FOR Teachers fACCOMPANYTHE PRIMARY ^UAGE CHARTS RK-CiNCINNATl -CHICAGO [CAN • BOOK • COMPANY LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. VS~\TZ^ ®|a{j - eajiiirijj^f :^tt Slielf..B.1i._ UNITED STATES OF A3IEEICA. / MANUAL FOR TEACHERS TO ACCOMPANY THE PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS A SERIES OF FIFTY CHARTS, BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED IN COLORS, AND FORMING A COMPLETE OUTLINE OF ORAL AND WRITTEN LESSONS IN THE CORRECT USE OF LANGUAGE, WITH EXERCISES IN PICTURE STUDY, WORD-FINDING, AND THE ELEMENTS OF WORD- BUILDING, SENTENCE-MAKING, AND COMPOSITION. V NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY \ ^f 7^X ' .\^' 6 \K- Copyright, 1892, by AMERICAN B()(JK COMPANY Press of J. J. Little & Co. Astor Place, New York INTRODUCTORY NOTE To speak and write the English language correctly and with fluency is the highest accomplishment that school training can confer. It is an accomplishment that cannot be got out of any system of rules. The child learns language by hearing it spoken, and if he does not hear' good English, if his own errors are not cor- rected, he cannot be expected to speak anything but bad English. Good English, then, is a habit. It is constant use and prac- tice, under vigilant correction, that make good writers and speakers, and the proper habits must be formed before the gram- matical text-book can be put into the child's hands, or else not formed at all. The study of grammar has reflective uses for maturer minds, but no bad speaker ever became a good one by the deliberate application of the rules of grammar to his speech. It is now agreed among educators that the study of forms should precede the analysis of functions ; that a great variety of practice should go before the rules, which are merely the con- densed expression of what the best practice is. They are agreed that grammar cannot be effectively taught to pupils under ten or twelve years of age, and that the earlier lessons in language are of the greatest importance, and would be of the highest value even if the technical grammar were never reached. Accordingly, these charts have been expressly prepared for use in those classes in which language-training is without book — where the teaching of English, though deriving some help from the reading-book, is principally oral. Their place in the school- 3 INTRODUCTORY NOTE room, therefore, is after reading-charts and before grammar. The purpose of the series is to supplement objectively the best oral teaching, and to provide a working outline for classes in which but little time can be devoted to oral instruction. The following principles underlie the detailed workings of the series : 1. The learner should not merely copy what is set down for him ; he should be taught to construct ; that is, to use language for himself. 2. He should assimilate knowledge, rather than memorize facts. 3. He should be called upon to do specific, concrete things, whose relations with one another will presently appear to him ; and not to perform general tasks without guidance. 4. The interest of the learner should, at every step, be pleasurably excited. This is the supreme test of educational method. The absence of such interest is proof conclusive either that the method is defective, or that the branch in which interest cannot be aroused is not a fit subject for the study of the given pupils, at the given time. Accordingly, every device that could make the approach to the several topics inviting has been sought for. A principal object of these lessons is to develop the faculty of written expression. For this half of English usage there is only one v\i\t— practice, and it is just here that, judged by results, our educational methods have proved deficient. How few are the graduates, even of our high-schools, who can write a good letter, or express themselves well and easily in writing on any INTRODUCTORY NOTE subject ; how few men and women can write as well as they can talk ! And of this few, how large a proportion have mastered the art of talking with pen-and-ink by laborious endeavor, and only from necessity, in the years of maturity ! Children can be as easily taught to write well as to speak well. All they need is practice^ and the special advantage afforded by written practice is that thus, more surely than in any other way, are correct forms fixed in the memory. The criticism of errors and defects should always be oral. In the teaching here prescribed technical terms are carefully avoided, and the theories and rules which will follow at a later stage are anticipated and prepared for by a great variety of exercises in usage. The series consists of fifty numbers, each of which is intended to be sufficiently suggestive to afford material for several lessons. If these lessons are of daily succession, a year's work is provided ; but if, as should be the case, parallel exercises and frequent re- views are required, much more time will be necessary to complete the series. At the stage where pupils, having learned to read and to write, are ready to begin the study of words and sentences, it is to be supposed that they understand clearly the differences between (i) an object and the picture of an object ; (2) an object and its name ; (3) the name of an object and the written or printed picture of that name. But, preliminary to the study of the first number of this series, there might well be an oral lesson to impress anew these distinc- tions. FINDING WORDS-A Picture Study girl swing goes comes Which are NAME -WORDS? W^hich are ACTION-WORDS ? X*^ it ^^^^ u What objects, or things, do you see in > ^^' this picture? r?^ Piad, on this chart. the words that are / NAMES of two of - these objects. What two words tell what the girl and the swing DO? ^^Z\ NAME-WORDS. !#' ACTION-WORDS. I. Readj Little Kate is having a good swing. Up, up she goes, and down she comes again! It is a pleasant thing to do. II. Copy, putting in the right words: 1. This nttle hkes to play. 2. How weU she stands in the 3. She up, and then she — 4. She goes up. and the -! — down again, goes up too. III. Say, in words of your own, something about the picture. Write what you have said. What is the little girl's name? What words tell w^hat she does? Write five name-words; five action-words. CHART I Picture Study Sentence Writing Choosing and Using Noun and Verb First oi all, do not try to teach too much. The chief object of this chart is to show children that there are different kinds of words. It would be foolish to bring out all the parts of speech at once. Here are nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Don't bewilder the child with all of them. Let your chief work be with the noun, or na?ne-7uord, and the verb, or actioji-word. With older classes, something may be hinted of the other kinds of words ; but it is always better to make the start very gradual and easy. We have a very simple series of exercises : A pleasing picture, with two or three sentences to be read. A little work in finding words in the given table, and using them in a written exercise. The requirement of some talk about the picture in answer to questions, and of writing what has been said. Some questions and practice in review of what has been learned. The teacher will find in the panel toward the right some hints toward instruction in the parts of speech. They will naturally develop about as follows : What objects or things do you see in this picture ? (A girl, a swing, a tree, a leaf.) 7 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS Find on this chart the words that are names of two of these objects. (Girl, swing.) What two words tell what the girl and the swing do ? (Goes, comes.) We here have two kinds of words, those that are names and those that tell the actions of the things named. We will call the first kind of words Nafne-words, and the sec- ond kind Action-words. Remember, name-words ; action-words. There are other kinds of words here ; some that tell the kind of girl, or hoiv the swing goes ; but we will now just be sure that we know these two kinds. Write them on your slate, each kind by itself : girl goes swing comes Why are girl and swi?ig called name-words ? (Because they are used to name objects.) And why are goes and comes called action-words? (Because they are used to tell what the girl and the swing do.) Then words are parted or grouped according to their use. Sometimes a word may be used in one place as a name- word, and in another as an action-word. I will write two sentences upon the blackboard : I see the swing. The girl can swing. In the first sentence, the word swing is a name-word. It is used to name the object which I see. In the second sen- PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS tence, swing is an action-word. It is used to tell what the girl can do. You see, it is the use of a word that tells what kind of a word it is. Words can be tised also to describe things, to take the place of the names of things, to connect other words, and in sev- eral other ways. Altogether there are eight different uses to which words can be put in speaking or writing. We shall learn of all these very soon. In the written exercise the proper copying will show the use of the initial capitals and of two of the terminal marks. These may be copied mechanically, or, in the option of the teacher, the reasons for their use may be given. The things that are said about the picture should take the form of complete statements. The writing of what has been said should be properly capitalized and punctuated. Additional exercises will suggest themselves for older classes. The little girl's name is begun with a capital letter. Why ? In the second sentence of the reading lesson we should commonly say, " She goes up," " She comes down ; " but the expressions, when inverted, as in this case, are brijjhter and stronger. Hence, too, the peculiar terminal mark. Now test the acquirement of the class by asking — (i) how many name-words can be found on the chart ; (2) how many action-words. Taking as a lext the pair of nouns and the pair of verbs as set out at the top of the chart, give an oral lesson upon — (i) the name of the thing talked about ; (2) the word that chiefly talks about it ; and (3) the natural (prose) order of noun and verb in our language. Call for work with pen or pencil at every turn. Let us keep in mind that we are trying to develop the faculty of ivritten expression. PAIRS OF WORDS— A Picture Study •«-Pind three name -words that the word HE may | stand for. ^-Find three name -words that the word SHE may stand for. I. Read Brother and sister are out to play The boy is Harry, and the girl is Nell. He is pulling and pulling, but see ! she is falling off. II. Copy, putting in the words that are left out: III. Write something about what you see in the picture, using the words Nell , boy, sister , she. Write something else, using the words Harr y, girl, brother , he . Copy the boy's name. Copy the girl's name. Copy, and commit to memory: Names of persons begin with a capital letter. CHART II Noun— Proper and Common Pronoun Introduced Two Uses of Capitals Exclamation Mark Apostrophe In this number we have again a picture, a reading lesson, a copy- ing exercise, and a little lesson in composition, followed by the rule for the use of capitals in proper names. The picture shows us three prominent objects to be named — the two children and the sled. Develop from the reading lesson the two names of persons, " Harry" and "Nell," and then the two pairs of common names, " boy, brother," and " girl, sister," that may be substituted for them. Show from the second sentence that these two kinds of names have different uses, that the former are names of particular individuals, and that the latter are not. With the third sentence as a text ask the questions : What word is here used instead of Harry? Is it like any words that you learned about from Chart I. ? For how many words in the reading lesson can you use he? What word in the same sentence is used instead of Nell? For how many words in the reading lesson can you use she? What mark at the end of the third line ? II I 2 PRIMAR V LANG UA GE CHAR TS Have you used it before ? Why is it used here ? The words that are to be put into the blanks of the copying exercise are obviously "boy" and "brother." They should be selected out of the reading lesson by each pupil. When the lines are copied and completed, we shall have two sentenceSy ending with the period. Require accurate copying of the capital letters with which the two sentences begin. Call attention to the initial capitals in the reading lesson. Ask : How many names in the two sentences as you have written them ? How many kinds of names ? Now draw attention to Nell in the reading exercise, and to NeWs in the copying exercise. These words are not quite alike. How are they unlike ? Why are they unlike ? They have different forms because they have different uses. Pupils are asked in the third exercise to "write something," etc. Let whatever is written be in the form of complete sen- tences, with proper capitals and points. It matters little what is the substance of these sentences, so long as learners write, and write in correct fonns. For instance : — Nell is having a ride. The boy is drawing her on his sled. She is his sister. PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS This little girl and her brother Harry are playing. How fast he runs ! The relation between the two groups of words will become apparent to pupils without much help. They are a little word- lesson in the gender of nouns and pronouns. When this has been made clear, bring out the class distinction also. Six of these words are fiames. Write these six names. Two of these words are used instead of names. Write these two " for-names." These two names — Harry and Nell — begin with capital let- ters. Why ? Now, copy the rule. Now review what was learned from the first chart. Show what has been learned from this chart in addition. We now have three kinds of words, viz.: name-words, action-words, and words v^'^^^ for-names. W^e have also learned about the exclamation mark, the use of capitals, and the apostrophe. Fasten everything thoroughly in the child's mind. WORD FINDING — (suplvi.ng elupses) m ^fc«a.2^i mm^ This is a horse that two can ride. He is very strong, you see. . How fast his little feet trot I John and Kate are riding to town. 11. Copy, and put in the right words: TO THE TEACHER: Poinl uul thai, like Iht- ivord^ V HAT KIND OF. Tuin- ing back, show that gmdMu. pltaMutt hare a siuular use Draw attention in tli( rhjmc below to the tw<_ ad*erbs (up and dmm) that were used in the pre* charL III. Find, and copy three forms of writing the word TWO. What is the horse that is spoken of? Write two sentences about the horse. Write two sentences about John and Kate. Copy these lines: "See -saw. up and down, This is the way to go to town' CHART III Adjective Introduced Adverb Suggested Capitals in Verse Quotation Marks Here again we find a picture, with exercises of the same general nature as those in the preceding numbers. Some hints toward the treatment for this chart are given in the panel. The work for the class is in the several writing ex- ercises ; the work for the teacher turns mainly on the grouping of words according to their use. The method might be somewhat like this : In the first chart we found two words that told us of motion — goes and comes. AVhat word in the first sentence of this chart tells us of moving ? What word in the third sentence ? Find the word 7'ide in two other places on the chart. Find the word trot in another place. These two words are a sort of doing-words, or action-words. What word in the second sentence tells us something about the horse — tells us what kind of horse he is ? What word in the third sentence tells us ichat kind of itQt the horse has ? These two words — strong and little — are not names ; they 15 1 6 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS cannot be used instead of names ; they are not action- words. Tliey tell us something about objects or things. They tell us what ki?id of things are spoken of. They are quality-words, or describing-'^oxds. Find a describmg-\wovd on Chart I. Find another on Chart II. Use one word to desc?'ibe this table ; that chair ; that desk. Write five describing-words. What words have you put into the blanks ? Hoi'se diudfect are — what ? [Names.] Must you always use capital letters when you write them ? What sort of names are they ? What mark did you put after horse 1 Why ? Read the rhyme that is printed at the foot of the chart. What word in this rhyme is an action-word ? What two words go with this action-word to tell hoiv the action is done ? Have you already written these two words — up and down? SUPPLEMENTARY SUGGESTIONS. What mark is put at the end of the first line ? Why is not the same mark used at the end of the third line ? What word does he, in the second line, stand for ? PRIMAR V LANG UA GE CHAR TS \ J Write the word three. Find on this chart two signs that are used to represent this word. The second line of the rhyme, at the foot of the chart, begins with a capital letter. The first word of every line of poetry and of rhyme begins with a capital. This rhyme is copied out of a book of rhymes. The words are quoted. These marks that you see here, at the begin- ning and at the close of the couplet, are called quotation marks. We use them when we write the exact words that some one else has used. They show, without our saying so, that the words are not our own, but have been used by another. Finally, go over what has been learned before, and then review the new things introduced in this chart. We now have a fourth kind of word to add to our list, the describing word. We have also learned something more about capitals and quotation marks. Be sure and fix everything firmly in the minds of the children. CHOOSING THE RIGHT WORD— (sumlving ixlh-^is) IV Copy, putting in I, you, he, she, or itj 1. A boy scared the bird, and flew away. 2. I was looking, and saw — 3. Nell says that knows the boy. fly. 4. May be she will tell who is. Which of these •words do you use instead of your own name ? Which do you use instead of the name of any one you talk to ? Which do you use instead of the names of persons or things | you talk about ? _J II. Copy, putting in is or are : 1 Teeter — another name for see-saw. 2. Two feet and two feet — four feet. a Our horse never tired. 4. We say he . she , it ; but we say we , you , they — . Which word did you put in when only ONE was spoken of ? Wliich word did you put in when MOKE THAN ONE was spoken of? CHART IV Personal Pronoun "Is" and "Are" Sentence Writing Comma and Capitals This number gives us two copying exercises of four sen- tences each. That they are some- thing more than this is easily seen. The elHpses in the first group of sentences are to be supplied by selection from the personal pronouns of the singular number, as named in the instruction. All of these pronouns have been used in the three charts that precede this one, and some attention has been given to the principal purpose served by this part of speech. If, in this first group of sentences, the correct choice of words to fill the blanks seems a little difficult, it will be seen on closer examination not to be so. Instruct the class that all five of the given words must be used. There are six blanks ; conse- quently one of the words must be put in twice. No mistake will then be made ; or, if made, it will be easily corrected by the pupil himself. Be sure they agree with this : 1. A boy scared the bird and // flew away. 2. I was looking and /saw // fly. 3. Nell says that she knows the boy. 4. May be she will tell iw/c ^\\o he is. In the first panel, suggestions are given for eliciting from the class the distinction of the three persons — speaking, spoken to, 19 20 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS spoken of. Do not pass on until this is made clear to every pupil. Then, by blackboard illustration, show that a like distinc- tion in the use of the personal pronouns is made when 77iore than one person or thing is speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. This will prepare the way for filling out intelligently the blanks in the last sentence of the chart. In the second copying exercise the sentences are so prepared as to call to mind what has already been learned, and thus to give some help to pupils, as well as to arouse their interest. /$•, singular, and are^ plural, are the words to be supplied in the blanks. The distinction of number in these action-words is easily to be shown by questions such as are given in the lower panel. In the last sentence this distinction is made still clearer by using is in connection with the singular pronouns just learned, and are in connection with the plural pronouns. It is not necessary here to refer to the singular use of are. All of the sentences on the chart should, of course, be copied correctly, as well as filled out correctly. All of them begin with a capital letter, and close with a period. The first blank of the second sentence must be supplied with the pronoun /. Let it be written with a capital. Show that it is a word, that it is used for the name of the person speaking, and that it is always written or printed with a capital letter. Ask : If it were not necessary to begin a statement with a capital letter, if this were not the rule, would there be any capital letters needed anywhere on this chart ? PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 21 Where, and what, are they ? \^Nell and /.] Why do we begin Nell with a capital ? Why is /a capital letter ? What word that is printed in 4 is used instead of a name ? iVhat name is it used for ? How many words of this kind are printed in the last state- ment of the chart ? Explain the use of the comma in 2 ; of the hyphen in see-saw. How many name-words in the first statement ? How many action-words ? What sort of word is away? [It is the same kind of word as up and doivn, which we have used before. Such words are used to tell hoiv the action is done.] What kind of words are is and are 7 What kind of word is the first one in the second statement ? The third word in the fourth statement ? The pupil should be taught that all there is in language really is the using of the right word in the right place. But it requires practice, constant practice, to do th^s. Therefore, have the pupils write everything and write carefully. Writing is the best way to learn anything. FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION — (answering DinEcr questions) L Write answers, using all the word s of the questions, and no others: TO THE TEACHER: a I. This is ISi-U. a V n'-' 1 Is this Nell? 2. Is that a primer in her hand? a Is Nell showing puss the alphabet? 4. Does not puss know how to read yet ? 1. Thisis. 2. There - a That — 4. Tea 11. "Write answers, using only the words given 1. Is this Nell, too? 2. Is there tea in the cup ? a Is that the reason Nell holds it so high? 4. Would not tea be good for little puss? CHART V Composition — First Steps Changing Questions to State- ments Capitals and Punctuation In earlier lessons learners have been called upon to copy sentences, and to make up simple statements of their own. They have not been asked to write a series of sentences, turning on one general subject, and depend- ent on and related to one another. To do this, even in the very sim- plest way, is to take a step in English composition. It is not only unfair, but it is vain, to tell the beginner to "write a composition" about this, that, or the other. No one ever makes a successful beginning in that way. Nine adults out of ten would " make a bad fist " of the same thing. Pupils must be helped. To propose a task that cannot be fulfilled with reasonable effort is not to help, but to dishearten the learner. Suppose that, instead of disheartening the learners, we give them a first lesson in composition that, to begin with, they can do, and do well, and one that, besides, shall please and stimulate while it teaches. Here are two such exercises. Let the eight questions be read, four at a time. Call attention to the fact that all these sentences are questions, and that they are so marked. Explain the terminal mark, and point out that the answers pupils are asked to write must be marked by another sign. Transpose the first sentence orally. Write it on the black- board : TJiis is Nell. 23 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS Explain the change of order without change of words, and then show why the capital in Is has become a small letter, and the small initial in this has become a capital letter. Let all the questions be answered orally. It will appear at once that these lessons are something more than exercises in copying. The teacher will not fail to require complete state- ments in the oral answers as well as in those that are to be written. Each series of statements, when correctly written out, will result in a little " composition," of which the picture is the subject. In full they are as follows : I. 1. This is Nell. 2. That is a primer in her hand. 3. Nell is showing puss the alphabet. 4. Puss does not know how to read yet. II. 1. This is Nell, too. 2. There is tea in the cup. 3. That is the reason Nell holds it so high. 4. Tea would not be good for little puss. Some hints for word study are given in the panel upon the chart. Here, as elsewhere in the series, the references are back- PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 25 ward to earlier lessons, as often as this can well be done. For example, ask : What kind of word is tea 2 Frivier? What two objects are the same in both pictures? [Girl and kttte?i.^ Both objects have names which are used in the lesson. [Nell and puss^^ Why is Nell begun with a capital letter ? What word does her stand for in Exercise I. ? What does // stand for in Exercise II. ? What have you learned that is new on this chart ? Write the names of all the girls you have read about on these charts. Write the names of all the boys. Write something about Kate and Nell. Write something about John and Harry. Be careful to use the right kind of letters in writing these names. FIRST STEPS IN COMPOSITION— (contioted) VI answers, using only the words given: Is this man made of snow? Write 1. 2. Is his hat a wooden pail? -ii^^ 3. 4 5. 6. 7. 8. Are the boys pelting him ? Are they trying to^l:nbc hat off? ^"^ Can you see how pale the man is ? Will he stand firm? Will he not run away? Will he take no notice of these rude boys? 1. Begin each answer with a capital letter. 2. Put a period at the end of each answer. How the Piece will Read. The teacher should explain so (hat ovcrj child will under- stand how to transpose these words to make new sentences. Call attention to the change in the mark at the tuj of \hc QiiKMcrs. Alltxv no lu-w words. CHART VI Composition (continued) Word-Review Writing Statements Here again is a series of direct questions ; that is, questions the answers to which are involved in the very terms of the interroga- tories ; questions which can be answered oftentimes by an inver- sion of the order of their words. Such were the questions of Chart v., and in this number all of the words given, and no others, are to be used in the oral and written answers (statements). There is a slight advance in the length of the exercise. Pro- ceed as before by requiring oral answers, thus preparing the way for— " Write what you have said." The resulting exercise will read : 1. This man is made of snow. 2. His hat is a wooden paik 3. The boys are pelting him. 4. They are trying to knock his hat off. 5. You can see how pale the man is. 6. He will stand firm. 7. He will not run away. 8. He will take no notice of these rude boys. 27 28 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS The teacher should explain, so that every child will under- stand, how to transpose the words in order to make new sen- tences. Call attention to the change in the mark at the end of the answers. This is an excellent way in which to show the differ- ence between the period and the question mark. The picture is sufficiently spirited, the composition easy to write, and the treatment pleasing. If we may properly " speak the truth, even while laughing," it is hard to say why we need always pull a long face at our studies. There are the soundest and gravest reasons for making education //(f^j-^/// to take. Verbal questions on this number may take either of several forms, as : What words can you point out that are names of objects ? What words that stand for the names of objects ? Or, What words can you find that are used in the same way as wooden in the second line ? What word in the third line stands for the man? Still other questions will suggest themselves, as : What is the first name-word used in this lesson ? Rewrite the second, third, and fourth of your answers, using name-words in place of his, /u'm^ and his. PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 29 Do you like the change ? Why not ? If you should write he instead of the 7nan in the fifth question, would the change be a good one ? Why not ? What words does they in the fourth question stand for ? Why not use the words the boys in place of they ? Preparatory to the next step, show that the questions may be answered in other ways than by inversion of their very words — that, for example, most of these questions might be answered by a simple j'^j-y or that, if the first question had been, Did the boys ?nake this snow man ? the most natural form of the answering state??iefit would be, The boys made [not did make'X this snow man. An additional exercise that will be interesting is to have each pupil select some one of the boys shown in the picture, and say something about him. These sentences may then be written, and care should be taken in regard to capitals and punctuation. COMPOSITION LESSON— Second Stage vn ORAL EXERCISE. Preparatory to the exercise below practice on the following questions and simple changes of form: Did the wind carry? The wind did carry = The wind carried. Did it go? It did go = It went. Did Dash see? Dash did see = Dash saw. Did he run? He did run = He ran. "^ Did he catch? He did catch = He caught. Write answers, changing ONLY THE WORDS UNDEJILINED: 1 Is this Master Greorge, with his dog Dash ? 2. Did the wind carry George's hat away? SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER: The little story that the children nill make from these questions will be found in the Manual to thi* series of charts. Explain (!) the use of capital letters in proper naine'^. (-2) the sign of the possessive case in the seconil sentence. (3) the use of quotation-marks and U) the changes in capital lion that the exercise requires. letters and punctuation The itiisfvers to Questions I, 6, 6 will consi to 'J, 3. 4 may be made in the same way. rhiin;;. (he vcrb'forms, as shown at the head of 3. Did it go off across the fields ? 4. Did Dash see the hat go. and^ did he run and catch it?"^ 5. Has he brought it back to his young master? 6. Is George saying "Good dog, good dogl CHART VII Composition — Second Stage Capitals, Terminal Marks, and Quotations Sentence Explained In the oral exercise and the suggestions printed in the smaller type on the face of the chart will be found hints for the essential work of this number. The little composition that pupils are cotfipelled to write will read thus : 1. This is Master George, with his dog Dash. 2. The wind carried George's hat away. 3. Off it went across the fields ! 4. Dash saw the hat go, and he rail and caught it. 5. He has brought it back to his young master. 6. George is saying, " Cxood dog, good dog ! " Sign your names to what you have written, so that I can tell how each of you is getting along. Pretty soon I shall look these papers over, and if I see places where changes would improve them, I will mark them. But, first, I am going to tell you what it is that you have done. You have put six thoughts into writing. Each of them tells, or states, something, and so we call it a state?nent. Each begins with a capital letter, and ends with a period. You have, however, done something more than write six statements. You have written a composition. Suppose \writing\ I should write : 31 32 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 1. This is Nell. 2. George is a good boy. 3. The man is very pale. 4. Our horse has four feet. 5. Harry ran with the sled. 6. Kate is in the swing. There are six statements ; but they do not make a composition. They are statements that have nothing to do with one another, as you see. But the six statements that you have written on these i)apers have something to do with one another. They belong to- gether. They tell us a little story about the picture on the chart. Now I want you to notice that you have written these state- ments in the right order. It is just as necessary to put the parts of a composition together in their proper order as it is to put the parts of a statement together in their proper order. Take this first sentence [putting on the blackboard the six sentences printed on page 31]. Suppose I should put the very same words together in this way : George Master is Dash this with dog his. That does not make sense, because the words are not in the right order. It is just so with our little composition. Suppose we should change the first two statements about. You can all see that we don't want to talk about '' George " till we know who " George " is. So, also, we must not put the fourth sentence before the third, because we can't say, " Off it went," till we know what " it " refers to. PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 33 A composition is a writing in which the parts depend on one another, because they are all about the same general subject. In this lesson of to-day, the subject of our composition is the picture — we have written about the boy, the dog, and the hat that are shown in it. Require the underscoring of the action-words in sentences 2, 3, 4, as above. Then let their equivalents in the questions be pointed out. Most pupils will write the third answer thus : It we /it off across the fields. And a good result it will be ; but show that the answer will be sprightlier, and in this case better, if begun with the adverb as printed above. What kind of terminal mark will it then require ? Why ? For the same reason it would be well to put an exclamation mark at the end of your answer to the last question. Name, and explain, the three terminal marks used in this lesson. Teach that both questions and answers, when in complete form, are sen- tences — a word not yet used on the charts. Explain — (i) the use of capital letters in proper names ; (2) the sign of the possessive case in the second sentence ; (3) the use of quotation marks in the last sentence ; (4) the changes in capital letters and punctuation that the exercise requires. The answers to Questions 1, 5, 6 will consist of simple inversions of the words. Show that the answers to 2, 3, 4 may be made in the same way, but that it will be easier and more natural to change the verb- forms, as shown at the head of the chart. Point out that all of the questions begin with the same kind of word. Fol- low with other study of the parts of the sentence. 3 PICTURE STUDY AND COMPOSITION— (continied) VIII ORAL EXERCISE. Preparatory to the exercise below practice on the following questions and simple changes of form: Did I have? I did have = I had. Did I lend? I did lend = I lent. Did she whip? She did whip = She whipped. Did she lash? She did lash = She lashed. Did she ride? She did ride = She rode. Write answers, changing ONLY THE WORDS UNDERLINED: 1. ^d I have a little pony? Was his name Dapple-gray? TO THE TEACHER: 2. Did I lend him to a lady. to ride a mile away? a Did she whi p him? Did she lash him? Did she ride him through the mire? 4. Would I not lend my pony now. for all the lady's hire? Explain ihc required changes I capital letters and punctua- The< H-ill be the ramiliar lioos found in ihe Manual. Require the pupils to aiUND is a sentence that com- mands something. 4. Show me what you write. CHART X Changing : Statements to Commands Questions to Statements Commands to Questions The work called for in this number is but a piece of practice under the principles just devel- 'oped. As a help to the perform- ance of the several requirements, the statements, questions, and commands of the three exercises are so constructed as to be sug- gestive, because of association with earlier lessons, of the sentences pupils are to write. Thus, in Exercise I., The boys a7id girls will come out to play, recalls the command at the head of Chart IX.; and thus, also, the questions of Exercise II. point at once to the principles just taught. Oral work of various sorts will occur to the experienced teacher. Thus the first sentence of the chart may be changed to a question as well as to a command, and the last sentence of the chart may be changed to a statement as well as to a question. Attention will, of course, be given to the changes in punctua- tion and capitals that the several exercises involve. Thus, in the first exercise, two of the commands to be written will require the comma, and the last command will call for the exclamation mark. 43 11 CHOOSING WORDS OF TWO KINDS-(suc.cestive ellipses) XI in by to large little bright Copy, and put in the right words In the first sen- tence, "What two -things does IN bring together, or connect ? Does IN help to show what these two things have to do with each other? What kind of words are STARS and MOON? What kind of words have you placed be- fore these names to DESCRIBE them? Baby is — the cradle Aunt Mary sits — her side. Now, Mother will sing - little one. n. Copy, and put in the right words: What kind of sen- tence is the second script line, by itself? What kind of sen- tence is the last script line? the /jn^ov^n^AdyyM£^AJieJi/^^ CHART XI The Preposition Choosing Adjectives The Dash Word-Study On this chart, as in others where the space would allow of it, hints of the principal features that are to be enlarged upon are given in panel and in the smaller type. For convenience of refer- ence the panel is here repro- duced. In the first sentence, what two things does IN bring together, or connect ? Does IN help to show what these two things have to do with each other ? What kind of words are STARS and MOON ? What kind of words have you placed before these names to DESCRIBE them ? What kind of sentence is the second script line, by itself ? What kind of sentence is the last script line ? 45 46 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS Exercise I. — In the orderly progress of the language work, the purpose of this exercise is to show something of the nature and use of the second class of connecting words, the prepositions. Three of the more familiar of these particles \in, by, to\ are to be supplied in the written lesson. The simple declarative sentences are such as to make it very obvious that the prepositions are connecting words. Each is placed before the noun or pronoun which it connects with another word. Explain that the preposition shows a relation between the words which it connects. The written exercise will read : Baby is in the cradle. Aunt Mary sits by her side. Now, Mother will sing to her little one. Exercise II. — This again is an exercise in putting in the right words. It is well to compare these words with those sup- plied in the last exercise. Both are put before name-words. But while the former words were connecting words, called prep- ositions, these are describing words, or adjectives, such as we have had before. Are the words that you have put into the stanza like each other in any way you can think of ? We had the word little in the lesson about the see-saw. There it went with the name-word feet, and told you what kind of "feet." Look on the chart at the words that come after the blank spaces. They are all name-words, and these other words that you have put before them are describing words. PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 47 You can see how the names of things and the words that describe the things go together here, as you might expect. The written exercise will read : Sleep, baby, sleep— The large stars are the sheep ; The little stars are lambs, I guess ; The bright moon is the shepherdess- Sleep, baby, sleep ! At the end of the first and fourth lines of the song is a new mark. It is called the dash, and is generally used when there is a sudden change of thought, when, as in this case, the words that go before it would not lead you to expect the words that follow it. Why is there a semicolon at the end of the second line ? In writing the last exercise, the capitals and punctuation should be watched carefully. Finally review the new things learned on this chart, and enumerate all the kinds of words so far learned, requiring pupils to write one or more examples of each. 12 ■WORD-FINDING XII L Copy, putting in DESCRIBING words : 1 This ink has a 2. Vinegar has a 3. The rose has a color, taste, smell. n. Copy, and underline the words ' that t^ HOW, "WHEN or WHERE the action • is • done : ■ ^^4 ^r^\ 1 The deer runs f swiftly. v^ 2. The clocks kehni^ wp Fpeak earn«'t>il/ suddm)/ or cRLlama Copy again, leaving out the words you have underlined. Begin each sentence with a capital letter. Write six sentences containing words indicating HOW, WHEN, or WHERE an action is done. CHART XII Choosing Adverbs The Interjection Review of the Parts Speech of Note. — I. The adjectives to be supplied — blacky sour, sweet — are so obvious that the exercise will make only a slight draught upon the learners' powers. The formal likeness of the sentences to one another is such that atten- tion may be concentrated upon the nature and position of the words to be supplied. Proceed as in former numbers. II. This piece of copying presents adverbs of time, place, and manner, each next its verb, and each verb expressing positive action. The method, " Runs //d^^c .? Strikes ?<:'// ^v/ .? YX\^?> ivhere V suggests itself. III. This exercise is intended to draw some attention to the only part of speech yet to be noticed by itself. That the inter- jections may be omitted without changing the sense of the sev- eral statements, will lead the way to an explanation of the fact that they are a sort of throivn-in ivords, and that they also express some kind of feeling, as of wonder, fear, grief — hence taking the exclamation mark. With the completion of this lesson it will be in order to say : 49 50 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS We have learned something about eight kinds of words. To some one of these eight kinds, all the words we use belong. Words are separated into these different sets because they are used in as many different ways. Give a little talk upon the parts of speech, in such untechnical and colloquial terms as will show that the subject is really very simple and easy to understand. Perhaps the following outline will be found useful : Teacher : — I have just told you that there are €\'g\\\, parts of speech — that is, eight kinds of words that we use when we speak or write. There are no kinds of words but these eight. All of them, taken together, are the ivhole of speech. Now you can see why any one of them is called 2i part of speech. Words are separated into parts of speech according to the meaning they are used to express, and not on account of the way they are spelled or pronounced. For instance, suppose I should say [writing on the blackboard], 1. A name is 2. part of speech. 2. It is hard for friends to part. In these two sentences I have underlined two words, as you see. They are spelled alike, and they are pronounced alike, but they are two different parts of speech. In the first sentence, the word part is a name-word ; in the second sentence, the \w or d part is an action-word. I will now show you that by using only two of the parts of PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 5 I speech you can say things — express thoughts — rightly and fully. I will write : 1. Harry ran. 2. He raji. Both of these are sentences. Each fully expresses a thought. Each, when written or printed, begins with a capital letter and ends with a period. The first sentence consists of a name-word and an action-word. The second sentence has the word he, used for a name, and the same action-word, ra?i. This is the shortest kind of sentence. You cannot have a sentence without an action-word, nor any sentence without another word — either a name or a word that stands for a name — about which the action-word tells, asserts, states something. Harry is not a thought, and it is not a sentence. Ran is not a sentence. But Harry ran is a sentence ; it fully expresses a thought. There is another kind of words that describes things, tells what kind of things they are, and which for that reason goes with the names of things. I will write : Little Harry ran. [Develop the adjective.] There is another kind of words that shows how, when, or 7vhere things are done. It usually goes with the action- word or doing-word of a sentence. I will add a word of this kind, on the blackboard : Little Harry ran swip^tly. [Develop the adverb.] 5 2 PRIMA R V LANG UA GE CHAR TS Then there is another kind of words that joins other words or sets of words together, like this : JVell AND little Harry ran swiftly, [Develop the conjunction.] And there is a kind of words that not only does this, but shows also what the words that are joined together by them have to do with each other. Thus : Nell and little Harry ran swiftly with the sled. [Develop the preposition.] Finally, you have just been studying about a kind of words very much unlike any of these — words that are thrown in amongst the others, and which stand by themselves to tell of some sort of feeling. Thus : O ! see them run. [Develop the interjection.] In the Review of Principles and Rules at the head of Chart XLVIII., the parts of speech are for the first time technically named. It may, in the case of some classes, be deemed advis- able to adopt the grammatical nomenclature at this point. But whether this be done or not, it is all-important to show the PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 53 grouping of the parts of speech by their functions, and some such diagram as this might be put upon the blackboard : I, noun 4. verb 2. adnoun (adjective) 5. adverb 3. pronoun 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection showing why i, 2, and 3 are associated ; then how 4 and 5 are related ; and finally that 6, 7, and 8 are uninflected particles. Pupils should practice making sentences containing only cer- tain parts of speech. By observation they will readily learn what are the essential parts — the noun and the verb. They can also vary their exercises by constructing sentences containing all the parts of speech, such as : — O ! see Nell and little Harry run swiftly with their sled. Whatever excites interest in this kind of work is profitable and adds greatly to the success of the teacher. 13 EASY SHORT FORMS — (s^msnt^i'm whm apxiuafiy verbs) XIII I. TlS is a short form of it IS.— Copy: Twas =It was. Twill = It will. Twere = It were. Twould= It would. II. Cant is a short form of Cail IlOt.— Copy. Won't = will not. Shan't = shall not. III. Aren't is a short form of apc not. 1 Write the short form of NOT with each of the following words: 2. Write twelve sentences, each containing one of these short forms: do is has could does was have would did were had should IV. Ill is a short form of I WUl. ATrite the short form of WILL with ( Vrite six sentences, each containing o: I you he she we they L Write the short form of WILL with each of the following words: 2. Write six sentences, each containing one of these short forms: V. I'd is a short form of I WOUM and I had. 1. Write short forms of WOULD and HAD with each of the following 2. Write twelve sentences, each containing one of these short I you he she we they CHART XII I Familiar Abbreviations marked by the Apostrophe Pupils have now used most of the marks of punctuation, tak- ing that term in the broad sense which makes it include quotation marks and apostrophe, as well as period and comma. This chart exhibits the use of the apostrophe to mark certain ellipses. These abbreviations are a shortening not only of the written and printed forms, but of the spoken words^ as might have been expected from the fact that ease of utterance, not of writing, has given rise to them. Ac- cordingly, these forms are conversational, appearing in print only when print reproduces conversation. These familiar abbreviations, marked by the apostrophe, occur in connection with the use of the auxiliary verbs (with the excep- tion of a few poetical forms, such as eer^ neer, o'er, a.nde'en), and this chart presents all of these short forms that are sanctioned by good usage, if the following additions be noted. In colloquial speech am is often shortened to ';;/ after I; have to 've after /, you, we, they ; are to 're after you, 7ue, they ; and is to V after he, she, it, that, there, where. The abbreviations are thrown into their natural groups. Those in the first exercise are found for the most part in poetry. Those in the second exercise are irregular. 55 14 EASY SHORT FORMS— (abbreviations marked by the period) XIV Sun. Sunday Mon. Monday Tues. Tuesday Sat. Wed. Wednesday Thurs. Thursday Fpi. Friday Saturday tJan. January Feb. February Mar. March Apr. April May iJuil. June Benj. Benjamin Wm. William Chas. Charles Th os. Thom as A.M. forenoon P.M. afternoon Jul. Au^ Sept Oct. Nov. Deo. July August September October November December Greo. George iJas. James Jno. John Jos. Joseph U. S . United States N.B. Take notice Copy these words and their short forms. Notice capital letters and periods. Write seven sentences, each containing the name of a day. Write twelve sentences, each containing the name of a month. CHART XIV Familiar Abbreviations marked by the Period The abbreviations on this chart are marked by a symbol Uke the period, and which may be so called. In contrast with the short forms which take the apostrophe, these abbreviations are made for convenience in writi/ig and print- ings and nearly all of them require the full form when spoken. In the first group we have the short forms of the names of the days of the week, and in the second group, of the names of the months. May is too short to require abbreviation. The next group gives the short forms of familiar Christian names. It is not customary to abbreviate feminine names except by the use of their initials. Finally, there are abbreviations by initial letters only. The Latin words of which three of these are initials need not be here presented. The copying of each of these exercises should be followed b}' the tests of requiring the writing of the abbreviations from the (given) full forms, and vice versa. Note. — Some writers make a distinction between the short forms marked by the apostrophe and those marked by the period, calling only the latter abbrevia- tions, and giving the name of cotitractions to the former, on the ground that the short forms marked by the apostrophe are contracted from two words (which is not always the case, as in ne'er, o'er), and on the ground that those marked by the period are words of which the terminal letters are cut off (which is not always the case, as in Dr. for Doctor and do. for ditto). The distinction, even if it could be maintained, seems needless. 57 15 EASY SHORT FORMS — (subject concluded) XV Supt. Superintendent Prill. Principal Prof. Professor Rev. Reverend Dr. Doctor Lieut. Lieutenant Capt. Captain Maj. Major Col. Colonel Gen. General Mr. Mister Mrs. Mistress Messrs. sirs Esq. Esquire Hon. Honorable Gov. Governor Seo. Secretary Ed. Editor Jr. Junior Sr. Senior TO THE TEACHER: 1 Other abbreviations Dial | meet the e)( daily, either in the newspaper ur in other reading. are given below Let thcni be (1) copied from the blackboard. (•2) used 10 oral sentences. (3) used in sentences to be written f rem diclaUon. Co. Count, Co. Corapanj- Av. Avenue St. &a.nt St. Street No. Mumber Do. Ditto P.S. Postscript P.O. Post -Office Mem. Diemorandum VII. namely etc. and so forth Ac. and so forth inst this month ult. last month prox. next month e.g. lor example i.e. that is CLASS EXERCISE. I. These words are titles of address. Their short forms are used in printing and in writing. II. Copy, with their short forms, the first ten words; the last ten words. III. Use each of the words in a spoken sentence. Write each short form with the name of some person. IV. Write the short forms of Reverend Mister, Major General, Lieutenant Colonel, Reverend Doctor, Lieutenant General. CHART XV other Common Abbrevia- tions marked by the Pe- riod The abbreviations shown in this number are marked by the period for the reason already given — that of convenience in writing and printing. There is no shortening of the spoken words. The principal group gives all of the common abbreviations of titles diwd forms of address. In the panel is a list, for blackboard reproduction, of the miscellaneous short forms that are in con- stant use. The abbreviations of the names of the States of the Union would require more space than need here be taken up with them. These may be shown upon the blackboard. The abbreviations that are found in the tables of Denominate Numbers in Arithmetic, have a technical, not a literary, use, and will best be learned in the study of numbers. With these excep- tions, Charts XIV. and XV. exhibit all of the familiar abbrevia- tions to be met with in the printed page. An outline for class study is given in the smaller type of the chart. 59 16 COMPOSITION LESSON— Third Stage (ANSWERING INDIRECT QUESTIONS) XVI I. Copy. Notice capitals and points. This is our boy John. The Fourth of July has come, and he is nJS playing soldier. See his fine, new, -^ paper hat, and do see the big musket in his left hand! f" Don't shoot anybody. John. n. Write sentences in answer to these questions Who is this boy? What is he doing? In which hand is his musket? ni. Copy these lines: / QUESTIONS. I. ni.:>( kind of scDteoce is tbe first one (Chart IX)? The lost one? Why h the capital letter used in n>wMf Find an abbreviation in tbe reading- lesson. Bow is it marked (Chart XSU) 1 What mark, at the end of tbe third tea- tencet Wh^isitusedt in. Why are quotation marks put about tbe question and about tbe answert Tbe rhj'ming answer is just two words. Taken alone, these do not express or assert ao/thing (Chart IX). The/ are not a sentence. Why then ifl .M writleo as a capital letter t CHART XVI Composition — Third Stage Answering Indirect Ques- tions Interrogative Pronouns This chart calls out a kind of composition more difficult than any that has preceded it. Answers to mdirect questions cannot be made by mere inversion, either with or without changes of gram- matical form ; the pupil must here draw a little upon his own powers of expression. Yet he is not per- plexed with vague and impossible requirejuents. He is asked specific questions about a picture that is before his eyes, and on a subject he has just been reading about. It is mainly as a help to this written work that the picture and the reading lesson that goes with it have been provided. They furnish sure clues to the thought, leaving the pupil to put this into his own words, without too much help from the text. The indirect questions of II. are introduced by the interroga- tive pronouns who, which, what. Suitable answers, in the form of complete statements, will explain the picture. Note the natural form of the question. Which hand is his musket in? as opposed to the form, /// which hand is his ??iusket? which is not vernacular English — that is, it is not the English any one speaks. It is often better and more forcible to put the preposi- tion at the end of the clause or sentence, as. What is he playing WITH ? Where is he going to? We must avoid, as Lowell says, *' starching our language, and smoothing it flat with the mangle of a supposed classical authority." 6i 17 PICTURE -STUDY AND COMPOSITION-LESSON (THIRD STAGE-ANSWERING INDIRECT QUESTIONS) XVII I. Copy this little story from dictation, and be care- ful to use capital letters and points correctly. Sarah has been talk- jng to her pet. Uncle Henry gave the bird to her. It sings and sings time the little girl conies into" the room. ^jr Just now, Sarah said. "Poor thing, your wings were made to fly with. To-morrow morning I will let you go." eyery XL Write these questions, and sentences in answer to them, and be care- ful to use capitals and points correctly. P 1. Write six questions, using WHO, WHICH, WHAT, HOW, WHEN, WHERE. 2. Write six answers to your questions. CHART XVII Composition (continued) Use of Quotation Marks Interrogative Adverbs This chart continues the spe- cial requirement of the preceding number — the writing of answers to indirect qucstio?is j but in this case the interrogative words are adverbs of manner, time, and place. The answers called out point more to the text than to the pictures, though these are a help. It is, therefore, desirable in this case that they should first be given orally, and in the learner's own language rather than in the words of the chart. Hints for the Teacher. — What are the chief things that this little story tells us about ? What, then, should you think would be a good name, or title^ for the story ? \^Sarah and Her Pet ^ or, Sarah's Bird.\ You will find such titles at the head of your reading lessons. What is the use of them ? What is the mark at the end of the first line ? What is it here used to show ? Find another hyphen on this chart. Why is it used in to-morroiv? [/^-morrow = on the morrow.] How many names of persons on the chart ? Wliat word does Sarah use instead of her own name t Where and why are quotation marks used ? The interrogative pronouns and adverbs are few, and pupils should now be ready for a writing lesson responsive to all of the principal ones. 63 18 PRACTICE REVIEW IN COMPOSITION XVIII "_ -;-^ '.^MfU'' I. Read these statements: Here stands little Peter by the roadside. He is doing nothing. That is all he has to do just now. i Peter looks as if school ^ was out, but by and _ by he will learn all of his lessons for to-morrow. HL "Write sentences in answer to these questions: Who is this lad? JlVhere is he standing? ^'What is Peter doing? W jjow does he look? When will he learn his lessons? CHART XVIII Composition (continued) Review of Interrogatives Word-Study I. The series of indirect ques- tions should first be answered oral- ly. The requirement of framing the answers in the complete sen- tence form having been complied with, individual varieties of ex- pression may then be encouraged. II. The script is no more than an exercise in copying that has some little appositeness to the lesson proper. Parallel talks about the things written would here show — (i) Why 7nakcs is in the singular; (2) why the commas are used ; (3) that the word no as here used (= not any) is a very different thing from No in its use as a responsive, where it has the value of a negative declarative sentence. III. It is proper that the reading lesson should be used as a help, and even as a guide, for the fulfilling of this last require- ment. If the resulting composition consists of this : This is Peter. He is standing by the roadside. He is doing nothing. He looks as if school was out. He will learn his lessons by and by. and it is properly punctuated and capitalized, the outcome will be commendable. Show how, by the use of connectives and qualifiers — little^ bict^ and the like — an easier flow may be given to the piece. 65 19 ONE AND MORE THAN ONE— Number (GRAMMATICAL CHANGES OF FORM) XIX I. Copy, and commit to memory these two rules: 1. The plural number of most names is made by adding S to the form of the singular number. 2. The plural number of names which end with S, JLf Sll, or Cll (soft) is usually made by adding CS to the form of the singular number. II. Rule paper or slates, and write the plural forms of these names: clock lunch inch wish box desk class table chair dress slate pencil bench ax speech chart III. Copy, and commit to memory this rule: 3. Names that end in V after a consonant change the y to IC before adding S» IV. Write the plural forms of these names, and make sentences containing the words: A/tn^i/^ y^^M^^^ .^Ay^ .^u/-a^ Au^^t^^ CHART XIX Number in : I. Nouns 2. Pronouns 3. Verbs Precede the exercises with an oral lesson explanatory of Num- ber. The following will serve as an outline : Copy from the blackboard : I. Number tells us whether one thing, or more than one thing, is spoken of. 2. When a single thing is named, the number is called sin- gular. 3. When more than one thing is named, the number is called plural. In order to show which of the two numbers is meant, there is almost always a difference in the form of the words used as names. Sometimes, also, there is a difference in the form of the action-words that go with these names. Thus [blackboard] : singular . . The man called. He called. plural . . . The men called. They called. singular . . Jj^^" "'^" [ /..z. called. plural . . . ^j^g'^'^^'i havec^W^A. 67 68 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS You see that when I used the fiame " man " in a way to make it mean more than one, I had to change the form of it, and write " men." So, too, I found that the word " he," that stands for " man," would not do to use instead of the plural " men." I had to use the word " they." And so, again, the actio7i-word '' has," that I used to tell that one vc\^\\ "called," I was compelled to change to "have" when I wanted to say the same thing about 77iore than one. All three of these parts of speech as I have written them here — names, for-names, and action-words — have changes of form to show changes of number. Pupils are now ready to copy (i) and (2) at the head of the chart. Common nouns to illustrate the rule for regular forma- tion of plurals (i) should be put upon the board. Pupils should be told that the greater part of all names form the plural in this way, and that all of the following exercises in Number as applied to names are founded upon exceptions to this rule. Preliminary to Exercise II. give the reason for the addition of es : The plural number of names which end with s, x, sh, and ch (soft) would be easy to write by adding to them s alone ; but it would be difficult as well as unpleasant to speak them if so formed. Accordingly we add es, and by so doing we make another syllable, as, dox, boxes ; bench, benches, etc. Before Exercise III. explain that the letters a, e, i, o, u are PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 69 called vowels, and that all of the other letters are called con- sonants. (That w and y^ except when used at the beginning of a word or a syllable, are vowels, is a refinement that need not here be considered.) Then require the copying of this [blackboard] : 1. The letters a, e, t, 0, ti are vowels. 2. All the other letters are consonants. Preliminary to Exercise IV. pupils must be told that names ending in y, when this is not preceded by a consonant, form the plural " regularly ; " /. ! 4. Our next lesson will begin where this lesson ends. You have seen that names have different forms to show that they mean one thing or more than one thing ; and you PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 75 have seen that action-words have different forms, according as the names that they go with and tell about are names of one thing or of more than one thing — are singular or plural. In this case you see another kind of word that has different forms for singular and plural. What kind of word is it ? I have told you, and you can see that this and that, these and those are used to point out a particular thing or things. In a certain way, then, these words are describing-'^ ox A^. They do not give a full de- scription, but they do tell us something about the names they are put with. They tell us that things are near or further off, and that certain things are meant rather than any other things which the names they go with might refer to. In the second and fourth exercises, the skilful teacher will in some way suggest the idea of agreement. Don't make the bare statement that the verb must agree with its subject in number, or that the pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, but let the pupils discover this for themselves— let them evolve the rule of grammar that is here so plainly indicated. It is very rare that a child will say, " Horses runs " or " Many birds flies." Long before the child knows anything about form or grammar, he can be trusted to decide such things as this by the simple rule, whether it sounds right or mM. This is a much better test than an appeal to a set rule of grammar. 22 ONE AND MORE THAN ONE-The Personal Pronouns XXII (GRAMMATICAL CHANCES OF FORM) I. Rule paper and copy: Singular Plural I my me we our us These words are used instead of names of PERSONS SPEAKING. This is — birthday, and — am ten years old. Father gave — this pretty present. — are all writing. Words are given to — to choose from for the blanks in — copying lesson. ni Rule paper and copy. Singular Plural he his him they their them These words are used instead of names of PERSONS SPOKEN OF. TV P^r.^ rM,ftir.nr ir. ) HE. HIS. OF HIM; IV. Copy, putting in j ^^^y ^^j^j^ ^^ ^yj,j^^ The boys have made a snow man, and now — are pelting — and trying to knock — hat off. But — will take no notice of — or of — snowballs. CHART XXII Number Changes in the Per- sonal Pronoun Possessive Pronouns This chart exhibits those changes in the form of the per- sonal pronoun which are due to number. This part of speech, as a result of the exercises upon it in the earlier lessons, will easily identify itself in the minds of learners. Note. — The second personal pronoun is not here given in diagram, as the first and third are. Show from the blackboard that it has singular and plural alike. Do not confuse pupils by any reference to the forms thou, thy or thine^ etc. These are archaic, and are used only in poetry, in solemn address, and, for technical purposes, in the pages of grammatical text-books. Some hint was given in Chart II. of the gender differences expressed by the third personal pronoun. In order to divest the second table of this chart of elements of difference not essential to the main purpose, the feminine and neuter forms of the third personal pronoun are not shown. But the chart exercise should be supplemented by blackboard work showing — (i) she and // with the plural they; (2) her or hers and its with the plural their; and (3) her and it with the plural them. In the second copying exercise all six of the given pronouns should be supplied. They will appear in the following order : ;//y, /, 7ne^ 7ve, us, our. 77 78 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS The fourth exercise, recalling a former one, will be found easy and attractive. The order of the words supplied will be : they^ /mn, his, /le, them, their. With the performance of the tasks set to them on this chart, pupils will have made practical use of all the types of verbal change which result from the principle of Number. Prepare the way for the new topic of the next chart by some such oral lesson as this : my birthday^ our copying lesson, his hat, their snowballs. Let us look a little at these words, my, our, his, their. I will write them here on the blackboard. With my I will put mine, with otir I will put ours, with their I will put theirs, and with his I will put her or hers and its. You use all of these words every day. Some of them are singular and some are plural. Forgetting for a moment about their number, there is a respect in which all of these words have resemblance to one another. What do you mean by my birthday? You mean that the birthday belongs to you — that it \s yours. Let us put that ^ovd yours on the board here with the others. I could say of this birthday we are talking about that it is jF(^^/r birthday. There is another word — your; let us put that on the blackboard, too. Now, you may see that when we use any of these words which I have put together in a group, we mean that something PRIM A R V LANG UA GE CHAR TS Jg belongs to [pointing to my, mine\ me, [pointing to your, yours] or to you, [pointing to his] or to him, [pointing to her, hers] or to her, [pointing to its] or to it, [pointing to our, ours] or to us, [pointing to their, theirs] or to them. This is the way that words of this kind are changed in order to make them show ownership or possession. When so changed they are cdiWed possessive. These words that stand for names — these for-names, as we have called them— are changed to make them possessive just by spelling them differently, as / to my, and we to our. Now, when we want to change the name-words that these words may stand for to make the names themselves show possession or ownership, we do something more than this we use the apostrophe, a mark you have already learned about. The way name-words, or names, are written when they are possessive you will see in the next lesson. In connection with this chart it will be well to review Chart IV., which also contains exercises on the personal pronoun, dis- criminating both as to the use of the proper word to distinguish the persons speaking, spoken to, or spoken of, and also singulars and plurals. In these exercises, the idea of agreement of the name-word, or pro-name, with the action-word can be brought out. We would never say, "We am " or " I are," and the best reason that can be given at this stage, as in the case of the last chart, is that such expressions do not sound right. POSSESSION OR OWNERSHIP,— How Shown (GRAMMATICAL CHANGES OF FORM) xxin I. COPY, AND MEMORIZE THESE TWO RULES: to the teacher 1 The possessive form of plural names that end in S is made by adding an apostrophe. 2. The possessive form of all other names , whether singular or plural, is made by adding an apostrophe and S CS). II. WRITE THE POSSESSIVE FORMS OF THESE SINGULAR NAMES: Charles lady Thomas boy bench child teacher box book girl pupil mouse slate dress class fly III. WRITE THE POSSESSIVE FORMS OP THESE PLURAL NAMES: oxen men horses girls boys leaves women sisters brothers children ladies gentlemen IV. COPY THESE POSSESSIVES, PUTTING THE SINGULARS IN ONE COLUMN, AND THE PLURALS IN ANOTHER: man's fly's woman's axe's brothers' men's father's ox's lady's son's women's oxen's sister's ladies' class's horse's CHART XXIII The Possessive of Nouns Written Practice Tabular Tests Pupils have learned that cer- tain pronouns are possessive — some of them modified in form, as jw/;- fromjiw/T, his from he ; and others wholly different words, as when my is the possessive of /, and when our is the possessive of we. The personal pronouns are very few, and it has been possible to name them all, and to show their several forms. The change of form due to number being understood, the next step is to prepare the way for the statement of the laws governing the possessive forms of nouns. All nouns form the possessive case according to rule. I will write upon the blackboard the word boys. Now I will write it in a sentence : The boys have new hats. That word boys^ as you know, means more than one, is plural. The sentence tells us that the new hats belong to the boys. We can say that in another way : The boys' hats are new. I will write that on the blackboard. I have changed the form of the word boys^ you see. It is now possessive, and the sign of the possessive of plural names that end in s (and almost all plural names do end in s) is simply the added apostrophe after that j-, as you see I have written it. Copy Rule i from the chart. 82 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS Now I will write the word men upon the blackboard. That is plural, too, as you know, but like a few other names which you have already learned about, it is a plural that does not end in s. So it does not take the possessive form merely by adding an apostrophe, as boys did. I will write upon the board : The hats of the men are new. Under it I will write the possessive form of the same statement : The men's hats are new. You see that in this case I have added not only an apostrophe, but also an s. Now, if I wanted to write the possessive form, but wanted to speak of one man only, how should I do it ? I should write : The man's hat is new [writing it]. You see that I have again made the name possessive by adding not only an apostrophe but also an j-, just as I did with the plural form, men. So, also, if I want to write the possessive form of The hat of the boy is ?iew, I should put it thus [writing] : The boy's hat is new. Here, again, I have used not only the apos- trophe but also an s in making the possessive form. Now copy Rule 2 from the chart. To help you to remember these rules, I will put this on the blackboard : natne possessive form singular . . . boy boy's plural .... boys boys' singular . . . man man's plural .... men men's PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS Copy this. Now look in the column where the possessive forms are. You see that all but one of these forms are made by adding an apostrophe and an s. The one that is made possessive by adding the apostrophe alone is boys . This word is plural, and its common form to make it mean more than one ends in s. To put another s at the end of the word, and after the apostrophe, would make it hard to say. Remember that plurals ending in s have only the apostrophe to mark the possessive form. Remember, also, that all other names, whether singular or plural, form the possessive by adding the apostrophe and s. Other exercises in the change of form of nouns in the pos- sessive case should be drawn from assigned pages in the reading- book. It may be pointed out that singular nouns which end with the sound of j-, x, z, sh, or ch (soft) have, by reason of the added s in the possessive case, an additional syllable ; as, Charles's hat, class's lesso?i. The possessive singular forms conscience', righteous- ness', etc., are mere survivals of early usage — a half-dozen rare and arbitrary exceptions to rule that need not be noticed. 24 PRACTICE IN PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES XXIV (GRAMMATICAL CHANCES OF FORM) I. Rewrite these statements, changing the under- scored words to the plural form: 1 The leaf is green. 2. This story is interesting 3. The lady 's hat is new. 4. The child likes to play 5. The dress is pretty. 6. That man lives in New York. 7. I am writing my language lesson n. (a) Copy these expressions: TO THE TEACHER: I. By Ihis chnri lencb thai when certain words in a '*on- lence change from the singuhir lo the plural form, ollierwonN must also change; as, — leaf _ is II. Test the child's own sense of right sounding forms. Try Children _ likes Men — lives We — am Correct common erron. I the lessons of the classes 2. the voices of the girls 3. the colors of the lilies 4. the limbs upon the trees 5. the nests of the robins 6. the wings of the butterflies (b) Rewrite, changing the last three words of each to one word of possessive form. (o) Then change all plural forms to singular. CHART XXIV Review of Number and Possession in Known Words This chart provides a test re- view of the nu7nber of nouns, pro- nouns, and verbs, and in the writ- ing of the possessive forms of nouns and pronouns. Some help, in Exercise I., is given by underscoring the words whose forms are to be changed in the writing of the new sen- tences. Nothing is required of pupils that the work of preced- ing numbers has not prepared the way for, since the review is not only of principles but of words. The first written exercise should yield this : The leaves are green. These stories are interesting. The ladies' hats are new. The children like to play. The dresses are pretty. 6. Those men live in New York. 7. We are writing our language lesson. The requirement {b) should result in this : the classes' lessons the girls' voices the lilies' colors the trees' limbs the robins' nests the butterflies' wings The requirement {c) should give us this : the class's lesson the girl's voice the lily's color the tree's limb the robin's nest the butterfly's win^ 85 25 an or a, and the XXV A PINEAPPLE L Copy, underlining ail, a, and the: 1 These pictures show us an apple and a pineapple. 2 The apple is much smaller the pineapple. 3. The fruits are as big as the pictures you see here. n. Copy, underlining AN, A, and THE I 1 AN is used before a vowel sound. A is used before a consonant sound. 2. THE is used with either singular or plural names. AN or A is used only with singular names. TO THE TEACHER; Ut-quire pupils to memorize these two rules. IIL Copy, putting in an or a: — man — honest man — hour — house — dishonest man — fruit — apple — pineapple — honor CHART XXV The Article, Definite and In- definite Rules and Practice Although we speak here of an^ a, and the as articles, yet the teacher should bear in mind that they are really describing words. We call them defijiite and indefinite, and therein consists a great part of their descriptive character, the definite article describing or nam- ing the part with more precision than the indefinite article. If, however, teachers have been accustomed to regard the article as a distinct part of speech, there is no objection to its classification in that way. The definite article is seldom used for the indefinite, or vice versa, but the two forms of the indefinite article are sometimes confounded with each other, and it is proper to show the princi- ples which govern their use. The picture is an object-lesson to provide some little help in the several exercises. Read the first sentence of the chart. What word is used before apple '^ What word is used htiovQ pineapple ? Name the five letters of the alphabet that are vowels. What name is given to all the other letters of the alphabet ? Is the first letter of the word apple a consonant or a vowel ? Which word is put before it — an ov a? Is the first letter of the word pineapple a vowel or a consonant ? Which word is put before it— ^ or an ? 87 8 8 PR IMA R V LANG UA GE CHAR TS You see that a?i is here used before a vowel sound, and that a is used before a consonant sound. That is the way these words should always be used. Copy the first rule in the next exercise. The first copying exercise should yield this : 1. These pictures show us an apple and a pineapple. 2. The apple is much smaller than the pineapple. 3. The fruits are as big as the pictures you see here. When these statements have been written out correctly, elicit the vowel sound after a?t and the consonant sound after a. Show, by transposing them, how the correct form of each is the easier to say. It will help to fix the meaning of the indefinite article in the minds of pupils to tell them that a?t and a are, like the word any, simply forms of the word one. Point out that an and a have been used, each with the name of a single thing ; but that in Sentence 2 the has been used with singular names, while in Sentence 3 the has been used with plural names. Now require the copying of Rule 2. Show that several of the words of the final list have an initial consonant that is silent, and really begin with a vowel sound, thus exemplifying Rule i. All three of these words have one use, and are therefore of one kind. What kind is it ? The way to tell is to see what the words do. In Sentence i, an and a tell us something about the names they go with. They tell us, what you can see by looking PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 89 at the pictures, that one apple and one pineapple are talked about. You could not say an apples or 2. pineapples. In Sentence 2 the means the particular apple and the particular pineapple that you see pictures of. In Sentence 3 the in The fruits, etc., means the very fruits that are shown in the pictures, and the in the pictures means the very pictures that you are looking at. These three words, then, tell us something about the things named. They are a sort of describing-^ ox A^. Teacher's Note.— Formerly, an was used before both vowel and consonant sounds. The article a, which is but a weakened form of an, is now used before all consonant sounds, with one exception. Before words beginning with a sounded h, and accented on the second syllable, it is still the practice to use an. Familiar words to which this usage applies are : humane humanity humility hypocrisy hysterical Before words beginning with a vowel, but having the initial sound of y, formerly requiring an, it is now the rule to use a. Such words are : European united usual ewe universe utensil union ' useful Utopian habitual hilarity harangue historian harmonious historic hereditary horizon heroic hotel 26 PICTURE LESSON •- Capitals in Proper Names XXVI hjj ,h- Y' \ I. Look at the picture, and write complete statements in answer to these questions: How many girls do you see in the picture? How many dolls? What other objects can you make out? What are the children playing? The girl in the yellow dress, Jane Smith,— what is she doing? What is Maria Jones, the one in blue, so busy about? Sarah Brown sits between Maria and Jane -how many dolls has she? IL Copy these sentences: 1. The name of Jane Smith's doll is Evangeline. 2. Beatrice and Pauline are the names of Sarah Brown's dolls. 3. Maria Jones calls her dolls Gertrude and Winifred. III. Write a story about these little women, their simimer-house, their poor sick children, and the cares of housekeeping. CHART XXVI Picture Lesson in Composi- tion Capitals in Proper Names This charming picture in col- ors will prove a great help to the doing of the tasks, as well as a good observation lesson in itself. The questions of the first ex- ercise are so prepared as to bring out every feature of the illustra- tion, and in the course of these questions the three little girls are called by name. The series of statements that the exercise will result in, might read somewhat like this : / see three little girls ifi this picture. There are five dolls ^ too. I see a washtiib^ a horse on wheels, a striped ball, a box, and a big umbrella. The children are play i^ig house. Jane Smith is scolding her little one, Maria Jones is feeding her pet. Sarah Brown has two children. It will not be just like this in any case, but there should, in every case, be certain complete statements, properly capitalized and punctuated. See that the six words that are proper names are accurately copied. Dictate the three sentences of the second exercise. Require 91 92 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS the use of capitals in the proper names, and of the apostrophe in the two possessives. The last exercise calls upon pupils to write a story about the picture. This is the first instance in this series of lessons where pupils are asked to compose without the direct, literal help that questions afford. Yet here ample assistance of another sort is given. The learners will have studied the picture. They will have written two exercises about it. They already know the homely names of the little housekeepers, and the romantic names of their dolls. They are familiar with the scene they are called upon to write about. They can, therefore, write this " story," and any compositions that result, no matter how short or crude, if properly worded, capitalized, and punctuated, will mark creditable progress. It cannot be too often said that children should never be asked to " write a composition about " things unfamiliar or abstract — about Tnith^ Friendships and the like. It took Francis Bacon several years to finish, to his liking, his composition " Of Friend- ship," Yet, if there should prove to be any backwardness on the part of the class, or of any members of it, in writing the little lesson required, come to their aid by some comment upon the picture, or by light, suggestive talk, such as : A good mafiy people live in this house. They are a little croiauled, but they have ki?td hearts, and good tempers, and they get along very well together. Tt is somethijig to have a good roof over your head. Tt shields you from the hot sun, and if storms come it keeps off the rain. PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 93 Most homes have but one housekeeper. In this dwelling there are three. They have all that they can do, too ; for the house is full of children. Some ate noisy, some are sick, all are hun- gry, and one of them has been bad. Children that have so good a home as this, such beautiful play- things, and fond mothers, ought to be good seven days in the week, and happy all the year round. From this stage of work in the Primary Language Charts, teachers will find that it will aid them greatly in varying the exercises, to have occasional picture lessons in composition, using the pictures that illustrate the earlier numbers of the chart. Whenever the study of words and the making of sentences from them becomes dull or tedious, turn to Chart I., or II., III., or other illustrated numbers, and ask each pupil to say something about the boy or girl in the picture. Or ask the class to write at the same time whatever each may choose about the picture ; then let each one rise in turn and read what he has written. In this way, a pleasant variation from the regular chart exer- cises will be had, and the pupils will turn to their work with renewed interest. 27 COMPARISON— MORE AND MOST (GRAMMATICAL CHANCES OF FORM) XXVII I. COPY, AND COMMIT TO MEMORY: Most short describing-words form the com- parative degree by adding For CF, and the superlative degree by adding Si or CSl« II. COPY, DRAWING ONE LINE UNDER COMPARATIVES, AND TWO LINES UNDER SUPERLATIVES. larger softer poorer sweet biggest lowest hardest longer black bright dearer nicer coldest tallest deep young high fast smallest older IIL COPY, AND COMMIT TO MEMORY; Describing-words of more than one syllable generally take MORE in the comparative, and MOST in the superlative degree. rV. WRITE THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREES OF: A<>-^^llldn^ /^^t^^^^^^^^%^ CHART XX Vn Comparison of Adjectives Degrees Distinguished Written Spelling Teacher : — We have seen how some words change their form to show number, as [blackboard] : ingiilar plural boy boys he they plays play and we have seen how some words change their form to show ownership or possession, as : John he . John's his Now, describing-words, also, have a change of form. It is not a kind of change, however, that shows us anything about number or about possession. You remember the verses that told us of the large stars and the bright moon. Stars and moon are names of things ; and large and bright are words that were used to describe the things named. Suppose that we wanted to compare two stars of different sizes with each other. We should say that one of them is larger [writing the word] than the other. You see I have added — r to the word large. Suppose that we wanted to compare three stars of different sizes with one another. We should say that such and 95 96 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS such a star is the largest [writing the word] of the three. Here I have added — st to the describing-word large. We have thus from the word large the two changed forms — larger and largest. Such changes of form in a describing- word are called compa7'iso7i^ because, as I have explained to you, they are used when we compare things. These changes show a greater and the greatest degree of the quality the words express. The quality we have been talking about in the case of the star is " largeness." Larger shows a greater degree of largeness than large does, and largest shows the greatest degree of largeness. Let us take the other word — bright. It, also, has different forms to express a greater and the greatest degree of the quality it represents — that is, of brightness. Thus we say a bright star^ a brighter star^ the brightest star [writ- ing the adjectives]. Here we have added, not — r and — j-/, but — er and — est. The word large ends with — e. Describing-words that end with — e add only — r and — st to show comparison. Other describing-words end with — er and — est to show comparison. You see that [writing] — large larger largest bright brighter brightest and all such words have three degrees of comparison. Now, these three degrees have three names. The describ- ing-word, [pointing] before it is changed in form, is said to be of the positive degree ; as, large^ bright. When two things are compared, it is said to be of the cotnparative PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 97 degree ; as, larger, brighter. When more than two things are compared, it is said to be of the superlative degree ; as, largest, brightest. Now co])y I. from the chart. When the exercise (II.) has been completed : Rule paper like this, and write all of the degrees of each describing-word, thus [blackboard] : positive bright large comparative brighter larger superlative brightest largest By means of a few illustrations {happy, pretty, lovely, and the like) show that final y of the positive is changed to / in the other degrees. Show also that when the positive ends with a single consonant after a single vowel the consonant is doubled, as in big, bigger, biggest. How would you write the other degrees of the describing- word beautifiiU It is not easy to speak the word with —er and —est added to it. [Illustrate.] The describing- words that are compared in this way are all of them short words, and most of them are words of but one syllable. When the describing-word is a long word it does not have any change of its own form to show the degrees of com- parison. It takes before it the word 77iore for the com.- parative degree, and the word 7)iost for the superlative degree. Thus Vvc say, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. Now copy III. from the chart. 7 28 COMMON DIFFICULTIES IN COMPARISON (GRAMMATICAL CHANGES OF FORM) XXVIII I. Write one word in place of each of these pairs: more cold most dear most sour more sweet most tall more bright IL A few two-syllable describing-words take ■r or "Cr and "St or "CSl when compared. WRITE THE THREE DEGREES OF: gentle heavy common pretty noble easy narrow lovely feeble merry handsome happy III. A few describing-words are compared irregularly. O g S3 g RULE PAPER, AND COPY: Positive Comparative good bad far mtle many) much' near late old better worse farther less more nearer later latter j older I elder Superlative best worst farthest least most ( nearest inext latest last oldest eldest o fl 53 s 0) O ^ to M i5 W *r a P" 3? pnauKT ujJor&oE I CHART XXVIII ** More " and *' Most " Spelling Changes Irregular Comparison I. More and w^j-/, which pupils are required in this first exercise to change to — er and — est^ show, like these regular endings, a greater and the greatest degree of the qualities expressed by the positive forms. To avoid need- less complication, all six of the adjectives chosen require, as will be seen, the full terminations, — er and — est. II. Precede the second exercise by : How will you form the higher degrees of the words of the first column — by adding — ;- and — st, or — er and — est? What other word in the table will you change in the same way ? \handsoi7te?^ AVhy ? How will you form the higher degrees of the words of the second column ? What other words of the list should be changed in the same way ? \^prett}\ lovely^ happy?^ III. The forms of the last exercise, being arbitrary, must be memorized. The different uses of nearest or next., latest or last., and oldest or eldest^ should be explained. It will be well, before taking leave of this study of compari- son, to say that nearly all adverbs show comparison by 7nore and rnost^ and not by change of form in themselves. Largely and brightly, from their adjectives large and bright just used, will serve as illustrations — more largely, most brightly, etc. 99 PRESENT TIME AND PAST TIME— Tense (GRAMMATICAL CHANCES OF FORM) COPY: Past time is usually shown by adding ■CCl to the simple form of action-words. WRITE THE PRESENT AND PAST FORMS OF: sail call knock fill roll kiss laugh touch point wish climb miss II. COPY: Final y is usually changed to 1 before "CCli WRITE THE PRESENT AND PAST FORMS OF: study carry worry hurry bury cry copy try IIL COPY: Final C is dropped before ■£(!• WRITE THE PRESENT AND PAST FORMS OF: love tie skate believe dare hope praise change move raise dance double IV. COPY: After a single vowel a final consonant of one-syllable words is doubled before "CCl. WRITE THE PRESENT AND PAST FORMS OF: beg rob drag stir drop chop stop rub CHART XXIX Present and Past Time Rule and Practice Written Spelling Note. — Verbs have but one change of form to show tense ; namely, the change from the form used in speaking of time present to the form used in speaking of time past. The present participle is always formed by the addition of — ing to the simple form of the verb, and the past participle of regular verbs is identi- cal with the past indicative, and neither of these is part of the verb proper. The other tenses of the verb are formed by the help of auxiliaries which show tense by changes of their own forms. This chart gives the rule for the formation of the past tense of regular verbs, together with practice upon the three types of spelling change that occur under the rule. Teacher [writing the \n ox di point tipon the blackboard] : I have written the word point, and now I point to it — I point. I will write the word /before it. You see that it is a true statement — I poiitt. When do I point ? I point no7v. Suppose it was something I did 3'esterday that I am talking about. I could not say, / point yesterday. What is it that I ought to say ? [eliciting the answer.] Yes, that is what I ought to say. I will write it. I point-^di yesterday. I have added two letters, — ed^ to the word, as you see. I use point when I speak of present time. I use pointed when I speak of past time. Copy I. from the chart. After the first exercise is written, show — (i) that when the present tense of the verb ends in y this is changed to i before adding —ed; (2) that v^'hen the present tense ends in e this is omitted before — ed and (3) that monosyllables of the present tense double a final consonant after a single vowel before adding— ^^. Then require the writing of the several exercises. 30 PRESENT TIME AND PAST TIME -Irregular Forms XXX (GRAMMATICAL CHANGES OF FORM) I. Someaction-words show past time by IRREGULAR changes of form. The following change the vowel sound, rule paper and copy: Present Past begin began blow blew break broke come came drive drove fall fell find found fly flew get got give gave Present Past know lie ride knew lay rode run ran see sit take throw saw sat took threw wear write wore wrote II. The following have past forms in ■(!• COPY: Present Past do have hear did had heard Present Past lay say tell laid said told CHART XXX Tense Forms of Irregular Verbs Practice in Words of Every- day Use Explain that by far the greater number of action-words are made to express past time regularly, that is, according to the rule, as set forth in the last number. This rule, when thoroughly mastered, together with the spelling changes that occur under it, covers, there- fore, most of the ground, and ex- ercises in the regular formation of the past tense may be extended according to the judgment of the teacher. It is plain that the irregular verbs, though fev.^ in number, will present greater difficulties to the learner, and more time should accordingly be given to practice upon them. Since their changes of form are arbitrary, the writing lessons must be copying lessons. In the lists which follow, only familiar words hnd place, and in the second exercise as well as in the supplementary lists for blackboard work given below, some attempt is made to break up the catalogue of irregular verbs by grouping them in sets accord- ing to certain elements of likeness. Thus, on this chart, the first exercise contains verbs the present and past tenses of which differ in sound by reason of change of vowel, and the second exercise brings together past tenses that end in — d. Exercise the pupils orally upon these tense forms, and see that all understand the practical use of them, the teacher giving one form and the pupils following with the other form. T03 104 PR I MAR V LANG UA GE CHAR TS Teacher. I begin now. The winds blow to-day I came yesterday. The tree falls now. See the birds fly ! Class. ^Ve began yesterday. The winds blew last week. We come to-day. The tree fell last winter. They flew away last night. Pupils should not be passed to the blackboard work that fol- lows until they are able to name and write the present tenses from the past in both lists of the chart. BLACKBOARD WORK. I. These action-words take / rather than ed in the past tense. Rule paper, and copy : present past bring brought buy bought catch caught feel felt keep kept leave left lend lent present past lose lost mean meant send sent sleep slept sweep swept teach taught think thought PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 105 II. These action-words have no change of form to show past time. Rule paper, and copy : present past present past cost cost let - let cut cut . put put hit hit set set hurt hurt shut shut III. Copy these past forms, and write the present form of each : lay saw flew wore laid sat blew bought said set took left In Exercises I. and II., above, the writing of the present forms from the past should be required. The words of Exercise III. are chosen from verbs already used. Some of them are quite commonly confused with each other, as sit and sat with set^ and lie and lay with lay and laid. 31 THE LANGUAGE OF ARITHMETIC -A Practice Lesson XXXI I. Copy: The sign = means EQUALS. + means AND. x means TIMES. — means LESS. -^ means DIVIDED BY. 11. Copy, putting signs in place of words: 1. Five and four equals nine. 2. Six equals eight less two. a Four times two equals eight. 4 Six divided by three equals two. m. Copy, fining the blanks: I — 1 X — 10 L = 50 V — 5 IX — XL = IV — XI — LX — VI — XIV — LXXX- C 100 D — 500 M — lOOO IV. Copy, putting letters opposite the figures; 3 — 17 — 21 — 30 — 92 — 70 — 1492 — 1892 — V. Copy, putting figures opposite the letters: 11= XX = XIII = LXI = VII = XIX = LIII= XXX = CHART XXXI Substitutes for Words Practice in the Language of Arithmetic Sight - Reading of Roman Numerals The five symbols here consid- ered, and the seven letters of the Roman notation, meet the eye in print every day. They are convenient substitutes for words — they are used in place of parts of speech. Pupils should be taught to recognize them, whether used singly or in combination, so as to read them without hesitation. The arithmetical symbols of the first exercise will be familiar to the learners, and the substitution of them in the four sentences of the second exercise will show that certain complete statements can be made with symbols and numerals alone. Thus we shall have, as a result of the second requirement : (i) 5 +4-rr 9 (2) 6 r= 8 — 2 (3) 4x2 = 8 (4) 6-3=2 Call attention to the singular verb equals in these four sen- tences. Look at the third sentence. Times is a name-word. It is the plural of time. It ends in s, the sign of the plural number of names. 107 Io8 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS Now, a plural Jiame, as we have learned, should have a plural action-7vord going with it ; yet here, in this same sentence, we have the action-word equals. It ends in s, which, you remember, is the singular sign of action-words. So we have here what seems a plural name with a singular action-word. This looks wrong. Can it be right ? Let us see. The second sentence reads : Six equals eight less tivo. Six is plural — it means more than one ; but we are not think- ing of the six ones that it consists of. We are thinking of the one quantity which can be represented by the figure 6. If you look at the second exercise, as you have written it out by means of figures and signs, you will see that each of the statements simply means that a certain quajitity expressed in one way equals the same qua7itity expressed in another way. We are not thinking, in these arithmetical statements, of the units that in each case make up the quantity, but of the quantity itself. The third, fourth, and fifth exercises are devoted to drill upon the Roman numerals. These consist of the seven capital letters, in the order of their value : I, V, X, L, C, D, M. It will be seen that in the third exercise these seven letters are explained by the Arabic numerals to which they correspond. It will be proper to supplement the chart by blackboard work, showing; — PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS IO9 (1) How many numbers can be expressed by the Roman numeral I ; (2) That 5 — 1 is expressed by placing I before V ; (3) That 5 + 1 is expressed by placing I after V ; (4) How many numbers can be written with the two letters I and V ; (5) That all the numbers up to and including 39 can be ex- pressed with the three characters I, V, X ; and (6) That all the numbers to and including 89 can be written with I, V, X, L. Pupils must learn categorically such expressions as XIX, XL, XC, as well as the value of each of the seven letters used in this notation. The teacher can also add interest to the lesson by speaking of other substitutes for words and sounds. For instance, there is the language of music, in which various sounds have a written notation. Then there is the language of telegraphy, made up of dots and dashes, or short clicks and long clicks, by which the telegraph operator can read the sounds that come over the wire and spell them into words. There is also the sign language of the deaf-mutes by which they speak to each other with their hands. Many deaf-mutes also talk with friends and understand their words by simply watching the motions of the lips. And there are a few remarkable instances of those blind as well as deaf and dumb, who read the words of their friends by touching their lips and throats as they articulate, and also learn to utter sounds by imitating the motions of their lips and throat. 82 ALIKE IN SOUND, UNLIKE IN SPELLING AND MEANING XXXH (EASY PARONYMS) Copy these words. Use each in a sentence. son sun die dye II. m. their there hear here IV pam pane some sum one won dear deer root route blew blue hole ring fair whole wring fare beat beet pale pail grate great I pair to vain rain ay pare too vane rein eye pear two vein reign seam weak choir ate seem week quire eight wood new no not would knew know knot so sew sow cent scent sent air ere heir right Wright write road rode rowed meat wait meet weight threw berry flour told through bury flower tolled CHART XXXIl Easy Words, alike in Sound, unlike in Spelling and Meaning This chart presents ninety familiar words, arranged in pairs and threes for comparative study. Each group consists of words pronounced alike, but which differ in spelling and in meaning. Note — There are many more of these paronyms in our language, but they are for the most part unfamiliar and difficult, or else, as in some spelling- books, the lists are strained and misleading, teaching, for instance, that metal and mettle, pearl and purl are pronounced alike. If these pairs of words were in fact pronounced alike, they would still be objectionable here, since /«;'/ and met- tle do not belong to the vocabulary of childhood. The work of this number is broken up into five parts, each of which provides sufficient material for a day's lesson. Precede the requirement of sentence-writing by a little talk about the meaning and use of the words. Pupils are not called upon for definition, precise definition being a very difficult task. iMake sure that the meanings are understood^ and the class will not find it hard to write the sentences required. Having a direct bearing upon likeness of sound with unlike- ness of spellings teach from the blackboard the useful rhyme : In ei and ie, When sounded as e, Put i before e, Except after c. Thus : believe^ deceii^e^ etc. This rule has three important exceptions, either^ neither^ seize^ that are words of everyday use. Ill 33 LETTER FORMS— The Business Letter XXXIII The SIGNATURE shows who writes the letter. The HEADING shows where the letter is written. These two, taken together, furnish the ADDRESS to which a reply should be sent. Address Heading /un^. Greeting "^^'U^ ^'m.&ny'/ Body ^..2^. This is not a letter, but the framework of a letter. It shows where, when, to whom, and by whom, the letter is written. It shows also how the various parts of the letter are usually arranged with reference to one another. The BODY of a letter consists of whatever the writer wants to say. It may be long, or short. It may refer to one sub- ject, or to several subjects. Close Signature The Envelope Address In a reply to the letter which is out- lined above (1) What would the Signattu-e be? (2) The Head- ing? (3) How would the Greeting be changed ? Write and arrange as in the form, the six parts of such a reply; the six parts of a letter to your teacher. CHART XXXIII Letter Writing The Business Letter The Envelope Hints for Practice Children have learned to write sentences of three types. They can make assertions or requests and ask questions on paper. Letter-writing is simply the doing of these things in a certain way. The substance of any letter consists of whatever the writer wants to say, and all that part is called the body of the letter. The other things that enter into the proper writing of a letter are given upon this chart. Explain, as shown in the panels, the heading, address, and signature of this framework of a business letter. What word is the greeting ? What two words are the close ? What does the heading show ? What does the address show ? What does the signature show ? In a reply to this letter, how should the envelope be addressed ? How should the letter itself be addressed ? How should the letter be signed ? Should the greeting of the reply be different from that of the letter ? Name in their order the six parts of a business letter. m 114 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS Name and explain the first abbreviation in the heading; the second ; the third ; the first abbreviation in the address. Why is a period put after 7c?p2 / The period has two uses. Does it here mark an abbreviation ? No ; the heading, as a whole, is the shortened form of a sentence^ and the mean- ing of this sentence, fully expressed, is : This letter is written at Number 45 Jefferson Street, in Chicago^ in Illinois^ on June II, in the year iSqj. Now you see why there is a period after 1892. Perhaps you can tell me why there is a comma after St., and another after ///. In each of these cases, the period marks an abbreviation and the comma marks a slight pause in the sentence. The address of this letter is the shortened form of another sen- tence, which might be written in full thus : This tetter is 7vritten to Messrs. Brown and Robinson, whose office is at jyi Park Ro%v, which is in New York City. Few things in the teaching of the use of pen and pencil are as important as the proper order and arrangement of the parts of a letter. Only repeated practice can produce good results. Require the writing of some sort of letter at least once a week. The body of a letter is simply an exercise in cojnposition, and may consist of anything that one person wishes to communicate to another. The writing of it calls for correct paragraphing [(i) at each change of subject, or (2) when any new feature of the same subject is to be treated], spelling, capitalization, and punctuation ; but the letter, as a special type of composition, demands careful training and continued practice in the arrangement of its parts. PRIMAR V LANG UA GE CHAR TS 115 I. Copy the heading and the address^ the close and the signature^ as shown in the model on the chart. , II. Rule paper in the shape of an envelope, and copy the address as shown at the foot of the chart. III. Copy, filling in the proper dates : I. The Declaration of Independence was dated 2. I was born , . 3. Washington's Birthday is celebrated every year on 4. Next Christmas will be — , , IV. Copy, filling the blanks : I live at Number on Street, in the town of , in the State of . To-day is V. Write this in the short form that you would use for the heading of a letter. 34 LETTER FORMS— The Letter of Intimacy XXXIV Greeting Heading Body (d/^U'^l^^^y&^.^^.y^eJl^ 2^., 2^. Read the HEADING; the GREETING; the CLOSE; the SIGNATURE. Why is "Father" written with a capital letter? Can you think of a reason why "son" does not begin with a capital letter? No ADDRESS is given. Why? The SIGNATURE is incomplete. Is that a fault in this case? If this was a business letter, would you change the HEADING? Close Signature Write a letter to some relative, using the above form as a basis. Write Letters, using the following Common Forms. Title Greeting Close cj^. S2i^,^v/Uet^yi/S2U4/, ( Uou4^ y^icc/y^. (z/^dd/, ) C4uzi^i(ay^ri/, or (Uet64^ /?/€^l^ ^/uc/i/^ C^€cd4y) /^^L^>^C^^^e^^^^i^;^ (UmiCyl<^A'^yny€^4x/y^, cJ^£4M4/. s^.^^i-^xiJ unnlj-i. of Mmih.r .UiivaliMS fiom di. unbrotherly misspend unskillful refasten repaint unmanly misgovern misdoer untruthful NOTE.— Words not made from other words are caUed PRIMITIVES. CHART XXXVII Word-Building Review of Prefixes and Suf- fixes Word Analysis The first exercise gives us two more suffixes, -////and less^ having not the same but opposite mean- ings. Accordingly, the words to be written will be opposites of those printed in the table. Learn- ers should be required to write the analysis and meanings of these words in full. Thus use 4- less =. witJiout use joy + ful = ftdl of joy art + less = without art hope + ful — ///// of hope care + less = without care pain + ful = full of pain thought -f less = without thought cheer + ful —. full of cheer fear + less = 7vithout fear This exercise being completed, the second requirement is a little lesson in word-making, as well as a review of the prefixes and suffixes already learned. Pupils are called upon to write twefity-seven derivatives from 7iine primitives. Let these deriva- tives be given orally, one by one, by the class, and arrange them on the blackboard as they are named, thus : 127 12; PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS I. COUNT ;?//^count recount count/css 2. PRINT w/j» print rq^rint printer 3- NAME ;;//>name rename namt/ess 4. CALL ////icall ;rcall caller 5. USE /;wjuse w^er use/ess 6. DO ;;?^^do undo doer 7- LOVE lov^r love/y imlovely 8. TAKE ;;«Vtake retake. taker 9- SEND /;//jsend resend sender Erase the blackboard work. Let it be reproduced by the class on slates or paper. Let pupils — (i) give the meaning of each of these derivatives, and (2) tell how it comes to have this meaning. In the third exercise we have a review lesson of another sort, involving both prefixes and suffixes. The meanings, when writ- ten out by the class, should be given according to the literal significance of the prefixes and suffixes used. Thus we shall have, in addition to the words analyzed in the model : w/^govern = govern wrongly misspend =: spend amiss repaint = paint again misdoer ■— one who does amiss tinsklllful = not full of skill ufiman/y = not like a man imtruth/ti/ ~ not full of truth Finally, require the copying of the note. PR IMA R V LANG UA GE CHAR TS 129 Teacher's Note. — In the course of the frequent reviews that lessons so condensed as these properly demand, it is not neces- sary to " stick to the text " in every case. Many suggestions for parallel work have already been made, and where time will allow, the judicious teacher will amplify the written practice under each successive principle. Thus, in the case of this chart, some further idea of the im- portance of etymology might be given by a talk about the words of the first table. These words are all adjectives derived from nouns, as, hopeful from hope. It would be interesting to show how from these same adjectives, nouns may again be formed by the addition of the suffix -ness j as, hopefulness from hopeful. Again, we have from the noun thought the two derivative adjectives thoughtful and unthoughtful ; from the adjective un- thoughtful v^t may derive the adverb unthought fully and the noun unthoughtfulness. Thus, also, from the verb govern we may have another verb, misgovern., the adjective ungovernable., and the nouns governor and government. 38 WORD-BUILDING AND WORD-ANALYSIS XXXVIII (SUF FIXES AND DERIVATIVES) ^ -LET ( = LITTLE ^'^^ *^« ^«=^* ^"^^ *° ^^""^ TTXTr" of these words r "XjiiS Va" ' TO THE TEACHER: Explain the familiar meanings of EYELET, RINGLET. FOUiNDUNG. LORDUNO. eye ring lord stream owl pack found prince duck leaf brook flower EXAMPLE I Lear+lel=aIiUleleaf. EX.\.MPLE 2. _ Dnck + ling = a liltle duck. n. TV ! i^ desoribing-words means LIKE. ■^^ ) in other words means IN A — MANNER. "Write these words in two columns, according to the meaning of the suffix slowly pleasantly princely manly brotherly bravely lordly honestly queenly brightly truthfully friendly EXAiMPLE 1 Man + ly = like a man. EXAMPLE a — Bra.e + 1/ = in a brave manner. nL Rule paper, and write out, as in this model: Prefixes Primitives Suffixes Meanings > un truth art ful-ly less-ly in a manner not truthful in a manner without art untruthfully childishly unregretful artlessly misdirect hopelessly scholarly reappear sorrowfully NOTE.— Words made, or derived, from other words are called D ERIVATIVES. CHART XXX VI /I Diminutive Suffixes "-ly" in Adjective and Adverb Word Analysis Other suffixes in constant use are given in this number. The first exercise calls for selection from the three diminutives -et, -let, and -Img. Since no artificial aid is here given toward the proper selection, pupils should not be expected to make it with- out the help of an oral lesson. The four derivatives named in the Teacher s Note are not used in the sense of their literal meanings, and their familiar mean- ings should therefore be explained to the class. All of these primitives, except found, are nouns. It will interest learners to explain to them that foundling means a little-one that has been found. In the second exercise we have the suffix -ly, which is common to adjectives and adverbs. The lesson gives an excellent illus- tration of the truth, which cannot be too often impressed, that it is not t\\Q form of a word but its use that determiaes what part of speech it is. Thus queenly means queen-like, and we see at once that it is an adjective ; while slowly means in a slow manner, and we see that this must be an adverb — what the pupils have learned to call a how, when, or where word. The third exercise gives us another test of acquirement in word analysis, showing the primitive, prefix, suffix, derivative, and meaning of words that children can readily understand. Let the note at the foot of the chart be copied by the class. 131 89 THE THING TALKED OF SUBJECT WHAT IS SAID ABOUT IT XXXIX PREDICATE L Copy, and commit to memory: Every sentence has two parts- a subject a predicate. The SUBJECT is that about which something is said. The PREDICATE is what is said about the subject. XL Copy these sentences, drawing one line under the sub j ects , and two lines under the predicates ; 1. Bells ring. 2. Peter writes. a Children study. 4. Children play. It takes at least two words to make a sentence. One of these words is the sub- ject; the other is the predicate. A subject that is one word is called a simple subject. What kind of words are these simple subjects? A predicate that is one word is called a simple predicate. What kind of words are these simple predicates? in. Rule paper, and copy these sentences: SUBJECT PREDICATE 1 1. Silver 2. Little 3. Good 4. Happy bells Peter children children ring writes study play clearly, well. diligently, merrily. Are these subjects simple ones? Why not? What kind of words have been added? Such subjects are called complete subjects. Are these predicates simple ones ? Wliy not ? Wliat kind of words have been added? Such predicates are called complete predicates. CHART XXXIX Subject and Predicate Simple and Complete Sentence Analysis Pupils have written many sen- tences. They have learned to distinguish parts of speech. They know that every sentence must contain a name-word and an action-word ; that without these it is impossible to make an asser- tion about anything — that is, to express a thought. They have now to learn that the thing talked about is called the subject^ and that what is said about the subject is called the predicate. Let pupils copy and commit to memory the three statements of the first exercise. Supplement the outline of work that is given in the smaller type of the chart by oral questioning on the sentences of the second and third exercises. Which word in the first sentence {Bells ring?) is a name-word ? Which is an action-word ? Which word names something that is talked about ? Which word states or asserts some- thing about the other word? Which word is the subject ? Which word is the predicate ? Copy the four sentences, drawing one line under the subjects, and two lines under the predicates. W^hen, as in these instances, the subject of a sentence is one word, it is called a si??iple subject. When the predicate is one word, it is called a simple predicate. 133 134 PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS But most of the sentences that we speak and write consist of more than two words. Suppose we want to say some- thing more definite or particular than that Bells ri?ig. Suppose we want to say what is printed in the first sentence below, Stiver bells ring" clearly. That is a fuller statement ; it tells us more than the other did. It has in it not only the name-word bells and the action-word ring^ but the describing-word silver^ and the how-word clearly. Yet although there are here more words, and more kinds of words, than in the sentence Bells ring, it is still true that there are but one subject and one predicate in this sen- tence. Silver bells is the subject, and rijig clearly is the predicate. One is what is talked of ; the other is what is said about it. But the subject of a sentence like this is not a simple subject ; it is called a complete subject ; and in the same way, ring clearly is called the complete predicate. Copy the four sentences of the third exercise. What kind of words are those of the first column ? What kind of words do they go with and describe ? What kind of words are those of the last column ? What kind of words do they go with and explain ? Do not pass on to the next chart till every pupil understands that these two learned-looking words, subject and predicate, are really very simple in their meanings. You have just learned that the word subject is given to the name of anything you talk about, and that the v^ord predi- cate simply means whatever is said about this thing. That PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS I 35 is all there is to language. It is made up, from beginning to end, of subjects and predicates. You cannot put a thought into words without a subject to tell what your thought is about, and a predicate to go with it and help to tell something about the subject. You see in the first group of sentences subjects of one word and predicates of one word. You see in the last group of sentences subjects of two words and predicates of two words. Just in the same way, you might have in a sen- tence a subject of half-a-dozen words and a predicate of as many more. These would not, as you have just learned, be simple subjects and simple predicates, but complete subjects and complete predicates. What I want you to remember is, that every sentence, long or short, has just two parts ; one of them the subject, the other the predicate. 40 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — Simple and Complete XL I. RtQe paper, and copy these sentences: wM xN- This map Hudson He represents Hudson River. discovered it in 1609. was a great navigator. Name the simple subjects; the simple predicates. Read the complete subjects; the complete predicates. ,IL m Copy these sentences, separating SUBJECTS from PREDICATES by an upright line: 1. Hudson River flows southward to the sea. Large ships sail on its waters. Two great cities are at its mouth. A suspension bridge connects Brook- lyn with New York City. New York Bay is deep and spacious. Ocean steamers enter it daily. 7. Many cities stand on the banks of Hudson River. 8. Albany is the capital of New York. 9. Jersey City and Hoboken are in the state of New Jersey. In each sentence: 1. Name what is talked about. 2. Then tell what words go with the simple sub- ject to make it complete. 3. Tell what is said about the subject. 4. What word is the simple predicate?' 5. What words are used with it to make it complete? CHART XL Subject and Predicate (con- tinued) Map Lesson in Description Sentence Analysis The treatment of subject and predicate is here continued. To give attractiveness to the exer- cises, a map of the Hudson's' course from Albany to New Yorlc is printed on the margin. Let the teacher give some easy, fa- m.iHar talk about the Hudson River region as an introduction to the map and to the sentence writing that is to follow. The Hudson valley is of very great importance as the path- way of a vast commerce between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic seaboard. Besides this, it should interest all Americans because it has been the scene of great events in our country's history. Into the great bay at the mouth of the Hudson River sailed the Italian Verrazzano, three centuries and a half ago. A hundred years later, Henry Hudson, in his ship, the Half Moon, threaded the river northward through the wilderness to the spot where Albany now stands. The city of Hudson, which is shown upon this map, is named in honor of this great navigator. To join the British General Howe, by way of Lake Cham- plain, was the purpose of Burgoyne's ill-fated expedition during the War for American Independence. The natural stronghold of West Point [pointing to the map] was the scene of Arnold's treason at a later time in the same war. 137 1 3 8 PR IMA R V LANG UA GE CHAR TS The sentences that pupils are asked to break up into subjects and predicates mean something — they deal with important facts and events. As a help to the copying of the first exercise, the simple sub- jects and the simple predicates of the three sentences are under- scored. In the panel is given an outline of the oral work that should precede the second exercise : In each sentence. 1. Name what is talked about. 2. Then tell what words go with the simple subject to make it complete. 3. Tell what is said about the subject. 4. What word is the simple predicate ? 5. What words are used with it to make it complete? The central purpose of this number is to further develop and to impress the distinction between subject and predicate. No other principle intrudes itself. Yet neither here nor in any other exercise of the series should slipshod work of any kind be suffered to pass uncorrected. There can be no two opinions as to the capitals and points proper to these sentences, or as to the spelling of the words. There are, in the lesson, more than a score of names of particular places, that must, of course, take the initial capital. What is the name of the mark printed in the word Brook- PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 1 39 lyn in the fourth sentence ? What does the hyphen show in cases like this? Why are capital letters used in the name New York in the eighth sentence ? Why is the word City, in the fourth sentence, spelled with a capital letter ? Why is not the word cities^ in the seventh sentence, spelled with a capital letter ? What kind of word is sail, in the second sentence ? at, in the third sentence ? deep, in the fifth sentence ? daily, in the sixth sentence ? cities, in the seventh sentence ? and, in the ninth sentence ? 41 MAP LESSON IN COMPOSITION XLI I. TO BE READ: There are three ways of traveling between New York and Albany: (1) by the Hudson River Railroad, (2) by the West Shore Railroad, (3) by boat on the river itself. The country is beautiful, and all three of the routes are pleasant. This map shows us the railroads that border the Hudson, and some of the towns that dot its banks. XL Write COMPLETE STATEMENTS in answer these questions on the map: the On which bank of Hudson River is city of New York? In going by the Hudson River Rail- road from New York to Albany, in what direction would you travel? To get a good view of the river on which side of the car would you: sit? What places would you pass through before reaching Poughkeepsie ? What places after leaving it? On which bank of the river is Albany? In returning to New York by the West Shore Railroad, what place is about 30 miles south of Albany? About 30 miles south of Kingston? About 30 miles south of Newburgh? What two cities about 30 miles south of Nyack? IIL Write the story of an excursion from New York to Albany by the day-boat, telling of the Palisades, the Highlands, the Catskills, the Poughkeepsie Bridge, and the shipping. 1 CHART XLI Map Lesson in Composition Answering Questions with Pen or Pencil Here the map of the previous number is repeated. The pupils have talked about and studied it in the last number. It is some- what familiar ground. Call atten- tion to the red lines which mark the railways. Show how closely two of these lines follow the course of the river. Read Lo the class the three opening sentences in the smaller type. Let pupils examine the map somewhat closely. Trace for them the course of the Hudson River Railroad from New York to Albany ; of the West Shore Railroad from Albany to the South. Call attention to the facts that Catskill is about thirty miles below Albany ; that Newburgh is about the same dis- tance below Kingston ; Nyack about the same distance below Newburgh ; while Jersey City and Hoboken are nearly as far south of Nyack, all of which West Shore towns and cities are shown upon the map. Now let the ten questions be answered in the form of com- plete statements, and pupils will have had sufficient prepara- tion to write the little composition called for at the foot of the chart. To many pupils of the Northeastern States an excursion upon the Hudson River has been an actual experience ; to others, the task proposed will make but a slight draught upon the powers of imagination. 141 42 SUBJECT AFTER THE FORMS OF BE XLII (SUBJECT. GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL) I. Copy these questions and answers: 1. Who was reading? John was reading. 2. Was it John? It was John, a Was it HE? It was HE. 4. Who are coming ? The soldiers com?ng. 5.1s it the soldiers? It is the soldiers. 6 Is it THEY? It is THEY. 7. Who is writing? It is I. 8. Is it WE who write? It is WE, IL Write answers, using the very w^ords of the questions: 1. Was it she? 4. Is it they? 2. Is this he? 5. Was it we? a Was it I? 6. Is that she? IIL Write answers to these questions, using I, WE, HE, SHE, THEY after IT IS or IT WAS: 1. "Was it you that spoke? 2. "Was it the soldiers that came by? 3. Is it you and your brother who are writing? 4. "Was it your sister that read so well? 5. Is it Henry that is absent? IV. Write ten sentences about the pictvire on Chart XXVI. V. Write ten sentences about the picture on Chart XXXVI. CHART XLII Case of Real Subject Common Errors Forestalled Sentence Writing It is common, especially after the forms of the verb be^ to mis- take the real or logical subject, particularly when this is either of the personal pronouns, for an ob- ject of the verb ; that is, to use the objective forms me^ us, him, her, them for the subject forms /, we, he, she, they. Many sentences beginning with the pronoun it and the adverb there give to these two words, by a peculiar use, the character of grammatical subject ; as, It was John ; There was rain last night ; in which cases the real subjects, John and rain, follow the verb. To use the objective case of the pronouns for the real subject nominative is a very common fault, as every teacher knows ; and it is one which has called for frequent oral correction. Such correction, however, no matter how insistent, cannot be depended on for the formation of the right habit of speech, un(ess enforced by printed example and written practice. Avoiding the use of any technical phraseology, point out by the help of the first three answers that // was he is simply an inverted form. The vernacular instinct v.f every child will teach him that Him was reading is bad English. Pursue the same method with They {them) are coming, I {me) am writing, We {us) are writing. The second exercise is but a device to fix correct forms in the 143 43 PICTURE LESSON IN COMPOSITION XLIII I. Hints for Exercise in Observation and Oral Description. How many ships are shown in this picture? Do ihey look like any ships that you have ever seen ? Here al the left-hand side are stranpfr trees and plants — do ^ou know the names or theniT In what kind of climr>te do palms, and .giant ferns, and cactuses grow? Do you think that all the people pictured here are of one racet Why not? The brown, beardless men — of what race are the^ ? The *hile men in armor and bright-colored dress are S|>aniards. Thvy have come ashore in the small boats that are drairn up on the beach. How man/ of these boats do you sec? What do you think the Spaniards are doing? The flag ihcy are grouped .ilmiit — is it the American flag? No. it is the roj'al standard of Spain. On it are embroidered castles and lions, c—^^'c-s or fig"-es ef t**e two ^p-r*'^*- ki^gd^-ns Which of these men do you think isColumbus? Ves. he who «-tands with hands upraised, and near the royal banner, is the great leader. He is t.ik* ins possession of the new*found country in the name of the king and queen of Spain. He called the island, for it was an island, by the Spanish name San Salvador, which means "Holy Saviour." Columbus gave it this name in token of his devout thankfulness to God for this happy end of hi^ hazardous voyage. The natives knew their island-home by the pleasant-sounding name of You may know from the odd look of the ships, and from the unfamiliar dress of the Span- iards, that this picture refers fo something that happened very long ago. It refers to a great eicDt — the discovery of America — which hap- pf^^A ,n iho^^a^ I •Q2. I'"— 'o"g ac"»'a- ik^i? At dt; break of Fndiy OctoU r U of thit xjr ColnmI>u>. lindt.d on one ol (he II ihama Klinds pupil i (hi!> 1 I the other pupils read a brief account of the Toyage and landing from any HiMory.) Are the Bahamas a part of our country ? Are they a part of the continent of America? This 'discovery that Columbus made induced other men to visit the mainland, where now are the United States of America, and to settle aod found colonics here. anniversary of this discovery of their beautiful country by a splendid ^ir at the creM city of Chicago in memory of the event which is pictured -4^ ^<> ^^^-^'%^ ''% W*t"^SV-^ ^-*<',>--' V ,). '^ i with 3. Why has he crossed the seas? flags — who are they? 4. How long ago was this? 2. What is Columbus, their leader, 5. WTiy is this scene very interest- doing? ing to us? . PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 45 memory. The class will be familiar with the requirement of writing answers by mere inversion of the words of the questions. The result will be six statements, with changed capitals and points. The third exercise will result in •. It was I. It was they. It is we. It was she. It is he. The fourth and fifth exercises are simply for practice in the writing of descriptive sentences. This chart involves no new principle. As its title shows, it is another " Picture Lesson in Composition ; " and in the smaller type printed upon its face are given pretty full suggestions for the exercise in observation and oral description. The subject so beautifully illustrated has, as will be seen, a peculiar appropriateness to the time, and special inter- est for the young people of our country. CHART XLIII Picture Lesson in Observation Oral Description Composition 44 WORDS OF LIKE MEANING.— Easy Synonyms XLIV I. Half of these words mean STRONG, and half of them mean HAPPY. WRITE THEM IN TWO COLUMNS, ACCORDING TO MEANING: TO THE TEACHER : It, .|.i..i Dm n-c of cnrh word in n sciiIpikp. happy strong cheerful muscular brawny jolly powerful vigorous sturdy joyous mirthful cheery merry mighty joyful robust NOTE. Words of like meaning are called SYNONYMS. XL Half of these name-words are synonyms of the other half. WRITE THEM IN PAIRS, ACCORDING TO TO THE TEACHER: H..|ul.e il.r „( ..,.1, .<....! ii. » >.-..ii..c.- MEANING: answer twine brook slumber sleep string teacher work labor sailor pair reply instructor seaman couple stream III. Half of these action-words are synonyms of the Other half. WRITE THEM IN PAIRS, ACCORDING TO MEANING. TO THE TEACHER: II. purchase shut parch throw instruct buy teach fetch scorch hit fling close strike cry bring weep CHART XLIV Easy Synonyms : 1. Adjectives 2. Nouns 3. Verbs No other language is so rich in synonyms as our own. This is because the English language has taken in words from many other languages. Tell the class how new words are constantly being added to our language even now, such as telegraphy telephone^ etc. Then show the origin of the words in the lesson on the chart. Thus, of the sixteen words in the first exercise, — four {merry, mirthful, strong, mighty) have come down to us from Old English ; two {happy, Jolly) are of Norse origin ; one {brawny) comes to us from the German , one {sturdy) from the French ; one {robust) directly from the Latin, and the remaining seven from the Latin through the French. Yet we can say that half of these words mean strong and half of them mean happy. This, however, is only a general statement ; seven of these words are related to strong, and seven others to happy, only by shades of meaning, just as we might say, in talking of colors, that scarlet, crimson, and orange are shades of red. If there were not these shades of meaning in our synonyms, English speech would be none the richer for having them. 147 1 48 PRIMA R V LANG UA GE CHAR TS As knowledge increases, its expression in language becomes clearer, the meanings of terms are more carefully distinguished, and the whole body of printed literature has given fixity, not only to the forms, but to the meanings of words. Give a talk to the class to show that synonyms have like but not identical meanings. Show, for instance, that we would say, *' a sturdy oak," but could not say, " a muscular oak," though we might properly speak of " a muscular blacksmith ; " that we might say " a mighty torrent," but that brawny^ robust^ and sturdy would not properly describe " a torrent." Yet the notion of strength and power underlies all of these describing-words. Show that these are describing-words. Pupils have already learned something of the use of the adjective suffix -ful. Teach that the suffixes -y and -ous have the same general value as -ful. And make sure that pupils know the meaning of these adjec- tives before they attempt to use them in sentences. Now let pupils copy the note. The words of the second exercise are nouns ; those of the third exercise are verbs. These words are purposely grouped according to the parts of speech ; because, as pupils have learned, words spelled alike may have different meanings and uses. Pre- cede the written exercises bv oral tests in picking out the pairs, as : answer reply- teacher instructor purchase buy shut close PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 149 SUPPLEMENTARY BLACKBOARD WORK L Write these na?ne-words in four lines of three synonyms each : mistake bog bough blunder figure limb shape branch swamp form marsh error Model. — mistake, blunder, error. II. Write these action-words in four lines of three synonyms each : righten tease litter . scare larm hide glisten vex conceal sparkle worry secrete III. Write these describing-words in four lines of three syno- nyms each : little wicked silly beautiful unwise tiny wrong foolish lovely handsome small sinful 45 SHADES OP MEANING— Synonyms Discriminated XLV I. Copy these sentences, choosing the right word for each blank. Give your reasons. center middle Wednesday comes In the — of the week. DOWN is toward the — of the earth. A bright scholar may make a — but he will not make a — mistake blunder alarm terror A brave man may feel — .but — is unknown to him. — battle The silver dollar is a — coin A Waterloo was a large great tiny small pony IS a — The period is a — We — things that are pleasant. We — friends that are dear. horse, mark, like love IL Write sentences showing the right use of each of these words: wish want sit set hear listen learn teach beg ask CHART XLV Shades of Meaning in Easy Synonyms Study of Opposites This number continues the study of synonyms, and the exer- cises have been so prepared as to compel discrimination in the use of the given synonyms. Let pupils give some reason for their choice in each case. The second exercise will re- quire close attention ; instinct will in most cases direct the pupil rightly ; where it fails to do so, let him consult the dictionary and correct his own faults. Further exercises of a similar nature might be as follows : Tell the difference in meanings of : I. anger, rage, fury 2. color, hue, tint 3. odd, queer, strange 4. beg, implore. entreat 5. say, tell. declare 6. walk, stroll, ramble Point out that the words of i and 2 are nouns ; those of 3, adjectives ; and those of 4, 5, and 6, verbs. Interesting variety may be given to the written work by a little study of antonyms^ or words of opposite meanings, as, for example : 151 1 5 2 PR IMA R Y LANG UA GE CHAR TS I. Write these words in two columns of opposites begin lose add gain subtract sell end raise lower learn buy teach II. Each word of the first line has a synonym and an opposite below. Arrange them accordingly : sharp large wide weak narrow strong keen big feeble broad small dull Model. — sharp, keen, dull The synonyms of a child's vocabulary are not very numerous. Study of these words, and practice in the use of them, will give accuracy in the choice of terms. That is, the work has a rhe- torical, not a grammatical purpose. One may frame all his sen- tences according to the rules of grammar, and yet talk and write poorly because of the narrowness and meagreness of his language training. Dictionary study of synonyms in pairs, should be followed by PRIMARY LANGUAGE CHARTS 1 53 oral and written practice in their use. The pairs given below are merely suggestive. 1. help, assist 2. occur, happen 3. allow, permit 1. sort, kind 2. story, tale 3. bough, branch 1. damp, moist 2. high, tall 3. swift, rapid 4. beautiful, handsome 5. sure, certain 6. little, small 46 MAP LESSON IN COMPOSITION XLVI I. Hints for Oral Exercise: North is toward the ibe I What side is toward the cast? the south! the west? What are the names of tlic directions from the center of the map toward the four corners T These blue surfaces at the northeast represent the Great Lakes. Tliis blue strip at the southeast shows a h'tlle of the Atlantic Ocean. This blue at the foot of the map shows a part of the Gulf of Mexico. The red hoes represent raHroads. The dark lines are for riven. This line (pointing) is for the Mississippi River. This is the Missouri River flowing in from the north and ■west. This river, the Ohio, comes in from the northeast; and this, the Arkansas, and this, the Red, add their waters from the wesC What slate do >ou live inT Do you sec it oo the map? Can you tocate jour town on this map? Is it on a river or lake? Ou what line of railroad is it situated? What large towns I the! If > go to St Louis. € large city), in what direo IL Write your answers. Add any facts you know. Consult this map, or some similar one. TRAVEL: In a journey from your home to Chicago, or to St Louis, how far would you travel? How long would you be on the journey? Would you go by land, or by water? If by rail, what large rivers would you cross? If by stearaer. what waters, of lake or river, would you traverse ? In either Write the story of a trip ffy lealer from Omaha to New Orleans. VVrite the story of a trip Oy rail from Cmcinoati to Kansas City. TRADE: I. If any goods are manufactured in the town where you lire, tell (1) what they are, (2) what places they are sent to, (3) how they are car- ried to market U. Where docs the BEEF you eat come from? How is it brought to the town where you li»e — by boat or by cars? Answer the same quet. tions about (1) the FLOUR for your bread. (2) the COAL you burn, (3) the SHOES and CLOTHES you wear, (4) the OIL that hghis your home. Chart XLVI. is, as its title shows, a lesson in observation and composition, founded on the map. The full suggestions printed upon the face of the chart will abun- dantly indicate the method of treatment. A large proportion of the pupils who study this num- ber live in territory watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries, or bordering upon the Great Lakes, and all children have a practical interest in the subjects proposed. CHART XLVI Map Lesson in Composition Oral Description of Travel and Trade CHARTS XLVII-L Reviews : Capitals Punctuation Definitions Principles face type refer, which the given The four numbers with which this series concludes are repro- duced upon pages 156 to 159 of this Manual. These last charts are in the nature of reviews, and give in compact form a summary of the principles involved in the preceding lessons. The numerals printed in broad- in each case, to the number of the chart in principle or definition was chiefly developed. 155 47 CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION — Summary XLVII L CAPITAL LETTERS are used to begin: 1. The first word of every sentence, (2, 4) 2. The first word of every line of poetry, (3, 8) 3. Individual names — as, Christopher Columbus . America. (5, 7) 4. Words derived from individual names — as, Columbian. American . (14) 5. Substitutes for individual names — as, Professor Huxley, General Washington, (15) 6. Abbreviations of titles — as, Prof., Gen., Mr., (15) 7. Names of the Supreme Being — (as in this instance), 8. Names of months (14), hohdays (16), and days of the week. (14) The word I is always a capital letter. (2) The word O, and single letters used as abbreviations, are usually capital letters. (14) IL PUNCTUATION MARKS. 1. The PERIOD (.) is put at the end of statements and commands (5); it is also a mark of abbreviation — as, Jno. (14) 2. The QUESTION-MARK (?) is put at the end of questions. (1, 5) 3. The EXCLAMATION-MARK (!) is put after words and sentences that express emotion. (1, 3) 4. The COMMA (,) marks the smallest division of a sentence. (8) 5. The SEMICOLON (;) marks a more distinct separation of the parts of a sentence than that shown by the comma. (9, 11) 6. The COLON (:) is used in summaries (see 2d line of this chart) and between nearly independent parts of a sentence. 7. The HYPHEN (-) is used in compovind words — as, school-room ; and also to mark the division of a word into syllables— as, syl-la-ble. (8) 8. The APOSTROPHE (') shows possession — as, John's (7, 23); and also marks abbreviation — as, isn't. (8, 13) 9. QUOTATION-MARKS (" ") are used to inclose the exact words of another when these words are repeated, or quoted. (7, 16) 48 REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES XLVIII Words that are names are called NOUNS — as, John , book. (1, 2) Words used in place of nouns are called PRONOUNS — as, he, it. (4, 6, 22) Words that express action or being are called VERBS — as, go, are. (2, 7, 9) Words that describe acting are called ADJECTIVES — as, blue, large. (3, 11) Words that show the time, place, or manner of actions expressed by verbs are called ADVERBS — as, now , here. (12) Words that connect other words, or groups of words, are called CON- JUNCTIONS — as, and, but, or, (9) Words that show a relation between other words that they connect are called PREPOSITIONS — as, We are i^ school from 9 t^ 12. (11) Words that stand alone to express feeling are called INTERJECTIONS — as, O, alas, hush. (12) A SENTENCE is a thought fully expressed. (7, 9) A sentence which states something is a STATEMENT. (9) A sentence which asks something is a QUESTION. (7, 9) A sentence which commands something is a COMMAND. (9, 11) The SUBJECT of a sentence is that about which something is said. (39) The PREDICATE of a sentence is what is said about the subject. (39) PAST TIME is usually shown by adding -ed to the simple form of verbs — as, sail, sailed. (29) Final y is usually changed to 1 before -ed — as, stud y, studied. (29) Final 6 is dropped before -ed — as, move , moved. (29) After a single vowel, a final consonant of cne-syllable verbs is doubled before -ed — as, drop, dropped. (29) 49 REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES XLIX 1. The change of adjectives to show a' greater and the greatest degree of the quality they express is called COMPARISON — as, g reat , greater, greatest ; s plendid , more s plendid , most s plendid. (27) 2. In their simple form adjectives are said to be of the POSITIVE de- gree — as, g reat ; splendid. 3. When two things are compared the adjective is said to be of the COMPARATIVE degree — as, greater; more s plendid. 4. When more than two things are compared the adjective is said to be of the SUPERLATIVE degree — as, greatest ; most splendid. 5. Most short adjectives form the comparative degree by adding T or er, and the superlative degree by adding St or GSt. 6. Most adjectives of more than one syllable take more in the com- parative, and most in the superlative degree. 7. ADVERBS also are compared, almost always by adding more and most — as, largely , more largely, most larg ely. (28) 1. AN is used before a vowel sound — as, an hour; an ox ; an elephant. (2o) A is used before a consonant sound — as, a boy ; a swing . 2. AN or A is used only with singular nouns — as, a box. THE is used with either singvdar or plvu-al nouns — as, the box ; the boxes. 3. THE is used when a particular thing is meant. AN or A is used when no particular thing is meant. 1. THIS and THESE refer to things near — as, this boy (here). (21) THAT and THOSE refer to things farther off — as, that boy (yonder). 2. THIS and THAT refer to one thing — as, that man. THESE and THOSE refer to more things than one — as, those men. 50 REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES L 1. NUMBER tells us whether one thing or more than one thing is spoken of. (19) 2. When a single thing is named the number is called SINGULAR. 3. When more than one thing is named the number is called PLURAL. 4. The plviral number of most nouns is made by adding S to the form of the singular number — as, boy , boys. 5. The plural number of nouns which end with S, X, Sll, or Oll (soft) is usually made by adding ©S to the form of the singular num- ber — as, box, boxes. 6. Nouns that end in y after a consonant form the plural by changing the y to ie before S — as, lady, ladies. 1. The POSSESSIVE form of plural nouns that end in S is made by adding an apostrophe — as, boy s, boys'. (23) 2. The possessiye form of all Otlier nOTinS is made by adding an apostrophe and S — as, child , child's; children , children's. 1. Words not made from other words are called PRIMITIVES — as, spell, teach. (37) 2. Words made or deriyed from other words are called DERIVATIVES — as, misspell , teacher. (38) 3. The part put before a primitive to make a derivative is called a PRE- FIX — as, mis spell, rewrite. (35) 4. The part put after a primitive to make a derivative is called a SUF- FIX — as, teacher, deepen. (36) Words of like meaning are called SYNONYMS — as, teacher = in- structor, perceptor. (44) LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 019 843 597 1 E TEAC HERS^ MAN One copy of with each set Language Charts Publishers purch Ptircha^JK copy can proc sen ding $1.00 AMERj QM B OOK SOsJIBway, New 149 ^^^^^B Avenue,