fiATINSPE OSTERTAG -WILCOX NEW YORK R.JENKINS CO, IE AT 48TH STREET Class ...._/ Sr^y-.'^ Rook /^^S' Go|fyriglit]»J^_ COPVRIGHT DEPOSIT GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS BY Dr. ROBERT OSTERTAG WITH 159 ILLUSTRATIONS AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION With Numerous Additions and Alterations BY EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, A.M., PhD. ' DIRECTOR HAWAII AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION V^ New York WILLIAM R. JENKINS COMPANY PUBLISHERS Sixth Avenue at 48th Street T5 -137^ .® 8S Copyright, 1915 By William R. Jenkins Company All Pights Rej^erved JAN-18 1915 printed by the Press of William R. Jenkins Company New York 'CI,A391391 Translator's Preface At the present time a more active and intelligent interest is taken in meat inspection than ever before. iSome years »go our citizeus were much exercised over the sensational reports of the inefficiency of meat inspection. As soon as the people began to examine the matter soberly*, they found that the initiatory movement for the improvement of inspection had been taken by the Bureau of Animal Industry, that the inspectors were doing their whole duty under the authority which they then had, and that the health of the meat consumer was reason- ably well guarded. Nevertheless, with the passage of the law of June 30, 1906, meat inspection was placed on a better basis. Under the new law the in- spector cannot recognize lesions which were previously unrecognizable, nor can he perform his duties more conscientiously than under the old law, but he has authority to enforce sanitary measures where previously he could merely make suggestions. It is in the field of general sanitation of abattoirs and packing rooms that the greatest changes for the better have taken place. Under the new law it may be rightly asserted that the Bureau of Animal Industry has put in operation the most efficient meat m- spection service known to the civilized world. The inspection regu- lations reflect the most recent advances in our knowledge regarding the effect of animal diseases upon the wholesomeness of meat for food. Only two sanitary qualities of meat are recognized : meat to be passed, and meat to be condemned. Wholesome meat is not condemned, and unwholesome meat is not passed. The interests of both the consumer and producer are thus fully protected. In translating O.stertag's-Haudlnich der Fleiscbbeschau it was felt that a great fund of information on the p^tholngical coii.litions in m<-at was made available to the English-speaking inspector. Ostertag soon GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS realized that a condensed statement of the essentials was needed by the practical inspector. In the various editions of Leitfaden fiir Fleisch- beschauer this idea has ripened to fruition. The descriptive matter is made graphic by the excellent illustrations. All material not applicable to American conditions has been omitted. About eighty pages relating to German laws, regulations and diseases M hich do not occur in the United States have thus been replaced with American laws, regulations, educational requirements for inspectors, and matter relating to diseases not discussed by Ostertag. I am under special obligations to Dr. John R. Mohler, Chief of the Pathological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, for re- vising the translation and making suggestions from his ripe expe- rience. The publishers deserve much credit for their continued active interest in all matters which make for the betterment of the veterinary profession. It is hoped that the present volume may assist both the veterinary inspector and meat inspector in their arduous duties, in- volving, as they do, not only the highest degree of skill and training, but also the greatest probity and ripeness of judgment. E. V. WILCOX. January, 1915. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter I. Introduction 1 Chapter II. Name and normal character of organs and parts of animals including the determination of species from sample parts. . 3 1. Skeleton . . . .„ 3 2. Muscles 6 3. Viscera 8 4. Skin 48 Chapter III. Functions of the animal body with special reference to the blood and lymph circulation and to the chief evidences of health in living animals 52 1. Functions of the animal body 52 2. Evidences of health 58 Chapter IV. Antemortem inspection 61 1. Purposes of antemortem inspection 61 2. Antemortem inspection and meat inspection 62 3. Procedure in antemortem inspection 62 Chapter V. Methods of slaughtering, etc 77 1. Chief methods of slaughtering 77 2. Commercial methods of slaughtering 80 3. Live weight and dressed weight . 90 4. Changes in meat after slaughter 91 5. Age and sex of slaughtered animals 91 Chapter VI. Routine of meat inspection 93 1. General considerations 93 2. Examination of parts of the carcass 96 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter VII. Diseases and defective conditions of most importance in meat inspection 102 a. Objectionable qualities of meat in consequence of natural conditions 102 1 . Immaturity 102 2. Fetuses 103 3. Emaciation 103 4. Yellow color of fat tissues 103 5. Objectionable odor and flavor 104 b. Diseases of food animals 104 General considerations 104 Classification of diseases 109 I. Local diseases 109 1. Cutis and subcutis 109 2. Respiratory apparatus Ill 3. Digestive apparatus 116 4. Genito-urinary apparatus 122 5. Circulatory apparatus 126 6. Lymph glands 130 7. Spleen .- 131 8. Nervous system 131 9. Skeleton 132 10. Musculature 134 II. Blood diseases 136 III. Intoxications and autointoxications 138 I\". Animal parasites 139 Parasites not transmissible to man 139 Parasites transmissible to man 154 1. Beef measle worm 154 2. Pork measle worm 158 3. Trichina 161 4. Taenia echinococcus 165 y. Infectious diseases 166 1. Tuberculosis -. 166 2. Caseous lymph-adenitis 179 3. Actinomycosis 179 4. Vesicular exanthema 181 5. Foot-and-mouth disease 182 6. Swine erysipelas 183 7. Urticaria' 184 8. Swine plague : 185 9. Septicemia 187 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 10. Pyemia 187 11. Tetanus 188 12. White scours 188 13. Necrotic stomatitis 189 14. Authrax 189 15. Blackleg 190 16. Hemorrhagic septicemia 190 17. Rabies .....191 18. Pleuropneumonia 191 19. Hog cholera 192 20. Malignant epizootic catarrh 193 21. Texas fever 194 22. Parasitic icterohematuria 194 Chapter VIII. Preservation of meat and tanking of condemned meat 196 Chapter IX. Legal regulation of meat inspection in the United States 198 The law of June 30, 1906 198 Meat inspection regulations 205 State and municipal meat inspection 239 Chapter X. Educational requirements for inspectors 241 I Introduction Nature and Purpose of Antemortem and Postmortem Inspection Under the tenli ante-mortem inspection is understood the inspec- tion of living animals before slaughter. The purpose of this inspec- tion is to determine whether animals to be slaughtered are healthy or affected with a disease. By ante-mortem inspection two classes of diseases may be detected : 1. Diseases which are of influence upon the wholesomeness of the meat. 2. Infectious diseases or plagues of veterinary interest. Furthermore, ante-mortem inspection has the purpose of rendering post-mortem inspection easier. If animals intended for slaughter show no symptoms of disease, the more minute inspection of certain parts, e.g., bones and articulations, may be omitted. On the other hand. In the case of diseased animals ante-mortem inspection gives an indication of the parts which are to be especially considered post mortem. For further details see the special chapter on ante-mortem inspection (Chapter IV). Post-mortem inspection, or meat Inspection, is the investigation of slaughtered animals. It has the same fimctlon as ante-mortem in- spection. Ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection are often considered col- lectively as meat inspection. 1 2 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS In judging the fitness of meat for food ante-mortem inspection is of great importance for the reason that there are diseases which can be more accurately diagnosed in the living than in the dead animal. The maintenance of ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection is necessary : 1. Since diseases may be transmitted to man through the con- sumption of meatv 2. And since animal plagues may be disseminated through the sale of diseased meat. Thus meat inspection has both a medical and veterinary bearing. II Name and Normal Character of Organs and Parts o£ Animals, Including the Determination of the Species from Sample Parts The body of food animals is composed of : 1. The skeleton. 2. The muscles, ligaments, tendons and sheaths of tendons. 3. Various viscera or organs naturally grouped together into the respiratory, digestive, urinogenital, nervous, circulatory and lymphatic systems. 4. The skin or general integument. 1. The Skeleton The skeleton consists of the bones of the. head, body and extremi- ties (Figs. 1 and 2). Among the bones of the skull we may distinguish the cranial bones, forming the cranial cavity, and the facial bones, forming the nasal, mandibular and mouth cavities. The cranial cavity encloses the brain and the mouth cavity the tongue. Of the skull bones special mention may be made of the frontal bone covering the fore part of the brain, and the occipital bone enclosing the brain behind. The more important facial bones are the nasal bones, which enclose the nasal cavity, the jawbones, which bear the teeth in their special alveoli, and the palatine bones, which separate the nasal and mouth cavities. The bones of the trunk include the vertebras, ribs and sternum. The vertebral column is divided into the cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and caudal regions. The vertebrae enclose a canal which is a continu- ation of the brain cavity and contains the spinal cord. The ribs with 8 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 3 o5' I bd o > '- eJ t; ,:.,aJ *^ ^ IHpjj!k,f^^^|^H liBX!r-;i>»«« 1 J^SwfcS*'^. tf^ ' I^P^ •: • T^'*''A^ L; I 1 jjjg^ ^m L. ^^m^^m ^ c^ If ^ ^&t^H V m ^'^^^^ '^ m ..'^H '^^^^1 ■'"fc'.::'^! v. ,'■ ■' m:- .11, Right anterior lobe Right median lobe Anterior mediastinal gland Right posterior lobe Posterior mediastinal gland Fig. 7. — Bovine lungs and heart. monary pleura and the costal pleura together constitute the thoracic pleura. Differentiation of the lungs of different food animals. The lungs of ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) possess two or three lobes on GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 11 the left and four or five on the right. Beef lungs show a further division of the lobes into small lobules, the latter being separated by a strongly developed interstitial tissue (Fig. 7). Hog lungs have two or three lobes on the left and three or four on the right. (b) Digestive Apparatus The digestive apparatus consists of the teeth and tongue in the mouth cavity, the pharynx surrounding the pharyngeal cavity, the esophagus, stomach, intestines and intestinal glands including the salivary glands, liver and pancreas. The age of animals may be determined by the character of the teeth (see age determination). The tongue is a muscular organ covered with a thick, opaque, white mucous membrane. Distinction is made between the basal and apical parts of the tongue. Differentiation of the tongue of different food animals. The beef tongue has a strong dorsal ridge, a slender tip, and, upon the latter, numerous spinelike, backwardly directed papillae, which when stroked with the hand feel like a stiff brush. On the dorsal ridge of the beef tongue there are on either side twelve circumvallate papillae (Fig. 8). In sheep and goats the tongue is notched in the middle of the tip. Papillae are wanting on the tip. In black sheep the tongue is always black or spotted with black. The dorsal ridge is wanting in the tongue of the hog. The sharp-pointed papillae are likewise wanting and in their place are found slender, filiform and round papillae. The hog tongue has only two circumvallate papillae on either side (Fig. 9). Cattle, sheep and goats have incisors only in the lower jaw and not in the upper j aw as in swine. The mouth cavity, like all other parts of the digestive apparatus, is covered with a mucous membrane which is smooth and moist. That part of the mucous membrane which covers the palatine bones is called the hard palate, the part which separates the pharynx from the mouth cavity is called the soft palate, and the part which covers the cheeks and lips is called the buccal and labial mucosa. 12 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The stomach is a sackhke enlargement of the digestive canal. The intestine is a tube of varying size and length with a number of Nasopharyngeal space Right submaxillary gland Circumvallate papillae Hard palate Pterygoid muscle Masseter muscle Pharyngeal glands Larynx Soft palate Dorsal surface of tongue Tip of tongue Fig. 8. — Bovine head and tongue. different parts. We distinguish between the small and large intes- tines. The small intestine begins at the stomach, the large intestine GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 13 ends at the anus. Between the small and large intestine there is a constriction, the iHocecal valve. The large intestine is further di- vided into cecum, colon and rectum (Figs. 10 to 13). The stomach and intestine lie in the abdominal cavity and are held in position by ligaments. They are covered by a smooth, shining membrane, the peritoneum. Beneath this is a muscular coat and upon the inside a mucous membrane. The muscular coat consists of so-called smooth muscle fibers which show no cross striation (Fig. 5). Anterior end of the trachea Soft palate Circumvallate papilla: Ijsophagus Fungiform papillae Fig. 9. — Tongue with pharynx and larynx of the swine. The mucous membrane of the stomach and intestine contains the digestive glands which secrete the digestive juices. Furthermore, minute lymph glands or lymph follicles are found in the mucosa of the intestine. The stomach and intestine of healthy animals always contain more or less material after slaughter. Externally the stomach and intestine are whitish or bluish gray. The mucosa is smooth or 14 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Small intestine Stomach covered with omentum Colon Csci Fig. 10. — Stomach and intestines of swine after incomplete opening of the abdomen. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 15 Testicles Penis Preputial sheath Small intestine Csecum Colon Tongue Rectum Bladder Kidney Stomach xovered with omentum Larynx Esophagus Snout Fig. 11.— Stomach and intestine of swine after complete opening of the abdomen. 16 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Colon Omentum Mesentery Fig. 12. — Exenterated stomach, intestine and spleen of swine. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 17 L,ymph glands Part of stomach Small intestine with mesentery Ivymph glands Fig. 13. — Alimentary canal of sheep after opening abdomen. 18 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS velvety, slippery and, with the exception of one place in the stomach, gray or grayish yellow and shining. In the mucosa of the stomach there is one point which is red even in healthy animals. In hogs this point lies in the floor of the stomach at the lowest part of the large curvature. At this point the mucosa is brownish red, and bluish red during gastric digestion. Attachment to Mesenteric glands Mesenteric glands Fig. 14. — Mesentery of a fat steer. The membrane which covers the alimentary tract unites to form thf so-called mesentery. In the mesentery are found the mesenteric glands, and in addition in fat animals a strongly developed adipose tissue (Figs. 12 to 14). The mesentery supports the alimentary tract by attachment to the vertebral column, from which point it passes over the abdominal wall, thus forming the inner lining of the abdominal cavity or parietal layer of the peritoneum. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 19 One part of the peritoneum, known as the omentum, surrounds the stomach and intestine as a netUke membrane (Figs. 10 to IS). In fattened animals fat accumulates in the omentum, rendering it cloudy and streaked or entirely opaque. Differentiation of the stomach of different food amimals. In cattle, sheep and goats the stomach has four parts, three fore- stomachs (rumen, reticulum and psalter) and a true or digestive stomach (Figs. 15 and 16). The stomach of the hog is simple. iprrr-"-™ •■ - ' ■ 'i-fi-'. ? Rumen . Small itestine i':' I Spleen Psalter Reticulum Abomasum Fig. 15. — ^Stomach and spleen of ruminant. The liver is a large glandular organ which lies behind the dia- phragm and is connected with the latter by ligaments. There is an anterior or diaphragmatic surface and a posterior or gastric sur- face. The porta hepatis or entrance for the portal vein is on the posterior surface and about this structure are arranged the hepatic lymph glands (Fig. 18). The liver is of a reddish brown color, has sharp borders, feels firm but yielding, and exhibits numerous small 20 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Rumen Reticulum Omasum Abomasum Fig. 16. — Opened stomach of ruminant. (After Franck.) GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 21 Testicles Penis Preputial sheath Kidneys Pharynx and larynx Tongue Rectum (cut through) Bladder Liver (the upper line ends at the diaphragm Fig 17. — Liver of hog in- natural connection with diaphragm, also urinogenital organs in natural position. 22 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS lobules, the hepatic lobules (Fig. 20). In fattened animals the liver may show a yellowish brown color and rounded borders. The liver secretes the bile which passes through the bile ducts into the gall bladder, where it collects and finally empties into the intestine through the hepatic bile duct. Differentiation of the liver of different food animals. The beef Lymph glands on the porta hepatis Pancreas Gall bladder Bile ducts Fig-. 18. — Gastric surface of bovine liver with pancreas. liver is two-lobed and has a strongly developed additional lobe, the so-called Spigelian lobe (Figs. 18 and 19). In sheep and goats the liver also has two lobes. The liver of hogs, on the other hand, possesses four lobes (Fig. 17) and also a small Spigelian lobe. Fur- thermore, in the hog liver the hepatic lobules are conspicuous (Fig. 20). GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 23 Vena cava Bile ducts \ Spigelian lobe Left lobe Lymph glands on the porta hepatis Right lobe Gall bladder Fig. 19.— Gastric surface of bovine liver after removal of pancreas. Liver lobules Fig. 20. — Piece of swine liver showing lobules. 24 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The salivary glands in the head and the pancreas connected with the intestine and liver (Fig. 18) are gray or grayish yellow lobular structures. They secrete the saliva and pancreatic juice, which are mixed directly with the food, or, as in the case of the pancreas, conducted through a special duct into the intestine. (c) Genito-urinary Apparatus The urinary apparatus consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. In all animals there are two kidneys, a right and left (Fig. 17). The kidneys lie beneath the vertebral column. They are surrounded Fig. 21. — Bovine kidney. with a special capsule, the renal capsule, which in fattened animals contains a strongly developed fat tissue. The renal capsule must be removed before the kidneys can be seen. They exhibit a reddish brown color on the surface and minute red spots on the surface as well as in the outer part of the cortical layer (Fig. 25). The kidneys possess a firm consistency. The surface of the exterior and of sec- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 25 Pelvis of kidney Surface Renal papillae Medullary layer Cortical layer Fig. 22. — Kidney of swine. (Surface and section.) ' J Kidney lobes Renal papillae Kidney lobes Fat tissue / under | the pelvis — t of kidney > Pelvis of <4 kidney ^1 t- O ) "( Pelvis of kidney Fig. 23.— Bovine kidney. (Sectioned.) 26 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS tions is smooth and sliining. In highly fattened hogs, and more rarely in cattle and sheep, the kidneys may be yellowish brown and cloudy in appearance. Cortex of kidney Medullary layer Pelvis of kidney Fig. 24. — Kidney of sheep. (Sectioned.) % "& -^-° "^--v V'! a^ Surface of kidney ■m'ti*,'«, skin iuni fei < rSi^i^ r,i. \ !ui»}(' i.'itT". ^iwaii trunks which . . , . ,s into tik lyn ari>!.- Hh)-:*)! »in>l« JrH tr' ita.] I I'll! into the right axillur^vein-; The lymph vesscl^^ certain lymph glai\ hclong to a "Certain t^f^rt of lymph glands, -^jistinth** c-ervical andmusyle 1»iiij>l' W " ^>j Visceral ' \ '■ x/ J." puljiionarv ^r j^l' itj >^' . ' ■ | .4. I... 14 y,.t.4.. i! lert ^rc i)|lfri- lynmlv^glanilst •wrhitJi fiKtliastinnni (anlcrior aiRcI naste/ior niedia.stin.iI The l3-ni])ligyhuKls^'^' tTK: ijead, thel^^sunmj ^TTTTfis Ij'uiph vessels 'ho thoracic 11 uiu'tufiVh the I If. fhrre is clkp en![)tR's K: ! 'fi' ^vith .'«a! or phar}-*' Ll«., iW'civo thi"t\ K 'li'i^Uc, ■'■ ^'- tiids, .L.;3s (Figs. ilryoti with s.§ ]jf the ■ Ik |M.'|ior -J .. ..Jr.. .^guids jnt^idcj Ijjc pro- sTiptti'^ijil in- al.mds bencatjli th^ ver- i 5 )r ■i>^'. -^.M^r K,'ijn.)h from the itB^k ^Fi>;. 'W" guinal or M/prt»u??l'j9WiV';'?M tehral co)wHtfiii^tio*»->*iii A*^ .. ,., V .«^.- - ! ■ ■. there is also ji,,^iji'>i i i^ the thi^h;" ' •- - • ' '<'»i ^find^ar^jj^ ^^lnK^^Vt^:. • the lyi'i. ci*ficial ingi '% ••.t/<1 'i/^^yfif^ci^oVid-^f the Va'otgni and 39). ii. I - r^J/ctuls are called s under tht; . ive the •' , Mose vertebrae and ! upon them. X "O GUIDE Fr:!! jMEAT TrNSPECTORS GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 39 muscles, bones, skin and viscera. They unite into small trunks which first pass into a lymph gland. From the lymph glands lymph vessels arise which unite into a large trunk, the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct pours the collected lymph into the blood system through the left axillary vein (Fig. 36). On the right side of the neck there is a large lymphatic trunk, the right tracheal trunk, which empties into the right axillary vein. The lymph vessels of a given part of the body are connected with certain lymph glands (lymphatic regions). The lymph glands which belong to a certain part of the body are called the corresponding lymph glands. Distinction is made between the visceral, cephalic, cervical and muscle lymph glands. Visceral lymph glands. Each organ has special lymph glands, pulmonary lymph glands (Fig. 7), hepatic lymph glands (Fig. 19), mesenteric lymph glands (Figs. 12 to 14), texval lymph glands (Figs. 37 and 39), splenic lymph glands (Fig. 12). In connection with the lungs there are other lymph glands which are inclosed in the mediastinum (anterior and posterior mediastinal glands (Fig. 7)). The lymph glands of the head, the submaxillary and superior cervical or pharyngeal glands, receive the lymph from various parts of the head, while the median and inferior cervical lymph glands receive the lymph from the neck (Fig. 36). The muscle lymph glands (Figs. 36 to 43) include the pre- scapular, axillary (wanting in the hog), precrural, superficial in- guinal or supramammary, popliteal, sternal, glands beneath the ver- tebral column (dorsal, lumbar, iliac and sacral), and ischiatic glands. In hogs there is also a small gland over the hock joint (Fig. 42). The prescapular and axillary glands receive the lymph from the anterior extremities and from the muscles which lie upon the ribs. The precrural glands receive the lymph from the abdominal wall and the thighs. The popliteal glands and the glands over the hock receive the lymph from the deeper and lower parts of the thighs. The superficial inguinal glands lie at the upper end of the scrotum (Figs. 37 and 39). In female animals these glands are called supra- mammary glands and lie above the udder (Fig. 36). The glands under the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae receive the lymph from these vertebrae and from the muscles which lie upon them. 40 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The sacral glands receive lymph from the superior pelvic wall. The iliac glands receive lymph from the pelvic viscera, in female animals from the uterus. The ischiatic glands receive lymph from the pos- terior and upper part of the thigh musculature. Superficial inguinal gland Lower internal iliac gland Renal glands Popliteal gland Sacral gland Upper internal iliac gland Lumbar glands Lymph glands under the vertebrje —^,-, ,__ ,_,, -—-,..- I Lymph glands on ( the sternum Lower cervical glands Median cervical glands Upper cervical glands Fig. 37. — Position of lymph glands in cattle. (The pin heads indicate the position of concealed or small glands.) Locating the lymph glands. In finding the lymph glands the accompanying illustrations should give satisfactory clues. A knowl- edge of the location of the lymph glands is one of the most important GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 41 parts of the education of the meat inspector. Every opportunity for practice in locating them should be seized. Such opportunity is fre- quently offered in condemned animals, particularly in calf fetuses. It should be remembered that in locating the lymph glands in the Precrural gland Axillary gland Prescapular gland ►^ Popliteal gland Fig. 38. — Position of the lymph glands in cattle. practice of meat inspection the meat should be mutilated as little as possible. The pulmonary glands are found between the division point of the trachea and the anterior lobes of the limgs (Fig. 7). 42 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The mediastinal glands are located in the mediastinum (Fig. 7). The hepatic glands are located at the porta hepatis (Fig. 19). The mesentei'ic glands are found on the inferior border of the mesentery (Figs. 12 and 14). Superficial inguinal glands Lower internal iliac gland Popliteal gland liUmbar glands and upper internal iliac gland Renal gland Fig. 39. — Hind quarter of beef with exposed lymph glands. The renal glands are found on the renal pelvis (Fig. 41). The splenic glands are located in the gastrosplenic ligament (Fig. 12) which remains attached to the stomach after slaughter. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 43 The submaxillary glands are found in the mandibular space or on the excised tongue (Figs. 8, 41 and 42). The upper cervical or pharyngeal glands are found behind the pharynx (Fig, 8). Muscle . Muscle Popliteal gland Cut surface of muscle Fig. 40. — Hind quarter of beef showing the popliteal glands. (In inspection the muscles do not need to be cut but may be separated alojig the path of connective tissue.) The other cervical glands are found on the neck or trachea (Figs. 37, 41, 42). The prescapular glands are located in front of the shoulder joint under a muscle which must be cut through (Fig. 38). In old hogs 44 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS the prescapular gland is exposed by sevei'ing the head in a plane about one inch behind the posterior border of the jaw, extending from the upper to the lower border of the neck (Fig. 43). The axillary glands are found under the scapula (Fig. 38). Superficial inguinal gland Lower cervical glands Precrural gland Renal glands Diaphragm Liver Median cervical glands Upper cervical glands Prescapular gland Right submaxillary gland Fig. 41. — ^Hog carcasSi, front view, showing position of lymph glands, arrows show the position of the lymph glands over the hock joint and the popliteal glands.) (The The precrural glands are located in the knee fold in front of the stifle joint between muscles which in cattle are to be cut from the outside and in swine from the inside (Figs. 38, 41 and 42). GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 45 The superficial inguinal glands in male animals are found under the cod fat or scrotal fat (Figs. 37 and 39). In cows the supra- mammary glands are found on the posterior upper border of the udder (Fig. 36), in sows they are found in fat tissue of the abdom- Superficial inguinal gland Precrural gland I^ymph gland over the hock joint Popliteal gland Ivymph glands on sternum Lower cervical glands Upper cervical glands Submaxillary gland Fig. 42. — Median section of hog showing position of lymph glands. inal wall near the line in which the belly is opened in slaughtering (Figs. 41 and 42). The popliteal glands are found in the popliteal fossa between two muscles on the posterior border of the thigh (Figs. 37 to 42). A 46 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS careful incision is to be made from behind, in the plane of the stifle joint, in the connective between the two muscles or in the fat tissue. The sternal glands are found on the lower thoracic wall and on the sternum (Figs. 37 and 42). The vertebral glands are located just underneath the vertebral column (Figs. 37 and 39). The iliac glands are found on the anterior wall of the pelvis under the peritoneum, in fat animals in the adipose tissue (Figs. 37 and 39). Prescapular gland Posterior border of jaw Shoulder joint Inferior border of jaw Fig. 43. — Position of prescapular gland in the hog. The ischiatic glands are found on the posterior border of the ischium (Fig. 36). Characteristics of the lymph glands. The lymph glands possess a firm but yielding consistency and a yellowish white or grayish blue color. Upon section a small quantity of clear fluid exudes. The muscle lymph glands are somewhat firmer than those of the viscera. In the healthy animal carcass the cut surface of some lymph glands (e.g., pulmonary glands) often shows a red coloration of the cortical portion. In old cattle, sheep and goats the pulmonary and mesen- teric glands are often blackish. Associated with the large lymph glands we often find accessory lymph glands of pinhead size, and gray or red in color. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 47 In well-bled carcasses the lymph is almost entirely removed from the body along with the blood. This is not the case in animals which have died a natural death. In such animals all parts, but particu- larly the skin and the outer surface of the carcass, feel moist. The Spleen The spleen is an accessory organ of the circulatory apparatus. It lies in the abdominal cavity on the left between the stomach and / Fig. 44.— Spleen of horse at left, of steer in center, of sheep at right above, and of hog below (the latter with a part of the gastrosplenic ligament and omentum.) body wall or diaphragm. The spleen is connected with the stomach by means of the gastrosplenic ligament. The spleen is an elongated 48 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS organ, of grayish blue, reddish brown or dark red color and soft- elastic consistency. On the cross-section the spleen is reddish brown. In this reddish brown mass (spleen pulp) minute white structures or follicles are to be seen. Differentiation of the spleen of different food anvmals. The spleen of the cow is oval, with two flat surfaces. In bulls and steers the surfaces are arched outward. In sheep and goats the spleen is oval, but relatively short and broad, and exhibits rather strongly arched surfaces. The spleen of the hog is moderately arched, tongue- shaped, and somewhat triangular on cross-section (Fig. 4i4i). 4. Skin or General Integument The skin or general integument covers the whole body. It lies upon the bones and upon the muscles which are attached to the bones. Distinction is made between the subcutis by means of which the skin is connected with the rest of the animal body, and the skin proper or cutis in which the hair, oil glands and sweat glands are found. The oil glands secrete an oleaceous material which in healthy animals keeps the hair smooth and shiny. Nomenclature of Exterior Regions of the Animal Body In describing animals the following common terms are used (Figs. 45 and 46) : Head, neck, trunk, and extremities or quarters. On the head distinction is made between the forehead (including the horns, occiput (behind the forehead), ^^ce (portion of head below the forehead), ears, eyes (with inner and outer angles), nose (muzzle, snout), cheeks and throat. The chief features of the neck are the upper and lower borders and the lateral surfaces. The neck vein lies on the side of the neck. The dermal fold on the lower border of the neck of cattle and in front of the chest is called the dewlap. The chief regions of the trunk are breast, belly or abdomen and rump. On the exterior of the breast we distinguish between the withers, lateral walls and lower border. The chief regions of the abdomen are the upper abdominal wall (back and loin), lateral ab- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSEPCTORS 49 3 era' o n n •o re o 5i w p >o ^ &* &• Side of chest i-l d 2,1 ^ S--1 Srr p-hO p> re "t Hind leg 50 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS dominal walls with the flank hollows and the flanks, and the lower abdominal walls with anterior, middle and posterior regions. The navel lies in the middle abdominal region, the udder and testicles in the posterior region. The area between the anus and vulva is called Dew claw Posterior of belly Middle of belly IvOwer part of chest Ball of foot Snout Anterior abdominal regio Fig. 46. — External topographic anatomy. the perineum. The rump is the continuation of the back. In this region we find the sacrum, the external iliac angles and, in poor animals, the ischiatic prominences. The tail with the tail head, shaft and brush, is a continuation of the rump. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 51 In the anterior extremities the chief regions are shoulder, shoul- der joint, arm, elbow, forearm, knee and foot (with shank, fetlock joint, pastern and hoofs). In the posterior extremities the chief regions are hip joint, round of thigh, stifle joint, lower thigh, hock and foot. The knee fold lies in front of the stifle joint. In ruminants the feet terminate in hoofs and dew claws, the latter being enclosed in a hornlike substance similar to that on the horn processes of the frontal bones. Ill Functions of the Animal Body with Special Reference to the Blood and Lymph Circulation, and to the Chief Evidences of Health in Living Animals 1. Functions of the Animal Body The skeleton has the function of supporting the body and furnish- ing the framework of cavities in which the vital organs are located (cranial, vertebral, nasal, buccal, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavities). The muscles bring about locomotion. By their contractions they move the bones and through them the body. The connective tissue connects various parts with one another and serves as a support for compound organs like the liver, lungs and kidneys. It forms the foundation of the adipose tissue. As a result of the accumulation of fat the connective tissue structures become thicker and opaque. Animals with a strong development of adipose tissue are characterized as well fed or fat, those with a less extensive development of fat are called poor, and those in which the fat tissue has disappeared are known as emaciated. Connective tissue frequently contains elastic tissue which lends it greater firmness and elasticity. Such elastic tissue is found in the ligamentum nuchae, and in the sternal cushion upon which the animal rests while lying down. The respiratory apparatus carries fresh air to the body and re- moves the respired air from the lungs. It consists of the air passages (nose, larynx, trachea and its branches), and the respiratory or pul- monary tissue proper. In the pulmonary parenchyma the pulmonary artery, originating from the right ventricle, divides into minute capil- 52 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 53 larfes in which the blood gives up its carbon dioxide and receives oxygen from the air. Digestive apparatus. In the ahmentary tract the feed stuffs which the animal has ingested are changed into a form in which they may be absorbed by the intestinal vessels. The undigested portions of the food are discharged through the anus as feces. The cephalic portions of the alimentary tract (lips, teeth and tongue) have the function of prehending and comminuting the food, and forming it into balls which can be swallowed. Moreover in the mouth the saliva is added to the food from the salivary glands. The hog niasticates the food but once, whereupon it is swallowed. Cattle, sheep, and goats masticate their food twice (ruminants). The first time the food is merely bitten into large fragments, formed into balls and swallowed. It then passes into the rumen, from which it is returned to the mouth and again masticated (rumination). In ruminants the stomach undergoes regular movements which can be heard as rumen sounds by placing the ear against the left ab- dominal wall. In healthy ruminants the inspector can observe one sound per minute or two sounds every three minutes in the form of rubbing or rustling noises. On both sides of the abdomen fairly dis- tinct intestinal sounds may be heard as whistling, gurgling or metal- lic noises. In healthy, well fed animals both sides of the abdomen are moderately arched, in fasting animals hollowed. The collapsed con- dition is particularly marked in the flank hollows (Fig. 45). The urinary apparatus serves to excrete the urine which is sep- arated from the blood by means of the kidneys. From the renal tissue the urine passes into the renal pelvis and thence through the ureter into the bladder. The urine accumulates in the bladder and is dis- charged as a strong stream at intervals, several times a day. The urine is of a light or dark red color, of thin, fluid consistency and of characteristic odor. The sexual apparatus has the function • of reproduction. The ovaries produce the eggs, which pass through the oviducts into the uterus. The egg after fertilization develops into a fetus in the cavity of the uterus. The fetus is surrounded by two fetal membranes which are filled with fluids. The external fetal membrane is connected with the uterine mucosa and thus secures nourishment for the embryo. 54 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The fluids in the chorion and amnion are clear and odorless. In ad- vanced fetuses which were alive at the time of the slaughter of the mother animal the hair is firmly attached to the skin. The mode of attachment of the chorion to the uterine mucosa varies. In ruminants it takes place by means of uterine cotyledons (Figs. 30 and 31), in swine by a diffuse placenta. At parturition the os uteri opens and the fetal membranes protrude first. These membranes burst and allow the fetal fluids to escape. Then the fetus passes out, followed usually at once by the fetal membranes, now known as the afterbirth. The udder secretes the milk to nourish the young. The testicles produce the semen which is stored up in the seminal vesicles, and during copulation -is discharged through the urethra into the female sexual organs. The sexual odor, sexual maturity. Male animals at sexual ma- turity may possess a disagreeable odor (boar odor, buck odor, and more rarely, bull odor). Moreover, in boars an induration of the skin is observed on both sides of the breast, the so-called shield, which dur- ing sexual excitement may be erected. Boars also make a sucking sound with the mouth under sexual excitement. The nervous system has the function of transmitting sensory and motor impulses. The nervous system receives stimuli through nerves which arise from the brain and spinal cord. The internal tempera- ture is also regulated by the nervous system. All warm blooded ani- mals, including of course all food animals, have a constant internal temperature in both high and low temperatures of the environment. Circulatory apparatus. The heart has the function of pumping the blood to all parts of the body and back again. Distinction is made between systemic, pulmonary, and portal circulations. The systemic circulation is that which takes place between the heart and all parts of the body (Fig. 47). In this circulation the blood is carried to all parts (bones, muscles, muscle lymph glands, viscera, skin), and is then returned to the heart. Fate of pathogenic bacteria which gain entrance to the systemic circulation. If pathogenic bacteria gain entrance to the systemic circulation they are carried to all parts of the body with the blood. There are certain infectious diseases in which the pathogenic organ- isms are always found in the blood, e.g., swine erysipelas. In such GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 55 M o O 5 "^-M Right auricle O O Right ventricle f^" 56 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS diseases all parts of the body including the viscera carry the virusj and may be responsible for distributing the disease if the meat of affected animals is sold in a raw condition. In other infectious dis- eases the pathogenic organisms soon disappear from the general circulation. They may, however, cause infection in various parts of the body during their short sojourn in the blood. Such is the case with tuberculosis. If in a case of tuberculosis the spleen, kidneys, bones, joints muscles or muscle lymph glands are affected, the dis- tribution of the disease is due to the circulatory apparatus. The pulmonary circulation is concerned with the movement of the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the heart. It has the function of freeing the blood from carbon dioxide and supply- ing it with oxygen. The 'portal circulation. The portal vein is the vessel which re- ceives the blood from the stomach, intestine, pancreas and spleen, and carries it to the liver. In the liver the portal vein breaks up into capillaries and supplies to the liver cells the materials for the forma- tion of bile. From the capillaries of the portal system the blood is collected in the hepatic vein which empties into the posterior vena cava. The portal vein enters the liver at the porta hepatis. Fate of pathogenic bacteria which gain entrance to the pulmonary or portal circulations. When pathogenic organisms find their way into the pulmonary or portal circulation, they become lodged in the organ in which the capillaries of the system occur, i.e., in the lung or liver. In cases of tuberculosis the lesions, after entrance of the tubercle bacilli into the pulmonary circulation, may be confined to the lung, or to the liver in case of portal infection. Thus the final re- sults of infection, particularly in tuberculosis, depend in large degree upon whether the bacteria gain entra^nce to the systemic, pulmonary or portal circulation. The lymph circulation. The lymph originates from the blood in all parts of the body. It is first collected in small lymph vessels, which gradually unite into larger and larger vessels. The lymph finally re- enters the blood system in the axillary veins through the thoracic duct and right tracheal trunk. Before the lymph reaches a large collecting vessel it passes through one or often more lymph glands. In the ■ GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 57 latter case the lymph vessel after leaving a gland passes to another gland before entering a large lymph trunk (Fig. 36). Fate of 'pathogenic bacteria which gain entrance to the lymph. The lymph glands operate like sieves or filters which hold back all coarse impurities and even pathogenic bacteria from the flowing stream of lymph. The lymph is therefore purified before reaching the collecting trunk. If an inflammation arises in a given lymphatic region the corresponding lymph glands become inflamed. If tubercu- lous alterations are present in a lymphatic region the corresponding lymph glands show tuberculous alterations. From the condition of the lymphatic glands, therefore, the inspector learns whether there are inflammatory or tuberculous foci in the corresponding lymphatic region. Occasionally the lymph glands are tuberculous even in the absence of demonstrable lesions in the lymphatic region. In such cases the tubercle bacilli wandered through the lymphatic region and were first caught in the lymph glands. Tuberculous alterations in the lymphatic region, however, may be so small that they could not be detected without cutting the part into thin discs. If the tuberculous infection has been distributed by the systemic circulation the alter- ations of the lymph glands indicate which parts of the body are affected with tuberculosis. All parts of the body in which the lymph glands show tuberculous alterations may be considered as tuberculous. In fresh infection of the blood with tuberculosis or with diseases of which the bacilli remain permanently in the blood (septicemia, an- thrax, swine erysipelas), all the lymph glands of the body may be swollen. The spleen may be looked upon as a large lymph gland. It may exhibit swelling under the same conditions as those which determine the swelling of lymph glands in general (fresh blood infection with tuberculosis, anthrax, swine erysipelas). The skin is a protective organ and also has an important part in the regulation of body temperature. It is covered with hair, wool or bristles. Cattle and goats shed their coat in the spring. The muzzle of cattle and the snout of swine are peculiar dermal structures (Figs. 45 and 46 ) . In healthy animals the skin is soft and easily raised in folds. Except during the prevalence of low temperatures the coat should be smooth and shiny. 58 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS In healthy animals the coat is shed in a regular manner, in dis- eased animals the shedding is delayed. In autumn the hair coat is thicker for the reason that fine hairs arise between those of the summer coat. The muzzle of healthy cattle is moist, feels cool and is covered with minute drops of liquid, like dew. In healthy animals the temperature of the skin is uniform. On the tinink, particularly those parts most heavily covered with hair, the temperature is higher than that of the tips of the ears, horns or feet, for the reason that in the latter parts the loss of heat is relatively greater. 2. The Evidences of Health in Food Animals In the inspection of food animals the following may be looked upon as important signs of health. 1. Nutritive Condition Healthy animals presented for slaughter are expected to be well nourished. Healthy animals may be poor if poorly fed, overworked, in early development or in advanced age. In such cases the poor con- dition is due to the normal disappearance of the adipose tissue. 2. Position, Gait, and Expression Healthy animals have a frank expression and take an active in- terest in their surroundings. In healthy cattle the head is carried high, the back straight, the weight equally distributed upon the four feet. They quickly move aside if touched, and if not exhausted, readily arise from a recumbent position when urged. Upon getting up, healthy animals usually curve the back in stretching themselves. Old, exhausted animals are less active than young, rested but unfat- tened stock. Healthy sheep carry the head high, point the ears upward and forward and resist all attempts to catch them. Healthy goats are usually more active than sheep, turn toward visitors but are prepared to spring away. Healthy hogs if left to themselves move about gininting and sniffing, usually with the head down and the tail curled. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 59 3. Surface of the Body In healthy animals the skin is readily movable and loose. It may be raised up in folds, which quickly disappear. It is only in fat hogs that the skin seems firmly attached to the ribs. The hair Hes down smoothly and is shiny. The fleece of sheep should show no breaks in its continuity. The surface temperature should be uniform except on the tips of the ears and horns and on the feet, at which points it is lower. The muzzle and snout always feel cold and moist. 4. Digestive Organs Healthy animals have a good appetite and rapidly consume their normal rations. If their hunger is not fully satisfied they eagerly grasp proffered feed. In cattle, sheep and goats rumination begins soon after feeding. Eructation also occurs from time to time. When hunger is satisfied the flank hollows, particularly the left, are nearly filled, while in fasting animals they are concave. The feces of grown cattle vary according to the ration. With cattle on dry feed the feces are of the consistency of thick gruel and are dropped in cakes of brownish-green color. With cattle on succulent rations the feces are softer or even fluid. The feces of calves are more yellowish. Hog feces are cylindrical or j elly-like, clay colored or grayish-yellow. The manure of sheep and goats is blackish and in small balls. 5. Vulva, Vagina, Udder In healthy animals the labia of the vulva are in apposition. The mucous membrane of the vulva is pale red. If an animal has recently borne young or is about to bear young, the labia are swollen and the mucous membrane is darker red. Before and after parturition there is a discharge of a slimy nature. For some time after parturition this discharge may be thick, yellowish and faintly streaked with blood. During lactation the udder is softly granular to the touch, after the close of the period it is soft and flabby. 60 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 6. Respiratory Organs In healthy animals respiration goes on quietly without effort and almost without being perceptible. The number of respiratory move- ments per minute is 10 to 30 in cattle, 12 to 22 in sheep and goats, 10 to 20 in hogs. Respiration may be greatly hastened as the result of excitement, transportation, great heat, or violent exercise. Res- piration is not thereby rendered difficult, however. The nostrils are not opened abnormally wide, and the alje of the nose move but little. As a rule coughing does not occur, but if it does occur, it is strong and loud. 7. Internal Body Temperature The body temperature should be taken with an officially tested thermometer, preferably a maximum thermometer. In health the temperature ranges from 37.5° to 39.5° C. in cattle; 39° to 40.5° C. in calves, sheep and goats; 38.5° to 40° C. in hogs. If the body temperature is above or below these figures, a diseased condition is to be suspected. IV Antemortem Inspection, Including the Means of Identifying Animals 1. Purpose of Antemortem Inspection As already stated (page 1) ante-mortem inspection should de- termine whether there are symptoms of disease which would affect the wholesomeness of the meat, or whether the animal has a disease which is important from the standpoint of veterinary police work. Diseases to be looked for. In cattle tuberculosis, anemia, actinoi^ mycosis, pyemia, peritonitis, septicemia, Texas fever, pneumonia, abscesses, anthrax, blackleg, and various affections of the udder, vagina, joints and hoofs. In calves diphtheria, diarrhea, navel disease, joint swellings, anemia, pyemia, septicemia, Texas fever. In hogs swine plague, hog cholera, tuberculosis, pyemia, abscesses. In sheep and goats scab,^ anthrax, dropsy, anemia, jaundice, septicemia, caseous lymphadenitis, pneumonia. Ante-mortem inspection serves to shorten and simplify meat in- spection proper. If in the live animal the skin is found to be healthy, no further attention need be given it post mortem. Similarly no post- mortem inspection of the nostrils is required if during life no dis- charge or abnormal sounds were noted in them. Moreover the brain and spinal cord require no further attention if there is no dullness of the expression or symptoms of paralysis during life. If no lameness is noted ante mortem the inspector need not look for inflammatory al- terations in the extremities (bones, muscles, tendon sheaths and joints). If, however, in ante-mortem inspection pathological symp- toms are observed, an indication is thereby obtained of the parts which require special attention after slaughter. 6i 6g GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 2. Connection of Antemortem Inspection with Meat Inspection Ante-mortem inspection should take place as shortly as possible before slaughter, at least not longer than two days. It should prefer- .ably be done in daylight, or, when this is not possible, in electric light. 3. Procedure in Antemortem Inspection a. Means of Identifying Animals In all cases the inspector should note the genus and sex of the «.£!.£ Outer middle incisor Corner incisor Fig. 48. — Dentition of a yearling steer (with milk teeth only.) animal, and in condemned animals also the age, color and other identi- fication marks. In other words the animal is classified as steer, cow, calf, sheep or hog, and male or female. With respect to sex, cattle are classified as bulls, steers, cows and calves. In classifying sheep we have rams, wethers, ewes and lambs, and with goats bucks, does and kids. In swine distinction is made between boars, barrows and sows. The accurate determination of age is of importance only in cattle. In sheep, goats and swine the statement of age is usually omitted. Young animals of these genera are simply called lambs, kids and pigs. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 63 In cattle age is determined by the characteristics of the lower in- cisors. There are four pairs of these: nippers, inner middle, outer middle and corner incisors (Fig. 48). Calves have milk incisors. These teeth are porcelain white, relatively small, and possess a neck or constriction at the point of insertion into the gum (Fig. 48). The milk teeth are shed in regular order and are replaced by permanent incisors. The nippers are shed at the age of one and one-half years, and the permanent nippers reach full height at two years. The inner middle incisors are shed at the age of two and one-half years, Permanent inner middle incisor Permanent outer middle incisor Permanent corner incisor Fig. 49.— Dentition of a 3-year-old steer. the outer middles at three and one-half, and the corners at four and one-half years. In each case the permanent teeth reach full size six months after the milk teeth are shed. At five years of age, therefore, the permanent incisor dentition of cattle is complete (Fig. 51). At the age of six years a neck appears on the nippers like that on the milk nippers, at seven years on the inner middles, at eight years on the outer middles, and at nine years on the corners. In cattle past ten years of age the incisors are much worn, small, loose, project 64 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS from their alveoli, and stand apart from one another. By the age of fifteen years the incisors have fallen out or are present merely as stumps. The above statement regarding the age of cattle is of course based on German experience. In this country the various dental changes take place at younger ages, most of the phases of shedding and re- placement being passed through nearly six months in advance of the ages given above. The reason for this difference is not apparent. Perhaps we have developed an earlier maturity in our cattle. Milk corner incisor Fig. 50. — Dentition of a 4-year-old steer. In calves and young cattle, age is determined by the size of the body and the development of the horns. At two months the horn cap is developed. At three months the horn tip is still movable (3 cm long in bull calves, 2 cm long in heifer calves). At four months the horn tips are 1 cm longer. In bull calves the horn tips become fixed at four months, in heifer calves at five or six months. In sheep, which likewise have four pairs of lower incisor teeth, shedding begins with the nippers at one to one and one-half years, followed by the inner middles at one and one-half to two years, the outer middles at two and one-quarter to two and three-quarter years, GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 65 and the comers at three to three and three-quarter years. The per- manent incisors are distinguished from the milk incisors by their greater size and width (Figs. 52 and 54). After the age of six years Fig. 51. — Dentition of a 5-year-old steer. Milk teeth "Permanent teeth Milk tooth Fig. 52.— Dentition of a yearling sheep Fig. 53.— Dentition of a sheep 2^-3 (with milk teeth only.) years old. a notch appears between the two nippers (Fig. 55). Between the age of ten and twelve years the incisors fall out. 66 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The hog has six incisors in either jaw and also a tusk. The pig is born with corners and tusk. After two to four weeks the nippers appear, and after two and one-half to three months the lower middle Permanent teeth Notch Fig. 54. — Dentition of a 4-year-ol(i sheep. Fig. 55. — Dentition of a 6-year-old sheep. incisors (Fig. 56), while the upper middle incisors do not appear till after three months (Fig. 57). A swine which has a complete set of incisors in both upper and lower jaw is hence more than three months old, and according to German usage is no longer a pig. Shedding be- Milk nipper INIilk middle incisor Milk corner incisor Milk canine Fig. 56. — Dentitio,n of lower jaw of 3-months-old pig. gins with the corners at nine months, followed by the nippers at twelve to fifteen months, and the middles at sixteen to eighteen months (Figs. 59 and 60). GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 67 Color is an important matter in the description of cattle. The coat is referred to as black, white, red, brown, buiF and mixed color. White animals with large black areas are called black-blotched. Those V^^ith a few small black or red areas are called spotted. Those with Milk nipper Milk corner incisor Milk canine tooth Fig. 57.— Dentition of upper ja,w of a 3-months-old pig (with milk niooers corners and canines; the middle incisors are just breaking Through )' numerous irregular black or red areas are known as speckled, and those with numerous small black or red areas as brindle. The belt is a special type of blotch, as are also the back and belly stripes. Milk nipper and middle incisor Milk Milk corner incisor Fig. 58.— Dentition of lower jaw of 7-months-oId pig. Special identification marks are found on the head and feet. White spots on the forehead are known as flakes or stars according to their size. A narrow white stripe reaching to the muzzle is called 68 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS a blaze. A broad stripe extending to the cheeks constitutes a white- face. The blaze may be interrupted. White marks on the feet are Permanent middle incisor Permanent nipper Permanent middle incisor Permanent corner incisor Permanent canine Fig. 59. — Dentition of an 18-months-old pig (upper jaw), with permanent incisors only. Permanent nipper Permanent middle incisor Permanent corner incisor Permanent canine Fig. 60. — Dentition of lower jaw of an 18-months-old pig, with permanent incisors only. known as white crowns, white pasterns, or, if extending farther up- ward, white feet. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 69 With self-colored animals, isolated, small white spots which occur on any part of the body may be used for identification purposes. Sheep and hogs may be referred to as white, black or spotted. In cattle the condition of the horns may be used for description by referring to their shape and direction. Furthermore brands on the horns or skin, and ear marks may be similarly utilized. b. Detection of Disease in Living Animals In antemortem inspection the resting position of the animals is to be noted. Animals in a recumbent position are to be roused in order that the inspector may see whether the animal can stand up without help, and whether the standing attitude is normal with all four feet equally loaded. In case of serious disease or lameness the animal may be unable to stand. The existence of bone fractures will thus be detected at once. Animals which favor one foot or which require help in getting up should be made to walk about in order that the inspector may determine in what part the lameness is located. In postmortem inspection it will then be necessary to give special at- tention merely to those parts (limb, joint, muscle or bone) which were found to be affected during the ante-mortem inspection. In this con- nection it should be remembered that those lamenesses which are not accompanied with any general disturbances (weakness, dullness of the sensorium, loss of appetite, fever) are of little concern for the in- spector. On the other hand, lamenesses which cause disturbance in the general condition, particularly lamenesses which follow purulent in- flammation of the joints, tendons and tendon sheaths, are of great importance in meat inspection. Cattle which have been kept in a stall for a long time show an uncertain gait when first turned out, partly on account of being un- accustomed to walking and partly on account of overgrowth of the hoofs. It is a difficult matter to make cattle trot except by goading. Cattle which have been driven or transported long distances show ex- haustion in the position and carriage of the body. After long railroad journeys cattle may appear to be lame and should be allowed a resting period before inspection. i. The nutritive condition. Animals may be poor, medium fat 70 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS or well fattened. It should be borne in mind that bulls and milch cows are always less well nourished than steers which have been spe- cially fed for slaughter. A poor condition may also be observed dur- ing the development of the animal, in old age, under insufficient ra- tions and in work oxen. A good nutritive condition is to be recognized by the fulness of the musculature and by the strong development of the adipose tissue on the iliac angles, ribs, shoulder joint, iscliiatic prominences, in the scrotal region and in front of the udder. In well fattened animals the naturally angular parts become rounded. 2. Carriage, expression and attention to surroundings. Healthy animals are characterized by high carriage. of the head, active move- m.ents, erect position, uniform distribution of the body weight on the four feet, and ready response. They do not tremble except under the influence of cold. Trembling over the whole body or in certain parts is ordinarily a symptom of serious febrile disease. Sick animals show a lax carriage of the body, hold the head low, and take slow, painful and irregular steps. In healthy animals the expression is lively and the eyes clear and bright. An active interest is taken in the surroundings by all healthy animals except fat hogs. Sick animals have a tired, fixed, expression- less look, clouded eyes, and take no notice of what is going on. Sick animals may not heed shouts or blows with the hand, of if they do take notice, they soon relapse into a state of apathy. 3. Surface of the hody. In healthy animals the skin is readily movable, loose and soft, and the temperature of the body is higher than that of the tips of the ears and horns or of the legs. In case of febrile disease the ears, horns and legs are hot. In healthy animals the skin is free from thickenings, nodules, excessive desquamation, scabs, ulcers or bald spots of regular or irregular form. In actinomy- cosis there may be thickenings and nodules in the skin ; in mange and non-contagious eczema desquamation, scabs, bald spots, and even ul- cers may be present. Healthy animals occasionally lick and rub certain parts of the body. Continued rubbing of certain parts, espe- cially in warm stalls or during warm weather, indicates the presence of skin parasites (mange, mites or lice). Mangy animals show in various ways that rubbing affected parts gives them relief. The skin GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 71 of healthy animals may readily be lifted from the subjacent tissues, and the folds thus produced disappear as soon as the hand is removed. In cattle affected with chronic progressive diseases the skin may feel as if grown firmly to the ribs and may crackle on being raised (hide- bound), i The hair lies down smoothly in health except in low temperatures, when it may be rough as if brushed up. In health the hair is also shiny, in disease harsh even in warm weather. In health the hair is shed in the spring, in disease the shedding may be so delayed that the winter coat is carried into the summer. In some diseases bald spots may arise, or the hair in certain areas may be matted with pus and blood, or filled with scales and scabs. In cases of sooty or pitchy mange in hogs, dark brown or black scabs are often found on the skin. In examining the skin special attention should be given to hot, doughy, painful, inflammatory swellings; cold, painless, dropsical swellings due to air under the skin as in blackleg and parturient blackleg ; wounds and ulcers. In the case of wounds and ulcers on the breast, belly, or in the joints and sheaths of the tendons, it should be determined whether these processes have extended into and affected the deeper lying parts. In such cases the general health is affected (loss of appetite, apathy, weakness, fever). In cattle, nodules in .the region of the head and neck indicate actinomycosis. In sheep, a matted fleece and bare spots indicate scab. In hogs, a general erythema of the skin occurs in erysipelas ; circumscribed red spots in diamond skin disease, 4. Digestive organs. The examination of the digestive organs includes an inspection of the lips, muzzle, and if possible the behavior of the animal in eating and drinking. In healthy animals the lips are closed and there is no dripping of sahva. The muzzle is shiny, moist and cool. In sick animals there may be froth on the hps, or a stringy discharge of saliva. In foot-and-mouth disease vesicles or ulcers may appear on the muzzle and snout. During the prevalence of fever in cattle the muzzle is dry, rough, warm and cracked. Healthy animals, except immediately after a full ration, eagerly grasp prof- fered feed, and drink with large swallows. Swine root in the soil for food. Sick animals refuse food and water entirely, or eat sparingly and do not refuse water. No masticatory noise is heard in healthy 12 .GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS cattle except while they are eating. A smacking sound may be heard in cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease, and there is also a discharge of saliva from the mouth. In healthy cattle rumination invariably begins soon after eating, in sick cattle it may be sup- pressed. In health the abdomen is moderately filled out, but with neither unilateral nor bilateral tympanites. Sudden, violent disten- sion of the left side of the abdomen in cattle indicates bloating from green feed. A slight bloating may occur in anthrax and tuberculosis. Bilateral distension of the abdomen occurs in peritonitis. By placing the ear against the left abdominal wall of an ox the rumen sounds may be heard in regular recurrence, about three times in two minutes. In sick cattle these sounds are suppressed or occur irregularly. In health the feces are passed at regular intervals and in normal condition. In cattle the manure is of the consistency of pancakes, not fluid, frothy, malodorous, nor mixed with blood, mucus, or flat or tubular structures. Constipation may result from various causes, such as peritonitis or intestinal volvulus. Thin, malodorous feces, with or without admixture of mucus and blood, indicate the presence of enteritis. The passage of blood with the feces in the absence of diarrhea is a symptom of anthrax. 5. Vulva, vagina, udder. In health the urine is of clear yellow color, without repulsive odor, and is discharged in a vigorous stream. Diseases of the bladder and renal pelvis are accompanied with cloudy urine mixed with mucus and of unusual odor. Difficult or irregular urination is a symptom of cystitis. Bloody urine is a characteristic symptom of hematuria, Texas fever and anthrax. In healthy ani- mals the vulva is closed. The lips are not swollen nor painful, and there is no vaginal discharge. The region of the vulva is not contam- inated with fresh or dried pus. Swelling of the vulva and a vaginal discharge are observed in post-partum metritis and vaginitis, vesicular exanthema and infectious vaginitis. A discharge without swelling of the vulva occurs in leucorrhea. In retention of the afterbirth a stinking discharge takes place. Usually in such cases shreds of decomposing afterbirth hang out of the vagina. In prolapsus uteri the invaglnated uterus projects from the vulva like a large red tumor. In prolapsus vaginas the vagina protrudes between the labia in the form of a red spherical tumor of the size of the two fists. Prolapsus GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 11 uteri is a serious disease, since metritis and septicemia are often asso- ciated with it. Prolapsus of the vagina, on the contrary, is ordi- narily of little importance in meat inspection. The mucous mem- brane of the vulva and vagina under ordinary conditions is pale red and without vesicles, wounds or ulcers. Bright red or dark red coloration, wounds and ulcers on the mucosa of the pudenda are symptoms of inflammation or vesicular exanthema. In heifers the udder is small and rather firm; in cows during lactation it is uni- formly softly granular to the touch. Immediately after parturition there is often a doughy, painless swelling in the region of the udder. The milk from all quarters of the udder should be uniformly white. For the first few days after parturition the milk or colostrum has a yellowish color. In cases of mammitis the udder is swollen, hot, painful, and the secretion is watery and contains solid masses. In acute mammitis the udder may yield a stinking fluid. 6. The respiratory organs. The nasal passages are to be exam- ined and the rate of respiration determined. In health the muzzle is cool. There is either no discharge from the nose or a slight, thin, clear and odorless fluid. Purulent, malodorous or bloody discharges from the nose indicate a diseased condition, as do also respiratory sounds originating in the nose. Healthy animals breathe quietly. In cases of pneumonia, pleurisy, anthrax, swine erysipelas, septi- cemia and many other diseases respiration is often labored and the respiratory movements hastened. Breathing may also be accompa- nied with pronounced rising and falling of the ribs, and visible movements of the nostrils and abdominal walls. Ordinarily healthy animals do not cough. In diseased animals, on the contrary, particu- larly in cases of tuberculosis, pleuropneumonia and swine plague, spontaneous coughing often occurs either isolated or in prolonged attacks. Coughing may also be artificially induced by pressure on the larynx. Respiratory sounds may arise from contraction of the nasal passages and larynx. Certain diseases in the region of the larynx may so interfere with breathing that the animal holds the head stretched forward in an unnatural position. 74 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Determination of the Internal Temperature If the inspector has any doubt regarding the seriousness of a given disease or symptom, particularly if there is weakness, apathy, loss of appetite or some other disturbance of the general condition, the body temperature should be taken by means of an officially tested thermometer in which the mercury has been shaken down below 35° C. The thermometer should be oiled or moistened and inserted into the rectum. The thermometer should remain in the rectum for five minutes before being removed for reading. A temperature above normal is denoted as febrile. Symptoms of the Common Diseases In anthrax, blackleg and hemorrhagic septicemia there is high fever, in the early stages exaltation followed by weakness, apathy, loss of appetite and rapid breathing. In anthrax there may be swellings in the skin and blood in the feces. The milk secretion fails in cows affected with anthrax. Characteristic symptoms of blackleg are found in external swellings which spread rapidly and crackle when rubbed with the hand. Necrosis of the skin occurs over these spots. If blackleg swellings occur on one of the legs, the animal goes lame. In hemorrhagic septicemia, in addition to the above-mentioned symptoms, there may be extensive subcutaneous swellings on the head, neck dewlap and tongue, causing the tongue to protrude from the mouth, or respiration becomes difficult and is accompanied with coughing. In foot-and-mouth disease of cattle the inspector may observe smacking with the lips, frothing at the mouth, and vesicles or super- ficial ulcers on the muzzle, buccal mucosa, between the hoofs or rarely on the udder. If vesicles or ulcers appear between the hoofs, the animal goes lame and lies down much of the time. At the onset of disease the general condition of the animal is disturbed (fever, weak- ness, loss of appetite, emaciation). In acute cases the general dis- turbance is more pronounced and persists longer. The general con- dition of the animal improves as soon as the lesions in the mouth begin to heal. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 75 In febrile general diseases connected with some affection of the udder, uterus or vagina, weakness and loss of appetite occur together with painful swelling of the udder, alteration of the milk, discharges from the vagina and diarrhea, the feces sometimes being mixed with blood and malodorous. In febrile diseases of the joints and hoofs, in addition to general disturbances there may be severe lameness and painful swellings of the joints or hoofs. In diphtheria of calves swelKngs appear on the cheeks ; in dysen- tery, stinking white evacuations; in umbilical diseases, painful, hot swelling of the navel together with great weakness, apathy and fever. Similar swelhngs may also appear on various joints, particularly the knee, hip and stifle joints. In slight cases the affected animals go lame, while in acute cases they he down or are unable to walk. The most conspicuous symptom of foot-and-mouth disease in swine IS lameness, accompanied with vesicles and bleeding ulcers on the hoofs and dew claws. More rarely vesicles and ulcers appear on the snout together with smacking of the lips and salivation. Swine erysipelas is characterized by extended or circumscribed erythema of the skin, weakness, crawling into the straw, apathy, loss of appetite, constipation followed by diarrhea, and fever. In cases of swine plague the symptoms are coughing, labored breathing, emaciation, gummy eyes and scabs or pock marks on the skin, and, in acute cases, fever. In chronic swine plague there may be no fever, but the nutritive condition is bad. Swine affected with hog cholera show diarrhea, emaciation. Fever is always observed in acute cases, but may be wanting in chronic cases. In sheep scab the fleece is broken and uneven, and there are bare spots which the animals bite and rub, especially in warm weather. Rubbing these spots gives the sheep rehef. Sheep affected with an- thrax show a disturbance of the general condition, swellings on the skin and bloody urine. Sheep often die suddenly from anthrax, like an apoplectic stroke. Sheep affected with gid worm exhibit com- pulsory movements, turning around in circles or pressing the head against the wall. In dropsy doughy, cold, painless swelhngs are found under the skin, especially on the shanks and neck. In grazing animals water may collect under the skin of the head and neck. Texas fever in cattle is carried by means of ticks, which are in 76 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS most cases readily found on the skin of affected animals. The mucous membranes are usually yellowish, and the urine bloody. The onset of the disease is followed by rapid prostration and emaciation. Cattle affected with the ordinary form of actinomycosis are con- spicuous on account of the enlargement of the jaw bone. Fistulous openings may occur over the tumor and discharge yellowish, sticky pus. In the form of the disease commonly known as wooden tongue, the tongue is stiff and awkward and the animal cannot readily use it in grasping food. Cattle affected with rabies exhibit increasing restlessness, loss of appetite, and change in disposition. They bellow loudly, butt and paw violently, and viciously attack other animals. Constipation, mus- cular spasms, and increased salivation are also observed. Paralysis begins to appear about the fourth day.. V Methods of Slaughtering, Cuts of Meat, Live and • Dressed Weight, Postmortem Changes in Meat, and the Recognition of the Age and Sex of Slaughtered Animals 1. Chief Methods of Slaughtering The death of food animals should be brought about without un- necessary pain. The whole process of slaughtering should also be calculated to insure the greatest possible keeping quality in the meat. This purpose is served by removing as much blood as possible through the severed cervical or anterior thoracic blood vessels. In well-bled animals it is difficult to press out even a few drops of blood from cross-sections of the liver, kidneys or musculature. Here and there a drop or two may be pressed out of a blood vessel. Distinction may be made between three methods of slaughtering: a. Simple bleeding by sticking in the thorax or cutting the throat. The Jewish method or schechtering belongs to this class. b. Bleeding after the previous mutilation of the medulla by pithing or by the use of a killing ax. c. Bleeding after a previous stunning. a. Simple Bleeding hy Cutting the Cervical or Thoracic Vessels Sticking in the breast is executed by opening or severing the vessels at the entrance to the thorax. In cutting the throat or schechtering, the animal is thrown, tied, and the head held so that it lies on the horns and nose. Thereupon, in schechtering, the neck is cut almost to the spinal column by three quickly executed strokes 77 78 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS of a long, sharp knife. An apparatus for holding the head as shown in Figure 61 is recommended in schechtering. In slaughtering ac- cording to the requirements of the Jewish religion a sort of inspection is made by the schechter, and animals which are passed are known as kosher. This inspection is based on entirely different principles from those which govern the veterinary inspector. Fig-. 61. — Head tackle for cattle in slaughtering by Jewish method. b. Bleeding after Mutilation of the Medvlla In the method of slaughtering by bleeding after a previous mutila- tion of the medulla oblongata a knife is violently driven into the space between the occipital bone and the first cervical vertebra, or a blow is dealt to this spot with a killing ax. The animal instantly falls to the floor and remains motionless. Thoracic or cervical sticking may then be accomplished without restraining the animal. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 79 c. Bleeding after Previous Stunning Animals are stunned by a blow on the forehead or by injuring the forehead and brain. Prostration and unconsciousness are the immediate results of stunning. Various instruments may be used for stunning (club, killing ax, slaughter mask, spring bolt apparatus, rifle, special or bolt shooting apparatus). If a blow is delivered upon the middle of the forehead with a club or the head of an ax, con- cussion of the brain results, the animal is paralyzed and falls to the floor. The killing ax is composed of a wooden handle, and attached to one end at right angles an iron structure one end of which is sharpened in the form of a gouge. The gouge end is driven through the frontal bone into the brain by the blow. By the use of the slaugh- ter mask a movable, gougelike bolt is driven into the brain as with the spring bolt apparatus and similar instruments. The bolt hammer, for use in killing sheep, is similar in construction to the killing ax. It is used difl"erently, however, being placed upon the frontal bone and driven into the brain with a mallet. The Chemnitz stunning apparatus, for small animals, differs from the bolt hammer in the possession of a movable striking bolt. In the shooting apparatus there is a pistol barrel, to the end of which a shield-shaped iron portion is screwed. In the end of the barrel a ball cartridge is placed and fired by a blow with a hammer. In the bolt-shooting apparatus and Behr's slaughter pistol a shooting bolt in place of the ball is driven into the brain through a barrel as in the shooting apparatus. In our abattoirs cattle are stunned with a poll ax. Bulls and a few old animals with hard heads may be shot with a rifle. Sheep and hogs are caught up with a shackling apparatus, after which the throat is cut without previous stunning. In small institutions and country slaughter houses shooting is frequently re- sorted to with cattle. The actual details of the methods of slaughter in different abat- toirs are determined by the proprietors and foremen in these estab- lishments. The process has to be carried on in such a manner as not to interfere with or inconvenience the inspectors. After reaching the 80 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS stock yards all animals are allowed to rest overnight before being slaughtered. If animals are feverish or excited at the time of slaughter they do not bleed freely. The best method of slaughter is that which accomplishes the unconsciousness of the animal most quickly and brings about the most complete bleeding. This insures to the highest degree the keeping quality of the meat. 2. Commercial Methods of Slaughtering The inspector must familiarize himself with the commercial meth- ods of slaughtering in order that he may detect at once any unusual cuts which may have been intentionally made on the carcass. As soon as death occurs (which may be determined by the cessa- tion of the eye reflex) skinning of cattle and sheep, and scalding of hogs, are commenced. With cattle the head is carefully skinned and removed. A liberal amount of fat and meat is left in connection With the tongue. The head is marked so that it can readily be identified if cause for condemnation be found. On the floor the carcass is held in place by a pritch. The feet are removed without opening the skin far enough for the shanks to become bloody. The gullet is lifted without cutting the windpipe. The skin is then opened by a straight cut along the whole length of the animal. Since about half of the work is done while the animal is on the floor and the other half after hoisting the carcass it is convenient to operate a double slaughter floor. The breast is sawed along the middle line, the abdomen opened, the caul removed, and the remainder of the skin- ning, splitting, and removal of the viscera is done while the carcass is gradually hoisted. The liver is carefully removed and placed on a special truck. The whole carcass is washed with hot water. On sixteen double beds the regular crew of men slaughter 130 to 150 cattle per hour. Sheep are hoisted alive by a shackling apparatus. All details of slaughtering and running the carcasses into the cooler are accom- plished without the sheep ever touching the floor. A string gang will slaughter about 2,000 sheep per day on a floor space of 32 to 80 feet. Special care is exercised not to allow the wool to come in contact with the mutton. GijIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 81 Hogs are shackled by a hind leg, hoisted by a revolving wheel and run on a rail, where they are stuck. They are then scalded and run througlj a scraping machine, after which the details of opening the carcass and removing the viscera are accomplished while the car- Entrance to larynx Pharynx Esophagus Left lung Heart Left lobe of liver Tongue -Larynx Trachea Right bronchial gland Aorta and esophagus Diaphragm Porta hepatis Fig. 62.— Haslet or pluck of hog. casses pass by the gang of butchers, each one of whom performs one small part of the process. Inspectors are stationed along the lines of cattle, hogs and sheep at points where the stage of the process 82 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS o bfl ^^^'^ a ^^^"^1^ ^ J o "^^ 6 1 i_Y 1. CO Ln \ MD < \ UJ .^ m , fe GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 83 of slaughtering permits the most thorough examination of the lymph glands, viscera and other parts. The system of cuts in vogue in the wholesale and retail trade varies in different cities. In Chicago each side of beef (Fig. 63) is cut for the wholesale dealer into seven pieces, four along the back and three along the belly. The back row of pieces includes chuck, i'ib, loin and round, while the belly row consists of shank, plate and flank. In the retail trade the back row of pieces is subdivided so as to obtain chuck, prime rib, porterhouse, sirloin, rump and round. Trachea Thymus gland Fig. 64. — Thymus (sweetbread) of calf in natural position in anterior part of chest. The belly row of pieces yields the shin, plate, flank and shank. In European cities the division is still more complicated. Thus, in London the series of cuts along the back includes clod and sticking, pony, forerib, loin, rump, aitch bone, silver side, top side, leg. The belly pieces comprise shin, brisket, fore quarter flank, flank, thick flank. . In. packing house practice hogs are cooled to a temperature of about 35° F. before being cut up. On the Chicago market pork is 84 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Upper arm muscles Shoulder muscles Neck muscles Fig. 65. — Fore quarter of a bull. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 85 Forearm muscles Shoulder musculature Fig. 66. — Fore quarter of a steer. 8& GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Shoulder musculature Neck musculature Forearm musculature Fig. 67. — 'Fore quarter of a cow. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 87 Cross section of adductor muscle ^External inguinal ring Crest of pubis Remains of urethra Fig. 68. — Hind quarter of a bull. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Adductor muscle of thigh Cod fat Crest of pubis Remains of urethra Fat tissue of the pelvis Fig. 69. — Hind quarter of steer. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 89 Gross section of adductor muscle Udder Crest of pubii Fig. 70. — Hind quarter ot cow. 90 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS cut into head, shoulder, shoulder trimmings, back, bacon, short ribs, side, tenderloin, extra short clear, pork loin, ham, ham trimmings, and feet. The English cuts of bacon hogs are end of collar, prime collar, thick back, back ribs, loin, comer of gammon, fore hock, top of thick streaky, prime thick streaky, thin streaky, flank, gammon hock. The ordinary cuts of mutton are neck, shoulder, shank, rib, breast, loin, leg. The neck piece, also called the chine, may be divided into neck and scrag end. Chops are taken from the leg, loin, neck or breast. Cutlets are taken from the thick end of the loin. The saddle consists of both loins. Veal is commonly cut into head, neck, withers, back, loin, leg, breast, shoulder, flank and feet. Veal fillet is the leg piece with the bone removed. The haslet is comprised of heart, lungs and liver. Both the thymus and pancreas are sold as sweetbreads. 3. Live Weight and Dressed Weight The live weight of an animal is the weight of the live animal on the hoof. The dressed weight of cattle and sheep is the weight of the two halves or the four quarters. The difference is due to the removal in slaughtering of the blood, skin, head, feet, erternal sexual organs including the udder in cows, and the viscera with the excep- tion of the kidneys. In the dressed weight of hogs the head, kidneys and kidney fat are included. The percentage of dressed beef varies considerably according to the breed, age, feeding and other factors. In well-prepared cattle it ranges from 55 to 65 per cent. Pure bred beef animals or good grades should dress about 60 per cent, of beef. Dairy breeds and scrubs usually yield a lower per cent, of dressed beef. The hide amounts to about 7 per cent, of the total weight, the fat to 5 or 6 per cent. Good hogs dress 65 to 80 per cent, of pork. Of this total about 12 per cent, is ham, 9 per cent, shoulder and 13 per cent. lard. The dressed weight of sheep and lambs ranges from 50 to 63 per cent. In general, fat animals yield a greater dressed weight than poor animals. The meat of medium fat animals is of greatest nutritive value for the reason that it contains most GUIDE FOR MEAT ~ INSPECTORS 91 protein. The meat of very fat animals contains relatively less pro- tein, but is of better flavor. Pure muscle meat constitutes about 40 per cent, of the weight of a fat steer, 48 per cent, of a medium fat steer, 30 per cent, of a fat sheep, 38 per cent, of a medium fat sheep, 37 per cent, of a fat hog, 48 per cent, of a poor hog. The kidney fat and mesenteric fat constitute 5 to 9 per cent, of the dressed weight, and the bones about 15 per cent. 4. Changes in Meat after Slaughter Muscle tissue becomes firm and stiff after slaughter (rigor mortis). This process begins in the cephalic and cervical muscles and may appear within ten to fifteen minutes or not till after several hours. Rigor mortis persists for one to several days. Meat acquires an agreeable flavor as a result of the chemical processes which deter- mine rigor mortis. The flavor of meat is improved by preservation in cold storage. 5. Recognition of the Age and Sex of Slaughtered Animals As explained in a previous chapter, if the head is present the age may be determined by the teeth, or, in the case of cows, by the rings on the horns. Moreover, if the cartilages between bones or on the ends of bones are still unossified, the animal may be considered young. Particularly good evidence of the age of an animal may be obtained by cutting through the middle hue of the under side of the pelvis (ischium and pubis). This surface is cartilaginous in young animals, bony in old animals. Sex can be recognized from certain features of the carcass even in the absence of the reproductive organs. Thus, in bulls the muscula- ture of the nape of the neck and shoulders is very strongly developed (Fig. 65), the inguinal canal remains open, and the attachments of the urethra are to be seen on the ischiatic cut (Fig. 68). The steer is distinguished from the bull by the weaker development of the shoulder and neck musculature (Fig. 66), and by the extensive depo- sition of fat in the subcutaneous connective tissue and scrotal regions 92 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS (Fig. 69). Moreover, in bulls and steers the adductor muscle of the thigh has a triangular cross-section. The tuberosity of the pubis is larger in bulls than in steers (Figs. 68 and 69). Even if the udder of a cow has been removed, the hind quarters may be readily recognized from the shape of the adductor muscle of the thigh. Its cross-section is oval, not triangular (Fig. 70). Heifers are to be distinguished from cows by their small udder, which is completely permeated with fat. As a general rule, the horns are short and strong in bulls, medium strong and long in steers, slender and of medium length in cows. VI Routine of Meat Inspection 1. General Considerations Time of inspection. For obvious reasons inspection may best be done simultaneously with the process of slaughtering. In federal inspection the inspector is always present at the time of slaughter. If inspection took place some time after slaughter the post-mortem Fig. 71. — Scalpel for use in inspection. changes in the meat would make the work more difficult. If the inspector is present he can supervise the whole process and prevent any fraudulent operations on the part of the butchers. If the inspector were not present at the time of slaughter he would be unable properly to interpret his findings. A very slight matter might be exaggerated in importance. Collections of patholog- ical fluids would escape the notice of the inspector. Moreover, it would be possible for a butcher to remove pathological tissue sur- reptitiously. 93 94 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The only light for inspection is daylight. Slaughtering is seldom done except in daylight. Recent improvements in abattoirs include a better illumination than heretofore of the killing floors. Fig. 72. — Scalpel with metal handle in metal box. Fig. 12). — Scalpel made according to Jess. No part of an animal can be taken away or its identity lost until the carcass has been passed upon by the inspector. Heads may be marked so as to indicate the carcasses to which they belong. Cauls, GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 95 livers and other viscera may be placed on trucks bearing numbers corresponding to the numbers of the killing beds on which the car- casses are handled. • Fig. 74. — Folding scalpel with metal handle made according to Gundelach. The inspector will ordinarily have use for at least two thoroughly cleansed butcher knives. These should preferably be smooth, all Fig. 75. — Tin plated instrument sterilizer with perforated tray. metal, and without grooves or comers which would make cleansing more difficult (Figs. 71 to 74). So long as the organ or part incised proves to be healthy the knife is adequately cleaned by wiping. If 96 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS the knife becomes contaminated with infectious virus, it must be dis- infected before being used again. The instruments may be steriHzed in a 2 per cent, solution of soda in a suitable pot or in a special sterilizer (Fig. 75). The inspector should not incise pathological foci the nature of "which is evident from mere inspection or palpation. If the incision of a disease focus is unavoidable, steps should be taken at once to prevent contamination of other parts of the carcass, the floor or other parts of the abattoir. If such contamination has already occurred the hands may be cleaned with brush, soap and warm water. The floor may be scrubbed and rinsed off with anti- septics. Contamination may be removed from meat by trimming off the surface layer or cutting away the part in question. 2. Examination of Various Parts of the Carcass The different parts of the body are examined by ocular inspec- tion, palpation and incision. The size, color, sheen, and other features visible to the unaided eye are noted by mere ocular inspection. This work must be done by daylight or by adequate artificial illumination. Mere ocular inspection is not sufiicient in the case of the lungs, liver, spleen, uterus, udder and tongue. These organs should be pal- pated in order to determine their firmness and the alterations which may have taken place within their structure. With certain parts even a combination of ocular inspection and palpation are not sufii- cient to determine possible pathological processes. In such cases the deeper layers are to be exposed by incision or dissection. Lymph glands, the condition of which is always to be determined, are to be cut lengthwise or removed and cut into discs. In addition to the parts which are always to be incised, incision is also necessary in the case of parts which were found to be diseased or suspicious during inspection or palpation. If the inspector finds pathological altera- tions the nature of which is not perfectly evident the carcass is re- tained for further examination. In case of extensive hemorrhage in the musculature of a leg it may be necessary to dissect the part in question in order to determine whether it is a simple hemorrhage from crushing or due to a bone fracture. In all cases the inspector should avoid unnecessary incision and dissection of the musculature, GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 97 for such cutting lowers the value of the meat. On the other hand, the meat should not be spared in cases where incision is required in order to reach a satisfactory decision. It is desirable that the inspec- tor should follow a regular routine on each carcass in order that no part may be inadvertently overlooked. In general the condition of the following parts is to be observed in inspection: 1. The blood. 2. The head and the upper cervical and submaxillary lymph glands (loosening the tongue so as to expose all the mu- cous membrane of the mouth and pharyngeal cavities). 3. The lungs and the lymph glands at the base of the lungs and in the mediastinum (a cross-section through the lower third of the lungs). 4. The pericardium and heart (a section opening both ventricles and cutting the septum). 5. The diaphragm. 6. The liver and lymph glands at the porta hepatis. 7. The stomach, intestines, mesentery, mesenteric glands and omentum. , . 8. The spleen. 9. The kidneys with their lymph glands and the bladder. 10. The uterus, vagina and vulva, especially if there be a vaginal discharge. 11. The udder and its lymph glands. 12. The musculature including its adipose and connective tissue, bones, joints, pleura and peritoneum. In doubtful cases it may be desirable to examine the lymph glands at the en- trance to the chest (including the lower cervical glands), and the prescapular, axillary, lumbar, iliac, precrural, pop- liteal, ischiatic and superficial inguinal glands. In cattle the tongue, heart, pterygoid and masseter muscles (the latter by a longitudinal section), and the other exposed muscle sur- faces are to be inspected for cysticerci (Fig. 76). If there is reason for suspecting fluke worms, a section may be made across the main bile ducts, perpendicular to the gastric surface of the liver, and also through the bile ducts near the Spigelian lobe (Fig. 77). The kid- 98 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS neys are exposed by opening the fat capsule. In cows the uterus is opened by a cross-section. Nasopharyngeal cavity Circumvallate papillae Right submax- illary gland Hard palate Pterygoid muscle Masseter muscle Pharyngeal glands lyarynx Soft palate Dorsal surface of tongue Tip of tongue Fig. 1^. — Head o£ steer with tongue properly loosened. The navel and joints of calves are to be examined and incised in suspected cases. Inspection of calves for cysticerci may be the same as in adult cattle, but may as well be omitted for calves under six GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 99 weeks of age. No inspection of the head or its glands, or the kidneys is necessary except in suspicious cases. All swine except young roasting pigs are split in half before the inspection is completed. The muscles of the hams, belly, diaphragm, sides, neck, heart, tongue and larynx may be examined for cysticerci. An inspection of the split vertebras will show whether or not the bones are affected with tuberculosis. The liver of sheep should always be examined for flukes as recom- mended for beef livers. The heart and lymph glands of the head and lungs need not be examined unless suspicion is otherwise aroused. Vena cava Thickened bile ducts in left lobe Cross section of common bile duct along lobe Porta hepatis Spigelian lobe I^ymph glands I the porta hepatis Right lobe Gall bladder Fig. 77. — 'Gastric surface of bovine liver with exposed lymph glands, and indicated lines of direction for opening bile ducts. The skin should receive some attention post mortem if ante-mortem inspect-ion showed the presence of wounds, swellings, inflammation, suppuration or actinomycosis. Conditions to be Especially Noted 1. The quantity, coloring, coagulability and foreign admixtures of the blood. The blood of diseased animals should not be allowed to produce unnecessary contamination of the abattoir. 100 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 2. In examining the head attention should be given to the detec- tion of tumors (actinomycosis), alterations on the lips and mucous membranes of the mouth and pharyngeal cavities (calf diphtheria, necrosis), palpation of the tongue (actinomycosis, cysticerci), in- cision of the submaxillary and upper cervical lymph glands (tuber- culosis, actinomycosis). 3. The lungs should be palpated and an incision made across the lower third to the branches of the trachea. The pulmonary and mediastinal lymph glands are to be incised (Fig. 7). The lungs are examined for inflammation, hemorrhagic septicemia, swine plague, tuberculosis and animal parasites, including echinococci, wandering flukes, and lung worms. 4. The pericardium is to be opened for examination of its inner surface (Fig. 34). The heart may be opened lengthwise from apex to base, but this is not necessary in sheep. The color and appearance of the heart musculature is to be noted for the purpose of detecting hemorrhages, cysticerci, echinococci and inflammation of the valves. 5. Both sides of the diaphragm and its muscular portion are to be examined for tuberculosis and cysticerci. 6. The liver is examined and palpated, and the lymph glands at the porta hepatis incised to detect changes of color or appearance, inflammation, purulent foci, flukes, echinococci, Cysticercus tenuicollis, pentastomes, tumors and tuberculosis. 7. The exterior and also the mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines are examined for tuberculosis, ulcers (stomach ulcers in calves, intestinal ulcers in other animals), inflammation. The mesentery and omentum are examined and the mesenteric glands in- cised (Figs. 12 to 14) for the purpose of detecting tuberculosis, an- thrax, hemorrhages and animal parasites. 8. The spleen is palpated and, if nodules are found, it is incised from one end to the other. The- chief alterations to be noted are swelling, anthrax, swine erysipelas, purulent foci, echinococci and tuberculosis. 9. The kidneys are examined with reference to their size, changes in color or appearance, inflammation, echinococci, tuberculosis (in- cision of renal glands). By external inspection of the bladder and by pressing out its contents it may be determined whether there is GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 101 any inflammation, thickening of the wall, or bloody or cloudy urine. If no pathological conditions are noted the bladder need not be incised. i I I 10. The outside of the uterus is examined for enlargement, in- flammation of the surrounding tissue, tuberculosis of the peritoneal covering. A cross-section through the body of the uterus will expose both the body and horns for inspection (Fig. 28). The chief path- ological conditions to be noted are wounds, inflammation, collections of pus and exudate, tumors and tuberculosis. In suspected cases the vagina and vulva are to be incised and examined for wounds, inflam- mation and vesicular exanthema. The female reproductive organs should be closely examined in cases of recent parturition or vaginal discharge. 11. The udder is examined, palpated and incised if suspicion is entertained of the presence of inflammation, tumors, tuberculosis, or actinomycosis (in hogs). The supramammary lymph glands are incised for the detection of tuberculosis. 12. Muscles, adipose tissue, connective tissue, bones, joints, pleura and peritoneum. The whole musculature receives attention with ref- erence to blood content, hemorrhages, collection of gas or watery fluids, tumors, and animal parasites. Superficial hemorrhages are investigated to determine whether they extend into the musculature. This may be done by careful incisions. The pleura and peritoneum are examined for blood content, inflammation, tumors and tuberculosis. The vertebral column, pelvic bones and sternum are examined for discoloration, fractures, myelitis, actinomycosis, and tuberculosis. If the generalization of tuberculosis by means of the blood system is suspected, the inspector examines the muscle lymph glands, including the lower cervical, prescapular, axillary, lumbar, iliac, precrural, popliteal, ischiatic, and superficial inguinal glands. A similar in- spection is made for septicemia. If disease of a joint was noted ante mortem, the neighboring parts should be carefully examined post mortem. vn Nature and Characteristics of the Diseases and Defective Conditions of Most Importance in Meat Inspection The defective conditions which may lead to retention or condemna- tion of meat may be due to natural causes such as immaturity, yellow food-coloration, food odor or sexual odor ; diseases ; post mortem changes in the meat; or intentional manipulation of the meat, e.g., inflation with air. a. Objectionable Quality of Meat in Consequence of Natural Conditions In this group fall immature animals, fetuses, emaciated animals, yellow discoloration of the fat tissue due to the food, and meat with repulsive odor or flavor. 1. ImmaturitT/ Calves, lambs or pigs under three weeks of age are immature, and to be condemned. Immature animals have a poorly developed mus- culature, which is grayish red and infiltrated with water. Moreover, in calves immaturity may be recognized from the condition of the incisor teeth and the navel. As a rule calves are born with six in- cisor teeth, the corner incisors appearing about a week later. The gums covering the teeth of the new-bom animal possess a bright red color. By the tenth day the gums have gradually lost their redness, receded from the incisors and assumed the usual ridge form. By the fifteenth day the middle incisors are free and at the age of twenty days only the comers are partly inclosed in the gums. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 103 The stump of the umbilical cord becomes dry and black, and falls off during the second week, usually between the eighth and twelfth days. The healing and cicatrization of the navel wound occurs dur- ing the second and third weeks, and the contraction of the scar after four weeks. The skin of immature animals may be utihzed but the carcass is condemned. 2. Fetuses In slaughtering cows, quite frequently a fetus in advanced devel- opment is found. The hoofs of fetuses are soft and rounded, the umbilical ring and umbilical blood vessels are open. The musculature is soft, flabby and watery, the fat tissue gelatinous, the bone marrow red, the lungs brownish red, in state of collapse and heavier than water. All fetuses and still-born animals are condemned. 3. Emaciation Emaciation consists in a wasting away of the fat tissue and mus- cle. As a rule it is a sequela of disease. In emaciated animals the prominent parts of the bones (ribs, ihac angle and ischiatic tuberos- ities) are conspicuous, the muscles are flat, the fat tissue has disap- peared or become transformed into a yellowish, gelatinous mass. Dis- tinction is made between incipient and extreme emaciation. In the latter form of emaciation the collapse of the musculature and the gelatinous modification of the adipose tissue are pronounced. The presence of extreme emaciation is of importance in reaching a judg- ment in cases of tuberculosis and certain other diseases. Carcasses showing a high degree of emaciation and a slimy degeneration of the fat tissue are condemned. Poorness can be easily distinguished from emaciation. Milch cows, male breeding animals and animals in early stages of development or in old age are likely to be poor. They are characterized by defi- ciency of fat and by the firmness and dark red color of the mus- culature. ^. Yellow Color of the Fat Tissue Due to the Feed In beef cattle fattened exclusively on pasture the fat tissue may assume a deep yellow color. The fat tissue alone shows the yellow 104 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS color. All other parts are of normal appearance and the usual color. The whole carcass of such animals is to be passed. This condition, however, is not to be confused with icterus. In icterus not only the fat tissue but also the viscera, fasciae, cartilages, and even the muscles and bones, are discolored yellow. 5. Objectionable Odor and Flavor An unusual odor and flavor may be observed in the meat of ani- mals fed large rations of aromatic substances. The meat of hogs fed largely on fish and swill tastes and smells fishy, oily or rancid. In pronounced cases the odor may be very repulsive, and the fat tissue gray or yellow and soft. The meat of boars, buck goats, and occa- sionally of bulls, may have a peculiar, more or less striking or dis- agreeable odor and flavor, which largely disappear, however, in cool- ing. The objectionable odor is observed in about 20 per cent, of boars. The boar odor is like urine, the bull odor like leeks. Aromatic drugs may lend their odor to the meat. This is par- ticularly true of camphor, petroleum, ether, turpentine, cuminol, anise oil, chlorine preparations and carbolic acid. The last two, as also other disinfectants, affect the odor of the meat if the volatile parts are inhaled by the living animal. Meat may also absorb odors post mortem. Objectionable odors may also arise in cases of bloody urine, from exudates in the body and in certain diseases. The odors mentioned above almost always disappear during the refrigeration of the meat, but may reappear in cooking. By means of a boiling test with a small piece of the meat it may be easily deter- mined whether or not the odor will persist. It rarely occurs that the odor of meat is sufficient to cause its condemnation in the absence of other pathological conditions. Carcasses of animals showing signs of preparation for parturition and carcasses of animals which have given birth to young within ten days before slaughter are condemned or rendered into tallow. b. Diseases of Food Animals GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Abnormal conditions in certain parts of the body may be of con- genital origin. Such irregularities of structures are commonly called GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS . 105 malformations. In food animals doubling of parts is the commonest example of this condition. Malformations such as double spleen or double liver are of little importance from the standpoint of meat inspection. Malformed parts are passed if the color, appearance and consistency are normal. In ruptures of viscera and muscles and fractures of bones there are two points to be considered. With all such cases of solution of con- tinuity hemorrhages are associated which affect the surrounding meat. Secondly, in ruptures of soft parts which are in connection with the outside world (injuries to the skin, intestine, lungs and urinogenital apparatus), and in bone fractures associated with rupture of the skin, inflammation may arise leading to septicemia. In such cases it must be determined whether or not septicemia is present, for it cannot be considered as out of the question unless slaughter took place imme- diately after the injury. Hemorrhages. The escape of blood from the blood vessels into the tissues or body cavities takes place mechanically (injury of one or more blood vessels by cuts, stabs, bruises, ruptures, fractures), or as a result of other general causes. Recent hemorrhages from mechanical causes are to be recognized from the fact that merely the musculature and connective tissue are permeated to some extent with dark red blood without disagreeable odor. Hemorrhages of non-mechanical origin occur most frequently in diseases of the blood (septicemia, anthrax, blackleg, hemorrhagic sep- ticemia). They may be either small and circumscribed or extensive, and occur most frequently on the mucous and serous membranes, par- ticularly on the pleura, under the epicardium and endocardium (Fig. 78), in the kidneys and in the cutis and subcutis. Hemorrhages of mechanical origin cause the condemnation merely of the affected parts; other parts are passed. The whole carcass is condemned if the hemorrhages are due to septicemia, anthrax, black- leg or hemorrhagic septicemia. The red spots which occur on certain parts of the heart of perfectly healthy animals should not be con- fused with the punctate or linear hemorrhages under the endocardium (Fig. 79). These red spots are to be seen on the papillary muscles and are due to the contraction of the heart muscle. They are to be 106 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS distinguished from the above-mentioned hemorrhages by their more circular form, their occurrence exclusively on the papillary muscles, and by the fact that no other symptoms of disease are present. The teratological disappearance of an organ or muscle is of little importance to the inspector. Enlarged parts are passed if the struc- ture is otherwise unaltered. Such enlargement sometimes occurs in one kidney as a result of the absence or diseased condition of the other kidney. Slight hemorrhages Fig. 78. — Heart with hemorrhages under the endocardium of a steer affected with septicemia. Deposits of coloring matter in viscera may lead to condemnation. Melanosis occurs in the belly bacon of swine and in the lungs and liver of calves, affected organs showing black spots (Fig. 80). Fur- thermore, a brown color is sometimes observed in the bones and a liver color in the muscles. Deposits of lime may also occur in certain organs. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 107 Discolorations (alteration of the natural color to greenish brown, grayish red or grayish yellow) and cloudiness (loss of sheen) of the liver, heart muscle and kidneys, like hemorrhages of non-mechanical origin in various parts of the body, are evidences of the presence of serious disease to be definitely identified by observing the other symptoms. Inflammations of food animals are characterized by swelling, red- ness and the formation of inflammatory products. On the skin and lyarge red spots Fig. 79. — Healthy beef heart with large red spots in- myocardium. mucous membranes a thin, watery fluid may be observed, or mucus and pus. Moreover, cloudy yellow deposits may form on the mucous membranes, and cloudy yellow squamag in the mucous membranes. Desquamation takes place, leaving ulcers (areas on which the mucous membrane is wanting). The ulcers may become cicatrized. In bloody inflammation the mucous membranes become strongly reddened and filled with hemorrhages, the contents of the intestines being bloody ii^ 108 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTION bloody enteritis. During the continuance of inflammation watery, bloody and bloody-watery exudations collect in the connective tissue and musculature. The pus foci may be completely walled in by firm, tough, white capsules ( encapsulated pus foci). A special form of inflammation in tissues leads to induration by the new formation of connective tissue. On the serous membranes (pleura and peritoneum) inflammation causes the formation of watery, purulent or puriform exudates or scaleHke yellow incrustations, which bring about adhe- sions between the viscera. From these adhesions coalescence may later arise by the formation of connective tissue, which must be cut through with a knife. Inflammatory foci or affected parts may be removed and the rest of the carcass passed, or the whole carcass may have to Fig. 80. — Deposition of pigment in the liver of a calf. be condemned, depending on the nature and extent of the disease which causes the inflammation. Tumors are nodular neomorphic structures which arise in the viscera without inflammation or other demonstrable cause. Tumor- like structures of microbic origin such as the tubercles of tuberculosis, actinomycosis, etc., are not classed with the tumors, but with the infectious neomorphs. Distinction is made between benign and malignant tumors. The former show no tendency toward extension to other organs, while malignant tumors extend by proliferation into the surrounding tis- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 109 sues, and are often distributed throughout the body by the blood and lymph. A tumor is said to be local when it affects only one part of the body including or not the corresponding lymph glands. Parts affected with local tumors are condemned, the rest of the car- cass being passed. CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES The diseases of food animals may be classified as : I, local diseases ; II, blood diseases ; III, intoxications ; IV, parasitic diseases ; and, V, infectious diseases. I.— LOCAL DISEASES OF INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF THE BODY INCLUDING LOCALIZED LESIONS OF GENERAL DISEASES Local or organic diseases may occur on the skin, under the skin, in the respiratory, digestive or urinogenital apparatus, in the blood, lymph or nervous system, in the bones and in the muscles. 1. Cutis and Subcutis Simple dermal inflammations without the extensive formation of pus or ichor are unimportant diseases. Inflammations in connection with skin wounds may be of the simple kind. The whole skin of hogs and the head skin of calves are used as food. If these parts are inflamed, they are condemned and removed. Dermal wounds, and also dermal inflammations, followed with extensive formation of pus and ichor, are serious affections. Slight skin wounds acquire great importance if the inflammatory process extends from the skin into the deeper lying parts — joints, sheaths of tendons, abdominal and thoracic cavities. In all such cases the general health is greatly affected. Redness of the skin of hogs is of some importance. It may be due to external agents such as blows, cold and heat, in which cases it is a mere local alteration. Affected hogs are rarely rendered unfit for food from these causes. If hogs are allowed to pass into the scalding vat alive the whole skin is reddened. Such carcasses are condemned. no GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Red coloration of the skin may also be a symptom of swine erysipelas or hog cholera. In young pigs black, pitchy or sooty scabs may occur on the skin. This is one of the external symptoms of hog cholera or swine plague, but is sometimes called pitchy mange. Fig. 81. — Piece of hog skin with granular eruption. Granular eruption is a special skin disease of hogs. It appears in the form of round tubercles in the skin. The tubercles vary in size Fig. 82. — Median section of dog head with tapeworm-like pentastomes. from a hemp seed to a pea, and are often black, resembling shot. Coiled hairs are found in the tubercles (Fig 81). Affected parts of the skin may be removed. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 111 Furthermore, in cases of scabies, scales and scabs may occur on the skin of the body, and in foot-and-mouth disease there are vesicles and superficial ulcers on the hoofs. Fluids collect under the skin in general dropsy and in cardiac weakness. As a result of injury to the urethra urine may collect in the neighboring skin. Hemorrhagic tu- mors form in the subcutis in cases of anthrax and blackleg, with gas formation in the latter disease. In hemorrhagic septicemia collections of colorless or blackish red fluid may be found under the skin of the head and neck. In actinomycosis tumors develop under the skin of the head and neck of cattle and the udder of hogs. These tumors may break through to the surface, appearing like fungoid prolifera- tions. Occasionally a black coloration is observed in the fat tissue under the skin of the belly of hogs. 2. Respiratory Apparatus (a) Nostrils, Larynx, Trachea An examination of the nasal mucosa is necessary only in animals in which during life pathological symptoms were present indicating the involvement of these structures, e.g., discharges or abnormal respiratory sounds. These symptoms appear in cattle affected with malignant catarrhal fever, in hogs affected with snuffles, and in sheep affected with malignant catarrhal fever or sheep bots. The mucosa of the larynx and trachea is seldom diseased unless the nasal mucosa and lungs are also affected. Animals which have been exposed to the action of irritating gases may exhibit pronounced inflammation of the laryngeal and tracheal mucosa. The same condition is found in malignant catarrhal fever. In pulmonary tuberculosis tuberculous ulcers are often found in and under the mucous membranes of the larynx and trachea. Actinomycotic tumors also appear in the mu- cosa of the larynx. (b) Lungs The lungs of calves may exhibit a black coloration. The blood may be unequally distributed, one lung being dark and the other light colored (slaughtered downers). Hemorrhages occur under the pul- monary pleura in cases of asphyxia and septicemia. 112 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Pulmonary inflammations occur in all food animals : in cattle as a symptom of non-contagious pneumonia, hemorrhagic septicemia and penetration of foreign bodies ; in hogs as a characteristic symptom of swine plague (Fig. 83) ; in calves, sheep and goats after infestation with lung worms. Sheep and goats are also susceptible to a con- tagious pneumonia. Diseased lobes of lungs Fig. 83. — Hog lungs with inflammation of anterior lobes as a result of chronic swine plague. Affected parts of the lungs do not collapse (Fig. 83), are red- dened (the color varying from dark to grayish red), and the con- sistency is firm, like that of the liver. If the pleura is simultaneously affected, fluid may collect in the chest cavity, and deposits may form on the pleural membranes, leading to adhesion between the lungs and costal pleura. The deposits may be easily removed. From the ad- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 113 hesion a complete coalescence may arise, making it necessary to use the knife in removing the lungs from the chest. Foreign bodies and lung worms may also cause inflammatory con- ditions of some importance. In such cases the foci are usually lim- ited and the cause apparent. Iveft bronchial gland Mediastinal glands Fig. 84. — Beef lungs with respiratory tuberculosis. The bronchial and mediastinal glands are greatly enlarged and filled with tuber- culous foci. At points on the lung surface indicated by a there are tubercles which are found to be soft on section. An ichorous inflammation of the lungs may arise after the forma- tion of exudates and in connection with the above-mentioned inflamma- tions. In such cases there may be cavities in the lungs filled with stinking pus. Tumors, and the alterations of tuberculosis, actinomy- cosis and botryomycosis may also be found in the lungs. 114 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Tuberculosis appears in the lungs either in the form of small round tubercles of gray or yellow color and firm consistency, or in the form of larger nodules containing pus cavities in connection with the branches of the trachea (Fig. 84). Moreover, the surface of the Anterior mediastinal glanu Tuberculous foci on the pulmonary pleura Posterior mediastinal gland Fig. 85. — Beef lungs with tuberciTlous foci on the pleura (pearl disease). Great alteration of the anterior and posterior mediastinal glands. lungs or pulmonary pleura is often covered with gray and yellow tubercles and larger nodules or pearl nodules (Fig. 85). Among animal parasites various species of lung worms are found in the lungs of ruminants and swine, and also echinococci, wandering flukes, and occasionally Cysticercus tenuicollis. The liver flukes which have wandered into the lungs lie in hazel or walnut-sized cavi- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 115 ties, with a tough, connective tissue wall and dark-brown oily con- tents. During slaughter the lungs may become contaminated with stom- ach contents and blood. Especially in slaughter by the Jewish method the stomach contents may be drawn into the lungs through the severed trachea from the end of the severed esophagus, A section of the air passages below the bifurcation of the trachea will disclose the stomach contents. If desired, this material may be easily re- moved by washing. Red spots in the lungs due to blood aspiration do not feel firm. Blood aspiration may be distinguished from hypo- stasis from the fact that in the former the red color occurs in spots. (c) Pleura As a rule, the pleura is diseased only when the lungs are affected. Thus pleurisy is often associated with pneumonia. In pleuritis the Fig. 86. — Right half of thorax of beef with tuberculosis of the pleura. pleura is often covered with false membranes, which may be pulled off. Moreover, in the thoracic cavity there may be a collection of yellow, odorless or stinking fluid, in which float portions of mem- branes like those on the pleura. Adhesions between the lungs and the 116 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS pleura often persist after recovery from pleurisy. Following fracture of the ribs, circumscribed adhesions frequently form in the region of the fracture. Furthermore, tubercjulous alterations occur on the pleura in the form of tubercles and,^ nodules (Fig. 86). These are chiefly found in the angles between the ribs and diaphragm. In in- spection, the diaphragm is to be pulled away so as to expose these points. Tuberculous alterations may be present on the pleura with- out the lungs being involved. 3. Digestive Apparatus (a) Mucouis MemhraTie of the Mouth and the Tongue The vesicles and superficial ulcers of foot and mouth disease ap- pear on the mucous membrane of the mouth in cattle and hogs, less often in sheep and goats. Inflammation may also be observed as a result of the action of irritant drugs and in cases of calf diphtheria. The mucosa is swollen, reddened and spotted with gray and grayish yellow. The discolored spots desquamate, leaving ulcers. Mercuric poisoning produces ulcers on the mucosa of the mouth in cattle. In cases of hemorrhagic septicemia the tongue may become enlarged to five times its natural size. Actinomycosis may aff^ect the mucosa of the mouth and also the tongue. It occurs in three forms : as superficial ulcers, as mushroom- like nodules projecting above the surface, and in the form of deep- lying nodules and thickenings (Fig. 89). Actinomycotic thickening of the tongue is called wooden tongue, since the tongue acquires the consistency of wood. The disease appears most frequently at the boundary line between the body and tip of the tongue (Fig. 87, a). In cattle this point is always to be examined for actinomycosis. The actinomycotic lesion at this point is characterized by the presence of a small ulcer, in which hairs and particles of the feed may be ob- served (Fig. 88). Tuberculosis may occur in the lymph glands belonging to the mu- cous membranes of the mouth and tongue (submaxillary and pharyn- geal glands ) . The glands become enlarged and filled with casefied and calcified foci. In hogs the submaxillary glands are chiefly af- fected, in cattle the pharyngeal glands (Fig. 91). Occasionally an GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 117 Fig. 87. — Beef tongue with actinomycosis at the line between the body and tip of tongue (a). ^^^^^i&^. Fig. -Section through the affected part of Fig. 87. Fig. 89. — Wooden tongue of beef with fungoid proliferations and - superficial ulcers. 118 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS enlargement and induration of the submaxillary and pharyngeal glands are seen in cases of actinomycosis. In such cases the glands exhibit minute yellow foci on cross-section. (b) Mucosa of the Pharynx Bloody and bloody-watery exudations may occur under the mu- cosa of the pharynx in anthrax, hemorrhagic septicemia and swine erysipelas. Tongue Tuberculous tonsils Pharyngeal wall Tuberculous pharyngeal glands Larynx and surrounding soft parts Fig. 91. — Tuberculosis of the pharyngeal glands and tonsils of the beef (c) Esophagus Occasionally one observes local tumors (wartlike proliferations) on the mucosa of the esophagus, also larvas of the warble-fly in the GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 119 muscular layer in cattle (Fig. 90), and Miescher's sacs in sheep and goats (Fig. 92). Fig. 90. — Beef esophagus with young larvae of warble fly. Fig. 92. — Miescher's sacs in the esophagus of the sheep. (d) Stomach and Intestines The mucosa of the stomach and intestines may be moderately swollen and covered with mucus in cases of catarrh, while in gas- tritis and enteritis it may be greatly swollen and reddened or cov- ered with false membranes and scales or even ulcers. Inflammatory reddening should not be confused with the digestive congestion of one circumscribed area of the gastric mucous membrane in hogs. Quite frequently foreign bodies are found in the second stomach of cattle, either lying loose in the stomach cavity or penetrating through the wall. A foreign body may produce a tubular wound, with formation of stinking pus. It may reach the pericardium and may also cause peritonitis. 120 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Gastric ulcers are observed with relative frequency in calves, the mucous membrane being completely destroyed to a greater or less depth. Peritonitis, together with the collection of stinking material in the body cavity, follows the development of a perforating ulcer. In the stomach and intestines various animal parasites occur, es- pecially round worms and tape worms. In themselves they have no importance for meat inspection, since they are removed in cleaning the intestines. They may, however, lead to the development of emacia- tion, dropsy, and other general disturbances. Frequently small tubercles of the size of hemp seeds or peas, with greenish caseous contents, are found in the intestinal wall of cattle. Small I^arge Medium tuberculous tuberculous tuberculous ulcer ulcer ulcer Fig. 93. — Portion of beef intestine with tuberculous ulcers. These tubercles are caused by harmless round worms, but if present in large numbers may render the intestines unfit for sausage casings. In cases of tuberculosis, gray, yellow, grayish yellow, and grayish red tubercules may appear upon the outer covering of the stomach and intestines, and also ulcers in the mucosa of the intestines. The latter vary in size from a lentil to a bean or larger, the base is rough, and the ulcer is surrounded by a raised ridge (Fig. 93), In intes- tinal tuberculosis the mesenteric glands are always enlarged and filled with gray and yellow tubercles. Frequently, however, the mesenteric glands are tuberculous in the absence of demonstrable tuberculous lesions in the intestines. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS (e) Peritoneum 121 The most important alterations in the peritoneum are gray, yel- low or grayish-yellow tubercles in tuberculosis ; also grayish red, firmly attached membranes in tuberculosis and inflammations accom- panied with the collection of pus or stinking watery exudates in the Fig. 94. — Omentum of hog with Cysticercus tenuicollis. body cavity, or with yellow, easily separable membranous deposits upon the viscera. Connective tissue adhesions may occur between viscera without the formation of pus or with encapsulated pus foci. Accumulations of gas in the form of vesicles is observed in the mesentery of swine (mesenteric emphysema or air-bladder mesentery). 122 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The general health of the animal is not thereby disturbed. Affected parts may be easily removed. Cysticercus tenuicollis is found under the peritoneum, in the mesentery and omentum (Fig. 94). Liver. — The usual lobulation is sometimes wanting in the liver of hogs. Double livers may also occur. These malformations do not affect the wholesomeness of the liver, since they are not associated with any other alteration of the organ. Occasionally bluish-red or violet spots are observed under the surface of the liver and extending into its substance. They affect the market price but not the whole- someness of the organ. A black coloration may occur in the liver of calves, rendering it unfit for food. Ruptures may occur in the liver of very fat animals, especially lambs, usually leading to death from hemorrhage. The liver, is yel- low in cases of icterus. Discoloration and cloudiness of the liver, issociated with hemorrhages, are very important symptoms of serious general diseases. In the beef liver dry gangrene is observed in the form of cloudy, sharply delimited areas of gray color. In time the gangrenous foci soften, become purulent, and finally are completely encapsulated. As a result of inflammation, the liver may lose its nor- mal consistency and become firm, tough, and indurated. The affected parts of the liver are condemned. Furthermore, tumors may occur in the liver, and also tuberculous and actinomycotic neomorphs. The most frequent pathological find- ings in the liver, however, are animal parasites (echinococci, flukes, Cysticercus tenuicollis, and pentastomes). The flukes are located in the bile-ducts and cause enlargement and thickening of these struc- tures. Wandering ascarid worms are sometimes found in the bile- ducts of hogs. Pancreas. — Alterations in the pancreas are rare. Occasionally tumors are observed in the organ, and calculi in the pancreatic duct. 4. Genito-Urinary Apparatus (a) The Kidneys A form of malformation observed in the kidneys consists in the atrophy of one and the enlargement of the other kidney. The kid- neys may also grow together. These malformations are of little im- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 123 portance in meat inspection. Cloudiness of the surface and cortex of the kidneys has the same significance as cloudiness of the liver. The same is true for small hemorrhages in the kidneys. Several forms of inflammation occur in the kidneys. Recent in- flammation may be recognized from the fact that the kidneys are en- larged, cloudy, and softer than usual. As a rule, such fresh inflam- mations accompany serious general diseases. The same is true of purulent renal inflammation, in which small, white or yellow pus foci form in the renal cortex, surrounded by a red area. Inflammation of the renal pelvis may arise from extension of an infection upward from the bladder. It may be recognized from the distension of the ureters and renal pelvis, which are enlarged and filled with pus and mucus. Fig. 95. — Spotted kidney in the calf. In calves, round or conical white nodules without surrounding red area occur in the cortex of the kidneys (Spotted kidney. Fig. 95). This condition may or may not be connected with general disturbance of health. i Mention may also be made of contractions in the cortex and me- dulla of the kidneys, accompanied with the formation of white streaks or scars. In small numbers they are of no importance, but in large numbers they may render the kidneys unfit for food. Furthermore, tumors and tuberculous alterations occur in the kid- neys. The latter are to be recognized by the appearance of small gray or yellow tubercles and larger yellow casefied and calcified nodules. In tuberculosis, a large part of the beef kidney may be trans- formed into a yellow caseous focus. 124 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS (b) Bladder a7id Urethra Calculi may collect in the bladder (cystic calculi), and in male animals, especially in steers and wethers, may obstruct the urethra. Rupture of the bladder follows, or necrosis of the urethra in the region of the retained calculus. Urine passes into the subcutis through the necrotic tissue. In either case bloody urine is observed, and a pro- nounced urinous odor in the meat, which is, therefore, unfit for food. Cystitis is to be recognized by the swelling and reddening of the mucosa of the bladder, formation of squamae and ulcers, as also by the cloudiness and foul odor of the urine. (c) Male Sexual Organs Tuberculosis may occur in bull and boar testicles. Tuberculous testicles are enlarged and exhibit yellow caseous pits, or are trans- formed into a yellow caseous mass. The superficial inguinal glands are also affected. (d) Female Sexual Organs Pathological alterations may occur in the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, and udder. The most important alterations are those of the uterus, vagina, and udder. The most frequent alterations of the ovaries and oviducts are of tuberculous nature, being connected with tuberculosis of the peri- toneum. Shrunken or mummified fetuses may be found in the uterus. If the mummified fetuses lie in an odorless fluid, are hard as stone, and if the general condition of health is not affected, the carcass is passed. If decomposing fetuses are found lying in a stinking fluid and are bloated with gases of decomposition, septicemia may be suspected. The same is true for all cases of wounds of the uterus, inflammation accompanied with swelling and reddening of the uterine mucosa and with the formation of squamae and ulcers ; and for retention of the afterbirth. Tumors in the uterus and under the uterine mucosa do not affect the wholesomeness of the meat. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 125 Finally, tuberculosis should be mentioned as a frequeut disease of the uterus in cows. Uterine tuberculosis occurs in three forms : forma- tion of ulcers and tubercles in and under the uterine mucosa ; merely tubercles under the mucosa ; and tubercles upon the outer covering of the uterus and in the uterine wall. The last form is connected with tuberculosis of the peritoneum. The mucosa of the vagina may exhibit vesicles of the size of peas or larger, with cloudy purulent contents and superficial ulcers (vesi- cular eruption). These lesions do not affect the carcass. ' Tuberculous fupra mammary lymph gland Healthy- fore quarter Tuberculous liind quarter Tubercles on mucous membrane of milk cistern Fig. 96. — Tuberculous udder of cow. Udder. — In the udder the inflammatory lesions of tuberculosis and actinomycosis are of interest. The udder and supramammary lymph- glands are swollen, the swelling affecting all quarters uniformly or only one or more quarters. A watery fluid containing flakes is obtained from the teats. These conditions may be associated with septicemia 126 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS or other general diseases, rendering condemnation necessary. Simple mammitis may run its course, leaving the affected parts of the udder indurated. In mammary tuberculosis one or more quarters of the udder are enlarged, and uniformly firm or with nodules. Simultaneously the corresponding lymph-glands are swollen, full of liquid, and with casefied or calcified tubercles or nodules. On cross-section the affected quarters of the udder do not show the usual yellow color of the mam- mary tissue, but a grayish red color and a varying number of con- spicuous, grayish-yellow, casefied and calcified tubercles. In the swine, udder tuberculosis is relatively rare as compared with antinomy cosis. The latter disease results in the formation of nodules and pus foci in the udder. These nodules are tough and filled with small yellow tubercles. The pus foci contain yellow or grayish-green pus. The nodules and pus foci may break through to the surface. The supra- mammary glands are swollen and watery on cross-section. In addition to the above-mentioned diseases, simple tumors may occur in the udder. 5. Circulatory Apparatus The pericardium, epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium may be affected with special diseases. Hemorrhages in the form of spots, points, and streaks may appear on the pericardium and epicardium in various infectious diseases and in septicemia. The epicardium is often spotted with black or red in cases of anthrax. Inflammation appears in the pericardium of cattle as a result of injury from foreign bodies which have penetrated through the second stomach. In such cases the pericardium is dis- tended with a stinking fluid, and its inner surface, as well as the epicardium, is covered with a yello^<^, separable, omelet-like deposit. Moreover, in cases of pneumonia accompanied with pleurisy, the peri- cardium may also be affected. Pericardial inflammation may lead to connective tissue adhesions between the heart and pericardium, re- quiring a knife to separate the pericardium. Adhesions without sup- puration or effusions are not of serious consequence. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 127 Tuberculous alterations may occur in and upon the pericardium. Like tuberculous lesions on the pleura and peritoneum, they appear as grayish-red proliferations on the surface (Fig. 97), developing later into small tubercles or larger rough nodules (Fig. 86). In general infectious diseases and in septicemia the heart muscle may be cloudy, grayish-red and softer than normally. Furthermore, Fig. 97. — Heart with tuberculous proliferations on the outer surface. one may find in the heart muscle pus foci, tuberculous alterations, echinococci, and cysticerci. Petechia occur under the endocardium (Fig. 78) under the same conditions as in the epicardium. These should not be confused with normal red spots of the papillary muscles. Inflammation of the car- 128 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The two halves of a sectioned echinococcus Fig. 98. — ^Heart with echinococci. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 129 Proliferation Proliferation Fig. 99. — Hog heart with proliferations on the valves following swine erysipelas. 130 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS diac valves may lead to the formation of tumors and ulcers, thus ob- structing the movement of the blood. A tumor-producing inflamma- tion is observed in cases of swine erysipelas (Fig. 99). Ulcerous in- flammation of the cardiac valves with deposition of clotted blood upon the ulcers is seen in septicemia. Simple tumors may occur in all parts of the heart. 6. Lymph Glands The lymph glands act as filters, purifying the lymph before its entrance into the blood circulation. If the lymph carries pathogenic bacteria or some other cause of inflammation the glands become swol- len and inflamed. On cross-section of inflamed glands an abundance of fluid escapes and hemorrhage's may be seen. The lymph glands are regularly affected in case of inflammation of the part or organ from which they receive their lymph. Swelling of all the lymph glands is an indication of septicemia or fresh, hematogenous infection with tuberculosis. If a certain part of the body is affected with tuberculosis the cor- responding lymph glands are also involved. Tuberculosis of the lymph glands is characterized by swelling and the appearance of small tubercles, which later casefy, calcify and unite into large nodules in the interior of the gland. Swelling may also appear in actinomycosis, the gland becoming rough and tougher than normally. On cross-section through the en- larged glands yellow, punctiform deposits are observed (colonies of actinomyces ) . The lymph glands may become casefied in hog cholera and in caseous lymph-adenitis of sheep. In leukemia the lymph glands may become enlarged to the size of the fist or head, and are abnormally soft. Among the animal parasites, pentastomes may be found, espe- cially in the mesenteric glands, and also cysticerci, echinococci and fluke worms. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 131 7. The Spleen The capsule of the spleen may exhibit the same alterations as the peritoneum. In tuberculosis the splenic capsule may be more ex- tensively affected than the rest of the peritoneum. Malignant tumors occur in the spleen, and also pus foci in purulent septicemia and ichorous foci in puriform septicemia. In hematogenous tuberculosis tubercles appear in the spleen. Echinococci, wandering liver flukes and pentastomes are also found in the spleen. Swelling of the spleen is of great importance. It occurs in anthrax and swine erysipelas. Fig. 100. — Section through sheep brain showing gid worm. (The gid worm projects from the middle of the sectioned brain.) 8. The Nervous System (a) Brain and Spinal Cord The membranes of the brain may be inflamed (meningitis). The meninges become reddened, and in purulent meningitis are covered with pus. Tuberculous alterations may also occur in the brain in the form of small tubercles. The gid worm (Fig. 100) is found In the brain, and occasionally echinococci and cysticerci. Serious brain af- fections may be suspected from the behavior of the animal during life. 132 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS (b) The Nerves Tumors in the form of soft-firm nodules or tubercles occur on the 9. The Skeleton Swellings due to rachitis and abnormal softness or osteomalacia are observed in the bones. In osteomalacia the marrow cavity is en- Fig. 101. — Thickening of rib following fracture. Fig. 102. — Thickening of rib following tuberculosis. larged and filled with a fluid, yellow marrow. Liquefaction and suppuration of the bone marrow may occur in pyemia. The most frequent alterations of the bones are fractures of the leg bones, ribs and vertebras. Fractures of the leg bones produce extreme lameness ; the animal cannot put any weight on the broken leg. Vertebral fractures produce lameness, the animal being unable GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 133 to rise with the affected quarters. In the region of the fractures hemorrhages form and penetrate in the connective tissue between the muscles to the surface of the body. It should always be remembered, therefore, that hemorrhages on the surface of the carcass may come from bone fractures. Distinction is made between simple and com- pound fractures. In the latter the skin may be torn and slivers of bone may protrude through the wound. Parts which have thus be- Tuberculous focus in spinal process of dorsal vertebra Tuberculous process in body of dorsal vertebra Fig. 103. — Vertebral tuberculosis in the hog. come infiltrated with blood are unfit for food; the other parts of the carcass are not affected. In the healing of bone fractures large thickenings may arise, which are of no consequence in meat inspec- tion (Fig. 101). Swelling of the bone may appear as a result of tuberculosis, the bones becoming enlarged and so soft on the surface that they may be 134 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS cut with a knife. On the surface of a section soft masses of tissue are observed containing small caseous foci (Figs. 102 and 103). Actinomycosis of the bones is particularly frequent in the upper and lower jawbones of cattle. These bones are greatly enlarged (Fig. 104) and often permeated with fungoid tumorous masses, which possess a red color and small punctiform yellow pits. Lime deposits are observed in the cushion beneath the sternum. Calcareous deposits are distinguished from tuberculous alterations Fig. 104. — 'Lower jaw of beef with swelling following actinomycosis. by their pure white color, and by the fact that the alterations do not proceed from the center of the sternum as in tuberculosis, but develop underneath the sternum (Fig, 105). The calcified part is to be removed- 10. The Musculature Both slight and extensive ruptures may be found in the muscles. Small ruptures are frequently found in the diaphragm of fat healthy GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 135 swine, and also in the abdominal and pelvic musculature. Such rup- tures are characterized by the appearance of numerous small hemor- rhages in the muscles {Fig. 106). This condition is distinguished from that of septicemia by the absence of hemorrhages in the viscera. Moreover, whole muscles may be torn in two, producing extensive hemorrhages. In either case the hemorrhages are of mechanical origin and do not lead to condemnation of the aifected parts unless the muscles are extensively infiltrated with blood. Discolorations of various sorts may also occur in the musculature. The muscles may become like fish meat or waxy. These may be Fig. 105. — Lime deposition below the sternum of beef. symptoms of serious disease. Occasionally the meat of large food animals assumes the color and other characteristics of chicken meat. Now and then a white or gray discoloration is seen in the longissimus dorsi in swine as a result of deficiency in muscle pigment. This defect does not appear until the carcass is cut up for the trade. Simple tumors may appear in the musculature. The alterations of actinomycosis and tuberculosis are also observed. In actinomy- cosis the connective tissue increases at the expense of muscle tissue until the structure becomes tough and almost like wood (see wooden tongue). In cases of muscle tuberculosis tubercles arranged like 136 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS strings of pearls are formed at the expense of the muscle tissue. Large tuberculous tumors may also be found in the musculature. The musculature may also be the seat of Miescher's sacs, cysti- cerci and trichina. Fig. 106. — Musculature of hog with numerous small hemorrhages following rupture. The black spots indicate the hemorrhages. II.— BLOOD DISEASES Blood diseases are classified as anemia, hydremia or dropsy, icterus, uremia and leukemia. 1. Anemia In anemia the quantity of the blood is diminished. The animals are chlorotic, have pale mucous membranes, and in acute cases show GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 137 malnutrition. The blood has a weaker coloring power than in healthy animals. Anemia is especially frequent in sheep, and in general occurs more often in young than in old animals. The com- mon predisposing causes of anemia are animal parasites in the stom- ach, intestines, lungs and liver, and chronic gastric and intestinal catarrh. If an anemic carcass shows a fairly good nutritive condition it is passed. Acute cases of anemia and emaciation are condemned. 2. Hydremia or Dropsy Hydremia consists in an increase of the water content of the blood. It develops from anemia. Sheep, goats and young cattle are more susceptible than old cattle and hogs. The hydremic con- dition is followed by dropsy. In the live animal one notes painless, doughy, pitting, non- feverish swellings on the lower parts of the body (head, neck, breast, belly, udder, legs). In advanced cases there may be weakness, loss of appetite and emaciation. In the carcass the following conditions are to be noted: thin, serumlike, faintly colored blood; a collection of clear, colorless and odorless fluid in the abdominal and thoracic cavities, of which the serous membranes are smooth, shiny and not inflamed- The con- nective tissue of the subcutis and muscles shows a watery infiltration of a gelatinous character. The muscles are soft, grayish red, and decompose rapidly. If the serous infiltration of the muscles is ex- tensive, the carcass is condemned. 3. Icterus Icterus consists in a yellow coloration of the tissues by the bili- rubin of the bile, which is absorbed in the blood as a result of ob- struction of the bile ducts. Icterus is frequently not detected in ante-mortem inspection, for the reason that the general condition of the animal is seldom affected. In the carcass icterus is to be recognized by the yellow or yellow- ish green coloration of the pleura, peritoneum, liver and kidneys. In more advanced cases the connective and adipose tissues are af- fected, and in acute cases even the bones and cartilages. In mild 138 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS cases the yellow color disappears within twenty-four hours. Such carcasses are passed, but if the yellow or greenish yellow discolora- tion persists after cooling, the carcass is condemned. 4. Uremia Uremia arises from the accumulation of urine in the blood when the urine cannot be excreted (as in bilateral renal inflammation), or when the bladder is ruptured or the urethra is injured so that the urine is poured into the body cavity or into the subcutis, and again absorbed into the blood. Uremic animals show symptoms of serious disease. The expired air may smell urinous. The odor may dis- appear on cooling but reappears on cooking. Carcasses exhibiting urinous odor are condemned. 3. Leukemia By the term leukemia is understood an increase in the number of leucocytes to such an extent that the blood no longer has its normal red color, but is light red or even puriform. In leukemia swelling of the spleen and of all the lymph glands occurs. A suspicion of leukemia may be entertained even in the live animal from the swell- ing of the lymph glands, e-g., the prescapular glands. In leukemia the beef spleen may attain a weight of 20 kg. and the hog spleen 3 kg. The swelling of the spleen in leukemia is distinguished from that in anthrax by the fact that the swollen spleen in leukemia pos- sesses a firm consistency. Leukemic carcasses are condemned. III.— INTOXICATIONS AND AUTOINTOXICATIONS Poisoning of food animals may arise from the ingestion of pois- onous plants, accidental ingestion of poisonous substances and from careless administration of drugs. The general condition of the animal is greatly disturbed in cases of poisoning. The disposition to be made of the carcass depends upon the nature of the poison. Milk fever or parturient paresis is a disease of unknown origin, which occurs soon after parturition. Affected cows are unable to stand or to swallow. The disease attacks chiefly well-nourished cows within three days after parturition. No characteristic lesions are GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 139 found in the viscera. The regulation requiring the condemnation of all animals which have given birth within ten days before slaugh- ter covers cases of milk fever. IV.— ANIMAL PARASITES AND THE DISEASES BY THEM A large number of animal parasites occur on the body or in the viscera of food animals. As a rule they produce no striking path- ological symptoms in the living animal, being in the majority of cases unexpectedly found in inspection. Animal parasites may be classified in two groups : those which are not transmissible to man in eating the meat, and those which are transmissible to man in the affected meat. The vast majority of animal parasites are found in the first group, for only four animal parasites are transmissible to man in meat, viz., beef measle worm {Cysticercus inermis), the measle worm of the hog, sheep and goat (C celluloses), trichina and the echino- coccus tapeworm. Carcasses affected with tapeworm cysts are con- demned or rendered into lard or tallow. No inspection is made for trichina. The most important animal parasites of which man is not a host : Parasites of the Skin The skin may be infected with mange bites and follicular mites, the former causing scabies. Sheep scab and cattle mange are the most important diseases of this class. Sheep scab is caused by mites which live between the epidermal scales, sucking blood and lymph, and thereby causing the appear- ance of the characteristic scabs of the disease. Affected sheep show symptoms of itching. The fleece is uneven and with hanging tufts of wool. Later, large irregular areas appear on the back and are covered with short, rubbed-off wool and scales (Fig. 107). Grayish white crumby scales and scabs, as well as reddish yellow thickenings, superficial suppuration and folds in the skin, are found on the affected areas. Carcasses of animals in advanced stages of the disease are condemned. 140 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS bo GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 141 Mange of cattle is caused by a closely related mite and is charac- terized by symptoms very similar to those of sheep scab. The hair follicle mite may infest the skin of hogs, producing grayish yellow tubercles. The chief locations for these tubercles are the snout, neck, lower part of the breast, belly, flanks and inside of the thighs. In the skin of pastured cattle warble fly larvae are found. They are white, yellow or greenish brown, 1 to 2 cm. long, and lie in connective tissue capsules which are filled with pus (Fig. 109). A watery fluid without bad odor accumulates about the warbles. The earlier stages of the larvae are passed in the wall of the esophagus (Fig. 110) and in the spinal cord. Parasites of the Nasal Passages Sheep bot flies live parasitic in the nasal cavities and frontal sinuses of sheep. They resemble the larvae of warble flies. Muscle Parasites Miescher's sacs are found in the musculature, most frequently in hogs and sheep, less often in cattle and goats. Only exceptionally are these parasites visible to the naked eye. This is most frequently the case in sheep, in which the sacs may be 1.5 cm. long and 3 mm. broad. Even the smallest specimens become visible to the naked eye after calcification, appearing as white points or streaks (calcareous deposits or concretions, Fig. 108). These calcareous concretions may be confused with calcified measle worms and trichina. The chief locations for Miescher's sacs are the abdominal muscles and muscular portion of the diaphragm in hogs, and the abdominal and skin muscles in sheep. A large form of Miescher's sacs is found quite frequently in the esophageal musculature of sheep and goats in the form of oblong sacs, sometimes attaining the size of hazel nuts (Fig. 111). The color is white, and the contents puslike. These sacs may occur to the number of several dozen in the esophagus. If Miescher's sacs are present in such numbers that the musculature is discolored or in- filtrated, the meat is unfit for food. 142 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS t Fig. 108. — Lime concretions in the musculature of the hog. Fig. 109. — Beef subcutis with warble fly larvae. 0- closed swelling, b- swellings opened showing larvae, c- empty swelling. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 143 Visceral Parasites Round worms and tape worms occur in the stomach and intes- tines of cattle, sheep, goats and hogs. Round worms and echino- cocci are also found in the lungs, and fluke worms, Cysticercus termi- collis, echinococci and pentastomes in the liver. Pentastomes occur also in the lymph glands, especially in the mesenteric glands ; echino- cocci in the spleen, heart, kidneys and, exceptionally, in the mus- Trachea Miescher's sac in esophagus Fig. 110. — Beef esophagus with young larvae of warble fly. Fig. 111. — Miescher's sacs in the musculature of the sheep esophagus. cles ; and flukes occasionally wander into the lungs, spleen and elsewhere. The gid worm is found in the brain. The essential features of these parasites are discussed in the fol- lowing paragraphs. 1. Cysticercus TenuicoUis C. temiicoTLis is the asexual stage of Tama marginata of the dog. It is found chiefly in sheep and hogs, less often in calves and adult cattle. This bladder worm occurs in the form of round or oval vesi- 144 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS cles varying in size from that of peas to that of walnuts or apples (Fig. 112), The bladders are transparent and filled with a clear watery fluid. The scolex of the parasite may be seen through the wall of the bladder as a white, spherical structure. The preferred Fig. 112. — Cysticercus tenuicollis and burrow in hog liver. Fig. 113. — Omentum of hog with Cysticercus tenuicollis. locations of the cysticercus are the omentum (Fig. 113), mesentery, peritoneum, pleura and liver. In wandering about under the peri- toneum and in the liver the parasite makes irregular burrows (Fig. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 145 112), which are at first dark red, later brownish or greenish. C. tenuicollis is distinguished from the measle worms of pork and beef by the fact that, unHke the two latter parasites, it occurs only in the viscera and not in the muscles. 2. The Brain Bladder Worm The brain bladder worm or gid worm is the larval stage of Tcenia ccenums of the dog. It occurs chiefly in the brain, less often in the spinal cord, of sheep, goats and cattle, causing gid. The gid worm occurs in the form of round or oblong vesicles varying in size from a millet seed to a hen's egg, sometimes crowding the brain tissue aside. The vesicles are filled with a watery fluid (Fig. 100). White, punctiform structures, the scoleces, are to be seen on the inner surface. Only a few cases of this disease have been observed in the United States. 3. Liver Flukes Liver flukes live in the bile ducts, but occasionally wander into the lungs, spleen and other parts. These parasites are very common in cattle and sheep, less frequent in hogs and goats. Flukes are exposed to view by opening the bile ducts. There are two species of fluke worms, which are found in meat inspection. The common liver fluke (Fasciola Jiepatica) is a leaf-shaped worm, 1^/^ to 4 cm. long and % to 1 cm. broad. It produces inflam- mation of the bile ducts, which are finally transformed into thickened stiff tubes as a result of calcification. The thickened bile ducts are particularly prominent on the gastric surface of the liver (Fig. 114t). By extension of the inflammation from the bile ducts the liver tissue may undergo induration. The large American fluke (F. magna) is found in the liver or lungs of cattle. The body is flesh-colored, 20 to 100 mm. long and 11 to 16 mm. wide. It is perhaps more frequently met with in cattle than the common liver fluke. In Germany the lancet fluke {Dicrocoelmm lancedlatum) infests cattle, sheep and swine. It is lance-shaped, 4 to 8 mm. long and 146 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 11 u c QJ o > »— » rt •-i-i OD (U - o ho s^ GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 147 Distended bile ducts Section through large bile ducts of left lobe showing small flukes Fluke showing through an enlarged bile duct Blood vessel 148 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 1 to 2^ wide. As a rule it produces merely enlargements of the bile ducts. It may be seen through the distended bile duct (Figs. 115 and 116). Small flukes showing through the enlarged bile ducts Section of a large bile duct showing flukes Fig. 116. — Enlarged section of bile duct of left lobe of sheep liver. 4. Echiriococci or Hydatids Echinococcus is the immature stage of Tarda echinococcus of dogs. It appears under two forms. Echinococcus poly Trior phus occurs in cattle, sheep and goats. The worm is a roundish hydatid varying in size from a pea to a child's head, and filled with a clear fluid or small vesicles (daughter cysts). The wall of the mother cyst is a grayish white, opaque membrane- This in turn is surrounded by a connective tissue cap- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 149 sule firmly united with the adjacent tissue. On the inner surface of the hydatid membrane are found the white punctiform scoleces. Echinococcus occurs in the liver (Fig. 117), lungs, heart, spleen, kidneys and less often in the musculature. Hydatids in the heart (Fig. 118) may cause sudden death. Dead echinococci become trans- formed into yellow, caseous or calcareous masses surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. Echinococcus muLtilocularis is found almost exclusively in cattle. It occurs chiefly as a nodular tumor in the liver, varying in firmness, Fig. 117. — Hog liver with numerous Echinococcus polymorphus. and ranging in size from a hazel nut to a fist. The outer part of these tumors consists of numerous closely packed transparent vesicles ranging in size from a mustard seed to a pea. The central part of the tumor is composed of gelatinous, membranous, caseous or cal- careous masses. The whole tumor is divided into numerous chambers by a strongly developed connective tissue framework (Figs. 119 and 120). Dead hydatids might be mistaken for tuberculous foci, but are to be distinguished by the absence of involvement of the correspond- ing lymph glands. 150 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS The two halves of an echinococcus Fig. 118. — Echinococcus polymorphus in the heart. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 151 Ijchinococcus multilocularis pjo-, 119. — ^Portion of beef liver with Echinococcus multilocularis. Fig. 120.— Portion of beef liver showing cross sedtion of Echinococcus multilocularis. 152 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 5. Lung Worms in the lungs of cattle and more frequently in sheep, goats and hogs we find round worms which live parasitic in the bronchi, causing inflammation of the air passages and even of the lung tissue. A pure white, threadlike round worm, 3 to 8 cm. long, occurs in the lungs of cattle, especially in the bronchi at the base of the lungs. The parasites are exposed to view by incising the lung Fig. 121. — Sheep lungs with nodules and pseudotuberculous tubercles produced by lung worms. through the lower third. The lung worms are found imbedded in slime, or dead specimens are found in small greenish tubercles in the lungs. A similar round worm is observed in the lungs of sheep. It is 2% to 8^ cm. long, and is found in the bronchi. The hair worm, ^ cm. long, and about the thickness of a hair, also occurs in the GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 153 Section through a bronchial tube showing lung worms Pearly spot caused by infestation of lung worms Fig. 122. — Lung of hog with lung worms. lyung worms in a bronchial tube Fig. 123. — Bronchial tube of hog with lung worms. 154 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS lungs of sheep. This worm may produce large, gray and grayish red nodules (inflammatory foci), and small, miliary tubercles in the lung tissue, which are yellow and cloudy in the center as in tuber- culosis (Fig. 121). In lung worm infestation the pulmonary lymph glands are nor- mal, and this fact at once distinguishes the disease from tuberculosis. A white filiform round worm is often found in the lungs of hogs. This worm causes no pulmonary inflammation. It is commonly found only at the base of the lungs. Its presence may lead to the forma- tion of pearly spots on the border of the lungs (Fig. 122). 6. Fentastomes Pentastomes occur in food animals in two forms : as larvae or immature, and as mature parasites. The larvae are about ^ cm. long, flat, white but transparent, and slightly more than 1 mm. wide. They are found in the lymph glands, particularly the mesen- teric glands of sheep and cattle, and produce in them yellowish, green or gray foci ranging in size from a millet seed to a pea. The larvse may also occur under the peritoneum and in the liver and lungs. The sexually mature parasites live in the nasal cavities and frontal sinuses of dogs and goats. They are 8 to 20 mm. long, tapering gradually posteriorly (Fig. 82). Organs or parts infested with animal parasites not transmissible to man are removed and condemned. The rest of the carcass is passed. Animal Parasites which are Transmissible to Man Four animal parasites of food animals are transmissible to man: beef measle worm, pork measle worm, trichina and Taenia echino- coccus. 1. Beef Measle Worm The beef measle worm is the immature stage of Tcenia saginata of man. It has no circle of hooks, and is therefore called CysUcercus GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 155 inermis {C. bovis). The beef measle worm occurs in the form of spherical or oblong vesicles (Fig. 124) in the skeletal, cardiac and lingual musculature, and exceptionally in certain viscera (lungs, liver, brain and lymph glands). The vesicles are gray, transparent, and consist of an outer connective tissue sac and the parasite itself. The latter is in turn a delicate vesicle containing cloudy scoleces Fig. 124. — Beef measle worms with head showing in natural position in the musculature. as large as millet or hemp seed (Fig. 125). The size of the measle worm varies, according to the stage of development, from that of a pinhead to a pea. Exceptionally the cysticercus is not transparent, but grayish white and surrounded with a tough capsule. After the cysticerci have died the contents of the sac may be caseous or calci- fied instead of liquid. Dead cysticerci are characterized by the green Fig. 125. — Beef measle worms removed from their cysts, a- with head showing through, b- with protruded head. color of the vesicle contents. The beef measle worm is relatively frequent, affecting .1 to A per cent, of cattle in different regions, and appearing oftener in steers than in cows. Favorite locations. In the vast majority of cases only a few measle worms are found, chiefly in the masticatory muscles and heart. The masseter and pterygoid muscles are infested with equal fre- quency. Beef measle worms may also be found in the tongue, neck 156 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS muscles, muscular portion and pillars of the diaphragm, intercostal and breast muscles. Moreover, in cutting up measly cattle, cysti- cerci may be discovered in the muscles of the shoulder and inner part of the thigh. The viscera, with the exception of the heart, are seldom infested. Only in extensive infestation are the lungs, liver, brain and lymph glands attacked. Exceptionally, however, in cases of very slight infestation cysticerci may be found in the lungs, liver, lymph glands, brain and esophagus. Fig. 126. — Scolex of beef measle worm protruded and enlarged, with 4 sucking discs and circle of hooks. In inspection for cysticerci the pterygoid and masseter muscles and the heart are incised. This is not necessary with calves under six weeks of age, for they do not harbor viable, but only immature or undeveloped cysticerci. For the rest, cysticerci are recognizable from their form, position and possession of both capsule and vesicle. Identification is difficult only in cases of very small, undeveloped, dead, casefied or calcified cysticerci. Cysticerciis tenuicollis is distinguished from the beef measle worm by the fact that the former is never found in the striated muscula- ture, but only under the serous membranes and, in young animals, GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 157 Nasopharyngeal cavity Right submax- illary gland Circumvallate papilla; Hard palate Pterygoid muscle Masseter muscle Pharyngeal glands lyarynx Soft palate Body of tongue Tip of tongue Fig. 127. — Beef head and tonRxie. 158 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS in the liver. Furthermore, C. termicollis is ordinarily much larger than C. bovis. Hydatids are only occasionally found in the musculature, but occur chiefly in the viscera and are further distinguished from measle worms by their rounder form and the absence of any structure cor- responding in size and form to the cysticercal scolex. Vesicles of the size of peas, filled with a clear, watery fluid but not containing parasites, are found on the cardiac valves of cattle, hogs and sheep. The beef measle worm may be killed by cooking or pickling the meat, or by preservation in cold storage for three weeks, but measly parts or carcasses are condemned. 2. The Cysticercus of Hogs, Sheep, Goats and Dogs, or the Pork Measle Worm The pork measle worm is the immature stage of T'cenia solium of man, and is known as Cysticercus cellulosce. The hooks are visible through a hand lens but not to the naked eye (Figs. 131 and 132). The pork measle worm closely resembles the beef measle worm in form, but its capsule is more delicate and, therefore, more trans- parent. The scolex is hence more easily seen through the cyst than is that of the beef measle worm. As in the latter, the size varies with the age and development of the parasite. Caseation and calcification take place less often than in the beef measle worm. In addition to swine, C. cellulosce occurs exceptionally in sheep, goats and dogs. It is relatively rare even in hogs, occur- ring in the hogs of some localities in only .03 per cent, of cases. The favorite locations for C. cellulosce, which are always to be inspected for the worm, are the adductor muscles of the thigh, abdom- inal muscles, muscular portion of the diaphragm, and intercostal, lumbar, cervical, sternal, cardiac, lingual, laryngeal and masticatory muscles (Fig. 133). All these muscles are examined and the heart is incised in inspection. Other viscera may be infested, notably the brain, lymph glands and the subcutaneous fat tissue. These parts should also be examined. Other viscera are only exceptionally in- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 159 Fig. 128. — Musculature of hog with measle worms appearing on the cut surface. Measle worms Scoleces Fig. 129. — Section through a measly hog tongue. 160 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Measle worm in myocardium Measle worm under endocardium Fig. 130. — Section through a measly hog heart. Fig. 131. — Pork measle worm with protruded scolex, slightly enlarged. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 161 fested, but in such cases of general infestation the lungs, liver, spleen and eyes are sometimes attacked. Hogs show an extensive infestation with measle worms much more frequently than cattle. Sometimes the musculature is discol- ored grayish red and strongly infiltrated. The criteria mentioned in reaching a differentiation between beef measle worms and C. tenuicollis and other structures apply also to the pork measle worm. Fig. 132. — Single hooks of a dangerous measle worm, grea'lly enlarged. C. cellulosce may be killed by cooking or pickling the meat, but not by preservation in cold storage. Infested parts and carcasses are condemned. 3. Trichina At present no inspection is made for trichina. The reasons for the abandonment of trichina inspection cannot be better stated than in the words of Dr. Melvin from the Twenty-third Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry: 162 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS "While the Federal meat inspection in this country is as thorough as a comprehensive law, stringent regulations, and a liberal appropriation of money can make it, and the consumer of meats bearing the stamp 'U. S. Inspected and Passed' may- in general have the comfortable assurance that he is buying and eating products from healthy animals prepared under clean and sanitary conditions and the danger of contracting dis- ease from eating these meals is practically eliminated, yet the fact should not be overlooked that there is one disease against which the meat in- spection legend does not pretend to be a safeguard. For the detection of most of the diseases affecting meat the human eye needs no assistance. The disease called trichinosis, however, to which hogs are subject, is caused by a parasite so small that the microscope must be employed to detect it. Thorough curing or thorough cooking of the meat kills this parasite. It seems, however, that some European peoples have a habit of eating raw or half-raw pork, and consequently they have suffered from this disease. Very elaborate measures have been taken in some countries to do away with or to lessen the danger. In Germany, for instance, there is an army of inspectors who use the microscope to detect these parasites in pork. These countries some years ago forbade the importation of American pork products unless they had been microscopi- cally inspected. To meet this requirement the Bureau instituted sev- eral years ago a system of microscopic inspection of pork intended for shipment to such countries. No microscopic inspection of pork intended for home consumption, however, has ever been made or even contem- plated. The Department takes bhe ground that from the nature of the disease an examination of certain parts of a hog carcass can only min- imize and not eliminate the danger. "The parasites, it is true, are usually found, if found at all, in cer- tain parts, as the pillar of the diaphragm, the psoas muscle, the inner aspect of the shoulder, or the base of the tongue. Not finding them in these parts by the usual methods, it may be assumed to be probable that they do not exist in the remainder of the carcass. This is, however, only a probability, as they may exist, and even to such an extent as to produce disease if the flesh is eaten raw. Many cases are on record where twenty, even thirty, examinations were made before trichinae were found ; and out of 6,S29 cases of trichinosis in Germany, between 1881 and 1898, a careful inquiry traced 2,042 cases (over 32 per cent) to meat which had been microscopically examined and passed as free from trichinae. In view of these facts the Department has regarded it as utterly impracticable to inspect hog carcasses for this disease. It has further taken the view that such inspection — which as formerly car- ried on for exported products would cost about $3,700,000 a year if all hogs killed at inspected houses were so examined — would do more harm than good. It would create in the minds of the consumers a feeling of false security, which might lead them to omit the only sure means of escaping danger, namely, to refrain from eating uncooked or uncured pork; and it would thus defeat its very purpose and render the great trouble and expense worse than useless. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 163 "Not only has the Department not inspected for trichinae the pork consumed at home, but it has abandoned recently such inspection of pork products going abroad. It was found that even after our elaborate ex- amination some foreign countries, although requiring our inspection, paid no attention to our certificates, and conducted an examination of their own, on the result of which depended the admission of the products. On the ground, then, that our examination was superfluous, the Depart- ment stopped it. Of the principal countries formerly requiring certifi- cates of this examination Italy and France already have agreed to admit our products without them, and upon the certificate simply of the regular inspection under the present law. It is hoped that other countries will take similar action." ^ A trichina inspection is maintained in Germany, and the follow- ing summary of Ostertag's descriptive matter on the biology and economic importance of trichina may be of interest. The trichina is a round worm, which occurs in the form of muscle trichinae and intestinal trichinae, the former being undeveloped worms and the latter developed or sexually mature worms. If a man or animal eats meat containing muscle trichinae, they develop in the intestines within 36 to 48 hours into intestinal trichinae (male and female worms). The females produce thousands of living young, which penetrate into the intestinal lymph vessels, pass through the lymph glands, and reach the blood system through the thoracic duct. By means of the blood they are carried to the muscles, where they continue their development. They wander through the muscles until an obstruction is reached at the union between muscle and tendon. Here the trichinae come to rest and grow to the size of 1 mm. They then coil up spirally and become surrounded with a capsule. The capsules attain their complete development within three months after the ingestion of the trichinous meat. The capsules are at first transparent, but later calcify and become opaque. A microscope is required for the detection of trichinae. It is only in case of strong development of fat tissue at both ends of the capsule, and in the presence of strong calcification, that trichinae are visible to the naked eye as calcareous concretions. In Germany the inspector takes samples of meat from the favor- ite locations of trichinae, 24 samples from each whole carcass and 18 from each separate piece of pork presented for inspection. The microscope should be capable of giving a magnification of 30, 40, 164 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Abdominal muscles Muscular part of diaphragm Intercostal muscle Sternal musculature Pterygoid muscle Adductor muscle of thigh - Loin muscle Pillars of diaphragm Neck musculature Fiaf. 133. — Fa.vorite locations of hog measle worms. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 165 and 100 diameters. Special instruments, boxes for samples and a compressorium have been devised for this work. The German meat inspection law requires that the inspector spend at least eighteen minutes in the examination of the samples from each hog carcass. The samples are taken from the favorite locations of trichinje, viz., pillars of the diaphragm, costal portion of the diaphragm, laryngeal muscles and lingual muscles (Fig. 133). Trichinae occur in wild and domestic hogs, dogs and other ani- mals. Hogs and dogs become infested by eating trichinous rats, which harbor large numbers of trichinae, especially about country slaughter houses. The extent of infestation of hogs ranges from .007 to .008 per cent, in different localities. 4. Taenia Echinococcus T. echinococcus is the sexually mature developmental form of hydatids and lives in the small intestine of dogs. It is a very small tapeworm, not more than 3 or 4 mm. long and 1 mm. wide. In this country dogs are not considered as human food, but man may ac- quire the hydatid disease by too close* association with dogs in un- sanitary surroundings. 166 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS v.— INFECTIOUS DISEASES Infectious, contagious or communicable diseases are due to bac- teria which gain entrance to the animal body in the food, iii the inspired air or through wounds. Some species of pathogenic bac- teria multiply only at the point of inoculation. Others gain entrance to the blood and thus reach all parts of the body. In the latter case the raw meat may be virulent. A number of infectious dis- eases are readily transmitted from one animal to another, and may thus appear as plagues of wide extent. In some infectious diseases, however, the virus produces infection only when introduced into wounds (tetanus, septicemia). 1. — Tuberculosis 3 Tuberculosis is a chronic, infectious disease of great frequency in cattle and hogs, occurring less often in calves, goats and sheep. The percentage of animals aifected with tuberculosis varies greatly in different localities and in different species. Of 4,841,166 cattle slaughtered under Federal inspection in 1900, 5,279 were sufficiently affected to cause condemnation of part or all of the carcass. This number amounts to .1 per cent. Of 23,336,884 hogs slaughtered during the same year 5,440, or .02 per cent., were affected. During 1906, 6,925,526 cattle were slaughtered under Federal inspection and 14,662 whole carcasses or parts condemned; 1,102,775 calves were slaughtered and 25 condemned; 8,223,630 sheep were slaugh- tered and 4 were condemned; 26,649,353 hogs were slaughtered and 208,887 condemned for tuberculosis. In old cows the percentage is much higher. In some cases 95 per cent, of the cows in large dairies have been found to be infected with tuberculosis. The percentage of infection in hogs keeps pace with the increase of the disease in dairy cows. If hogs are fed tuberculous milk or allowed to run behind tuberculous cattle they become infected to an alarming extent. Symptoms of tuberculosis during life. There are only certain forms of the disease which show characteristic symptoms in the living animal (advanced pulmonary, intestinal, testicular, uterine, and mammary tuberculosis). GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 167 Frequen,t coughing of a weak, toneless character, emaciation, rough, lusterless, firmly attached skin, frequently recurring tym- panites, and frequent return of estrum without conception are symp- toms which should arouse suspicion. In advanced cases of pulmonary tuberculosis coughing and rapid, labored breathing are noted. In intestinal tuberculosis there may be acute diarrhea in addition to other symptoms. A. painless, tough swelling of the testicles occurs when these organs are affected. A muco-purulent discharge from the vagina is noted in uterine tuberculosis, and a painless, hard Fig. 134. — Tuberculous udder with greatly altered right hind quarter. swelling of one or more quarters of the udder appears in tuber- culous mammitis. The hind quarters of the udder are most often affected. Tuberculosis of the joints and lymph glands may also be recognizable during life. In tuberculous arthritis the joints are en- larged, hard and painless. Tuberculosis of the glands which may be palpated during life is comparatively rare. This form of the disease is characterized by swelling of the glands, which are uni- formly hard and painless. In tuberculous meningitis the animal 168 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS shows a staggering gait or is unable to rise. The arthritic form of tuberculosis is the only one to be recognized in hogs during life. Modes of infection and distribution of tuberculosis. The tubercle bacillus most frequently gains entrance into adult cattle with the inspired air (inhalation tuberculosis), into hogs and calves in milk and its by-products taken into the digestive tract (alimentary Left bronchial gland Mediastinal gland Fig. 135. — Beef lung affected with respiratory tuberculosis. The bronchial and mediastinal glands are greatly enlarged and filled with tuberculous foci. At points on the lung surface indicated by a there are tubercles which are found to be soft on section. tuberculosis). Exceptionally tubercle bacilli infect hogs through castration wounds. In whatever part the tubercle bacillus becomes located, it multiplies and at first produces a miliary, transparent GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 169 Tuberculous foci in the lung Tuberculous foci upon the lung Fig. 136. — Cross section of a beef lung showing tuberculous foci in the tissue and on the surface. 170 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS gray tubercle. The tubercle gradually becomes cloudy and is trans- formed centrifugally into a yellow, caseous and, later, calcareous mass, closely united with the surrounding tissue. This is the origin of the isolated tubercle. Calcareous tubercles emit a grating sound Fig. 137. — Portions of beef intestines with tuberculous ulcers. on section. By the formation of new tubercles in the surrounding tissue a nodule is developed, increasing in size to that of a pea, walnut, fist or even larger (Figs. 134-143). Tubercles on the mu- cosa tend to disintegrate after calcification, thus giving rise to GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 171 ulcers (Fig. 137). Under the influence of pyogenic bacteria sucli lesions in the lungs may become extensive pus cavities, characterized by large size, uneven, eroded surface, more or less fluid contents, and by the absence of a connective tissue capsule. Such necrotic foci may also form in the liver and mesenteric glands. Tubercles on the serous membranes, particularly the pleura and peritoneum. Fig. — 138. — Heart with tuberculous proliferations on the surface. show a tendency in cattle to form a tough connective tissue wall, and soon become calcified. This form of tuberculosis is known as pearl disease. It begins with reddish proliferations of the connective tissue on the surface of the pleura and peritoneum. Later these develop into tubercles and larger rough nodules or thick crusts (Figs. 138-140). 172 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Some of the tubercle bacilli are always carried away by the lymph, thus producing new tubercles in the viscera, and soon giving rise to tuberculosis of the corresponding lymph glands (Figs. 141— 143). The lymph glands regularly become affected after the tuber- cle bacilli reach the organs to which the glands belong. The glands become swollen, and small tubercles and larger casefied and calcified Anterior mediastinal gland Tuberculous focus on the pulmonary pleura Posterior mediastinal glanc" Fig. 139. — Beef lung with tuberculous foci on the pleura (pearl disease). Anterior and posterior mediastinal glands greatly enlarged. nodules appear in them. On the other hand, there may be no demonstrable lesions in the organs to which the affected glands be- long. For this reason it is important to examine the glands at the points of entrance of the tubercle bacilli. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 173 The dissemination of tubercle bacilli from one part of the body to another may be brought about by swallowing the virus, by means of the lymph stream, or by means of the blood current. As a result of swallowing tuberculous virus the glands of the pharynx, intestines and mesentery may become infected. By means of the lymph stream intestinal tuberculosis may be carried to the peritoneum and thence to the pleura and uterus. Fig. 140. — Right half of beef chest with tuberculosis of the pleura. The blood becomes a carrier of tubercle bacilli whenever a tuber- cle breaks through the wall of a blood vessel and thus contaminates the blood, and also when a similar lesion occurs in a large lymph vessel directly connected with the blood circulation. If the systemic blood contains tubercle bacilh, they find their way into the muscles. As a matter of fact, they seldom become located in the muscle tissue, but they may infect the muscle lymph glands. If tubercles are found in viscera which can only become infected from the systemic blood (spleen, kidneys and their corresponding lymph glands), it may, rightly be assumed that infection has become generalized through the blood system. If the lungs and liver or their lymph glands ex- hibit tuberculous lesions, the blood system may be suspected as the 174 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS agent of distribution of infection. The systemic blood carries tuber- culous infection most frequently to the spleen, kidneys, udder, bones, joints and prescapular and precrural glands. Tubercle bacilli in the blood are soon destroyed. If living bacilli are floating in the blood, we speak of it as a fresh blood infection. This condition is present when the spleen and lymph glands are swollen, and also when the hematogenous tubercles are only miliar}' Attachment to intestines Tuberculous mesenteric glands Tuberculous mesenteric glands Fig. 141. — Mesentery of beef with tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands. Tubercle bacilli may also be carried in the pulmonary and portal circulations. In this way a general pulmonary tuberculosis may arise, supplemental to a previous slight infection of the organ. Similarly, hepatic infection may arise from intestinal tuberculosis without the agency of the systemic circulation. The extent of the distribution of the alterations in various parts or organs may vary greatly. Generalized tuberculosis in cattle is GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 175 most frequently seen on the pleura and peritoneum, which, with their duplicatures over the viscera, may be thickly studded with tubercles, nodules or crusts. Extensive alterations are also seen in the lungs and liver, which may become in large part destroyed. Post-mortem findings. In cattle the lungs or their lymph glands are affected in most cases. Small tubercles, larger, casefied or calci- fied nodules, and small and large necrotic lesions are found in the Tongue Tuberculous tonsils Wall of pharynx Tuberculous pharyngeal glands Larynx and surrounding soft parts Fig. 142. — Tuberculosis of the pharyngeal glands in cattle. lungs. If pus cavities are present, there may also be ulcers on the tracheal mucosa and purulent foci under it. These lesions are ex- posed to view by opening the trachea along the upper border. Quite frequently in cattle merely the pulmonary and mediastinal glands are tuberculous, without evidence of infection of the lungs or other parts commonly examined. 176 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS Tuberculosis of the pleura and peritoneum is a frequent form of the disease in cattle (Fig. 140). In hogs, however, the involve- ment of the serous membranes is rare. From the pleura infection may spread to the pericardium (Fig. 138). In pleural and peri- toneal tuberculosis the coverings of the diaphragm and spleen are often badly affected. In pleural tuberculosis the mediastinal glands are regularly affected (Fig. 135). In tuberculosis of the peritoneum Tuberculous supramammary gland Affected right hind quarter Nodules in the milk cistern Healthy fore quarter Fig. 143. — Tuberculosis of the cow's udder. The right hind quarter affected. the corresponding glands are affected (iliac, vertebral, posterior mediastinal), depending upon the location of the disease on the peritoneum. Tuberculous alterations of the intestinal mucosa (tubercles and ulcers) are rare, but the mesenteric glands are frequently affected. Tuberculous lesions in the liver are in the form of small tubercles and larger casefied and calcified nodules, less often necrotic centers. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 177 The portal lymph glands may be affected in the absence of demon- strable lesions in the liver tissue. In slaughtering hogs the portal glands are often inadvertently cut away from the liver, and remain attached to the stomach or pancreas by means of the mesentery. The spleen of young cattle and hogs may exhibit small or large round tubercles. In contrast with the spleen, the kidneys are more frequently affected in older animals. Renal lesions range from the Tuberculous focus in the spinal process of a dorsal vertebra I'ig. 144.— Vertebral column of hog with tuberculosis of some of the vertebrae. minutest tubercles to the complete caseation of large parts of the organ. In tuberculosis of the spleen and kidneys the splenic glands in the gastro-splenic ligament, and the renal glands are affected. Tuberculous alterations of the tongue are rare, but in hogs the submaxillary glands, and in cattle the post-pharyngeal glands (Fig. 142) are frequently tuberculous. In about 92 per cent, of tuber- 178 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS culous hogs tliC. upper cervical or pharyngeal glands are affected. The gastric mucosa is rarely involved. The testicles and penis occasionally show tuberculous lesions. The testicles become enlarged and filled with caseous pits, or are transformed into a cheesy mass. The superficial inguinal glands are simultaneously aifected (Figs. 37 and 42). If the penis become infected, ulcers or nodules develop in the prepuce. The ovaries, oviducts, uterus and udder may become tuberculous, rarely also the vagina. Enlargement and caseous deposits are the chief symptoms in the ovaries. The oviducts become transformed into thick, stiff strands. Tubercles appear on the outer covering and the wall of the uterus, and both tubercles and ulcers in the uterine mucosa. In cases of uterine tuberculosis the internal iliac glands are affected (Fig. 37). The tuberculous udder becomes en- larged and the normal yellow tissue is transformed into a gray or grayish yellow tissue, which exhibits tubercles and large nodules on section. The supramammary glands are also affected (Fig. 96). The brain and spinal cord are seldom affected with tuberculosis. On the other hand, the cerebral and spinal meninges may show tu- bercles and larger nodules. Such infection is disseminated by the systemic blood. The bones are rarely tuberculous in cattle, but quite frequently so in hogs. Tuberculous swellings of bones are so soft that they may be cut with a knife. If the appendicular skeleton is affected, tuberculous lesions regularly appear in the muscle lymph glands (prescapular, axillary, popliteal, precrural, ischiatic, iliac, lumbar, superficial inguinal glands. Figs. 36-43). Tuberculosis of the ver- tebrae or ribs is at once apparent when the carcass is cut into halves. In the vertebrae yellow masses of tissue displace the bone tissue (Fig. 144). If the dorsal vertebrae are affected, the glands which lie under them are also tuberculous (Fig. 37). Tuberculous ribs exhibit soft thickenings of the size of a hen's egg. The structure of these swellings is the same as in affected vertebras (Fig. 102). In costal tuberculosis the vertebral and prescapular glands are regularly af- fected. In inspection of cattle, calves and hogs for tuberculosis the pul- monary, submaxillary, cervical and mesenteric glands are to be ex- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 179 amined and incised. In determining the extent of infection exam- ination may be made of the popliteal, ischiatic, superficial inguinal, precrural, iliac, lumber, prescapular and axillary glands, and then the back bone, ribs and viscera. Unnecessary incision of tuberculous glands or parts is to be avoided. For the methods of procedure with tuberculous parts or carcasses see the Federal regulations in Chapter IX. Lung worms in the lungs of sheep may often produce tubercles with a cloudy yellow center. These lesions may be easily distin- guished from those of tuberculosis by the absence of infection of the lymph glands. 2. Caseous Lymph-Adenitis of Sheep This disease, also known as pseudo-tuberculosis, quite frequently occurs in old sheep, less often in lambs. The symptoms in the living animal are not characteristic. Sometimes the prescapular and pre- crural glands are enlarged. Lesions are also found post mortem in other glands, viz., superficial inguinal, bronchial, mediastinal, sub- lumbar, deep inguinal and scrotal. The retropharyngeal and sub- maxillary glands are seldom if ever affected. Glands infected with the disease become enlarged, and the sec- tion surface is watery. Later degeneration takes place in concentric layers, and finally the whole gland becomes a sac filled with greenish pus, the contents resembling in this respect the nodules produced by (Esophago stoma columhianum. The lungs may be studded with nodules of the size of a pea, and the spleen and liver may contain the characteristic sacs filled with a greenish yellow material. Several thousand' cases are annually observed, but comparatively few are serious enough to lead to condemnation. In 1906 only 680 car- casses were condemned out of a total of more than 8,000,000 sheep slaughtered. 3. Actinomycosis Actinomycosis is due to infection with the ray fungus. In cattle the disease is found chiefly in the tongue, mucosa of the mouth, jawbones and connective tissue in the intermandibular space, ex- 180 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS ceptionally also in the larynx, lungs, rumen and intestines. The tongue becomes enlarged and indurated, red fungoid nodules appear Fungoid proliferations Superficial ulcers Fig. 145. — Wooden tongue of beef with fungoid proliferations and superficial ulcers. Fig. 146. — Lower jaw of beef affected with actinomycosis. on the mucosa of the mouth (Fig. 145), and swellings develop in the jawbones (Fig. 146). In advanced cases of wooden tongue. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 181 prehension of food is so difficult that the general condition of the animal is disturbed. In hogs the udder is most often affected. In the udder, pus foci form, containing small granular structures or nodules which often break through to the surface, forming small fistulae. In cattle superficial ulcers appear on the mucous membrane of the tongue and small tubercles under it and in the musculature. The tongue lesions are located at the junction of the body and tip of this organ. At this point lesions are found in 8 to 10 per cent. Fig. 147— Beef tongue affected with actinomycosis at the hne between the body and tip of the tongue (a). Fig. 148.— Section through the affected part of Fig. 147. of actinomycotic cattle. The corresponding lymph glands are swol- len, but free from actinomyces. Actinomycosis is commonly of local distribution. Generalization of the disease involving the vertebrae and muscle lymph glands is very rare. The head and tongue are condemned, but the rest of the carcass is passed if the disease has not extended from the primary infection. 4. Coital or Vesicular Exanthema Coital exanthema is an infectious eruption on the mucosa of the vulva, prepuce and penis. In mild cases the general condition of the animal is not affected. Lentil-sized vesicles filled with a clear yel- 182 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS lowish fluid appear on the inner surface of the labia and on the penis. The vesicles burst, leaving flat, circular, superficial ulcers, which soon desquamate and become cicatrized. In acute cases there is fever and the ulcers are deeper. Mild cases do not affect the wholesomeness of the meat. 5. Foot-and-Mouth Disease In 1902, and again in 1908, an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease occurred in New England. It was promptly eradicated by Ulcer in process of healing Patch which har recently sloughed ofi Newly arisen vesicle Fig. 149. — Beef tongue affected with foot-and-mouth disease. the Bureau of Animal Industry in cooperation with State authorities. At present there are no cases in this country. GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 183 The disease attacks cattle, goats, sheep and hogs, spreads rapid- ly, and is characterized by the formation of vesicles followed by ulcers on the mucosa of the mouth and on the feet. Affected cattle exhibit fever, loss of appetite, dribbling of saliva and smacking of the lips. Vesicles appear on the upper jaw, tongue, lips and other parts of the mouth. After rupture they leave ulcers or spots with- out mucosa (Fig. 149). At the crown and in the cleft of the hoof similar vesicles appear. After rupture the areas become covered with crusts. In sheep and goats the disease is less common and the Dew claws Cleft of hoof Fig. 150. — Beef foot showing favorite locations of lesions of foot-and-mouth disease. lesions are chiefly on the feet. Similarly in hogs the feet are affected more often than the mouth. The disease is transmissible to man. The inspector is not likely to see a case, however, for in the event of another outbreak the cases would be instantly quarantined and destroyed. 6. Swine Erysipelas Swine erysipelas is a bacterial disease which assumes, a' serious form in Europe. Red spots appear on the under parts of the body, 184 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS inner aspect of the thigh, neck and ears. The spots are at first light red, later dark red, bluish or brownish red, and may become con- fluent. The feces are at first hard, later thin, slimy or bloody. The redness of the skin becomes more conspicuous after scalding. The digestive mucosa is reddened and swollen. Spleen and liver are also swollen, the former appearing bluish red and the latter grayish red. Kidneys are enlarged and reddened with evidences of hemorrhagic Proliferation Proliferation Fig. 151. — Hog heart proliferations on the valves following swine erysipelas. nephritis. The mesenteric glands are swollen and often show hemor- rhages. The meat may become softened and discolored grayish red. Swine erysipelas has not been recognized in this country. 7. Urticaria or Diamond Skin Disease Urticaria, according to some European writers, is a special, mild, dermal form of swine erysipelas, the pathogenic bacteria being found GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 185 not in the blood, but in affected parts of the skin. In this country numerous examinations of these skin diseases have failed to reveal the bacillus of swine erysipelas. Sharply delimited red or bluish red spots of circular or quadrangular form appear on the skin. The spots are slightly elevated and are conspicuous after scalding and Fig-. 152. — Hog affected with urticaria. scraping the hogs. Carcasses of hogs affected with urticaria may be passed after detaching and condemning the skin. 8. Swine Plague Swine plague is an infectious inflammation of the thoracic organs (lungs, pleura and heart). It attacks chiefly young pigs and oc- 186 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS curs often in connection with hog cholera. In acute cases of swine plague, coughing, dyspnea, loss of appetite, slight redness of the skin and fever are noted. In chronic swine plague, coughing, poor appetite, defective development, gummy eyes and a skin eruption (pitchy mange) are observed. The general condition may not be affected in old hogs. Affected (inflamed) anterior lobes of lungs Fig. 153. — Hog lungs with chronic swine plague, anterior lobes affected. In post-mortem inspection inflammatory areas are found in the lungs. The inflamed portions do not collapse after removal from the thorax, possess a dark red, grayish red or gray color, and feel firm like the liver. In acute cases large portions of the lungs and pleura are inflamed, and often covered with a separable false membrane, as is also the pericardium. Adhesions may thus come about between the lungs and the walls of the chest, and between the heart and GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 187 pericardium. The lymph glands at the base of the lungs are swollen and inflamed. As a rule in chronic cases only certain lobes of the lungs, particularly the anterior, are inflamed, and become grayish red or gray, firm and tough (Fig. 153). The glands at the base of the lungs are simultaneously swollen. Cicatrizations, encapsuled pus foci and connective tissue adhesions may be among the sequelae of swine plague. Regarding the disposal of affected carcasses see the Federal regulations in Chapter IX. 9. Septicemia Septicemia and pyemia are the most important animal diseases from the standpoint of meat inspection, for the consumption of the meat in such cases may cause meat poisoning. Septicemia or puri- form blood poisoning is a wound infection. The pathogenic organ- isms may penetrate through any diseased part of the outer skin, mucosa of the uterus, respiratory or digestive organs, or through the unhealed navel. Septicemia may be associated with external in- juries to the joints, feet, tendons and other parts; with inflammation of the navel; with hemorrhagic enteritis of calves and adult cattle; with septic metritis ; with malignant mammitis of cows ; with septic pleuritis and peritonitis, etc. The symptoms during life are not characteristic. Septicemia may be suspected, however, in cases of high fever (subnormal toward the end of fatal cases), great disturbance of the general condition, and extreme weakness. The post-mortem lesions of septicemia are cloudy grayish yellow discoloration of the liver and kidneys, cloudy gray discoloration of the myocardium (like boiled meat), punctiform hemorrhages under the serous membranes, swelling and bloody-watery infiltration of the lymph glands. Carcasses showing septicemic lesions are condemned. 10. Pyemia Pyemia is also a wound infection. It is often associated with septicemia, and arises as a result of translocation by the blood current of pyogenic bacteria from a local pus focus. "The pyogenic 188 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS organisms become located chiefly in the lungs, spleen, kidneys, liver, joints, bones and muscles, and produce new pus foci, which may become encapsuled, or extend, break into the blood circulation and lead to new foci. The most frequent forms of pyemia are purulent umbilical phlebitis in calves, purulent pulmonary inflammations in calves, sheep and goats, and purulent osteomyelitis. The symptoms during life are great depression, poor appetite, alternate febrile and subnormal temperature, discharge of pus from the point of infection, and suppuration in the joints, especially in calves. The inspector can ordinarily determine the original focus of the disease. Cloudiness of the heart, liver and kidneys is noted as in septicemia, also swelling of the spleen, petechias in the kidneys, and fresh non-encapsuled pus foci in various parts, particularly the lungs, spleen, kidneys, liver, joints, bones and muscles. Carcasses showing pyemic lesions are condemned. The extensive literature of meat poisoning has been well sum- marized by Ostertag in his Handbook of Meat Inspection. Path- ogenic bacteria in meat are killed by thorough cooking. The dan- gerous toxins developed in septicemia and pyemia, however, are not always thus destroyed. It is highly important, therefore, that all cases of septicemia and pyemia should he detected and condemned. 11. Tetanus Tetanus is a wound infection, characterized by a stiff carriage of the head and neck and, in acute cases, also of the tail and ex- tremities. Tetanus is commonly associated with wounds in the outer skin or, in cows, with wounds in the uterus. In new-born animals, particularly lambs, tetanus may take its origin from a navel wound. Carcasses of animals which showed ante-mortem symptoms of tetanus are condemned. 12. White Scours White scours is an infectious gastroenteritis aifecting calves and, less often, lambs. During life there is a persistent diarrhea with oleaceous, bright yellow or greenish, later white, thin, malodorous GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 189 feces. The diarrhea begins within the first few days after birth, and usually leads to death within two or three days. The post- mortem lesions include great emaciation, confluent erythrism on the intestinal mucosa, swelling and bloody-watery infiltration of the mesenteric glands, small hemorrhages on the serous covering of the heart, pleura and peritoneum, and dirty red color and watery char- acter of the musculature. When these lesions are present, the meat is unfit for food. 13. Necrotic Stomatitis or Diphtheria of Calves Necrotic stomatitis is an infectious disease of the anterior part of the digestive tract and air passages. Diphtheritic desquamation occurs on the mucosa. The pathogenic organisms of the disease cause deep inflammation and desquamation of the mucosa of the mouth, pharynx, and often of the larynx, trachea, esophagus and rumen. Affected calves show swellings on the cheeks, salivation, diminished appetite, and fever. Following upon the alterations in the mucosa, acute pulmonary inflammation and septicemia may de- velop, causing the death of the animal. The post-mortem lesions include inflammation of the above-mentioned mucosa and sharply delimited, grayish yellow, ruptured foci, which leave ulcers. 14. Anthrax Anthrax is an infectious disease in which the bacteria are found in the blood. It occurs chiefly in cattle, sheep and goats, less often in swine. As a rule, sheep die suddenly without showing previous symptoms. Cattle may live from a few hours to two days. The symptoms In cattle include restlessness, excitement or depression, muscular tremor, high fever, dyspnea, rough coat, loss of appetite, slight tympanites, and admixture of blood with the excretions. Swell- ings sometimes rapidly develop on the surface of the body, being at first hot and painful and later cold and painless. The blood is dark red and tarlike. The muscles may be dark red, soft and filled with hemorrhages. Yellow gelatinous masses, yellow watery fluid or red gelatinous deposits may be found under the skin. In most cases the spleen is uniformly or clavately swollen. 190 GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS blackish red and soft, disclosing tarlike blood on section. Petechias are noted under the serous membranes, particularly of the heart, and in the inflamed intestinal mucosa. In hogs the whole connective tissue of the neck is infiltrated. These symptoms are not uniformly all present at once. Dependence can be placed on swelling and soft- ening of the spleen, bloody diarrhea, swelling of the intestinal mucosa with blood points or streaks, and chocolate-colored intestinal contents. All carcasses showing lesions of this disease are condemned and immediately tanked. 15. Blackleg Blackleg is an infection which is stationary in certain regions. It affects almost exclusively cattle between the ages of six months and two years, rarely occurring in sheep and other animals. In nearly all cases the disease proves fatal within one and one-half to three days. High fever and great depression are noted during life. Flat, doughy swellings, which emit a crackling noise when stroked, develop rapidly on the thighs, neck, shoulders, breast, back and rump. Gas and blood are found in the subcutaneous swellings, and between and in the muscles. The adjacent musculature is discolored dirty brown or black, and has a putrid or rancid odor. Carcasses of animals showing lesions of blackleg are condemned. 16. Hemorrhagic Septicemia This disease attacks cattle and other domestic and wild animals. It has often been wrongly diagnosed as cornstalk disease, blackleg, anthrax, or cerebrospinal meningitis. The characteristic lesions of the disease consist of hemorrhages in the subcutaneous, subserous and muscular tissues, lymph glands and viscera. The hemorrhages vary in size from a point to an inch in diameter. In the superficial form of hemorrhagic septicemia high fever is noted, and also extensive, hot, firm swellings on the head, neck and dewlap. Death occurs within 12 to 36 hours. In the carcass altera- tions resembling those of anthrax are found, especially the bloody- GUIDE FOR MEAT INSPECTORS 191 watery exudations in the subcutaneous connective tissue, small hem- orrhages in all organs and grayish brown discoloration of the liver, kidneys and heart. The spleen, however, is always unaltered- In the pectoral form the pulmonary pleura is inflamed and there are small hemorrhages in the thoracic organs. The intestinal form is often associated with the other forms of the disease and is charac- terized by bloody feces. All carcasses of animals affected with this disease are condemned. 17. Rabies Rabies is an infectious disease which may be transmitted by the bite of rabid animals, especially dogs, to other animals and man. Rabid ruminants and swine are very restless, bellow, bleat or grunt, and become rapidly emaciated and paralyzed in the hind quarters. The course of rabies varies from three to seven days. There are no conspicuous post-mortem lesions. Carcasses of animals which showed ante-mortem symptoms are condemned. 18. Pleuropneumonia This disease was once quite generally distributed over the eastern Gray inflamed lung tissue inclosed by broad stripes Distension of interlobular tissue Red inflamed lung tissue inclosed by broad stripes I, 134, 179-181, 215 Age, determination of 62 Age, recognition of 91 Agricultural colleges, veterinary science in 252 Air-bladder mesentery 121 Anatomy, exterior 48 Anemia 136 Animal parasites 139 Antemortem inspection — 1, 61-76, 213, 227 Anthrax 74, 189i 214 Appeals 239 Arteries 34 Autointoxications 138 Axillary glands 44 Bacteria in the blood 54 Bacteria in the lymph 57 Beef measle worm 154 Blackleg 74, 190, 214 Bladder 26 Bladder, diseases of 124 Bleeding T^ Blood 36 Blood, circulation of 54 Blood, diseases 136 Bones, articulation of 6 Bones, description of 3-6 Bones, diseases of 132 Bones of different animals 6 Bot flies 141 Brain, diseases of 131 Brands 221 Bribery 210 Calcereous deposits 134 Calculi 124 Canned meats, inspection of 200 Canning meat 228 Capillaries 34 Carcass _ 207 Carcasses when not inspected ante- mortem 227 Caseous lymph-adenitis 179,215 Cattle, slaughtering 80 Certificates for transportation 231 Cervical glands 43 Chemicals 227 Circulatory apparatus 'i'i Circulatory diseases 126 Civil service examinations 242 Coat in diseases 71 Coital exanthema 181 Color as identification mark 67 Color due to feed 103 "Condemned" rooms 220 Connective tissue, function of 52 Counterfeiting tags, etc 238 Curing meat 228 Curriculum, veterinary 246 Cutis, diseases of 109 Cuts of meat 83 Cysticercus bovis, see Cysticercus inermis Cysticercus cellulosae 158, 217 Cysticercus inermis , 154, 217 Cysticercus tenucollis 114, 122, 143, 156, 161 Cystitis, 124 Dead animals, disposal of 195 Death, effect in meat 2)^ Demodex folliculorum 218 Diamond skin diseases 184, 218 Dicrocaelium lanceolatum 145 Digestion S3 Digestion in health 59 Digestive apparatus H Digestive organs in disease 71 Diphtheria of calves 75, 189 Discolorations 107 Diseased meat, disposal of 214 Diseases and condemnation 214 Diseases, classification of 109 Diseases, common symptoms 74 Diseases, detection of 69 Diseases found in inspection. . .102-195 Diseases, infectious 166-194 Downers 195 Dressed weight 90 Dropsy 137 Dyes 227 Eclinococci 143, 148 Echinococcus polymorphus 148 Education of inspectors 241-254 Emaciation 103, 218 Endocarditis 127 Epicarditis 126 Esophagus, diseases of 118 Examinations, civil service 242 Exanthema, coital 181 Exempted institutions 208 Export stamps 229 256 INDEX Fasciola hepatica 145 Fasciola magna 145 Fetuses 103 Fetuses, mummified 124 Fluke worms 122, 143, 145 Follicle mites 141 Foot-and-mouth diseases ,74, 182 Fractures 105, 132 Functions of animal body 52-60 Gait in disease ^ 70 Gait of animals 58 Genito-urinary apparatus 24 Genito-urinary diseases 122 Gid worm 131, 145 Glands, lymphatic 39-47 Graduation in veterinary science.. 252 Granular eruption 110 Health, evidences of 58 Heart, 33, 36 Heart, disease of 126 Hemorrhages 105 Hemorrhagic septicemia 190,214 Hepatic glands 42 Hog Cholera 192, 214 Hogs, slaughtering 81 Hydatids 148, 158, 217 Hydremia 137 Hypostasis of blood . . . ; 36 Icterohematuria 194 Icterus 137 Identifying animals 62 Immaturity 102, 218 Inedible products 230 Infectious diseases 166-194 Inflammations 107 Inguinal glands 45 "Inspected and passed" tag. . .200, 206 Inspection, antemortem 61-76 Inspection, conditions noted in . . . 99 Inspection law 198 Inspection of meat, purpose of . . . . 1 Inspection, order of 97 Inspection, parts examined in 96 Inspection regulations 205-239 Inspection, routine of 93-101 Inspection, state and municipal... 239 Inspectors, assignment 209 Inspectors' assistants 206 Inspectors, duties 199 Inspectors, educational require- ments _ 241-254 Inspectors in charge 205 Integument 48 Intestines 12 Intestines, diseases of 119 Intoxications 138 Jaundice 137 Jewish method of slaughter 77 Kidneys - 24, 31 Kidneys, diseases of 122 Kemneys, function of 53 Kidneys, function of 53 Knives for inspector 95 Labels, trade 223 Laboratory inspectors 206 Larynx, diseases of Ill Law concerning meat inspection.. 198 Leukemia 138 Lime deposits 106 Live weight 90 Liver 19, 22 Liver, diseases of 122 Lung worms 152 Lungs 9 Lungs, diseases of Ill Lungs, function of 52 Lymph circulation 56 Lymph glands 39-47 Lymph glands, diseases of 130 Lymphatic system 37 Malignant epizootic catarrh. .. .193-214 Malignant epizootic catarrh,. ..193, 214 Mammitis 125, 217 Mange of cattle 141, 217 Matriculation in veterinary col- leges 245 Meat, changes in 91, 195 Meat, cuts of 83 Meat food products 207 Meat inspection law 198 Meat inspectors, 206, 244 Meat poisoning 188, 217 Meat preservation 196 Meat, tanking 196 Meat, uninspected 237 Mediastinal glands 42 Medical colleges, veterinary sci- ences in 252 Medical meat products 207 Melanosis 106, 218 Meningitis 131 Mesenteric emphysema 121 Mesenteric glands 42 Mesentery 18 Miescher's sacs 119,136, 141 Milk fever 138, 218 Mixture 207 Mouth 11 Mouth, diseases of 116 Municipal meat inspection 239 Muscles 6 Musculature, diseases of 134 Musculature, parasites in 141 Necrotic stamatitis 189 Nervouse diseases 131 Nervous system 33 INDEX 257 Nostrils, diseases of Ill Number, official 208 Nutritive conEdition 58 Nutritive condition in disease.... 69 Odor due to drugs 104 Odor due to feed 104 Official establishment 206 Organs, normal character of 3-51 Osteomalacia 132 Ovaries 32 Ovaries, diseases of 124 Pancreas 24 Pancreas, diseases of 122 Parasites 139 Parasitic icterohematuria 194, 217 Parturient paresis 138 Patrolmen 206 Pentastomes 143, 154 Pericarditis 126 Pericardium 33 Peritoneum, diseases of 121 Pharyngeal glands 43 Pharynx, diseases of 118 Physiology 52-60 Pickling meat 228 Pitchy mange 110 Pithing 78 Pleura, disease of 115 Pleuropneumonia 191 Pneumonia 112 Poll ax ■ 79 Popliteal glands 45 Portal circulation 56 Postmortem inspection 1, 213 Precrural glands 44 Pregnancy 218 Prescapular glands 43 Preservatives 196, 227 Pulmonary circulation 56 Pulmonary glands 41 Pyemia 187, 214 Rabies 191, 214 Rachitis 132 Railroad sickness 218 Regulations for inspections ...205-239 Reinspection 225 Renal capsule 24 Renal glands 42 "Rendered into lard or tallow",... 206 Rendering 228 Reports, of inspection 238 Reproductive organs 32 Respiration in diseases 73 Respiration, normal 60 Respiratory apparatus 8 Retail butcher, exemption of 208 "Retaining" rooms 219 Ruminants, digestion in 53 Ruptures 105 Salivary glands . 24 Sanitation 210 Scabies 139 Scalded hogs 218 Scalpels for inspector 95 Schectering 77 Septicemia 87, 214 Sex, recognition of 91 Sexual maturity 54 Sexual organs 32 Sexual odor 54, 104 Sheep scab 139, 217 Sheep, slaughtering 80 Shipping, certificates 231 Skeleton '. 3-6 Skeleton, diseases of 132 Skin 48 Skin, diseases of 109 Skin, function of 57 Skin in disease 70 Skin in health 59 Skin, parasites of 139 Slaughtering, methods, etc 77-92 Spleen 47, 57 Spleen, diseases of 131 Splenic glands 42 Spotted kidney 123 Stamps 221 Stamps for export 229 State meat inspection 239 Stomach 12, 19 Stomach, diseases of 119 Stomach worms 120 Stunning animals 79 Submaxillary glands 43 Supramammary glands 45 Swine erysipelas 75, 183 Swine plague 185, 214 Taenia Coenurus 145 Taenia echinococcus 148, 165 Taenia marginata 143 Taenia saginata 154 Taenia solium 158 Tag, inspection 200, 221 Tank cars 227 Tank rooms 220 Tanking condemned meat 196 Teeth and determination of age. . . 63 Temperature in disease 74 Temperature, normal 60 Teratological conditions 106 Testicles, diseases of 124 Tetanus 188, 214 Tsxas fever 75, 194, 217 Tinea tonsurans 218 Tongue 11 Tongue, diseases of 116 2.sS INDEX Trachea 8 Trachea, diseases of Ill Trade labels 223 Training of inspectors 241-254 Transportation regulations 230 Traveling veterinary inspectors... .205 Trichina 161-165 Tuberculosis 166-179 Tuberculosis, generalized 215 Tuberculosis, localized 216 Tuberculosis, regulations regarding 215 Tumors 108 Tumors in muscles 135 Udder 32 Udder, diseases of 125 Udder in disease .' 72 Udder in health 59 Uninspected meat 237 Uremia 138 Urethra, diseases of 124 Uticaria 184 "U. S. inspected and condemned".. 206 Uterus 32 Uterus, tuberculosis in 125 Vagina 32 Vagina, diseases of 125 Vagina in disease ' 72 Vagina in health 59 Valves of heart, tumors on. ...... . 130 Veins 34 Vesicular exanthema 181 Veterinary colleges 245-254 Veterinary colleges, list of accred- ited 253 Veterinary course 246 Veterinary inspectors.. ..205, 242, 245 Veterinary students 250 Vinegar .- 207 Viscera 8-48 Vulva in disease 72 Vulva in health 59 Warble flies ._ 141 White scours 188 Wooden tongue 116, 180 Yellow fat tissue 103