LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. il^ji.Lu iajn|ng]^t !f 0» Slielf..iLS^- UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS, BY ^MacLEOD. ^, Author of MacLeod Meproduction Stories, 3IacLeod Composition Outlines, Lessons on Common Minerals, etc. f>'^ C.OPYRJG mo 19,^. ^ NEW YORK : TEACHEK3 PUBLISHING COMPANY, 1891. INTRODUCTION. The aim of this book is, as the name implies, to give inform- ation about the familiar objects around us. The work is especially- prepared for the school-room. As a supplementary reader it may be placed in the hands of the pupil, and as a book of reference for the teacher in preparing oral lessons, it will be found appropriate and useful. The Author. Copyrighted by the Author, Jan. 1891. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE COTTON '. 7 Where Found — Appearance of Plant — Growth of Pods — Gathering the Cotton — The Cotton Gin —Getting Ready for the Factories — Manufacture of Cotton — Spinning-wheel — "The Jenny" — Spool- thread — The Weaving — Fabrics made of Cotton — Blackboard Outline. WOOL- 11 From What Source Obtained— The First Step— The Washing— The Shearing — Appearance of Fleece — The Sorting — The Wool- comber — Manufacture — Yarn and Worsted — The Cloth — Where Manufactured — Varieties of Cloth — The Llama — Cashmere Goat —The Alpaca — The Early History of Wool — Blackboard Outline. SILK 16 The Silk-worm — Method of Cultivation — The Cocoons — Destroying the Moths — Kinds of Silken Fabrics — Satin — Velvet — Gauze — Where Silk is Produced — Introduction of Worms into Europe — Method of Hatching Eggs — Different Ways of Heating Eggs- Blackboard Outline. FLAX 21 The Plant — Where Raised— How Cultivated — How the Flax is Pre- pared — Manufacture — How Linen is Used — Damask — Lawn — Linen Manufacture in Egypt— The Seeds — Blackboard Outline. LEATHER 25 Its Source — Preparation — Tanning the Hides— Varieties of Leather — Morocco Leather — Sheepskin — Kid — Materials for Writing — Vellum — Glue — Blackboard Outline. FUES 29 Source — Preparation of Skins — Uses of Fur — The Seal — The Beaver — The Sable— The Ermine— The Marten— The Otter- -The Muskrat — The Fox — Blackboard Outline. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. FEATHERS 34 Source — Useful Feathers — Eider Ducks — Eider Ducks in Iceland — Swans-dowu — Ornamental Feathers — The Ostrich — Marabout Feathers — Osprey and Egret— Bird of Paradise — Hat Decorations — Blackboard Outline. TEA 38 Appearance of Plant — How Cultivated — Varieties of Tea — Age of a Plantation — Preparation of the Leaves — Impurities in Tea — Consumption of Tea — Tea as a Drink — Effects of Tea Drinking -Tea Drinking iu China — Blackboard Outline. COFFEE 42 Growth — Cultivation — Preparation — Coffee Producing Countries — Adulteration of Coffee — Use of Coffee — Physical Effects of Coffee — Use of Leaves — Story about Coffee — Blackboard Outline. CHOCOLATE 46 The Cocoa Tree — The Fruit — Where Cocoa Grows — Cultivation — Preparation of Seeds — Chocolate as a Drink — Other Ways of Using Seeds — Blackboard Outline. RICE 49 Plant — Where Found — Preparation for Use — The Kernels — The Importance of Rice iu China and India — General Cultivation — Difficulties in Cultivation — Rice as an Article of Food — Black- board Outline. SALT 53 Where Found — How Obtained from Water — Salt-springs — Salt in the United States— Salt Mines — Preparation of Rock Salt — The Famous Mine of Poland — Uses of Salt — Religious Importance of Salt — Blackboard Outline. SUGAR 57 From What Obtained — Cultivation — Where Sugar Canes Grow — Procuring the Sugar — The Refining Process — Maple Sugar — Other Sources of Sugar —Molasses — Uses of Sugar — Effect on Health — Blackboard Outline. BREAD GRAINS 61 Wheat — Growth — Wheat iu America — Indian Corn — Oats — Barley — Rye — Blackboard Outline. CLOVES 65 The Tree — Cloves — Uses of Cloves — Oil of Cloves — Blackboard Outline. TABIiE OF CONTENTS. V PEPPER 68 The Plaut — Preparatiou — Uses — Effects of Pepper on the Health — Cayenne Pepper — Early use of Pepper — Blackboard Outline. WOOD 71 Source — The Oak — Walnut — Mahogany —Rose- woo J — Pine- Maple The Chestnut Tree — Ebony — Cedar — Fuel — Blackboard Outline. CORK 75 The Cork Tree — How Cork is Procured — How the Bark is Treated — Uses of Cork — Blackboard Outline. GLASS 78 Manufacture — Glass Blowing — Kinds of Glass — Eiiut Glass — Plate Glass — Annealing — Crown Glass — Bottle Glass — Enamel — His- tory of Glass — Importance of Glass — Discovery of Glass-making — Blackboard Outline. SPONGE 82 Origin — Appearance — From What Countries Obtained — Preparation for Use — Uses — Blackboard Outline. IVORY 85 From What Source — Appearance of Ivory — Use of Ivory — Early History of Ivory — Vegetable Ivory — Blackboard Outline. BRICKS 89 Manufacture — The Kilns — Color of Bricks — Terra Cotta — Early His- tory of Brick — Use — Blackboard Outline. INDIA RUBBER 93 Source — How Procured — Preparation for the Market — Qualities of Rubber — Uses of Caoutchouc — Waterproof Clothing — Mackin- toshes—Vulcanized Rubber — The Rubber Tree — Blackboard Outline. TOBACCO 97 Description of Plant — Cultivation — Where Raised — Preparation for the Market — Methods of Using — Wide-spread Use of Tobacco — Discovery by Spaniards — Effects of Using Tobacco — Cigarettes — No Decrease in Use — Blackboard Outline. PAPER 101 How Made — Varieties of Paper — Wall-paper — Pasteboard — Papier- mache — Ancient Methods of Paper Making — Chinese Paper — Uses of Paper — The First Paper Makers — Blackboard Outline, Wliere found. — The cotton plant is cultivated in almost all warm countries. It is found in the re- gion of the Mediterranean Sea, in Europe, China, India, South America and the West Indies, but that of the best quality is raised in the southern portions of the United States. Appearance of Plant,— The plant grows to various heights in the different countries, in our own country being from five to six feet high, occa- sionally reaching the height of nine or ten feet. The seeds are sown in the spring-time, in rows about five feet apart, and soon the small shoots appear above the ground. The leaves of the plant are dark green, and the flowers are large, and usually bright yellow. G-rOWth. of pods. — As each flower drops from the plant, a seed-pod takes its place. These pods are three-sided, and are about the size of a walnut. When ripe, these pods burst open, showing the cot- ton stored within. A field of cotton in this stage is remarkably beautiful, the dark, glossy leaves, and snowy balls of cotton forming a decided con- trast. Name coun- tries which pro- duce cotton. Where does best quality grow? What is usual height of plant? When and how are the seeds sown? What color are the leaves and flowers? What shape are the pods? Where is the cotton? How does it look? TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What is in the cotton? G-athering the Cotton- — Now commences the process of making these downy balls into useful articles for mankind. The pods are gathered, and the cotton taken out and spread out to dry in the What is done T-rnr i iir •, i c with the seeds? ^i^"- ^^ IS full of seeds, and before it can be ot any use, these must be removed. For many years this was done by hand, and was a very tiresome pro- What machine CeSS. is used for rpj^^ CottOIl G-ill— Now a machine is used, cleaning cotton? .... . , , „ called a cotton-gin, which was invented by a Con- necticut man, named Eli Whitney. The cotton is Who invented passed between revolving cylinders, which are cov- it? ered with sharp teeth. These teeth tear the seeds from the cotton, and leave it soft and smooth. Horse-power is used to work the machine and so Find out all |-j,-j^g .^,^(j strength are saved, you can about him. Getting ready for the factories.— The cotton is pressed into large bundles or bales, each weighing several hundred pounds, and these bales How is the are sent to the different factories to be made into the various cloths we use so commonly. ManufaCtnre of Cotton.— The manufactur- ing of raw cotton into cloth is now done entirely by Which is done machinery. The cotton is thoroughly cleaned, and first, spinning then is spun into long, fine threads. or weaving? ^^^^^ Spinning-wheol.— Formerly a spin- ning-wheel, such as may often be seen now in coun- try houses, was used, and in this way but 07ie . °^ 7^^ thread could be drawn out at a time. spinning done many years ago? More than a hundred years ago a machine was invented, by which eight threads could be pro- duced at the same time, atwas le rpj^g "Jenny." — The people, however, were afraid that tkis new machine, called the "jenny." cotton sent to the factories? TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 9 would deprive them of work, and they drove Har- How were the S^reaves, the inventor, from the town, and destroyed '"^^""^'O" '^"' f. , . T 1 • )» • the inventor his machme. Later on, the "jenny was miproved treated by the upon, and became very generally used. Continued people? improvements have made the machinery in use now< so perfect as to render the process of spinning very °^^ * names ot those easy and rapid. ^h^ improved Spool-thread. — When several of the fine the "jenny." threads are spun and twisted together, they form our strong sewing-cotton, and the manufacture of ^' '^ ^" f^. . . common use, spool-thread is of itself an important industry. that is made of Tlie "W"ea,ving. — The weaving follows the cotton? .spinning and threads are crossed and recrossed, and so woven into cloth. The threads which ex- ^^^^ follows tend the length of the cloth form the warp, and the ^^^ "'"^' threads crossing these threads from side to side what is warp? form the woof ox weft. As it leaves the loom, as the weaving machine is called, the cloth looks like the unbleached muslin, sold in the stores, and is used What is the for many purposes. Most of it is bleached or ,. '^'"S""^^" J ^ Y chine called? whitened and is of course, much nicer. Fabrics made of Cotton. — Various names Name kinds are given to the different goods made of cotton. °f '^'^^^ m^A& Gingham, cambric, muslin, and lawn, are familiar to all. Calico is printed with colored figures, and where was is named from the city of Calicut, in India, where calico first it was first made. made? Chintz is a kind of calico, heavy in texture, and „„ , ,. . ■' ' What delicate gay in coloring. ^ fabric is made of In contrast to this thick material, very delicate cotton? lace is also manufactured from cotton. In addition to these fabrics, there are many made f^ '^ .*^°\' ton often mixed of a mixture of cotton with silk or wool. .^^jtli? BLACKBOARD OUTLINE COTTON. 1. WHERE CULTIVATED ? 6. THE COTTON-GIN. 2. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. 7. THE SPINNING. 3. APPEARANCE OF PODS. 8. THE "JENNY." 4. GATHERING PODS. 9. THE WEAVING. 5. DRYING AND CLEANING 10. KINDS OF COTTON COTTON. CLOTH. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING COTTON. 1. A REAL COTTON BLOSSOM; IF NOT OBTAINABLE, THEN A PICTURE OF ONE (SHEPARD'S SCHOOL- ROOM STENCIL OF COTTON.) 2. MAPS OF HEMISPHERES — (STENCIL MAPS, WITH COTTON BELT INDICATED). 3. SPOOLS OF THREAD. 4. LOOSE PIECES OF COTTON. 5. SAMPLES OF GINGHAM, MUSLIN, LACE, Etc. From what source obtained.— The term woolis applied to the fleece of common sheep, such as are found in the mountainous regions of many- countries, also to the silky covering of the llama and alpaca, and the fine hair of the Cashmere goat. The llama and alpaca are natives of Peru, and the goat is found in the hilly portions of Thibet and Tartary. We will first consider the process of changing the covering of common sheep into a useful article of commerce. The first step. — The first thing to do, is to wash the sheep. In their wanderings over the hills, thorns and thistles, and quantities of dust gather in their fleece. The washing. — The sheep are driven into a shallow stream, on a warm day in June or July, and thoroughly washed, a process to which they strong- ly object. The sheep are then allowed to run around in a clean place until their fleece is dry. What is wool? Where is the llama found? Where is Thibet? Tar- tary? In what con- dition is the wool before washing? At what sea- son does the washing occur? How does the hair look? 12 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What are TllG sliearillg. — The fleece is then cut off with shears? large shears. Appearance of fleece. — When examined closely, it is found that this fleece is composed of hairs of different lengths, each hair somewhat curly, and having uneven edges. The irregularity of the edges of these fibres is one of the chief reasons why wool is such an important material of manu- Aretherouch ^ , rj^, ,.,^, , ... i • u ed'^es of the f^cture. 1 he little rougli projections which you fibres oi any Will find on wool fibres, if you examine them use? through a microscope, cause these fibres to attach themselves to each other very firmly. Th.e sorting. — The fleece is carefully sorted, Are the hairs the long hairs being separated from the short ones- all the same Hairs of various lengths are found on a single length? sheep. The fleece is then cleansed again, for the first washing is not sufficient to remove all im- purities. The "WOOl-COmber.— Next, to straighten the oware te j^^jj-g^ ^,^(j jg^y ^hej^i ^11 out in the same direction, ened? '^ ''1" i''ori comb is used, called a wool-comber. It has sharp pointed teeth. What two Mamifacture. — The wool fibres are then spun processes con- . i , , ^ • ^ r ^ • vert the raw and woven into cloth, the Same kind of machinery wool into cloth? being iised as in the manufacture of cotton cloth. Yarn and worsted— Some of the wool is Whatisyarn.^ not woveii, but after being spun into threads, Worsted? several threads are twisted to make j^/v/, which is used for making stockings. When the threads are twisted very firmly, wonted is made, from which so many beautiful fancy articles are fashioned. The cloth. — Woolen cloth as it conies from the loom is very soft and flexible. It is sometimes colored before being woven, but usually is dyed TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 13 after being- made into cloth. Woolen cloth is e.s- What .season pecially adapted for making^ clothing to be worn in ° ^ ^ ^^^^ , ^ -^ a ^ ^g wear woolen cold weather. clothing? Where mamifactured.— France and Eng- Where is land manufacture a large quantity of woolen cloth woolen cloth ever}^ year. '"^'^^ In the New England section of our own country are many mills which produce a very fine grade of goods. Varieties of cloth.— The cloth receives dif- ferent names, owing to slight differences in tex- ture or width. Broadcloth is a finely finished goods, very wide. What is It is used principally for gentlemen's clothing. roatcoti ^ ^ -^ *^ '^ Merino? Merino is made from the fleece of a species of Name some sheep of that name. Flannel is a heavy material garments al- used for blankets and underclothing. T^'^y' "'^''^ °f ^ flannel? Shoddy is a coarse goods used for rugs, carpets and rough cloth for overcoats. It is made of old woolen rags which are cleaned and softened by machinery, and spun and woven over again. Sometimes a little fresh wool is added to the old , , What use is Stock. , , ,, made of old Many of the beautiful table-covers and carpets woolen rags? we see, are made of old soiled woolen rags dis- carded as unfit for use. Felt is a thick cloth used for making hats and What is felt floor-covering. It is made of wool and hair mixed ^^^^ f^,? together, but not woven. Layers of wool and hair Is this goods are spread on top of each other, then dampened ^P^" °'" woven? and submitted to great pressure. The roupfh edees ^ow is it & fc> made? of the wool fibres, before spoken of, make this pro- cess possible, for the little projections interlace and Describe tl le llama? Where Peru? i s Where we ;e 14 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. take firm hold of each other, so that after the pressing it is impossible to separate the fibres. Th.e Llama. — This animal is somewhat like a camel in shape, only it has no hump. It is some- times called the Peruvian camel. Its hair is long and silky and is much used for fringes and orna- ments. The Cashmere Goat.— This goat is so called Indian shawls because its hair was first made into beautiful shawls first made? in the City of Cashmere, in India. They are now made also in some parts of France. The outer How does the . . , . .„ fleece of this hair of the animal is stiff and coarse, while under goat grow? this is a layer of fine silky fleece. The latter is used for the shawls. These shawls are elaborate in design and coloring, and are very expensive. What other The Alpaca. — This is a smaller animal than animal produces ,1 11 j u 1 1 j i. j .' , , the llama, and has a long neck and handsome material for . ° woolen cloth- head. Its wool is long and glossy. The material ing? Describe made of it bears the name, rt'//(7r(^, and retains the it- silky gloss, peculiar to the hair of the animal. I s woolen Eaplj historj of -wool.— The manufacture manufacture a of wool into cloth dates back to a very early period new industry? in the history of the world. From the Bible we learn of the flocks of sheep which constituted the chief wealth of the patriarchs of olden time. The nations lived? Hebrews, Greeks, Egyptians and Romans all used clothing woven of this material. Their garments were loose and flowing, and they were very par- How was a., , 1 r 11 ri Roman tor a ^icular about the fineness and beauty of the ma- made? terial of which i\\ey were made. Tell where each of these BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. WOOL. 1. WHAT IS IT? 7. MANUFACTUBE. 2. WASHING THE SHEEP. 8. YABN AND WOESTED. 3. SHEAKING THE SHEEP. 9. VAEIETIES OF CLOTH. 4. SORTING THE HAIRS. 10. THE LLAMA. 5. APPEARANCE OF FIBRES. 11. THE ALPACA. 6. COMBING THE WOOL. 12. THE CASHMERE GOAT. 13. WOOL IN ANCIENT TIMES. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING WOOL. 1. PICTURES OF SHEEP, ALPACA, LLAMA, AND CASHMERE GOAT. 2. SAMPLE OF FLEECE. 3. SAMPLES OF YARN AND WORSTED. 4. PIECES OF FLANNEL, MERINO, FELT, &c. 5. MAPS OF THE COUTRIES MENTIONED IN THIS ARTICLE. W^'- What insect TllS Silk-"WOriIL. — Silk IS obtained from small reduces silk? caterpillars about two inches long, and light colored. The leaves of the mulberry tree are the On what does principal food of these worms and they eat greedily of them. Method of cultivation. — The worms are How is the placed on shelves in a room which is kept at sum- cultivation of mer heat. The insects are then supplied with mul- berry leaves, of which they partake eagerly for several weeks. They grow very stupid and in- crease to double their original size. Th.e cocoons. — When the worms can eat no more, they commence spinning two silken threads from two compartments in their wonderful little bodies. They unite these threads by means of a gum, secreted in their mouths, and envelope them- selves in the silk until entirely hidden. The shelves are then covered with these balls of silk called cocoons. They are light colored, and the size of a pigeon's Q^%. Destroying the moths.— The silk cultiva- tor selects a number of perfect cocoons, and puts it feed? the worm con- ducted? How are the cocoons made? Describe their appear- ance? What is the TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. Xj them away as a supply for th.; next season. The What trans- moths in these cocoons are allowed to work a pas formation oc- , curs within the sage out. The other cocoons are heated m an oven .^ocoons? until the moths are dead, then the outer floss, which is coarse and rough is removed. The inner balls are ^°^ '^ ^^ thrown into hot water to loosen the silken threads, ^' ^!^° "^ from the co- which are then carefully unwound. The thread in coons? a single cocoon generally measures about six hun- dred yards. Occasionally one is found twelve _,, , , r 1 usual length of hundred yards long. The threads are so fine, that ^^^ thread? several cocoons are untwisted at the same time, and the threads wound on a reel. In this state the ^^^* '^ '"'"'^ silk? silk is called raw-silk. These threads go through the processes of spinning and weaving, that the What pro- cotton and woolen threads do, and finally we have cesses convert the beautiful silken textures so much used. .,, . silken mate- Kinds of silken-fabrics.— ^^'^^-^^--y^'^^' is rials? woven like plain cloth, and has a lustrous appear- ance. It varies in color and quality and is often named after the manufacturer or the city in which 1 it is made. • Satin is a very elegant material. The woof or cross-wise threads pass over several threads of the warp at a time. The fabric is then passed between °^ '^ . woven? heated iron rollers, which impart a smooth and glossy appearance. Velvet has a silky pile on its surface formed by short pieces of thread which are crowded together so closely that they stand up and hide the warp ^°^ ^^ , f. vet made? and wool. Gauze is a thin material, woven in a peculiar manner which gives firmness without thickness. It is used for making veils. What \% Besides these plain materials, there are some S^*^^^ iS TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. that are brocaded, or ornamented with figures and flowers. What is silk sometimes ^^'^ ^^ often mixed with wool, as in bombazine mixed with? and popHn. Where did Where silk is produced. (, ^ . The cultivation of silk-worms was first attempted hrst assume im- _ '^ portance? in China, and for a long time was not introduced in any other country. China still takes the lead in What coun- ■' -^ . . tries manu- silk manufacture, but it is now made in France, facture silk? Italy, Persia and India. The city of Lyons, in Where i r France, produces some of the richest silk fabrics in Lyons? the world. Introduction ofWorms into Europe.— How was the ^-i r , -n - i r r^\ ■ 4. ... The first silk-worms were taken from Lliina to silk-worm car- ried to Europe? Europe by two Persian monks. They had great difficulty in obtaining worms, for the Chinese were opposed to having any other nation cultivating them, and used every effort to keep their methods of making silk a secret. At last these monks succeeded in procuring a few W li G r c is Constantinoph ? ^ggs, which they hid in their clothing and carried to Constantinople, where they hatched them. What is Method of hatching eggs.— I have told necessary to yQ^ ^^^t out of every Collection of cocoons, a num- hatch the eggs . . . , ^ ^ of silk-worms? ^er of perfect ones are retained for future supply. The moths crawl out and lay quantities of tiny- eggs. The moths then die. Care must be taken that these eggs do not be- come heated which would cause them to hatch at Is it wise to once. The cultivator does not wish them to hatch hatch them at yj^^-j] ^j^g mulberry leaves are again plentiful. The any season? , , . , 1 ..1 in- 1 eggs are placed in glass bottles, and all air and heat excluded. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. £9 When it is desired to hatch them, heat is all that is necessary. Different "ways of heating eggs. — I" some countries the warmth of the sun is sufficient. ^^^^ °^ The usual method is to place the eggs in heated methods of heat rooms until hatched. ingeggs? In other places they are placed in small paper packages and the peasants wear them in their bosoms, until the warmth of their bodies makes the eggs ready to hatch. The insects are very small and dark colored How do the when they first appear. insects look ^T^i .,, , . ,i-i' r when first 1 hey grow rapidly, changmg their skins tour or , , ,, five times. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. SILK. 1. THE SILK- WORMS. 2. CULTIVATION OF WORMS. 3. THE COCOONS. 4. THE MOTHS. 5. OBTAINING THE SILK. 6. MANUFACTURE. 7. SILKEN FABRICS. 8. SILK PRODUCING COUNTRIES. 9. INTRODUCTION OF SILK INTO EUROPE. 10. METHOD OF HATCHING EGGS. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING SILK. 1. SILK- WORM, OR PICTURE OF ONE. 2. COCOON, OR PICTURE OF ONE. 3. MOTH AND EGGS, OR PICTURES OF THEM. 4. RAW-SILK. 5. SPOOLS OF SEWING-MACHINE SILK, FLOSS Etc. 6. SAMPLES OF VELVET, SATIN, GAUZE Etc. The plant.— Flax is a plant from two to three feet in height, with small pointed leaves and blue flowers. The stems are very peculiar, being hol- low and covered with fibrous material. The flowers grow in clusters at the top of the stalks, and when they fall off, are succeeded by round seed-vessels, the size of a pea. Each seed-vessel contains ten flat seeds of a brown color. From what source is flax obtained ? Where are the seeds found? "Where raised.— Flax is cultivated in most parts of the world. It was first known in Egypt. Where does A fine species of the plant is now found in Holland ^^^ grow? and Belgium, and is also raised in Ireland. In Belgium the women work in the flax fields. This useful plant was introduced into America in 1629 When was from England, which country owes its knowledge ^^^ ^""^^ ^^^" ^" of the plant to the Romans. m n a It is now extensively cultivated in the United States. HO"W cultivated. — Flax thrives upon a rich, moist soil. The seeds are sown early in the when is the spring and the crops are gathered in July and Au- flax ripe? gust. Sometimes a second crop can be obtained later on. In June, when the delicate blue flowers 22 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. are in bloom, the flax fields present a beautiful ap- How does a ,-., , , ^, i i • flax field look? pearance. When the plants are thoroughly ripe, the leaves drop off, and the stems turn yellow. How the flax is prepared.— The stalks are pulled up and tied in bundles to dry. The seed- vessels are taken off and put away in bags for ow are le ^^ jj^^ stalks are steeped in water until fibres sepaiatetl? ^ softened so that the fibres of the outside covering or bark can be separated. After being dried in the sun, any woody portion of the plant which may How cleaned adhere to the fibres is removed by an instrument and straight- called a brake. To prepare the flax for the spin- •^"^^ ** niiig machine, the fibres must be laid out straight. This is done with 2i hatchel, a contrivance resemb- ling a brush, with sharp pointed needles on it , 1^-. ^fr, ^ where the bristles are usually found. The flax is hatchel? What . -^ is tow? drawn over these points, and the long fibres be- come straight. The short, uneven ones are left, and make a substance called tow. What is done MaiUlfaCture.— The processes required to con - tomakeflaxinto vert these fibres into cloth are the same that are cloth? necessary in the manufacture of wool and cotton. The spinning and weaving are now done entirely by machinery. Flax fibres are of a brownish color, IT ■ a and have to be bleached before the beautiful white How IS II ax sometimes whit- color of linen Can be obtained. The quickest way ened? to accompHsh this is to use chloride of lime. How linen is used. — Various qualities of linen What is linen are manufactured, which are used for making sheets, used for? handkerchiefs and underclothing. From linen thread we make lace and fancy edgings. What is dam- Damask. — A rich variety of linen cloth, woven ask? with figures, is called damask. Ireland manufac- TALKS AKOUT COMMON THINGS. 2} tures a fine (|uality of this material. It i.s used for tablecloths, napkins and towels. Lawn i-'^ ii very fine material, first made in Laun ? France. It is now made in ielfast and other cities of Ireland. Linen mannfacture in Egypt.— The spin- whatcountry J . ^ £, . . ,V="' -^ . , , first engaged in ninof and weavinsj of uax into linen is a very old ,. r ° *^ -^ linen manufac- industry. Egypt was noted for the fineness of the ture? linen made there, thousands of years ago. Some of this linen is on exhibition in museums in our h o w was large cities, forming the wrappings of Egyptian much of it used mummies. Many yards of these goods were used m that country? for that purpose and examination shows that it was of a very fine quality. Where do the The Greeks and Romans also used large quanti- Greeks and Ro- ties of linen in the early ages. mans live? The seeds. — The seeds of the flax plant are ot what use very valuable. They are ground and pressed and are the seeds? yield a useful oil known as linseed oil. This oil is „„ . ,. •^ . . What is lin- used for mixing paints and varnishes. seed oilused lor? Flax seeds are also used as a medicine for colds and lung trouble. They are often made into poul- tices. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. FLAX. 1. THE FLAX PLANT. 5. USES OF LINEN CLOTH. 2. CULTIVATION. 6. LINEN IN OLDEN TIMES. 3. PREPAEATION OF FIBRES. 7. FLAX SEEDS. 4. MANUFACTURE. 8. LINSEED OIL. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING FLAX. 1. PICTURE OF PLANT. 2. SAMPLES OF FLAX FIBRE. 3. SPOOL OF LINEN THREAD. 4. PIECES OF LINEN, DAMASK, &c. 5. BOTTLE OF LINSEED OIL. 6. SEEDS AS PREPARED FOR POULTICE. Its source.— The skins of horses, cows, calves ^^^^ -^ ^^^_ and oxen are converted into leather, also the skins ther made of? of the wild herds of cattle found in South America, Switzerland and Mexico. Several processes are necessary to change the hides into the durable, useful material known as leather. Preparation. — The raw hides are cleaned to ^^^^ «s the remove the fat that may be on them, and then they '^ • r ■' ... preparation ot are soaked in lime and water. This liquid loosens the skins? the hair so that it can be pulled out. The clean hides are again soaked in water mixed How are the with barley, or some substance of an acid nature, pores opened? The pores of the skins become open, and they are ready for the next operation called tanning. Tanning the hides.— The bark of the oak or vvi^^j 3 ^ b- hemlock tree is dried and ground into a coarse stance is used powder. This powder is mixed with water and put for tanning? into large vats. The skins are soaked in this liquid for many months, The action of the bark 26 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. Howdoesthe causes the skins to shrink in size, and become very leather appear gt^ong, while at the same time they are flexible. after tanning? . .... . , , , , After remaming m the tan-pits untilthorous^hly How is the . , , . , , , • , , , leather made tanned, the skms are taken out and dried, and then smooth? passed between rollers to make them smooth. Varieties of leather. — The above operations „„ , . are necessary to convert the raw hides into leather. What skin.s are ■' used for shoes ? Slight variations in the manner of treatment pro- duce the different kinds of leather. The skins of calves and sometimes those of cows are used for the uppers of boots and shoes, and the hides of oxen are made into the soles. What is seal The latter animals also furnish the leather for skin used for? straps and harnesses. Seal skin is converted into a firm leather used for the tops of hunting boots, and for the manufacture of bags and pocket-books. What is Mo- Morocco leather. — The skins of goats found roco leather ? jj^ Switzerland are used for making Morocco leather. Is there any After the tanning, for which sumach is used instead peculiarity i n of oak-bark, the leather is rubbed with a ball with appeara ^ ribbed surface, so that it will have a grained ap- of Morocco lea- _ . tiier? pearance. It is used for covering chairs, books, &c. Sheep skin forms a cheap leather which is used J ^ ^ for pocket-books, lining bags and covering books. Kid. — The skins of lambs and young goats are What is kid? used for making gloves and ladies' shoes. They are not soaked in tan-bark and water, but alum is used . instead of the bark. This renders the skins very What IS it •' used for? soft and flexible. The leather so made is known by the general term of kid. The manufacture of shoes is extensively engaged Where are j^ throughout the New England States. In Eng- shoes made ? , , f „ , - . . . . , land and r ranee also this is an important mdustry. Fine leather gloves are obtained from Germany. TALKS AHOUT CO^rMON THINGS. 2/ Materials for writing- — Parchment is a ma- terial made from the skins of sheep or goats. The What is parch- skins are soaked in water mixed with lime, salt and ina are used as ornamental additions to the toilet and are very costly. Name some TllG Seal. — This animal is found in the countries countries bor- bordering on the Arctic Ocean. It spends most derine: on tlie r •,. j.- • .1 1. t •, • 1 . „ ot Its time m the water. In appearance it is awk- Arctic Ocean. . '^ '^ ward, about five or six feet in length, with a small head and brown fur. The under layer of fur is composed of short, fine hair. Beyond this, long, coarse hairs extend. These are removed and the short fur is used. The fur is slightly curly, but Describe the o y j j J " after dyeing it becomes straight. Seals are caught in this manner. The hunters wait until a large number are asleep on the rocks near the water. They then surround them and drive them to the killing ground which is at some distance. The How are seals men then gather around the herd and beat them to killed? death with heavy clubs. The seals are so crowded together and so tired from their long journey on land, that they offer but little resistance. The fur For what is of the Seal is very valuable. It is used for making seal-skin used? , rr j ^ • • overcoats, sacques, muns and trimmings. The beaver. — North America is the home of the beaver. So many of these animals have been killed to furnish fur, that they are becoming very What IS bea g^^^rce. The fur is a dark, rich color and is used vcr uscl lor ^ for muffs, collars, capes and trimmings. Beaver is also extensively used for making hats. When made into material for hats, the hair is removed TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 3I from the skin. This hair has the same property of How is it felting thcit wool has, and is treated in the same prepared for hat-making ? way. The sable. — This animal is a native of Siberia, but like the beaver, is rapidly disappearing. The where are sables vary somewhat in color. Some have long, sables found ? dark brown hair ; others have dark hair with white points. The most valuable .are all black, but these j^j^^ ^^^ ^^_ are very scarce. The process of catching sables bias captured ? is a difficult one. In the autumn the hunters travel in sleds to where the sables abound and erect huts in which they live several months. It is extremely Describe the cold and the hunters suffer many hardships. The ^''"°"' ^'"^' . of sable fur. sables are caught in traps, which are scattered over a large extent of land. The fur is very expensive. The ermine —The fur of this animal used to "ow was er- . , , , r 1 • mine formerly be the favorite material for the robes of kings and yg^jy queens. It is not so fashionable now, and therefore not so expensive. The animal is found h ^hf Arc- tic regions of Europe and Asia and is a little over Describe the ermine ? a foot long. In summer the fur is a reddish brown, but in winter it becomes pure white except the tail, ^j^^j ^^^ j^ which is pale yellow with jet black tip. The tails made of the are used to decorate the muffs, collars, etc., made tails? of the ermine. The marten. — This animal is found in North America and possesses valuable fur. There are what family several species of martens. The mink belongs to does the mink this family, and has beautiful brown fur, with stripes l^elo"§ '^ of a darker shade. Mink is used for muffs and capes, also for lining outdoor garments. The Otter.— Russia is the home of the otter. How does the It is three or four feet long and has glossy brown otter look? 32 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. How does it fur. It lives in the water and swims very rapidly. carry its young? It has extraordinary love for its young and when moving from place to place will carry the little ones in its mouth. The otters frequently lie on the rocks in the sunshine, and it is while they are asleep How are ot- '" ^^^^^ way, that the hunters kill them. They are ters killed? eithqr shot or caught in nets. A species of otter is found in Alaska and in nearly all the States and Territories. Th.e muskrat. — The muskrat resembles a Tell some of ^^^^^ beaver. Its habits resemble those of the the habits of the t i • i ,i , i i ^1 ,„, beaver. It has its home near the water and spends nillSKl 3.1. ■*■ much time swimming. It builds a little hut in which it lives during the winter. Early in the °^, ^^^ spring the Indians kill the muskrats by spearing muskratsi^° .' ^ o j-illeflP right through the huts. The fur is reddish brown and very soft. It is used for making hats. What species TllB foX, — The fur of the most common species 1 "ui r o of this animal is a reddish color. The Arctic fox valuable fur ? has fur of a blue-white color, which is very valu- able. used (or ^he skins of the bear, buffalo, leopard and tiger are carriage-robes? are made into mats and carriage robes. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. FUR. 1. ITS SOUECE. 2. PBEPARATION. 3. USES. 4. SEAL. 5. BEAVER. 6. SABLE. 7. ERMINE. 8. MARTEN. 9. OTTER. 10. MUSKRAT. 11. FOX. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING FUR. 1. PICTURES OF ANIMALS NAMED. 2. SAMPLES OF FUR, BEAVER, SABLE, &c. 3. COLLARS, MUFFS, &c., MADE OF FUR. From what are feathers ob- taineJ ? Of what were pens formerly made? For what are geese-feat h e r s used ? What other birds supply stuffing for beds ?^ Where co e i d e rd u c k s live ? Source. — The plumage of various birds forms an important article of commerce. Not only do we use the feathers as articles of trimming and ornament, but for the stuffing of beds and pillows. The quills of feathers were formerly made into pens, but the extensive manufacture of steel pens has made this unnecessary at the present time. Tooth-picks are often made of the quills. Useful feathers. — Beds and pillows are stuffed with the feathers of geese. In many sections of Great Britain, and in our own country large nnm bers of geese are raised. Their feathers are picked several times a year. The feathers so picked are called "live geese feathers." Those taken from dead geese are not as valu- able. The feathers of the swan and duck are used for the same purpose. Eider-ducks. — These birds furnish a very valu- able article known as eider-down. In Scotland, Norway, Greenland and other cold countries, there are large flocks of these biids. They live on small TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 35 islands and build nests very close together. The Where does down grows on the breast of the duck and after she the down grow? has laid her eggs, she plucks out the down to cover them. The collectors of this down watch the ducks and take away the down. Both the male and female bird continue the process of lining the nest, and covering the eggs with down, until their breasts ^°^ ^^^^ '^ ,. , J .J r ii • i_ ^-r 1 • the down used? are entirely deprived oi this beautiful covering. The down is light and soft and is used for stuffing bed covering. It is especially adapted to this use as it gives warmth without weight. Eider-ducks in Iceland.— In Iceland these ^^^ ^^ ducks are very plentiful and at the season of nest- . , , , ■^ ^ e 1 d e r-d u c k s building, many of the small islands and sections on build their the coast are almost impassable. The nests are so nests? close together that they form a solid flooring. The birds are quite large, the female being a brown What color color, and the male much lighter. ^'^^^^ *^"'=^'' Swan's-down. — The soft feathery substance W hat is found on the breast and under the wings of a swan swan's-down? is also much used, both as a stuffing for coverlets, and as dress trimming. For the latter purpose the For what is bird is killed and the skin taken off, and the down it used? left on the skin and cut in strips. It is very soft and pure white in the natural state, but is often dyed delicate colors. Ornamental feathers.— Feathers which are only adapted for ornamental purposes are obtained Nsme birds from the ostrich, marabout, peacock, pheasant, bird ^'°^^ P"™^g^ ^ '^ IS used for or- of paradise, heron, osprey, egret and many other nament. birds. Th.e ostrich.. — The largest number of feathers used for ornament is furnished by the ostrich. This 36 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. Describe the bird IS a native of Africa, and is very large, being ostrich. from six to eight feet in height. Its plumes are thick and valuable, varying in color from white ,,,.,' through different shades of gray to jet black. The ers valuable? ° & y j pure white feathers are very scarce. Ostrich feath- How are they ers are used for head dresses, and trimming for used? hats, and dresses. They are dyed any desired color. What bird MarabOTlt feathers are procured from the mara- found in India , , . r t i • t-i i • i furnishes feath- bout-stork, a native oi India. 1 hey are white and ers? S^^y> '^iid very light and soft. Of what are They are used for trimmings and head-dresses. l^ideT ''^"'"'' Osprey and egret feathers are used for the plumes of military hats. handTomr b^rd Blpd of Paradlse feathers present a variety from which we of rich colors and are in demand as ornaments for obtain ornamen- hatS. ta eat ers. jj^^ deCOratioilS.— The wings of many small, , . , , . ^"^^ gayly colored birds are used to trim ladies' hats, birds wings°-'-^ used? ^nd sometimes the head, or the entire bird is used for the same purpose. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. FEATHERS. 1. FROM WHAT OBTAINED. 6. THE OSTRICH. 2. GEESE FEATHERS. 7. MARABOUT FEATHERS. 3. EIDER-DUCKS. 8. OSPREY AND EGRET. 4. SWAN'S-DOWN. 9. BIRD OF PARADISE. 5. ORNAMENTAL FEATHERS. 10. HAT TRIMMINGS. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING FEATHERS. 1. GEESE FEATHERS. 2. PILLOW STUFFED WITH FEATHERS. 3. QUILL PEN. 4. QUILL TOOTH-PICK. 5. EIDER-DOWN. 6. STRIP OF SWAN'S DOWN. 7. OSTRICH FEATHERS. 8. MARABOUT FEATHERS. 9. WINGS OF BIRDS 10. PICTURES OF VARIOUS BIRDS. Where does tea grow ? How does the plant look ? How is tea raised ? When is the best tea galh • ered ? When is "imperial " tea picked. Which crop is the most valuable ? Appearance of plant —The tea-plant is cul- tivated in China and Japan, and in some parts of India. It is an evergreen shrub, its height varying from three to eight feet. Its leaves are numerous and grow on short thick stalks. The flowers are large and white. How cultivated. — The plants, are raised from seeds, which are planted in holes about four feet apart. The leaves are not gathered until the plant is three years old. Varieties of tea. — in China the first picking occurs in March, when the leaves are small. These leaves are considered the best, and supply the finest and most expensive variety of the class of tea known as green tea. A month later, a second crop of leaves is gathered, and these leaves furnish the kinds of tea known as ''imperial and "young hyson." Early in summer, the third and last collecting of leaves takes place. This gathering of leaves gives the black teas known as "souchong" and "bohea," much inferior TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 39 to those already mentioned, as the leaves of this crop are large and coarse. Age of a plantation.— When the plants are How long are nine or ten years old they are cut down and a new the plants of plantation made. ^^'^^ Preparation of the leaves.— The leaves are picked by hand, one at a time, great care being How are the taken to have the hands of the pickers very clean, ''"a ves picked? In China, the nobility are supplied with tea from the first crop of leaves, and the gatherers of these leaves have to be extra particular. They are obliged to eat certain kinds of food, and to take a ., ° ' the precautions bath two or three times a day. This great pre- required of caution is taken to prevent the leaves from injury pickers? and to preserve their fine flavor. The leaves are then dried. This is done by How is t h e throwing them into a shallow pan and roasting tea dried? them, stirring them all the time so that they will not scorch. They are then rolled in the hands, when they present the appearance of the tea sold in the stores, so familiar to us all. The tea is then How is t h e packed in chests, lined with a thin layer of lead to ^^a packed for exclude the air. exportation? These chests are then sent to various parts of the world and sold. Impurities in tea. — Tea is so generally used How is t e a now that it forms a very important article of com- ^ ° '"^ 1 1 m e s adulterated ? merce. It is often impure, owing to the dishonesty of the exporters. The usual method of cheating is either to mix dried leaves of other plants with the tea leaves, or to dye an inferior crop of leaves . , ' ■' r' to deceive pur- vvith Prussian blue, a poisonous dye, which gives chasers? 40 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. the leaves the rich coloring that distinguishes those of the first gathering. What country ConSUmption of tea.— The greatest quantity consumes the of tea is exported to Great Britain. The people ol most tea? that country are very fond of this drink and con- sume it at the rate of from two to two and a half Wh t is the po^nds to each person, annually. The United average iii the States also consume a large amount of tea each United States? year, averaging about a pound to each inhabitant. Tea as a drink.— Tea is prepared as a drink by steeping it in boiling water. In a few minutes ,r the water is colored, and has the flavor of the used r leaves. It is sweetened with sugar and diluted with milk to suit the taste of the drinker. What effect Eflects of tea-drliiking.- The effect of tea has tea on the upon those consuming it, has long been a matter health? of discussion. It is exhilarating without being at Whichkmdis ^jj intoxicating. It causes the brain to grow active and induces wakefulness. It is therefore taken by persons who are obliged to write at night. The best green tea, being made of the first crop of leaves, which possess the strongest flavor, is the most injurious. It is very apt to cause extreme nervousness. Black tea is not so harmful, as it is made of the last collection of leaves, which are not so strongly flavored. inwhatcoun- Tea-drinking ill China —Tea is an article try is tea ot of great importance in the Chinese Empire. The great conse- inhabitants are very particular and only use the quence \)Qst varieties. At all the festivals and holiday celebrations, this drink is plentifully supplied and is partaken of by young and old. °^ It is served very hot in thin China cups, and Chinese drink , . . , ... .^, taken without milk or sugar. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. TEA. 1. THE TEA-PLANT. 5. IMPURE TEA. 2. ITS CULTIVATION. 6. USES OF TEA. 3. KINDS OF TEA. 7. EFFECTS OF ITS USE. 4. PREPAEATION. 8. TEA IN CHINA. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING TEA. 1. PICTURE OF TEA-PLANT. 2. TEA-LEAVES. 3. SAMPLES OF DRIED LEAVES. 4. CUP OF TEA PREPARED AS A DRINK. Describe the coffee- tree. Describe the fruit. What part do we use ? How is coffee raised ? How old is the tree befoic it bears fruit ? GrrOWtll. — The cofifee-tree is an ever-green, growing in its wild state to be from twenty to thirty feet high. The cultivated tree is not allowed to grow more than eight or ten feet in height. The leaves are dark green, pointed in shape and the flowers are small and white, and grow in thick clusters. They have a fragrant smell. The fruit looks like a cherry. Each berry contains two seeds or beans as they are called, their flat sides pressed tightly together. The pulp that surrounds these seeds is sweet and pleasant to the taste. Cultivation. — Coffee is raised from seed which is sown in carefully prepared ground. The plants are kept in nurseries until they are a year old. Then a plantation is formed, the young trees being placed in rows a short distance apart. The first crop of fruit appears when the trees are three years old. The plants bear fruit for many months so that several crops can be gathered in a year. The plantation lasts twenty years or more. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 43 Preparation. — The berries are placed in the sun and turned often until thoroughly dry. The pulp which surrounds the beans is removed by ^^"^^ '^ ""^ , . , , ,, ^, pulp removed V passing" the berries between wooden rollers. i he raw cofifee-seeds are light in color and hard and tough. It is necessary to roast them before they wi, at is done are fit for use. After this operation the beans are toiheheans? a brown color and have an aromatic odor. Coffee How is coffee is packed in large sacks for exportation. ^^"' '° othei countries ? Coflfee-producing countries- — C o ff e e thrives in a moist, warm climate. It grew first in ^, , ^ ' • fc> Olwhatcoun- Arabia and Abyssinia. It is now also cultivated tries is coffee a in Brazil, India and the West Indies. Brazil pro- native? duces the largest amount of coffee, Rio Janeiro Name other being an important coffee market. The island ot '^o^-'tries sup- plvincf coffee. Java furnishes the next largest supply. Mocha coffee, from Arabia is considered to have the finest flavor. Adulteration of COfFee— Coffee is often Name sub- mixed with other substances, chicory being most stances used to , r I ii i- -t T^i • • 1 J adulterate cof- used for adulterating it. 1 his is a powder prepared from the roots of a wild plant, found in most parts of Europe. It is so much cheaper than coffee that dealers save money, when they cheat the public , l^ ■' ' •' ^ done? by selling a mixture of chicory and coffee for pure coffee. Carrot and dandelion roots are sometimes used for the same purpose. Use of coffee. — Coffee is used as a drink and How is coffee large quantities are consumed in the United States, "^ed? Germany, England, France and most European What nations T, • 1 r 1 • 1 • • use it? countries. It is prepared tor drinking in a very ^ ^ t) / Where are simple manner. The roasted beans are ground to ^j^^ countries a fine powder, over which boiling water is poured, named? 44 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. After steeping awhile, a dark liquid is the result, possessing the flavor of the beans. Milk and sugar are added to suit the taste of the drinker. What effect Physlcal effects of coffee— Taken in moder- has coffee upon ation, coffee operates in a healthy manner on the those drinking system. It exhilarates and allays hunger. Taken ' in excess its action is harmful, and it produces nervousness, indigestion and wakefulness. What pait of tJse of leaves-— In Arabia the leaves are used the tree is used in preparing a drink instead of the beans. They in Arabia? are dried and rolled and used as tea leaves are used. They have the taste of the beans. Story about coffee- — This story is told of the Relate an in- discovery of the power coffee possesses of stimulat- cident con- ing and causing wakefulness. The keeper of a nected with the number of goats was much annoyed by their play- discovery of fulness at night. After close watching he noticed coffee. that they were always wakeful after they had eaten many of the coffee plants so plentiful around them. An Arabian priest (Mohammedan) hearing this story, determined to make a drink of coffee and give it to the monks of his convent, who were often so sleepy that they would fall asleep at morning prayers. He did so and found it successful in keep- ing them awake during prayer time. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. COFFEE. 1. THE COFFEE-TREE. 5. ADULTERATION. 2. CULTIVATION. 6. USE OF COFFEE. 3. PREPARATION. 7. EFFECTS OF USE. 4. WHERE IT GROWS. 8. STORY ABOUT COFFEE. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING COFFEE. 1. PICTURE OF TREE. 2. COFFEE BERRY AND BEANS. 3. GROUND COFFEE. 4. CUP OF COFFEE PREPARED AS A DRINK. 5. MAPS OF COUNTRIES NAMED. Describe the cocoa-tree. What tree does it resem- ble? What shape is the fruit ? What part is used ? Where does the tree grow ? Do the trees need much at- t-nti 11? The cocoa tree- — ^^lie tree from which we ob- tain cocoa or chocolate is known by the names, cocoa, cacao and coco tree. It is handsome, from ten to twenty feet high, and is like a cherry-tree in appearance. Tlie fmit- — The tree has cucumber shaped fruit, consisting of a hard outer part, six or eight inches long, and a soft, white substance within. This soft pulp surrounds and protects seeds about as large as an almond. Many seeds are contained in each fruit. These seeds are the source of the cocoa or chocolate we use. Where cocoa grows — The cocoa tree can only be raised in warm countries. It is a native of Mexico, but is cultivated in South America, Africa and the West Indies. Cultivation- — The trees are extremely tender and require a great deal of care. To protect them from the hot rays of the sun, large plants with much foliage are planted between the rows of cocoa trees. These serve as a shield, and screen the TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 47 plants from the glaring sunlight. How are they The flowers are red, and grow from all parts of protected? the tree. The tree is considered full-grown when about six \^ears old, but it commences to bear fruit , ^" . °^^ _ the fruit ap- in the third year. pear? Preparation of seeds— After the fruit is ripe, it is picked and the seeds taken out. They „ .1 ^ ' r J How are the are cleaned and spread out to dry in the warm seeds prepared? sunlight. To make the chocolate with which we are familiar, the seeds are ground into paste by pounding with heated stones or passing between hot rollers. It is then made into little cakes, mixed with sugar and spices. It is sold in this state. It is much used by confectioners in making candy, Por what is and by bakers in making fancy cakes. chocolate used ? Chocolate as a drink— To make the drink which is such a favorite with many people, the How is it chocolate cakes are ground and mixed with boiling Prepared for drinking? milk and water. It is delicious in taste but is so rich, owing to the oily matter contained in the cocoa-beans, that is chocolate it is not considered very healthy. Cocoa seeds are healthy? sometimes simply ground to a powder, and sold What makes in this state, unmixed with any spices. it so rich? This powder is made into the drink of the same ^^^f i)lainer , . ^ , . , .... drink is made name, cocoa, and is not nearly as rich and indi- <- , ' ' •' ot cocoa I gestible as chocolate. Other "ways of using seeds.— In the coun- tries where the cocoa-tree grows, the seeds are , ", . -, ° the seeds eaten? eaten as an article of food. Wha.t else is A kind of liquor is also obtained by the fermen- obtained from tation of the fruit. the seeds ? BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. CHOCOLATE. 1. SOURCE. 3. CULTIVATION. 2. DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT. 4. PREPARATION OF SEEDS. 5. USE OF SEEDS. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING CHOCOLATE. 1. PICTURE OF TREE. 2. SPECIMEN OF FRUIT. 3. CUP OF CHOCOLATE PREPARED AS A DRINK. 4. CANDY, CAKE, &c. CONTAINING CHOCOLATE. 5. CAKE OF SOLID CHOCOLATE. Tlie plant. — Rice is a kind of grass, resembling' wheat in size and manner of growing. It grows to be about four feet high and has a long central stalk. At the top of the stalk, several stems are formed, each stem bearing a cluster of the rice. Where found. — This grass is found princi- pally in China and Japan, but it grows to some extent in all warm countries. Heat and moisture are necessary for its culture. The seeds are planted essary for its Describe rice. Where is rice found ? What are nec- and then the ground is flooded with water. Preparation for use.— When the grain is ripe it is cut down with a sickle, and bound into sheaves to dry. The rice is separated from the straw in mills, and the operation is called thresh- ing. The kernels of rice are inclosed in rough yellow husks and these are taken off by pounding them between two stones. At one time this process was performed by hand, but now there are machines for this purpose. In these machines there are re- 'volving stones which rub off the husks without growth ? Wha t threshing? How are the husks removed? 50 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. How do the crushing the rice. The kernels of rice then appear kernels look? round and pure white. Sometimes the husks are not removed but the rice is packed with them on, and sent to other countries, where the shelling is performed. Are all the TllB komels. — The kernels of rice vary in size rice kernels the ^^^^ niust be Sorted SO that all of the same size will be together. The large, perfect kernels are of the Which are ^ ^ , rj^, . ,. ••iij ,, , , greatest value. i here is a medium size called the most valu- *> able? '^ middling rice r The broken kernels are ground into flour. Where is rice Importaiice of rice in China and India. of great import- — India and China produce immense quantities of ance? rice, and it forms the principal food of the inhab- itants of these countries. In the latter country it H o w is it . -11 -1 ^T-1 11 • 1 eaten by the IS eaten With chop-sticks. 1 hcse are small, pointed Chinese? pieces of wood or ivory, with which the Chinese carry the rice to their mouths. It would be a slow process to any one not familiar with the method, but the Chinese are so dexterous in the use of the sticks that they can consume a large quantity of rice in a short time. General cultivation.— The warm countries Where is rice of Africa also furnish rice. It is thought it was cu tivate ^^^^ introduced into the West Indies by Columbus, on one of his early voyages. It is now extensively cultivated in North and South Carolina, and other southern states. Formerly large portions of these Are the states were swampy and apparently of little value. sou lern g This boggv ground was just the right soil for the of any use? fc>t>^ t> J fc> growth of rice, and now in place of the wet, worth- less regions, are found fields of this grass. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. , 5^ Difficulties in cultivation.— The cultivator of rice finds his chief difficult}- in the raids of the sparrows and rice-birdi,. These birds evidently what inter- like rice as well as the human race does, and they feres with the do great damage by biting off the heads of the growth of rice ? grass, just as it is ripening. The usual method of frightening these little thieves is to put a scare-crow in the field. A scare-crow is a post or rail dressed what is a in old clothes, so that it bears some resemblance scare-crow? to a man. It deceives the birds and keeps them at a respectful distance. Rice as an article of food.— Rice is a very healthy and nutritious article of food. It is usu- ally prepared for the table by boiling it in water. During this process, the kernels swell to more than double their original size. The rice-flour is made into cakes and there is a solution called rice-water, which is used for medi- cal purposes. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. RICE. 1. DESCRIPTION OF 6. VARIETIES OF KERNELS. GRAIN. 7. RICE IN CHINA. 2. HOW PLANTED. 8. GENERAL CULTIVATION. 3. PREPARATION FOR USE. 9. RAIDS OF THE BIRDS. 4. THRESHING. 10. RICE AS AN ARTICLE OF 5. HUSKING. FOOD. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING RICE. 1. SAMPLES OF THE GRAIN. 2. RICE IN THE HUSKS. 3. KERNELS OF RICE. 4. RICE-FLOUR. 5. CHOP-STICKS. 6. MAPS OF COUNTRIES NAMED IN THIS ARTICLE. ■'f'.f I / "Where foiind — Salt is a mineral substance which is obtained in different ways. It is found in a rocky state in salt-mines, or it is procured from the water of salt springs, seas, lakes and oceans. How obtained from water— When ob- tained from water, the salt is separated from the liquid by allowing the water to evaporate. The water is put in shallow vessels and exposed to the heat of the sun. In very warm countries, the sun's rays are sufficient to dry up the water and leave the salt in the bottom of the pans. The salt grows solid and crystallizes in cube-shapes. Where the climate is cool, artificial heat is used to cause evaporation. The salt is made finer and purer by boiling it. Salt-springs. — The principal salt-springs are in England, Prussia and the northern part of Italy. Russia derives much salt from salt lakes, and the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, obtain large quantities of the mineral from that sea. Where is salt found ? How is salt procured from salt water ? What shape are salt crystals.? Where are the most im- portant salt spring s ? 54 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. Salt in the United States —Quantities of salt are obtained from springs in New Yor-k, Vir- ginia, Pennsylvania and Michigan. The most pro- What large (j^t^j-jye Q^e is near the city of Syracuse, in New spring in New . i i t • ,. York- York, ine salt is procured . by boring wells, two or three hundred feet deep, and the salt water is How is ihis ^ • j_ 2_ 1 1 r , ,„ pumped into tanks prepared for evaporatinsf pur- spring worked? '^ -^ '- '■ r s> sr poses. After the water has disappeared, the salt What are salt is allowed to drain for a couple of weeks, and is '"'"^^? then packed in barrels to be sold. Salt mines. — Salt mines are found in Russia, Where found? Germany and Poland. They consist of vast quan- Where are titles of rock-salt, extending hundreds of feet below these countries? the surtace of the earth. How is the They are entered by means of passages from the salt obtained ? surface called shafts, and many men are employed in zvorking the mines. They cut out pieces of the salt and load little cars with them, which carry the salt to the open air. How is rock- Preparation of rock-salt— Rock-salt is salt prepared treated very much in the same manner that salt for use? from springs is. It does not dissolve as easily and is often mixed with impure matter. This must be removed, and the salt boiled until it becomes the fine, white, glistening substance we are so familiar with. Where is The famous mine of Poland.— In Poland ,, , there is a very wonderful mine, over a thousand there a remark- •' able mine? feet deep. It is divided into many floors, galleries and passages, all of solid salt. One of the divisions of this mine resembles a church so much that it is Describe the called St. Anthony's Chapel. The altar, pulpit *^ *P^ ' and statues are all of salt and are as perfect as if TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 55 carved from marble. The royal families sometimes How are visit this mine, and the chapel is then brilliantly ''°y^.' ^^"^^^^^^ received, in it ? lighted up. The crystals of salt glisten beautifully and the scene is a dazzling one. In this same mine there is a very large room, called the reception room, and festivals are some- Describe the times celebrated here. Rows of seats are arranged reception room, around the room, and there is a raised platform of salt, for the musicians. On one of the upper floors of this wonderful mine there is a lake eighty feet jaJ^^^'^"^^ *^^ long and little rafts are employed to float noted visitors on its surface. One ot the rooms on the third floor contains a tomb made of salt, erected in memory of one of the Austrian Emperors. It is estimated that in is the mine order to visit every portion of this immense mine, very large? one must walk at least three hundred miles. Uses of salt. — Salt is absohitely necessary as an For what is article of food. It forms a part of most everything salt necessary? prepared for the table. It enters also into mixtures ^^^^ ^°^^ •' which are used as medicines. Meat is kept from spoiling by packing it in salt, when it will remain ^. ^. r^ o J r & purposes is it pure for a long time. used? Religions importance of salt.— The He- How is sait brews use salt in the observance of all their re- ^^^'^ ^y ^ ^ ^ ligious ceremonies. It is considered by them, an •'^"'^ emblem of purity. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. SALT. 1. WHERE PROCURED. 6. THE GREAT MINE OF 2. HOW OBTAINED. POLAND. 3. PREPARATION FOR USE. 7. USES OF SALT. 4. SALT-SPRINGS. 8. SALT AS AN EMBLEM 5. SALT MINES. OF PURITY. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING SALT. 1. SPECIMENS OF ROCK-SALT. 2. SALT-WATER. 3. BAG OF REFINED SALT. 4. PIECE OF MEAT PRESERVED IN SALT. 5. MAPS OF ALL COUNTRIES NAMED IN THIS ARTICLE. From what obtained- — The principal source of sugar is the sugar-cane, a plant which grew first in Asia, but now grows in all warm regions. The plant consists of a thick, jointed stem, which varies in height from three to twelve feet. The stem is over an inch in diameter. The outside of it is thick and fibrous, and encloses a sweet, juicy substance. Flowers grow from the top of the stem, and from each joint there grows a leaf. Cultivation. — The sugar-cane is a perennial plant, that is, it does not require planting every season, but lives on from year to year. The canes of a plantation are arranged in rows. The planta- tions supply a good quality of sugar until the plants are from six to ten years old. A new plantation is then formed by cutting off the tops of the old canes and planting them. Where sugar-canes grow.— The best canes are raised in the West Indies. There are also large sugar plantations in Louisiana and other Gulf States. Where does s u g a r-c a n c grow ? Where is the juice stored? Where are the flowers ? How are the canes planted ? How is a new plantation made ? Where are the best sugar- canes raised ? 58 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. Where are ProClirillg tho SUgaP.—In March the canes the West In- j. ^^q^^j-j ^^^^ ^^^^ leaves Stripped off. The dies? . ,, How is the Stems are crushed between iron rollers, and the juice obtained? juice is squeezed out and flows into vessels ready for it. It is then boiled and strained several times What IS raw ^^^ placed in shallow vessels to cool. It com- sugai ? ^ mences to crystallize as it cools. The sugar is now of a yellowish brown color, and is called 7'azu What is mo- or brown sugar, and the liquid that is still surround- labses? j^g j^ jg called molasses. How is sugar Th-G refilling process. — To make the raw refined? i i •. •. ■ li. i • j i. • sugar pure and white, it is melted again and certain What is loaf chemicals are mixed with it which cause all impure sugar? matter to separate from the sugar. The sugar hardens and is poured into molds. It is known as Granulated Joaf.gugar. Some of it is cut into cube shapes and sugar.'' ° .... sold in that way. The remainder is ground into Powdered graiiulatcd sugar, and when ground very fine it is sugar? called /^w^^r^^ sugar. What tree JVEaple-STlgar- — -A kind of sugar is obtained furnishes sugar? fj-Q^n the maple tree. In the spring-time a hole is How is it bored through the bark of the tree and a tube in- procured? serted. The sap flows out into vessels placed to catch it. It is then gathered, poured into large What is ma- , , ., , , r •, . f pie syrup? pans and boiled over a slow hre until it assumes the consistency of thin molasses, when it is called maple-syrup. To make sugar, the syrup is care- fully strained and then boiled again until it becomes thick, when it is poured into moulds and allowed to harden into cakes. Both maple sugar and maple How does syrup are of a rich brown color. Maple sugar is maple-sugar ygry swect and delicious to the taste, and is often taste ? made into little cakes and eaten as candy. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 59 Other sources of sugar.— Sugar is also pro- What ve^c. cured from beets, and from the date-palm. France '^''-^ supplies sugar ? produces much beet sugar. It is obtained by crush- ing the juice out of the beets. It is boiled and cry- stallized much as cane-sugar is prepared. In India Wluitcountry sugar is obtained from a tree called the date-palm. "'■"■^^■'' ^ '^ ^ ^ sugar? IVEolaSSes — After the sugar has been boiled vvhatcouniry and strained, it is placed where it will cool. The obtains sugar sugar forms into solid loaves, and the water in '^°'^ ^ which it has been boiled is by this time niu h , '^^^ , ^ ' •' _ lasses made .'' thickened by he mixture of the sugar with it. This liquid is drawn off and is called molasses. It How does it is dark and thick and is very sticky. It possesses °^ '^'^ ^^ ^ ■ a sweet taste and is much used in cooking. Uses of sugar- — Sugar is very extensively For what is used. It is needed in the preparation of many sugar used ? kinds of food. Fish, ham and fruits preserved in it will keep for a long time. Quantities of sugar are used in making candy. Effect on the health— Sugar is considered what effect healthy and has a fattening effect. The negroes does sugar have on the sugar-plantations of the South are said to on people? ^row fat during the season when they gather the canes. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. SUGAR. 1. PRINCIPAL SOURCE. 2. CULTIVATION. 3. WHERE IT GROWS. 4. HOW PROG tJRED. 5. REFINING. 6. MAPLE SUGAR. 7. BEET-SUGAR. 8. MOLASSES. 9. USES OF SUGAR. 10. EFFECT OF USING IT. OBJECTS TO ASSIST IN TEACHING SUGAR. 1. PIECE OF SUGAR-CANE. 2. PICTURE OF SUGAR PLANTATION. 3. SAMPLES OF RAW, LOAF, GRANULATED AND POWDERED SUGAR. i. MOLASSES. 5. MAPLE SUGAR AND SYRUP. "Wlieat. — This grain is supposed to have grown first in Persia. It is now cultivated in ail temperate climates. Growth.. — It grows very rapidly, and presents a fine appearance. When ripe it is cut down and submitted to the processes of bolting and grinding. The former operation consists in separating the coarser from the finer portions of the wheat and the machine used is called a "bolter." The wheat is then ground into flour, and is used for making bread, rolls, biscuits, cake &c. It is pure white in color and very healthy. Macaroni and vermicelli are made of wheat paste. The best qualities are made in Naples, Italy, and the Italians are exceed- ingly fond of these articles. Wheat in America. — The introduction of wheat into America is said to be due to an accident. Rice was brought over and particles of wheat were found with it. It was planted an 1 spread rapidly and now a large surface of this henisphere is devoted to the culture of this grain. Of w h a country is wheat a native? How is it prepared for use ? For what is it used? What Italian city is first in the manufacture of macaroni ? How was wheat intro- duced into America ? 62 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What grain is a native of America? By whom was it first cuhi- vated ? What name did they ^ive to it? What do we call it ? What Euro- pean country first raised il ? How is it cultivated ? What are some of the names applied to d i f f e rent varieties ? For what is Indian meal used? How is corn prepared as an article of food ? Where oats grow ? do What is oat- meal ? For what is barley used ? Indian corn. — Unlike wheat, this grain is a native product of America and was called Indian Corn by the Spaniards when they came to this country, because they thought the new world was a part of India. The natives or Indians called it inahis and it is now often called maize, the English translation of their word. Columbus took samples of the corn back to Spain after his discovery of America, and Spain then cultivated this grain and it was soon introduced into other portions of Europe. A field of maize presents a beautiful appearance. Its culture requires considerable care. It is planted in hills, and the soil must be of good quality and free from weeds. The kernels differ somewhat in shape and size and the names white-corny sweet- corn, pop-corji. &c., have been given to the various kinds. Ground into meal, Indian corn is made into bread, biscuits, rolls &c. It is also used for fattening poultry and feeding animals. Sweet corn, boiled on the cob is used as an arti- cle of food. Hominy a popular breakfast dish is a preparation of maize. Oats are cultivated in more northern climates. They are used more as food for animals than for the human race. Oatmeal and other preparations of this grain are healthy breakfast relishes. Barley also grows in a cooler climate than wheat. It is not very important as an article of food, but is used extensively in making ale, porter and beer. The barley is steeped in water until it sprouts then it is dried quickly in a kiln. It is then called TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 63 malt 2iX\A is the principal ingredient in the above Whatismalt? named drinks. Rye is cultivated in Europe and in this country. what liquor A ki'nd of coarse bread is made of the rye meal, is made of rye? Rye is used in making whiskey. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. USEFUL GRAINS. 1. WHEAT. 5. USES. 2. USES. 6. OATS. 3. INDIAN COEN. 7. BARLEY. 4. EARLY HISTORY. 8. RYE. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING USEFUL GRAINS 1. SAMPLES OF WHEAT, CORN, OATS, BARLEY AND RYE. 2. WHEAT FLOUR. 3. BREAD, ROLLS &c. MADE OF WHEAT FLOUR. 4. CORN MEAL. 5. SPECIMENS OF POP-CORN, SWEET CORN &c. Th-G tre6- — The clove tree is a native of the Spice Islands and is now cultivated in the West Indies and other tropical countries. It is beautiful in appearance, resembling the laurel-tree and grows to a height of from fifteen to forty feet. The leaves are large and oblong, the flowers small and dark red. The fruit resembles an olive in shape, and is the same color as the flowers. It is dried and used to some extent being known in commerce by the name "mother cloves." Cloves- — The cloves as used by us for flavoring consist of the unopened flower buds. They are gathered from the tree in a green state and dried thoroughly, first by artificial heat, then by the sun's rays. The buds become of a dark brown color, and look very much like nails. Because of this resemblance, the name cloves is given to chem, the word clove being derived from the French word clou which means a nail. The little ball which seems to form the head of Where do cloves grow ? Describe the clove-tree. What is the fruit called ? What are cloves ? How are they prepared for use? What is the name derived from ? ^ TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. How can you the nail is in reality composed of the petals of the prove that a f^Q^g^^ j^^d if you soak a clove in water for a while, clove is a flow- i ,- i ii er-bud? Y^^ "^'^^ ^^^ ^^^ petals soften and unroll. What proper- ^Jses of cloVes— Cloves possess a spicy, ties have clovesr For what are Siting taste and strong, aromatic odor. They are they used? used for flavoring food, particularly pies, puddings, cakes and preserves. W^hat is oil Qll of cloveS- — By distilling the cloves in of cloves? water, an oil rs obtained which is found useful in How is it medicine, used? It is also employed to scent soap for toilet use. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. CLOVES. 1. THE CLOVE-TREE. 3. PREPARATION. 2. THE BUDS. 4. USES. 5. OIL OF CLOVES. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING CLOVES. 1. PICTURE OF CLOVE-TREE, 2. SAMPLE OF CLOVES. 3. ARTICLE OF FOOD FLAVORED WITH CLOVES. 4. BOTTLE OF OIL OF CLOVES. Where does pepper grow ? Describe the plant. What color and size are the berries ? When is the fruit gathered ? How do the berries look when dry ? What is black pepper ? The plant- — Pepper is a native of the East Indies, but is now cultivated in many tropical countries. It grows wild in China and India. It is a climbing shrub, with smooth, spongy- stems, and thick, ivy-shaped leaves. It is trained over poles and supports, and increased in size by frequent cutting of slips. The plant grows ten or twelve feet high. In three or four years the fruit appears. The flowers are small and white. The fruit is round and red when ripe, and about the size of a pea. Preparation. — Just before the fruit is ripe, it is gathered and dried in the sun. If allowed to fully ripen before being picked it loses much of its pun- gent taste. As the berries dry, they become black and wrinkled. Reduced to a powder, they form the ''black pepper" of commerce. Black and white pepper are procured from the same plant. White pepper is obtained from the seeds of the berries. They are removed from the pulp of the fruit and TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 69 bleached. They are in reality not white, but light How is white gray in color. Black pepper is much more spicy P ^ P P ^ «■ °b. than the white variety. ^'^\,{c\. vari- Uses- — No spice is so universally liked as pep- ^^^ "^ ^^^ "^"''^ per. It is used by all nations in cooking and pick- what ' th ling. It is employed somewhat in medicine. An common use of ointment prepared from this spice is used as a pepper? remedy for ringworm. ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^ it used ? Effects of pepper on the health —As a how does flavoring for food, in small quantities, pepper acts P^PP^"" ^^^ o" as a pleasant stimulant. When very much of it is taken, its effects are irritating and injurious. Cayenne pepper-— A variety of pepper is From where shipped from Cayenne in South America, which is ^" ^^ obtain particularly pungent and is greatly used in a green ^y^""^ P^P" state for pickling. The berries are bright red For what is when ripe. it used? w was Early use of pepper-- As a medicine, pep- H o per was used in very ancient times. pepper used in T 1 -111 • ^ . early times? In the middle ages it was known as a spice, but when was it was so costly that only very wealthy people could employed as a use it. A gift of a few pounds of pepper was con- spice? sidered a very generous offering. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. PEPPER. 1. THE PLANT. 4. EFFECTS ON THE 2. PREPARATION. SYSTEM. 3. USES. 5. VARIETIES OF PEPPER. 6. PEPPER IN THE MIDDLE AGES. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING PEPPER. 1. SPECIMENS OF PEPPER BERRY. 2. SAMPLES OF GROUND PEPPER. Source. — It would be difficult to name a sub- stance more necessary to the comfort of mankind than wood. For this material we are indebted to the forest trees which grow so plentifully in many parts of the world. The trunks of these wonderful products of nature represent beauty, strength and wealth. To name all the different species of trees which supply the great demand for wood, is impos- sible within the limits of this article, but we will consider a few of the most common ones. The Oak. — This tree takes precedence of all others for usefulness. The wood it furnishes is very tough and strong. It is used for making arti- cles that will be subjected to great weight or rough usage. It is particularly adapted to ship-building and quantities are used for this purpose. The timber is a brownish color and is very ornamental. It is used for furniture and for the decoration of buildings. The oak grows in England and in the United States, From what is wood obtained ? What por- tions of the trees are used as lumber ? What is the most useful tree ? What is oak used for ? What color is it? Where does the oak tree grow ? 72 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What color is "Wallltlt. — Much of the furniture in use at the walnut wood? present time is made of the timber of the black walnut tree. This tree is plentiful in most parts of the world. The wood is strong and handsome. A What is hick, common species of the tree, known as white walnut ory? or hickory, yields a very useful plain wood. Describe the Mahogaiiy.— The mahogany tree grows to an mahogany tree, immense size. Its trunk is from iive to six feet in diameter, and the foliage is very thick. It is a native of the West Indies. The wood is very valu- able, it is brown in color, shading from a yellowish hue to dark reddish-brown, and is beautifully veined. The trees are so large and the climate so hot, that it is a difficult task to procure the wood. The logs are drawn by oxen to the nearest stream and floated to the docks from which they are shipped to other countries. The wood is used for making furniture and articles made of it are highly polished and very handsome. What color is this wood ? pianos ? What wood iiose-"WOOd. — Vast quantities of this wood are nsed or ^^^^ f^j. flaking pianos. The rose-wood tree grows in the tropics. The timber is very hard and has a dark rich color. It receives its name from y IS 1 so ^-j^g pg^-^jj^j. Q^Qj. j|- possesses, somewhat like that of a rose. Name a very Pine. — This wood is Very plentiful and ranks useful wood. next to the oak in usefulness. The trees grow in Where does many parts of the world, those found in cold coun- it abound? tries like Russia, Norway and Sweden, yielding the best timber. The white pine of our own coun- For wha\ is . '■ it used? ^^y *^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ producing wood much in demand for house building and for the masts of vessels. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 73 Maple. — Very handsome articles are made of Whaicanyou this wood. It is beautifully grained and marked, sayotemape ^ ° tree? The tree is American in origin. The Chestnut tree.— This tree grows abun- ^vhatcanyou dantly in this country and is found also in the say of the chest- southern part of Europe. The wood is very dur- nut tree? able and is much used for railings, posts and strong household furniture. Jj g s c r 1 DC Ebony. — This wood is very dark in color, the ^ , most valuable being black. The ebony tree is found in Madagascar and Ceylon. The timber can be highly polished and is used for decorating arti- Where does 1 J r ii- 1 • J r 1 /-ii • i J the tree grow ? cies made of other kmds of wood. Objects made entirely of ebony are very expensive. Cedar. — A species of the cedar tree called the ^j^^^ ^^^^ "cedar of Lebanon," is mentioned in the Bible, was used many The wood at that time was used for building relig- centuries ago ? ious temples. Varieties of this tree are found in many parts of the world. The cedar used in this Describe the country is from the West Indies and the Southern States. The color is reddish, and the wood although strong, is not heavy. It is used for mak- ing furniture, particularly chests and wardrobes in ^ , . ^. , , ' For what is which clothes are packed away as moths cannot it used now? eat through it. Row-boats made of it are grace- ful and easy to manage. Lead-pencils are made of this wood. Fuel. — Besides its importance in building and the manufacture of furniture, wood is necessary as What great /-IT • 1 1 • - -1 want does wood fuel. In some regions, where coal is not easily , p obtained, it is the only fuel used. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. 1. SOURCE, 2. OAK. 3. WALNUT. 4. MAHOGANY. 5. ROSEWOOD. W^OOD 6. PINE. 7. MAPLE. 8. CHESTNUT. 9. EBONY. 10. CEDAR. 11. WOOD AS FUEL. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING WOOD. 1. PICTURES OF VARIOUS TREES. 2. SAMPLES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD. 3. ARTICLES MADE OF WOOD. The cork tree. — Cork is obtained from a tree which is very much like the oak in appearance. The trees are allowed to grow to be from ten to fifteen years old before any cork is collected. The cork is the outside surface of the trunks of the trees, that is, the bark. Cork trees sometimes live to be one hundred and fifty years old. They grow in Spain, Italy and Portugal. How the cork is procured— The bark is cut into in a lengthwise manner and stripped off in sheets. In a year the new bark forms and the trees appear as they did at first. The process of removing the bark is repeated every few years, the quality and quantity of cork being improved at each operation. The cork is collected in July and August. How the bark is treated— The sheets of bark are soaked in water and heavy weights placed on them to prevent their rolling up. When they are dry they are ready for use. From what is cork obtained ? Where does the tree grow ? What part ot the tree is used ? How is the cork obtained? How long do the trees live ? What is done to the bark ? 76 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. At first these sheets of bark were cut into corks by hand, no instrument being used but a knife. ° ^ , ^."^^ Now all the cutting^ is done by machinery. The corks for bottles ^ • i , made? sheets are divided into narrow strips, then these strips are cut into pieces the right length and „,, . rounded into corks such as are used for bottles. What nation manufactures The French are more expert in the manufacture of the best corks? corks than any other nation. Uses of cork- --Most of the cork obtained is used for making stoppers for bottles. It is so elas- tic that after being pressed tightly into the neck ol What is cork , , . ^,, , , used for? ^ bottle, it fills the space so that no air can pass in, nor can the contents of the bottle escape. Cork is also used for the soles of slippers and shoes. Why 1 s 1 1 It is so light that it floats easily on the surface of adapted to mak- ° . i-^ •. • ing life-prcser- ^he Water, and because it possesses this quality it is vers and life- used for life-presefvers and in the construction ol boats? life-boats. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. CORK. 1. THE COEK-TREE. 3. HOW TREATED. 2. HOW THE CORK IS PROCURED. 4. USES. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING CORK. 1. PICTURE OF TREE. 2. PIECE OF BARK. 3. CORKS FOR BOTTLES. 4. LIFE-PRESERVER OR PICTURE OF ONE. 5. CORK SOLE. 6. PICTURE OF LIFE-BOAT. Of what is glass made ? Describe the process of manufacture. Wliat tools do the workman use? Is glass easily broken ? Manufacture. — Glass is composed of a mixture of fine sand with soda, potash or some such material. Such substances are called alkalies and have a caustic or burning effect upon anything with which they are mixed. The sand and alklai are placed in a large furnace the shape of a cone. The fire is in the center and the melting pots are placed in a circle around it. Strong heat is applied and soon the mixture is reduced to a soft, sticky mass. This must be formed into the desired articles while it is hot. G-laSS blowing. — The workmen use long iron pipes with which they dip out portions of the melted glass. They then blow it into molds, the shape of the bottles, vases etc., they wish to make. When dry these articles are very brittle. A skillful work- man, from a small bubble of the hot glass, can by dexterous turns of the pipe, form very beautiful and elaborate ornaments. Besides the pipe, the work- man uses shears and tongs, and an iron rod. Kinds of glass. — The varieties of glass now in use are made by slight changes in the manner of manufacturing. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 79 Flint glass. — Sometimes powdered flint is used What is flint instead of sand. Glass made from this material is 8 ass? very clear and transparent. It is used for eye- ^° ^'^^^ P^^' glasses and optical instruments, also for imitating adapted - precious stones. Plate glass. — is used for very large windows ^^ ^'^^* ^""^ such as are found in stores and public buildings. It . , '^ ° window-panes is made by spreading the melted glass upon a flat niade? plate of copper and making it level with a heavy roller. When it is cold it is polished with putty and emery until it is smooth. This glass is very expensive. It is used in the manufacture of mirrors. How is this glass prepared? What is annealing ? What use Annealing. — For the latter purpose, the glass undergoes a process called annealing. It is placed so near the fire that it will become warmed through ,„;ide of an without melting. It is then allowed to cool very neaied glass ? slowly. This operation prevents the glass from What metal is breaking easily. One side of the glass is then cov- ,' . ^ ■' ° lacturing ni i r- ered with quicksilver. rors? It will then reflect objects in front of it and is made into mirrors. CrOWn-fiClass. — This is the most common kind ^^^' '*^ ^°'"" - , T, 1 "/- -1 . It , m o n g 1 a s s of glass. It used for wmdow-panes, tumblers and j,^]!^^^ dishes. What is made Bottle-glass.— IS made of the old melted glass of refuse glass ? that is left after different articles have been made. It is of a very poor quality and is dark in color. Enamel. — This is glass which is white like What sub- milk, and opaque. Oxyd of tin is added to the '^^"f '^p^'"'' a milky hue to melted glass and gives it this color. Watch dials glass? are made of it, and ornaments. 8o TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What nation HistOry Of glaSS. — The Egyptians manufac- first manufac- ^^^^ed glass thousands of years ago, and from it tured glass ? 1,1 , . , , . , made beads and imitation gems, also curious urns and drinking vessels. Some of these can now be seen in museums. The first country of Europe to engage in the manufacture of glass was Italy. From there it was introduced into England, and later by the English into the United States. What coun- A Very pure sand is needed and this is not plenti- t r y furnishes (^^\ Xhg finest is found in Massachusetts in the the best sand ? ^ i\/r j. • Green Mountains. Importance of glass.— We have only to look around us to realize what a useful article glass is. Name all ihc Mirrors, window-panes, vases and articles for the articles you can, table formed of this material constantly meet our that are made yig^y Por many ccnturies glass was very expen- ^ ^^^ sive and only royal families could afford articles Is glass ex- made of it. It is now so plentiful and cheap that pensive ? all may possess it in some form. Discovery of glass-making.— The follow- ing story has been handed down to us from former generations in relation to the art of making glass. Its truth cannot be vouched for, however. A party of pirates landed on the shore, some- Repeat t h e where in the northern part of Africa. They built a story told of the large fire of sea- weed with which to cook their origin of glass? ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ j^^j bumed out, they found pieces of glass in the ashes. The sandy ground upon which the fire had been built, and the alkali in the sea-weed had united and the heat of the fire had converted them into glass. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. GLASS. 1. MANUFACTUBE. 2. FLINT-GLASS. 3. PLATE-GLASS. 4. ANNEALING. 5. BOTTLE-GLASS. 6. ENAMEL. 7. HISTOEY OF GLASS. 8. USES OF GLASS. 9. SUPPOSED ORIGIN OF GLASS-MAKING. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING GLASS. 1. SPECIMENS OF SAND, FLINT, POTASH, SODA, &c. 2. OBJECTS MADE OF GLASS, AS VASE, BOTTLE, BEADS, ETC. 3. PIECE OF LOOKING GLASS. 4. WATCH-DIAL. (ENAMEL.) What is sponge ? Where is it found ? What are tlie qualities of sponge ? Describe its appearance. How is food supplied ? Name some of the forms sponge as- sumes ? Origin- — For ^ long time sponge was supposed to be of vegetable origin but it is now known to be an animal of the lowest order. The animals are at- tached to rocks, shells and other hard substances belovv the water. Appearance. — Sponge is a very soft, elastic substance, consisting of a horny framework, made up of innumerable small tubes, branching from larger ones which grow still larger near the center of the sponge. These tubes all have openings at the sur- face of the sponge and are filled throughout their length with a jelly-like, fleshy substance. Through the pores at the end of the small tubes the sponge takes in water, which passes through the tubes and finally out again through the openings of the large tubes. The nourishment for the sponge is thus supplied, the food necessary for the growth of the animal being left by the water. Sponges are of various shapes, some being almost spherical, others cone-shaped, cylindrical, cup-shaped or bottle- TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 83 shaped. Some have very coarse fibres, others are fine as thread. From what countries obtained— The ^^°^^ ^hai finest sponges are from the waters on the coast of ^"""^""y ^° ^''^" /- T r-.i-i,/-,. , finest sponges Greece. In some of the islands of this country the come? people are trained when very young to dive for Fr 1 • ,1 -Mr ^^ What seas ine sponges are found in the JMediter- f„rnish o ? ranean and Red Seas and on the coast of Florida Where are and the West Indies. tl^,^^ 3,^, P Preparation for use- — When first removed Where are from thj water, the sponges are slimy and sticky ^^^ West owing to the jelly-like matter in the tubes. There ,.,,,... , ,, How do the IS also mineral matter in the sponges, such as small . 1 '^ ° ' sponges feel stones and shells. The sponges are buried in the when first sand for a few days, when the animal matter be- gathered? comes putrid and can be easily washed out. The How are they mineral substances are reduced to a powder by ^^^^ ^ heating the sponges and can then be removed with- °^ ^^^ ^ A sponges pre- out trouble. After thorough washing and soaking, pa^ed for ex- the sponges are dried and sent to other countries. port? Uses of sponge — As an article for the bath. How is sponge is familiar to all. It is of great use to phy- sponge used? sicians and chemists. The French have taken advantage of the felting What use is properties of sponge and make it into a kind of '"^'^^ ° P°"^^ 1^1 1-1.1 r .1 r 1 • r bv the French : cloth whicli they use lor the foundation of carpets and rugs. Sponge is sometimes used to stuff cush- ions and furniture. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. SPONGE. 1. NATURE OF SPONGE. 2. APPEARANCE. 3. HABITS OF NOURISH- MENT. 4. COUNTRIES FURNISH- ING IT. 5. PREPARATION FOR USE. 6. USES. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING SPONGE. 1. SPONGES OF VARIOUS DEGREES OF FINENESS. 2. MAPS OF SEAS AND COUNTRIES NAMED. From "what source.— The large teeth or tusks of the elephant, walrus and hippopotamus fur- nish a hard, bony material which is called ivory. The largest supply and finest quality of this article comes from Africa. Much of the ivory in use is obtained from collections of bones and tusks found in Asia, which are supposed to be the remains of a species of animals, immensely large, now no longer in existence. The bones and tusks so found are usually imbedded firmly in the soil and seem to be a part of it. Many valuable tusks are often found together, some weighing over one hundred-and- eighty pounds, and as much as ten feet in length. The tusks obtained by hunting the elephants of Africa and India are much smaller than those men- tioned, the weight of a tusk sometimes being fifty or sixty pounds, but usually much less. Appearanceof Ivory.— The ivory procured from elephants is a hard, white substance, fine in texture and showinc^ when examined a fine network What is ivory? Where is the best ivory ob- tained ? Where do fos. sils furnish ivory? Describe these tusks. What is the usual weight of a task ? Describe the appearance o t ivory. 86 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What are its composed of Curved lines crossing and interlacing qualities? each other. Ivory is somewhat elastic and can be made still more flexible by placing it in a solution of phosphoric acid. It then becomes semi-trans- parent. Namearticles UseS OflVOry.— Large quantities of this sub- made of ivory, stance are used for knife-handles, billiard balls, chessmen, portions of games and toys. The keys of pianos and parts of other musical instruments are What people made of ivory. France manufactures beautiful are the finest articles out of this material, but the Chinese are wor eis in ^[^g jg^ding Workmen in this art. They carve it ivory? '^ ... with the utmost delicacy, and make mmiature chapels, gods, images, vases and ornaments of it, the ivory often presenting a lace like appearance. How is ivory It is often used as a background for delicate paint- used by artists ? jj^gg aiijj portraits. Ivory obtained from the hippo- potamus is very white and not grained like the ele- What kind of phant ivory. It is used by dentists for making arti- ivory do den- fjcial teeth. The various uses of ivory make it a tistsuse.'' substance of great importance and the demand What about ^'^^ ^^ ^^ Constantly increasing. Thousands of the demand for elephants are slaughtered every year to meet this ivory? demand. What book Early history of ivory.— The value and mentions ivory? beauty of ivory Were appreciated in very early What nation ^i^'i^GS. It is frequently spoken of in the Bible. The made statues of Greeks made statues of it, one in particular, repre- this material ? senting the Olympian Jupiter, being of wondrous beauty, and showing the great skill of the sculptor Phidias. The Romans used ivory in quantities and by them it was introduced into other portions of Europe. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 87 Vegetable ivory- — This substance which Whatisvege closely resembles animal ivory in appearance, is ^^ ^ '^""^^ the fruit of a tree of the palm species, growing in Peru and other sections of South America. The Describe the tree is very beautiful, having light green, pointed tree furnishing leaves of great size. In general appearance they *^' '■ resemble tufts of immense ostrich feathers. The flowers grow in thick clusters. The fruit is as large what part of as a man's head, and contains many nuts the size the tree is used? of a hen's egg. The kernels of these nuts furnish the hard, white substance known as vegetable ivory. It is used for making buttons, umbrella and ^f vegetable cane handles and articles of jewelry. ivory? BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. IVORY. 1 1, SOURCE. 4. CHINESE WORK IN IVORY.' 2. APPEARANCE. 5. EARLY USE OF IVORY. 3. USES. 6. VEGETABLE IVORY. 7. ITS USES. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING IVORY. 1. ELEPHANT'S TUSK. 2. OBJECTS MADE OF IVORY. 3. PICTURE OF PALM, PRODUCING VEGETABLE IVORY. 4. BUTTONS &c. MADE OF IT. Manilfactlire. — Bricks are made of clay, which is abundant in many localities. This clay contains iron, lime and potash. It is dug up and exposed to the air for quite along time, and is then mixed with water until it makes a thick paste. Formerly this was done with a spade and the bricks were placed in little wooden molds by hand, but now the whole process of brick-making is generally performed by machinery. The machines are quite complicated and many skilled workmen are needed to attend to them. When the clay is finally removed from the machines, it is in the form of bricks which are moist and are called green bricks. A single brick-making machine, run by steam- power, turns out from twenty to thirty thousand bricks a day. Th.e kilns. — The green bricks are dried by gentle heat, sometimes the heat of the sun being sufficient. The final process is the baking of the bricks in immense ovens, called kilns. It takes from two to seven days to bake ox fire bricks. Of what are bricks made? Of what is clay composed ? How are tht bricks made ? What are green bricks ? How are the bricks dried ? W li a t are kilns? How long does it take to fire bricks ? 90 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What affects The COlOP ofbrlcks.— After the baking, the the color of bricks? bncKs assLime various shades, due to the amount of iron contained in the clay. If there is much iron in the clay, the bricks will become red when fired ; if only a small proportion of iron is present, the bricks are cj'eani colored. What is terra TePraCotta. — Very fine clay is sometimes cotta? made into ornamental bricks of various shapes, known by the general name of terra cotta. This material is of a delicate red color and adds greatly to the appearance of a building. Many architects For what is . . & / it used? use it in place of the stone and marble decorations formerly the fashion. Terra cotta is also used for urns and statues. What nations Eaplj Mstory of bricks.— The inhabitants first engaged in of Egypt, Babylon and Assyria were the first to brick manufac- ^ , i • i t-> i i \ r P manufacture bricks. Rough vessels and fragments of brick tombs have been found, fully three thous- and years old. Bricks at that time were probably dried in the sun, as the building of kilns was intro- Of what ma- ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^j^ j^^^j. period. The bricks of tenals did they make the ancient times were made of clay mixed with grass, bricks? Qj. straw. In India, the walls of old towns are made of brick, and the ruins of great buildings in Rome are of the same material. The Romans What nation introduced the art of brick-making into England. introduced this Various portions of the United States furnish clay, industry into .,.,. England? ^"*^ ^^e manufacture of bricks is an important in- dustry. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 9I XJses, — The bricks are used for building houses, ^'°^ "'la^ arc 111-1 111 I'ricks used? churches, bridges, towers, pavements, walls, arches, cisterns, vats, etc. They are cemented together ... "^ ° are brjcks ce- with mortar, which is made of sand and lime. men ted to- The mixture of which bricks are made is itself S^tiei. 1 r , • in .1 What ai tides used for makmg coarse vessels, rlower-pots and , ^ , ° ^ are made 01 tlie jars. clay mixture? BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. BRICKS. 1. MANUFACTURE. 4. TEERA COTTA. 2. THE KILNS. 5. USES OF TERRA COTTA. 3. APPEARANCE OF BRICKS. 6. HISTORY OF BRICKS. 7. USES OF BRICKS. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING BRICKS. 1. SAMPLES OF CLAY. 2. BRICKS. 3. SPECIMEN OF TERRA COTTA. 4. FLOWER-POT, JAR &c. MADE OF BRICK. Source. — India rubber is obtained from larg^e trees, which grow in India, Central America, Mexi- co, and Brazil. The largest quantity of rubber comes from the latter country in the region of the Amazon river. How procured. — A hole is bored in the trunk of the tree, and a thick juice of a yellowish white color flows out. If kept in a bottle, closely corked, it retains its fluid state, but if exposed to the air soon hardens. Preparation for the market.— The juice is placed in molds of clay and heated over a wood fire so as to hasten the hardening process. The molds are in various shapes and when heated sufficiently they are broken and the rubber removed. The latter is in the form of the molds and has assumed a dark color from the action of the smoke of the wood fire. India rubber in this form is exported to other countries. Qualities of rubber.— This substance is also known by the na.mes ca(niUko7(c and ^um-elastic. As From what is India rubber procured ? Where does the rubber tree grow ? How is tlie India rubber obtained ? What is its appearance ? How prepared export ? It for What gives it a dark color ? What other names are applied to rub- ber ? 94 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. What are its the latter term implies, it is pliable, extremely elastic properties. and soft. At the same time it is tough and not What is the easily cut. It burns when lighted, with a white effect of burning fl^me and thick smoke, and emits a strong, disagree- able odor. Uses of caoutchouc. — The extreme elasticity of this substance makes it available for many pur- Name articles . '■ made of India poses. Air cushions, portions of surgical instru- rubber. ments and delicate machinery are made of this material. As it does not dissolve in water or allow liquids to pass through it, water-bags and liquor pouches are fashioned of it. It is employed in How is rib- making elastic bandages, garters, suspenders etc. bon elastic,. r . i • • i . .. i made? it IS woven tor this purpose into an elastic ribbon, the rubber in fine threads running the length of the How IS It ribbon, the cross threads being of silk or cotton used ? . . ° Cut into small pieces rubber is used to erase pencil Why is this marks. The property it has of removing lead pen- substance called ., , 1 •, ^ 1 111 T 7 rubber ? cil marks caused it to be called rubber. "Waterproof clothing.— When India rubber ant liquid^ "^is ^^ mixed with naphtha, turpentine or ether it forms a made of rub- liquid which makes any substance to which it is ap- plied thoroughly water-proof. When cloth is cov- ered with a layer of this liquid it is used for making How is it ladies' rain-cloaks, gentlemen's coats, over-shoes, "^^ boots, and blankets for carriages. What is Mackintoshes — This name is applied to rain- Mackintosh .,,.,. , cloth ? cloaks made ot a strong material which is composed of two layers of cotton or linen with a layer of rub- ber paste between them. The cloth so prepared used°P^^^ '^' receives its name Mackintosh from the inventor of the fabric. The cloth is often striped or checked . . and garments made of it are pretty as well as ser- What is Its . *=> f / appearance? viceable. TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 95 Vulcanized rubber. — When the caoutchouc what is vui- ... , , 1 ' 1 • ^ J i. • i. t i. canized rubber? IS mixed with sulphur and subjected to intense neat it undergoes a complete change. It becomes more Name articles elastic than ever, but loses its adhesive qualities and made of it. is not affected by heat or cold. It is used for •^ . How IS It springs, belting, gas tubes, and hose-pipes. When made still more a pitchy substance is added it becomes hard and ornamental? black, and when highly polished is a very handsome material. It is used for making combs, boxes ^ For what is it ornaments, knife-handles, buttons, chains, jewelry, etc. The art of vulcanizing rubber was discovered by thf alt^or ^ul- a man named Goodyear in New York City. canizing dis- Th.e rubber tree. — The tree from which this gum is obtained grows to a great height before the How is the branches spread out. The species from India is so rubber tree val- ^ ^ ued in this beautiful that it is cultivated as an ornamental plant country? in some conservatories in this country. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. INDIA RUBBER. 1. SOURCE. 6. USES. 2. COLLECTING IT. 7. RIBBON ELASTIC. 3. PREPARATION FOR EX- 8. WATERPROOF CLOTHING. PORT. 9. MACKINTOSHES. 4. PROPERTIES. 10. VULCANIZED RUBBER. 5. OTHER NAMES APPLIED IL ITS USES. TO IT. 12. THE RUBBER TREE. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING INDIA RUBBER. 1. PICTURE OF RUBBER TREE. 2. PIECE OF RUBBER. 3. RIBBON ELASTIC. 4. RUBBER BAND OR BALL. 5. SAMPLE OF VULCANIZED RUBBER. 6. BUTTONS, CHAINS, &c. MADE OF IT. 7. WATERPROOF CLOAK, OVER-SHOES, &c. Description of plant— Tobacco is a plant five or six feet in height, which grows extensively in North America, and is cultivated in other coun- tries. It has a moist, hairy stem, and very large leaves, these latter being sometimes two feet long. The leaves are arranged round a single stalk, and the flowers, which are white and shaped like a funnel, grow at the top of the plant. Cultivation- — The tobacco plant requires a rich soil. It is raised from seed, which is usually sown in January, in little seed-beds. The seed- beds are protected from frost by spreading small branches of trees over them. By June, the plants have made a fine start and are then transplanted to another field. The transplanting must take place in rainy weather or the shoots will not grow. ^?V^h.ere raised- — Tobacco is cultivated in the West Indies, in the southern portions of the United States and in Connecticut. Virginia is considered the best tobacco-growing state. The plant is also raised in some parts of Europe. Describe the tobacco-plant. How are the leaves arranged? Where do the flowers grow? How is to- bacco c u 1 1 i - vated ? When does the trans-plant- ing occur ? Where is the plant raised ? Where is Vir- ginia? gg TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. Preparation for the market.— The plants are cut down, usually at noon-time, when the sun is hottest and spread out to dry. In some regions, llow are the regular drying-barns are built, and the tobacco stalks are hung up in them until the leaves are dry. When first cut, the leaves have very little taste or How do the smell, but when dry, the taste is extremely bitter, dry leaves taste ^^^j ^j^^ odor is Strong and disagreeable. When and smell? r- i i i i -in perfectly dry, the leaves are a greenish-yellow color. They are stripped from the stems, sorted ^'^ and packed for exportation. The leaves growing the poorest^ ^ ° ° leaves? lowest on the plants are the least valuable. How is to- Methods of using-— Tobacco leaves are pre- baccoused? pared for use in several ways. Rolled up tightly, they form cigars. When used with a pipe, they Whatissnufl? ^^^ cut into small pieces, and when ground very fine, snuff is the result. For chewing, the leaves are pressed into small cakes and enveloped in tin foil. Wide-spread use of tobacco-- There is no How did the climate in which tobacco is not consumed in some American Indi- form. Both civilized and savage nations make use anss ow iien - ^^ .^ j^ .^ thought that the habit of smoking was snip r ° _ ° prevalent among the Indians of America, long AA7U » before the first white settlement was made. For What is a Calumet? Indians of different tribes to smoke together is a sign of good feeling, and the Calumet or "pipe of Which people peace" is always smoked after a bargain or treaty are the greatest has been Completed. The Turks and Persians are smoers? the greatest smokers in the world. In India also, nearly every one smokes, and in China the habit is ere do universal, even little girls using pipes. these people ^ a r r live? Discovery by Spaniards — Tobacco was TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. 99 discovered by the Spaniards in the latter part of ^^ '^^ intro- the fifteenth century in St. Domingo. One of the :'"'*''^ '''^^'''''' f--i -1 ri T-1, '"^'^ England? Spaniards carried some oi the tobacco to bngland, where it was raised at first merely as an ornamental How was it and curious addition to the garden. It was soon 'Jsed at first? considered a luxury to smoke, and the use of tobacco was adopted by the wealthy. Effects of using tobacco-— The effects of How does tobacco upon the human system are universally chewing affect acknowledged to be injurious. When chewed, it P^°pi*^'' discolors the teeth, and impairs the digestive organs. No one who is naturally orderly and neat, would indulge in this disgusting habit. When u it a clean smoked moderately, its action on the system is at habit? first pleasant, but habitual use of tobacco in this form causes many diseases. One of the most dan- what are the gerous results of a constant use of tobacco is par- dangers of con- alysis, or loss of the power of moving any part of ^^^"' smoking? the body. The oil which is found in the leave*- is where do a deadly poison. It is said that the Hottentots the Hottentots kill snakes by dropping some of this oil on their ^'^e? tongues. Cigarettes.— The most harmful way in which of what are tobacco is used, is in the form of cigarettes. These cigarettes made? are seldom made of pure tobacco, but are formed from the stumps of old cigars and refuse matter. Many young boys injure their health by smoking cigarettes. No decrease in use.— in spite of the suffer- fjas suffering ing caused by tobacco, and the many learned lessened the to- writers who have expressed their disapproval of it bacco habit? in strong language, the habit of using the weed is in no way diminished. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. TOBACCO. 1. SOURCE. 2. CULTIVATION. 3. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCA- TION. 5. HOW USED. 6. EARLY USE OF TOBACCO. 7. DISCOVERY OF TOBACCO. 8. EFFECTS OF ITS USE. 4. PREPARATION OF LEAVES. 9. CIGARETTES. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING TOBACCO. 1. TOBACCO LEAF. 2. CIGAR. 3. CIGARETTE. 4. SNUFF. 5. CAKE OF TOBACCO FOR CHEWING. How made. — Paper, at the present time, is made of old rags. These are collected by peddlers, who sell them to the paper-manufacturers. The rags are sorted, so that those of the same color and quality will be together. They are cleaned and bleached until white. Chlorine is used for the bleaching. Then a machine with sharp knives cuts and tears the rags into tiny pieces. These pieces are mixed with water and form a pulpy substance. The water is drained away and the solid matter is subjected to great pressure until it is flattened into a thin sheet. When it dries, it is the material we call paper. The beauty and strength of paper depend upon the kind of rags used. Varieties of paper- -Writing-paper receives its fine surface from being dipped in a mixture of alum and hot glue. The paper is cut into sheets of various sizes such as are used for note-paper, leg al- cap , foolscap, &c. Twenty- four of these sheets form a quire, and a quire with envelopes to match is often put up in bo.xes for sale. The large sheets Of what is paper made ? How are the rags prepared for the machin- ery? What is done to the pulp ? How is writ- ing paper pre- pared ? How is it arranged to sell? I02 TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. are' usually sold by the ream. Twenty quires or four-hundred and eighty sheets make a ream. For what are Some note paper is very fancy in finish and hand- common rags f r J J used? somely decorated. Coarser paper, such as is used for drawing, blotting-pads, newspapers, &c., is made of the commonest rags. Of what is "VVall-paper is often made of old, worn-out made? pieces of paper, reduced to a pulp, and pressed over again. It is colored and printed with fancy colors. Whatispa.'te- "Pasteboard- — This material is made of several board? a. «,o u^ wv^c*,j. vi sheets of paper, pasted one above the other. It is For what thick and strong and vast quantities of it are used for making boxes. D ribe Papier-maclie. — Many articles, such as plates, papier-mache, pails, vascs, &c., are made of a strong paper sub- stance, called papier-mache. The rag pulp is mixed with glue or sizing and moulded into the Of what use , . j i t-i -• i ^• igjiP desired shape. 1 he articles are sometimes var- nished and are then durable and water-tight. What is pap- Ancient methods of paper-making-— The yrus? Egyptians made paper out of a reed-like plant which grew on the banks of the Nile river. The For what ° used? plant was called papyrus, and the name paper is derived from that word. The bark of this plant was stripped off and flat layers made of it. One Where is layer was pasted on top of another and a strong Egypt? material was made upon which the Egyptians wrote. Ch^nesTlite?*" ChineSC-paper — The Chinese manufacture various kinds of paper, using many different sub- Of what do stances. They make it of the bark of plants, of theymake r-n '-r^^ - iij paper? cotton, and of Silk. They make a fine paper callea TALKS ABOUT COMMON THINGS. IO3 rice-paper which is used for wrapping up delicate articles, for table-napkins, and for printing upon. The Japanese manufacture strong paper from the ^j^^^ ^[^ j,^ ^ bark of the mulberry tree. It is used for umbrellas, Japanese use? tents and articles of clothing. It looks much like where is silk and is varnished, so that it will be water-proof Japan? Uses of paper- — Many of the ways in which paper is used have been already mentioned. Print- ing was invented after paper had been manufactured for many years. It would be of little use, were there not such a cheap material plentifully sup- what art de- plied. Newspapers and books require quantities of P^^n^he^m^an^ this material, and there is hardly a small town ufacture of even, where some work of this kind is not done. ^^^ All large cities have one or more printing estab- is much paper lishments and it would be difficult to estimate the ^'^^'^^ amount of paper used daily. The first paper-makers.— The nests of wasps are made of a substance resembling paper. These little insects make this material by mixing n,ake^pape,T''' the fibres of trees and plants with their saliva so as to form a pulp. They spread this pulp out and build nests of it, either in a hole in the ground, or of what do hanging from walls or the branches of trees. ^'^^y '"^'^^ '^'' The nests are divided into cells, the walls being constructed of thick paper. Frequent additions are made to the nests, new Describe paper being made by the little manufacturers for ^waspsnes. this purpose. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. PAPER. 1. MANUFACTUEE. 4. PAPER MAKING IN EGYPT. 2. KINDS OF PAPER. 5. CHINESE-PAPER. 3. PAPIER-MACHE. 6. USES OF PAPER. 7. PAPER MADE BY WASPS. OBJECTS TO AID IN TEACHING PAPER. 1. OLD RAGS. 2. PAPER PULP. 3. DIFFERENT STYLES OF WRITING- PAPER. 4. NEWS-PAPER. 5. WALL-PAPER. 6. PASTE-BOARD. 7. ARTICLE MADE OF PAPIER-MACHE. 8. SAMPLE OF RICE-PAPER. LIBRARY OF CONGRESSi