Author Title Imprint 16 — 47372-3 GPO UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. CiJAl'TEKSFRUM THE KEl'OKT UF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FoK 181I4-9J. EDUCxVTlON nf THE NETHERLAl^DS AISD IN ITALY. (••-^-^^'k^" WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OjPKrCK, 1896. I ol L CHAPTER XL EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. Sources of iNFORMAXiOisr; — Official reports: Jaarboek A-au het OnderTvijs in Nederland. — Yerslag van den Staat tier Hooge, Middclbaro en Lagero Scholeu en het Kouiukrijk der Nederlauden. — Wet van het Lagere Onderwljs. — "Wet van het Middelbaar Onderwijs. — Eeport of consul, United States, May, 1889. — Vor Ungdom, 1891.— Schmidt's Encyclopedia. — Buisson, Dictionnaire de Pedagogic et d'lustruc- tion Piiinaire. — Statesman's Yearbook, 1893. — Revue Pcdagogique Beige. — Eevue Internationale do I'Enseignemeut. Minister of the interior, 1893-94: Tak van Poortvliet. Inspectors of primary instruction: First circuit, Mr. J. B. A. J. M. Yerheijen, te 's Hertogeubosh (Xovember, 1880) (North Brabant, Gelderland, and Limburg) ; second circuit, Mr. J. C. Fabius, te Delft (April, 1890) (South Holland, North Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht) ; third circuit, Mr. A. G. A. Baron Sloet tot Oldhnis (April, 1890) (Friesland, Overijssel, Groniugen, and Drenthe). District school superintendents, 25. Arroudissement school superintendents, ~94. CLASSIFICATION OP SCHOOLS IN CONFORMITY WITH LAWS GOVERNING PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. rrimary instruction. (1) Public primai'y schools supported by the State (Government) or connnuncs. (2) Private jirimary schools (subsidized and nousubsidized). (3) Home instruction. (4) Infant scliools and asylums. (5) Primary instruction in jirison schools. (I) Normal schools maintained by the State. (II) Normal courses maintained by the State. (III) Normal schools maintained by the communes. (IV) Normal schools and courses maintained by private corporations and persons. Secondary instruction. (1) Burgher schools supported by communes. (2) Higher burgher schools supported by communes. (3) Higher burgher schools su^iported by the State. (4) Higher burgher schools supported by private citizens. (5) Industrial, drq,wing, and trade schools. (6) State Academy of Liberal Arts. (7) State normal school for the training of drawing masters. (8) Schools for the training of Government officials for the Netherland-Indies. (9) Agricultural schools. (10) Polytechnic school. (11) Military and naval schools. (12) Veterinary schools. (13) Training schools for midwives. (14) Schools for deaf-mutes, blind, idiots, etc. ' By Miss Soj)hia Nussbaum. 475 476 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. Superior instruction . (A) PUBLIC. (1) State universities (a) of Leyden, (b) Utrecht, (c) Groningen. (2) University of Amsterdam supported by the commune. (3) Gymnasia and progyranasia. (B) PRIVATE. (1) Free University of Amsterdam. (2) Denominational theological schools, preparatory schools, Latin schools, colleges, etc. The Netherlands. i. central government. TLe first constitutiou of the Netherlands after its reconstruction as a kingdom was adopted in 1815 and revised in 1848 and 1887. By- virtue of this charter the Netherlands is a constitutional hereditary monarchy. The executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the Sovereign, while the whole legislative authority rests conjointly in the Sovereign and Parliament, the latter consisting of two chambers, called the States-General. The Upper or First Chamber is composed of 50 mem- bers, elected by the 11 States from the highest assessed inhabitants and from certain high and important officials specified by law. The Second Chamber of the States-General numbers 100 deputies and is elected directly from among all the male citizens who are 30 years of age and are not deprived by judicial sentence of their eligibilitj^ or the administration and the dis^josal of their property. The Government and the Second Chamber only have the right of in- troducing new bills, the functions of the Upper Chamber being restricted to approving or rejecting them, without the right of amendment. II. LOCAL GOVERNMENT. The territory of the Netherlands is divided into 11 provinces and 1,123 communes. Each province has its own representative body, ''The provincial states." The members are elected for six years directly from among the male. Dutch inhabitants of the province who are 25 years of age, one-half of the members retiring every three years. The form of elec- tion and the mode of procedure in this body are the same as that for the Second Chamber of the States-General. Voters must be inhabitants of the province. Eepresentation is based on the population of the prov- ince, and numbers from 80 for South Holland to 35 for Drenthe The provincial states are entitled to make ordinances concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise taxes in accordance with the law. All provincial ordinances must be approved by the King. The provincial states exercise the right of control over the municipalities and elect membe.i's of the Upper Chamber of the States-General, and see that EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 477 the common law is executed in their provinces. They meet twice a year, as a rule, in public. A permanent commission, composed of 6 of their members, called the states deputies, is charged with the executive power in the province and the administration of its affairs. Both the deputies and the i^rovincial states are presided over by a commissioner appointed by the Sovereign, who in the former assembly has a deciding vote, but in the latter only a deliberative voice. He is the chief magis- trate of the province. Only the members of the states deputies receive an allowance. Each of the communes forms a corporation, with its own interests and rights, subject to the general law. Every commune has a council elected for six years by the same voters as for the provincial states, provided they are inhabitants of the commune; one-third of the coun- cil retires every two years. All the Dutch male inhabitants of 23 years of age are eligible for the council, the membership of which varies from 7 to 39, according to population. These councils have the right of making and enforcing by-laws concerning the communal wel- fare; they may raise taxes according to rules prescribed by common law, and each commune receives a tixed annual allowance out of the State treasury. All by-laws may be vetoed by the Sovereign. The municipal budget and the resolutions to alienate municipal property require the approbation of the states deputies of the province. The council meets in public as often as may be necessary, and is i^resided over by a mayor, appointed by the Sovereign for six years. The execu- tive power is vested in a college formed by the mayor and two, three, or four aldermen elected by the council. This college is also charged with the execution of the common law. The municipal police is under the authority of the mayor, and as a State functionary the mayor super- vises the actions of the council, and may suspend their resolutions for thirty days, but is bound when so doing to inform the states deputies of the province. The area of the Netherlands is 12,648 English square miles. Population, 4,732,911, according to census of December 31, 1893, or 372.20 inhabitants per square mile. Of the total population in 1893, there were 2,341,484 males and 2,391,427 females. Religion. — According to the terms of the constitution, entire liberty of conscience and complete social equality are granted to the members of all religious denominations. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION. Holland has always been among the leading countries of Europe in the educational line; in fact, the Dutch Government was the first one in this century to promulgate official school laws, viz, in 1801, 1803, and 1800. The first school known in Holland was founded in Utrecht by Wille- brod, the first bishop of the Frisians, who in 690 landed on the shores 478 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. of the Netlieiiands. This school attained great fame, and it is said that Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, was educated there. The educational influence of the apostle of the Germans, St. Boniface, was very notice- able. Under Gregory, one of liis scholars, this town assembled within its walls the studious youths from all the neighboring countries (quidam autem et de Baguarus et Suevis). During the invasion of the Kor- mans this school was suspended, but in the year 917 it was reestab- lished, and soon attained its former splendor. The three sons of Emperor Heinrich der Yogler (Henry the Fowler), Otto, Heinrich, and Bruno, were educated there. The latter, who was Duke of Lorraine, while archbishop of Cologne, was known for his great learning. In the begin- ning of the twelfth century Utrecht had no less than 5 flourishing schools, some of which had, besides the clergymen, who were superin- tendents, a rector scholarum. At the same period several monasteries achieved distinction as schools of learning, among them those of Egmond, Nijmegen, Middelburg in Zealand, and Adouwert near Groningen. During the twelfth century the influential communes of Holland and Belgium established, in addi- tion to the cathedral, cloister, and ecclesiastical institutions, communal schools for the burghers and the common people. The privilege to open such schools was always obtained from a count, who conferred it either upon cities or private individuals as a special favor. The instruction in the communal schools in Holland, unlike those in Bel- gium, was withdrawn entirely from the supervision of the clergy and became essentially secular. Grants were made to the following cities: To Dortrecht in 1290, by Count Floris V; 'sGravenhage 1322, Leyden 1324, Rotterdam 1328, etc., by William III ; Delft and Amsterdam 1334, by William IV; Leyden again in 1357, Haarlem 1389, Alkmar 1398, Hoorn 1358 and 1390, The Hague 1393, Schiedam and Oudewater 1394, Rotterdam 1402, by Albert of Bavaria. The Dutch communal schools were divided into x)rincipal and branch schools, and in the former Latin was taught. John Cele's school, which was of this class, enjoyed an excellent reputation in the fourteenth century, and is said to have numbered as high as 1,000 puj)ils of all nationalities. The Hieronymians, who founded the Society of the Brethren of Life, estab- lished numerous schools during the fifteenth century, in which the poor were taught gratuitously. The first university of Holland, in Leyden, was founded by William the Silent in 1575; a second was established at Fraueker in 1585; and in the eighteenth century three universities were opened, respectively, at Utrecht, 1638, Groningen, 1G44, and at Herderwijk in 1G48. Many celebrated men of science and i^hilosophy occuj)ied chairs at these insti- tutions, including Grotius, Spinoza, Dousa, Huyghens, Gronovius, Hein- sius, Perizonius, Raphelengius, Schultens, Meursius, and Boerhave. The learned Pope Hadrian lY was born in Utrecht. The universities and Latin schools maintained their rej)utation during the eighteenth EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 479 century, but popular iustruciiou was not developed in the same degree, for the methods used were i)urely mechanical and tended to extinguish the intelligence of the pupils rather than stimulate it. At the beginning of the nineteenth century (1811) Cuvier made rather an unfavorable report on the condition of the universities and Latin schools of Holland. The government established by ISTapoleon I intro- duced certain reforms which were subsequently ratified and developed by King William I. Dutch legislation regarding primary instruction has attracted the attention not only of writers, but of the Governments of various countries, on account of its hostility to the principle of denom- inational schools. The first impulse to an improved system of i^rimary instruction in Holland was given by John Nieuvenhuysen, a Mennonite clergyman in Groniugen, who founded in that city in 1784 the Society of Public Good (Maatschappij tot Xut van't Algemeen), whose objects were to promote elementary instruction — moral, social, and religious. This society was very successful and the Government supported it in its efforts. The basis of the Dutch system was laid in the celebrated law of 180G, x)repared by M. van den Ende. This school law remained unchanged until 1857, when amendments were made. The j)rimary instruction act of 1857 was supplemented by another act of August 18, 1879, making important alterations which tended to extend public education. It was again considerably altered by the act of December, 1889. This last act gave unrestricted liberty to the establishing of private schools whereby i)ublic instruction is diminished. The Govern- ment, however, retained absolute supervision of all i)rivate schools. The constitution of 1848 jjlaced all religious denominations on an equal footing. The principle of secular and coeducational schools had at first the assent and support of ministers of every creed, including the lloman Catholics; but after 1848 a general opposition developed against this XDlan. A new party of orthodox Protestants started, named after Groen van Prinsterer, a prominent professor and writer, and these claimed that the Roman Catholics were strictly carrying into execution the law of 180G, as they excluded in their teaching everything of a doctrinal char- acter, even the Bible itself. In the endeavor to check the anticipated advances of the church the Groenists, who were in a small minority in the chambers of 1857, when the new educational law was framed, attacked the i^rinciple of the schools, denouncing them as breeding places of atheism and immorality and demanding in their place denom- inational schools which should provide religious instruction. The majority was composed of Koman Catholics who preferred to exclude religious instruction entir-ely from the schools rather than it should inculcate Protestant ideas, liberals who were in favor of a total separa- tion of church and state, and dissenters of every denomination. The important question of denominational and nondenominational schools was fully discussed in the legislature. The result was that the nonde- nominational character of the school system was maintained, but with 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. modifications of its general details. The retention of the word "Chris- tian" education in the lavr gave great offense to manj^ members of the Liberal party favoring nondenominational schools, but the Eoman. Catholics especially insisted upon expunging the word " Christian," as they declared that practically it meant Protestant, and most of them voted against the law because the word "Christian" was retained. The law, however, was passed by a large majority and public instruction i in Holland remained nominally Christian, but in a sense so broad that'f it would have been expressed better by the term " moral." The law of » 1857 provided that while public instruction should impart all necessary secular knowledge and develop the understanding of the pupils, it , should at the same time train them to the practice of every Christian 1 and social virtue, and also provided that primary schools should be conducted at the exjieuse of the communes. Two modifications had taken place in the Dutch school system from 1806 to 1848, to wit, the establishment of normal schools in 181G as an integral part of the sys- tem, and a change in the administration of the private schools for the middle classes, for these were found upon inspection to be inferior to the public schools, which were originally intended for the poor. To enter the public schools a certificate of poverty was demanded, which virtually excluded children of the middle class, and it was claimed that the State should provide for the proper education of middle-class children as well as the poor, since the middle classes were the largest taxpayers in support of primary schools. To meet this reasonable demand two grades of iDublic schools were added to the school system — French intermediate and the classical schools. Inter- mediate schools were therefore established in towns where, by paying a fee of from 6 to 10 cents per week, all classes of children could obtain an education at public expense. French schools of a superior grade were also founded, their course including English and French, other modern languages being taught for a higher tuition. Above the French, schools were placed Latin and classical institutions. The system of primary instruction in Holland became, therefore, gradually enlarged, so as to include the higher, common, and classical institutions. Tlie educational system of Holland is very complicated, inasmuch as the various grades of educational establishments are provided for separately, each being partly supported by the General Government or provinces, communes, or individual citizens, as the case may be. Pri- mary instruction includes home and school education. The tuition given to children, members of not more than three families, is called "home instruction." All other tuition, including schools for the poor, orphan asylums, reformatory schools, charitable institutions, and others for the public benefit, is by law designated as " school instruction." Primary schools, which are maintained entirely or conjointly by the communes or the State (Government), are considered public schools, and all others are i)rivate. The law of August 17, 1878, .provides that every EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 481 subsidy from a public fuud, be it never so small, sliall transfer a school to the domain of public schools. Consequently the private schools mentioned in article 3 of the law of 1857, which, on account of their nondenoniinational character, have obtained a subsidy from public funds, are no longer classed as private schools. They are grouped with the public schools and must submit to the rules governing them. In the oflficial reports published in Holland these schools are called "sub- sidized private schools,'' in which charges for tuition may be imposed upon all children. The question of State subsidies to sectarian private schools pro- foundly agitated the people of Holland for almost a whole generation; it was finally settled by the law of December 8, 1889, which provided that instead of paying each community 30 j)er cent of- all expenses, each one should receive from the State a certain amount, determined by the number of pui)ils, and this rule is extended to private and paro- chial schools. The State is responsible for 25 i)er cent of the cost of founding or purchasing school buildings. But while State schools are under State supervision, parochial schools are not, for there the clergy is the ruling power. While formerly the tuition fees of the State schools were small, they are now graded in proportion to the State sub- sidy. The act of 1889 of course reduced the attendance at the public schools and increased the number of pupils at the private seminaries. A sufficient number of schools for all children without distinction of den(,iminations are maintained in each commune. ^Neighboring parishes may conjointly support schools, and children from different communes may be admitted thereto. Opportunities are also given to children to continue their education in the so-called "repetition schools." It is also provided that children attending schools shall receive religious instruc- tion from special teachers at hours appointed for that purpose. The object of primary instruction in the schools is to impart useful knowledge and to develop the intellectual powers of the child, as well as to train him in all Christian and social virtues. School attendance is not compulsory, though this question is a constant theme for dis- cussion in the legislature. For neglected children there are charity "particular" schools, but they may be admitted to training institutions and educated therein. The provisions of the law for the inspection and management of schools and the due qualification of teachers are two of the most important features of the system. Prominent men, like Cuvier (1811), Cousin, the great Frencli philosopher and pedagogue (1836), Mr. Nichols (1838), Dr. Bache (1838), Mr. Hickson (1840), in their reports on education in Holland have dwelt largely on these points, and their conclusions have had great influence in producing the present superior condition of the Dutch schools. One unfavorable feature of the common schools in Holland is the overcrowding of the classes. From 40 to 50 children are considered ED 95 16 482 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. tlie maximum number in a class, but tliese limits, not being specified by la-^, are frequently overstepped. In many i^laces, usually in cities, tliese conditions are so unfavorable that the Government schools are not able to meet their requirements when not assisted by private schools. The Government report shows that 10.88 per cent of the children of school age (G to 12) did not receive instruction during the year 1889. Out of 10,3SG conscripts 91 per cent could read and write; 151, or 1.45 per cent, could only read, and 800, or 7.55 per cent, could neither read nor write; the highest percentage of illiteracy, 11.06, being in North Brabant. M. Cuvier, in his report on coeducation in Holland, 1811, says, in regard to the subject of coeducation : It being contrary to the customs of onr country, we •were rather shocked to lincl that both sexes -^cro admitted to the same schools. The authorities, however, assured us that they never had cause to regret this arrangement. It is the custom not only in schools for the poor biit in all burgher schools, in which ]iarents pay quite high tuition fees and have amj^le means to send their children to private schools. M. Cousin, in his report of 1836, says, on the same subject: One thing that surprised me greatly about these schools is that both sexes are admitted not only to the same rooms, but are seated side by side on the benches. In the Kevue Pedagogique Beige, February 15, 1895, we read: The greater number of schools in the Netherlands are coeducational. Coeducation of the sexes, which was prohibited in France a century ago by the immortal Con- dorcet, is in the Netherlands an established principle of iiedagogy, and successfully applied. Girls and boys of primary schools are in general educated together from their sixth to their twelfth year, inclusive. In the lower classes the boys are instructed by women teachers. Comjiulsory instruction has not yet been settled by law; yet there are at present very few children not attending some primary school. The following extracts from the Kevue Pedagogique Beige for March 15, 1894, are given, as they present some interesting j)oints of infor- mation: The school law. passed in December, 1889, substituted for article 54 certain condi- tions under which free schools may receive support from the Government, which are as follows : 1. Instruction must comprise: («) reading; (&) writing; (c) arithmetic; (d) ele- ments of the Dutch language; (e) history of the country; (/) geography; (17) rudi- ments of natural sciences; (/() singing; (i) elements of drawing; (_;) free gymnastic exercises and deportment. 2. In girls' schools: (A-) the useful branches of manual training, provided that the pupils do not receive satisfactory instruction somewhere else in this branch. 3. Instruction for girls must comprise at least eighteen hours j)er week, of which two are devoted to manual labor. A time-table must be sent to the inspector of the arrondissement, one copy of which must be posted at the school, in a place where it can be seen by all, including a table indicating holidays and vacations. 4. The number of teachers must bo the same as that fixed for public schools by arti- cles 23 and 24 of the law. (a) The school must be directed by a teacher 23 years of age or over who has the rank of a head teacher, though the direction maybe intrusted EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 483 temporarily — but not exceeding six months — to a teacher below 23 years of age who is not of the rank nieutioned. (b) The director must be aided by an assistant teacher ■when the number of pupils exceeds 40; by at least two teachers when the number reaches 90, and for each group of 55 pupils over 90, one additional teacher. In order to entitle a free school to a State subsidy, it must have, beginning with January, 1894, in addition to the head teacher, the following corps of teachers : Pupils. 1894. 1895. 1897. 1899. Pupils. 1834. 1895. 1897. 1899. 41 to 90 1 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 a 1 2 3 4 4 1 2 3 4 5 310 to 304 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 7 5 G 7 8. G 91 to 144 365 to 419 145 to 199 420 to 474 8 200 to 254 475 to 529 c 9 255 to 309 All such teachers must hold a diploma furnished by the State board. Schools that can not receive State aid are as follows: (a) AVhere the pupils aboA'e 6 years of age do not exceed 25; (h) schools that receive an annual remuneration of 80 florins or more per pupil; (c) schools that during six months have not filled the vacancy of head teacher by a titulary of that rank or where during foiir months the place of an assistant teacher has been vacant; (r?) schools established for mercantile i)urposes. A school board desiring a subsidy should address their request to the State depu- ties (permanent corps of deputies) of the province in which the school is established. Before the 1st day of May the State deputies must decide whether the school is conducted according to the rules of the law, and if so, they determine the amount of State aid to bo granted in conformity with article 45 of the law, and send their decision without delay to the minister, as well as to the inspector of primary instruc- tion and the school board. Within the jieriod of thirty days after the date of this finding an appeal may bo made by the provincial commissioner, the inspector, or the school board. A royal decree regulates the amount of subsidy, and the law pro- vides the means of operation. The subsidy is calculated upon the same basis as that for public schools (see regulations of article 45) : For director : School of 90 pupils or less $100.50 School of 91 to 199 pupils 120. 60 School of 200 to 309 pupils 160. GO School of 310 to 419 pupils 201.00 School of 420 pupils or more 241. CO For each of the assistant teachers, in agreement with conditions mentioned above: School of 41 to 90 pupils $60. 30 School of 91 pupils and more 80. 40 If these assistant teachers have reached their twenty-third year and have the rank of a head teacher, $120.60. When the staff of teachers exceeds the minimum as determined by article 24 of the law, the subvention is increased for 1 teacher to $60.30 where the school has 90 pupils or less and to $80.40 in a school with 91 to 309 i^upils; for 2 teachers or more to $80.40 per teacher where the school has 310 pujiils and over. One should by no means overlook the fact that these figures rejiresent the amount of State subvention only, and not the real remuneration of the members of the teaching force. The communal teachers have a remuneration fixed by the commu- nity according to prescriptions of the law. The nouofficial schools fix the remuner- ation of teachers as they please. If the school teaches, in addition to the obligatory branches, at least two of the following subjects, (1) principles of- the French language; (2) principles of the 484 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95, German language; (3) principles of the English language, or (4) principles of math- ematics, the subsidy is increased to $80.40 for 1 teacher where there are 90 pnpilsor less; to $100.60 per teacher, with an allowance for two more teachers, if there are 90 to 199 pupils; and to $100.60 per teacher, with an allowance for three additional teachers, if the school numbers 200 pupils and over. Instruction can not lie given in buildings or on premises that have been condemned by the inspector of the medical service as unhealthy or too small for accommodating all the children. The inspector must give his reasons for disapprobation in writing and send copies of the same to the permanent corps of deputies, the communal administration, the school inspector, and the school director. The jiermanent corps of deputies directs the burgomasters and aldermen of the community where such premises are situated to ijublish the declaration. An appeal against tlie inspector's decision can be made to the permanent corps of deputies by (a) the inspector of the school district; (?>) the director of the school; (c) the proprietor or tenant of the premises ; (d) the parents or teachers of the pupils. The ajipeal must be made within thirty days. A tinal appeal may be addressed to the Crown against the decision of the corjjs of deputies. During the period of appeal and until the final decision the instruction may be continued on the premises, unless the inspector of the sanitary service has ordered it closed for reasons set forth, in a written report; but instruction maybe recommenced if the inspector of the sanitary service declares in writing that the premises have been sufficiently im- proved and the number of pui^ils properly limited. Tlie above shows that the law has laid down precise instructions concerning subsidies to free schools, so as to prevent the Government from sustaining institutions that may be undesirable for any reason. A school must be a good school in every respect to entitle it to State aid. Communal schools receive State subsidies rated according to the number of pupils and teachers and in agreement to the scale given above, besides 25 per cent of the expenditures of establishment, building, or grounds, in as far as these expenditures are not incumbent upon some other i)arty. The rooms of these schools may be put, by the communal authority, at the disposal of those who wish to give religious instruction after class hours. Free schools receiving subsidies may introduce religious instruction or not; the State does not interfere in this matter. The Netherlands adoj)ted the i^rinciple of religious neutrality in the public schools by the law of 1806, the constitution of 1846, and the laws of 1857 and 1878. At a recent date the Government proposed to the Chambers to sub- sidize " middle schools for girls." This project created opposition on the part of the "feministes," to which the ministry has been constrained to defer, for it now seems certain that Minister van Houten will abandon the idea. The "feministes" make it their aim to suppress the special schools for girls. They demand that all middle schools shall be made coeducational, and that the Government shall only grant subsidies to institutions for both sexes. M. van Houten is personally in favor of this theory, as his former writings prove, but the Eoman Catholics are hostile to the princii)le of coeducation of the sexes. Young girls who desire to devote themselves to the higher education attend the courses of the " gymnasia." There are in Holland about EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 485 29 of these '^ gymnasia," of wbicli 4 are nousubsidized. These all beloug to the communes, which decide whether a gymnasium shall be coeduca- tional or reserved exclusively for young men; but in 1894 the Komau Catholic provinces of Maestricht and Breda refused to open their gym- nasia to young girls. In the Protestant i^rovinces it is different; in Eotterdam, for example, there are at present 13, and in Amsterdam 26 young women attending the courses of such coeducational institutions. In every instance the boys show the greatest deference for their girl fellow-students. Nothing detrimental to the cause of coeducation has been noticed in these schools. There are four universities in the Netherlands which admit women to their courses. Between 1880-81 and 1893-94 the celebrated Univer- sity of Utrecht admitted 118 women students. This year 55 young ladies were matriculated; at Groningen 13, Utrecht 16, Leiden 11, and at the communal university of Amsterdam 15. Of these young women, 11 study medicine, 19 philosophy and letters, 12 natural sciences, and 13 elective branches. Holland has but 4 women doctors. The first, Mile. Aletta Jacobs, who has a diploma from Groningen University, established herself in Amsterdam on September 15, 1879, after having completed a most brilliant course of studies, where she was authorized by Minister Thor- becke to practice medicine. Mile. Jacobs has had the courage to defend and propagate in Holland the IMalthusian doctrine,- and though ridi- culed and upbraided at the outset, she has finally succeeded in incul- cating her ideas iiito the minds of many eminent persons of the country. The Malthusian Society of Holland, which is constantly increasing in adherents, numbers among its honorary members M, S. Van Houten, the prime minister, and has for its president M. B. H. Heldt, member of the States-General. There are also in its ranks«other men, distin- guished alike for their learning and prominence. Mile. Jacobs has become the wife of one of the most eminent m.en in Amsterdam, M. G. V, Gerittson, who is fixmous as a financier, and is considered one of the foi emost orators of the Second Chamber of the States-General. -Mother woman physician, Mme. Du Saar, has made a great reputa- tion as an oculist. Mme. Tusschenbroek was many years assistant to M. Mendes, of Lyons, who is the first gynecologist of Amsterdam and stands high in that branch of his profession. The fourth woman doctor is Mme. Johanna C, Spruyt. A large number of young girls j)ractice pharmacy, which profession seems appropriate to tlieir sex. There are in the Netherlands 727 so- called "aides" (assistants), of whom 414 are men and 313 women. But, although the Hollandish universities have distributed 15 apothecary dij)lomas to young girls there is not one woman who conducts a ijrivate pharmacy, though it is said one will shortly be opened in Utrecht, con- ducted by Mme. Th. Olivier. There are seven women possessing apothecary's diplomas who prac- 486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-93. tice their iirofession, among wlioui are Mine. Alice Grutterink, who is chief j)harm«icist of the Coolsingel Hospital, in E otter dam j and another is pharmacist at the Hospital Wilhelmiua, of Amsterdam. Since 1880, a lady pharmacist, Mile. Charlotte Jacobs, who is a sister of Dr. Geritt- son, nee Aletta Jacobs, has established herself in Batavia, where she owns a pharmacy and conducts it with the assistance of her husband. There are also in Holland several women dentists and lirst-class nurses, who were trained iu the sx)ecial schools of Croix-Kouge, in La Haye, or Oroix-Blanche, of Amsterdam. Mr. Ipsen, in Vor Ungdom, says: The energy witli which the education of the higher grades is pursued in Holland in the various hranches, and the conser|uent abnormal increase in the learned j^roles- sions has led to serious results. Nervousness, -which formerly was exceiitional, has found a productive soil in the Netherlands, and facts show that knowledge in many instances has been bought too dearly. Even the phlegmatic character of the Hol- landers can not withstand the pressure, and a reaction has already supervened, whose influence, it is hoped, will be felt when a normal equilibrium has been regained. SUPERINTENDENCE OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The State supervision of schools, under the supreme control of the minister of the interior, is in charge of inspectors, district school super- intendents, and superintendents of arroudissements. A provincial board is composed of 1 inspector and 1 school superin- tendent of each district in the respective jirovinces. The provincial boards of primary instruction meet three times a year, receive the reports of all the inspectors, consider the interests of primary educa- tion, and make an annual statement to the minister of the interior, who has the authority to convoke at the capital an assembly of delegates from i)rovincial boards, in order to discuss topics of general educational interest. The local supervision of schools rests upon the burgomaster and the aldermen. Inspectors. — There are 3 inspectors, whose jurisdiction embraces from 3 to 4 provinces each ; 25 district school superintendents, 1 for each dis- trict; and 1 school superintendent for each of the 94 arroudissements. For the sake of greater security, the councilors of a community may also ai)point commissions to inspect all schools at least twice a year and ascertain if the law governing elementary instruction has been carried out. Communities that may unite to establish and support schools can have a commission in common, composed of their burgomaster and aldermen, and, according to the amendments of the law of 1878, without regard to the number of inhabitants, though formerly the law demanded 3,000. For communities exceeding this number a special commission had to be appointed by the local councils. Inspectors are nominated, suspended, or discharged by the King. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 487 They receive in addition to their annual salary an allowance for travel- ing and incidental expenses while ijerforming their official duties. According to article 77 of the law, inspectors must visit the schools and communicate, either orally or in writing, with the district and arrondissement school superintendents and the local commissions and councils for the purpose of devising means for the improvement of pub- lic instruction. They must consult the minister of the interior on offi- cial business and submit to him annually a general report on the condition of schools, and such rejiort must be based upon written reports of the local boards and upon x>ersonal and private notes. Once a year the inspectors are to be convened by the minister of the interior to deliberate iipon questions of i^ublic education under his direction. District school superintendents are nominated by the King for life, and may be suspended, discharged, or pensioned, where the necessity arises, by his authority also. They are sworn in by the minister of the interior and are obliged to reside in a locality pointed out to him, and may hold another office. They sliall visit institutions for the training of teachers in their respective dis- tricts, attend meetings of the district school superintendents for the purpose of discussing school matters, and report annually before the 1st of May to the inspector of their district, and send a copy of such report to the States-General. Arrondissement school superintendents are nominated by the King for a term of six years, but are eligible for renomination. They are sworn in before the royal commissioner of the province, and can at any time be discharged by the King. These superintendents must reside within the borders of their jurisdiction, unless they receive a special permit from the minister to live elsewhere. They shall keep a record of all public and public-private [semipublic] schools in their arrondissements and of such teachers employed as are classed under article 8 of the law. They shall have knoTvledgo'of the school books used in each school, iiay stated visits to all normal schools and normal institutions, report to the district school superintendent on ail school affairs, and attend the meetings of the school commissioners. The King, as the highest authority, is the final arbitrator on all questions arising in school matters concerning the teachers. He extends privileges to teachers and grants subsidies to the communes for school purposes and fixes the boundaries of school districts, etc. The minister of the interior acts as adviser and counselor to the King in all these affairs. The parish council of Hilversum, in establishing new regulations for the appointment of school committees, have recently decreed that two women shall be included in each committee. The minister in response to an inquiry concerning the legality of this action replied "that the law does not prevent women from occupying a place on school commit- tees." The decision was received with applause by the friends of education. 488 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. Under the law of the Netberlauds the term "lager onderwijs" (pri- mary iustructiou) does not apply to — (fl) Instructors of special branches, as singing, needlework for girls, drawing-, principles of agriculture, gymnastics, or fancywork. (h) Schools in which such branches are exclusively taught. (c) Schools in which children over C years of age are not admitted and where only preparatory lessons are given. Thus nursery or infant schools do not come under the provision of the law, because only pre- l)aratory instruction is imparted to children under 6 years of age. These schools, however, are supported both by public and private funds. {d) Military instructors. (e) Schools for the deaf and dumb, blind, idiots, or for those defective in speech. Number and kinds of primary schools in the 11 protrinces. Tear. rublic. Subsidized private schools, a Nousubsi- dized denomina- tional schools. Total. 1893 94 3,022 2, 952 2,946 34 57 61 b 1. 317 1,206 1, 183 4,373 4,215 4,190 1889 90 1888 89 + 76 -27 + 134 + 183 a "Bijzondere scholen" have been placed with private schools as being the nearest term with which to de.siguate these schools. Tlie nonsubsidized private .scliools, 1,317, include : (1) Charity and orphan schools : 56 Protestant, 16 Koiuan Catholic, and 3 Jewish schools. (2) Corporate schools: 233 schools for Christian national education (Reformed Church), 234 Protestant schools of other denominations. (3) Private or select schools: 175 Protestant, 45 Roman Catholic, 7 Jewish, and 26 schools of other denominations not specitied. There were 18 communes in North Brabant, Gelderland, Limburg, and Utrecht which in 1889 had no public schools, and 12 of these communes belonged to the latter province. Nursery or infant schools. Public Private infant I infant schools. ' schools. 1893-94 1889-90 1888-89 Difference in five years. 135 870 120 840 i:;i 8U + 29 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 489 '^repetition" schools. 1 At the close of 1889 519 commuues had 1 each of these schools, and 138 other communes had evening schools, distributed as follows : Province. Number of communes with — Province. Number of communes ■with — Evening schools. Repetition schools. Evening schools. Kepetition schools. 41 12 13 11 26 12 7 70 65 90 75 64 27 28 4 3 1 8 24 50 South Holland 24 North Holland 2 Total Utrecht 138 519 The following table presents a record of the population of Holland (census of January 1, 1894, and January 1, 1890), the number of chil- dren of school age, and of those not receiving primary instruction during the year, compared with the record of January 1, 1889 : January 1— Diiferenco in five years. 1894. 1890. 1889. Population : 2, 341, 484 2, 391, 427 2, 228, 487 2, 282, 928 2, 232, 183 2, 273, 749 + 109,301 +117,678 Total 4,731,911 4,511,415 4, 505, 932 +225, 979 Children over 6 and under 12 years of age : 315, 509 311,602 301, 571 298, 545 301, 997 299, 059 + 13,512 + 12,543 Girls Total 627, 111 600, 116 601,056 31, 935 39, 386 + 26,055 Not receiving primary instruction- 26, 983 33, 675 29, 101 36, 188 — 4,952 — 5, 711 Girls Total 60, 658 65, 289 71,321 — 10, 663 The foregoing table shows that the number of children over 6 and under 12 in 1889 was increased by 26,055 in 1894, or 4,31 per cent; the number of those who did not receive primary instruction was decreased by 10,GG3 or 14.97 per cent. Out of the total population on January 1, 1889, of 4,505,932 inhab- itants, there were 001,056 children, 301,997 boys and 299,059 girls of school age. Of these, 31,935 boys and 39,386 girls, making a total of 71,321, or 11.87 per cent, did not receive instruction in public or private schools. In 1893-94 this number was 60,658, or 9.67 per cent of all the children of school age, 627,111. Consequently 967 children (including the blind, deaf, and dumb, children of strangers, and those whose par- ents could not provide proper clothing) in each 10,000 from to 12 years of age were not enrolled in public or private schools. I Accordiug to the latest statistics, 1893-94, there are now 111 evening and 543 repetition schools in operation in Holland. ED 95 16* 490 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Piquls Idonrjing to day schools. Public schools: Boys Gills Sal)sidized private scliools: Bovs Gii-Is Nousiibsidized private schools: Boys Girls Total: Boys Girls January 1 — Difference in five years. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1888-89. 262 222 21l!729 251,114 203, 812 24S, 476 202, 607 +13, 746 + 9,122 443 952 1,116 2,133 1,127 2,209 — 684 — 1,257 92, 741 115, 442 82, 215 102, 588 80, 851 100, 389 + 11,890 +15, 053 355, 406 328, 123 334, 445 308, 533 330, 454 305, 205 + 21,952 + 22, 918 Day pupils also atteiicUng eveuiiig schools yvere distributed as follows : Public schools: Bovs Gii-ls Subsidized private schools : Boys Girls IN'onsiibsidized iirivato schools : Boys Girls Total : Bovs Giils January 1 — Difference in five 1893-94. 1889-00. 1888-89. years. 9,540 10, 133 10, 170 — 630 8,310 7,637 8,151 + 159 27 135 122 — 95 5 9 15 — 10 3,910 4,771 5,228 —1,318 1,949 2,692 2,630 — 081 13, 477 15, 039 15,520 —2. 043 10, 204 10, 338 10, 790 — 532 In 1893-94 tliere has been a general decrease from 1888-89 in all departments except in the girls' department in public schools. The number of day pupils instructed gratuitously is shown in the following table: January 1— Difference in 1893-94. 1889-90. 1888-89. five years. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. 1 Girls. Boys. Girls. 127, 729 2 23, 547 104,949 109 33, 028 136, 575 115 21, 076 112, 920 023 31, 599 135,444 113,012 128 628 21, 473 30, 407 -7, 715 — 126 +2,074 8.003 Subsidized private schools Nonsnbsidizsd private schools — 519 + 2,561 Total 151, 278 138, 080 157,760 145.142 1 157. 045 144.107 5 707 6 o?l The above table shows that the number of children instructed gratu- itously in 1893 decreased by 11,788 from the number instructed five years previously, while in 1888 there Avas an increase of 4,3G6 over 1887-88. Pupils attending evening schools exclusively. January 1 — Difference in 1893-94. 1889-90. 1888-89. five years. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Public schools 1,005 15 1,354 383 ""'757' 1,889 24 1,402 467 '"'462' 2,131 22 1,372 671 '"'563' —526 - 7 — 18 —288 Subsidized private schools Nonsubsidized private schools "" + 194 Total 2,974 1,140 3,315 929 3,525 1 234 1 fisi 94 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 491 The above figures indicate a slight decrease iu the attendance at the evening schools, except in the uonsubsidized private schools for girls. Pupils attending '^repetition" {continuation) schools. January 1 — Difl'ereuce in five years. 1S93-94. 1889-90. 1888-89. 13, 399 3,492 13, 109 2, 850 12, 633 2, 552 + 766 + 940 250 78 312 95 300 84 — 44 — C 1,610 031 1,163 1,021 1,122 886 + 488 — 255 15, 265 4,201 14, 674 3,966 14,055 3,522 +1,210 + 079 Public schools : Boys Girls Subsidized private schools : Bovs Girls Nonsubsidized private schools : Bovs Girls Tot.il: Boys Giils The number of tliose attending repetition schools in 1893 increased principally in the public scliools and in the nonsnbsidized private institutions for boys, while a small decrease is noticed in the subsidized private schools and a somewhat larger decrease in the nonsnbsidized X)rivate schools for girls. By adding the number of children of school age (G to 12) for 1893, given ill the table on page 489, to the number of children attending repetition schools (over 12 years of age) we obtain a total of G10,577 children, and for 1889 a total of 618,633 children. The teachers emi)loyed in the foregoing schools numbered 16,953 in 1893, and 15,192 in 1SS9. The average of pupils to each teacher was 43 and 45, respectively. The number of pupils in attendance on May lis taken as the average for the scholastic year. The employment at labor of children under 12 years of age was pro- hibited in 1889. School attendance is encouraged by means of prizes, school entertainments, and rewards, and distribution of savings-bank books, principally in 269 communes. A sum of about 815,968 was spent iu this manner in 1893. The attendance at repetition schools is not compulsory, and instruc- tion is given gratuitously. The expenses are borne by the communes. Infant schools. Public: Boys under C years of ago. Boys over 6 years of age. . Girls under 6 years of age Girls over 6 years of age. . Total enrollment Private : Boys under 6 years of age. Boys over 6 years of age.. Girls under years of age Girls over 6 years of age. ., Total enrollment General total , January 1- 11, 005 1,476 10,415 1,377 24, 273 34, 709 4,855 36,911 6,041 82, 516 106, 789 1889-90. 10, 256 1,542 9,900 1,500 23, 198 34, 102 4,417 36, 080 5,694 80, 353 9,857 1,799 9,455 1,675 22, 786 32, 944 3,699 30, 062 5,088 77, 793 100, 579 Difierenco in Ave years. + 1, 148 — 323 + 960 — 298 -f 1,765 -t- 1,156 + 849 + 953 + 6,210 492 EDUCATION REPORTj 1894-95. The public infant scliools are intended for poor children from 3 to 6 years of age. Leyden has, for instance, three schools of this kind ; in each of them there are from 300 to 400 children. Infant schools have been in operation ever since 1806, when a regulation of the law govern- ing public instruction enjoined upon the inspectors "to make endeavors for the establishment of a sufficient number of infant schools." These institutions prospered, 'especially under the patronage of the Society of Public Good, which from the year 1823 founded a considerable number. The infant schools patronized by this society were neutral in regard to religion. The various denominational communes created on their part the " salles d'asiles," having a sectarian basis. Other communes opened public infant schools. The law of 1878 on primary instruction did not include these institutions in the number of schools. They are, however, subject to the regulations of article 5 (relating to hygienic conditions and cleanliness of schoolhouses) and to article 72 (relating to the super- intendence exercised by the municipalities and inspectors). Teachers of infant schools are not required to hold a certificate of capacity, and the State has not done anything in behalf of their pro- fessional training. The Froebel method has been introduced into many of these schools. Instruction was also extended to those detained in the various j)enal institutions, which include 3 reformatory schools, 31 penitentiaries, and 45 houses of detention. Children under 16 years of age are placed if necessary in one of the three State reformatories. Persons detained who received instruction or were excused on account of sickness or old age. Not admitted. Admitted to in- struction. On account of sick- ness, etc. Were suffi- ciently instructed. Total detained. In reformatory establishmonts : ] 89:3 94 632 658 142 463 3,192 3,160 395 353 632 1889 90 058 In special penitentiaries : 1893 91 135 264 9,202 9,128 5.543 6,375 44 60 1,085 561 409 142 321 1889-90 787 In ordinary penitentiaries : 1893 94 . . 13, 479 1889 90 12, 849 In houses of detention : 1893-94 6,347 1889-90 6,870 Total : 1893 94 .• 14, 880 15, 767 14, 891 1,538 763 1, 126 4, 361 4,634 3,996 20, 779 1 889-90 21, 164 1888 89 20, 013 —11 -f412 + 365 +766 The statistics show that in 1893-94 of 20,779 detained 1,538, or 7.4 per cent, were well instructed j 14,880, or 71.6 per cent, were not admitted; 4,361, or 20.98 per cent, attended the lessons. Of the 4,361 admitted to instruction, 69.8 per cent acquired a EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 493 knowledge of the primary branches before their dismissal from j^eual punishment, 25.2 per cent were found deficient, and 5 per cent were unable to read or write. From the foregoing tables it appears that kindergarten and primary instruction was imparted to the following number of children and persons : lu iufaut schools : 1893-94 106,789 1889-90 103, 551 1888-89 100, 579 In primary schools (age 6-12) : 1893-94 566,453 1889-90 534, 827 1888-89 529, 735 lu all peual institutious : 1893-94 4,361 1889-90 4,634 1888-89 3, 996 The school regulations require that — Primary schools shall be open without intermission the whole year, except holidays. During class hours the master shall he present from the opening of school to closing; he must not engage in anything not connected with teaching, nor absent himself except in cases of absolute necessity. The master must not permit pupils to leave the school unnecessarily, but require attention and good behavior both in the class room and on the playgrounds. Pupils must be enrolled, as far as possible, for fixed terms. Instruction in the different branches shall, as far as possible, be conveyed to the i)ui}ils by means of the blackboard. An examination shall be held once a year at each school. Qualified pupils shall then be promoted from the, lower to the higher grades, and, if circumstances permit, rewards shall be given for diligence and merit. A deserving pupil, when leaving school after completion of the course of study, shall be presented with a certificate of honor. A code of regulations shall be drawn up for each school, and this, whether written or printed, shall be displayed on a board, hung up in the class room, and from time to time be read and explained by the master. Teachers. — Under the provisions of the law of 1857 there were two classes of assistant teachers, but under subsequent regulations there are only head masters and teachers. Pupil teachers are not included in the law. Only persons of good morals who possess the qualifications required by law are admitted as teachers. Foreign teachers must obtain a special permit from the King. Tliese rules do not apply to those who teach children of private families exclusively nor to persons who vol- untarily offer their services and receive no remuneration therefor. Teachers are not allowed under the law to pursue any profession out- side of their school duties, nor are they permitted to hold any ottice or allow members of their family to engage in any x)rofessional pursuit at their residences. The King, however, can suspend this regulation in special cases. Besides the two classes of teachers mentioned, there are pupil teachers 494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. or aspirants, i. e., young pupils who are other wise qualified, but have not reached the requisite age, or those students in normal schools who are teaching in a primary school connected therewith. Persons teaching modern languages, drawing, gymnastics, etc., are considered "special teachers." Women are largely employed as teachers, not only in coeducational schools hut also in the classes of younger boys. It rarely happens, however, that women teachers are advanced to the highest classes. The positions in the higher grade girls' schools are remunerative and much sought after, and daughters of rich and distinguished families, who are by no means obliged to earn a living or make teaching their profession, often fill such places. Appointments. — Head masters or mistresses of communal schools are ai^pointed by the councils of the communes, who select their names from a list of candidates (not less than G) who have passed the pre- scribed competitive examination. The head master and regular teach- ers are appointed by communal councils from lists of at least 3 candi- dates who have been proposed by the aldermen in concurrence with the local school superintendent. Competitive examinations are not required for these appointments. The councils are empowered to discharge teachers from schools either by allowing them to resign, or by request of a district school inspector, or burgomaster and aldermen. In such cases the i^hrase "not honorably" may be added to the paper of dismissal. In order to obtain a position as teacher it is requisite that candidates shall present to the authorities in charge of appointments certificates of qualification and moral conduct furnished by the burgomaster of the commune in which the applicant lived during the last two years, or by the commissioner of the province. The only approach to tbe monitorial system in the schools of Holland is where young people of either sex, who have written authority from the school superintendent of the arrondissements, are admitted to schools as pupil teachers, under the following conditions: {a) They must be over 15 years of age and under 20; (h) they must work under the direct supervision of a competent teacher; and, (c) having per- formed these duties for a period of three months, a xiupil teacher must X)roduce a certificate, signed by the head master of the school to which he or she belonged, stating that conduct and i^rogress are satisfactory. The following cori^s of teachers was engaged in 1893 in 4,373 jirimary schools, and in 1889 in 4,215 schools : 1880-90. Head masters 3, 836 Head mistresses ! 515 Male teachers | 8, 409 3,679 498 7,571 JTemalo teachers 4, 193 i 3, 444 Total I 16,953 Pupil teachers j 2, 807 15, 192 2,332 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 495 These teacliers were employed iu the different classes of primary schools as follows: 1893-94. 1889-90. Male. Female. Total. Male. Feraale. Total. Pul>lin schools proper: 2,92^ 6,355 17 39 801 2,015 76 2,663 18 41 421 1,489 3,004 9,018 35 80 1,312 3,504 2,855 5,799 32 51 792 1,721 75 2,202 24 57 399 1,185 '' 930 8 001 Private subsidized schools : 56 103 Private n on subsidized schools : 1,191 2,906 Total 12, 215 4,708 a IG, 953 11,250 3,942 15, 192 Public infant schools : 2 2G1 263 590 3 198 201 574 * 1 Total 1 i853 "75 1 private infant schools : 13 1,092 1,105 1,325 20 1,069 1 089 1 380 Total j c2,430 2,469 1 d52 55 alncre>as6 in four years, 1,761. l> Increase iu four years, 78. c Decrease in four years, 39. d Decrease in four years, 3. Examinations of primary teacliers, both public and i>rivate, are ordered by the State on subjects from a to i, or a to Jc, in article 2 of the law. Certihcates of efficiency are : (a) Those entitling to give home or school instruction iu subjects of article 2, under a to i or 1c; [b) those conferring the rank of head master, and entitling the person certified to give home or school instruction in subjects of article 2, under a to i or 1c, and subjects mentioned under o, 2h Q. / (^) those entitling the teacher to give home and school instruction iu enumerated subjects. Candidates who are 18 yeans of age may be admitted to these exam- inations, and must notify the local school superintendent in due time and submit certificates of age and moral character. Such candidates may be examined either in the province in which they reside or in which they desire to be apj)ointed. The first examination in the year is held on April 1 ; the second in October. Of these candidates, 390 male and 455 female passed their final examinations at the end of the year 1893-94, and received certificates, besides 166 persons, 78 male and 88 female, in subject j, and 80 female in subject h. For 1889 there was a total of 1,137 candidates receiving teachers' certificates. Salaries of teachers. — Each teacher receives a fixed annual salary, which in no instance shall be less than $281 for the head master of a school, and not less than $241 for those holding a diploma as head master, and not less than $161 for regular teachers. The head master of a school is entitled to free residence and a garden, if possible, or an allowance for house rent. 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Ill 1893 the salaries of bead masters ranged from $281 to $1,085. Of these, 2,171 received from $281 to $441, and 830 ranged from $442 to $1,045. The highest salaries were x>aid to three head teachers, who received from $1,046 to $1,085. The salaries of regular teachers ranged from $161 to $643. Three thousand one hundred and one teachers were paid salaries from $161 to $241; 79 teachers were paid from $603 to $640, and the remain- der, numbering 5,838, each received from $242 to $602. The funds for salaries in 1893-94 were derived from the following sources : A. From the Government : For primary-school teachers For teachers of normal schools and practice schools For teachers of normal courses Total B. From the communes: For head masters For teachers For special remunerations Total C. From school fees General total General total in 1888-89 Increase in five years $4, 516 71, 678 141, 004 1, 205, 468 2, 600, 001 11, 632 3,817,101 770 4, 035, 069 3 604,449 430, 620 $4, 582 78, 887 165, 870 249, 339 1,156,982 2, 228, 777 5,461 3, 391, 220 840 3, 641, 399 Pensions of teachers. — Under the i)rovision of article 38 of the law all teachers who have reached the age of 65 years, and those who are mentally or physically disabled, after ten years' service, are entitled to pensions. Head masters who are suspended by reason of schools hav- ing been discontinued receive half pay for a term of five years if within this period they do not obtain other employment the remuneration for which is equal to their previous salary as a teacher. These pensions are paid quarterly, and they amount to one-sixtieth of the annual sal- ary for each year of service, but must never exceed two-thirds of the former salary. Ill 1803 pensions were granted to 27 teachers, male and female, and to 41 head masters; in 1889 to 13 teachers and to 45 head masters. These ])eusions ranged from $80 to $523 for each head master, and from $40 to $321 for regular teachers. The total sum expended for pensions of i)ublic primary-school teachers amounted in 1893 to $138,280 and in 1889 to $114,507. In conformity with article 41 of the law of August 17, 1878, all teachers contributed 2 per cent of their annual salaries to the pension fund, which amounted in 1893 to $75,943 and in 1889 to $68,103. The pension system relieves those teachers who have served faithfully as such from actual care and anxiety as to provision for old age. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 497 The moral traiiiiu^- of the young is regulated by articles 22 and 33 of the law : School education shall conduce to the iutellectual development of the youug, who shall he trained in the Christian and social virtues by means of instruction in all appropriate and useful branches of knowledge. The lessons of religion are intrusted entirely to the minister and special teachers of theology. Regular teachers must refrain from teaching, doing, or permitting anything at variance with the respect due to the religious convictions of other sects. A teacher guilty of offense in this respect may be suspended for a term not exceeding one year, but in case of repetition of the offense he may be suspended for an indefinite period from the duties of a public-school teacher. The introduction of religious instruction into common schools is no depar- ture from the principles of the law. This feature has been adopted from practical considerations on account of the difficulties experienced by parents who can not obtain religious instruction for their children in other suitable places, but precautions are taken so that religious teach- ing shall not interfere with other lessons. The school simply is an agent between parents who desire their children to be initiated into religion and their respective religious teachers. SaHugs hanlcs. — Endeavor has been made by the school authorities to develop thrift in children by introducing the savings-bank system after the English model. In each class room there is kept a receptacle in shape of a flat wooden box, with numbered compartments arranged so as to receive temporarily the small earnings of the children. Once a week the contents are counted and deposited in a bank. Sclwol fees. — The local authorities were allowed, under the provisions of the law of 1857, to make priiiiary instruction gratuitous in the com- munes under their jurisdiction. One hundred and forty-six thousand and sixty-two, or 36 per cent of 406,329 children enrolled in public ele- mentary schools, in 1857 received gratuitous instruction ; and in 1876 50 i)er cent, or, including all children under some public instruction, 58 per cent. The estimate of December 31, 1889, showed that in 166 communes no fees were charged for children attending public primary schools. Such communes numbered in — 164 1884 182 1887 164 1883 196 1886 179 1882 217 1885 175 In a report of the United States consul at Amsterdam in 1839 we find the following Information: The public primary schools of this city are divided into four classes. The first class, of which there are 51 at this time, are free schools. In the second-class schools, of which there are also a goodly number, the school money charged is for 1 child 15 cents, Dutch currency, or 6 cents American money, per week ; for 2 children of the same family, 12^ cents each, and for 3 children only 498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 10 cents each per vreek ; in tte tliird class tlie charge for 1 child is 20 florins, or ahout $8 per annum, and for 2 or more children of the same family 16 florins, or about $6.40, each; in the fourth class the charge for each child is 70 florins ($28) per annum, and for 2 children or more of same family 60 florins, or $24, each. School buildings. — The repairs aucl erection of school premises are regulated by articles 4, 5, and 50 of the law of August 17, 1878, and the building and furnishing of the same by the royal decrees of May 4, 1883, and August 30, 1884. Schoolhouses in Holland are of diverse styles and have been con- structed as necessity demanded; but on the whole the Dutch have not displayed much taste in the architecture of public school buildings, says Mr. Ipsen in Yor TJngdom. The usual xilan of country school- houses in the Province of Utrecht in 1844 consisted of rooms about 52 by 2G feet, bisected by glass partitions, and were intended for about 150 cliildren. Some of these buildings much resemble the very old English school- houses; at The Hague, e. g., are seen square buildings without parti- tions, where the chief difference consists in the position of the seats for classes, and not in the room itself, the pupils being placed back to back instead of face to face. Another plan of a school building at Amsterdam for 500 children shows only one row of desks, and the great length of the room in pro- portion to its width is a serious defect. Both these styles, as far as new buildings are concerned, may be considered out of date. All new schoolhouses are excellent, and provided with modern improvements. A burgher school in Leyden, erected in 1890-91, will serve as an example. It has excellent ventilation, and the class rooms have higb ceilings and good light. In order to procure the best light possi- ble windows have been cut in the partition walls of the class rooms at such a height as to prevent the pupils from seeing each other. The halls of this school are unusually broad and paved with small grooved tiles. Mr. Ii)seu, in Vor Ungdom, says: In Dutch schools a Danish eye soon detects the absence of taste for embellishment and comfort which would be very inexpensive in many cases. Even in handsome new buildings there is a certain bare look, though ever^'thing is scrupulously neat and clean. Article G of the law of August 17, 1878, prescribes that the area of each schoolroom be at least 0.8 square meter for each pupil, with a space of at least 3.6 cubic meters per pupil; the height of the room being 4.5. The doors of the schoolroom must not be in direct contact with the air outside. The halls and vestibules are lighted sufficiently and must be at least 2 meters wide and not lower than 2^ meters high. The outside walls of a school building shall have at least 0.23 meter thickness. On the establishing of a new school, the communal council must EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 499 observe tlie follo-wiug regulations of article 13 of the royal decree of May 4, 1883, iu regard to school furniture: Each scliool bench shall accommodate two children, and have a suijport for the lower part of the back. The tables shall be constructed with receptacles iu which the girls may keep their needlework. The modern equipments of schools iu Holland are very handsome, without any display of extravagance. The benches and tables are made to accommodate 4 children, 2 in front and 2 in the rear, the tables being provided with a space under the lid for school necessaries. There are appropriate benches in every room for scholars of different sizes, and children when entering a new class are first measured and then seated at the suitable tables. In infant and primary schools each class has its counting frame, and every slate is fitted with one of these useful devices. Great pains are taken to convey a correct idea of numbers and the principles of arithmetic by means of practical and intelligent methods. Blackboards are in general use. School hygiene. — Hygienic conditions of school buildings are regu- lated by articles 4, 5, and 50 of the law, and the royal decree of August 29, 1884. Buildings condemned by the supervising health inspectors must remain closed for school purposes until the necessary improve- ments have been made. Persons transgressing against the law will be fined from $10 to $20, and for repeated offenses from $20 to $40 and imprisoned for a period of not less than eight days or more than one year. Schoolrooms must always be kept clean and in good order; and to that end they must always be aired during the recesses. Teachers are required to see that pupils are at all times cleanly, and at the same time exercise the greatest care in regard to their health. To this end baths have been introduced into some of the schools. School libraries. — The arrondissement libraries increased from 94 iu 1889 to 101 iu 1893. The volumes were increased, during the same period, from 30,558 to 36,132. The names of 5,4G1 readers were regis- tered for 1893. One thousand two hundred and eighty-eight teachers' meetings were held during the year, in the above-mentioned arron- dissements, at which an average number of 3,525 public and 285 l^rivate teachers were present. Expenditures hy ihe General Government for jirimary insiriiction. 1893-04. 1889-90. For inspection $59, 241 $51, 537 Training of teachers : State normal schools 139, 866 38, 258 160, 308 16, 023 156, 084 19 7''2 Subsidies to normal schools State normal courses 185 660 Coutrihutiona toward normal courses and to head teachers of schools for the training of male and female teachers Total 355, 054 361, 466 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Expenditures by the General Government for primary instruction — Continued. Arrondissement libraries and extra allowance to teachers State primar J- schools Subvention a to communes for pensions Indemnifications by the Government (see art. 45 of the law) and additional sum for insufficient coutributifn in preceding year Contributions to communes according to article 49 Traveling expenses to commissions in charge of teachers' examinations.. Pensions to teacliers Half pay to teachers without positions (art. 39) Half ])ay to 8cho(jl inspectors (art. 92) Subsidies to pension funds of officials employed in the school superinten- dency Contributions to private schools Aggregate . Increase in four years. $3, 146 5,747 29, 266 1, 356, 072 123, 572 31, 121 138, 280 902 336. 554 2, 438, 9.55 1, 868, 676 $2, 729 8,290 29, 266 1, 201, 497 66,524 31, 206 114, 457 177 923 605 1, 868, 676 Income of the Government for primary education. School fees of practice schools connected with normal schools Contributions of teachers toward the pension fund Balance covered back into treasury from former year Examination fees (art. 65 of the law) Total Increase in four years $5, 046 75, 933 71,512 12, 253 164, 744 110, 144 54, 600 1889-90. $5, 707 68, 103 36, 334 110, 144 RECAPITULATION. $164, 744 2, 438, 955 $110, 144 1, 868, 676 Excess of expenditures over income of schools paid from the treasury 2, 274, 211 1, 758, 532 1 758 532 515, 679 Expenditures of communes for primary instruction. Teachers' salaries Allowance for residences and rent of school premises. New schools Maintenance of school buildings Eurniture and material Heating and lighting of schools Local commissions Cf)Sts of competitive examinations of head teachers... Pensions for teachers (1858) Subsidies to private schools Training of teachers Payments to other communes Rewards for faithful school attendance Miscellaneous expenditures Total . Increase in four years . 3, 817, 102 66, 068 622, 785 207, 823 297, 534 194, 554 7,277 4,426 15, 552 64, 326 24, 530 1.5, 9G8 51, 190 5,389,136 4, 598, 279 790, 857 1889-90. $3, 391, 224 55, 396 365, 474 180, 903 247, 784 170, 515 7,249 5,412 50 23, 107 71,023 24, 309 14, 754 41, 079 4, 598, 279 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. Income of communea from primary instrtiction. 501 School fees Government subsidies toward pensions Indemnifications by the General Government in conformity with article 45 of the law Government contributions (see art. 49) Contributions from other communes Raising of special funds (this includes a loan from the General Govern- ment of $3,057) Total Increase in four years. 1893-94. $633, 801 29, 265 1, 284, 560 123, 572 24, 506 15, 411 2, 111, 115 1, 855, 345 255, 770 1889-90. $553, 385 29, 265 1, 165, 162 66, 524 24, 294 16, 715 1, 855, 345 EECAPITULATION. Total income from enumerated sources TotaFexpenditures Excess of expenditures over income of schools paid from the treas- ury of the communes $2,111,115 5, 389, 136 3, 278, 021 2, 742, 934 Increase in four years . 535, 087 $1, 855, 345 4, 598, 279 , 742, 934 The following table gives a review of the actual expenditures of the General Government and the communes together for primary instruc- tion for the years 1878 to 1893, inclusive. The income is for school fees, etc. Tear. 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 Expendi- tures. $3, 347, 998 3,480,013 3, 886, 816 4, 645, 314 5, 782, 735 6, 602. 282 5, 961, 522 5, 085, 183 5, 209, 401 Income. $501, 574 509, 375 523, 307 545, 339 543, 939 561, 678 593, 259 620, 060 631. 691 Tear. 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 Total Expendi- tures. $5, 240, 801 5, 257, 927 5, 166, 009 5, 225, 007 6, 061, 788 6, 506, 124 6, 319, 181 83, 778, 051 Income. $644, 863 654, 876 664, 545 693, 551 721, 029 737, 142 766, 950 9, 913, 178 The subsidies received by the communes from the General Govern- ment have been deducted from the communal expenditures and income, otherwise these su.ms would have been counted twice. The difference between expenditures for primary instruction and income from the same, 1878-1893, amounting to $73,864,873, was paid out of the General Government and communal treasuries. A new regulation came into operation in the Ketherland Indies on November 1, 1894, for the primary schools of Europeans and that por- tion of the population that has been assimilated with the Europeans. For the Island of Java there has been established a public school in every group that has not less than 20 European pupils, and for the neighboring islands 1 school in each community containing 15 European pupils. These schools are also accessible to the native children who are assimilated with Europeans, provided they have a sufiQcient knowl- edge of the Dutch language. These schools include the children of the 502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. black soldiers wlio are of African descent and liave embraced Cliris- tiauity. Such scliools are partly coeducational, though, there are special schools for girls. The scheme of instruction embraces reading, writing, arithmetic, the elements of the Dutch language, history of Holland and the Netherland Indies, geograi)hy, elements of natural sciences, singing, drawing, gymnastics, and in the special schools for girls, needle- work. The supervision of jjrimary instruction is intrusted to a director, assisted by several inspectors and a local commission. For inspection the Netherland Indies are divided into three divisions, the first com- jjrising a part of Java (Bantam, Batavia, Chcribon, etc.), Sumatra, and West Borneo; the second, the rest of Java (Tegal, Pekalonga, Sama- rang, Japara, etc.) and South Borneo; the third, the Island of Celebes, the Moluccas, and the small islands. Beside these there are a number of private schools that are entitled to a subsidy from the Government. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS (KAVEEKSCHOLEN). jSTormal schools are provided for by article 39, section 1, of the regu- lations approved by the royal decree of May 28, 1879. In the official rejyorts on education in Holland we find the normal schools and institutions for the training of teachers and head teach- ers, although properly classified under secondary instruction, included under the heading of primary instruction. A large number of normal institutions are maintained and provided for by the State, which are designated as training schools and city normal courses. The State grants a subsidy to all normal schools that are founded by the communes; they must, however, meet the requirements of the State institutions. A i^ractice school (leerschool) is connected with each normal school, in which the students practice teachiug. The directors and teachers of normal schools are ai^pointed by the King, and such schools have a four-years course with four classes. In each class there are about 20 students. In normal schools for young men, which are day schools, students may live at the homes of j)rivate families in the vicinity, while normal institutes for young women are generally boarding schools, in all of which the scholastic year commences on the first Monday in September. Holidays of eight days at Easter and ten at Christmas are given, as well as a six- weeks vacation x)receding the first Monday in Seiitember. Candidates desiring admission to a normal school must pass an exami- nation before the director and teachers in accordance with a programme arranged by them and approved by the minister of the iuterior. This programme is published every January in the Nederlandsch Staats- courant. Candidates obtaining the highest marks are admitted. They must have attended ordinary elementary schools and preparatory classes for normal courses before they can be admitted to the regular course of a normal institute. Teachers must require all students to attend EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 503 religious instruction, wliicli is given at stated hours, and also their churches. Books and school material are furnished free of cost. The programme of every normal school includes: (1) Eeading; (2) writing,- (3) arithmetic; (4) composition; (5) the Dutch language; (6) general and natural history; (7) geography; (8) natural sciences; (9) singing; (10) violin and piano; (11) principles of the French, German, and English languages; (12) mathematics; (13) pencil drawing; (14) gymnastics; (15) agriculture; (16) theory of teaching and pedagogy. The minister of the interior can temporarily dispense with subjects 11 to 15. I. STATE TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS (MEN). (RIJKSKWEEK- SCnOLEN VOOR ONDERAYIJZERS.) On September 1, 1893, there were 4GS students enrolled in 6 train- ing schools maintained by the Government. Of 130 students in the higher class, 78 obtained diplomas at the final examinations held in 1894. The practice schools which are connected with the training schools numbered 1,GG1 students. These practice schools are regular primary schools supported by the State (Government), and they employ about 58 teachers. Sixty-nine teachers were employed in the normal schools, besides 8 gymnastic teachers. The following table shows the distribution of students, pupils, and teachers in the above-mentioned schools, 1893-94: K^ormal schools. Practice schools. students. Teachers. PnpU.s. Teachers. 84 11 240 7 Nijinciien 06 72 78 68 70 13 12 10 11 12 239 309 293 280 300 8 10 10 10 13 Mn nstriirl't, Total 468 69 1,661 58 The above table does not include the gymnastic teachers. Eighty-one persons made api)lication for admission to the new normal school in Nijmegen for tbe course beginning in January, 1894. Sixty-five stu- dents attended the courses of gymnastics for teachers of gymnastics at Haarlem, Deventer, Groningen, and Maastricht. The programme of the State normal schools includes : (1) The Hol- landish language, reading, grammar, orthography, and literature; (2) writing; (3) natural and general history; (4) mathematical, physical, and economical geography and drawing of charts; (5) arithmetic; (6) com- position; (7) natural sciences (historj'^, physics, and chemistry); (8) singiug and harmony; (9) pedagogics (education and instruction); (10) drawing; (11) mathematics (algebra and geometry); (12) modern lan- guages; (13) horticulture and agriculture; (14) anatomy; (15) physiol- ogy and hygiene, and (IG) gymnastics. 604 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Expenditures for State normal schools and practice schools. 1893-94. 1889-90. Teachers' salaries For students Material Total Decrease in four years $71, 877 50, 996 16, 988 139, 861 156, 083 $78, 887 57, 941 19, 255 156, 083 16, 222 II. NORMAL COURSES SUSTAINED BY THE STATE (RIJKSNORMAAL- LESSEN). At the close of 1893 there were 43 State normal courses in operation of Class A and 53 of Class B. These courses extend over four years and include four progressive classes. The programme of normal course B includes the Dutch language, reading and writing, national history, geography, arithmetic, geometry, natural history, singing, pedagogy, and useful handiwork for girls, besides manual training for boys. The programme of normal course A includes the same subjects and in addition thereto general history, pencil drawing, mathematics, gymnastics, and one of the modern languages. Candidates who have successfully completed the course of primary instruction are admitted to the preparatory class up to 14 years of age; those over 14 can enter the normal course. A director is at the head of each of these institutions, which are con- nected with practice schools. The scholastic year commences April 1, and closes March 31, the holidays and vacations during the year not exceeding six weeks in all. The annual school programme is arranged each January at a meeting of the teachers and the director. Three thousand and twenty-seven students, 1,480 male and 1,547 fema^le, attended these courses in 1893-94. Several city normal courses had been suspended in 1889 on account of a decrease in attendance; 2,698 students, 1,481 male and 1,217 female. III. TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR TEACHERS SUPPORTED BY COMMUNES (aEMEENTELIJKE KWEEKSCHOLEN). There are three institutions of this kind: (1) The training school in Amsterdam is coeducational, and has two parallel divisions. Division 1 is for the training of those who asjjire to the rank of a teacher; division 2 is for teachers aspiring to the rank of head teacher, or for persons who study special branches. All stu- dents of the highest grade (class 4) took part in the final examination. The course of division 1 embraces four years and is attended by pupils from 14 to 18 years of age, the first two years being devoted to theo- retical instruction; the last two to theoretical and practical training. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 505 Practical training- is acquired in tlie practice scliool of tlie normal school, or ill public or private schools of Amsterdam, this conforming to regulations of article 8 of the law. Instruction and school material are provided free of cost. Male students who distinguish themselves can obtain a scholarship of $30 x^er annum. There were 25 students, 12 men and 13 women, who passed successful examinations, besides 2 women who were not admitted the year before. One hundred and fifty four students attended the school in the be- ginning of the year and 12 additional students entered during the run of the year. The number of teachers in the normal and practice school, inclusive, was about 25. In 1889 there were 133 students in attend- ance. These schools are under the jurisdiction of the school super- intendent and local commission of primary instruction. (2) The training scliool for teachers {coeducational) in Ley den. — At the end of the year 1893-94 this school numbered 28 head teachers, 8 female head teachers, 54 male and 32 female teachers, 9 female teachers with certificates conforming to article 5Ca, 89 normal pupils, 31 aspirant normal pupils, and 20 other students who studied special branches. Students under 15 are not admitted, and aspirants for the lowest grade must have attained the age of 13 years. ISTone can enter without a pre- liminary examination. The course is completed in six years. Peda- gogics and violin or piano instruction belong to the course of study. Twent3'-two normal pui^ils were admitted to the final examination coming under article 5Ga of the law on j)rimary instruction, and 18 passed successfully; and 11 out of 13 j)assed at a later examination. Eleven teachers, 10 male and 1 female, obtained the diploma coming under article 56b of the law ; 3 men and 1 woman in the French lan- guage; 1" woman in German; 4 women in English. There were about 25 teachers employed. A practice school is connected with the training school. (3) Training school for female teachers in Oroningen. — This was founded by the Society of Public Good (1816), and has since 1882 been supported by the commune. The school opens May 1, and closes April 30 each year. The burgomaster and aldei'men are the superintendents ; a special commission of supervision is appointed by the local council, by whom are also appointed the directress and the other teachers. The annual fee amounts to $20 each. Students from other communes are accommodated by private families at a cost of $160 per annum for board and room. The course for 1893 opened on May 1 with 54 students and about 17 teachers, including 7 teachers in the primary department of the insti- tution. Five of these students who attended the fourth class (highest) passed a successful examination at the end of the year and obtained teachers' certificates. These three schools received from the Govern- ment a total of $15,692, or, respectively, $9,648, $2,122, $3,922. 506 EI>UCATION REPORT, 1894-95. IV. PRIVATE NORMAL, SCHOOLS AND COURSES FOR MEN AND VfOMEN (INRICHTINGEN VAN BIJZONDEREN AARD, TER OPLEIDINO VAN ONDERWIJZERS AND ONDERWIJZERESSEN). The following private normal schools, out of a total of 57 in the coun- try, received subsidies from the Government in 1893 : Traiiiiug school for female teachers in Arnhein Christian normal school for female teachers in Zetten Christian normal school in Nijmegen Groen van Prinsterer school in Doetinchem Christian normal school in Tho Hagno Normal training school of the Reformed. Church for male and female teach- ers in Amsterdam Training school for female teachers in Haarlem Roman Catholic training school in Eijeden Roman Catholic training school in Echt $4, 215 2,295 2,170 1,897 2,283 2,372 3,522 1,938 1,873 Total 22,565 The following numbers of students were enrolled in the above-men- tioned normal schools: 714 males and 1,151 females j of these, G7 and 126, respectively, obtained teachers' certificates. The normal courses, 89 in number, had an attendance of 689 male students and 896 female students; 266 persons took private lessons from 95 of the principals of normal schools, 137 men and 129 women. Beviexo of State normal courses, training schools supported hi/ communes, and of private institutions for the training of teachers, showing on Decemier 31, 1893, an enrollment of 4,946 students. State normal courses : Students Di]>lomas obtained !N"ornial courses supported by comnimies : Students Diijlomas obtained Private institutions : Students Diplomas obtained 2,098 male students. 1893. 1,277 171 107 19 1,279 313 115 37 382 72 Diiierence in four years. - 2 -142 4 332 — 5 2,818 female students. 1,326 181 371 11 1,151 126 1,011 202 275 65 488 84 Difference in four vcars. -315 - 21 + 96 — 24 + 663 + 42 Eevieiv of the numher of normal schools and institutions, and number of pupils enrolled, at beginning of the school year 1893-94. Schools. Pupils. State training scliools State normal courses Communal training schools Private normal schools Private normal courses Head teachers giving private instruction Courses for head teachers Total 1893-94 Total 1889-90 7 468 96 3,027 3 443 57 1,805 89 1,585 95 266 26 834 373 8,54S 189 4,556 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 507 The number of head teachers giving private iustniction to aspirant teachers was not given in the annual report for 1889-90, nor the num- ber of priva,te normal courses. V. COURSES FOB THE TRAINING OF HEAD TEACHERS. In 1893 there was a total of 2G institutions of this kind in 25 cities (2 in Leeuwarden). The enrollment was 671 male and 223 female students, or a total of 8915 175 students, 143 male and 32 female, obtained the diploma of head teacher. In 1889 there were only 22 of these institutions, with 78G students in attendance. Expenditures for iltc training of teachers. 1893-94. 1889-90. State normal schools $139, 866 160, 308 54, 881 Gi, 327 $156, 085 185, 060 19, 722 71,024 Total 419, 382 432, 491 432, 491 Decrease in four years 13, 109 Three hundred and fifty-five thousand and fifty-five dollars of the total expenditure for 1893 and $361,467 for 1889 were provided for by the General Government, while $64,327 for 1893 and $71,024 for 1889 were paid out of the communal treasury. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION (MIDDELBAAR ONDERWIJS). There were in 1890 two inspectors of secondary instruction: Dr. W. B. J. van Eyk, The Hague (1886), for the provinces of North Brabant, Gelderland, Zealand, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Limburgj Dr. A. T. van Aken, The Hague (1883), for South Holland, jS^orth Holland, Frieslaud, Groningeu, and Drenthe; F. B. Lohnis (1892) having charge of the agricultural schools. Secondary instruction is based upon the law of May 2, 1863, amended by the laws of June 28, 1876, and April 25, 1879. Until the enactment of the law of 1857 the burgher schools, which corresponded to German "Realschulen," had been classed as primary only. It was then found necessary to establish intermediate schools, which are a grade between primary and higher schools. The law of 1863 classed the burgher schools, higher burgher schools, agricultural schools, polytechnicai schools, and all industrial schools under second- ary instruction. Schools of secondary instruction are either public or private, the public being those established and maintained by communes, provinces, and the State, separately or conjointly, and all others are private. Pri- 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. vate secondary or middle schools may, liowever, receive subsidies from communes, provinces, or tlie State. Secondary tuition given to cliildren of not more tlian tliree families is considered home instruction. Secondary instruction is gratuitous, but the highest fee in communal schools is $5 per annum, and in higher burgher schools, supported by the State, it is $25 per annum. Officials having charge of secondary instruction. — The minister of the interior is the supreme authority, and invests the local commissions, who are elected by the local council, with the supervision of the various institutions. In 1893 there were 8 commissions, consisting of 97 mem- bers, in charge of examining such persons as desired to obtain a diploma of secondary teacher. Each commission has a president. The 3 inspectors of secondary instruction are nominated by the King; one of them having special superintendence of the State agricultural school. For the manual-labor training schools there are several ladies appointed on the board of commissioners. The directors of the higher burgher schools are in charge of the general supervision of everything jtertaiiiing to these schools. Teachers. — Only persons holding a diploma of recognized universi- ties and secondary training schools, and a certificate of good moral standing, as required by law, are allowed to impart secondary instruc- tion. From this rule are exempted (1) i^ersons who instruct children of one family only ; (2) those who do not make teaching their profes- sion, but have obtained a concession from the King to teach without remuneration. In the higher burgher schools only male teachers are employed. The head teacher has the title of director, and all teachers are nomi- nated by the King. The director regulates the programme in con- junction with the teachers. Directors and teachers must obtain a permit from the minister of the interior before accepting a position at any public or private institution, or for giving private lessons. For- eigners must aj)ply to the King for concessions. Directors and teachers of higher burgher schools supported by tlie communes are appointed by a local council from a list of candidates recommended by local authorities. Pensions arc regulated by articles 31 to 35 of the law. Teachers are considered as Government officials and are all entitled to a pension from the State, and in determining the amount of i)ension the length of time spent in the public service is taken into consideration. The directors and teachers contribute annually to the general pension fund, and the communes refund to the Government one-half of the sum spent in pensions. The regulations governing the pensions of primary teach- ers agree in the principal points with those governing the pensions of secondary instructors. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 509 I. BURGHER DAY AND EVENING- SCHOOLS, AND INSTITUTIONS CLASSED WITH THEM ACCORDING TO ARTICLE 14 OF THE LAW. They are classified as follows : 1. Burgher clay and evening schools. 2. Apprentice schools. 3. Trade schools. 4:. Drawing and industrial schools. 5. The Academy of Liberal Arts in Rotterdam. 6. Private burgher day and evening schools. Most of these schools are evening schools. They were established priTicii^ally for the purpose of training artisans, mechanics, and agri- culturists. In each community of 10,000 inhabitants or more at least one burgher day and evening school must be established by the com- munal authority. The King can suspend this regulation where the inhabitants of a community live so far apart that it would be incon- venient for the pupils to attend such a school, or if other provisions have been made to fulfill the requirements. School fees may be col- lected, but not to exceed $5 per annum. A total of 39 institutions of tbis kind are in operation in the larger cities: {(() Thirty-two of class 1 are evening schools; the school at Leeu- warden is the only day school of tbis kind. There is only one school of class li. These schools together had a total of 3,593 pupils enrolled in December, 1893. Thirteen hundred and seventy-six candidates were examined for admission to the schools at the beginning of the course. Of these 1,001 passed and 375 failed. At the final examination there were 285 pupils examined, of whom 237 passed and 18 failed. Two hundred and ninety-two teachers were employed in the above schools. (h) There were (> schools of classes 3 to 6 in operation : The trade school in The Hague, the Academy of Liberal Arts, the trade school in Eotterdam, and the drawing school in Delfshaven (Rotterdam), the private burgher evening school in Leyden, and the industrial school in Helder, with an attendance of 1,563 pupils; teachers, 127. Three hundred and thirty-two candidates were examined for admis- sion at the beginning of the course, of which number 104 failed to pass; 228 were admitted. At the final examination 69 were successful and 8 failed. One hundred and forty-seven teachers employed in schools of classes 1 and 2, and 7 employed in the schools of classes 3 to 6, inclusive, taught in the higher burgher schools also. . The total sum expended for teachers' salaries was, in schools of classes 1 and 2, $49,089; classes 3 to 6, inclusive, $30,116; total, 1893-94, $79,205: 1889-90, $70,429; increase in four years, $8,776. 510 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 General totals. Tear. Schools. Pupils. Teacliers. Expendi- tures lor salarie.s. 1893 94 40 39 5,156 4,500 419 .$79, 204 1889 90 405 70, 42D 1 056 14 8. 775 II. INDUSTRIAL AND DRAWING SCHOOLS, PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS, ETC. There were 27 public, 19 subsidized private, and 5 nonsubsidized private institutions of the first and second classes, and 20 of the latter; of these 17 were subsidized. They embrace day and evening schools. Tear. Schools. e3ld.'^-c^-. 1893 94 . .. 71 8 s?;s 1^1 a 1889 90 61 5 526 1 353 10 2, 832 1 160 The institution called ''Colony Nederlandsch Mettray" was founded in 1-851 by Willeni Hendrik Suriuger for needy and neglected children of the Protestant church. After having finished the regular course the pupils are trained in agricultural or industrial pursuits, etc. Only pupils from 10 to 14 years of age are admitted. Many entertain the erroneous idea that "Mettraj^" is a reformatory colony, but anyone who visits it can easily recognize its object. The income of the institution is derived from gifts, annual contributions, interests from legacies, rents from farms, remuneration for work i)erformed in the workshops, etc., and from regis- tration fees. For a boy attending 1 of the 35 divisions a fee of |32 per annum must be paid; those attending all divisions pay $G0 and an entrance fee of $4. The colony is superintended by 7 commissioners and 4 inspect- ors, each of the latter living in 1 of the 4 family dwellings. Besides these there are head masters, 1 in each workshop, and 7 teachers. The programme of the foregoing schools includes the following studies : Mathematics, first principles of theoretical and applied mechanics and a thorough knowledge of instruments, physics and chemistry, natural history, technical knowledge of agriculture, rudiments of geography and history, Hollandish, fundamental knowledge of political economy, pencil and rectilinear drawing, and gymnastics. The local council may add to this programme the principles of technology, modeling, and one of the modern languages. The directors of the burgher schools are appointed by the local council from the list of applicants approved by the mayor and magis- trates, after having been examined by the inspector. The number of teachers and their salaries are fixed by the local council, and must be approved by the States- General. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 511 The teacliers of industry are trained at the normal schools and State Academy of Liberal Arts in Amsterdam and at the Academy of Liberal Arts at The Hague. Directors and teachers of burgher schools, whose maintenance is imposed upon the communes, are pensioned by the Government. The community, however, refunds half of the sum to the State, which sum is added to the State budget. Other exx^enses for burgher schools must be met by the communes. III. HIGHER BURaHEE, SCHOOLS. These schools are i:)rincipally for the training of overseers, superin- tendents, and the commercial classes. They are divided into two grades, one comprising a course of five years and the other a course of three years. By virtue of the law there shall be not less than 12 higher State burgher schools in operation in the country, and in at least 5 of these the course must be five years. Anybody wishing to be admitted to such a school must pass an examination before the director and teachers, and pupils can not be promoted to higher classes without a previous public examination, but they may be transferred from a higher burgher school to another and be placed in tlie grade to which they belong, pro- vided they have a certificate from the director of the school which they hitherto attended. The courses commence on the first Monday in Sej)- tember, three school vacations being given during the year, from the middle of July to the beginning of the course, at Christmas, and at Easter, each of the last two lasting ten days. There are in all Gl higher burgher schools in existence; 20 are main- tained by the G-overnment, 28 by the communes receiving subsidies, 12 are nousubsidized communal schools, and 1 a Eoman Catholic insti- tution. These were attended by 6,1G6 young men taking a full course and 243 students pursuing elective studies. Forty schools admitted young girls, and were attended by 282 taking a full course and 104 pursuing elective studies. The young men were distributed in the different classes of schools as follows : One thousand three hundred and seventy-three regular, and 107, or 7.7 per cent, following elective courses, in the 20 higher State burgher schools. The other schools numbered 5,036 attendants, besides 136, or 2.7 per cent, taking elective studies. The courses of gymnastics were followed by only 4,989 of the total students. The final examinations of these institutions are regulated by articles 55 and 57 of the law, May 2, 1863 (Stbl. Xo. 50), and March 10, 1883 (Stbl. No. 31), and are conducted in the following manner: (1) The royal commission nominates a board of examiners before May 1 of each year, and the parish is informed of the place and time of examinations. (2) The law requires oral and written examinations. The la^tter 512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. comprise 10 branches and the former 5 diliereut groups of subjects; Mathematics aud mechanics ; phj^sics ; historical, commercial, and polit- ical sciences; modern languages aud literature; J^etheriand-Indian languages and pencil and rectilinear drawing; in all, 17 branches. (3) Tlie board of examiners is divided into subcoramissions, one for each subject, and each subcommissioner determines on the oral exam- ination in the special subject to which he has been assigned, or the written examination. (4) After the discussion aud prex^aration of the various exercises the conclusions are sent to the inspectors, who make selections from the proposed questions, which are then priuted at Government ex])ense with absolute secrecy, and the j)rinted forms are sealed up in packages and forwarded to the respective directors. (5) Written examinations take place on the same day in all cities,, and the results are forwarded to the president of the committee. (6) The oral examination may include all branches, but must embrace all those belonging to the written examinations. The commission deter- mines the length of time permitted each candidate for the different subjects, while the president regulates the time spent on the oral examination. (7) The answers to each of the 5 groups are rated by ligures, from 1 to 10. About 300 candidates present themselves each year for the linal examinations. Making allowance for a moderate programme, live hours is allowed each candidate — two hours for mathematics and physics, one for history and geography-, and two for languages — or a total of fifteen hundred hours, or fifty days, for all examinations; but as some of the schools require two days, the real aggregate is seventy-two days. This calculation, of course, can only be considered approximate, since at many of these schools there are more than twelve candidates. The certificates are distributed gratuitously, but diplomas of final exami- nations at agricultural, technological, and engineering schools require a fee of $16. Examinations for teachers of secondary schools and tor liome instruct- ors are also held once a year, the mode of which is prescribed by the law. Of 2,318 pupils who presented themselves for admission to the lowest class, 1,092, or 72 per cent, passed the examination, and 656, or 27.94 per cent, failed. Three hundred and fifty-five were examined for admission to a higher class, of which 179 passed, 72 entered a lower grade, and 101 failed. There were also 140 students who entered classes without previous examinations — 08 in 10 State and 72 in 19 communal higher burgher schools. Eight hundred and eight teachers were employed at the higher burgher schools (this leaving 4 vacancies), 175 having a doctor's degree, EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 513 21 candidates (that is, young theologians wlio bad recently graduated), 488 teachers having diplomas of secondary instruction, 35 witli pre- vious diplomas, 35 with certificates conforming to articles 82 and 89, 6 to article 90, and 34 to article 83 ; 14 without certificates. Twenty- seven of these teachers were employed at more than one school, which reduces the number of teachers to 777. One hundred and forty-four teachers were employed at 11 higher State burgher schools with a five- years course, 81 at 9 higher State burgher schools with a three-years course, 565 at 40 higher burgher schools supported by the communes with three or five years courses. Higher burgher schools for boys have a laboratory with accommoda- tions for each student, who is supplied with all necessary appurtenances including a desk with drawers for materials. Here he learns the more important chemical combinations by practical experiments, instead of committing to memory only and learning merely the qualities of the principal elements. Schools of this kind are also furnished with exten- sive collections of specimens in natural history, besides special conven- iences for studying anatomy. The salaries of teachers of the higher State burgher schools ranged from $1,005 to $1,407 for directors, who in two instances are furnished with free residence, and from $402 to $1,000 and over for the remaining number of teachers. At the higher burgher schools supported by communes the sala- ries ranged from $964 to $2,200 for directors (free residence in five instances), though there were three cases where directors received less than $964. They ranged from $402 to $1,000 and above for the reg- ular teachers. The exi)enditures for salaries for higher State burgher schools amounted to about $158,237 and for the communal higher burgher schools to about $400,628, or a total of $558,865; in 1889, $506,756. Programmes of higher burgher schools. — The five-years course includes mathematics; principles of theoretical and applied mechanics; knowl- edge of instruments and technology; physics and its principal aijplica- tions; fundamental knowledge of mineralogy, geology, botany, and zoology; rudiments of cosmography; origin of communal, provincial^ and State constitutions of Holland; political economy and statistics, especially of the Netherlands and its colonies ; geography ; history ; Hol- landish, French, English, and German literature; Latin and Malayan languages; elementary knowledge of commerce, especially of merchan- dise and bookkeeping; penmanship; pencil and rectilinear drawing, and gymnastics. The three-years course includes mathematics ; first principles of physics and chemistry; principles of botany, zoology, and mineralogy ; bookkeeping; geography; history; Hollandish, French, and English languages; penmanship; pencil and rectilinear drawing, and gymnastics. The programmes for secondary schools for girls differ in some ED 95 17 614 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. respects, but they include bookkeeping, mathematics, and chemistry, besides literature. In the secondary schools for both sexes much imi)ortance is attached to modern languages and literature. Eeading of classical authors as well as the literature of foreign countries is largely encouraged, and conversation in foreign languages during rec- reation hours is enforced upon young girls who attend these schools. The branches of natural sciences are assiduously cultivated. IV. SECONDARY (OR MIDDLE) SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS. These institutions are supported solely by the communes or private parties. There were in all 12 in operation in 1893, one of which was private. The school fees for a complete course are $20 to $40 per annum ; for elective studies from $4 to $24 per annum for each subject. These courses cover three or five years, and each school has 5 classes. In 40 schools girls have been admitted to the classes of the higher schools for young men. In every iustance the young men show the greatest defer- ence for their girl fellow-students. Nothing detrimental to the cause of coeducation has been noticed in these schools. Tiie following table shows the places where these schools are located, and the number of pupils : Secondary (or middle) schools for girls. Pupils attending complete courses. Pupils for elective studies. General total. Cities. "First class. Second class. Third class. Fourth class. Fifth class. Total. 27 35 36 25 27 12 41 45 19 30 10 26 38 13 13 40 10 40 31 17 12 33 8 19 26 16 10 32 14 24 12 15 7 21 8 10 24 10 8 22 7 27 19 9 9 14 65 131 169 83 88 94 58 173 159 132 28 169 6 3 71 The Hague 134 169 6 1 88 99 100 Amsterdam (private) 13 32 51 54 14 50 46 37 59 173 Utrecht 159 2 5 16 134 33 56 45 185 Totall893 94 356 332 339 348 283 268 204 211 167 140 1,349 1,299 55 67 1 404 Total 1889-90 1 366 Increase in four years 1 1 38 1 1 Gymnastics are taught in all these institutions except in the pub- lic secondary schools in Amsterdam and Dortrecht; 939 pupils of those taking a complete course attended the courses of gymnastics. Examinations. — Three hundred and fifteen young girls made applica- tion for admission to the lowest class in these schools; 273, or 86.5 per cent, passed a satisfactory examination, and 42, or 13.5 per cent, failed. This result was less favorable than in the preceding year, 91 j)er cent being admitted. Of 30 examined for a higher grade, 2G were promoted, 2 entered a lower grade, and 8 failed. At the transition examination from the courses of 1892 to 1893, 889 pupils were successful and 166 could not be promoted. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 515 Oue liundred and twenty-five female teacliers were employed in these schools, 113 of whom held diplomas of secondary instruction, 4 diplo- mas as head teachers, and 8 had no certificates. There were, moreover, 27 male teachers, 20 of these having doctors' dii)lomas or the title of "candidate," 11 with diplomas of secondary instruction, 2 had no cer- tificates, and 1 a certificate conforming to article 82. The teachers without diplomas were employed for singing and needlework. The annual remuneration of the directresses ranged from $964 to $1,286, and in Eotterdam, Dortrecht, Utrecht, and Deventer they are entitled to free residence. The salaries of the teachers, male and female, ranged from $420 to $630 per annum, and the total spent in salaries for directresses was $12,422, and for teachers $71,176. In 1889 these sums amounted to $12,381 and $66,179. V. AGRICULTURAL, SCHOOLS. The State agricultural school at Wageningen is the largest and best known, and has a higher burgher school connected with it. The attend- ance in 1893 was as follows: 66-f 1 students in the higher burgher school division; 62+1 students in Division A of agricultural school, 41+1 students in Division B, and 22 students in Division 0. This gives a total of 191 regular attendants, and 3 hearers — that is, X>ersons who come to listen to the lectures without paying fees. The two latter divisions have been established especially for higher scien- tific training in agriculture; each division has several classes. The students ranged from 12 to 18 years of age and above. An experiment station is also connected with the State agricultural school, at which numerous agricultural researches were made by the students. The examinations were very satisfactory. Fifty-two students in the higher burgher school division were promoted to higher classes at the begin- ning of the course of 1893; 42 out of 47 in Division A, and 21 out of 26 in Division B, and 12 out of 16 in the highest class obtained diplomas. Six in Division C were promoted to the highest class and 6 others were granted diplomas. About 29 teachers were emi)loyed. Enroll- ment in 1889, 123 students and 4 hearers. In the Gerard Adriaan van Swieten Landbonwschool, at Willemsoord, opened in October, 1890, the number of students must not exceed 20. They are to be trained for two years theoretically, and also practically on the farms of the Society for Public Good. Only 7 pupils attended in 1893, under 4 teachers. There are, moreover, 2 horticultural schools, the "Tuinbouwschool," of Amsterdam, and the "Gerard Adriaan van Swieten Tuinbouw- school," of Fredericksoord, opened in 1884, with an attendance of 27 and 40 pupils. Thirteen teachers were employed. The age for admis- sion IS 15 years, and school fees are $24, $34, or $40 per annum. The total of students in 1889 was 45. In the School of Forestry, "Gerard Adriaan van Swieten Bosch- 51 G EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. bouwschool," opened in 1888, 7 pupils followed the course in 1893, under 4 teacliers. Boys supported by the Society of Public Good receive not only gratuitous instruction in the school of Fredericksoord, but also free board. This school receives a state subsidy of $250; 10 students and 4 teachers in 1889. Besides the above-mentioned agricultural and horticultural schools, there are other similar institutions in the country, and winter courses have been established in various cities, to which the Government extends subsidies. In the official report of Holland for 1893-94 we find 36 sums itemized, representing State subsidies for as many winter courses and agricultural schools. Establishments with courses in dairy farming are maintained by 4 private associations in Oudshoorn, Bolsward, Friesland, and Geldern, and the Government in 1889 granted subsidies of $1,206, $1,608, $402, and $482, respectively, for their maintenance. These courses were attended by about 293 pupils, and 12 teachers were employed. There is no record for 1893. The accompanying programme will suffice to show the relative value placed in the agricultural schools on the several branches of study pur- sued: Political economy, practical mathematics (surveying, leveling, mensuration, etc.), mechanical science as applied to agriculture and the use of agricultural machines; the construction and arrangement of farm buildings; rectilinear drawing as applied to agricultural science and machinery; natural philosophy; chemistry and meteorology in their application to agriculture, general and special botany, and zoology; the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals; the distinguishing characteristics of the different domestic animals, their diseases and medical treatment; general and special agriculture; vegetable and fruit gardening, and the cultivation of timber and fruit trees, etc. VI. THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL IN DELFT. This institution is intended for the training of (a) those following industrial pursuits, and for technologists requiring a higher grade of technical and theoretical knowledge than they could acquire in the higher burgher schools comprising a five years' course; (b) civil engi- neers, architects, and architectural engineers. Every student of the polytechnic school pays $80 in advance for the annual course, which entitles him to all the advantages of the school. Those taking elective studies pay only for the subjects chosen, at the rate of $4 per annum for each study, with one recitation per week. For four or more recitations per week the fee is $16 per annum for each study. 'No entrance fees are required, and the names of students are recorded at the beginning of each school year. The course commences on the first Monday in September. Head masters and teachers are appointed by the King, and the super- vision of the polytechnic school is in the hands of a director, who is likewise nominated by the King. He is assisted in his duties by a EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 517 council consisting of the head masters of the school of which he is the president and from which the secretary is elected. The director, assisted by the council, arranges the course for the following year in May, and such programme as may be then prepared must be submitted to the minister of tlie interior for his approval. The director also has the general supervision over the museum and professional training departments presided over by the head master or teacher in charge of the various branches of instruction in the polytechnic school of the Kingdom. Most of the students who have taken the course of the i^olytechnic school in Delft and wish to go to the East Indies as Government officials prepare themselves for such positions by taking a two or three years course in the school at Leyden for the training of officials in the East Indian service, where they are taught the Java, Malay, and Boegine languages, etc. The East Indian languages, while they are taught at Delft, do not receive that siDerial attention that is given at Leyden, for the reason that a great proportion of the students at Delft take a sec- ond course of study at Leyden. The school in Leyden is not only open to officers in the civil service, but is free to all doctors, missionaries, etc., who are destined for service in the East Indies. To all others the tuition fee is $75, paid in advance. No entrance fees are required. The programme of the polytechnic school includes the higher algebra, spherical trigonometry, and analytical geometry; descriptive geometry and its applications, differential and integral calculus, surveying, level- ing, and surface measurements, theoretical mechanics, applied mechan- ics, machinery, mechanical technology, applications of natural science, applied, practical, and analytical chemistry, chemical technology, modern manufactures, mineralogy and geology, apjilied geology and the working of mines, metallurgy, hydraulics, road, railroad, and bridge building, civil architecture, shipbuilding, rectilinear drawing, instruc- tion in the use of tools, instruments, and the turning lathe; construc- tion of models, political economy, commercial law, laws relating to engineering, j)ublic works, mining, and all industrial works. Two hundred and forty-one students attended a complete course of engineering and technology, while 84 students pursued elective studies. There were consequently 325 students in attendance, besides two ladies attending lectures. The first-named students were all graduates from a higher burgher school, having a five years' course. Age of students from 19 to 23 years. The results of final examinations were as follows : Of 142 candidates applying for examination, 17 withdrew, 101 obtained diplomas, and 24 failed. These examinations are regulated by articles 61 to 65 of the law. Opportunities are offered the students to make practical experiments with surveying and measuring instruments. The teaching corps con- sists of about 34 persons; 1 director, 14 professors, 9 teachers, 8 assist- 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. ants, and 2 teacliers in modeling. Five amanuenses and 1 librarian axe attached to the teaching staff. One hundred and seventy-one new works were added to the library, besides various journals, and 2,100 books were loaned out during the year. IsTumerous new objects were presented, or i)urchased for the depart- ment of decorative architecture, the laboratories, the dei^artment of natural sciences, and others. VII. SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION. Schools of navigation are presented in the accompanying table, with the number of teachers, students, and those receiving a certificate, and the salaries of teachers : Xame and class of schools. Teach- ers. Pupils. Communes. Decem- ber, 1893. During Eeceiv- the year ing a 1893-94. diploma. ^of^^^ Total rectors, salaries. Subsidized naval school .-. Public naval school Private, training school Subsidized private school of Seeman's Home. Subsidized private naval school. Public naval school do 1 11 13 8 4 1 1 4 4 10 8 50 41 82 53 17 28 9 25 24 51 71 65 73 115 107 20 49 10 60 63 98 111 $182 1,206 $482 5,548 Eottcrdam 43 14 15 1 7 1 12 27 24 35 Do 1,085 643 643 523 804 724 965 643 4 140 Heklcr 1,327 Ter.scl'.elling 613 5''3 Ilarlingen Schiermonnikoog . Groningen Delfzijl Subsidized private naval school. Public naval school Subsidized private school of Minerva Academy. Subsidized private naval school. 1,709 1,367 2,967 2,175 Toral 1893-9, Total 18S9-9C Increase in i [ 65 39 453 276 771 443 179 108 7,718 5,827 20, 882 o9,772 26 177 323 71 j I a The salaries for 1889 ■were not given in six instances. VIII. SCHOOLS FOR DEAF-MUTES AND BLIND. The Institution of Eotterdam numbered 145 pupils, of which 119 received gratuitous instruction; 70 were partly cared for by the insti- tution, and only 7 pupils paid fees, ranging from $5 to $60; 17 teachers were employed, not including the director and adjunct director; 168 l)uj)ils in 1889. Ill the Institution of Groningen there were 179 pupils, most of whom were entirely cared for by the institution and only a few paid tuition fees. The teachers numbered about 30; 173 luipils in 1889. The " St. Michiel's G-estel" enrolled 143 pupils, 83 boys and 67 girls. Most of these were entirely cared for by the institution. There were 8 teachers. The girls are taught by the Sisters of Charity; 156 pupils in 1889. The Institute for the Blind at Amsterdam enrolled 58 children, 39 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 519 boys and 19 girls. Teacliers employed, about 17 in number, were under a director; Gl jDupils in 1889. A total number of 526 pupils were enrolled in tlie above-mentioned institutions; teachers employed, 76, including the directors. In 1889 they numbered 558 pupils and 85 teachers. IX. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS AND INSTRUCTORS IN DRAWING AND MODELING. Twenty-four ladies and 27 gentlemen attended the course in pencil drawing in Division A, and 6 gentlemen the course in architectural and mechanical drawing in Division B. There were besides 7 visiting stu- dents (hospitants). The entire course embraces three years. Eleven of the students obtained diplomas at the final examination. The school employed 11 teachers. The practice school numbered 58 students, 6 girls and 52 boys. The total expenditure was $8,369, or $5,776 for teachers' salaries and $2,593 for material. The income from tuition fees was $951, this leaving an excess of expenditure over income or $7,418, which was paid out of the Grovernment treasury. Seventy-one students in 1889, besides 38 in practice school. X. INSTRUCTION IN THE LANGUAGES, ETHNOLOGY, AND COUNTRIES OF THE NETHERLAND INDIES IN THE INSTITUTION OF DELFT. One hundred and forty-three students were attending this school. All of these were graduates from higher burgher schools with a five-years course, or from gymnasia with a six-years course. One was a grad- uate from the agricultural school in Wageningeu and one an officer on furlough from the East Indies. Twenty-one out of 46 candidates who l)assed the entrance examination of the school were rejected because their physique did not answer the requirements of the service in the Netherland Indies. In 1889 there were 73 students and 16 teachers. The i^rogramme of the course is regulated by the burgomaster and the aldermen. It includes : Malayan language Javanese language Soendan language Madoero language Balino language Makassa or Boegine language. Batak language Hours per -vreek. First Second year. year. 3 5 4 5 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Hours per week for ioth years. History of the Netlierlancl Indies 3 Knowledge of the Netherland Indian countries and nations 4 Religious services^ national laws, and customs of the Netherland Indies 4 State constitution of the Netherland Indies 5 Knowledge of law books of the Netherland Indies 2 520 EDUCATION RET>ORT, 1894-95. There is a similar school in Leyden, and its programme includes very mucli the same subjects. No record for 1893. The libraries of both institutions have been considerably enlarged by the purchase of new books and by numerous books presented. Expenditures of the General Government for secondary instruction, 1S89-9G. Inspection $3, 348 State agricultural school 36, 147 Polyteclinic school 58, 999 Higher State burgher schools 197, 729 Subsidies for secondary schools maintained by communes 104, 752 Indemnifications to the examining commissions at higher burgher schools . . 12, 577 Indemnifications to the examining commissions for examinations procuring diplomas (article 65) 14, 078 Subsidies to indnstrial and drawing schools and schools for deaf-mutes 35, 222 Total 462,852 Expenditures of the General Govei-nment for secondary instruction, 1893-94, Inspection $5, 282 State agricultural school 32, 396 Polytechnic school 114,622 Higher State burgher schools. 192, 989 Subsidies to communal higher burgher schools 93, 565 Subsidies to professional schools 32,853 Subsidies to agricultural and horticultural schools 12, 317 Winter schools 2, 976 Teachers of State agricultural schools 6, 318 Experiment stations, etc. (State agricultural) 23, 206 Subsidies to naval schools 12, 703 Indemnification to examining commissions 32, 792 Subsidies to schools of deaf-mutes, blind, and idiots 7, 356 Subsidies to various educational institutions of the communes 11, 325 Normal school for drawing teachers 8, 369 Industrial schools 9, 298 Total 598,467 Total income from tuition fees, diplomas : 1893-94 45,621 1889-90 37,540 Total expenditures : 1893-94 598,467 1889-90 462,852 Excess of expenditures over income of schools, paid from the treasury of the General Government : 1893-94 552,846 1889-90 .,. 425,312 Increase in four years 127,534 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. Expenditures for secondary instruction hy the communes. 521 Higher burgher schools and burgher schools : Teachers' salaries Material Supervising commissions Subsidies to private schools , Total Increase in four years Total income from subsidies and school fees Total expenditures Excess of expenditures over income of schools, paid from the treasury of the communes Increase in four years $439, 740 52, 860 1,540 4,462 498, 602 443, 929 54, 673 1889-90. $391, 739 46, 271 1,457 4,462 443, 929 $180, 908 498, 602 317, 694 282, 560 $101, 309 443, 929 282, 560 35, 134 Further expenditures were made for (a) the communal institutes in Delft and Leyden for the Netherland-Indies; {b) secondary schools for girls ; (c) the commercial school at Amsterdam. 1893-94. 1889-90. $54, 034 128, 435 $42, 074 117 738 Excess of expenditures over income of the institutions, paid from 74, 401 75, 664 75, 664 1,263 The expenditures for 1893 included $117,023 for teachers' salaries and $11,412 for material; for 1889, $108,215 for teachers' salaries and $9,523 for material. The communal expenditures for drawing and industrial schools and a few other institutions placed under this category (navy and gymnas- tic schools) were as follows : Instruction of pupils and care of school buildings Material Supervising commissions Subsidies Total Increase in four years ED 95 17* $22, 903 6,128 132 93, 230 122, 393 101, 282 21, 111 $16, 884 3,773 81 81, 044 101, 282 522 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Income derived from subsidies and scliool fees. Goveriiment subsidies ■ From iii'oviuces School fees Total Increase in four years Total income from enumerated sources Total expenditures Excess of expenditures overincomeof schools, paid from the treasury of the communes Increase in four years 1893-94. $8, 991 2,808 2,440 14, 239 8,499 5,740 1889-90. $4, 770 2,341 1,388 8,499 $14, 239 122, 393 108, 154 92, 783 15, 371 $8, 499 101, 282 92, 783 In consolidating the expenditures of the General Government, prov- inces, and communes for the above class of schools we obtain the following figures: Jiei'ietv of expenditures. Drawing and industrial schools. Schools for deaf- mutes. Total. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1880-90. $98, 736 18, 446 110, 594 $47, 009 15, 801 94, 172 $5, 628 2,957 2,231 $4, 824 2,319 1, 638 $104, 364 21,403 112, 825 $51, 833 18, 120 95,810 227, 774 156, 982 10,816 8,782 238, 590 165, 764 165, 764 72, 826 1 The State granted pensions to seven teachers in 1894, amounting to $3,100 in all. XI. STATE TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR MID WIVES. [Regulated by the royal decree bf July 27, 1882.] There are two schools of this kind, {a) at Amsterdam, and {h) at Eotterdam. Thirty-fi^ve and 38 students were in attendance, of whom 24 were graduated at the close of the year. The Government expendi- tures amounted to $5,927 and $10,2G2 respectively; in 1889 to $5,161 and $10,034. Number of teachers employed, 8. Two hundred and forty-fi.ve patients were cared for during the year in these institutions. XII. THE STATE VETERINARY SCHOOL IN UTRECHT. [Regulated by the law of July 8, 1874.] This school was attended by 60 students; 25 were boarding and 35 day scholars. The course comprises four years. The commission granted a diploma of veterinary doctor to 12 candidates; 21, or 75 per EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 523 cent out of 28 students, atteudiug the first and second 'years' course of study, were promoted to a higher class, and 15, or 48.4 i)er cent of 31 belonging to the third and fourth years' course of study, passed very successful transition examinations. The museums of anatomy, natural history, and pathology, the labora- tory, and various collections have been largely increased by new apparatus, instruments, models, etc. The library obtained 35 new works, besides 70 current periodicals and journals and works previously ordered. An obstetric clinic for animals and a blacksmith forge belonging to the institution greatly facilitate practical studies. The Government expenditures amounted to — Teachers and officials Snporiiitendence of buildin; Material Total Decrease iu four years $10, 787 5, 045 17,150 32, 982 34, 741 1,759 1889-90. $10, G53 5,063 19, 025 34, 741 The income of the veterinary school amounted to — 1893-94. 1889 -90. $4, 272 3,427 $5, 160 4, 438 Total 7,(599 9,598 9,598 1,899 7,699 32, 982 9,598 34, 741 Excess of expenditures over income paid out of the treasury of the 25, 283 25, 143 25, 143 140 The Netherlands report a goodly number of army and navy schools: I. The higher military school opened a course in 1893-94 for lieuten- ants and lieutenant-quartermasters of the army. The course of military art was followed by 40 officers, and the course relating to the manage- ment of military affairs by 10 officers. The i)rogramme includes several East Indian languages. II. A course for officers of hygiene at the military hospital in Utrecht, attended by 1 graduate of the State University of Leyden, 2 military druggists, 1 '' military horse doctor," and 2 district veterinary physicians. III. (A) The Eoyal Military Academy at Breda, regulated bj^ the law of May 30, 1877 (Stbl. ISTo. 141), etc., and sanctioned by the royal decree of August 11, 1883 (Stbl. l^o. 128). The course comprises four years. 524 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. The array school, having two divisions, is connected with the military- academy, and is intended for the superior training of the lieutenants who were educated at the academy. The second division of this school is in The Hague, and is connected with the intendance course. Twenty- six lieutenants took part in the final examination of the first division. The corps of cadets in the military academy numbered 254 students in the beginning of the school year; 176 were admitted to the exami- nations held in May, June, and July, 1894, and passed successfully. The teaching corps and ofdcials, September 1, 1893, consisted of 39 military officers and 14 regular teachers. Division II of the army school has 8 military teachers and 10 regular teachers. (B) The artillery course in Delft is regulated by the royal decree of July 25, 1884 (No. 92), and of July 1, 1889 (No. 22). The course requires an attendance of three years. The number of volunteers was 20 on October 1, 1893. There were also 28 aspirant volunteers w^ho submitted to a preliminary examination. Ten teachers are occupied. (C) The military school of Haarlem, connected with a practical course, was attended by 49 infantry volunteers; 15 of these followed the pre- paratory practical course. There were 6 military teachers. (D) Head courses at Kampen for second '^grenadier" officers and light infantry. The attendance was 33 for home service, and 34 for the service in the East Indies in division 1. Division 2 embraces studies relating to military administration, with 16 and 12 students. Eleven military teachers and 3 regular teachers are in charge of the classes. The Eoyal Military Academy at Breda is open only to young men who have passed a satisfactory examination at some higher burgher school at the end of a five-years course of study. The annual tuition fee is about $150. The cadets in the Royal Military Academy can not enter the army, at home or abroad, before completing a four-years course of study in that institution. They enter the army as second lieutenants. The military schools in Haarlem and Kampen are oi)en to every boy above the age of 15 who is able to pass a primary examination. When these boys receive the rank of corporal in these schools they have the right to enter regiments in the home service or in the East Indies. Some of the students wait until they receive the rank of sergeant — some the rank of second lieutenant — before entering the regiments. These two institutions furnish tuition, board, and clothes, including uniforms, without cost to the student. IV. The institutions for the training of cadets and officers and non- commissioned officers include: (A) The school for cadets with a teaching corps of 12 officers of the army and 5 regular teachers, besides 1 captain and 4 lieutenants; 195 aspirant cadets were examined for the course in 1893-94; 45 were phys- ically unfit for the service, and a total of 50 were admitted to the sc! ool with the rank of cadet. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 525 (B) Courses for heavy armed and liglit infantry; (50 attending tlie first years' course, and 168 the second. y. (A) The pupil school at Nieuwersluis, with 173 boys enrolled in July, 18')o, 21 more entered during the year, while 91 left to join some company. These boys are children of soldiers, officers. Government officials. They are instructed by 4 teachers under the supervision of the director. (B) The instruction battalion, with 3 classes, followed by 391 volun- teers, October, 1893. In July, 1894, there were 499. (C) The artillery instruction company, with 3 classes and 211 volun- teers, on July 1, 1893. (D) Instruction battery, with 75 volunteers, among these 31 titulary corporals. VI. Domestic schools for the various corps of the army, attended by an average number of 4,118; 944 of these learned to read and write well or tolerably well, 640 to write, and 515 to read. All the above-named schools are intended for the training of young men as officers for the home service or the colonies; lieutenants of the artillery and engineering corps, superior officers, volunteers, lieutenjints of infantry, young cadets, titulary corporals, quartermasters, and ser- geants, etc. The naval schools include : (A) The Eoyal Institution of Marine at Willemsoord, with Divisions I and II, these comprising a four-years course. Ninety-three midshipmen students were enrolled. The result of the examinations for promotions was very favorable for the year. The age of the applicants for admis- sion must be 14 to 17 years. The entire tuition fee is $643 or .^482, according to grade. The aim of this institution is to train young men for officers in the navy. The corps of teachers consists of 8 naval o.lfi- cers and 8 regular teachers. One library and several laboratories belong to the school. (B) The training course for boys on board of the revenue cutter at Hellevoetsluis. The engineer apprentices numbered 18 in the upper division and 17 in the lower, October, 1893. Six teachers were engaged. (C) Training of pilot apprentices on board the revenue cutter at Amsterdam. Eleven in each division ; total, 22. (D) Training course for boys as boatswains on board the instruction corvette Nautilus, at -Hellevoetsluis, with 55 boatswain apprentices, 7 sailors of the third class, and 1 lighterman (apprentices) in division 1, 30 sailors of the third class and 47 lightermen (apprentices) in division 2. (E) Training course for boys on board of instruction ship Admiral van Wassenaer. The winter course, October, 1893, commenced with 680 pupils. They are trained for second officers and inferior ranks in the navy. VII. Training course of military pharmacists .for the army of the East and West Indies. The course opened with 5 students. 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. According to an investigation ordered bytlie departement van oorlog (war department), we find that the total body of men who were incor- porated in the laud militia of the Netherlands numbered, 1893, 11,016; 1889, 10,735: Could read and •write Could only read Could ueither read nor write Number. Per cent, 10, 289 115 612 93.40 1.04 5.56 1889-SO. Number. Per cent 9,826 137 772 91.53 1.28 7.19 A similar investigation was ordered by the departement van marine (navy department) in regard to those incorporated in the sea militia. The results show that of 600 in both years mentioned above : Could read and 'write Could only read Could neither read nor write Number. Per cent 578 3 19 96.3 .5 3.3 Number. Per cent, 559 14 27 93.1 23.3 45 The lower courses of tlie above-named institutions include reading, writing, and the four fundamental rules of arithmetic, to read the time by the watch, rudiments of geography of the Netherlands, rudiments of national history regarding tbe marine and theoretical and practical instruction in the rudiments of the profession. The military schools embrace in their programme all subjects that are appropriate for the respective branches, the lower grades including primary subjects. Beview of the different classes of secondary schools — the number of pupils and teachers, in 1SS9-90 and 1893-94. Burgher schools Industrial, drawing, and professional schools Higher burgher schools Middle schools for girls Agricultural schools Poly techuic school Schools for navigation : Schools for the tteaf-nnites and blind State normal school for drawing and modeling , Schools for the Netherlands-Indies Training schools for mid wives State veterinary school Higher military schools and courses Training courses for noncommissioned officers in the line Domestic schools for the various corps of the army Navy schools School for military pharmacists General total Increase in four years Teachers and pro- fessors. 419 513 808 152 50 34 G5 76 11 16 8 12 103 15 228 36 2,546 211 1889-90. 405 353 750 158 42-M2 33 39 85 11 16 7 12 105 . 22 267 30 2, 335 -f 12 Pupils and students. 1893-94. 1889-90. 5,156 8,358 6,166 1,404 282 325 771 526 122 143 73 60 800 583 4,118 070 5 29, 858 2,667 4,500 5,526 5,390 1,366 178 + 11293 251 443 558 109 73 68 76 959 937 5,733 1,002 12 27, 191 -t- 293 a Pupils in dairy-farming establishments ; no record for 1893. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 527 Expenditures of fhe General Government for secondarij schools,, and the income derived from the same, since the x^romuUjation of the law of 1S63. Tear. 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 Income from tuition fees, etc. $11,736 14, 536 15, 441 21,115 25,631 30, 771 29, 708 32, 732 35, 624 36, 423 3;, 959 36, 003 39,019 40, 237 40, 750 38, 873 Expendi- tures. $7, 56, 143, 201, 261, 273, 330, 304, 304, 306, 328, 353, 348, 369, 395, 375, 398, 1880 1881 1882 1883 1S84 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 Total Income from tuition fees, etc. $37, 826 37,062 39, 226 39, 668 39, 443 39, 873 39, 678 37, 818 37, 405 37,540 38, 167 38, 077 41,006 45, 621 1,031,908 Expendi- tures. $306, 859 415,645 421, 906 422, 256 424, 098 424, 858 410, 585 425, 792 428, 474 427, 030 429, 706 440, 786 521, 143 562, 019 10, 911, 935 The above figures do not include the subsidies for drawing academies and schools, nor for the schools for the deaf-mutes and blind. The dif- ference between expenditures and income from tuition fees and diplo- mas, $9,879,972j was provided for out of the treasury of the General Government. The following figures show the expenditures by communes for liigher burgher schools and burgher schools, including the secondary schools for girls, etc., and of the income from these schools, from 1SG3 to 1893, inclusive: Year. 1803 18G4 1865 1866 1867 1808 1809 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 Income from school fees, diplomas, etc. $14,896 43, 088 71, 508 83, 283 91, 049 104, 374 120, 563 128, 113 142, 206 145, 438 150,085 155, 754 159, 337 161, 974 168, 532 174, 314 Expendi- tures. $82, 188 245, 450 235, 044 265, 921 282, 687 271,700 288, 537 319, 242 344, 629 351, 066 371, 624 418, 788 406, 285 445, 454 454, 686 470, 432 Tear. 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1802 1893 Total Income from school fees, diplomas, etc. $179, 295 179, 338 179, 764 180, 553 184, 914 185,775 188, 719 195, 223 197, 738 203, 443 212, 437 219, 589 229, 722 234, 942 Expendi- tures. $497, 145 510, 385 531, 0G8 577, 536 554, 288 554, 056 552, 985 560, 141 557, 454 561, 667 583,216 594, 503 612, 656 627, 037 4, 685, 966 13, 128, 560 The excess of the total expenditures over the income derived from fees, $8,442,594, was provided for out of the communal treasury. SUPEEIOR INSTRUCTION (HOOGER ONDERWIJS). The present system of higher instruction is based uj)on the law of April 28, 1876, amended and modified by laws of May 7, 1878; June 28, 1881,- June 15, 1883, and July 23, 1885. Institutions of higher instruction are divided into public and private. Public, are those established and maintained by communes and the 528 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1894-95. State, separately and conjointly. All otlier institutions are called pri- vate, or 'Hjijzondere," schools. Under article 192 of the fundamental law, any person may teach the higher branches, subject to supervision by the proper authority. Foreigners must obtain a permit from the King before they can be employed as teachers of the higher branches, in either public or private institutions. Public higher instruction is provided for and taught in three State universities'— in the gymnasia and progymnasia, and in the Communal University of Amsterdam. The "gymnasia" and Latin schools correspond to the German gym- nasium, while the courses given at the denominational "seminaria" and other superior institutions of this kind answer to the universities; but only the latter can confer academic degrees. STATE UNIVERSITIES. By the royal decree of February 17, 1890, the corps of officials at these universities was made to conform to the decrees of February 8, 1889, and February 16, 1889. State University of Leyden (with 5 faculties). — The college of curators consists of 5 members. The senate is composed of 7 members, all being professors, namely, 1 rector, 1 secretary and 4 assesors, 1 archivist. Each faculty has 1 chairman and 1 secretary; in all, 10 members, with the title of professor. This university had 47 professors. In the faculty of theology, 5 ; of law, 8; of medicine, 9; of mathematics and natural sciences, 11; of letters and philosophy, 14. There were also 3 lecturers and 9 private tutors, or a total force of 59 teachers. State University of Utrecht (with 5 faculties). — The college of curators consists of 6 members. The senate is composed of 6 members, viz ; One rector, 1 secretary and 3 assessors, 1 archivist. Each faculty has 1 chairman and 1 secretary, all having the title of professor. The corps of teachers comprises 37 professors. In the faculty of theology, 4; of law, 6; of medicine, 10; of mathematics and natural sciences, 10; of letters and philosophy, 7. To this number must be added 4 lecturers and 9 private tutors (docents), which gives a general total of 50. State University of Groningen. — The college of curators consists of 6 members. The senate is composed of 7 members; 1 rector, 1 secretary, and 5 assessors. Each faculty has 1 chairman and 1 secretary, all having the title of professor. The University of Groningen embraces the faculties of theology, law, medicine, mathematical and natural sciences, and of letters and philosophy. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 529 The corps of professors comx^rises 35 members. For the faculty of theology, 4j of law, 4 5 of mediciue, 8j of mathematics aud natural sci- ences, 9; and of letters aud philosophy, 10. There were also lecturers and assistants, making a general total of 40. On reaching the age of 70, the professors in the universities are i>en- sioued. The amount of their i)ension is determined by the number of years they have taught, but can never exceed the sum of $1,206 per annum. The professors in the Catholic institutions are also j)ensioned by the Government, and their pensions equal the salary of a Catholic priest. If the professors fail to perform their duties in a satisfactory man- ner, the minister of the interior may suspend them for a period of five weeks. Serious misdemeanor might be punished by removal from office. The curators, through the secretaries of the faculties, make detailed reports to the minister of the interior on all subjects connected with the universities. They do not receive a permanent salary for the \)ev- formance of their duties, but are allowed by the Government $3 per day when they are actually engaged in the ijerformance of their duty (30. cents per hour when traveling and expenses incurred for board and lodging). The curators report, on November 1 of each year, to the minister of the interior, making an estimate of the expenses for the coming year; and in accordance with this statement the minister requests the sum needed, which is paid out of the State treasury from moneys derived from the general revenue taxes of the country. Students registered in State universities. University. For all studies. For single studies. General total. Increase in four years. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1889-90. 770 613 453 750 547 387 23 19 30 27 35 24 793 632 483 777 582 411 + 16 + 50 Utrecht + 72 Total 1,836 1,684 72 86 1,908 1,770 + 138 The annual tuition fees for a full course of study in the different faculties are $80, $76, $56, $44, $40; for single studies, $24, $18, $12, $6. 530 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Students entered ivitliout X)ayment of tuition fees. Loyden. Utrecht. Groningen. Total. Reasons for exemption. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1889-90. Students -n-ho had already paid $320 to tlio professors and lecturers. . . Students who under the rules of article lOG of the law had already 190 11 80 6 7 185 5 98 6 3 171 23 3 6 4 4 124 36 2 6 3 10 2 1 166 13 20 6 2 134 8 8 6 2 527 47 103 18 13 4 1 31 443 49 Those admitted to promotions Those granted State scholarships.. Officials of the universities Druggists in the army, in conform- ity with regulations of royal 108 18 8 10 By virtue of royal decree of May 6 1 886 No 41 1 8 1 ■ 3 6 Article 66, 1st section of the law 31 9 , Total 325 306 211 184 208 161 744 651 a Students in a theological seminary of the Heformed Church are allowed, under the above-men- tioned conditions, to attend the lectures of their professors or lecturers at the university, tliemitted on account of death. The following table sliows distribution of students according to studies in 1893-94: • Theology. Law. Medicine. Mathe- matics and natural sciences. Letters and sciences. Total. Total in 1889-90. Leydcn : 64 1 240 1 347 69 3 5 50 4 7 770 9 14 750 8 2 19 Total 65 241 349 77 61 793 777 rtrecht : 139 72 276 89 6 11 37 613 6 13 547 24 1 i 11 Total a 139 72 277 106 38 6 632 582 Groningen : 52 55 235 74 2 10 37 4 6 - 7 453 6 17 7 387 14 1 lecture 1 10 1 Total 53 55 235 86 54 483 411 257 368 861 269 153 1,908 1,770 a This number includes 18 Germans and 1 Hungarian. Increase in four years, 138 students. t Including 16 ladies. The Government grants six beneficiary scholarshiiDS in each of the universities to young men who have distinguished themselves in their former studies, the university receiving from the State $320 for each student in annual installments for the complete course. These moneys are derived from ecclesiastical funds that are realized from aijcient estates which formerly — before the Eeformation in 1517 — were used for the installation of a Pope or bishop, but since the Reformation the Sov- ereign or Government has taken possession of these funds, which are EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 531 DOW disbursed by iiouofficials or by committees under tlie direct super- vision of the State. Students who receive financial assistance from the Government are at liberty to select any of the courses of study allowed in the university. In order to present a correct idea of the studies i)nrsued in a Dutch university, the following table, presenting a series of lectures and les- sons for 1889-90, is given: Universiti/ of Leydcn. Lecture or lesson. Department of theology : Exegesis of the GUI Dispensa- tion anil liistory of Israelitish literature Ethics Historical facts on tlio church service of the Israelites Comparative liistory of reli- piotis services General history of religious services History of religious doctrines. Source' of tlie kuowledgo of the IJabylouian- Assyrian r o 1 i - gious services Oratory History of Christianity Hictory of theddgnaas of Chris- tian cii. '""h services Eesearch in cutn^^i cnrouicles and writings Ancient Cliristian literature . . . Interi)retation3 of the New Tes- tament Criticism of texts Pliilosopliy of the church serv- ice Philosophical history of ch nrch service Encyclopedia of theology Department of law: Dutch civil rights Commercial law ±~"ivilego of suitors Puolic law International law Administrative law Dutch history of Dutch law Eights of colonists Civil rights in the Ketherlaud Indies Special subjects on Mohamme- dan rights Islam dogmas Commercial law Penalt ies Encyclopedia of laws Legal ])hilosophy Political economy Special branches of political economy Statistics History and origin of the Koman law Treatnu-nt of special jn'oblems for candidates Department of medicine: Anatomy of the human body.. 11 =5^ © IB So 3 25 3 20 3 15 1 15 2 25 1 16 1 2 1 25 3 22 1 26 li 7 2 20 2 30 1 12-20 2 29 1 29 1 24 3 35 3 35 2 30 3 40-50 3 6 3 6 4 1 3 13-17 3 9 2 10 2 10 3 30-60 2 30-60 4 25 2 4 3 20 2 8-16 1 8 7 30-40 2 10-14 3 80-90 Lecture or lesson. Department of medicine — Cont'd. Topographical anatomy Experiments in anatomy Theoretical ophthalmology. Theoretical otology Ophthalmological and otological clinics and polyclinics Courses in eye examina- tions Medical clinic Pharmacology Pharmaceut ics Diagnostics Medical clinic Medical polyclinic General pathology Hygiene and medical practice.. Bacteriology Pract ical experiments iu pathol- ogy and bacteriology Chirurgical clinic Theoretical surgery Practical surgery Physiology Histology Practical experiments Do Do Gynecological obstetric clinic. Gynecological polyclinic Tiieoretical science of obstet- rics Theoretical gynecology Science of operations Practical exi)eriments of opera- tions Pathological anatomy , Practical pathological histol- ogy Dissecting Medical jurisprudence — For lawyers For physicians Department of mathematics and natural science-: General botany (morphology, anatomy, and physiology; Special botany (i)hotogra])hy and taxonomy) Practical experiments Clasaitication of plants Excursions for study Selected subjects Higher science of algebra Algebraic analysis Differential calculus Integral calculus e p "A 2 5 1 2 3-4 3 3 4 1 1 4 12 2 4 4 1 3-6 3-6 2 1 1 5 2 4 4-5 1 1 1 4 2-4 («) 80-GO 20-50 40-100 50 40 35 120 120 56 70 30 1-12 100 30 160 90 80 25 25 10 50 20 30 SO 60 15-20 80-90 a One-half day. 532 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. Universittj of Leyden — Continued. Lecture or lesson. Department of mathematics and natural science — Continued. Problems Synthetic and descriptive ge- ometry Higher an.alytical geometry Theoretical mechanics Elementary astronomy Praet ical astronomy Theoretical astronomy Aatrognosy Ca'culatioiis of problems Inorganic chemistry for doctors and philosopliers - ■ Inorganic chemistry for phi- losophers only Principlesof inorganic chemis- try Theoretical chemistry for candidates Practical experiments for phi- losopliers Practical experimenta for phy- sicians Organic chemistry Practical exi)eriments for phy- sicians and students of phi- losophy Practical experiments for ad- vanced students Organic experiments for ad- vanced students Practical experiments in the pharmaceutic laboratory Comparative anatomy Zoology for students of medi- cine Special principal studies for candidates of botany and zoology Comparative embryology, with microscopic demonstrations. Practical experiments for students of medicine Practical experiments for candidates Geology Mineralogy and crystology Paleontology Practical exper ini ents Theoretic natural science Elementary physics Practical experiments in phys- ics for students of medicine. . Pitt'erential and integral calcu- lus for students of chemistry Elementary mechanics Demonstrations and practical experiments for beginners Practical experiments for ad- vanced students Selected studies for more ad- vanced students Department of letters and philos- ophy : Dutch language .Middle Dutch language m u S ^ (a) > A 4 5 4 70-80 7 25 3-4 12 54-75 60-70 60-80 1^ 2-3 9-10 72 72 None. None. 5 1 5 12 Lecture or lesson. Department of letters and philos- ophy — Continued. Practical exercises in composi- tion National history History of the Dutch Govern- ment First Sanscrit college Second Sanscrit college Comparative grammar of the ludo-Germanio language Zend-Avesta Indian science of archaeology. . . Russian Arabian : First year Second year Third year Fourth year Fifth year Logic Greek philosophy Psychology Tiieoretical philosophy Hebrew Jewish history Advanced Hebrew Do Modern Hebrew Javanese Madoere language Gothic Anglo-Saxon Old German Chinese language and litera- ture Latin language and literature.. Do Eoman antiquities General history Political geography. Historical studies Biograpliy of Dutch authors.. Of "the Middle ages Of tlie nineteenth century Authors of the nineteenth cen- tury Greek language and literature The same for more advanced students , Greek antiquities Physical geography of the Netherland Indies Ethnology of the Netherland Indies Soendane language Modern Persian for beginners . The same for* more advanced students Turkish Origin and introduction of Is- lam ism Javanese language and litera- ture General ethnography Malayan language a Unlimited. Each State university has its own archives and a large circulating library with reading rooms. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. Promotions. 533 studies. Theology . Law Political economy Medicine .* Mathematics and physics Geography and orjctology Chemistry Botany and zoology Pharmaceutics Classical literature Dutch literature Knowledge of the languages and literature of the East India Archipelago Leiden. Utrecht. Gronin- gen. Total. 1893-94. ; 1889-90. 5 ■ 1 71 83 3 11 15 18 4 I 3 1 2 I 4 2 ! 1 7 I 7 7 ! 2 1 I The library of the University of Leyden received during the year 1893 200 new works, 1,056 copies of dissertations from France, and 3,311 essays from German, Swiss, Norwegian, and other universities. In exchange, 1,540 dissertations of tlie university were sent out. There were presented from the different departments of the country 126 books and 30 charts; from private parties, 581 books; from corporations and colleges, 586. Other parties donated 256 books, 63 periodicals, etc. Thirteen thousand five hundred books and 55 manuscripts were loaned from the library. One thousand five hundred and forty-six patients were cared for in the hospital that is connected with the university; visitors in the poly- clinic numbered 10,154. The University of Leiden has, moreover, the following: Cabinet of medals and coins; anatomical cabinet; physical cabinet; chemical lab- oratory; inorganic specimen division; zootomic laboratory; hortus; historical laboratory; herbarium; museum of natural history; geologi- cal and mineralogical museum; physiological laboratory; pharmaceu- tical laboratory ; pathological anatomic laboratory ; ethnographic museum; observatory; museum of antiquities. The library of the University of Utrecht received an addition of 788 new works, 307 by purchase, 243 by exchange, and 238 were i^resented, to say nothing of periodicals, journals, academic essays, etc. Nine thousand four hundred and eighty-seven books were loaned from this library during the year. Two thousand two hundred and forty-four patients were treated in the medical clinic and polyclinic of the hospital connected with the university. Four hundred and nine and 2,150 patients were treated in the surgical clinic and polyclinic, respectively; over 2,400 persons in the dental division; 83 and 255 were treated by Professor Halbertsma in the gynaecological clinic and polyclinic, respectively; and 131 and 835 patients in the obstetric clinic and polyclinic, respectively. The University of Utrecht owns besides a pathological institute, institute of anatomy, physiological laboratory, hygienic institute, phys- 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. ical laboratory, inuseiun of natural history, miueralogical and geolog- ical institute, niedical laboratory, i)liarmaceutical laboratoiy; botanic garden; obscrvutory. The additions to the library of the University of Groningen consisted of 4GG new works; 354 of these were purchased and 112 presented, besides pamphlets, dissertations, etc. Visitors numbered 7,702 persons, and 8,367 books were loaned during the year. The University of Groningen owns, moreover, a hospital, in which, on January 1, 1893, there were 112 patients under treatment, 9Go having entered during the year; a cabinet of anatomy; i)hysiological labora- tory; pharmacological and hygienic laboratory; cabinet for physics; botanic garden; museum of natural history; medical laboratory; miu- eralogical and geological laboratory; x)harmaceutical laboratory; collec- tion of astronomical instruments; collection of engravings; and a collection of mathematical models. University of Amsterdam, supported by the communes. By article 36, relating to suj^erior instruction, the community of Amsterdam obtained a concession elevating the "Athenneum Illustre" to a university. This was done October 15, 1887, and it has now the same privileges as the State universities. The college of curators consists of 2 members. Corps of professors. — The senate consists of 1 rector-magnificus, 1 secretary, and 4 assessors. The professors of the faculties are distrib- uted as follows: Of law, 7; of medicine, 14; of mathematics and nat- ural sciences, 11; of letters and philosophy, 11; of theology, 6; public lecturers, 3 ; and private lecturers, 13. This gives a general total of 65. Students, 1S93-D4. Registered. Tuition lees. Income realized. For coiuplote course Total, 1S93-04 Total, 1889-90 Elect ivo studies Total, 1893-94 Total, 1889-90 General total, 1893-94 tieuoral total, 1889-90 533 113 416 1,104 641 $80.4 40.2 None. $42, 8.^4 4,543 1,062 47, 397 fl008 43. 094 8 24 10 12 24 48 288 240 42 576 33 421 47, 974 44, 515 a Ten students received beneficiary scholarships from the commune. For examination fees 2:t6 students paid 64,915, and two students paid $1 ci.ch; total, $1,953. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. Xumier of students to each faculty. 535 All lortiires: First course Secoud or advanced course. Total Elective studies . General total Increase in four years. Theol- ogy- 113 1 Medicine. 83 542 625 Matji^e- Letters and r^^P""- 3G 116 152 19 171 73 Total, 1893-94. 205 857 Total, 1889-90. 164 444 1,062 42 1,104 641 COS 33 641 Tlic university received in 3889 a donation of $16,080 from Mr. Eudolph Lehman to build a lecture hall. Library. — The number of books has been largely increased. The central commission on statistics presented a collection of statistical works. A total of 3,787 ^yorks were entered in the accession book; the periodicals increased considerably also. Thirteen thousand eight hundred and thirty-four books were loaned and consulted, and 107 manuscripts were consulted and 36 loaned. The visitors numbered 25,369, the largest number per day being 170. The university has a pathological laboratory; hortus botanicus; geo- graphic-geological cabinet; laboratory and collection for the study of pathological dissections; hygienic laboratory; chemical-pharmaceu- tical laboratory; laboratory and collection of zoological specimens; physiological laboratory; laboratory for physics; laboratory for exper- imental lilant physiology; anatomic laboratory; museum "Urolik;" chirurgical museum; experimental chirurgical museums. From the Eevue Internationale de I'Enseignement, January, 1893, we learn that the medical studies in the universities of Holland will soon undergo a reform which the Government has had in contemi^lation for some time. Up to this date there have been four ways open to students desirous of qualifying for the medical i)rofession, though there is but one course by which they can attain the degree of doctor of medicine. All such as desire this honor must first graduate from a gymnasium, and must have taken the university course; all others passing State examinations only can obtain a diploma in medicine, but can not assume the title of doctor. Before passing the State examinations, however, students are required to be in possession of a diploma of efficiency from a middle school (hoogere burgherschool) with a five years course; a diploma of promotion to the fifth year of a gymnasium, or a dij)loma proving they have i^assed a satisfactory examination in literature and mathematics. From January 1, 1894, the two latter courses will be closed. Thus, after December, 1893, these examinations in medicine can not be taken unless the candidate has a diploma either from a gymnasium or from a 536 EIWCATION KEPORT, 1894-95. middle school certifying a five years course, but the conditions neces- sary for the degree of M. D. will remain as at present. The same law regulates the qualification of foreign students in medi- cine. They will hereafter be admitted to the practice of medicine in the Netherlands and its colonies after having proved the validity of their foreign diplomas by an examination passed in the Dutch lan- guage. This is required in order to ascertain whether they know Hollandish well enough to understand their patients. Gymnasia. — One of these institutions is in operation in each of the 29 (30 in 1889) i^rincipal cities, and of these 25 received subsidies from the State. Gymnastics and Hebrew are not obligatory, and special fees from $12 to $40 are charged for these branches. These schools prepare for the universities. Total teachers, 431; 216 doctors, 49 candidates, 143 having teachers' diplomas of secondary instruction, 10 teachers with a diploma of supe- rior instruction, in conformity with the clause of the law, and 13 teachers having a diploma of secondary instruction, in conformity with the clause of the law. There were 427 teachers employed in 1889. The salary of a rector ranged from $1,045 to $2,010. The lowest salary paid to a rector of a "gymnasia" was $1,045, but the incumbent had free residence. These teachers, however, draw an additional salary from burgher day or evening schools, higher burgher scLools, middle schools for girls, or institutions for the training of teachers, wherever they may be employed. These additional salaries range from $200 to $400. Income from private institutions have not been taken into consideration. Schools. Students. Hearers. Jan., 1894. Jan., 1890. Jan., 1894. Jan., 1890. 2,515 2,502 7 16 27 5 Total 2,515 1 2.509 16 32 There were, according to the foregoing figures, 6 students more and 16 hearers less in attendance in January, 1894, than in January, 1890. Examinations. — Six hundred and forty- six candidates were examined for admission; of this number, 490 were admitted to the lowest class; 150 to higher classes, and 40 failed. At the final examination, at the close of the year, 1,733 students were transferred, 368 remained in the same class, and 6 withdrevr. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDb. [At 29 "gymnasia" (30 in 1889).] 537 Examinations for admission to course of 1S93-94 compared with 1S89-90. Lowest class : Examined Admitted , Rejected Higher classes ; Examined Admitted to upper class Admitted to lower class Rejected Transition examinations to course 1894-95 and 1S90-91. Examined , Promoted Not promoted , Retired , 1893-94. 622 465 157 173 89 49 35 2,070 1,687 370 13 1889-90. 645 490 155 190 101 49 40 2,103 1,733 370 6 Difference in four years. —23 —25 + 2 —17 —12 —33 —46 + 7 Final examinations in gymnasia. Examina- tions by State com- mission. Total. Differ- Students. Foreigners. in four years. 1894. 1890. 1894. 1 1890. 1 1894. 1890. 1894. 1890. Candidates: 5 232 85 9 193 92 2^6 23 2 49 5-6 2 51 28 2 22 24 9 309 136 13 264 142 -1 Theology, law, letters, and philosophy. Medicine, mathematics, and natural -1-45 6 Total 322 294 51 6 77 7 81 5 48 6 454 11 419 13 +35 2 Certificates obtained : 5 210 82 9 176 86 2 13 13 1 25 12 2 31 19 14 14 9 254 114 11 215 112 - 2 Theology, law, letters, and philosophy. Medicine, mathematics, and natural +39 + 2 Total 297 25 271 23 28 17 38 32 52 24 29 13 377 66 338 68 +39 2 New gymnasia buildings have been erected at Arnbeim, Delft, Gonda, and Leeuwarden since 1889. The general conditions and accessories for instruction of all gymnasia are very satisfactory and constantly improving. Private superior instruction. — (a) The Free University of Amsterdam has a director, the incumbent being in 1893 0. M. E. van Loben Sels. (6) The college of curators is composed of 2 members; 1 rector and 7 professors are employed as teachers, (c) The total number of students during the year amounted to 85, registered as follows: Fifty-seven in the faculty of theology; 3 in the faculty of theology and law; 3 in the faculty of theology and letters ; 12 in the faculty of law ; and 10 in the faculty of letters. Eighty students in 1889. The library received various new works. The following examinations were passed: Five with a degree of can- didate of divinity ; 2 with a degree of candidate in the faculty of letters ; 1 first exauiination for doctor's degree; 11 proi^sedeutic examinations in theology, and 1 in law. 538 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Besides the Free University of Amsterdam, there are about 26 denominational private institutions for superior instruction in other parts of Holland, some of which receive subsidies from the State. They are designated as follows: (1) Seminaries, (2) colleges, (3) Latin schools, (4) training schools. The aim of most of these institutions is the training of young men for ministers in their respective churches, and for teachers of higher branches. In 1893 there were 3,774 students enrolled in 26 of these denomina- tional institutions. The number of teachers can not be ascertained with accuracy, but was about 317. Total students in 1889, 1,996. This shows an increase in four years of 1,778 students. Expenditures of the Government for higher instruction. Teachers' sal- aries. Trustees and officials. Material and in- cidentals, build- Total, ing, etc. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. 1889-00. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1893-94. ! 1889-90. Universities : $108,517 84,080 74, 110 $112,058 85,323 71,154 $55, 680 18, 853 14, 905 $50, 879 16, 897 14, 759 $139,103 76,118 30, 081 599, 545 42, 384 31, 025 $303,308 -^^fiS n«5 Utrecht 179,651 119, 096 230, 914 144, 604 116, 938 133, 424 For various expenditures for the training of stu- dents at sectarian semi- naries and colleges ; sub- sidies for gymnasia and progymnasi'um ; Latin schools, and incidentals; subsidy to University of 1 832, 967 658, 048 174, 919 658, 048 Increase in four years Income of the Government for universities. 1893-94. 1889-90. From tuition fees of students regulated by articles 63 and 67 of the law of April 28, 1876, and by the law of June 22, 1881 $81,735 10, 564 1,098 $80, 115 Income received in conformity with article 89 of the law (examinations) 8,799 2,095 Total 93, 997 91,009 91, 009 2,988 RECAPITULATION. Total income from enumerated sources Total expenditures Excess of expenditure over income of universities provided for out of the general treasury of the Kingdom Increase in four years $93, 997 832, 967 738, 970 567, 039 171, 931 $91, 009 658, 048 567, 039 EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 539 Expenditures of the University of Amsterdam, supported by the commune. 1893-94. 1889-90. Salaries of trustees anil professors, etc $101, 991 45, 179 $115, 345 20 034 TVfntftrinl, ptr, , Total 147, 170 135, 379 135 379 11, 791 Income of the Comviunal University of Amsterdam. Fees for tuition and examinations $53, 064 1, 206 4,020 274 $46, 398 1 206 4,020 C94 Total 58, 564 52,318 52 318 6,246 RECAPITULATION. $58, 564 147, 170 $52, 318 135 379 for from tlie Excess of expentliture over income of university provided 88, 606 83, 061 83 061 5, 545 Expenditure'' of communes for "gymnasia" at d, "proyym nasium.'' 1893-94. 1889-90. 1888-89. Difference in live years. $307, 520 22, 224 1, 253 1,005 $303, 362 21,111 1,209 607 $298, 108 26, 222 1,173 674 + $9,412 3 998 Commission of superintendents + 80 + 331 Total 332, 002 026, 289 326, 177 -L 5 8''5 Income of the communes. 1893-94. 1889-90. 1888-89. Difference in five years. $93, 726 84, 717 1,830 $92, 936 82, 875 2,472 $93. 362 82, 486 2,279 + $364 + 2,231 449 Total 180,273 151, 729 178, 283 148, 006 178,127 148, 050 + 2,146 3, 679 540 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. The following is a review of tlie consolidated expenditures for higher instruction after deducting the subsidies paid by the General Govern- ment and provinces from the expenditures of the communes, and of the income from the school fees, etc., from 1878 to 1893, inclusive : Tear. Income from school fees, gradu- ation, etc. Expendi- tures. Tear. Income from school fees, gradu- ation, etc. Expendi- tures. 1878 $142. 591 155, 110 159, 582 185, 457 183, 271 181, 763 180, 975 191,017 204, 177 $691, 214 819, 738 983, 402 956, 651 918, 631 1, 026, 416 1, 042, 821 978, 765 980, 026 1887 $210, 985 216, 351 223, 452 228, 878 232, 083 $982, 144 1, 024, 106 1879 1888 1880 1889 1, 025, 573 1881 1890 1, 072, 172 1882 1891 1, 111, 240 1883 1892 933. 927 1, 136, 339 1884 1893 933 989 1, 123, 479 1885 Total 1886 3, 163, 601 15, 872, 717 The excess of the total expenditure over the income, $12,709,116, was provided for out of the respective treasuries of the communes and provinces or out of the treasury of the General Government. Summary of all expenditures of the General Government, of the provinces, and of the com- munes for public higher, secondary, and primary instruction, and of income from these schools as given in previous tables. EXPENDITURES. Por State universities and Communal University of Amsterdam For training of theolo- gians (Reformed and Evangelical Lutheran )6. For gymnasia, Latin schools, and cost of ex- aminations in higher cour.ses (articles 11 and 12), etc For secondary instruction . For drawing academies and industrial schools and schools for deaf- mutes For veterinary school For training schools for midwives For primary instruction . . General Govern- ment. 1893-94. 1889-90 $609, 271 30, 577 99, 394 562, 019 $531, 777 28, 682 97, 590 427, 630 Provinces, a 1893-94. 1889-90 $4, 020 104, .364 51,833' 21,403 32, 982] 34, 7421 16,199' 15,195, 2, 438, 955 1, 868, 676 Total 3,893,7613,056,125 25,423 Communes. 1893-94. 1889-90 $4, 020 $147, 170 18, 121 332, 002 627, 037 112, 825 $135, 379 326, 290 561, 667 95, 810 5, 389, 136 4, 598, 279 22, 141:6, 608, 170 5, 717, 425 Total. 1893-94. 1889-90. $760, 461 30, 577 431, 396 1, 189, 056 238, 592 32, 982 16, 199 7, 828, 091 671. 170 28, 682 423, 880 989, 237 165, 764 34, 742 15, 195 6, 466, 955 10, 527, 3541 8, 795, 690 o The expenditures of the provinces represent sums which they paid to the communes — various sums for industrial and drawing schools, for schools for deaf-mutes, etc., and $4,020 to the commune of Amsterdam for the university. b Also to Roman Catholic and Israelite congregations. EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS. 541 Summari/ of all expenditures of the General Government, etc. — Continued. INCOME, a From univensities (4) tuition and ex- amiiiatiou fees, inchiding 2 subsidie.s to communes X From gymnasia and Latin schools (tui- tion fee.s and subsidy) , From secondary instruction (tuition fees, for diplomas, and 2 subsidies to communes) From drawing academies, etc From veterinary schools (tuition fees) . From primary instruction (school and examination fees and subsidy to com- munes) Total income from sources indi- cated above Increase in 4 years. General Govern- ment. 1893-94. 1889-90. $93, 997 44,417 1,204 7,699 164, 744 312, 061 $91, 010 37, 540 9,599 248, 293 Communes. $58, 664 180, 273 234, 942 2,440 2, 111, 115' 2, 587, 434 1889-90. $52, 319 178, 285 203, 443 1,389 2, 290, 781 Total. 1893-94. $152, 661 180, 273 279, 359 3,644 7,699 2, 275, 859 2, 899, 495 2, 539, 074 360, 421 $143, 329 178, 285 240, 983 1,389 9,599 1, 965, 489 2, 539, 074 RECAPITULATION. From balance of expenditure over income paid by General Government. . From balance paid by province From balance paid by communes Total Total expenditures 1893-94. $3,581,700 25, 423 4, 020, 736 7, 627, 859 10, 527, 354 $2, 807, 832 22, 141 3, 426, 643 6, 256, 616 8, 795, 690 a Subsidies to the communes and contributions to the Government, such as the amounts withheld from salaries by the Government for the pensions of teachers, special sums contributed to the communes, etc., have been included in the foregoing table, except the subsidy for drawing and industrial schools. After consolidating the expenditures of Government, provinces, and communes 5 that is, after deducting the subsidies of the Government and provinces that have been included in the expenditures of the com- munes for public education, the expenses incurred between communes for transferred pupils to neighboring schools in other communes, the special funds that were raised by the communes for educational pur- poses, the teachers' contributions toward their iiensions, and the unex- pended balance of subsidy funds covered back into the Government treasury, the tables of expenditure and Income for the years 1889-90 and 1893-94 read as follows : Actual sums that were paid out of the- general treasury of the Government or out of the treasury of the provinces and communes, EXPENDITURES. For universities For training of theologians.. For gymnasia, Latin schools. For secondary instruction, drawing academies, etc., included For veterinary school For training schools for mid- wives For primary instruction General Govern- ment. 1893-94. 1889-90. 609,271 $531,777 30, 576| 28, 682 99, 394 97, 590 598, 467 32, 982 16, 198 462, 852 34, 742 15, 195 2,291,5091,764,236 Total 3, 678, 397 2, 935, 074 Provinces. 1893-94. $4, 020 21, 403 25, 428 1889-90. $4, 020 18, 121 22,141 Communes. $141, 944 '238,' 275 652, 930 3,911,822 1889-90. $130, 152 "233,352 569, 338 3, 296, 317 4, 944, 971 4, 229, 159 Total. 1893-94. $755, 234 30, 576 337, 669 1, 272, 800 32, 982 $665, 949 28, 682 330, 942 1, 050, 311 34, 742 16, 198 15, 195 6, 203, 331 5, 060, 553 8, 648, 790 7, 186, 374 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Actual aiims tliat ivere paid out of the general treasury of the Government, etc. — Cont'd. INCOME. rrom universities (tuition fees) rrom gymnasia and Latin schools (tuition fees) From secondary instruction (tuition fees, diplomas) From veterinary school (tuition fees).. From primary instruction (tuition fees) Total . General Government. 1803-94. 1880-90. $93, 997 45, 621 7,699 a 17, 298 16i, 615 $91, 009 37, 539 9,599 5,706 143, 853 Communes. 1893-94. 1880-90. $53, 438 86, 547 150, 450 633, 801 924, 236 $47, 093 85, 348 116, 693 553, 383 802, 517 Total. 1803-94. 18S9-90 $147, 435 80, 547 196, 071 7,699 651, 099 1, 088, 851 $133, 102 85, 348 154, 232 9,599 559, 089 916, 370 a This sum includes $12,253 derived from examination fees and $5,045 from tuition fees. After subtracting the income of the various educational institutions, derived from fees for diplomas and tuition, from the actual expendi- tures of the Government, x^rovinces, and communes, we obtain the fol- lowing result: 1893-94. 1889-90. $1, 088, 851 8, 648, 791 $946, 370 7, 186, 374 Excess of expenditure over income from enumerated sources 7, 559, 940 6, 240, 004 6, 240, 004 1.319,945 These sums were paid out of the respective treasuries of the General Government, provinces, and communes. There are no special school taxes raised in the Netherlands, and all funds for education in that country are taken from the general taxes imposed by the Government and provinces, or from the local taxes of the communes. Communes that are unable to supi)ort the necessary number of schools send in a i^etition to the " Gedeputeerde Staten" (legislative body of the Kingdom), who refer it to the minister of the interior, and in case of his approbation a subsidy or loan may be granted out of the general treasury of the Government. The principal proportion of expenses for the communal schools is paid by the city treasurers from local taxes. . CHAPTER XII. EDUCATION IIvT ITALY. Topical outlixe: PubUc instruction in Italy, % Dr. Egisto Bossi (ivith statistics for 1S61-1S90)— Statistics to 1S92-93 — Tabulated statistics of universities {1S9S-D4 and 1S94-95 compared), iy Prof. Carlo F. Ferraris-r-Tlie Catholic school system of Borne, extracts from an article hy Cardinal Satolli — Schools of Leghorn in 1S93, by the United States consul — Current educational movements, 1S90-1895 — Scientific and professional organizations in consular district of Rome to 1S91, by the United States consul-general — Memorable dates in Italian history — Index to education in Italy, from former reports of the Commissioner of Education. Area, poj)iilation, and administrative divisions. — Area, 110,623 square miles; popula- tion, 30,724,897 (estimated December 31, 1893) ; capital, Eome; population, 451,000 in 1893; minister of puLlic instruction, Commendatore Guido Baccelli. The administra- tive divisions consist of 69 provinces, of which 60 are divided into territories and (the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of Venetia) into districts. The territories (circondari) number 197, and there are 87 districts (distretti). These ngain are divided into communes (comuni), numbering 8,259 in 1881 and 8,258 in October, 1894. Educational summary. — With a population of 30,724,897 in 1893 there were 11 per cent of pupils in schools below the universities. Of the total (3,106,852) about 96 per cent were in elementary schools and 3 per cent in secondary schools. In higher institutions the percentage was 0.6] in special schools, 1.1 per cent. Per capita of enrollment in elementary schools, $4.09; per capita of population, 39 cents. The administrative and educational authorities are brought closely together in their duties, as is shown in the statements appended. The State, province, or com- mune maintains public instruction; a member of the cabinet is in charge of educa- tion; the King himself appoints certain grades of instructors; the parliamentary bodies discuss and decide uj)on educational questions; the prefect of the province is president of the provincial school coiincil; the syndic looks after the registration of pupils of school age, notifies parents of neglect of duty, etc. Public Instruction in Italy. ^ By Dr. Egisto Eossi,^ Bome, Italy. Public instruction in Italy is regulated by law of USToveraber 13, 1859. This law lias been modified, however, by royal decrees and by later laws. 1 Prepared for the International Congress of Education of the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, July 25-28, 1893, and printed in part in the "Addresses and Proceedings of the International Congress of Education," pp. 907-911. '■'Dr. Eossi is the author of a volume on education in the United States — "La Istruz- ioue Pubblica negli Stati Uniti, Roma, 1889," pp. 144. 543 544 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 Tlie educational systeju' comi^rises three grades — elementary, second- ary (including classical and teclinical schools), and superior. There are also infant schools which aim to give the rudiments of an education to children between 3 and 6 years of age, the latter being the earliest age at which children are admitted to the i)rimary grades. Private individuals of known character and capability are permitted to open infant schools and those of elementary and secondary grades, providing the localities in which the schools are to be opened are satis- factory from a hygienic point of view to the authorities. INFANT SCHOOLS. The compulsory education laws do not apply to the infant schools. These are founded by the communes, by corporations, associations, and private individuals. Many of them are autonomous in character, pos- sessing their own revenues, which accrue from perpetual funds and donations. Other schools are supported entirely by the individuals or corporations founding them. Almost all these schools receive subsidies from the commune, prov- inces, and the State, in addition to the funds received from the sources mentioned above. The children receive gratuitous instruction in the majority of infant schools; in a few a small fee is charged, the means of the family being taken into consideration in making such charges. In 1889 the communes gave $317,532 to the infant schools, the State $8,G85. The number of infant schools and of children attending them is enumerated in the following table: Infant schools. (a) Schools. Public. Total. Tear. Having their own revenues. Supported by com- munes or by corporate bodies. Private. Pupils. 1862 1,673 1,099 1..287 2,516 2,139 2,224 2,218 2,220 2,296 71 054 1872 130 806 1877 117 078 1882 243 972 1886 976 1,021 1,055 1,081 1,118 513 fi<;n 259 763 1887 258, 838 1888 539 537 596 624 602 582 1889 268, 186 278, 204 1890 a The Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1895, gives 2,572 infant schooLs in 1,776 communes, with 302,754 children and 6,488 teachers and directors, in 1893. » Statistics to date of 1892-93 or to 1891-92 are added, in form of note, to this presentation. They are taken from the "Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1895," pub- lished by the " Miuistero di Agricoltura, Industria e Cominercio. Direzione generale della Statistica, Roma, 1896." EDUCATION IN ITALY. 545 ELEMENTARY SOIIOOLS. The elementary schools are in charge of the communes and are under the supervision of their administrative officers. In conformity with the law they are gratuitous and are maintained by subsidies from provincial and communal funds. In accordance with special laws, the State aids in such support by subsidies for construction and repairs and for teachers' salaries. The State is authorized to favor communes which are too imi^overished to construct school buildings by granting subsidies for such buildings, or by extending other aid, either by loan or gift, if there is any special reason for so doing. If any loans have been made the State undertakes to reimburse the iiistitution loaning said fund, adding thereto a nominal interest. The elementary schools are frequented by children from (3 to 12 years of age. These schools are divided into two grades; the lower grade, which extends through three years, is subdivided into two classes, equivalent to a two-years course. The course of study includes writing, elementary arithmetic and the metric system, history of Italy, ele- ments of geography, natural history and physics, civic education, and gymnastics. All the communes are required to establish lower grade elementary schools; communes of 4,000 inhabitants and over are required to estab- lish those of the higher grade. In these larger communes there must also be institutions of a secondary grade. By law of July 15, 1877, which carried out the provisions of the law of 1859, parents were obliged to send their children between G and 9 years of age to the elementary grades, unless they could show cause for instruction at home or in private schools. This compulsory act could be carried on beyond the ninth year if the pupil, when called up for examination at close of the course, did not indicate satisfactory knowl- edge of the studies in the lower grade elementary schools. By decree of February 10, 1888, i)upils of both public and private schools, and those who obtain home instruction, must receive certificates of having passed such final examinations before they can be placed on the registration list for the hokling of iDolitical or administrative office. Parents and guardians who fail to conform to the above regulations are subject to censure from the syndic, and, in case of further noncompli- ance, they are subject to a fine of not less than $3.50. By law of July 15, 1877, which went into force in October, 1877, each commune is required to have a certain number of teachers trained for duty in these lower grade elementary schools. This number is to be proportionate to the population. ED 95 18 546 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 The folloAviiig table indicates the number of communes from 1861-G2 to 1889-90 wliicli have fulfilled tlie requirements of the law of July 15, 1877, as far as the number of schools, pujiils, and teachers is con- cerned: Year. 1861-G2 . 1865-B6 . ■"1870-71 . 1875-76 . 1880-81 . 1885-8G . 1886-87 . 1889-90 . Popula- tion. 777,3341 777,334 801, 154i 801,1541 459,628 7,804 009, 785 8, 178 942, 142 8, 178 266, 056 8, 178 565, 188 8, 226 916, 317 8, 253 Class rooms. w 21, 3.53 25, 682 l32, 782 138, 255 42, 510 41,0235, 050'46, 073 Enrollment. 1, 949, 038 126, 903 41, 448 5, 137 46, 585,1, 970, 552 135, 406 41, 913'5, 334'47, 247 1, 985, 436,139, 771 42, 305 5, 267|47, 572 2, 002, 957 141, 604 42, 837J5, 361'48, 198 2, 047, 671 141, 259 Total, a 885, 152 1, 098, 721 1, 458, 884 1, 722, 669 1, 928, 708 2, 075, 941 Ratio. ISumber of Number en- schools toioo! rolled to 100 inhabitants, inhabitants. 1.38 0.17 2,103,9581.39 .17 2,125,2071.38' .18 2,144, 561|1. 39! .17 2,188,9301.39 .17 0.98 1.18 1.22 1.43 1.49 1.55 1..56 1.56 1.56 1.56 CO)®® ■2 -235 6. 56( 6.58 6.56 6.56 6.62 4. 06 5.04 5.44 6.43 6.78 6.99 7.03 7.02 7.02 7.07 flin 1892-93 (viilo Annuario Statistico Italiano, 1895) there Tvere 2,487,803 pnpils in public and pri- vate schools of au elementary grade (boys, 1,311,018; girls, 1,176,785); class rooms, 58,277; teachers, 60,380. The ratio of schools, teachers, and pupils to population is based in the years 1801-62 to 18G5-GG upon the census of December 31, 1861; that of 1870-71 to 1875-7G, upon the census of December 31, 1871, and that of 1880-81, upon the census of December 31, 1881. The reports presented for the other years mentioned in the table are based upon an estimate of poi)ulation made annually in the month of December following the opening of the schools. The estimate of poimlation is formulated upon the basis of December, 1881, adding to it the births in each year and siibtractiug the deaths, ^o attention being paid to the movement of population, i. e., the immigration and emigration, such a determination is liable to error, and such errors increase in pro- portion to the time that has elapsed from the date of the original ceiisus. The movement from one commune to another exercises but little influence upon the territorial department to which it belongs, and less upon the total for the Kingdom. On the other hand, the emigration to foreign shores must not be overlooked in so far as it appertains to the whole Kingdom. It is fairly easy to take note of the emigration, but the means api)roximating the immigration and the return of Italians to their native country is less easy. The estimates relative to the move- ment of population, as, for example, the estimates of mortality, by province and by territory (circondari), and also in the largest cities, taken one by one, necessitate that calculations appertaining to the EDUCATION IN ITALY. 547 population of these subdivisions be made at least approximatelj^, and yet the population is calculated on the supposition that the increase from year to year is in the same proportion as the augmentation during the period between the last two censuses. Proceeding, then, by this method it is found that the population on December 31, 1889, would be 29,909,054, while if the excess of the births over the deaths were added between the dates 1882-1889 to the population of 1881, the result would be 30,940,317, which exceeds by more than 1,000,000 the number estimated by the first method. The increase in the number of elementary schools and in enrollment was more rapid during the period which followed the formation of the Kingdom of Italy than it is to-day. The ratio of increase is as follows : Teriod. Increase of pupils to 100 inhab- itants. Increase of pupil.s in re8])ect to population. 1861 62 to 1867 68 5.32 3.30 2.06 4.45 18C7-G8 to 1871 72 2.71 1871 72 to 1889 90 1.23 There are also elementary, evening, holiday, and adult schools suj)- plementary to the public day schools. It is not considered obligatory uj)on the communes to support many of these schools^ the number is quite large, however, and most of them receive subsidies. The number of the evening and holiday schools, with their enrollment, is here presented for certain years between 1801-02 and 1889-90 : Evening and liolidaij schools, (a) Tear. 1801-62 1871-72 1877-78 1882-83 1887-88 1888-89 1889-90 Evening schools. Class rooms. Enrolled. 2,803 9,809 10, 577 6,787 5,022 5,191 5,205 108, 170 375, 947 432, 801 278, 377 205, 160 191, 600 190, 846 Holiday schools. Class rooms. 495 4,743 5,792 3,831 3, 965 3,625 3,574 Enrolled. 16, 031 154, 585 195, 631 120, 110 113, 188 100, 150 100, 002 rt Statistics of evening schools in 1892-93: Class rooms, 3,492; teachers, 3,639; pnpils, 128,780 (boys, 124,789; ftirls, 3,991). Holiday schools: Class rooms, 2,454; teachers, 2,507; pupils, 64,580 (boys, 15,080; girls, 49,494). The increase in the number of schools and pupils is of signifi- cance as tending to account for the decrease of illiteracy shown by the three successive censuses as that illiteracy bears upon the total population, the various classes, and the age. At least, it bears upon the number of recruits and illiterate married people to every 100 548 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 examined and upon tlic number of married men and married "women respectively^ liTative recruits who could not read to 100 exam- ined. Married men and Illiteracy to 100 inhabitants. Tear. could not write their names. From years upward. From 20 years upward. Men. Women. Male. Female. Male. Female. 1861 68 81 65 82 18GG 64 57 52 48 47 46 44 45 43 42 60 58 52 48 45 44 43 43 42 41 41 79 77 73 70 67 66 63 63 62 60 50 1871 . C2 76 60 77 1876 1881 55 69 5t 73 1884 1885 1 1 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 NORMAL SCHOOLS. Tlie normal scliools serve as preparatory schools for teacliers of the elementary grades. The State provides the funds for the teaching force and for scientific apparatus. The remaining expenditures and those for the "Convitti" (establishments where pupils are boarded and lodged) are paid by the provinces and communes in which the normals are located. There are still other schools of this character for the training of teach- ers ■which are maintained exclusively by provinces and communes, by corporations or individuals, while some receive State subsidies. The normal schools are of higher and lower grades for men and for women. The lower-grade normal schools have only the power to confer teachers' diplomas for the three lower classes of the lower-grade ele- mentary schools. The higher-grade normals, on the contrary, confer the diploma required to teach in the elementary schools of both higher and lower grade. In the normal schools for women a certificate or diploma is also conferred, which permits its holder to become a teacher in or directress of an infant school. Instruction in the normal schools is gratuitous. The course is one of two years in the lower- grade normals, and is x)receded by a preparatory course of three years. An examination for admission is required of those who wish to enter the normal schools. Each normal has a practice school attached, in which the i)upil can obtain x^ractice in teaching. The normals for women have also an infant school attached, which is divided into three sections. Persons desiring to obtain a teacher's position in the elementary schools are apj)oiiited by the communes (which pay them), after compet- ing for such i^osition in a competitive examination before the provincial school council. This council, after examining as to their qualifications, EDUCATION IN ITALY. 549 presents the list of persons eligible to sncli iiositions, and the communal council Las the duty to select and ai>point the teachers. To determine the minimum legal salary for teachers, the elementary schools are divided into two categories, urban and rural, and each of these catego- ries into three classes, in accordance with the wealth and population of the commune. The minimum legal stipendia, according to law of April 11, 1886, are as follows: City schools. | Eural schools. Higher. Lower. i nig her. Lower. Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. Women. First class $254 $203 213 170 193 l.'i2 $193 183 173 $152 14G 139 $173 164 152 $139 131 123 $152 144 135 $123 115 103 The stipends are augmented one-tenth for every six years of service in the same commune until the salary has been increased four times. The following table indicates the number of normal schools and j)upils for certain years commencing with 1861-02: Xonnal schools, (a) Schools. Pupils enrolled. Year. Govern- ment schools. Other schools. Total. lu Govern- ment schools. In other schools. Total. 18G1 62 86 115 101 121 133 134 137 137 141 3,742 1871 72 6,130 1875 76 6,775 8,865 10, 542 1881 82 1885 8G 80 82 83 95 98 53 52 54 42 43 7,243 7,808 3,299 3,252 1S8G 87 11,060 1887 88 11, 694 1888 89 10, 052 12, 204 2,804 2,980 12, 856 1889 90 15, 184 olu 1892-93 there were 148 normal schools (100 Government), 1,534 teachers (1,034 in Government normal schools), 18,077 pupils (14,493 in Government schools). Of the pupils 1,703 were men, 16,974 women. There are other institutes auxiliary or complementary to those foi elementary instruction. Among the first-mentioned are two ''convitti'^ (establishments where pupils are boarded and lodged and which have elementary schools attached) for the oriihans of elementary teachers, and the institutions for the blind and deaf-mutes 5 among the second are comprised the "convitti," the educational institutions for girls and the two higher-grade normals for girls. The expenditures for the elementary, evening, and holiday schools, for the normals, and for the other institutions noted above, infant schools excluded, however, are as follows: In 1888-89 the provinces expended $153,892; the communes, $10,866,756. In 1890-91 the State expended $1,048,452. 550 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. SECONDARY CLASSICAL AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. The aim of secondary classical instruction is to train young men in the studies requisite for acquiring the literary and philosophical knowl- edge which entities them to enter upon special studies leading to the academic grades of a university. These branches of instruction are imparted in the "ginnasio" (lower grade classical school) in a fiA^e-years term, and in the ^'liceo" (higher grade classical school) in a three- years term. In order to be admitted to Class I of a "ginnasio" the student is required to pass an entrance examination in the branches of the higher elementary grade, and in order to be admitted to the first year of a "liceo" it is necessary to possess a gymnasial license (licenza gin- nasiale), while the license of a "liceo" (licenza liceale) is required for admittance to a university course. The "ginnasi" are supposed to be supported by the communes, but in some provinces the State maintains them, in accordance with special laws. The "licei" are supported by the State, as far as the expenditures for teachers and scientific material are concerned; the expenditures for the buildings and furniture are borne by the communes. The State, either by law or by special agreement with the communes or other corporations, cooperates in maintaining the "ginnasi" and nongovernmental •' licei." The communes, corporate bodies, and private individuals supjiort similar institutions. The State, moreover, maintains the "convitti" annexed to the gov- ernmental "ginnasi" and "licei,'' and, by law or special agreement, it also subsidizes other "convitti," whose maintenance would naturally belong to a province, commune, or to a corporate body or association. The aim of technical-professional instruction is to impart to young men who are ambitious to enter upon a specified career in the public service, i. e., in industrial, commercial, and skilled agricultural pursuits, such general and special knowledge as is required for these pursuits. This knowledge is acquired and taught in technical schools, techni- cal institutes, and in the institutes for the mercantile marine. The course of instruction in the technical schools lasts three years, at the end of which a diploma is given to the successful candidates; this diploma is required for admission to a technical institute or to an institute for the mercantile-marine service. In the technical institute the instruction is divided, according to the i)rofession to be pursued, into 5 sections, namely, physico-mathematics, land surveying, agricul- ture, commerce and trade, and industrial pursuits. The courses last four years, and are divided into two biennial periods; one common to all sections, and one a special course for each section. In the institutes for the mercantile-marine service the instruction is divided into G sections, viz, as captains for the coast service, naval constructors of the second class, and machinists of the second class, a two-years course; cai)tain for long-distance courses and naval con- EDUCATION IN ITALY. 551 structors of the first class, a three-years course; and macliiiiists of the first chiss a four-years coarse. The diploma of the physico-iaathematical section entitles, as does the "licenza liceale," to admission into the faculty for physical, mathe- matical, and natural sciences of a university. The following table presents the number of institutes in which secondary classical and technical instruction is given, and the number of students enrolled: Institutes for secondary classical and iechnical instruction, (a) INSTITUTES. Ginnasi. Licei. Technical schools. Technical institutes. Institutes of the merchant marine. state. Public and pri- vate, (b) State. Public and pri- vate. (6) State. Public and pri- vate. (&) State. PubUc and pri- vate. State. Public and pri- vate. 1861-G2 93 90 103 104 113 130 131 148 154 177 67 69 78 80 83 97 99 104 108 112 16 5 1865-66 46 55 63 63 107 123 143 161 184 '""326' 318 296 266 246 209 52 65 73 14 1870-71 25 1875-76 30 1880-81 1885-86 1886-87 1887-88 1888-89 1889-90 588 597 604 580 560 546 215 229 227 216 201 203 40 46 49 51 54 54 39 27 25 19 21 19 21 20 19 18 19 19 5 4 4 3 2 2 STUDENTS ENROLLED. Tear, 18C1-G2. 1865-00. 1870-71. 1875-76 . 18S0-81. 1885-86. 1886-87. 1887-88. 1888-89. 1889-90. In the ffinnasi. Public State. I and pri- vate. 28, 248 31, 528 32, 284 31,940 31,471 31,007 In the licei. State. 3,005 3,280 3,645 5, 532 5,989 7,219 7,523 7,620 8,138 8,396 Public and pri- ■s-ate. 5,144 6,477 6, 342 6,108 0,706 5,607 In technical schools. State. Public and pri- vate. 15, 268 15,814 15, 438 14, 284 13, 504 12, 531 In technical institutes. Public State, land pri- I vate. 1, 3, 4, 5, 4,696 5, 193 4,836 4,599 4,937 5,904 231 438 2,182 1,813 1,395 1,089 1,066 1,123 In institutes of the merchant marine. State. Public and pri- vate. 265 536 870 965 1,< 734 641 646 651 781 a In 1891-92 there were 735 "ginnasi" (178 State, 557 public or private) ■witli 4,429 professors; students 57,525 (ill State ginnasi 25,380 ;"public or private 32,145). The ''licei" numbered 321 (State 113, otliers 208); professors 1,853; students 15,713 (State 9,371, in other licei 6,342). The technical schools num- bered 390 (State 184, others 215) ; professors 2,893; .students 34,244 (State 21,411, others 12.833,) Tech- nical institutes 74 (State 54) ; professors 1,315 ; students 8,647 (in State institutes 7,203). There were 21 naval institutes — " istituti nautici" training for the maritime scr^-ice— (of these 19 Government) ■with 179 professors; students 1,320 (in Government 1,301). b Until the close of 1879-80 tliero were no statistics published for nongovernment institutes. The maintenance of the technical schools is imi^osed upon the com- munes where they are established. The State pays half of the teach- ers' expenses, however.- In some cases, in accordance with special laws, technical schools are entirely in charge of the State. The expenditures for the technical institutes and for those of the mer- cantile marine are borne in part by the State, which pays half of the 552 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. expcuses for tlic teacliers and otlier emijloyees, and iu part by tlie prov- iuccs and communes. The expenditures for buildings and nonscieutific material arc fiir- nislied by tbe communes where the institutes are situated. The expenditures for classical and technical schools and for the "convitti" for boys were accredited as follows — to the State, communes, and provinces — during the years 1888-89 and 1890-91 : Provinces (1888-89) $447, 128 Communes (1888-89) 1, 39G, 608 State (1890-91 ) 2, 389, 207 Still another class of instruction is imparted in institutes and special schools, such as practical schools of agriculture, agrarian schools, indus- trial schools, schools of art and trade, and lirofessional schools. The expenditures are paid in part by the State, which, through subsidies given to the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, in accord- ance with special laws to that effect, cooperates with the i^rovinces, communes, and other corporate bodies. In order to secure admission to one of these schools it is necessary to have successfully finished the elementary courses or otherwise to have passed an examination for admission. During the school years 1888-89 and 1890-91 the expenditures for this class of schools were distributed as follows : Provinces (1888-89) $125, 677 Communes (1888-89) 325, 498 State (1890-91) 439, 655 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. The highest grade of education is furnished iu the universities, the superior institutes, and in superior special schools. The "Istituti Superiori" include the schools for engineers, the veterinary schools, the literary and scientific academy, the higher normal school for instruc- tion iu literature, and the superior institute for the perfecting of studies in Florence with its university faculties. The universities comprise in general four faculties — law; philosophy and letters; i^hysical, mathematical, and natural sciences; and medicine and surgery. In some universities the schools of pharmacy and veterinary schools arc annexed to the faculty of medicine and surgerj^ Not all universi- ties have four faculties. The degree of doctor (Laurea) is conferred iu each faculty a,t the close of the course. In the higher institutes there are faculties or sections of faculties where doctors' degrees and dii)lomas are conferred at the close of the course. In the sx)ecial schools diplomas are given for the different subjects taught there. The special schools are the superior commercial schools, whose pur- pose it is to prepare j^oung men for the management of banking and EDUCATION IN ITALY. 553 commercial institutions, or for the career of coiisular agents in foreign countries, or for the position of instructors in the science of economics in technical institutes; the superior agricultural schools, v/hich prepare teachers of agricultural sciences and to promote agricultural interests by means of experimental research; the superior naval school, for the training of naval and hydrographic engineers and naval constructors; the institute of forestry, for training persons as forest inspectors; and the industrial uiuseum, for training as mechanical engineers (ingegneri- industriale), chemistry, and in special branches of mechanics and physics. The expenditures for universities and superior institutes are in charge of the State and are included in the budget of the ministry of public instruction. The revenues and property of these institutions aid in their maintenance, and the fund is added to that administered by the State. Some provinces cooperate, by means of si^ecial contracts with the State in the payment of exj)enditures for the increase of scientific apparatus, for the annexed schools, for the laboratories, and collections of tlio uuiversiti'es which are located in the respective i^roviuces or com- munes. There are 17 Government universities. Four are called "free," because they are maintained by the provinces and communes where they are situated. The superior institutes are under Government con- trol, and are 11 in number. The superior special schools are also 11 in number, and are maintained by the State (the fund being included in the budget of the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce) in conjunction Avith the provinces and communes where they are situated. The two superior institutes for the education of women are depend- ent on the ministry of public instruction, to the accounts of which the expenditures are charged. The following table gives a survey of the universities, the superior institutes, and the superior special schools, with a summary of the number of students enrolled in said institutes, commencing with the year 186G-G7: Index of universities, sujjerior institutes, and special superior schools. Superior institutes. Superior special schools. Dniversities. o Place. Is t>1 1 o 'A Place. A. —State. 1. Bologna. 2. Cagliari. 3. Catania. 4. Genoa. 5. Macerata. 1 Bologna— School of Applied Sciences for Engineers. Florence— Institute for supe- rior practical studies and Xirofessional studies. 1877 1859 1 2 Bari — Superior School of Com- merce. Plorence — School of Social Science, a 1837 1875 ED 95- -18* a Founded by iirivate initiative. 554 EDUCATION EErORT, 189i-95. Index of tiniversiiles, superior institutes, and sjjecial sujperior schools — Continued. Superior institutes. Superior ei)ecial schools. T'niversities. o . Place. "3 o Place. .a A.— .State— C'tW. C. Messina. 7. Modena. 8. Xaples. 9. Padua. 10. Palermo. 11. Parma. 12. Pavia. 13. Pisa. 14. Home. 15. Bassari. 16. Siena. 17. Turin. a.— Free. 1. Camerino. 2. Terrara. 3. Perugia. 4. L'rbino. 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 Milan— Scientific Literary Institute. Milan— Superior Technical Institute. Milan— Superior School for Veterinary Medicine. Naples— School of Applied Sciences for Engineers. !israples— Superior School of Teterinary Medicine. Pis.i— Superior IS'ormal School . Rome— School of Applied Sciences for Engineers. Turin— School of Applied Sciences for Engineers. Turin— Superior School o f Teterinary Medicine. 1859 1859 1859 1810 1856 1846 1873 1859 1796 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 Florence — Superior Institute for the Education of "Women. Genoa— Superior School of Kavigation. Genoa— Superior School o f Commerce. Milan — Superior School of Agriculture. Palermo— Superior School of Sulphur Mining, a Portici— Superior School of Agriculture. Home— Superior Institute for the Education of "Women. Turin — Italian Museum of Industry. Yallomhrosa — Institute o f Forestry. Venice— Siiperior School of Commerce. 18S2 1870 1SS7 1870 1572 1872 1882 1862 1869 1868 a "Was closed during school rear 1886-87 Universities, superior institutes, and special schools, (a) 2f umher of students enrolled (hear- ers included). Tear. Number of students enrolled (hear- ers included). Tear. Univer- sities sup- ported by State. Free univer- sities. Superior insti- tutes. Superior special schools. TJniver- j -p sitiessup- t.ii„„ Superior insti- tutes. Superior special schools. 1866-67 10, 098 11,274 11, 239 11,379 11,340 11,694 11, 378 11,205 10, 026 8,657 8,529 9,161 283 299 295 278 282 303 306 277 264 237 219 203 682 - 841 988 1,084 1,148 1,181 1,143 1,021 1,108 1,265 1,160 1,085 187&-79.... 1879-80 1880-81 1881-82.... 1882-83.... 1883-84.... 1884-85.... 1885-86.... 1886-87.... 1887-88.... 1888-89.... 1889-90.... 9,814 10, 335 11,117 11,889 12, 596 13,333 13, 958 14, 500 15,196 15, 503 15, 950 16, 512 214 238 269 302 281 243 271 317 345 371 372 410 1,033 1,144 1,235 1,375 1,532 1,544 1,715 1,858 1,961 1,959 1,955 1,996 689 1867-68 1868-69 1869-70 1870-71 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 93 306 367 403 509 499 537 574 673 602 628 622 730 397 434 513 517 515 701 789 1,005 879 a In 1891-92 there ■were 17,347 students and hearers and 1.493 professors in State iiniversities; in free (libera) universities, 445 students and 79 professors. In the superior institutes, 2,033 students and 233 professors; in .superior special schools, 860 students and 158 professors. The expenditures borne by tlic State for universities and otlier institutes and special scliools amounted to 82,077,959 for tlie scliool year 1890-91, wliicli sum was included in the budget of the minister of public instruction, and $112,905 in the budget of the ministry of agri- culture, industry, and commerce. EDUCATION IN ITALY. 555 Tlie amounts contributed by the provinces and communes to the funds of universities, superior institutes, and superior special scliools are added to tlie provincial and communal budgets. This fund is sep- arate from the amounts furnished by the associations or corporate bodies for the general increase and progress of studies. To this latter amount the provinces furnished $457,811 and the communes $829,190 for the year 1888-89. But the State revenues for this year indicate that the provinces and communes will only cooperate to the extent of $152,530 in the mainte- nance of universities and other institutions administered by the State. The superior special schools, as has been mentioned before, are founded and maintained conjointly by the State, the provinces, and the com- munes, and are managed by local commissions, which include in their membershij) representatives from corporate bodies which aid in tlie maintenance of said institutions. As appendix to this article, we add the latest statistics of universi- ties, presented by Prof. Carlo F. Ferraris, and taken from the Eevue Internationale de I'Enseignement for October, 1895. Enrollment in higha • instiluUons i) 1894-95 compared with 1893 -04. Name, etc. Facul- ties, and schools of law, of phar- macy, and of obstet- rics. Schools of ap- plica- tion an- nexed ► for the engi- neers. Total. Veteri- nary schools, inde- pendent or an- nexed to univer- sities. Schools of agri- iculture an- nexed. Genera: total for 1894-95 Total for 1893-94. In- crease (+) or de- crease (-). Eoyal universities having 4 facul- ties: 5,040 2,305 1,916 1,475 1,244 1,287 1,240 1,003 760 806 502 230 266 113 128 134 82 26 7 3 5,270 2,671 2,059 1,603 1,358 1,369 1,272 1,010 772 806 502 163 91 5,433 2,762 2, 059 1,003 1,457 1,369 1,272 1,010 972 806 502 5,205 2,609 1,752 1,420 1,384 1,488 1,223 990 900 748 456 -f 228 .-fl53 -f 307 ^ 177 99 + 73 119 -f 49 + 20 -1- 72 + 58 -t- 46 28 172 Total 17, 573 1,119 18, 092 381 172 19, 245 18, 181 -f 1 064 Eoyal universities having 3 facul- ties : 384 385 201 229 157 264 384 385 201 229 157 264 28 23 412 408 201 229 157 264 354 372 191 230 139 188 + 58 -f 36 -f 10 Eoyal universities Laving 2 facul- ties: — 7 -f 18 Koj al university having 1 faculty : -f 76 Total 1,020 529 77 161 1,620 51 1,671 1,480 + 191 Eoyal superior institutes : ""'246' 529 77 401 529 77 401 88 489 61 418 71 + 40 + 16 17 Milan (technological institute) . 88 + 17 Total 767 240 1,007 88 ^^ 1,095 1,039 + 56 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Enrollment in higher institutions in 1894-95 compared with 1893-94 — Continued. Name, etc. Facul- ties, and schools of law, of pliar- niacy, and of obstet- rics. Schools of ap- plica- tion an- nexed for the engi- neers. Total. Veteri- nary schools, inde- pendent er an- nexed to univer- sities. Schools of agri- culture an- nexed. General total for 1894-95. Total for 1893-94. In- crease (+)or de- crease Free universities : 265 143 84 76 265 143 84 76 38 19 303 162 84 76 226 144 95 92 -f 77 + 18 11 16 Total 568 568 57 625 557 + 68 University schools annexed to the lyceums : 53 50 46 53 50 46 53 50 46 49 28 56 + 4 + 22 10 Total 149 252 50 53 149 149 133 1 -+- 16 " Schools of obstetrics : 252 50 53 252 50 53 259 52 48 7 2 -t- 5 Total 355 21, 032 355 355 23,140 359 21, 749 — 4 172 1,359 22, 391 1 -"iV? + 1, 391 THE CATHOLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ROME. Through the courtesy of the editor of the North American Keview (December, 1894, i)p. 641-664), we have been permitted to make extracts from an article on the above subject, written by Archbishop SatoUi (since created cardinal). This article clearly defines the work done by the papal authorities in Rome since 1870: The education furuishcd in the Catholic schools of Rome is open to all classes, and, although their supremo aim is to educate the new generation in a Christian manner, they vary in method according to the grade, from the infant asylum up to the uni- versity courses, which are still exclusively reserved to the State by law. The number of Catholic schools is extraordinarily l?«rge, exceeding botli that of the Government and municipal schools. The supreme direction of all these schools is vested in the cardinal vicar, for the congregation of studies has only the surveillance of the higher courses of the clerical institutes. He is assisted in the direction of the elementary schools — (1) By the pontifical commission, appointed by his holiness in accordance with the letter addressed to the cardinal vicar, dated June 26, 1878. Of this commission the monsignor vicegerent is the head. (2) By special committee for the schools which are founded and maintained by the Society of Catholic Interests. (3) By a special committee for the catechetical evening or night schools. (4) By a special committee for the schools which are dependent on the apostolic almonry. (.5) By a special committee for the night and evening schools. These committees, although each is independent of the other in its sphere of action, are all subject in general matters to the pontifical commission, in which each of them EDUCATION IN ITALY. 557 is represented by one or more meniLers. This tie, far from being an impcdimeut to tbc development and progress of the various institutions, ratlicr helps to keep them united by harmonizing their actions in such a way that their work does not conflict. The pontifical commission, however, reserves the right to regulate questions of discipline, to compile the j)rogrammes, select the text-books, fix the days for exami- nation, and other similar matters. It has also charge of the correspondence with the Holy See and the administration of the subsidies given by the Holy Father or by Y)rivate bodies or individuals. Two inspectors are assigned to the supervision of the schools which are under the immediate direction of the commission. The committees provide for the other schools. In addition to these inspectors, every member of the commission having the title of "patron" has the supervision of a certain number of schools. Two hun- dred and eleven different directors, divided up as follows, re-iiresenf the commission and the committees at the various schools : Directors. Free schools for males 28 Paying schools for males 14 Evening schools for males 13 Catechetical schools for males 8 Industrial schools for males 4 Asylums and boarding schools 5 Free schools for females 50 Paying schools for females 32 Sunday schools for females 18 Catechetical schools for females 7 Evening schools for females 1 Industrial and professional schools 10 Academies and orphan asylums 21 Total 211 As a rule, the directors are not obliged to teach. The selection and inspection of localities are intrusted to an architect, who is attached to the pontifical commission. In the direction of the higher and technical schools the cardinal vicar is assisted by a council of direction, which possesses the same powers as regards the high schools as the x^ontifical commission has over the primary schools. The members of both these bodies — clergy as well as laity — are noted for their nobility of birth, as well as for piety and learning. In addition to these, there are also high schools, which, although they follow the regulations of the others, may be called independent, inas- much as they belong to the religious corporations. The number and classification of these schools will be found in Tables A and B : Table A. — Scliools for 'boys. Classification. Pupils. Free schools Paying schools Eveuing schools Cateclietical schools Industrial schools Free asylums Paying asylums Hospices and hoarding schools Other elementary preparatory schools Total 3,953 991 1,468 885 501 1,727 207 395 823 10, 950 558 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. Table B. — Schools for girls. Classification. Xumber. I Pupils. Frco schools Paying schools Sunday schools Evening schools Catechetical schools Industrial schools TYee asylums Paying asylums Academies and oi'phan asylums Total 50 5,692 32 2,072 18 1,274 1 53 7 560 10 448 18 2,278 5 180 21 1,072 13, 035 RECAPITULATION. Of the schools Per boys... For girls . . . Total.... Of tho pupils : Boys Girla Total.... Kumher. 94 162 10, 950 13,035 24, 585 In speaking of the distribution of scliools, Mgr. SatolU saj's: It has been the -wise and constant aim of the pontifical commission, aided by the religious corporations, to distribute the elementary schools as widely as possible and to conduct them in such a manner that, by their discipline, by tho choice of teachers, by the cscelleuco of their method of teaching and their educative course, they should merit tho sympathy of the public and the confidence of the family. * * * The pontifical commission therefore did well in avoiding the plan of erecting large schools at a considerable distance apart and in deciding to establish a number of smaller schools, which, though more modest, would be convenient to all. As a result, there is not only not a parish, but there is hardly a street of any importance in Eome, that does not i)ossess a Catholic school. It must not be inferred from this that the Catholics lack great scholastic edifices. On tho contrary, in the past few years some beautiful buildings have been erected through the instrumentality of religious corporations. Mgr. Satolli lays stress upon the fact that — The first requisite of a good school is to have good teachers. * * « And at this point it is only proper to pay a tribufo of praise to the religious corpo- rations, which have stopped at no expense or sacrifice to provide the commission with a select body of teachers, both men and women, furnished with proper diplomas, and who, by their ability, zeal, and spotless character, have merited and enjoy to the full the confidence, not only of the commission, but of tho public. Teachers bad also to be provided for such schools as were not dependent on reli- gious corporations, of which there are a considerable number, and exi)erience has shown it to be very difficult to obtain teachers who, in addition to their i)rofessional diplomas of residence, oifer those secure guaranties of sound principles and morality which are indispensable for those who teach in Catholic schools. The jiontifical commission therefore deemed it advisable to establish normal or teachers' schools designed to prepare their scholars for the career of teachers. The first of these to be EDUCATION IN ITALY. 559 establislicd was ono for women, and is called St. Catherine's lustitnte. Another similar college for men was founded two years ago. St. Catherine's Institute, which has npw been in existence fourteen years, has been productive of excellent results, inasmuch as it not only furnishes the Lest teachers for Catholic schools, but its grad- uates arc even sought after by the municipality, which justly esteems them for their culture and conduct. The same gratifying results are confidently expected from the male college when its courses shall have been comi)leted. ^ " Speaking of tlie coarse of study, Mgr. Satolli says: In the compilation of the programmes the commission endeavors to bring them as far as possible into harmony with those in use in the public schools, both as regards the division of classes and the courses of stxidics. In the schools for girls a finish- ing course of two years was added, so that the pupils, especially in the academies, might bo able to acouire a superior education to that imparted at the elementary schools. « * * As regards the method of teaching, the commission strongly urged the teachers to adhere to the old system, which means that method by following which Dante, keen- est of observers, noted the most relevant facts of life and of the physical world; by which Columbus discovered America and Galileo left, in the sphere of physical study, an immortal record. It is the method of observation which the modern Ital- ian iiedagogues very uupatriotically declare to have come from over the Alps, while, as a matter of fact, if it can bo called the glory of any country, it is the glory of Italy. The commission decreed that this method should be applied in an Italian spirit — that is, without northern vagueness and exaggeration, and not as a means of com- bating the supernatural, but of ascending toward it. It holds that the teaching of the school is intended for life, and for the whole life, for man does not live by bread alone. * * While the pontifical commission Avas engaged in the direction of the elementary schools the directive council worked with equal zeal in the management of the high schools. Of the two the latter arc the more important, because while the first provide for the education of the lower classes, the second initiate into the sciences and to an upright life that class which, fresh from the universities, is destined to form the cultured and influential section of society. There are in Eomo 18 high schools dependent on the Holy See, viz, 5 lyceums,^ 5 gymnasiums, 5 technical schools, 2 normal schools, and 1 technical institute of higher grade. [See Table C] Table C. — Statistical summanj of the high schools for the year 1S9.3-03. ('-) Institute Augelo Mai: Students. Lyceum 70 Gymnasium 140 Technical school ICO Gt. Apollinaris: Lyceum 109 Gymnasium 3G8 Technical school 96 Theology " . . .- 140 Law 3 143 Philosophy "> 62 Letters ^ 23 'The schools designated as lyceums and gymnasiums are equivalent to our high ochools. 2 The special schools of law, theology, etc., are not included in this number. ■■'Special classes. 560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Institute Massimo : Students. Lyceum 48 Gymnasium 216 Technical scbool 59 Vatican Seminary : Lyceum 18 Gymnasium 88 Philosophy ^ 15 Theology ' 20 College Santa Maria : Lyceum \ Gymnasium i Institute de Merode, technical institute 85 Little Brothers of Mary, technical institute (preparatory) 117 Institute of St. Joseph, technical institute 213 Institute of Fathers of Pious Schools, normal for boys 17 Institute of St. Catherine, normal for girls 200 Salesians of Don Bosco Gymnasium - 100 Scliolars- Lyceums 245 Gymnasiums 1, 082 Technical schools 585 Technical institutes 85 Normal S(;hools 312 Elementary preparatory 823 Total 3, 132 The technical and normal schools, as well as the technical institutes, have all been founded since 1870 — partly during the pontificate of Pius IX and partly during that of Leo XIII. Of the gymnasiums and lyceums 3 have been established since that date; the others were already in existence, but owing to the new laws it became necessary to reform them in many respects. Of these 18 institutes 7 belong to religious corporations, tlio remainder being directly dex^endeut on the directive council and pontifical commission. The Collegio Nazzareno, which is a most flourishing institution, is not included among this num- ber, because, although founded and directed by the Fathers of the Piotis Schools, it is under the jurisdiction of the local authorities. As against these 18 Catholic institutions there are in Rome 19 State and 1 munici- j)al high school — that is, 3 lyceums, 4 gymnasiums, 8 technical schools, 3 normal schools, and 1 higher technical institute. If we take into account the lyceum- gymnasium of the Collegio Nazzareno, the Catholic high schools equal in number those of the Government. \y In speaking of the religious side of ediicatiou, Mgr. Satolli says: The commission has continually reminded the teachers that instruction is good only when it is united with an earnest moral and religious education. It therefore decreed that a fixed time should be set apart daily for catechism, so that the pupils from their earliest years should be familiarized with those pious practices which form the character of the true Christian. * * * Tlie commission, moreover, being fully convinced that no branch of study, espe- cially philosoiihy or history, can be correctly and comjiletely taught without the aid of religion, which like a luminous beacon guides the understanding, directed that ' Special classes. -The oratory is attended by 700 pupils. EDUCATION IN ITALY. 561 religious iustructiou should be given at least once a week in all the schools and classes, vrith a \iew not only to improve the minds of the pupils, hut as the most effectual means of imparting that complete religious and moral education which is the supremo aim of Catholic schools. In order that the pupils may from their earliest years become familiar with the practices of Christian piety, sodalities have been formed, each of which has a spirit- ual director, whoso duty it is to see that the members comply with the rules and fulfill all their religious duties. Special spiritual exercises are held by these sodalities at Easter, when children whose parents desire it are prepared for their first communion. Tho Avork of the pontifical commission and directive council does not end with the direction of the elementary and high schools, for there is no class of citizens for which these bodies, aided by the religious corporations, have not provided the means of obtaining a Christian education and the highest grade of culture in the easiest manner. Acting on the advice of the directive council, the holy father founded in Kome 2 institutes of superior courses or finishing courses, namely, tho Academy of Historic Jurisprudence and the School of Higher Literature, and selected as their professors men noted for their scientific and literary attainments. Tho first of these institu- tions is devoted to jurisprudence, history, and archaeology; the second to ancient and modern literature, t - Boarding houses. — Two boarding houses have Ijeen 'provided for tlio scholars who come to Rome from the provinces. One of these has been in existence for many years and is set ajiart for those who attend the university courses ; the other, which is for the girls who attend tho teachers' institute, was erected by a committee of ladies as a memorial of tlie episcopal jubilee of tho holy father, and by them turned over to tho deserving Salesian Missionary Sisters. It is not only required that those who are admitted to these houses fulfill their duties as good Christians, but, in addition, religious, scientific, and literary conferences are frequently held, with a view to confirming the scholars in good principles. Boarding schools. — There are in Rome 26 boarding schools, of Avhich number 5 are for boys and 21 for girls. They are attended by 395 boys and 1,072 girls. All these schools belong to religious corporations. It is needless to add that the seminaries for the clergy, of which there is a very large number, are not included under this head. The rate charged at these boarding schools ranges from 30 to 80 lire monthly ($5.79 to $15.44), so that they are accessible to families of moderate means as well as to those of affluence. In some of these schools free scholarships have been established. * * *j 111 describiug tbe boartliug scliools for girls Mgr. Satolli says: The instruction given to tho girls in these boarding schools is divided into two grades — elementary and superior. In some of them tho entire normal course is given, thus enabling such pux^ils as desire it to obtain diplomas. Tho sisters v/ho conduct these courses are furnished witli diplomas of j)rofessorship, obtained after examina- tion at the State unis'ersitics. In tho examination which took place for this inirpose four years ago by concessions of the minister, the Sisters of St. Ann of Providence, the Oblates of the Infant Jesus, the Ladies of tlio Sacred Heart, the Marcelline Sis- ters, and the Sisters of St. Josei^h especially distinguished themselves. The Government maintains in Rome two colleges, viz, a boarding school for girls, which is attached to the normal school, and the provincial school for boys. Semihoarding schools. — To a number of these boarding schools are attached what are known as "mezza peusione; " that is, schools attended by day scholars who take their midday meal there. They arc a comparatively new institution, and have met with much favor among the families who have taken advantage of them. Orphan and other asylums. — No city of Italj', or, indeed, in the world, possesses in comparison so many charitable institutions for every class of poor and suffering persons as Rome. - ^ * 562 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S94-95. Not to meution those institntious wliicli do not como witliiu the scope of this article or those which existed prior to 1870, I shall only allude briefly to the ones established since that date. Preeminent among these is the Hospice of the Sacred Heart, conducted by the Salesians, Avhich was opened last year by the cardinal vicar as a memorial of the episcopal jubilee of the holy father. It is an immense building of beautiful design, and includes not only elementary schools but also art and industrial schools, a gymnasium, and library. The scholars who attend the day or night schools here are educated gratuitously, and only a very small fee is charged for the boarders. This institution contains in all about 300 i)upils. * * * Another institution which is maintained by voluntary contributions is the Pious Institute of the Immaculate Conception, which was founded by the Brothers of Charity, familiarly known as the Grey Brothers. It receives orphans gratuitously, and also maintains day and boarding schools containing about 400 pupils. The orphan asylum of the Sisters of Cluny, of St, Jerome Emiliani, the Protectory of St. Joseph, the Asylum of the Sisters of Nancy for Idiot Children, and the Insti- tute for Abandoned Orphans, conducted by the Daughters of the Passion of Calvary, should also bo included under this head. lu each of these charitable institutions the inmates, in addition to receiving an elementary education, aro specially instructed in some art or trade, thus enabling them to earn an honest livelihood in after life. Infant asylums. — The pontifical commission has under its jurisdiction '10 infant asylums, of which 32 are free. As against these the municipality has only 12. lu these asylums, as in every other Catholic institution, every part of the modern method which is good and iisoful has been adopted. * * •■ Art and trade schools. — Among the art and trade schools in Rome are the Institute of Pius IX and the Hospice Bonanni, for young artisans; the Institute of Vigna Pia, for instructing i^oor boys in agriculture, and that of Tata Giovanni, where the jioor are instructed in various arts and trades. In all the above, in addition to reading and writing, special care is given to the study of design, Avhich is accounted a great aid in learning the arts and trades. The evening schools, founded by the Artisan and Working Society, hold examinations yearly of the work of the i)upils, which is executed accurately and artistically. * * * Industrial schools. — In addition to the higher courses and finishing courses adapted to the daughters of wealthy parents, industrial schools Avero opened for girls belong- ing to the x>oorer classes. Only those girls are admitted to these schools who have completed the higher courses in the elementary schools, although pupils who have only passed tho third class are sometimes admitted. Embroidery of various kinds, sewing, cutting garments, ironing, repairing, and every other branch of housework necessary to qualify tho jiupils to earn their livelihood aro taught here. The most skillful pupils are rewarded by a small daily honorarium. Some of these pupils have earned such a reputation for good work among the iieoplo that they receive more work than they can execute. The professional schools under the direction of the Sisters of Charity of St. Yin- cent do Paul and of the Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta are specially noted for the excellent quality of their work as well as for the number of their pupils. Catechetical schools. — These schools were especially established for the boys and girls who attend the State or municipal schools where no religious instruction is given. There are 15 of these schools, 8 for boys and 7 for girls, the average yearly attendance being 1, U5. These schools are a most efficacious help to the clergy, for, like tho other Catholic schools, they help to prepare tho boys and girls for their first communion and to instruct them in the duties of a good Christian. Sunday schools, which have the same object as the catechetical schools, are 18 in number, and contain 1,274 pupils. Owing to lack of space, it is imj^ossible to describe all the other Catholic institu- EDUCATION IN ITALY. 563 tiona in Rome which have for their aim the education of youth. No mention can therefore be made of the Catholic clubs, the literary and scientific academies, read- ing and debating circles, etc. * * * MgT. Satollij referring to matters of discipline, states that — The schools are regarded by many j)arcnt3 simply as j)lace3 \Yhcro their children are taken care of for a few hours daily; others look upon them as workshops where the children learn to read, write, cipher, and nothing else. Indeed, there are only a few who appreciate the exalted and delicate function of the schools. It has been wisely ordained that every Catholic school^ especially the higber ones, should have a special j)rcfect of discipline. This prefect watches the coming and going of the pupils from their classes, kcciis a record of the absent and late ones, corresponds with the parents of the children, and sees that all the regulations are rigidly en- forced. The existence of this office helps not only to maintain discipline but is also an important factor in the proper progress of the studies, for the president and directors, being relieved of all care in matters of discipline, are freer to superintend the teaching and teachers. In order to excite in the pupils the sjiirit of emulation, prizes arc offered at the beginning of each scholastic year. In the higher and paying schools silver medals and diplomas are awarded, while in the free schools gifts of clothing are bestowed. The punishments inflicted in the Catholic schools are similar to those in use in the State schools, but, happily, it is only very rarely that the severest one, expulsion, has to bo resorted to. In sjieaking' of the expenditures, Mgr. Satolli says : It is difficult to form an accurate estimate of the amount expended on so many and such varied scholastic institutions as have been mentioned. The paying schools directed by the religious cori^orations, which provide for current expenses out of their own funds, in common with those which derive an annual allowance from the pontitical commission, dejieud upon jiublic munificence and upon other sources for the balance uecessarj' for their support. Nearly all the primary schools, and also the secondary institutes, which are directed by lay folk, are entirely depend- ent upon the pontifical commission and upon the school fund set apart by the holy father. Taking iuto account simply the amount furnished by the Pontifical commission and by the administration of the estates of the Holy See for the high schools, the annual expenditure exceeds 1,000,000 lire ($193,000). The average yearly income of the iiontifical commission is about 400,000 lire ($77,200), and the outlay nearly equals that amount. This income is derived — (1) From direct donations of the holy father. (2) From the administration of the estates of the Holy See. (3) From the donations of certain corporations of the chapters of the patriarchal churches, and from the contributions of sacred congregations, and of some private individuals. (4) From the fees of the x^npils of St. Catherine's Institute and of the Gregorian College. With the amount thus obtained the pontifical commission provides — (1) For the ordinary and extraordinary allowances of the personnel. (2) For the furnishing, etc., of the schools. (3) For the distribution of books, etc., among the poor pupils. (4) For the rental of the schools antl asylums. (5) For the erection and repairs of buildiugs. ^ * * All the members of the pontifical commission, including the president, who has the general direction of the schools as well as of the administrative office, give their services gratuitously. 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Tliero are several schools, orphauages, and asylums, ■wliich do not derive their support from the pontifical commission, but which are maintained exclusively by the Roman aristocracy or by Catholic societies or committees. If the amount which is sx)ent by the religious corporations and that which is saved by their giving their services gratuitously, as well as the sum which is derived annually from public and i>rivate benefactors, were added to the amount spent yearly by the pontifical commission, the expenses for primary Catholic education in Rome would reach a total of at least 1,500,000 lire yearly ($289,500). Aniong the schools wholly maintained by the administration of the estates of the Holy See are the Historical- Juridical Academy, the School of Higher Literature, also called the Leonine Institute, the Lyceum-Gymnasium, the Technical School Angelo Mai, and the Technical Institute Do Merode. With the exception of the Leonine Institute, the administration of all these institutions is vested in the directive council. lu summing uj) the work done in these various institutions, MgT. Satolli states tliat — The supreme end of these institutions, which is religious and moral education, has not been neglected in the regulations, programmes, books, or methods of teaching; and it has been their special aim to deviate as little as possible from the national traditions, which so harmoniously combine faith and science, and to furnish the boya and girls of the new generation with that grade of culture which is best adapted to their social i>osition. That the Roman people appreciate the beneficent eflbrts of the holy father and tho work of all those who, with sentiments of profound admiration and reverence, assist him, is demonstrated by the ever-inci'easing number of pupils who flock to the Catholic schools. THE SCHOOLS OF LEGHORN IN 1893. An interesting presentation of the schools of Leghorn is made by the United States consul, Eadcliffe H. Ford. It is here appended. Mr. Ford says: The schools of Leghorn compare favorably with those of the United States, con- sidering the time they have been established, as, until the unification of all the provinces of Italy in 1870, there was no general school system. Leghorn has six schools devoted to the teaching of the higher branches and special courses, which are supported by the Government, aided by municipal contribiitions, ranging from. $1,780 to $3,500 annually. There are 42 public schools supported entirely by the city, with an annual attendance of about 3,600 pupils, the annual cost of which is about $55,000. Tho establishing of these schools throughout Italy marks tho first step of real progress for the common people, and can not help being manifest in the coming generations. Among the schools supported by the Government, with muni- cipal aid, are those known as mechanical and industrial schools. The schools in this district of an industrial nature, where trades or mechanical pro- fessions are taught, are situated in Leghorn, Volterrn, and Carrara. Tho school at Leghorn is known as "Scuola di Arti o Mestieri" (School of Arts and Trades), and was established by the municipality under a royal decree in the year 1886, but only went into successful operation in 1888. It is a free school, supxiorted by moneys derived from the following sources annually : City of Leghorn $1,942 Province of Leghorn 579 Chamber of commerce, Leghorn 232 Ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce 780 National treasury for schools of machinists 386 Total 3, 919 EDUCATION IN ITALY. 565 The age for admissiou is from 12 to 16 years, and the most of the pupils cuter at the earlier limit. For eutranco it is necessary that the apiilicaut have a. certificate of promotion from the third to the fourth class of the regular public schools or pass an examination showing siich proficiency in reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and geography as would be necessary for such promotiou. The school will accommodate 170 i>upils, and the limit is full. There are four sections or divisions in the school, and the branches taught and length of course Aary in different sections. The sections of the school are as follows : (1) Industrial and metallurgical, course three years, comprising arithmetic, geomet- rical drawing, decorative drawing, mechanical design of machinery, with practical work in machine shop, and in the last year technical electricity by oral lessons, with practical work in the manufacture of electricity by an electric-light plant. (2) Decorative arts, course three years, comprising arithmetic, geometry, decora- tive drawing, with practical work on room walls with oil colors, lithography, figura- tive drawing, also carving and modeling in wood, marble, plaster, and pottery. (3) Machinists and engineers, course two years, Italian language, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, drawing, with practical work in machine shop and on stationary steam engines. (4) Firemen, cour.se one year, teaching by oral lessons of the construction and work of steam-engine boiler, with practical work on same. The first and second sections are day sessions, the third and fourth are evening sessious. At the Government exhibition of last summer, at Palermo, for work by schools of this class, several of the pupils received medals and prizes for their pro- ficiency. The school has a room for machine work fitted with lathes and other machinery, the power for which is furnished by their own engine, and it also fur- nishes the power for an electric plant for lighting the building. At Yolterra is a school known as the Industrial School of Volterra, but it is more properly a school of arts. The instructors teach geometrical, architectural, and fig- urative drawing, modeling in jilaster, and decorative painting. The age of admis- sion is 12, and the same requirements for admission are necessary as at Leghorn; length of course, four years. It has been in existence since the early part of this century, and is now supported as a free school by the State and municipality. Regarding the schools of this class at CaTrara, I quote Mr. Ulisse Boccacci, the consular agent, as follows : "The only educational school where an industrial and mechanical training is also given is the Scuola Industriale di Carrara, established in this city. It is one of the four similar schools of Italy. The other three are found at Agordo, Iglesias, and Caltanisetta. "The following are the studies taught at that school: Italian lauguage, history, and geography; English language, industrial design, mathematics, physics, and chemistry; topography and its applications, topographic design; meclianics, general and special; engineering design, mineralogy and geology, and quarry working. "The applicants can obtain admission by exhibiting a license of a Government technical school or an equal school (pareggiata). "The length of the course of training is two years, and, after having passed exam- ination, pupils may get a diploma of experts in mineralogy. "The school is public and without charge, and it is supported in equal proportion by the Government, the province, the municipality, and the Chamber of Commerce of Carrara. "It was founded in the year 1872, with the title of Industrial School. In 1885 it was remodeled, adding to the teaching mineralogy. "Carrara has, besides, an academy of fine arts, whore sculpture, architecture, and carving are taught. It Avas founded in the year 1769 by the Duchess of Esto, reign- ing at that time in this district. "The pupils are admitted at the age of 14 years by application made in writing by their fathers or governors, accompanied by necessary documents. 566 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. '•'The lengtli of tlie courses of training is from seven to ten years for scnlptnre and five years for architecture and ornaments. "The average number of loupils frequenting this school is about 250. '•'This school is likewise public and without charge, and it is entirely supported by the Government." The law regarding apprenticeship is very similar to that of the Kew England States. A minor, with the consent of his father or guardian, may in writing indenture himself with a party for a term of years to bo taught a trade. This, how- ever, is but seldom done now in this consular district. The agreements are usually oral when it is contemplated that the whole trade shall be learned from the same party, aud stipulate that for the first two years the apprentice receives no wages ; for the third ycivr he receives, perhaps, one-half franc (about 10 cents) a day, increased from year to year xintil at the end of seven years he will receive from 2 to 21 francs a day. The apprentice under this agreemeut bears his own expenses. The most of the trades in reality are learned by the minor from the beginning as an assistant cr general helper with some party, under whom he gradually acquires a knowledge of the trade, without any agreement between the parties for any special length of time. The learner may be employed by several persons before he masters the trade. CUKEENT EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS. ^ These movements iuclude the appointment of commissions to investi- gate the subject of school programmes and text-books and of physical culture. Then there have been discussions aijpertaining to manual training, to the x>romi)t payment of teachers' salaries, to increase of X^eusions for teachers, university reform movements, the more thorough education of women, the establishing of schools complementary to the elementary grades, the extension of obligatory school attendance to 12 years of age, and the need of a more j)ractical education for life's duties. The subject of examinations for entrance to secondary schools has also been discussed, and the holding of the "licenza elementare" admits from State and private schools to secondary schools without other examinations. Students of gymnasia and lyceums receive the '4icenza liceale" from 1894 on, if they have earned it by completion of three or five years of study, with the cum laude additional to the pass- ing of the examinations. With the "licenza liceale" scholarshij^s are granted for further study in Eome or other prominent university cen- ters. The changes in the ministries^ may have modified the carrying 1 Current events, historical data, and indices compiled by Miss Frances Graham French, specialist in the school systems of Northern and Eastern Europe. Authori- ties consulted: Bollettino Ufficiale del Ministcro dell' Istruzione Pubblica; U Nuovo Educatore; La Nuova Antologia; La Eassegna Nazionale; Kivista di Pedago- gia e Scienze Affari ; II Lavoro Manuale Educativo; La Questione Universitaria per Carlo Cantoni ; Sulla Liberta d' Insegnamento e di Studio nelle Universita per Carlo Cantoni; Atti Parlamentari ; Codice della Istruzione Pubblica; Nuovo Ulustrazioue c Commenti alle Leggi o Discipline sulla P. Istruzione; L'Instruction Publiquc en Italic par C. Hippeau; Revue Pedagogique; Revue Internationale de I'Enseigne- meut, etc., etc. "ilinisters since 1847: Cesare Alfieri di Sostegno, November 30, 1847, to March 10, 18-18; Carlo Lou-Compagui di Mombello, March 16-July 29, 1848; Urbano Eattazi, July 29-August 4, 1848; Vincenzo Gioberti, August 4-16, 1848; Felice Merlo, August lG-27, 1848; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, August 29-December, 1848; Carlo EDUCATION IN ITALY. 567 out of tlieso various plans, but enougli lias been done to indicate tlie efforts toTvard educational i)rogress made by Italian statesmen. As far as can be ascertained, the educational movements which tend to become permanent bases of school operations are here noted. The heavy burden entailed upon the Italian Government by the effort to lieep the army on a war footing seemed to necessitate cutting down the budget in other directions; hence an effort was made to close sev- eral of the universities^ where there were but few students, and to bring those students to the largo university centers, such as iJ^aples, Turin, or Eome. In 1892-93 the Government eliminated from the budget the subsidies accorded to the free universities of Cameriuo, Ferrara, Urbiuo, and Perugia. The students at once revolted ,• local pride and tradition were touched; great opposition was developed, and every effort that has been made so far to change existing conditions in the universities has met with similar opi)osition. There were so few students at Macerata (264), Cagliari (201), Modena (381), Parma (385), Sassari (157), and Siena (229) that the Government's desire to supi:)ress them seems but natural, if it is considered that the intellectual and financial benefits accruing to the i)ublic are not sufficient to warrant their continuance. However, the strong objections raised in those university centers led to a lowering of the subsidies for all universities that year (1892-93). Cadorna, December 16j 1848, to jvlarcli 27, 1849; Christoforo Mameli, March 27, 1849, to NoTemljer 10, 1850; Pietro Gioia, November 10, 1850, to October 20, 1851; Lnigi Carlo Farini, October 21, 1851, to May 21, 1852; Carlo Bon-Compagni cTi Mom- bello, May 21-November 4, 1852; Luigi Cibrario, November 4, 1852, to May 31, 1855; Giovanni Lanza, May 31, 1855, to October 18, 1858; Carlo Cadorna, October 18, 1858, to Jnly 19, 1859; Gabrio Casati, July 24, 1859, to January 15, 1860; Terenzio Maniani della Eovere, January 20, 1860, to Marcb 22, 18G1; Francesco De Sanctis, March 22, 1861, to March 3, 1862; Pasquale Stanislao Mancini, March 3-31, 1862; Carlo Mat- teuci, March 31-December 7, 1862; Michele Amari, December 7, 1862, to September 23, 1864; Giuseppe Natoli, September 23, 1864, to December 31, 1865; Domenico Berti, December 31, 1865, to February 17, 1867; Cesare Correuti, February 17- April 10, 1867; Michele Coppiuo, April 10-October 27, 1867; Emilio Broglio, October 27, 1867, to May 13, 1869; Angelo Bargoni, May 13-December, 1869; Cesare Correnti, Decem- ber 14, 1869, to May 18, 1872; Quintiuo Sella, May 18-August 5, 1872; Antonio Scioloja, August 5, 1872, to July 10, 1873; Antonio Scioloja, July 10, 1873, to Febru- ary G, 1873; Girolamo Cantelli, February 7-September 6, 1874; Euggiero Bonghi, September 27, 1874, to March 24, 1876; Michele Coppiuo, March 25, 1876, to March 24, 1878; Francesco Do Sanctis, March 24-December 19, 1878; Michele Coppino, December 19, 1878, to July 13, 1879 ; Francesco Paolo Perez, July 14-November 24, 1879; Francesco De Sanctis, November 25, 1879, to January 1, 1881; Guido Baccelli, January 2, 1881, to March 29, 1884 ; Michele Coppino, March 30, 1884, to February 16, 1888; Paolo Boselli, Febrnary 17, 1888, to February 8, 1891; Pasquale Villari, appointed February 9, 1891; Signer Martini, appointed May 15, 1892; Signer Gallo, appointed December 3, 1893; Guido Baccelli, appointed December 13, 1893. 1 According to Signor Martini, the universities arc too numerous; there is defi- ciency in scientific appliances, and too great povcrtj' of endoAvment. The possible remedies include restrictions in right of conferring degTees, greater autonomy in the management of each university, and the suppression of a certain number. (Nuova Antologia, March 15, 1894.) 568 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Viiivcrsilics. Boloffna Cagliara Catania Genoa. . Messina Motion a Naples . Padua. . Palermo Previous In 1892-93. Lire. Lire. 114,415 108, 303 2:!, 942 22, 347 C4, 854 62, 164 93, 562 80, 405 36, 300 34, 470 50, 290 47, 961 165, 100 157, 474 134, 983 127, 256 142, 375 136, 137 Universities. Parma Pavia Pisa Eomo Sassari Siena Turin Total Previous years. Lire. 54, 523 82, 100 100,810 194, 453 21, 700 55, 806 120, 800 al, 456, 014 In 1892-93. Lire. 51, 700 77, 490 94, 299 185, 203 20, 430 53, 337 114, 020 al, 382, 000 a Or, ill dollars, $281,010; $260,706; $14,364 decrease. There are doubtless other economies iii the budget outside of those for universities. The programme of studies in the Italian universities ranks with that of prominent universities of Europe and, as is stated by Professor Oldrini, "in several branches, such as legal jurisprudence and moral and economic social sciences, Italy holds a prominent place among them." The programmes of the universities and those of the special and suiierior institutes newly created within the last twenty years have been thoroughly modified according to the requirements of modern ideas and the advancement of sciences, literature, and arts. Among other things " sociology is taught in 10 universities and in several autonomous academies, and scientific pathological sociology forms a basis of treatment for the criminal.''' In 1891-92 the minister of public instruction, Signor Pasquale Vil- l;iri, introduced a bill in the Chamber of Deputies modifying the organization of provincial school administration and another bill reor- ganizing the higher council of education. According to these bills, the "provveditore" and the school council of each province are to have only the elementary schools under their charge, while a new officer, "provveditore dell' istruzione secondaria,"is to have charge of secondary education in the province. These officials are to reside in the cities of Turin, Milan, Padua, Bologna, Florence, Eome, Kaples, Bari, Palermo, and Cagliari. Each of these provveditore is to be assisted by a council for secondary education. The bill relative to the higher council of education reduces the number of its members from 3G to 21, who are to be appointed for six years, 4 of them going out each year, and thej^ will only be eligible for reelection after a year's interval. Of the 1 members to be appointed each year, 2 are to be chosen by the minister and 2 others in turn designated (to the ministers) by the faculties of higher studies. It is somewhat doubtful whether these bills became laws, as Minister Villari was succeeded by Minister Martini in 1892 (May 15). Signor Yillari's successor submitted an elaborate and interesting pro- gramme of reforms in the educational organization of the Kingdom. He first proposed to establish a "scuola unica di cultara generale," to follow after an elementary school course of five years' duration. This institution is to combine some characteristics of the lower classes in the present "ginnasio" with studies in similar classes of technical schools. EDUCATION IN ITALY. 569 A tliree-years course is to serve as a preparatory course for practical life and for higher schools. The communes were expected to establish aud ill part maintain this "scuola unica," but, as with other schools, a State subsidy is desired. The course is to be somewhat elective, so that students may pursue the studies most suited to their needs. The statement has been made that in the reorganization of public school education the elementary has been sacrificed to that of second- ary instruction. One of the Italian deputies, Signor Gallo, considered that individuals are mistaken who yield to secondary education the same eHicacy as a means of educating the people as to elementary education. He also advocates a '' school complementary to the elemen- tary,'' where the i^upils may be prei)ared for life's duties and for the defense of the country. The reform movements tend, as different authorities indicate, to modify the traditional rigidity of Italian sec- ondary education and to introduce a more elastic and modern regime rather than to overturn the whole edifice. The figures indicate that the number of pupils in secondary schools has more than doubled within the last twenty years, and more progress is perceptible in these than in the elementary grades. Hence the greater effort to bring about reform movements in the elementary grades by the appointment of commissions to investigate their needs, for it is stated that the methods now employed in elementary grades tend toward "the arid process of mental exercises to the detriment of the development of the reasoning power and of the moral aims of education." In secondary school matters the discussions are, as in other countries, whether classical or a more practical education is necessary. The former acts as a discip- linary power, giving more intellectual force; the latter gives greater mastery over the material world and forms a stronger backbone to the nation. Signor Oavalotti, deputy, urges the doing away with the present cum- bersome school organization, the numerous officials, the surplus univer- sities, and that in place of so many '^ half- starved savants encumbering the social plane" there be established "practical training schools for citizens who will be of value to the nation." The commission appointed to revise the programmes of elementary studies presented the result of their labors to the minister of public instruction on November 22, 1894. The general regulations of the year 1888 were adhered to, but there were special recommendations concerning education and discipline in general. Complaint was made all over Italy of too many studies, and of those unsuited to the age of the child, and of too many daily exercises. The effort of the com- mission was to bring the studies, which are to be fewer in number, within the scope of the child's mind, and to reduce the number of hours a day in the classes. The subjects of study required for exami- nation are Italian (in which the child must give clear expression to his thoughts), penmanship, geography, arithmetic (the common rules), and 570 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. history (local and general of Italy of past and present periods), and tlie duties of citizensliij). There are exercises in gymnastics, singing, and needlework, but discretionary powers are given to the teachers. Morals are taught by example rather than by any set lessons to the pupils. The higher problems of arithmetic are relegated to the sec- ondary schools. The programme covers the years to 10, and if still further elementary instruction is needed there are the Sunday and holiday schools. As an indication of the methods of study and recitations required in the elementary grades, the code of education is cited in x)art. Reforms now tend toward more simple methods : Frclimhiary i)isiniction. — In the elementary schools arithmetic must be tanght in a manner altogether practical. Let the master abstain from giving demonstrations ■which would, not be understood at that tender age. Let him limit himself to impressing well on the minds of the j)upils the definitions and the working of the "four rules," and to seo that they are worked expeditiously and without hesitation. When the teacher proposes concrete problems the questions proposed must bo most simple, so that the pujiils may readily perceive the counection between the requirements of the problem and the particular oiierations required for its solution. To teach what little is requisite of the notation of vulgar fractions let the teacher begin by exiilainiug with precision the meaning of the fractions I, ^, J, A, etc., and let him subsequently cause the jiupils to construct tables of the multiples of these fractions. From such tables will naturally follow the notions of proper and improper frac- tions, aud of mixed numbers, the idea of composite numbers, and the rule for converting an improper fraction into a mixed number, and vice versa. In teaching the rule of three let the teacher's principal aim be to communicate to his pxxpils a sure criterion for distinguishing the cases to which this rule applies. First year. — Mental exercise in addition and subtraction. Reading and writing of Arabic figures. Second year. — Numeration and notation of numbers with several digits. Addition and subtraction of integers. Multiplication by integers. Third year. — Division of integers. The four rules with decimals. Definition and free-hand drawing of the most important geometrical figures. The metric system. Solution of simple problems with concrete numbers. Fourth year. — Meaning of a fraction. Proper and improper fractions and mixed numbers. luterconversion of fractions. Reduction of an iraprojier fraction to a mixed number, and vice versa. Conversion of a vulgar fraction to a decimal. Rule of three by unitary method. Applications. A. — FIRST CLASS (LOWER SECTION). Italian lanynagc. — Graduated exercises in formation of syllables, analyzing words selected for that x^urposc aud exj)lained. Formation of letters, sj^llables, and words by imitation. Writing from dictation words of simple syllables. Graduated lessons . in reading and in correct pronunciation. Exiilanation of words and sentences read. Writing froui copy or dictation. Orthography. — Memory exercises. B. — SECOND CLASS. Italian language. — Reading with ease and intelligence, with explanation of the matter read. Dictation and orthography. Graduated exercises in calligraphy. Farts of apeecli. — Conjugation of auxiliary verbs aud of regular verbs by means of EDUCATION IN ITALY. 571 aeuteuces carefully selected to inculcate moral trutlis and to illustrate rules of grammar. Elementary knowledge of analysis. Short and easy composition by imitation exercises on the nomenclature of objects in daily use. C. — THIKI) CLASS. Ilalian language. — Reading, witb explanation of the matter read. Declension of nouns and adjectives. Conjugation of irregular and defective Aerbs. Use of the parts of speech and oral exercises in grammatical analysis. Periods and punctua- tion. Graduated exercises of composition. Short tales, easy descriptions, letters. Exercises in nomenclature of objects in domestic use, of trades and arts. Prorjressive exercises in caUigrapliy . — Memory exercises. D. — FOURTH CLASS. Italian language.— Hesaling, with explanation of the matter read. Usual grammar and exercises. Composition. Tales from the history of Italy, fables, descriptions, letters on various subjects. Nomenclature of objects in domestic use, of trades and arts. Frogressive exercises in caUigraplig.—'^lemovy exercises. In the teaching of geography attention is called to geography of the lirst three classes in the gymnasium. This study must be directed to a double purpose: First, to give to the students (and especially those who Avill not attend the higher classes) an elementary but complete knowledge of the earth, and particularly of Italy; and, secondly, to bo auxiliary to the study of history. That the knowledge of the earth may be, albeit elementary, yet complete, it must comprise mathematical, astronomical, physical, and political geography. But in all this, having regard to the nature of the science and to the tender age of the pupils, it is' necessary that the professor should proceed Avith foresight in the selection of the matter to be taught, dwelling on principles, and illustrating them in such a manner as to render them clear t-o the intelligence of the students, taking care, hov.-ever, that the popular explanations and illustrations which he makes use of do not militate against scientilic explanations ; and further, that ho should not sub- stitute some mere practical process for one thoroughly scientific, since frequently it is the case that, to understand or remember a fact better, it seems advantageous to communicate extrinsic facts, rather than to thoroughly investigate their intrinsic nature and their correlation to each other. This premised, the study of geography is divided as follows: First c?ass.— General notions of astronomical, topographical, physical, and political geography. Detailed geography of Italy. Second c7ass.— -Geography of the Old World. Third c?ass.— Geography of America and Australia. Systeuiatic recapitulation. That the teaching may bo easy, efficacious, and most fruitful it must bo given viva voce, with no other help but the artificial globe and maps. The student should imprint on his mind the form of the earth, her parts, and principal subdivisions and phenomena (accident!), and the political arrangement in outline. The reading o( the programmes for the higher schools of the King- dom suggest, among other things, the advantage which teachers in Italian schools enjoy with regard to the teaching of history. In no other country ^ can the course of universal history be so easily and naturally combined with the history of the nation, while the distinction 1 We quote from a writer in the Loudon Journal of Education, April 1, 1891. 572 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. between aiicieut and modern is to a great extent obliterated by the continuity of Eome. The history programme for the higher schools marks oft iive periods: (1) Greek history; (2) Eoman history, from the origin of Eome to the fall of the Western Empire; (3) history of Europe, with si^ecial reference to Italy, from the fall of the Western Emxjire to the discovery of America; (4) from the discovery of America to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; (5) from the treaty of Aix-la-Chai)elle to the death of Victor Emmanuel. In Italy also the question of gymnastics lias attracted much atten- tion, and a commission has lately i^resented its report ou the princi];)les to be followed in teaching them, or, rather, in training masters and mistresses to teach them, in the normal schools of gymnastics which are already established at Eome, Naples, and Turin. The report i^ro- nounces for a combination of gymnastics with apparatus, and natural gymnastics, i. e., athletics and games. The programme for the training of teachers includes such instruction in anatomy and physiology as is necessary for mastering the theory of the subject. Practical gymnastics are to include various athletic exercises and games, swimming (for both sexes), and single-stick and some sword exercises (for boys). According to the report in regard to "Educazione fisica nelle scuole," j)ublished in the Bollettino UfQciale delFTstruzione x>ubblica, November 80, 1893, the commission for the study of physical training desires to formulate regulations which will tend to form healthy and robust men as useful citizens and prepared to defend the country in moments of peril. Stress is laid upon the care that teachers should have in regard to the use of apparatus unsuited to youths under 14 years of age, and special care must be taken in these exercises as to tlie overuse of gym- nastics by girls of any age. Teachers are to be thoroughly trained in the use and abuse of gymnastics, or there can iiever be a rational application of such exercivses. Buildings or rooms should be large and well ventilated, to be useful for purjioses of physical training. The president of the commission, Signor F. Todaro, suggests that a perma- nent commission be appointed for the study and supervision of physical training, and that the numerous Italian gymnastic societies (more than 100) be encouraged to form a sort of federation, to place their courses before the minister of public instruction, to join with the commission in developing the best methods for i^hysical culture, and that subsidies be granted to promote the extension of physical tra-ining. He hopes that playgrounds may be established, athletic games encouraged, row- ing, climbing mountains, riding, and in fact that everything pertaining to the development of the body may be encouraged by the authorities. The commission does not suggest the introduction of military training into the schools, but limits itself to such training as would naturally come under the heading of gymnastics or physical training, so as to strengthen the body, accustom the youth to endure fatigue, expand the chest, make the body obedient to his will; all this will act as a disci- EDUCATION IN ITALY. 573 plinary force aud aid in making good soldiers wlien tlie time comes for entering tlie army. Tlie first national congress for the study of the subject of manual training was held in Ripatrausone in Sei^tember, 1889, and that city (in. the Picine territory, 30 or 40 miles south of Ancona) is now recognized as the center for the diffusion of manual training throughout Italy, as the school established there is a summer normal school for manual training. The gradual ingrafting of this phase of education ux)on the school system of Italy may be best understood by extracts from a letter of Professor Paroli to the teachers of Italy, which appeared as the pre- face to "Priucipi Fondamentali del Lavoro Manualo Educativo" (the Italian edition of Otto Salomon's lectures on manual training). First it may be stated that in 1887 the Italian Government sent IG male teachers to XiiJis, in Sweden, to study in the summer manual training course there, and the result of their study was to interest prominent men of Italy in the subject of sloyd. Professor Paroli says : In our own country tlio work of Ilerr Salomon lias found many imitators, who liavo been more courngeons and intelligent than fortunate. Professor Tegon at Eome, the coadjutor of Pastorello, Borgna at Turin, Frascara at Genoa, Professor Pasquali at Brescia and Assizi, Professor Consorti, at first with Sutto and Pastorcllo, afterwards with Pasquali at Ripatransone, have started experiments Avhich, when completed, will be attended with good results. But some maintain that these experi- ments have not yet produced the truo manual scholastic work — i. e., the work that might bo taught in our elementary schools with brilliant results, judged from the didactic, educational, aud hj^gienic point of view. I do not attempt to iironounce judgment, the more so becauso I have not been able to compare with my own eyes the results of the various experiments that I have mentioned above. But from what I have been able to see and from what has been told mo I believe that in each of these attcm]its there has been a satisfactory harvest of practical results. The minister of public instruction has therefore decided to give a certain stimulus to fresh efforts, by arranging for a number of teachers from tho royal normal schools to go and attend the autumn courses held at llipatransono, which has now become the center of tho movement for tho diffusion of manual instruction in our country. Wo may therefore expect that tho experiment will continue, being sure that when these new masters know how to give manual instruction according to precise rules, it will, without further delay, form part of tho curriculum of our elementary schools, which will then, and then only, have acquired tho character of national schools, or schools for the people. During tho last few years, too, a new branch of scholastic literature has been started amongst us — that which treats especially of manual instruction. In this branch the publications of Gabelli, Villari, and Latino cer- tainly occupy the first place, but the accounts that Professors Pick, Tegon, Gabrielli, Borgna, and others have published on the work of tho Italian commission are also worth perusal. And worthj' of mention, too, arc the works of Professors Goldfarelli, Pastorcllo, Pasquali, and others on the important subject of educational work. A monthly journal, II Lavoro J,Ianuale, has been published for some time at Milan, but the efforts of its manager and editor have not met, amongst the Italian scholastic public, with the favor they have deserved — an evident sign that the subject is for tho most part premature. I do not venture to ask myself Avhat reception tho scholastic jiublic will give the work of Herr Salomon. I conjecture that it will at least be discussed and that from 574 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. tliis disciission the champions of manual ■work, who are not Trauting even in Italy, if they take advantago of it TTill come out strengthened and ■n'ill see an increase of tlieir forces, -which at present, however courageous they may he, are scanty in numbers. *' « * i The present minister of i)u'blic instruction, Comm. Guido Baccelli, is so mucli interested in manual training as an educative force that lie has ofifered prizes to those teachers who introduce it into their schools and has made it an obligatory study in the i)ractice department of the normal .schools. Detailed statistics are to be required at close of the year. Two hours a week must be devoted to this study. The normal course^ at Ripatrausone opens on August 28 and closes on September 27. The regular programme includes (a) Froebelian exercise and exer- cises preparatory to feminine handiwork ; (&) complete course in card- board work as applied to elementary geometry; (c) course in potters' clay work; {d) zinc and iron work; (e) work in wood. In 1893 there were 34 men and 34 women teachers frequenting the course. Several of these teachers received Government subsidies to aid them in the study of manual training, but 7 men and 27 women teachers paid their own exiDcnses rather than not to have the training. The men devote forty- five hours a week to manual-training work (twelve for wood, twelve for iron, twelve for paper, and nine for clay work); the womeu forty-two hours a week (twelve for Froebel exercises, twelve for feminine handi- work, nine for geometic work in cardboard, and nine for clay work). Examinations are held on September 23 and 24, and on September 25 and 2G there is a public exhibition of the objects comjoleted in the course; these number from 100 to 120 for each man teacher, and from 120 to 150 for each woman teacher. Representations of the success of this work are made by the director to the minister of i^ublic instruc- tion. The director requests continued subsidies to teachers, and also to district inspectors, so that they may interest themselves in having manual training introduced into the elementary schools of their dis- tricts. He also suggests the beginning of a library for manual-training literature. Several times within the last ten or fifteen years projects have been formed combining Italian teachers in some sort of general association. To promote this end a congress was summoned to meet at Milan on the 3d of September, 1894. The meeting, presided over by Professor Rho, of Turin, was attended by about 500 men and women teachers. It was decided that complete organization could only be obtained by means of district federation, and a vote was passed in favor of the immediate formation of Lombardian Federation. A committee of G was nomi- nated to draft a constitution of a great national federation of all teachers to be presented at the next Italian teachers' association. Later developments will be watched with interest. ' From J. S. Thornton in London Journal of Education of August 1, 1894, pp. 431-433. ^Bollettino Ufficialo del Ministro dell' Istruzioue Puhhlica, February 1, 1893. EDUCATION IN ITALY. 575 A decree of Minister Baccelli, dated September 5, 189d, in favor of pedagogical conferences, ordered tlie holding of ten-day sessions — Sep- tember 20 to 30 — in tbe cities of Bari, Bologna, Brescia, Cagliari, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Tnrin, and Venice. All teachers and ofiBLcials connected with elementary edncation were expected to be present at the discussions to be held publicly. Aca- demic discourses are not to be held, but opportunities are to be given to the majority of those xiresent to enter upon a discussion of questions of general educational interest. A congress (the third) of "Eicreatori" was held in Genoa in 1894, which body has for its object the study of the best means of amelio- rating the condition of the masses, the " Kicreatori" to be an ally of the school, and to form a link between the home and school. A congress of educators was held in Eome, September 21 to 23, 1895, the day after the anniversary of the entrance of the troops into Home. The resolutions adopted were that ''the elementary schools be made dependent on the State; that obligatory instruction be extended to 12 years of age, and that the instruction include the whole elementary school programme; that all children of public and private schools be obliged to pass a i)ublic examination ; that the law regarding children at work in factories be carried out, as far as it appertains to obligatory instruction, under penalty of fines imposed on employers; that a continuation school be established either for Sundays or eveniugs to prepare young people for civil life who have passed the obligatory school age, and that they be obliged to remain in it until the twentieth year of age; that instruction have a scientific basis and be given according to natural methods; that in religion the schools be absolutely neutral; that patriotism be incul- cated; that the school programme be so reformed as to make the teaching of history a central i)oint toward civic education; that the hours of study be made uniform in all schools; that people's libraries be established everywhere, so that there may be an extension of the study of national history and other useful knowledge; that the moral and material conditions of teachers be ameliorated, and the minimum of salary be 1,200 francs ($232); that no difference be made in salary given to teachers of upper or lower classes between men and women." In the early x^art of 1895 an international congress for children was to be held in riorence. The questions to be discussed were the advance- ment of the physical, moral, and mental condition of children, the care of deaf, dumb, and blind children until they are old enough to enter an institution, the care of poor, abandoned children, and the establishment of children's hospitals. 576 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 SCIENTIFIC AND PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS. In December, 1891, Mr. Augustus O. Bourn, cousul-geueral of the Uiiited States to Italy, furuislied this office with a list of academies, scientific institutions, libraries, etc., \vitliin the consular district of Rome. This list is as follows: Title. Accadeniia Eeale tlei Lincei (scientific ami literary). Accaclemia Kealo di Mcdicijia di Roma (scientific). Accademia degli Arcadi (literary) . Location. Home . do Accadeniia Tiberina (literary) Accaderaia dei Nuovi Liucci (scientitic and literary). Accademia di.Francia (fine arts) As.sociazioEo Medica Italiana (medical) - . . Associazione i'armacentica Nazionalo (pbariuacentical). Associazione Nazionalc di Medici Comu- iiali (medical). Collegio Cbimico-Farmaceutico di Eoma (chemical and pharmaceutical). Comitato Medico Romano (medical) Associazione Kazionale dei "Kagionieri Italiani" (auditors). Collegio dei "Ragionicri " (anditors) Societal degli Ingegneri ed Architetti Italiani (engineering and architecture). Societ:\ Italiani di Mediciua Interna (medical). Societa Italiana di Chirnrgia (surgical) . . Socicti\ Italiana di Dermatologia e Sitilo- grafla (medical). Society Fouografica Italiana (phono- graphical). Societri Stenografica Centrale Italiana (stenographical). Societal Lancisiana degli Ospedali di Eoma (medical). Istituto Storico Italiauo (historical) Realo Societ;\ Eomana di Storia Patria (historical) . Eealo SocietiY Didascalica Italiana (didac- tical). Associazione fra gl' Inseguanti primari d' Italia (educational). Societ<\ per la Istruzione Seieatifico-let- terario o Morale della Donna (edixca- tional). Societ.T, Litteraria dei Cattolici Todeschi (literary). Accadeniia Iiigleso di Belle Arti (fine arts) . Accademia Belga (fine arts) Accademia di Spagna di Eello Arti (fine arts). Inaigne Accademia Eomana di Belle A rti denominata di San Luca (fine arts). Eegia Accademia di Santa Cecilia (musi- cal). Eeal Accademia Filarmonica. Eoma (mu- sical). Societ.a Orchestrate Eomana (musical) . . . Societ.'i del Qniiitetto (musical) , Collegio e Scuola (rrogoriaua (musical) ....do -do -do -do .. -do .. -do .. -do .do .do .do -do -do .do -do -do .do -do .do .do -do -do .do .do .do , -do .do. .do .do -do.... .do .... -do .... .do.... .do.... Ho^- supported or patronized. By the GoTcrnment to the extent of "100,000 lire («) per year. By its own endowment, with additional annual subsidies of 2,000 lire from the municipality, and 5,500 lire from the Government. By its own endowments and patronage of the Pope. Do. Do. By the French Government. Entirely by contributions of its membera. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. By the contributions of its members, and an additional annual subsidy of 500 lire by tlie municipality. Entirelj- by contributions of members. By the Government to the extent of 10,000 lire annually, and by contributions of members. By its endowments, and a subsidy of 2,000 lire annually from the Government. Do. Entirely by the con tribu tions of members. Do. By its own endowments and contributions of its members. By the British Government. By the Belgian Government. By the Spanish Government. By its own endowments. With annual Government subsidy of 40,000 lire, v.'itli annual subsidies of 30,000 from the municipality and 5,000 from the province. Partly by endowments and partly by con- tributions of members. Entirely by contributions of membera and proceeds of its concerts. Do. By its endowments and tuition paid by "students. a The lira is 19.3 cents in value. EDUCATION IN ITALY. 577 Title. Consregazioni Artist ica dei Virtuosi al Pantheon (musical). Studio Pabbrica di Mosaici (mosaics) Studio Fabbrica di Arazzi (tapestry) liegio Islituto di Eelle Arti iu Koma (iine arts). Kegia Calcografla (engraying) Accademia Pontificia di Archeologia (ar- cheology). Societti itomana d' lucoraggiamento per gli Artisti (line arts). Associaziouo Artistica luternazionale (fine arts). Socioti\ degli Amatori o cultori di Belle Arti (fine arts). Societii degli Acquarellisti (fine arts) Associaziono degli Amatori di JTotograiia in lloma (photographical). Socict;i Musicale llomana (musical) Societii Itali.ana delle Scieuze dctto dei xl (scientific). Societii Geologiea Italiana (geological)... Comitato Geologico d' Italia (geological).. Societii Gcogralica Italiana (geographi- cal). Location. Homo . ....do. Societii Arclicologica Anglo-Americana (arclieological). Imperiale Istituto Archeologico Germa- r.ico (arclieological). l5cole I'raucaise deliome (archeological).. Associaziouo della Starapa Periodica iu Italia (press association). Regia Universita di Koma TJniversitii Israelitica di Roma. Regia TJniversitii di Cagliari. . . Regia TJniversitii di Sassari. . . Regia TJniversitii di Macerata. TJniversitii di Perugia TJniversitii di TJrbino . TJnivcr.sitii di Camerino Regia Istituto di Marina Mercantile. Regio Istituto Tecnico. Regio Istituto Tocnico. Regio Istituto di Marina Mercantile. Regia Scuola Normale Regia Scuola IS'ormale Regia Scuola Normalo Regia Scuola Normale Regia Scuola Normale Regia Scuola di Applicazione per gl' In- generi. Regio Liceo Ginnasio TJmbertoI Regio Liceo Ginnasio Ferenzio Mamiaui. Regio Liceo e Ginnasio Quirino Visconti. Regio Istituto Tecnico Leonardo da Vinci Regio Istituto Snperioro di Magistcro Femminilo. Istituto Araldico Istituto Marchi d' Istruzionc cou convitto. Collegio di Santa Maria , ED 95- -19 -do. .do. .do, -do. .do , -do , -do .do , .do .do .do , .do, -do , .do , .do -do .do .do .do do .. Cagliari Sassari .., Macerata Perugia. Tirbiuo . Camerino , Cagliari... Perugia. .. Camerino. Ancona . Ancona Pesaro Macerato Ascoli-Piceno. TJrbino Rome .do .do .do -do .do .do .do How supported or patronized. By its endoAYiucnts and tuition paid by students. Bj' its own endowments and jiatronageof the Pope. Do. By the Govcruiuent to the extent of 79,500 lire per year. By the Government to the extent of lG,uOO lire annually. By its endowments and patronage of the Pope. Entirely by the contributions of its mem- bers. Do. Do. Do. Do. By proceeds of its concerts and contri- butions of members. By its own endowments. Do. Do. By the Government, with 50,000 lire an- nually, and by contributions of mem- bers. Entirely by contributions of members. By the German Government. By the French Government. By the contributions of members. By the Government, with 1,0S5,09G lire annually. By endowments. By the Government, with 162,818 lire per year. By the Government, with 143,403 lire per year. By its own endowments and an annual Government subsidy of 25,811 lire per year. By its own endowments. By its own endowments and an annual Government subsidy of 1,723 lire per year. By its own endowments. By appropriations from the Government, varying from year to year. Do. Bv the municipality and the province to "the extent of 8,334 lire and 5,000 lire respectively. By appropriations from the Government, varying from year to year. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. By the Government to the e:;tcnt of 106,- 936 lire per year. By the Government, variable appropria- tions, and by the nmnicipalitj' 13,000 lire per annum. By the municipality, with 4,000 lire per annum, and variable appropriations from the Government. By appropriations from the Government, varying from j'oar to year. By the municipality, with 8,000 lire per annum, besides variable appropriations from the Government. By appropriations from the Government, varying I'rora year to year. By its own endowment. By the tuition of its students. By the tuition of its students and tho patronage of the Pope. 578 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Scuola Commercialo Femminile. Istituta ilassimo con convitto.. Istituto Ponteficio di Alta Letteratura . . . Istituto TecuicoF. S. DeMerode Liceo c Ginnasio di San Pietro in Vaticano Liceo Ginnasio del Seuiinario Ponteficio . . Istituto AngeloEomano Educandati diretto dalle Dame del S. C. . . Gould ilemorial Home. Scuola Preparatoria alle Arti Ornamentali Scuola Superioro reiuminile "Fua Fusi- nato." Kep;ia Souola Tecnica Femminile "Mari- anna Dionizi.'' Scuola Professionalo Communalo Fem- minile. Scuola Professionale Femminile " Teresa Chigi Torlonia." Collegio Convitto Provinciale Collcgio Convitto " Angelo Mai" Collegio Ghislieri Collegio Nazareno Ospizio Margherita di Savoia (profes- sional instruction). Ospizio di Termini (professional school) . . Ospizio di San Michele (professional schools). Societa Orticola Romana Societa Generale dei Titicultori Italiani. . Eesia Scuola Pratica di Agricoltura Biblioteca Alessandriua della Kegia Uni- versity. Biblioteca Angelica Biblioteca Barberina Biblioteca Casanatense . Biblioteca Cbigiana Biblioteca Corsiniana Biblioteca Frankliniana Biblioteca Lancisiana Biblioteca dell' Accademiadi Santa Cecilia Biblioteca Eomana-Santi Biblioteca Vallicelliana . Biblioteca Vaticana Biblioteca Vittorio Emannuele. Biblioteca del llinistero degli Atfari Esteri. Biblioteca del Ministero d" Agricoltura, Indnstria e Commercio. Biblioteca del Ministero di Grazia e Gius- tizia. Biblioteca del Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici. Biblioteca del Ministero delle Finanze Biblioteca del Ministero della Marina Biblioteca del Ministero della Guerra Biblioteca del Ministero dell' Interne Biblioteca delle Direzione Generale di Sta- tistica. Biblioteca dell' Universiti di Macerata. . . Biblioteca dell' Universita Israelitica Biblioteca dell' Universita di Cagliari . . . Biblioteca dell' Universita di Sassari Biblioteca dell' Universita di Perugia Biblioteca deir Universita di Urbino Biblioteca dell' Universita di Camerino . . , Location. Home . do .do .do .do -do .do .do .do -do .do -do -do .do -do .do .do -do .do -do .do -do -do .do -do .do .do -do .do -do -do .do -do -do .do .do -do , -do -do .do -do -do -do .do Macerata . Home Cagliari Sassari ... Perugia .. Urbino ... Camerino . How supported or patronized. By the municipality to the extent of 17,300 lire per annum. By the tuition of its students and the patronage of the Pope. Do. Do. Do. Do. By the tuition of the students. By the tuition of its students and patron- age of the Pope. By its own endowment and private con- tribvitions. By the m unicipality to the extent of 14, 600 lire per year. By the municipality to the extent of 33,840 lire per year. By its own endowment and partly by the tuition of students. By the municipality to the extent of 46,960 lire per year. By its own endowments, with an additional subsidy from the municipality of 11,100 lire per year. By the tuition of the student. Do. Do. Do. By its own endowment. By the raiinicipality to the extent of 295,000 lire per annum. By its own endowment. By the contributions of the members. Do. By the Comizio Agrario at Home. By the Government to the extent of 17,000 "lire i)er annum. By the Government to the extent of 5,400 lire per annum. By its own endowment. By the Government to the extent of 17,000 lire per annum. By the family whose name it bears. ' Do. By private contributions. By the Lancisiana Society. By the Accademia di Santa Cecilia, with "an additional subsidy from the Govern- ment of 1,500 lire per annum. By its own endowment, with additional subsidy of 4,900 lire from the munici- pality.' By its own endowments. By appropriations from the Pope, vary- ing from j-ear to year. By the Government to the extent of 100,000 lire per annum. By a yearly approiiriation of 6,000 lire from' the Government. By a yearly appropriation of 8,000 lire from' the Government. By the Government with 6, COO lire yearly. By the Government with 5,700 lire yearly. By the Government with 8,000 lire yearly. By the (lovernment with 7,000 lire yearly. By the Government with appropriations varying from year to year. By the Government with5, 000 lire yearly. By the Government with 2,000 lire yearly. By a part of the appropriation made to 'the university by tlie Government. By the university bearing the same name. By a part of the Government appropria- tion made to the university. Do. By the university. Do- Do. EDUCATION IN ITALY. 579 110^7 supported or patronized. Mnsro Capitolino e di Scultiira Museo Capitolino Etrusco Pinacoteca o Piotomoteca. Museo Lateranense Sacro o Profane Miiseo Vaticano Etrusco-Egizio Museo Artistico Industriale Museo d'Istruziono o di Edncazione. Museo IJuoncompagui-Liidovisi Museo Torlonia Museo Eorgliese Museo Kisclieriano Museo Preistorico-Etnografico Museo Borgiano Museo Nazionalo di Antichita Romane. Mnsco Copernicano ed Astronomico Museo dei Gessi Galleria Vaticana Galleria Capitolina Galleria Albani Galleria Barberini Galleria Borgheso Galleria Colonna Galleria Corsini Galleria Doria Galleria Lateranense Galleria di San Luca Galleria del Monte di Pietii Galleria Rospigliosi Galleria Tenerani Galleria Chigi Galleria Mattel Galleria del Quirinale Galleria Spada Galleria Torlonia. .- Galleria dell' Istitui o di Bello Arti Galleria e Museo dell' Univeraiti do Pe- rugia. Rome . do -do . -do , .do -do. -do . -do .do , .do , .do . .do . -do . .do .do. .do . -do. -do . .do . -do. .do. .do , .do . .do. .do , -do do .. do .. do .. do .. do .. do .- do .- Urbino . Perugia. By tbe municipality to tlie extent of 37,500 ' lire yearly. Bv admission fees. " Do. By a yearly appropriation of 10,000 lire from the municii)ality. By the University of ilomo. By the family wlioso name it bears. Do. Do. By its ovrn endowments. By a yearly appropriation of 7,500 lire from tho Government. By its own endowments. By a yearly appropriation of 20, 000 lire from the Government. By its own endowments. ^ Do. By admission fees. Do. By the family whoso name it bears. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. By admission fees. By the Accademia di San Luca. By its own endowments. By the family whose name it bears. Do. Do. Do. By its own endowments. By the family whoso name it bears. Do. By tho Istituto di Belle Arti. By the TJniversity of Perugia. mejiorable dates. The territory known to-day as Italy lias been subjected to the domi- nation of Spaiii, France, and Austria at different x)eriods of its history. Spanish rule x^redominated during the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies j Austrian at the beginning of the eighteenth; the French vic- tories changed the Government between 1797 and 1814; Austrian rule was reestablished in 1811. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians joined Piedmont; in 1859 the Austrians lost their hold, and tho Kingdom of Italy, comj)rising Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modcua, Parma, the Eomagna, Naples, and Sicil}^, was formed. In 1806 Venetia was ceded to Italy by Austria, and the kingdom was consummated, with Pome as it capital, in 1870. In the IMiddle Ages and during the Eenaissance Italy was the most brilliant center of literature and art in Europe. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, however, i)opular education — if one exceiits a few celebrated institutions — was not greatly develoi^ed. The minis- ters and princes of tho eighteenth century, animated with a spirit of reform, opened schools, notably the Emx^eror Joseph II, in Lombardy, by edict of 1780. During the period 1797-1814, when political affairs brought Italy and France more closely together, the obligation of main- taining elementary schools was imx)osed upon the communes of the Cisalpine Pepublic (1802) and the Kingdom of Naples. The fall of the 580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. Frencli Empire paralyzed educational efforts. Later, liberal ideas inspired the law of 1819 in the JSTeapolitan realm, tlie school regulations of 1818 in the Lombard- Yenetian Kingdom, the decree of 1822 in the Sardinian States, which required each commune to maintain a gratuit- ous elcmentai'y school. The most memorable dates from the educational standpoint are the following : 1729 aiid 1772. Establishment of famous royal constitutions by princes of tbo House of Savoy tlirougli wliicli tlie control of secondary education was taken away from tlie religions orders, and the Collegio dello Province, with one hundred free scholarshii^s, was established with the aim of preparing, in connection with the university, teachers qualified to give this instruction. Schools of methods were established to prej»are teachers for primary schools, and with the title of Magistrato della Riforma the germ of a well- organized council of public instruction aj>peared. 1786. Reorganization of rural schools in Lombardy, the decree stipulating for free schools for the poor. 1802. Sub-Alpine republics decreed that all communes shoiild establish elementary schools. 1808. Schools reorganized in jiarts of Italy under French domination. Academies established at Turin, Genoa, and Pisa as integral parts of the University of Franco. 1813. Reorganization of public instruction in Rome. 1818. New school law promulgated in the Lombardian- Venetian Kingdom wliich in 1822 became the code of education for that i^art of Italy. 1814. Establishment of "Asilid' Infancia" (infant schools) in Piedmont, wiiich were the beginning of the well-organized school system. 1847. (Decree of November 30.) Office of minister of public instruction created. 1849. Establishment of " Societa d'Istruzione e d'Educaziono " in Lombardy-Venetia, which has been of great assistance in the organization of the present public school system. 1859. Promulgation of the "Legge Casati,''or school law, named from the minister of public instruction at that date, which forms the basis of the present school system, as it provided that each commune should maintain an elementary school, that teachers should have certificates of capacity, that there be greater _ strictness in university examinations, etc. 18G7. Religious corporations abolished and their schools classed as private. Other modifications of law of 1859 made. 1877. Instruction made obligatory for children between G and 9 years of age. 1878. Gymnastics placed on school programmes. 1881. Legal enactments reorganizing higher council of education and making changes in school supervision. 1885 ami 1886. Legal enactments bearing upon teachers' salaries and teachers' licenses. 1887-1894. Reform movements in university education presented from year to year with intention of strengthening the larger university centers and abolishing others; commissions axjpointed to study subjects of physical education, text- books, reform in elementary school programmes, etc. The "licenza ele- mentare" was introduced in 1882, abrogated by Minister Villari in 1891, and reintroduced by Minister Baccelli in 1894. The minister of public instruction has revived his former scheme for bringing primary and secondary schools into relation with each other. Boys who have reached the fifth class of a primary school and can j)ass a qualifying examination receive a certificate which allows them to enter a secondary school without further difficulty. The 'Hieenza liceale" is to be conferred, from 1894 on, upon students of "ginnasi" and "licei"who have successfully passed the required exami- nations. EDUCATION IN ITALY. 58 L INDEX TO EDUCATIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT ITALY. The reports of the Commissioner of Educatioii, from the year 1870 oa. Annual Eeporta have contained information in regard to edncation in Italy, in of <^i"""«?ioner the earlier years it was very meager; of late years more complete. An index of the matter is here presented. Medical schools, course of study in (1 to 6 years) ; industrial schools in , 1870, pp. 390, 1868, statistics of. Main points of school law (4 lines); statistics of schools, 1861-18G8. iS7i,p. 473. Detailed statistical presentation for 1871-72 of all grades, with statis- 1872, pp. 40C, tics of special schools. Tabulated statistics of universities: statistics of elementary and sec- ,^^]?< PP- clxi- ondary education in 1872; evangelical school work; expendi- tures; illiteracy and penal institutions. Statistics for 1874 ; text witJi expenditure. I874,pp.cxxxvii- Students in Government and free universities in 1877; primary cdu- 1875, 187G (un- cation compulsory; other statistics. iSTV^'p^ dxvL ™' ' Tabulated statistics of universities in 1877-78; education again made 1878, pp.clxvii- compulsory by law of July 15, 1877; technical schools supported by Government communes, religious corporations, and private persons; general statistics. Italian educators sent abroad to study school systems of other couu- 1879, p. cxcvi. tries; education by religious orders, 16,000 priests and members of religious 6rders being engaged in teaching in Italian schools. Statement in tabulated form of illiteracy in 1861-1871, and of elcmen- ISSO, pp. coxv- tary schools and pupils from 1861-1879; of adult schools, female boarding schools, etc. This is prefaced by a statement regaixling the present constitution of Italy, the fundamental law of iiublic instruction, teachers' salaries, and the school bmlget. Bill (of November 12, 1881) introduced to enforce school attendance of issi, p. cclviii. persons 14 to 16 years of age. Statistics presented in tabulated form of schools, both private and 18 8 2-83, pp. public, for 1861-1881, with appropriations from 1871-1873, and a cc^^^-«cxxxiv. comparison made with other countries of Europe as to amounts approjiriated; references are made to school law of 1877, which made instruction obllgatorj^, and the number of communes carry- ing out the law are indicated. Presentation of statistics for 1881-82, in which it is shown that out of 1883-8 4, p. 1,735,185 pupils registered only 232,929 presented themselves for *^'^^''^"' examination, and only 166,185 passed satisfiictorily. Eeasons: Poor quality of teachers, poverty of iieoplo. Contents of circular of October, 1882, include examination from grade to grade, pupils graduating from third grade to attend evening school for a year, school inspectors to furnish annual list of children of school age to syndic, etc. Statistics for elementary schools are presented from official reports 1884-85, pp. for 1882-83, the second and higher schools for 1883-84. The length '-*^-'^''"*^*=^'="- of the course of study in most institutions is given. The expend- itures by State, provinces, and communes for elementary educa- tion are also presented. Illiteracy (in 1881) in different parts of Italy is also indicated. Statistics: School age; population; enrollment in elementary schools; 1885-86, pp. 72G- teachcrs; normal schools ; expenditures; university statistics. ' "' Statistics of educational periodicals : Number of volumes, date of issue, ]8SG-S7,pp. 978, how often published, price. Elementary statistics (as above) : i*^"'-^"^"^""^- Name and title of chief officer of education. Pr 582 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 1887-8 8, pp. Educational periodicals tabulated as above; statistics for 1884-85 of 1010,1014-1018. 1 J. 1 111 elementary and normal schools. 1888-89, Tol. I, Course of study in normal schools; popi^^ation and enrollment; eie- II, pp." 1-142-I4ii! meutary school statistics; religious instruction; school savings banks. First presentation of the school system, its general fea- tures ; memorable dates in history ; State and local sujjervision ; teachers, their salaries and appointment ; school management and organization ; museums and libraries ; statistical table. l889-90,_Vol. I, Statistics of enrollment: Ratio to population; per capita of population; 572; Vol.°li, pp. P'ly or free schools. Diagrams: Ratio to population under school ?SL ,^^il?',„i?^^~ influence; universities, their foundation, number of students in 1228, 1672, 1673. ' ' ' 1890-91. Provision for industrial education. Character of exhibits at Milan exhibition for education and hygienic appliances ; infor- mation appertaining to progress of education (one-half page); table of enrollment, expenditures, j^er capita of population and enrollment for 1888-89. 1890-91, Vol. I, The report for 1890-91 contains an essay on 'education in Italy by XXX 3C9-372!^453~ Prof. A. Oldrini, with supplementary matter by Signor Com- 4.54; Vol. II, p. mendatore Bodio, the director of the statistical bureau in Rome. These essays on education in Italy include information concerning illiteracy — courses, percentages : Kindergartens, primary education, progress of schools since enactment of law for compulsory education in 1877. Secondary education (ginnasi and licei, technical schools and institutes) : Rural, agricultural, industrial, and normal schools. Superior and special instruction : Universities, iirogrammes and pend- ing reforms, special schools and aca,demies, academic institutes. Fine arts; libraries; the press; budget of public instruction in 1889-90. Information supplementary to above : Illiteracy in 1891 by territorial subdivision; infant schools; elementary education in 1871-72, in 1881-82, and in 1891-92 ; normal schools ; secondary schools ; statistics for different years; education of women ; agricultural education; in- dustrial, professional, and commercial education. Sui)erior and special studies; academies of science and literature, fine arts, museums, antiquities, national monuments, libraries with statictics to 1890-91. Publications according to subject-matter. General provincial and municipal school administration. Maintenance and expenditure for educational institutions in 1889. Statistical i^resentatiou of youth below universities, in elementary, secondary, and higher schools, with percentages ; expenditures jier capita of pupils and poi>ulation. Legal education, with statistics of law schools. Growth of the kin- dergarten. An. Rep. 1891- Ko information from Italy. An Eep 1892- Expenditures; school attendance; Cavour's efforts; compulsory 93, pp. 548, 615, education ; instruction in agriculture; education of women; schools 618,619, 1187-88, . ,-,. • i xi .? .l t i • j. i. 4.- ..• 2076. for soldiers; music and the fine arts; medical requirements; statistics of education. An. Kep. 1893- Monograph on public instruction in Italy, by Prof. B. A. Hinsdale. 94, pp. 325-383. Topical outline: Unification of Italy; educational conditions in 1861 ; general political facts ; the Casati law and the administra- tion of public instruction; description and statistics of different grades of schools, from kindergarten to university and special schools; the school sujiply; teachers; financial status; public schools of Rome during twenty years; warfare against illiteracy; summary and conclusion. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 022 132 025 6