, 4 and of the repeated testimony of business and technical men that the actual knowledge gained in preparatory college courses in their subjects is of little value. 5 Again everybody except President Stanley Hall is now aware 1 Cf. Barrett Wendell, The Mystery of Education, 143. On the at- tempt to limit education to what all "educated" men remember cf. Zie- linski, p. 27. 2 Cf . Andover Review, V, No. 2 (1884), 83; Huxley, op. cit., 153; Professor Alexander Smith, in Science, XXX, 457-66: "Every conclusion is tested and every element in problem-solving by the scientific method is covered. . . The method is simple, yet of unquestionable efficiency A method so simple and certain has not yet been devised for history, literature, political economy, or chemistry." 8 Cf. Cambridge Essays (1855), 291; W. F. Allen, Memorial Volume 129, "Practical Education"; Forman, op. cit., 7-9; Clapp, Overland, XXVIII, 94. 1 Huxley, Science and Ed., 316-21, rejects histology, comparative anat omy, and materia medica as of no practical use to the physician. Cf. Brunetiere, op. cit., 401; Jacob Bigelow, "Remarks on Classical and Utili- tarian Studies," 1867, with the answer in No. Am. Rev., CIV, 610. 8 Loeb, School Rev. (1909), 373, "But thirteen years' experience in very active affairs taught me that the time spent at Harvard studying history of finance. . . . might as well have been devoted to the classics for all the practical value I got." "Ou sont aujourd'hui la physique, la chimie, la physiologie d'il y a trente ans seulement, et qu' en connaissons- nous pour les avoir 6tudiees au college, et depuis oubliees?' — Brunetiere, op. cit., 94. LATIN AND GREEK 29 that the phrase "dead language" is not an argument but a ques- tion-begging epithet or a foolish, outworn, metaphor. 1 Lastly, the right use and limits of translations are no longer likely to be misunderstood. Few will now be misled either by Labouchere's statement that Bohn's translations had shown up the classics, or Emerson's saying that he would as soon swim when there was a bridge as resort to the original in place of a translation; or Professor Moulton's argument that translations are as good as the originals for the teacher of "general" liter- ature. And though we sometimes meet the fallacy that posed Gibbon's aunt, the argument that the student's own version is inferior to the printed translations of great scholars which he might use instead, it is merely as Gibbon says "a silly sophism which could not easily be confuted by a person ignorant of any language but her own." There is no opposition between the use of translations and the study of the original. On the contrary even a little acquaintance with the original adds immensely to their usefulness. They are tools which are best employed by those who have some insight into the method of their construc- tion. 2 For some purposes they may be almost as good as the originals. But among the purposes for which they are not so good are classroom discipline, the development of the critical intelligence and the habit of exactness, and the maintenance of high standards of national taste and culture in the educated classes.? 1 Cf. Fouillee, 125, on Raoul Frary's "Culture of Dead Wood." "A dead language is the dead sea of thought" — Pop Sci. Mo., xvii, 148. Cf. in Butler's Erewhon, the satire on "Colleges of Unreason given over to the study of the Hypothetical Language"; the elaboration of the same old jest in another form by Professor Scott, Ed., XVI, 360, and Spencer's constant recourse to the argument. For the retort crushing on the "dead languages" argument, cf. the eloquent words of D'Arcy W. Thompson in Day Dreams of a Schoolmas- ter; Lowell, op. cit., VI, 165; "If their language is dead, yet the literature it enshrines is rammed with life as perhaps no other .... ever was or will be." — Bryce, School Rev. (1909), 369; Postdate's Liverpool Inau- gural Lecture on "Dead Language and Dead Languages," 1-10; ibid., 12; 85 per cent of "Ido" is intelligible to an Englishman who knows — Latin. For the superior educational value of a synthetic, classic, or a "dead" language, cf. J ebb, op. cit., 621; Gildersleeve, op. cit., 27-28; Mill, op. cit., 352-53; Ziplinski, op. cit., 33 ff. ; Laurie, 10; infra, p. 598. ' Cf . President Mackenzie, School Rev. (1908), 378-80; Zielinski, op. cit., 112. * Cf. Gildersleeve, op. cit., 20, A. J. P., XXX, 353; Mill, op. cit., 350; Clapp, op. cit., 100; Zielinski, op. cit., 85, 87; T. Herbert Warren, Essays on Poets and Poetry, III; Wilamowitz, Introduction to "Hippolytus" : Was ist TJebersetzen? ; Paul Cauer, Kunst des Uebersetzens, 4th ed., 1909; Diels, Herakleitos: "TJebersetzen ist Spiel oder, wenn man will, Spielerei." 3 o SELECTED ARTICLES In addition to all this controversial and negative work, we may take for granted the conventional positive and construc- tive arguments for classical studies elaborated by a long line of able apologists, except so far as we have occasion to summarize or refer to them in the course of this review. 1 These arguments are not exclusive but cumulative. The case of the classics does not rest on any one of them and is not im- paired by the exaggerated importance that mistaken zeal may attribute to any one. Those who still harp on the superiority of the classics as discipline 2 do not therefore "tacitly acknowledge themselves beaten on the point of their intrinsic value" 3 and those who prefer to emphasize the "necessity of the ancient classics" for the understanding of modern life and letters 4 may still believe that high-school Latin is the best instrument of disci- pline available in secondary education. 5 The March number of the Classical Journal tabulates the aims of classical study as stated by teachers in response to a questionnaire. Thirty teachers aim at mental training, 29 at literary appreciation, 26 at power of expression, 26 at the rela- tion of the ancients to us, 26 at ability to read, 15 at general linguistic training, 8 at grammar, 6 at acquaintance with Greek and Latin literature. Obviously there is nothing incompatible in these aims. It is a question of emphasis, the needs of the class, the ability, training, and tastes of the teacher. A faddist may ride his hobby to death, whether it be optatives, or lantern slides, a See supra, p. 585, n. 3; infra, p. 613-17. For some earlier apologies and discussions see Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, II, 18, 51, 71, 125, 130, 151, 171, 181, 209, 256; also the writers quoted in Taylor, Classical Study: Its Value Illustrated (Andover, 1870). Cf. further W. G. C. in Cambridge Essays (1855), 282; Essays on a Liberal Education (1867); Arnold in Higher Schools in Germany, and A French Eton; Field, Lyttleton, and Rendall in Essays on Education by members of the XIII (London, 1891); Goodwin, Educat. Rev., IX, 33s; Postgate, "Are the Clas- sics to Go?" Fortnightly, LXXVIII, 866 ff. ; West, "Must the Classics Go?" N. A. Rev., CXXXVIII, 151; Kelsey; "Position of Latin and Greek in American Education," Educat. Rev., XXXIII, 162; Clapp, Over- land, XXVIII, 93 ff- ; T. Rice Holmes, "The Crusade Against the Classics," National Rev., XLII, 97 ff.; Freeman in Macmillan, LXIII, 321 ff. ; An- drew Lang in Living Age, CCXLV, 765 ff . ; J. C. Collins, Fortnightly, LXXXIII, 260 ff.; T. E. Page, Educat. Rev., XXXIV, 144; Manatt, N. Y. Evening Post, August 18, 1906; Anatole France, "Pour le Latin," Vie lit- tdraire, I, 281; Brunetiere, "La question du Latin," Revue des deux mondes, Dec. 15, 1885. 2 E.g., Professor Sidney G. Ashmore, The Classics and Modern Train- ing, chap. i. See supra, 588, n. 11-12. 3 Gildersleeve, op. cit., 15. 4 Gildersleeve, South. Quart., XXVI, 145. 1 Cf. Bennett and Bristol, The Teaching of Latin and Greek, chap, i, and Bristol in Educ. Rev., XXXVII, 243-51. LATIN AND GREEK 31 or parallel passages from the poets. But in return, the good teacher will almost in the same breath translate a great poetic sentence, bring out its relations to the whole of which it is a part, make its musical rhythm felt by appropriate declamation, explain a historical or an antiquarian allusion, call attention to a dialectic form, put a question about a peculiar use of the optative, compare the imagery with similar figures of speech in ancient and modern poetry, and use the whole as a text for a little dis- course on the difference between the classical and the modern or romantic spirit ; so that you shall not know whether he is teach- ing science or art, language or literature, grammar, rhetoric, psychology, or sociology, because he is really teaching the ele- ments and indispensable prerequisites of all. Similarly of the diverse considerations urged by former apologists and the contributors to these symposia. The case of the classics rests on no one taken singly but on their conjoint force, and it is not really weakened by the disproportionate stress . sometimes laid on the weaker arguments. The illumination or scientific terminology, for example, is a minor and secondary utility of a little knowledge of Greek and Latin on which the biologist or physician is especially apt, perhaps over much, to in- sist. That is his contribution. He does not mean to rest the case on that. He is not answered by the argument that "ten or twelve years" of study is too big a price to pay for this result and that terminology can be learned from glossaries. For a very slight knowledge of the languages makes an immense difference in the intelligence with which the dictionary or the glossary of scientific terms is consulted and the vividness with which its statements are realized. One or two years will yield a good deal of that particular utility, and the question for the teacher of sci- ence or medicine is whether any other non-professional college study is likely to be more "useful" to his students. 1 So in argu- ing that the classics give the engineer a power of expression which he requires for use as well as for ornament, Professor Sadler 2 is not committing himself or us to the proposition that none but classicists write well and all classicists do. He simply means what all experience proves, that the study of the classics is on the whole an excellent training in expression, 3 perhaps 1 See Dr. Vaughan in School Rev. (1906), 392. ' School Rev. (1906), 402-5. * A writer in Educ. Rev., XXXVIII, 88-90, argues that the differ- ence of pronunciation makes Latin useless to the English of the high- school student. 32 SELECTED ARTICLES a better one than the unpremeditated effusions of "daily themes" 1 and that discipline in the power of exact and lucid expression is a utility for the engineer. 2 Again, Mr. Kelsey would be the last to rest the case for the classics on the fact that the wider secondary study of Greek would leave the door of choice for the profession of the ministry open to a large number of desirable candidates who now find too late that they lack the indispensable preparation. 3 But it is a real if minor considera- tion to be counted in the sum. All of these contributions from the professions take for granted the general discipline and cultural values of the classics, and presuppose the fact pointed out by Mr. Loeb and others, that the direct business and technical utilitarian value of the so- called practical college courses is very slight. On this assump- tion, they supplement the ideal values of the classics by showing that, in the jargon of modern pedagogy, they also possess "adjustment values" for other professions than theology and literature.' One consideration, however, which constantly recurs in these discussions is fundamental. It is the training which the classics give in the art of interpretation. Classicists sometimes claim for and scientific men concede too much to the study of the classics as a means of developing the powers of expression. 4 They underestimate its value as a discipline of the intelligence. 5 They appreciate its stimulus to emotion. They fail to apprehend its subtler effect in blending and harmonizing the two — suflusing thought with feeling, informing feeling with thought. In con- troversy Huxley and Tyndall were fond of pointing out that the 1 Cf. Mr. Barrett Wendell's sad surmise (The Mystery of Education, 175) that perhaps the reason why the up-to-date Harvard student doesn't write like Addison is that Addison "had never studied English composi- tion as a thing apart." But Addison had studied Latin composition and had a very pretty knack of turning Latin verses. J Cf. Outlook, XCIII (1907), 87. 8 School Rev. (1908), 567-79. 4 Huxley, op. cit., 130. 6 Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris, the type and model of philological method, has been aptly styled "a relentless syllogism." No one can com- pare the discourses of Renan and Pasteur at the French Academy or the Romanes lectures of Jebb (1899) and Professor Lankester (1904) with- out feeling that the superiority of the trained classical philologian is not solely or mainly "in the graces." It is in the intellectual qualities of subtlety, wit, sanity, breadth, coherence, and closeness of cogent dialectic that his advantage is most conspicuous. As we are speaking of "dis- ciplinary values" it would be beside the mark to allege what Renan and Jebb would be the first to admit, that Pasteur's work was of greater service to mankind than theirs. LATIN AND GREEK 33 leaders of science expressed themselves with rather more vigor, point, and precision than the ordinary classicist. And their own vivid and fluent eloquence drove the argument home. In general, however, men of science are only too ready to concede with the irony which apes humility that their training has not supplied the graces and literary refinements that are supposed to qualify a man to shine after dinner or to make a good appearance on the platform. But the gifts of eloquence and fluency are sparks of natural endowment which science perhaps quite as often as phil- ology fans into flame. 1 Scientific men may make haste to for- get their Latin as Latin. But the mere classicist observes with admiring despair their mastery of the polysyllabic Latinized vo- cabulary of English. Where he says "if so" they say "in the con- templated eventuality." We must abate our claim that only the classics make men eloquent and emphatic in the expression of their own thoughts. But it is impossible to claim too much for them as a disci- pline in the all-important art of interpreting the expressed thought of others. There is no other exercise available for educational purposes that can compare in this respect with the daily graduated critical classroom translation and interpretation of classical texts. 2 The instinctively sane judgment of intended meanings, the analytic power of rational interpretation — these, natural gifts being equal, are the distinctive marks of the student of classics, in verying degrees, from the secondary-school Latin- ist, who at least has some inkling of the general implicit logic and structure of language, to the collegian who has been exer- cised in the equivocations of idiom and synonym, and the finished master who can weigh all the nice considerations that determine the precise shade of meaning or tone of feeling in a speech in Thucydides, a lyric of Aeschylus, a half-jesting, half-serious argument in Plato. Information, knowledge, culture, originality, eloquence, genius may exist without a classical training; the critical sense and a sound feeling for the relativity of meaning rarely, if ever. I have never met in private life or encountered in literature a thinker wholly disdainful of the discipline of the classics who did not betray his deficiency in this respect. I say 1 On the bad style of classicists cf. Pop. Sci. Mo., I. 707; Gildersleeve, op. cit., 49 ; Spencer, Study of Sociology, 264. 2 The argument of Webster {Forum, XXVIII, 459 ff.) that the study of a language makes almost no demands upon the reasoning powers refutes itself; cf. Jebb, op. cit., 558; Laurie, Lectures on Languages and Linguistic Method, 9-10; Fouillee, 102-3. 34 SELECTED ARTICLES in all seriousness that what chiefly surprises a well-trained classi- cist in the controversial and popular writings of scientific men, especially in the case of the pseudo- or demi-sciences, 1 is not any awkwardness of style or defect in "culture," but the quality of the dialectic and logic, the irrelevancies, the elaborations of metaphors from illustrations into arguments, 2 the disproportion- ate emphasis upon trifles and truisms, 3 the ignoring of the issue, 4 the naive dependence on authority, 5 the outbursts of quaint unction and ornate rhetoric, 6 the constant liability to 1 Illustrations of this point are too numerous to quote here, but the repeated misapprehensions of Plato's plainest meanings in Education as Adjustment, 19, 62, 63, 90, by M. V. O'Shea, professor of the "science" and art of education in the University of Wisconsin, are typical. If such are the standards of accuracy and criticism of the professor of the science, what will be those of the novices? 2 Huxley, Science and Education, 81 ff.; Spencer, passim; Dr. George E. Dawson, "Parasitic Culture," Pop. Sci. Monthly, September, 1910. 3 Cf. in Culture Demanded by Modern Life Paget's page on the "certainty that continual or irregular feeding is contrary to the economy of the human stomach." 4 E.g., Huxley's extension of "nature" to include "men and their ways," and the fashioning of the affections and of the will," Science and Education, 83. B Typical examples are the use that they make as ultimate authorities of Grote's Plato, Lewes' Biographical History of Philosophy, Lange's His- tory of Materialism, and Draper's Intellectual Development of Europe. Cf. Tyndall, Belfast Address, "And I have entire confidence in Dr. Draper." Huxley on the study of zoology: "What books shall I read? None; write your notes out; come to me for the explanation of anything that you cannot understand." Neither Youmans nor Herbert Spencer could ever be brought to admit the gross error into which Spencer was led {Data of Ethics, § 19), by mistinterpreting Bohn's mistranslation of Plato's Republic, 339D. For another example, cf. Jhering ap. Zielinski, in. Huxley's contrast between history and laboratory science (p. 126) is fallacious. He fails to see that the student of science innocently trans- fers to literature, history, and language his habit of accepting on fait! all experimental results outside of his particular specialty, while the student of classical philology acquires the habit of testing by the original evidence every statement that he hears from his teacher or reads in his textbooks. Cf. Smith, supra, p. 589, «• 17; Fouillee op. cit., 62-63, 109. Those who repeat (e.g. Webster, Forum, XXVII, 453) after Spencer (Education, 79) that classical training establishes the habit of blind sub- mission to the authority of grammar, lexicon, or teacher simply do not know what goes on in a good classroom. See Zielinski, op. cit., 90-92. Cf the noble passage in Mill, op. cit., IV, 355, on the spirit of inquiry in Plato and Aristotle which Huxley (op. cit. 211), transfers verbatim to science, ignoring the all-important qualification, "on those subjects which remain' matters of controversy from the difficulty or impossibility of bring- ing them to an experimental test." Cf. Jebb, appendix to Sophocles O. T., 219. "It is among the advantages and the < pleasures of classical study that it gives scope for such discussions as this passage (0. T., 44-45) has evoked." 8 "The suction pump is but an imitation of the first act of every new- born infant, nor do I think it calculated to lessen that infant's reverence, when his riper experience shows him that the atmosphere was his helper in extracting the first draught from his mother's bosom" (Tyndall, on the "Study of Physics.") LATIN AND GREEK 35 stumble like a child, or quibble like a sophist, 1 with regard to the fair presumptive meaning of alien, divergent, or hostile utter- ances. 2 There is for them no intermediate between the rigid, unequivocal scientific formula and mere rhetoric or sophistry, be- cause they have never been trained to the apprehension of all recorded speech as a text whose full meaning can be ascertained only by a critical, historical, and philological interpretation of the context. The way in which the classics provide us with this training can be fully appreciated only through experience. 3 I have attempted a description elsewhere in this journal, 4 and it has often been set forth by others, and most admirably by the representatives of the law in these symposia. 5 The law itself is " the only discipline comparable to the classics in this regard. 6 But while more severe perhaps and strictly intellectual it is narrower in its range 7 and does not include the union of feeling and intelligence which makes the study of the classics ail in- comparable method of general education. For this reason though the law would be the best available substitute for the discipline of the classics, thoughtful lawyers would be the last to advocate the substitution. But it is time to turn from these special considerations to a broader view of the whole subject. Classical education is not an academic superstition, . an irrational survival of the Renais- sance. 8 It is a universal phenomenon of civilization. Higher non-vocational education has always been largely literary and linguistic, and it has always been based on a literature distin- guished from the ephemeral productivity of the hour as classic. 1 Paget, op. cit., p. 183: "The student of nature's purposes should surely be averse from leading a purposeless existence." 2 Spencer, passim; Huxley, op. cit., 144: "If their common outfit draws nothing from the stores of physical science." Both Mill and Arnold insist on acquaintance with the results of science. Cf. too Huxley's sub- stitution of Middle Ages for Renaissance (ibid., 149-50) and his conse- quent contradiction of his own admission on p. 209, "that the study of classical literature familiarized men with ideas of the order of nature." 3 Zielinski, op. cit., 31 ff. 4 V, 225-29. 5 Cf. Starr on the discipline of the judgment and training in the in- terpretation of texts, School Rev. (1907), 412, 415; Evans, ibid., 421. Fos- ter, ibid. (1909), 377-79. a Whewell adds that it is like mathematics, essentially deductive. With- out committing ourselves to the "inductive method of learning languages" we may say that the interpretation of a classic text is often an excellent exercise in "inductive-observant" thinking. 7 Hutchins, ibid. (1907), 427-28. 8 For this commonplace see infra, p. 601. 36 SELECTED ARTICLES It was so at Rome, in China, in Hindustan, and among the Arabs. The Greeks, whose supreme originality makes them an exception to every rule, are only an apparent exception to this — they studied Homer 1 and their own older classics to form, not inform, their minds. 2 This universal tendency is only in part explained by the religious or superstitious reverence for sacred texts. It is in the main due to an instinctive perception of the principles on which the case for the classics still rests. The education of those who can afford time for non-vocational study is not in the nar- rower or more immediate sense of the words a "preparation for life" 3 but, from the point of view of the individual, a develop- ment of the faculties; from the point of view of society, the transmission of a cultural, social, moral tradition.* It must be a broad discipline of the intellectual powers that shall at the same time attune the aesthetic and the moral feelings to a cer- tain key. 5 No study but that of language and literature can do this, and it is best done through an older and more synthetic form of language and a literature that is, in relation to the stu- dent and his environment, classic. 6 This is the meaning of the late W. T. Harris's somewhat cryptic Hegelism that self-aliena- tion is necessary to self-knowledge. 7 Or to put it more con- cretely, the critical interpretation or translation of such a lan- guage supplies the simplest and most. effective all-round disci- pline of the greatest number of faculties. The ideal form and content of such a literature elevated above the trivialities, dis- engaged from the complexities, disinterested in the conflicts of contemporary life 8 awakens the aesthetic and literary sense, 9 1 Cf . Breal, 553: "On oublie qu'ils avaient leur antiquite dans l'epopee." 2 Cf . Bain, Contemp. Rev. xxxv, 837; "The fact that the Greeks were not acquainted with any language but their own ... I have never known any attempt to parry this thrust." 8 For such tautologous formulas as definitions of education cf. my "Discipline in Modern Education," The Bookman (March, 1906), 94: to the list there given add "Adjustment," which obviously includes every- thing and therefore anything. 4 See Brunetiere, op. cit., 406, and the admirable work of Fouillee, Education from a National Standpoint, in Appleton's "International Edu- cation Series," p. 54. and passim. 5 Arnold's "relating what we have learnt ... to the sense for conduct and the sense for beauty." 8 "There are five times as many mental processes to undertake in translating from Latin and Greek into English as there are in translating a modern language." Lord Goschen; cf. supra, n. 21; infra, n. 99. 7 "Self-alienation which consists in projecting one's self into the idoms of a dead language," etc., etc. — P. R. Shipman, Pop. Sci. Mo., XVII, i4S- 8 Gladstone op. Jebb, 570. 9 Jebb, 526. Cf. the definition of education as the aesthetic revelation of the world. LATIN AND GREEK 37 ennobles and refines feeling. 1 And the very definition of classic implies that it is the source and chief depository of the national tradition either of religion or culture or both. For modern Europe these conditions were fulfilled by the study of the classics of Greece and Rome which the Renais- sance established in the face of a scholasticism that called itself science, 2 and which, adapted to altered conditions, we have still to defend against the exclusive pretensions of sciences that, un- informed by the temper of humanism, threaten to renew the spiritual aridity if not the intellectual futility of scholasticism. The debate which began in the reaction from the Renaissance and found its first notable expression in the famous "quarrel of the ancients and moderns" is now more than two hundred years old. 3 New arguments are hardly discoverable at this date. 1 "Much lost I, something stayed behind, A snatch maybe of ancient song; Some breathing of a deathless mind, Some love of truth, some hate of wrong." — Ionica. 2 Cf. University of Illinois Studies, III, No. vii, p. 29. 3 Not to speak of the polemic of the more illiberal Christian fathers against "pagan" studies, the controversy could be traced back to the op- position of scholasticism and the arts in the mediaeval universities; cf. Univ. of III. Studies, III, No. vii, p. 19, 27 ff. Or we could begin in full Renaissance with the humanist Vives, advocate of the study of the vernacular; with Bacon, who, though himself widely read in the classics and writing in Latin, is the chief source of the rhetoric of the eighteenth and nineteenth-century polemic of scientific men against the classics; or, better yet, with Descartes, who anticipates by two hundred years the type of Spencer and Youmans and President Stanley Hall. Cf. in Cousin, X, 37s, his funny letter to Madame Elizabeth deploring Queen Christina's enthusiasm for Greek. So Spencer more in sorrow than in anger com- ments (Autobiog., II, 183) on Mills' Inaugural which Youmans quotes not quite ingenuously (Gildersleeve, op. cit., 11) It is easy to cite sporadic denunciations of the exclusive study of the classics and satire of bad teaching from the writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Sir Thomas Browne, himself steeped in the classics, incidentally writes, anticipating Spencer, in the style of Macaulay: " 'Tis an unjust way of compute, to magnify a weak head for some Latin abilities and to under- value a solid judgment, because he knows not the genealogy of Hector." Cf. Rigault's well-known book; Macaulay's "Essay on Sir William Temple"; Jebb's Bentley; Brunetiere Hlpoques, 220; Rene Doumie, "La Manie de la Modernite, Etudes de Litt. Francaise, III, 1-23; Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, II, 403 ff. For the eighteenth century in France with its strange transition from dying pseudo-classicism to the second classical renaissance, see the excellent work of Bertrand, Fin du Classicisme, and for Germany, see Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichte, II. In nineteenth-century controversy, the chief epochs are marked by (1) Sydney Smith's "Too Much Latin and Greek," Ed. Rev. (1809) — mainly an attack on Latin verse, etc. Anticlassicists quote from it at second hand "the safe and elegant imbecility of classical learning." They should also quote, "up to a certain point we would educate every young man in Latin and Greek." (2) Macaulay, "The London Univer- sity," Ed. Rev. (1826), a political tract against the Tory opposition in Macaulay's most extreme rhetorical style. With the "Essay on Bacon" it has served as a repertory of fallacies, and it is probably a chief source of Spencer. (3) Spencer's Essay on Education (1858-60), mainly an elaboration of the fallacy (anticipated by Plato, Rep., 438E) that knowl- 38 SELECTED ARTICLES At the most we may endeavor to weigh the old ones with more discretion, adapt them to the present conditions, and throughout to insist on a vital distinction which defines the issue today. I refer to the distinction between past adjustments or reductions of exclusive or excessive claims of classical studies and present efforts and tendencies to abolish them altogether. Here, as often, a quantitative distinction becomes qualitative, a difference of de- gree passes into a difference of kind. 1 The truism that Greece and Rome mean less for us than they did for the men of the Renaissance is not even a presumption that they count for little or nothing. 2 Apart from all technical considerations of curri- cula, degrees, and educational machinery, it is broadly desirable that classical studies should continue to hold a place in higher education fairly proportionate to their significance for our total culture. They will not hold that place if the representatives of the scientific and "modern" subjects enter into an unholy alliance with the legions of Philistia to swell the unthinking clamor against dead languages and useless studies. Whatever the talk- ing delegates of science may say in their haste, thoughtful sci- entific men 3 require no professor of Greek to tell them that the edge of "useful things" is for educational purposes necessarily and always the most useful knowledge. To this we may relate the controversies of the fifties and sixties and their prolongation to our own time. See the various papers dating from 1854 on in Huxley's Science and Education. The year 1867 marks a date with Mill's Inaugural and Youmans' Culture Demanded by Modern Life; and Essays on a Liberal Education. Before the discussion of these had died away in America the conflict was re- kindled by Charles Francis Adams' College Fetich, since which it has been continuous and can very easily be followed in the indices of the Nation, the Atlantic Monthly, the Popular Science Monthly, the various journals of education, the Independent, etc. For Germany see Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts, II, 441 ff., 595; "Intervention of the Emperor," 620 ff. For France cf. Fouilee, 94, and Translator's Pref- ace, xiii; Weiss. "L' Education Classique," Revue des deux Mondes, 1873, V. 392; Brunetiere, "La Question du Latin" (review of Raoul Frary), ibid., 1885, VI, 862; Breal, "La Tradition du Latin," ibid., CV, SSL 1 So already Gildersleeve in 1868 (p. 10): "Sydney Smith's complaint of 'Too much Latin and Greek' has become the war-cry, 'Little Latin and no Greek at all.' " 1 For this common non sequitur cf. Zielinski, op. cit., 15; Huxley, op. cit., 149; Macaulay, passim. The argument is used already by Des- cartes. 3 I cite a few names at random: Berthelot, Science et Morale, 125, favors two types of education, "l'un fonde essentiellement sur les lettres anciennes," etc. Lord Kelvin, in his Life by Thompson, p. 1115: "I think for the sake of mathematicians and science students Cambridge and Ox- ford should keep Greek, of which even a very moderate extent is of very great value." Humboldt's and Emil du Bois Reymond's views are well known (Fouilbfe, op cit., 177). See also President A. C. Humphreys in Proceed. Forty-Eighth Ann. Commence. Penn. State Coll., 44. Josiah Cook, Pop. Sci. Mo., XXIV, 1 ff. Frederick B. Loomis, Independent, LIX LATIN AND GREEK 39 languages and literatures of the 1300 years of continuous civili- zation from Homer to Julian subtend a far larger arc of the great circle of knowledge than Sanskrit or Zend or the other specialties to which they are so often compared. Whether they hold this place by their intrinsic beauty and sublimity, 1 by "the grand simplicity of their statement of the everlasting problems of human life, 2 by their disciplinary value, by their enormous contribution of facts to the mental and moral and historical sci- ences 3 and the "wisdom of life," 4 by their renewal of the in- tellectual life of Europe at the Renaissance and yet again at the German revival and reorganization of science at the close of the eighteenth century, or as the sources and inspiration of modern literature 5 and by their still dominant influence in the greatest English poets of the nineteenth century or by all these things together, matters not. They hold the place, and they cannot be relegated to the position of erudite specialties without an emascu- lation of our discipline and an impoverishment of our culture. 6 But controversy like all literary forms tends to stereotype itself. Educational conventions still echo to denunciation of abuses as obsolete as the Inquisition. Language that would be an exaggeration if used of the most hide-bound old-style, Latin verse writing English public school, the narrowest French lycee, (1905), 486. Cf. Whitman, Barnes, Pierce, Dabney, Dana in the sym- posium of April 3, 1909. The hostile testimony (e.g., of Nef) refers largely to required or excessive classics. Cf. the fine words of Huxley, Science and Education, 98 and 182. Tyndall, Fragments of Science ("Home Library"), 415. Thayer in St. Louis Congress, VI, 218: "When in the period of so-called secondary education it is proposed to substi- tute the study of the natural sciences for a good training in the human- ities, there is danger of drying up some of the sources from which this very scientific expansion has sprung." For German scientific men see Holmes, Nat. Rev., XLII, 103 ff. 1 Jebb, 529; Mill, op, cit., IV, 352: "Compositions which from the altered conditions of human life are likely to be seldom paralleled in their sustained excellence by the times to come." 2 Huxley, Science and Education, 98. 3 For the propaedeutic implicit *or indirect educational values of classical study cf. Shorey in School Rev., V, 226-27; the illustrations drawn from his own teaching by Zielinski, op. cit., 99 ff. ("Ein Philolog kann alles brauchen") ; Shorey, "Philology and _ Classical Philology," Class. Rev., I, 182-83 ff. ; Matthew Arnold's charming "Speech at Eton," Irish Essays, V; Wenley, "The Nature of Culture Studies," School Rev., June, 1905. 4 Mill, op. cit., IV, 354 ff. ; Gildersleeve, op. cit., 21; Jebb, op. cit., 540. B Jebb, op. cit., 54; infra, p. 612. 6 Cf. among countless quotable utterances to this effect from the chief writers of the nineteenth century, Richter cited by Zielinski, op. cit., 109, and Laurie, op. cit., 186: "Mankind would sink into a bottomless abyss if our youth on their journey to the fair of life did not pass through the tranquil and noble shrine of antiquity." Froude, Words About Ox- ford: "This would be to exclude ourselves from an acquaintance with all past time except in monkish fiction," etc. 40 SELECTED ARTICLES is applied to "the tyranny of the classics" in high schools where the teacher is forbidden to use the Bible and is applauded for taking the daily newspaper as a textbook. The protests of French liberals against the former official requirement of a class- ical education for access to all professions and public offices are transferred to American conditions to which they are wholly inapplicable. 1 The arguments of Sydney Smith denouncing compulsory Latin verse writing and of Macaulay holding a brief for the University of London against the obstructionist preju- dices of Oxford or elaborating a false antithesis between the Baconian and the Platonic philosophy are taken from the con- text 2 and used in support of policies which Sydney Smith and Macaulay would have been the first to deplore. It is time to recognize that the work of Huxley, Tyndall, Spencer, Youmans, and President Eliot has been done once for all. "The mere man of letters who affects to ignore and despise science" may have existed in Huxley's England. Today he is as extinct as the dodo. The "enemies of science" of whom Pro- fessor Lankester complains are speech automatisms surviving in the rhetoric of science. The victory of our scientific colleagues is overwhelming, and the Cinderella 3 pose is an anachronism. 4 Huxley was fighting to reform schools in which all boys, whatever their tastes, were compelled to compose Latin verses, and in which, as he said, with gross but then pardonable exaggeration, twelve years' hard study of Greek left the victim unable to construe a page of easy prose. And so today professors of science who are not quite Huxleys step out of their palatial laboratories and splendidly equipped offices to thunder against the obstruction of modern progress by classics in schools where not 2 per cent of the students learn -the Greek alphabet, where no one is required to study Latin, and few do study it more than two or three years. They forget that if Huxley were with us today he would probably be pleading for a revival of classical studies. 5 Whatever the grievances of the past, present attacks on the classics are inspired by the revolt against discipline and hard work, the impatience of all serious 1 See Shorey in Proc. $th Conf. Assoc. Am. Univ., 70. 2 E.g., by Woodward, Proceedings Am. Assoc, for Adv. of Sci., 1907; cf. Indep., LXII, 107; and by H. W., "The Battle of the Books," West- minster, CLX; 425 ff. 3 Spencer, op. cit., 87, copied by all his successors. 4 "It seems clear that science nowadays is proud and not literature." — Fouillee, op. cit., 59. 8 Cf. the enormous concession in Science and Education, 153. LATIN AND GREEK 41 pre-vocational study, the demand for quick utilitarian results, and absorption in the up-to-date. 1 Our scientific colleagues who invoke these sentiments against us will find that they are play- ing with fire and enlisting allies whom they cannot control. The public will see no logical halting-place between their position and that of Mr. Crane of Chicago. The boy whom they have encouraged to shirk the discipline of Latin will find mathematics and physics still more irksome. The professional constituency of engineers and chemical experts they will retain. But the majority will go snap hunting in the happy fields of English literature and the social sciences. Let not our scientific col- leagues deceive themselves. They are more allied to us by the severity and definiteness of their discipline than divided by differ- ences of matter and method. In the fundamental classification of studies into those which exercise and those which titillate the mind they belong with us. You cannot really teach anything by lectures, experience meetings, heart-to-heart talks, the pseudo- Socratic method, and expansion of the student's personality. But you cannot even pretend to teach classics and the exact sciences in this way. In these days that is a bond. As serious workers and teachers you belong with us. The allies whom you en- courage to sap our discipline with the "soft moisture of irrele- vant sentimentality" will not stop there. They are past masters in what Mrs Wharton calls the art of converting second-hand ideas into first-hand emotions. They will humanize your cold abstract sciences in a way that will surprise you. I quote from the report of a recent educational conference: — At 3 p. m. Miss N. Andrews, principal of the Happy Grove Girls' School, conducted a regular junior class meeting. A very helpful feature of this meeting was an illustration by the use of iodine and hyposulphite of soda, showing how sin defiles the heart, and how the blood of Jesus can cleanse it. When this generation of kindergarten Christian Scientists arrives in your laboratories you will wish too late that they had been set to gnaw the file of Latin grammar for a year or two. 2 You will find a new meaning in Professor Karl Pearson's state- ment 3 that the most valuable acquisitions of his early education were the notions of method which he derived from Greek gram- 1 Cf. the brilliant and caustic paper by Mrs. Emily James Putnam in Putnam's, III, 418; Zielinski, op. cit., 206. 2 Cf. Sadler in School Rev. (1906), 403: "What .... can be done in a subject such as physiology when," etc. * Grammar of Science. 42 SELECTED ARTICLES mar. 1 You will admit that after all there may be something in Anatole France's warning that since the methods of science ex- ceed the limitations of children the teacher will confine himself to the terminology. You will be able to interpret Brunetiere's remark that neither infancy nor youth can support the intoxica- tion with which science at first dazes its neophytes, and you will sadly verify the accomplishment of George Eliot's prophecy of a generation "dizzy with indigestion of recent science and phil- osophy." Such terms as "culture," "discipline," "utility," a "liberal" education have been much bandied about in idle controversy. 2 They are all, perhaps, equivocal or question-begging, and hardly admit of authoritative definition. Yet you all understand them well enough to know what I mean by saying that the study of the exact sciences yields utility, discipline, and a kind of culture ; that classics give culture, discipline, and a kind of utility; and that today they are conjointly opposed to a vast array of miscel- laneous "free electives" which are more popular largely because as at present taught they demand and impart neither discipline nor culture nor utility, but only information, entertainment, and intellectual dissipation. These studies fall into two chief groups, the demi-sciences, that is, the so-called moral and social sciences, and modern linguistic and literary studies. I intend no dis- paragement by the term demi-sciences. There is no higher uni- versity work than pioneer exploration of subjects not yet definitely constituted as sciences. But the personal magnetism in the classroom of a Giddings, a Small, a Vincent, a Ross, a Cooley should not blind us to the fact that these studies demand, as Plato said, 3 the severest, not the loosest, preparatory training, and that, 'freely elected," without such preparation, they will merely muddle the mind of the average American undergraduate. The outspoken expression of this opinion, which the majority of classicists share, threatens to convert the old warfare of science and classics into a conflict between classics and the social 1 Cf. also Fouillee, op. cit., 66, top. 1 Cf. Huxley, op. cit., 141, on "Real Culture"; Flexner in Science, XXIX, 370; Frederick Harrison's satire on Arnold's "Culture and An- archy," with Arnold's reply; Youmans' "The Culture Demanded by Mod- ern Life"; Essays on a Liberal Education, Macmillan, 1867; Newcomb, "What is a Liberal Education?" in Science, III, 435; Woodward in Science, XIV, 476; Huxley, op. cit., 86; Mrs. Emily James Putnam, Putnam's, III, 421. * Cf. my paper on "Some Ideals of Education in Plato's Republic," Educational Bi-Monthly, February, 1908. LATIN AND GREEK 43 sciences. 1 For the history of this merry war we cannot delay. One point only concerns us here. Sociology and the new psy- chology have staked out the entire coast of the unknown conti- nent of knowledge and claim all the hinterland. Abstractly and a priori this is plausible enough. An infinite psychologist could pronounce on the credibility of a witness, advise infallibly on the choice of a vocation, and prescribe the proper intellectual diet for every idiosyncrasy. In a finite psychologist it is — well, this is an age of advertising. Like claims could be made for an abstract or ideal sociology. Education is preparation for life, and human life and mind exist and develop only in and through society. 2 After the psycholo- gist has annexed everything else, the sociologist may logically swallow him, while the physiologist lies in wait for both. They may be left to fight that out — a hundred or a thousand years hence. But today there is no science of psychology, 3 sociology, or pedagogy that can pronounce with any authority on either the aims or the methods of education. 4 The confident affirmations of our colleagues in these departments are not, then, to be re- ceived as the pronouncements of experts, but as the opinions of observers who like ourselves may be partisans. 5 Throughout this discusion I have taken for granted the general belief of educators, statesmen, and the man in the street, from Plato and Aristole to John Stuart Mill, Faraday, 6 Lincoln, 7 President Taft 8 and Anatole France, that there is such a thing as intellectual discipline, and that some studies are a 1 Many representatives of the mental and moral sciences, of course, recognize that classics are still the best available propaedeutic for them; notably Fouillee, and with some reserves Giddings. 1 To readers of Plato's Protagoras and Republic, there is something supremely funny in the statement that "the most important general advance [in psychology from 1881 to 1906] seems to be the recognition that the mind of the human adult is a social product." — E. Ray Lankester, The King- dom of Man, 122. * Cf. Jowett's Plato, IV, 17s, "On the nature and limits of Psychology." 4 Cf . Zielinski, op. cit., 23; James, Talks to Teachers, 130-37; Anatole France, Le Jar din d' Epicure, 218: "Quand la biologie sera constitute^ c'est a dire dans quelques millions d'annees, on pourra peut-etre con- struire une sociologie"; Shorey, Class, Jour., I, 187; St. Louis Congress, III, 370, 37S-76. e Observe the disinterested scientific temper in which Superintendent Harris discusses the psychology of formal discipline: "But Greek is already a vanishing element in our secondary schools, and it needs but a few more strokes to put it entirely hors de combat." — Education, XXV, 426. 8 Culture Demanded by Modern Life, 200. T See Croly, Promise of American Life, 91-92. 8 Bryn Mawr Alumnae Quarterly, IV, No. 2, 79. 44 SELECTED ARTICLES better mental gymnastic than others. This, like other notions of "common-sense," is subject to all due qualifications and limita- tions. But it is now denied altogether, and the authority of Plato, Mill, Faraday, or Lincoln is met by the names of Hins- dale, O'Shea, Bagley, Horn, Thorndike, Bolton, and DeGarmo. Tastes in authorities differ. But these gentlemen are cited, not as authorities, but as experts who have proved by scientific ex- periment and ratiocination that mental discipline is a myth. There is no such proof, and no prospect of it. There are in general no laboratory experiments that teach us anything about the higher mental processes which we cannot observe and infer by better and more natural methods. 1 Still less are there any that can even approximate to the solution of the complicated problem of the total value and effect of a course of study. There is no authentic deliverance of science here to oppose to the vast presumption of common-sense and the belief of the majority of educated and practical men. 2 And we are therefore still entitled to ask, If you reject the classics and the elective system is a failure, what are you prepared to substitute? 3 Theoretically there are alternatives which, not being a fanatic, I would gladly 1 Inserting needles into holes, estimating areas, drawing with the hand hidden behind a screen, etc., etc., are all falsifying simplifications of the infinitely complex problem to the solution of which they may or may not lead in the years to come. Nor despite Dr. Dawson's warning against "neurones and connecting fibres fashioned through and through for the study of the Latin language," do we know enough about "localiza- tion of function" to argue the question intelligently on this basis. The leading opponents of the idea of mental discipline, whenever they forget themselves, all take it for granted, or make self-stultifying concessions to it. J Cf . Zielinski, op. cit., 12, 22; Plato, Republic, 526B, 527D. There is no space to continue the discussion here. ■ But I doubt whether many competent psychologists will be willing seriously to maintain that serious results have as yet been achieved. The whole recent "unsettlement of the doctrine of formal discipline" took its start as a polemical move and not as a disinterested scientific investigation. And it still bears the im- press of its origin. It was perhaps suggested by Youmans' essay on "Mental Discipline in Education," introductory to The Culture Demanded by Modern Life. Cf. O'Shea, Education as Adjustment, ix: "My chief motive .... is to try to show that the doctrine of formal training, etc., etc."; Heck, Mental Discipline and Educational Values, I, strangely says, after Monroe, that the doctrine of formal discipline was first clearly formulated in the seventeenth century in defense of classical studies. Professor Bagley, The Educative Process, 211, gravely alleges against the doctrine his experience that a year of habituation to hard work at his desk did not discipline him out of a disinclination to regular work on the farm in his summer vacation. This may pair off with the "experi- ments" _ which show that students who are compelled to prepare neat papers in one subject will not spontaneously take the same extra pains in other classrooms {ibid., 208.) 8 Cf . Lowell, Prose Works, VI, 166: "We know not whither other studies will lead us. . . . We do know to what summits .... this has led and what the many-sided outlook thence." LATIN AND GREEK 45 see organized into a rational group system. 1 But the practical alternative which anti-classical fanaticism at present offers is formulated by one of your own faculty with the unconscious irony of italics as "Anything and everything connected with modern life" — a large order. 2 Professor King would of course know how to apply this formula with discretion. But he would perhaps be somewhat dismayed to see how it is applied in the short course of the Cokato High School by an enthusiastic con- vertite who declares that "we are doing some intensive work in spots out in this state regardless of college requirements in English or any other requirements this side of the moon." The modern literary and linguistic group of studies presents no problem in theory. There may be some question how much Latin those students whose education ends with the high school can afford to take. But the more advanced collegiate and uni- versity study of English, modern languages, history, and phi- losophy without any preparation in classics is a sorry jest. 3 The teachers themselves are aware of this when not misled by departmental rivalries or cowed by fatalistic acquiescence in the low standards which the spoiled American boy and the indulgent American parent are forcing upon our schools. 4 They too must be brought to realize that the cause of the higher culture is one and their lot is bound up with ours. 5 Our colleagues in modern languages have had their warning from President Schurman. They cannot join the hue and cry against dead classics and retain their seminars in Dante and Old French and their culture courses in Racine and Goethe. For the prac- tical man Corneille and Lessing are as dead as Homer and 1 Cf. Fouillee, op. cit., 151-52, and Shorey, in Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Associations of American Universities (February, 1904. 66-67), an