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Class (3 7-3 . 
 
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 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: 
 
AN OUTLINE IN GEOGRAPHY 
 FOR TEACHERS 
 
 PREPARED TO ACCOMPANY 
 
 FRYE'S FIRST COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 AND 
 
 FRYE'S HIGHER GEOGRAPHY 
 
 BY 
 
 F:A. MILXEDGE 
 
 :NN AND COMPANY : PUBLISHERS 
 
 NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
 DALLAS COLUMBUS 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY GINN AND COMPANY 
 
 LONDON 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
n < 246997 
 SEP 23 1909 
 
 OUTLINE IN GEOGRAPHY FOR TEACHERS 
 
 TO ACCOMPANY 
 
 FEYE'S FIRST COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 AND 
 
 FRYE'S HIGHER GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Aim. The aim of the teacher of geography is to lead 
 the pupils to a clear idea of the earth and its people. 
 This clear idea cannot be gained from words alone. No 
 matter how graphic they may be, unless they are under- 
 stood by the pupil in the sense in which they are used, 
 words serve . but to obscure the idea they are meant to 
 present. As geography is the study of the earth, let the 
 teacher begin with the study df that part of the earth's 
 surface which comes within the range of the pupil's daily 
 observation. The same laws are there in operation which 
 are acting everywhere on the earth, and most of the forms 
 of the earth's surface may be studied in the course of a 
 short walk from the schoolhouse. 
 
 Frye begins with home geography, and the first topic 
 he takes up is "Rain and Springs."' In no case should the 
 teacher confine herself to assigning a certain number of 
 inches of the text and then on the day following question- 
 ing the pupils to find out how thoroughly they have mas- 
 tered the words of this text. Question the children in 
 advance to find out what ideas about rain and its uses 
 are already in their minds. 
 
 Fix their attention first on the cloud floating in the air, 
 then on the rain falling from the cloud. Where does the 
 
 89.8 1 
 
2 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 rain go after it falls on the ground ? Wait for the answer ; 
 do not deprive them of their privilege of thinking for them- 
 selves. Some will say that it runs off ; some that it sinks 
 into the ground. Both are right. If there is a rain storm 
 during the first weeks of school, do not hesitate to suspend 
 the regular routine of lessons to observe the rain as it 
 gathers in the schoolyard in little pools, which overflow 
 and form little brooks. The time is well spent in thus 
 arousing interest. The next time rain falls they will look 
 and reason for themselves, without your help. Visit any 
 spring near by, or a well, and question as to the supply 
 of water. Such questions put beside the spring have a life 
 in them that is wanting in discussions of the same kind in 
 the schoolroom. 
 
 If there is no spring within reach, use the sand table, 
 which is an indispensable adjunct of each schoolroom. 
 There is no excuse for not having a sand table. Three or 
 four planed boards, four feet long, placed side by side and 
 cleated together on the under side, will give ample room 
 for illustrations. Sand, of course, is to be had everywhere. 
 Build up a pile of sand, inserting a piece of slate or board 
 at about one third of the depth from the top, with the edge 
 just protruding from the slope. Let one of the children 
 drop water from a can upon the top of the mound of sand. 
 When the water oozes out along the edge of the piece of 
 slope, it will be an easy step to get them to the notion of 
 a spring. See illustrations in text. 
 
 The admirable pictures in Frye's Geography have been 
 carefully selected and are meant to be used and not ignored. 
 Question on the picture, say, at the top of page 3. What 
 do you see in the picture? What is the color of these 
 clouds ? Why are they bright on the upper side ? What 
 do you see floating in the air above the clouds ? Lead the 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 3 
 
 children to see that clouds float at varying heights and that 
 the sun still shines on above. Which way is the wind 
 blowing ? What two signs of this direction have we in 
 the picture ? Into how many bodies of water does the 
 rainfall gather ? Which of the three flows most swiftly ? 
 How do you account for the lake ? (A hollow into which 
 the rainfall gathers.) Question as to all the details of the 
 picture, developing accuracy of observation and freedom of 
 expression. As fast as new ideas are introduced, write the 
 words on the blackboard, so that the correct forms may be 
 impressed upon the mind. These words will then serve as 
 busy work, since they can be carefully written down and 
 studied as a spelling lesson later on. Incidentally it may 
 be remarked that these words should be given out by dic- 
 tation to be written down by all, not to be spelled orally, 
 in which case only one in the class is benefited. 
 
 Nor does the above correlation with spelling exhaust the 
 possibilities of this lesson on the picture in question. Full 
 of interest in the subject, with something definite to write 
 about and with the correct forms of the words to be used 
 before them on the blackboard, the class could proceed to 
 write a composition. Train the children to write at first 
 in short simple sentences, expressing but one thought at a 
 time. Complex sentences will follow later, when they can 
 write a straightforward, simple statement of what they 
 wish ~to express, in sentences properly capitalized and 
 punctuated. There is a great economy in allowing no 
 wrong habits to be formed. Insist upon absolute accuracy 
 and you will be amply repaid for your trouble, 
 e Helps are- supplied by the author as hints to the teacher. 
 These are for use. Make up your mind beforehand how 
 you will use them, and shape the questions so as to develop 
 the ideas, Practice will soon make this easy for you, and 
 
4 AN OUTLIKE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 the vivid interest aroused will make the lesson in geography 
 a delightful thing. The first lesson has been treated with 
 considerable fullness. It will not be necessary to refer to 
 these points again, but it may here be said once for all 
 that each lesson should be preceded by a discussion of the 
 subject, by the close study of the pictures connected with 
 it, and by writing on the board the new words used. Then 
 let the lesson be studied as given in the text. Each sen- 
 tence will now be full of meaning and will be easily 
 remembered. Then let the written composition follow 
 while the interest is at a white heat, and the geographical 
 idea, thus repeatedly dwelt upon, should be the permanent 
 property of each individual mind. 
 
 Hill and valley. A field lesson is indispensable for the 
 proper understanding of this topic. If the hard-worked 
 teacher objects that time cannot be found for a field lesson, 
 the only answer is that time must be found. Before school, 
 at recess, at the noon hour, after school, or on Saturdays, 
 some time or other the pupil must come face to face with 
 Nature. Without this actual contact with real things the 
 teacher may, by laborious drill, drive into the heads of the 
 pupils the proper words and definitions, but they will re- 
 main words with but dim relations to the ideas they are 
 supposed to convey. Often the schoolyard has good illus- 
 trations of this and succeeding lessons. 
 
 Find a slope. Let the children find the top of the 
 slope ; the bottom. Roll a ball down the slope. Run up 
 the slope. In which direction does the rain go that falls 
 on the slope, up or down ? Find different kinds of slope. 
 Find where slopes meet at their upper edges. Compare 
 with the roof of a house which sheds the rain in different 
 directions. Locate similar water parting where two slopes 
 meet at their upper edges. Give other names, such as 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 5 
 
 watershed or divide. Lead up to the idea that the world's 
 surface is made up of slopes, which meet at their upper 
 and lower edges. It is no exaggeration to say that this 
 is the most important and most fundamental idea in geog- 
 raphy. With this idea clearly formed, the map becomes 
 full of meaning ; without this idea such absurdities are pos- 
 sible as the statement of the pupil of twelve years, who, 
 after four years of geography study, was of the opinion 
 that the Mississippi rose in the gulf of Mexico and flowed 
 northward ! Study the soil on the slopes and decide w T here 
 the coarsest is found and where the finest. Observe the 
 gullies which the rain has worn in the slope. What has 
 become of the soil that once filled these gullies ? Here 
 it may be said that the smallest gully may teach as im- 
 pressive a lesson as the canyon of the Colorado. Observe a 
 plowed field, after a rain and note how muddy the water is. 
 Catch some of this water in a tumbler and let it settle. 
 Compare the sediment thus formed with soil at foot of 
 slope. A few such observations will quicken the minds of 
 the children and lead them to see and reason for them- 
 selves. This after all, and not the mere acquisition of 
 knowledge, is the aim of all true education. 
 
 On returning to the schoolroom mold a series of slopes, 
 reviewing all the discoveries of the- field lesson. Have the 
 children mold them and describe them in written exercises, 
 as "above laid down. 
 
 Brooks and rivers. Visit some brook near by. If there 
 is none within reach, study the schoolyard after a heavy 
 rain. Note the slopes, before barely perceptible, now clearly 
 defined. Observe how the water gathers in little pools, 
 and how these overflow, forming a chain of lakes linked 
 by a little rivulet. Here is an illustration of the fact that 
 rivers were in most cases originally but chains of lakes 
 
6 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 which have worn down their outlets and have become 
 drained by one continuous channel, the river. Trace the 
 brook back to its source, which is probably either a spring 
 or a marsh. Observe the slopes and note that the brook is 
 found where the slopes meet at their lower edges. Locate 
 the basin of the brook by tracing the water parting as far 
 as practicable. Such work on a tiny brook will later make 
 intelligible the valley of the Mississippi and of the Ganges 
 and of other great homes of civilization. Find in the 
 schoolyard the counterpart of the little map of a river 
 system given on page 5. It is . the Mississippi system, and 
 its like is to be seen on any gently sloping bare surface 
 after a heavy rain. 
 
 How soil is made. Several lessons may well be devoted 
 to this most important topic. Study the Helps given in the 
 text. Use them. That soil is mainly made up of decayed 
 rocks is too startling a novelty to children to be taken in 
 by the mere telling. They must see it for themselves 
 before they really believe it. Note the lichens and moss 
 which gather over rocks ; scrape them off and note how 
 the rock below is affected. Observe old tombstones with 
 inscriptions barely decipherable. The hollows worn in door- 
 steps of old houses teach a lesson to those who can read it. 
 Put some pieces of broken slate in a bottle half filled with 
 clear water. Have the children take turns in shaking it, 
 and question on what they see. What about the color of 
 the water ? What has become of the sharp edges of the 
 slate ? Where has the mud that settles to the bottom come 
 from? One such object lesson will do more to teach the 
 children how soil is formed than pages of text slowly 
 learned by heart, imperfectly understood, and rapidly for- 
 gotten. Scrape out the crevices in rocks ; notice the crum- 
 bling sides of the cracks ; observe how plants have found 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 7 
 
 a lodgment there, and died in time, leaving fine dark mold 
 to fill the crevice. Question as to the effect of frost. What 
 happens to the pitcher full of water in a cold room on a 
 winter's night ? If freezing water will burst the pitcher, 
 what will be its effect in the crevices of rocks ? Study 
 the pebbles in the brook. Are they angular or rounded ? 
 What rounded them ? Remember the pieces of slate in 
 the bottle. Start the children to observe and think, and 
 half the work of teaching geography is done. 
 
 Mountains. The sand table is most valuable in develop- 
 ing the idea of the mountain. Mold a range with slopes 
 not too steep, and embed pebbles and pieces of rock just 
 below the surface all along the water parting. Let water 
 trickle from a can upon this water parting. The soft sand 
 will soon be washed away and gullies will appear, reach- 
 ing down the slopes. The hard pebbles will remain as prom- 
 inent peaks rising above the general mass and separated 
 from each other by passes. At one stroke the idea, a 
 stranger to most adults, will dawn upon the children that 
 mountains were once great uniform ridges and that all their 
 jagged outlines are but the work of the elements, continued 
 through great spaces of time. The sand washed down in 
 the above experiment will spread out over the table in 
 gently sloping plains furrowed by the running water. 
 Cause and effect are here linked together in so clear a 
 manner that the relation can be grasped at once, and 
 pupils see for themselves that the lowlands are formed 
 mainly of material washed down from the highlands of 
 the continents. 
 
 Shore forms. It is given to but few teachers to be 
 able to study shore forms in nature. But our brook sup- 
 plies us with illustrations which the pupils will delight to 
 discover for themselves. Islands may be found in brooks, 
 
8 AN OUTLINE FOB, TEACHERS 
 
 peninsulas, isthmuses, and capes, while small gulfs, bays, 
 and harbors may be found by looking for them. 
 
 Lastly, it may be said with regard to the indispensable 
 field lessons, — do not fear them. You will probably learn 
 as much from them as the pupils. Have the courage to 
 begin. A dozen trips, well directed, will perhaps suffice. 
 If you cannot have a dozen field lessons, at least have one. 
 Let the children have at least one glimpse of the soul- 
 refreshing truth that geography is not all in the book. 
 
 Forms of water. In this lesson is developed the third 
 answer to the question, What becomes of the rain that falls 
 from the clouds ? We have seen that part soaks into the 
 ground, and part runs down the slopes. We now learn that 
 the remainder evaporates. Boil a little water before the 
 class and note the steam. Set water to evaporate in vessels 
 of different forms and varying amounts of surface exposed. 
 Note the rate of evaporation from those vessels set in the 
 sunshine and in the shade. Study the dew under the trees 
 and in the open, after clear and after cloudy nights ; so 
 also with frost. If snow begins to fall, suspend the lesson 
 which is going on and concentrate the attention on this. de- 
 lightful novelty. Seize the moment when the interest is 
 at a white heat. Notice that the crystals have always six 
 points. Have the children find out that this is so by com- 
 paring the snowflakes with the picture on page 12. This 
 will give them more confidence in the text-book. 
 
 Points of the compass. At noon take the children out 
 into the yard and watch how the shadow of a pole shortens 
 till midday is reached. Fix the south and set up a mark 
 at some distance from the pole and draw a line connecting 
 them. This is a north-and-south line. It is easy then to 
 locate east and west. Ask the children to observe the 
 points where the sun rises and sets. Get a compass and 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 9 
 
 test these directions. Cultivate the sense of direction, which 
 is weak in most children. 
 
 How maps are made. With this lesson the section on 
 home geography closes. Let the children familiarize them- 
 selves, by repeated measurements, with the sizes of their 
 books,' desks, schoolroom, schoolhouse, and schoolyard. 
 Then have them draw them to a given scale. This gives 
 them an idea as to what a map is, — a conventional picture 
 intended to call up a reality in the mind. Draw a map of 
 the land immediately round the schoolhouse and then have 
 them model the same in sand. This will establish the con- 
 nection between the flat map and the relief map, and the 
 relation of both to the actual facts. Always look for the 
 reality behind the map ; some never see it. 
 
 In conclusion I may refer the teacher who is in ear- 
 nest to Frye's book, " Child and Nature," published by 
 Ginn and Company. This admirable handbook covers the 
 whole ground of home geography. 
 
 Form and size of the earth. The teacher should provide 
 herself with a globe. As a small globe on a wire stand can 
 be bought for twenty-five cents from school-supply firms, 
 the cost is not prohibitive. The diameter and circumfer- 
 ence of the earth may be made more real to the class by 
 putting such problems as these for solution : At the rate 
 of twenty-five miles per hour, in how many days could a 
 railway train go round the earth ? If a man were to start 
 on January 1, 1909, to walk round the earth at the rate of 
 fifteen miles per day, on what day would he complete his 
 journey ? Give many such problems until a definite mean- 
 ing is given to the circumference of the earth by associat- 
 ing with it ideas of time. Apply the same procedure to the 
 diameter. To make more real the conception of the earth 
 as a globe floating in space, get the children to observe the 
 
10 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 full moon and then tell them that the earth is just such a 
 globe as the moon, only it is forty-nine times larger. Have 
 them observe the changes of the moon as suggested in the 
 text. Such observations will prepare the way for the full 
 comprehension of the relation of the earth to the sun. In 
 what direction do the horns of the new moon point, towards 
 the sun or from it ? What about the waning moon ? It is 
 surprising how few have ever really noticed these things. 
 Note the path of the moon through the heavens. How does 
 it compare with the apparent daily path of the sun ? Such 
 observations do more than quicken the seeing powers of 
 the pupil ; they enlarge the imagination and prepare him 
 to picture the earth as a globe, lighted on one side and dark 
 on the other, revolving in its orbit round the sun. 
 
 Continuing the idea of the earth as a unit, it is described 
 as a ball of rock, three quarters covered with the waters 
 of the ocean, while the other quarter is mainly covered 
 with the rotten rock we call soil. The air is then treated 
 as not only forming the outer envelope of atmosphere, but 
 also as penetrating to the depths of the ocean and down 
 into the soil. This unity of treatment is the great merit 
 of Frye's geographies, and should not be lost sight of for a 
 moment by the teacher. Failure to realize this has caused 
 many teachers to complain of difficulty in using the series. 
 It is, of course, difficult to teach intelligently that which 
 is not understood. 
 
 Do not omit the weather record suggested in the text. 
 Upon the basis of personal observation of the facts may be 
 built later the idea of the truth underlying these facts. 
 The important fact in Lesson 17 is that when the spot of 
 earth on which we stand is so turned to the sun that its 
 rays are most nearly vertical, the heat is greatest, because 
 the rays have less space to cover. If just before the 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 11 
 
 opening of the morning session, the children note how 
 long their shadows are, and compare with the length of 
 the much-shortened shadow at noon, they will see that 
 the bundle of rays in the first case had far more ground 
 to cover and consequently could not warm it as much 
 as at noon, when the space covered by the same bundle 
 is so much less. 
 
 Discuss fully the points suggested in the Helps. This 
 whole topic is one of the most important in geography. 
 
 Lesson 18. Poles and equator. Take a ball. Get the 
 children to see how hard it is to locate any point on its 
 surface. Now turn it slowly, holding it between thumb 
 and forefinger. The class will soon notice that every point 
 on the surface moves except those directly beneath the 
 thumb and forefinger. We have now two points fixed, the 
 poles. It is then easy to draw with a piece of chalk a line 
 halfway between these poles. This line is the equator. 
 On the ball draw some more lines parallel to the equator, 
 and others from pole to pole. It will be clear that a mark 
 on the surface can now be easily located. To illustrate day 
 and night, place a lighted candle on the table and have the 
 children observe that just one half of the ball is in the light 
 and the other half is in the dark. By putting a mark on 
 the ball and then rotating it from west to east, it can be 
 demonstrated that a person standing on the mark first 
 catches sight of the light on the eastern horizon, and then, 
 as the ball continues to rotate, sees it rise higher and 
 higher till it passes the zenith and finally disappears in the 
 west. The teacher will exercise the utmost care to preserve 
 in these demonstrations the true points of the compass. 
 
 These and all other hints here given are meant to be 
 merely supplementary, and in no sense are they to be used 
 as substitutes for the text. 
 
12 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 With the general idea of the earth as a ball warmed 
 and lighted by the sun thus made definite, the next 
 step is to locate upon this globe the continents and 
 the oceans. 
 
 Seasons and zones. The daily observations of tempera- 
 ture above referred to will follow the change of the seasons. 
 Add to them observations of the altitude of the sun at noon 
 at intervals of a fortnight throughout the school year. On 
 September 22, or as near to that date as possible, note 
 particularly the altitude of the sun and the length of the 
 shadow of a pole permanently set up for this purpose in the 
 schoolyard. Impress upon the class the fact that on that 
 day'the sun is directly overhead at the equator. Referring 
 to the diagram of vertical rays of the sun on page 17, 
 deduce the temperature which must prevail at the equator. 
 Again, on December 20, observe the sun's position and 
 compare the shadow. It is now vertical over the tropic of 
 Capricorn, far to the south of the equator, and consequently 
 we receive but slanting rays from the low sun. On March 20 
 show that it is again on the equator, while an observation 
 taken as near as may be to June 21 will fix the tropic of 
 Cancer. Gradually the true import of the meaning of the 
 change of the seasons will dawn upon the pupils under this 
 constant appeal to observation. Without this constant veri- 
 fication the whole subject will remain a bewildering mass 
 of words. Do not expect too much from the pupils on this 
 topic. If they understand it after several years of recur- 
 rence to this point, they will have done well enough, and 
 more than most of us. 
 
 Plants and animals. True to the central idea of treating 
 the earth as a unit, the distribution of plants and animals 
 is now considered. The children learn of these in refer- 
 ence to the belts of heat, and recognize how both plants and 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 13 
 
 animals find the homes that best suit them under the 
 different climatic conditions of the world. 
 
 It will- be found that much interest will be aroused by 
 bringing to the school specimens of coffee berries, tea, 
 tropical fruits, etc. After a brief description of each, affix 
 it to a large sketch map drawn for this purpose on a sheet 
 of manila paper. In like manner, pictures of the animals 
 mentioned in the text may be cut from magazines, etc., 
 and pasted on this map at the proper points. 
 
 Races of men. The same unity of treatment leads the 
 children to recognize the essential oneness of the human 
 race. Color, size, hair, etc., may differ, yet all are men, 
 capable of development. 
 
 The lessons on laws and government are meant to show 
 that all men are members of some community or other, 
 and as such have both their rights and duties. Govern- 
 ment exists to define and regulate the relations of men 
 to each other. 
 
 The second section now closes, having given a general 
 view of the continents and oceans with their zones of heat 
 and changing seasons ; also of the plant, animal, and human 
 life that makes its home thereon. 
 
 The next step is to descend from the general to the 
 particular and to take up the continents more in detail. 
 
 North America. Notice the order of the treatment and 
 emphasize each point. First, the shape ; then the outline, 
 which is broken and so helps on commerce ; next, the relief 
 of the continent, which is aided by a fine relief map. The 
 relief maps are a special feature of Frye's books, and are 
 neither so simple as to fail in the desired impression, nor 
 so complicated that they confuse the learner. 
 
 Take up the relief map before the text is studied, so as 
 to have the children see and interpret for themselves. 
 
14 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Emphasize the unbroken massive Western highlands and 
 the much lower Eastern highlands, broken into two groups 
 by the St. Lawrence. This is a fact of cardinal importance 
 and cannot too strongly be insisted upon. Then let them 
 note the Great Central plain, reaching from the gulf of 
 Mexico to the Arctic ocean. Mold this map in sand and 
 have the children mold it, using as a model the simple 
 relief map given in the supplement. Their previous work 
 in home geography will have prepared them to discover 
 the slopes to the Atlantic and Pacific and to locate the great 
 rivers where slopes meet at their lower edges. The Missis- 
 sippi and the Mackenzie are thus seen to indicate the slopes 
 of the Central plain to the south and the north, while the 
 Saskatchewan and the St. Lawrence occupy a depression 
 which lacks but little of being continuous from the primary 
 highlands to the Atlantic. Then notice that a depression 
 in the Great Central plain in the north lets in the waters 
 of the ocean to form Hudson bay, while a similar depres- 
 sion to the south forms the gulf of Mexico. 
 
 With the above simple facts clearly in mind the pupil has 
 grasped the main plan of North America ; the details which 
 follow, numerous as they may be, fall readily into their 
 proper place and round out the concept of the continent. 
 
 With regard to map drawing, have the children sketch 
 the simple map in the supplement repeatedly until they 
 can draw it readily and accurately from memory. As the 
 best maps in school geographies do not pretend to be more 
 than approximations to the truth of the outline, it is need- 
 less waste of time to insist upon the painful reproduction 
 of sinuosities of the coast line. 
 
 Construction lines are hard to learn. If the teacher has 
 but the courage to dispense with them, much time will be 
 saved in map drawing and more real power gained. 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 15 
 
 Correlation of arithmetic and geography. The correla- 
 tion of geography with spelling and language work has 
 already been insisted upon. It is presumed that this cor- 
 relation will be carried on throughout the whole study of 
 geography, as far as practicable. The correlation of arith- 
 metic with geography is no less important, for geographical 
 facts as to length of great rivers, size of great countries 
 and continents, population of great cities, cannot be learned 
 without constant repetition. Call in the aid of arithmetic 
 and this can be done easily, even in a crowded schedule, 
 by the simple device of framing problems which, while 
 recalling facts in geography, give ample drill in number 
 work ; for example, In how many days could a boy walk 
 from the source of the Missouri to the mouth of the Missis- 
 sippi at the rate of 12 miles per day? The class looks up 
 the length of the Missouri-Mississippi in the supplement 
 and finds it given as 4200 miles. This number is too large 
 for full comprehension, but when, by division, the pupil 
 finds that it would require 350 days, or but 15 days short 
 of a year, to make the journey, he has come much nearer 
 to a proper notion of the length of this, the greatest river 
 (in length) in the world. Vary the rate in successive prob- 
 lems until each member of the class can give the length 
 without hesitation ; then take up a fresh item. 
 
 To understand these lengths, however, presupposes a 
 definite knowledge of a mile, and this again the knowledge 
 of the lesser units of length. The teacher therefore will 
 see to it that the inch, the foot, the yard, the rod, and the 
 chain are familiar to the pupils by repeated measurements 
 made by themselves. Then with a string measuring 1 chain, 
 or 4 rods, or 66 feet, measure a mile, driving down pegs to 
 mark a quarter, half, and three quarters of a mile. There 
 will now be a definite standard by which distances can be 
 
16 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 really judged. The time taken for this exercise will be 
 well spent. 
 
 By the scale of miles the pupils will find the length 
 of North America (5700 miles), also the breadth from 
 New York to San Francisco (3000 miles). Give problems 
 similar to the above. Then vary as follows : In how many 
 days could a man travel the length of North America in a 
 railway train, moving at the rate of 30 miles per hour ? 
 It is unnecessary to multiply instances ; the real teacher 
 will catch the idea and develop it, and it is for the real 
 teacher only that these lines are written. With regard to 
 area, let each pupil measure a square inch, square foot, 
 square yard, square rod, and acre. A useful device is to 
 have four pupils measure a square rod and each take his 
 stand at a corner of it, and so on with all the members of 
 the class. A square mile can readily be estimated from the 
 linear mile already measured. Find out how many square 
 miles in your home county. The county superintendent 
 could find out for you from the officials at the county seat. 
 By division find how many times the area of the home 
 county is contained in that of Virginia (42,450 square 
 miles). This area of your home state should be the unit 
 by which the areas of the continents and of other states 
 and countries should be measured. Few know the exact 
 area of their own state, and yet what more interesting or 
 important item of geographical knowledge could there be 
 than this ? 
 
 How many times is the area of Virginia contained in 
 that of the United States ? in that of North America ? 
 How many acres in Virginia ? in the United States ? in 
 North America ? etc. 
 
 - Examples in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
 division may thus be given as class work, as busy work, or 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 17 
 
 as home work, to the great enhancement of the definiteness 
 of the geographical knowledge of the pupil and to the great 
 increase of interest in the number work. The areas of the 
 great river basins as given in the supplement may be treated 
 in like manner, and numerous comparisons may be made 
 between the population of Virginia and those of the various 
 states of the Union and of other countries. Limitations of 
 space forbid further dwelling upon this most important 
 topic. 
 
 With a general survey of the people of North America, 
 its climate, its plants and animals, the broad view of the 
 continent is completed. If the teacher has comprehended 
 the unity of treatment of the subject by Frye and continu- 
 ally directs the attention of the pupils to it, a vivid picture 
 of North America in its broad and essential features, such 
 as shape, outline, relief, drainage, climate, people, plant 
 and animal life, will be indelibly stamped upon the minds 
 of the pupils. And this is an end well worth, striving for. 
 
 United States. The relief of the United States is first 
 to be made clear. Notice that Frye emphasizes the natural 
 regions and not the artificial political divisions. Use the 
 relief maps on pages 49 and 50 continuously. The first sen- 
 tence in Lesson 39 states that the Western highland covers 
 one third of the United States. Look at once at the relief 
 map and verify this statement, otherwise it will make 
 but a faint impression. Compare the Eastern highland. 
 How narrow it seems. Compare the length of the Pacific 
 slope with that of the Atlantic slope. How easy it is for 
 the children as they look at this relief map to see that 
 there are but two great rivers on the Pacific slope of the 
 United States, the Colorado and the Columbia, with two 
 smaller ones, the Sacramento and the Joaquin, which drain 
 the valley of California. Strike for the main features first. 
 
18 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Let them notice the three ranges to the West, — Coast 
 Range, Sierra Nevada and Cascade, and Rockies, with two 
 depressions, the Valley of California and the Great Basin, 
 lying between these ranges. The Great Central plain is 
 divided into Western plateau, prairies, and Southern or 
 Coastal plain, with but one mountain mass, the Ozarks, 
 rising like an island from the lower levels. The Atlantic 
 slope is recognized as a unit, stretching from the Appala- 
 chians to the sea. In all, at this stage, Frye calls ori the 
 pupils to recognize but nine natural regions as a ground 
 plan upon which to work in subsequent lessons. A special 
 chapter is devoted to the Great Lakes and the outlets for 
 their trade by way of the St. Lawrence and the Erie canal. 
 It would be better at this point not to spend too much 
 time in learning the names of states and especially in 
 memorizing their boundaries. Whatever is needed of this 
 work will come later. The large colored map on pages 
 54-55 is mainly for reference. It may not be amiss to re- 
 peat that the liberal use of the sand table by both teacher 
 and pupils is the most economical way to teach the relief 
 of the United States, as of any other country. 
 
 The United States being now the unit, the same plan is 
 pursued as in the treatment of North America and of the 
 world as a whole. The relief is followed by a discussion 
 of the people, showing how the physiographic configura- 
 tion of the country influenced its settlement. 
 
 Climate. The maps of temperature and rainfall deserve 
 the most serious attention. Those who fail to see that 
 Frye gives the cause first and then deduces the effects, 
 will pass these maps by with but a perfunctory glance. 
 The whole succeeding section depends upon the vivid reali- 
 zation of the meaning of these maps. To neglect these and 
 then expect to arouse any interest in the maps of products 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 19 
 
 is about as sensible as to throw away the key of your 
 house and then complain that the door won't open. It is 
 to be supposed that the directions for keeping a weather 
 record (page 17) have been followed, and that the children 
 are ready to understand the discussion of rainfall and tem- 
 perature, having themselves made a series of observations 
 on the subject. 
 
 They will notice that the warmest part of the United 
 States, which is colored deep red, partly, but not entirely, 
 corresponds with the belt of heaviest rainfall. As it has 
 already been developed that vegetation depends upon heat 
 and moisture, they will expect to find cotton which needs 
 a good deal of rainfall as well as a long warm summer in 
 the southern part of the United States. A glance at the 
 map shows that this is so. Corn needs warmth, but not so 
 much as cotton, and also a fair amount of rain ; consequently 
 the area which indicates 20-30 inches of annual rainfall 
 almost exactly corresponds with the map of the corn belt. 
 Forests are seen to match quite closely the area of rain- 
 fall of 20 to 30 inches annually, except for the prairie 
 region southwest of the Great Lakes. As the Rockies and 
 Sierra Nevada and Cascades receive a good deal of rain 
 they are, of course, covered with forest more or less heavily 
 according to the amount of rainfall. The map of hogs 
 matches that of corn, for of course this is their principal food. 
 
 Lay great stress upon the location of the great cities 
 which have grown up in connection with these great staple 
 crops. Fix the state in which each is found, and especially 
 notice the river on which it lies, if any. Discuss the loca- 
 tion of Chicago and New York in connection with the 
 various crops, and decide which have had most influence 
 on the growth. Trace the water routes between these two. 
 Have each pupil make a sketch map of the United States and 
 
20 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 color according to products, also affixing with glue a few 
 grains of corn or wheat in the appropriate locations. A 
 few such exercises give life and meaning to the maps, so 
 that they are no longer mere blotches of color. Assist 
 this process by a liberal use of the pictures available. If 
 there is a flouring mill available, visit it ; so also with a 
 sawmill or other manufacturing establishment. Use the 
 utmost precautions against possible dangers to pupils from 
 machinery by exercising the strictest supervision yourself 
 and by assigning each younger pupil to the special care of 
 an older schoolmate. 
 
 Coal. A useful exercise in preparing for a lesson on 
 coal is to visit a swamp and notice the black vegetable 
 mud which has accumulated. Dry some of this and burn it. 
 This will prepare the pupils for the idea that coal is a 
 vegetable product. Locate the principal coal areas of the 
 United States and predict future developments of industry. 
 
 Iron. Compare maps of coal and iron. Find where they 
 agree, and locate the cities which have sprung up from this 
 fact. Notice how largely the South has been favored with 
 regard to this metal, and deduce consequences. Notice 
 absence of coal from the neighborhood of the rich deposits 
 of iron ore round Lake Superior. Naturally, then, either 
 the iron must be brought to the coal or the coal to the iron. 
 Lead the pupils to imagine the immense traffic which must 
 arise in carrying the iron to the lower lake ports where 
 coal is abundant and cheap. 
 
 Routes of trade and growth of cities. The two les- 
 sons entitled " Routes of Trade " and " Why Cities Grow " 
 afford an excellent opportunity to review the relief, drain- 
 age, and climate of the United States with especial refer- 
 ence to man and his occupations, which latter have been 
 so largely determined by his environment. 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 21 
 
 Dwell upon the road or street -which passes the school- 
 house, proceed to the idea of the nearest railroad, bring in 
 the nearest navigable river or canal known to the children, 
 and compare the cost of transportation on each. Discuss the 
 advantages of good roads. Illustrate by a home example 
 what is meant by a market for produce. Review the great 
 cities, locating them and stating clearly what causes have 
 made them great. The causal idea should never be allowed 
 to drop into the background. It is this idea which dignifies 
 the study of geography and makes it fully the equal of any 
 subject in the school curriculum as a means of training the 
 mind. Frye has shown how this idea is to be developed; it 
 only remains for the teacher to follow his explicit directions. 
 
 Groups of states. The hints given with regard to the 
 study of the United States apply to that of each separate 
 group. Get a clear mental picture of the position of each 
 group in its relation to the whole country. Fix its relief, 
 its drainage, climate, and products by review of preceding 
 maps. Put questions and let the class have full time to 
 work out the answers. By these means the idea of unity 
 will be maintained. Bounding each separate state and com- 
 mitting these boundaries to memory is a comparatively use- 
 less exercise. Save the time for determining the industries 
 which have arisen, the centers of population where they 
 are practiced, and their influence upon the character of the 
 people. Emphasize the fisheries and manufactures of New 
 England, the mining industries of Pennsylvania, the agri- 
 cultural staples of the South, rather than the comparatively 
 unimportant towns which in so many cases are the capitals 
 of the several states. 
 
 South America. Follow with this continent exactly the 
 same plan as for North America. Model' the relief and fix 
 the primary highland, unbroken throughout its length, and 
 
22 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 the secondary highland, divided by the low plain of the 
 Amazon into the Guiana, and the Brazilian highlands. 
 Between these note the great Central plain, subdivided into 
 llanos of the Orinoco, selvas of the Amazon, and pampas of 
 the La Plata. To the south is the low wind-swept table-land 
 of Patagonia. These simple features of the relief must be 
 stamped upon the mind of each pupil. Every added detail 
 will then fall readily into its appropriate place. At every 
 point compare with North America, in position, outline, 
 relief, rivers, climate, etc., giving resemblances and differ- 
 ences. Give special object lessons on the cacao and coffee 
 plants, also on rubber. Of the animals, the alpaca enters 
 most largely into our daily lives. Emphasize those points 
 which touch us most, letting the others hold a minor place. 
 The fine illustrations should be minutely studied, used as 
 subjects for composition and frequently reviewed. 
 
 The figures given in the supplement as to areas, lengths 
 of rivers, etc., will furnish ample material for drill in 
 number work. 
 
 Europe. Fix the position, outline, area, etc., of this con- 
 tinent. Its somewhat complicated relief calls for a word of 
 elucidation. Note the Pyrenees and Alpine highland, made 
 up of Alps and Balkans, stretching from the Atlantic ocean 
 to the Black sea. This is the backbone of Europe, and must 
 be fully understood by each pupil before another step is 
 taken. It will readily be seen that three great peninsulas 
 stretch southward, — Spain, Italy, and the Balkan peninsula, 
 made up of Turkey and Greece. To the north lies a much 
 lower mass of mountains and plateaus drained by the 
 Rhone, Rhine, and Danube. Locate these and by drill and 
 description impress their names upon the minds of each 
 pupil. All the rest is low plain, except for the outlying 
 ridges of Scandinavia and the British Isles. These four 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 23 
 
 regions must be clearly recognized, if. any definite notion 
 of Europe is to be gained. Note the winds which blow in 
 from the Southwest, bringing the warmth of the tropics to 
 moderate the climate of western Europe. Observe the 
 closed basin of the Mediterranean, heated by the summer 
 sun and shut out from the colder waters of the Atlantic. 
 It is therefore like a huge tub of warm water in a room in 
 winter time, keeping everything warm round about it. 
 
 Trace the effect of the great wall of the primary 
 highlands breaking the force of winds from the north. 
 Compare with North America. Has North America any 
 such wall of mountains running from east to west ? Note 
 how easily the warm southwest winds can sweep in over 
 low Europe, and even over the low mountains lying north 
 of the primary highland. Compare the plants and ani- 
 mals of Europe with those of North America and note 
 the resemblances. 
 
 British Isles. Special attention should be paid to the 
 British Isles, so closely knit to us by the ties of blood, of 
 history, and of trade connections. Emphasize the position 
 of these islands on the western edge of Europe, well situ- 
 ated for trade both with the continent of Europe and with 
 America to the west, on the other side of the Atlantic. 
 Develop the idea that oceans unite rather than divide 
 nations, when man has once learned the art of navigation. 
 
 For the rest of Europe follow the text-book. 
 
 Asia. The relief of Asia will present difficulties unless 
 the plan of the continent is recognized. Locate the chain 
 of mountains running from the end of the Balkans at Con- 
 stantinople, continuously through Turkey in Asia, Persia, 
 and Afghanistan until it rises into the mighty Himalayas, 
 the abode of snow. Thence it runs northeastward through 
 China and Siberia, to Bering strait. This is the backbone 
 
24 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 of Asia. To the south will be seen the three peninsulas of 
 Arabia, India, and Farther India, closely paralleling the 
 three peninsulas of Europe, while to the east lies the 
 lowland of China. 
 
 The whole center of Asia is occupied by two vast plateaus, 
 a lesser made up of Asia Minor and the plateau of Iran, 
 and a greater composed of the highland of Tibet, the 
 Middle Basin, as Frye terms it, and the desert of Gobi. 
 These two great plateaus are joined by the comparatively 
 narrow neck of the Pamir.. To the north stretches the 
 great northern plain of central Asia and Siberia. The 
 effort necessary to master these principles of the relief will 
 be amply repaid by the clearness of comprehension gained 
 as to Asia as a whole. Without this grasp of the relief Asia 
 will remain a perplexing continent. How simple are now 
 the main facts of the drainage. To the south, the Euphrates 
 and Tigris in their fertile valley; the Indus and Ganges 
 of the broad plains of northern India ; . the Mekong of 
 Farther India; while the great Yangtze, Yellow river, 
 and Amur drain the eastern slope. These eight rivers are 
 all that are necessary to know at this stage. To the north- 
 ward flow the Ob, the Jenesei, and the Lena through the 
 vast plains of Siberia on their way to the Arctic ocean. 
 To the east of the continent lie the great fringing chains 
 of islands, the Philippines and Japan ; while to the south- 
 east lie the great groups of islands of which the most 
 important are Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. 
 
 This is the plan of Asia, not too difficult for pupils 
 trained to the intelligent use of relief maps by the study 
 of North America, South America, and Europe. 
 
 Practically the stress of study in this continent lies upon 
 India, China, and Japan, three countries in which a high 
 grade of civilization has been reached. 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 25 
 
 For the rest, the suggestions already given apply to Asia 
 and need not be repeated. 
 
 Africa. One glance at Africa will show that it is a great 
 plateau with the primary highlands near the eastern coast 
 and with the secondary highlands along most of the west- 
 ern. Its rivers, the Nile, Niger, Kongo, and Orange, drain 
 directly or indirectly into the Atlantic. The Zambezi alone 
 runs into the Indian ocean after a course to the east. 
 
 Locate the two great deserts, Sahara to the north and 
 Kalahari to the south, with the vast forest region of the 
 Kongo, flanked by grassy plains on either side, occupying 
 the space between. These plateaus and deserts joined to 
 the unbroken outline explain why Africa has lagged so far 
 behind in civilization. Egypt, the gift of the Nile, alone 
 has an ancient civilization and history. 
 
 Especially dwell upon the Nile, from its sources in the 
 great equatorial lakes and in the highlands of Abyssinia 
 to its mouth in the rich delta. Tell about its annual over- 
 flow and the rich crops produced. The Pyramids will illus- 
 trate the ancient civilization of Egypt. 
 
 Australia. Of this continent little need be said. Un- 
 broken in outline, surrounded by mountain ranges near the 
 sea, with a vast desert taking up most of the interior, 
 Australia is the least inviting of all the continents as the 
 home of man. The chief interest for the pupils will lie in 
 the strange plants and animals of this continent and in 
 the fact that a branch of the Anglo-Saxon race has occupied 
 it and is subduing large portions of it for its use. 
 
 Conclusion. When the study of Frye's " First Course in 
 Geography " is completed, the pupil should have a fair 
 knowledge of the world as a unit in its arrangement of 
 continents and oceans, its climatic conditions as a whole, 
 its plant and animal life, including the races of mankind. 
 
26 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Its continents should be clearly in mind as to their sim- 
 ple features of relief and drainage, products of the soil, 
 and occupations of inhabitants. Lastly, the political sub- 
 divisions are touched upon sufficiently. 
 
 If the pupil leaves school without pursuing the study of 
 geography further, he has at least a complete framework 
 into which may be built the added items which will be 
 furnished him by life's experiences and by the reading of 
 books, newspapers, and periodicals. 
 
 NOTES ON FRYE'S HIGHER GEOGRAPHY 
 
 It will not be necessary to repeat the hints and elucida- 
 tions given in the notes on Frye's " First Course." It will 
 suffice to touch on those points which admit of more elabo- 
 rate treatment on account of the greater age of the pupils. 
 
 Soil formation. If possible study a ledge exposed in a 
 railroad cut or alongside of a road. Notice the cracks that 
 run both horizontally and vertically, breaking the rock up 
 into more or less uniform blocks. Question on probable 
 cause of these cracks. Has it anything to do with the cool- 
 ing and consequent contraction of the earth ? Imagine a 
 cold rain falling on these rocks in winter. Will all the water 
 run off ? No ; some will soak into the cracks. If the cold 
 continues, what will happen to the water ? If it freezes, 
 what change will take place in the water ? Is a block of ice 
 larger or smaller than the water from which it was made ? 
 Why do you think it is larger ? Review the whole question 
 of expansion of water in freezing. But how can the small 
 amount of water in a little crevice move, by its expansion 
 in freezing, so large a block of stone ? Tell the class that a 
 huge iron bombshell was filled with water, the hole plugged 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S CxEOGRAPHIES 27 
 
 securely, and the shell then exposed to the cold of a winter's 
 night. When the water froze, the shell was split in two. 
 If these blocks are pushed apart by the expansion of freez- 
 ing water in the crevices, it is easy to see that they will 
 in time be forced from their resting place, and if on the 
 face of a cliff, be dashed to pieces by their fall. 
 
 Fragments of rock thus broken up by frost find them- 
 selves at last in the bed of the stream, which generally is 
 found at the foot of the cliff. Here they are ground against 
 each other in times of flood. So important is the work of 
 running water in grinding up rock to make soil, thac special 
 attention must be paid to this point. Have the boys knock 
 two angular pieces of rock together and note how soon the 
 angles are worn off. Tell them that ten miles in a moun- 
 tain torrent will round off all the sharp corners in a cubical 
 block of granite. Further, that marbles are made by plac- 
 ing cubes of stone in a revolving drum with water. In a 
 very short time they are turned out as perfect spheres. The 
 corners worn off in these instances are now soil, which is 
 finely divided rock. 
 
 Put a stone or brick in a pail of water. Notice how 
 much lighter it seems in the water than in the air. Test 
 this definitely with a balance. About one half the weight 
 will appear to be gone. The water buoys up the stone. Con- 
 sequently a stream can move along twice as large a stone 
 as~ one would expect, and, in moving it, grind it to powder. 
 
 The paragraph as to wind-blown grains of sand will be 
 more striking if the teacher refers to the picture on page 29, 
 of a desert rock worn smooth and round by blowing sand. 
 The grains worn off by the drifting sand are, of course, 
 soil. Search everywhere along the pavements and old walls 
 for examples of grasses and little shrubs which have found 
 a lodgment. Carefully root out these plants and notice how 
 
28 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 surprising a mat of roots has formed in the crack. Observe 
 places where the roots of trees have upturned the pave- 
 ment. These illustrations help to make clear the disruptive 
 power of growing roots. 
 
 Study some old moss-grown stump which can be easily 
 torn to pieces. After such an illustration the pupils will 
 readily admit that decayed wood makes soil. 
 
 Pay particular attention to ant-hills and question as to 
 the effect of these on the soil. Lead the children to see 
 that the ants bring up the cold, dead subsoil and expose it 
 to the sunlight and air, which soon make it fit for the use 
 of plants. Examine the layers of soil on the side of a ditch. 
 Notice the dark top layers full of vegetable matter and 
 trace the roots as far down as possible. 
 
 Plains. Search for examples of the different kinds of 
 plain spoken of in Lesson 6. Flood plains a few inches 
 broad formed in a plowed field after a heavy rain will 
 serve as a basis for study. Note the terraces formed along 
 their sides, marking the various stages of flood. Look into 
 the quality of the soil. Compare with the upland. Note how 
 much easier it would be to make a road along a stream where 
 a grade has already been formed than elsewhere. 
 
 Search for a little lake after a rain in the schoolyard. 
 Observe how it dries up when the sun comes out, leaving 
 a little level plain of fine, rather dark soil, compared with 
 the coarser slopes round about. One glance will make real 
 the advantages of a lake plain for farmers seeking homes. 
 Be sure and locate a delta, if it is only an inch in length. 
 All the characteristic features of a delta may be seen in 
 some such tiny example. 
 
 As for plateaus, they are to be seen everywhere that the 
 rain water has washed down part of the surface, leaving 
 the harder portions to maintain the old level. 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 29 
 
 Study the picture at the top of page 9 of deep valleys 
 cut in a plateau. Note the layers of rock, almost perfectly 
 horizontal on either side of the deep valley. Those layers 
 were once continuous and there was no valley there. What 
 has made the valley ? (The stream, now so deep down in 
 the canyon that it cannot be seen.) Observe the broken 
 masses of rock on the slopes, dislodged by the frost and 
 gradually moving down the steep slopes, finally to reach 
 the stream where it is rapidly ground to soil. Discuss the 
 question of traveling in such a region. Encourage any 
 effort at originality of thought on the part of the pupils ; 
 it is, unfortunately, only too rare a phenomenon. Do not 
 laugh at a thought, no matter how crudely expressed. Its 
 very imperfections may throw light on defects in your 
 past teaching. 
 
 Mountains. No less important than the plains are the 
 mountains. Let the children thoroughly grasp the idea 
 that the surface of the earth which seems so fixed is really 
 over great areas going up or going down. By using the 
 illustration of the familiar seesaw, let the children see 
 for themselves that if one end of a long slope sinks, as in 
 the case of the ocean bed, the other end must go up, as in 
 the case of the mountain chains which skirt the oceans. 
 
 Place a long strip of thin wood on a table. Hold one 
 end firmly on the table and have a boy bend down the other 
 end until at length a snap is heard ; the wood breaks, a 
 thrill runs through the wood and jars the hands of those 
 holding the strip, while the even slope is broken by jagged 
 edges where the wood is fractured. The strip on the table 
 would represent the unyielding mass of the continent. The 
 long strip would be the slope reaching far out beyond 
 the coast line to the depths of the ocean. If this sinks the 
 strain becomes too great, —there is a break and a jar of 
 
30 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 the earth's surface at the break. This is the earthquake. 
 The broken edges rise little by little through repeated 
 earthquake shocks continued through great stretches of 
 time with long intervals of repose, until at last a mountain 
 chain is formed. 
 
 Hammer at the idea that mountain chains were slowly 
 formed in the past and are being slowly formed in the 
 present. Study those most instructive pictures, (A) and 
 (B), at the foot of page 9. Model just such even blocks on 
 the sand table, and by dropping water on them from above, 
 wear them away till they look like (Z>). Then turn, say, to 
 the scene in the Alps on page 145, or to the picture of the 
 Andes on page 144. If some bright pupil sees that these 
 ranges were uplifted as masses with even edges along the 
 line of a great crack in the earth's surface, and that these 
 even edges were worn away by the frosts and rains of ages 
 until they rise in jagged peaks, then you may be sure that 
 your work has been well done. What one bright pupil sees 
 to-day all will see to-morrow, and what they see for them- 
 selves will remain as part of the permanent equipment of 
 their minds. 
 
 Tides. The simple statement that tides are caused by the 
 attraction of the moon may satisfy most pupils at this stage. 
 If some ask further light on the subject, I would suggest 
 the following procedure. Call up the smallest pupil in the 
 room and clasp his hands with yours. Swing him round 
 you at arm's length. The class will soon see that though 
 you pull him round you in a circle, yet he also pulls you, 
 but not to the same extent. The idea may then be presented 
 that the earth pulls the moon and the moon pulls the earth 
 just as really, though we cannot see any visible connection 
 between the two. As the earth is larger than the moon, its 
 pull is so much greater that the moon circles round it once 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 31 
 
 a month, just as the little pupil went flying round the 
 teacher in a circle. So much for the pull of the earth on 
 the moon.- But the moon also pulls the earth. Being so 
 much smaller, it does not pull the earth enough to make 
 it circle round it, but can pull enough to make the waters, 
 which are freer to move than the solid earth, bulge up a 
 couple of feet on the side toward the moon. As the earth 
 turns round once in twenty-four hours, it will be seen that 
 the bulge which is (theoretically) always directly under the 
 moon must travel round the earth in twenty-four hours. . 
 
 As to the high tide on the other side of the earth at the 
 same time, explain that the moon pulls the whole earth a 
 little towards itself. Of course it pulls the side of the solid 
 earth which is nearest more than it does the water on the 
 other side, eight thousand miles farther away. Conse- 
 quently the solid earth is pulled away from the water on 
 the farther side, which is left behind as a high tide. 
 
 Shore forms. Study the picture on page 13, " Sea Cliff 
 and Beach." How did the bowlders at the foot of the cliff 
 come to be there ? (Dislodged by frost from the face of 
 the cliff.) Imagine a storm with waves dashing furiously 
 against the cliff. What will the waves do with the bowlders ? 
 Will the bowlders weigh as much when covered with water 
 as before ? Recall previous experiment. If these bowlders 
 are flung against the cliff by the storm waves,, what will 
 be the effect upon the face of the cliff ? What upon the 
 bowlder ? What becomes of the material ground off both 
 cliff and bowlder ? Look at the picture of " Bar and 
 Lagoon," just above, for your answer. 
 
 Rising and sinking coasts. Notice carefully the maps 
 at the foot of page 12. The upraised region to the left 
 has been gullied by running water and the eroded material 
 washed down into the bordering sea, gradually filling it up 
 
32 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 and making a low coastal plain. Imagine this whole coast 
 to sink, and notice how the low coastal plain would first be 
 covered, and then the valleys which had been cut out of 
 the plateau region would be flooded, leaving the ridges 
 between still above the waters. The importance of under- 
 standing these maps will be realized when we consider 
 that the map on the left represents the coast of our south- 
 ern states, which is a rising coast, while the sinking coast, 
 or that to the right, is a representation of the New England 
 coast on the Atlantic, or of the Pacific coast from Puget 
 sound northwards. Restrictions of space forbid dwelling 
 upon each topic. Let it suffice to say that each picture 
 has its definite meaning and was put into the book for the 
 purpose of teaching a definite lesson. 
 
 Study the lesson in the text yourself beforehand. Ask 
 yourself what paragraph of the lesson each picture illus- 
 trates ; train yourself to answer all possible questions as 
 to the meaning of each picture. The vigor which comes 
 from thorough preparation will be felt in your handling 
 of the lesson. 
 
 This closes the discussion of home geography in the 
 "Higher Geography." 
 
 Next, as in the " First Course," the world is treated as a 
 unit with regard to its land and water masses. The area 
 of the surface of the globe, its land area, and its water area 
 are essential items and should be memorized, or, better, 
 impressed by repeated problems in number. 
 
 Continents and oceans. The essential point in Lesson 11 
 is that the continents are massed round the north pole 
 and diverge southward. Dwell upon the long,, narrow 
 Atlantic with its northern prolongation, the Arctic, and 
 trace all the great slopes which send the great rivers of the 
 world, with few exceptions, to this ocean. Lead the pupils 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 33 
 
 to see that this ocean is an easily accessible highway for 
 trade, abounding in bays, gulfs, and peninsulas, not too 
 broad for.the ships of earlier days, which unites, not divides, 
 the greater part of five great continents. 
 
 Trace the great chain of high ridges which stretches 
 from Cape Horn through the Andes and Rockies, down 
 through the mountains of China, India, and western Asia, 
 and on through the whole length of Africa to the cape of 
 Good Hope. This is the primary highland of the world, or 
 world ridge. From it the land slopes either to the Atlantic 
 in a long slope or to the Pacific in a short slope. The 
 advantage in clearness of conception which is gained by 
 the mastery of this idea makes it worth careful tracing 
 on the relief map and modeling on the sand table. 
 
 The division of the earth's surface into land hemisphere 
 and water hemisphere, introduced in the "Higher Geog- 
 raphy," is of the highest importance in connection with 
 discussions of winds, currents, and climate in general. 
 
 General view of the continents. Eef er to notes on " First 
 Course" on this point. The idea is the same, to give a 
 comprehensive view of the continents as parts of the whole 
 before their detailed study is taken up. 
 
 Latitude and longitude. It may aid in the comprehen- 
 sion of the fact that every circle is divided into 360° to 
 tell the class a little of the history of this. Find the 
 Euphrates and Tigris. 
 
 Tell the pupils of the broad, level, fertile plains where 
 the civilization of the Babylonians grew up. 
 
 There the priests took their nightly stand upon towers 
 raised above the green plain to study the motions of the 
 heavenly bodies which they worshiped. 
 
 It was difficult to note with exactness the points of ris- 
 ing and setting of these heavenly bodies until the priests 
 
34 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 thought of setting up a ring of tall poles at some distance 
 from each watchtower. 
 
 The number of poles was set at 360 because this number 
 had a greater number of divisors without remainder than 
 any other number of practical size. Find its divisors and 
 you will be surprised to see how many there are. This 
 gives a great number of convenient fractional parts. 
 But the spaces between the poles were still too large, 
 so they subdivided these into 60 divisions, which we call 
 minutes, and these again into still another -60 subdivisions, 
 which we call seconds. 
 
 Can you see why the number 60 was chosen ? Also, can 
 you guess from what source we got our minutes and seconds 
 on our clocks and watches ? 
 
 It gives one a vivid sense of the dependence of the pres- 
 ent upon the past to realize that whenever we measure a 
 circle or look at a timepiece we are acknowledging our in- 
 debtedness to the people of an Asian valley, of a period 
 at least 3000 years before Christ. 
 
 Let the children take any sphere, as a baseball, and 
 locate upon it with chalk the poles, with the equator half- 
 way between these poles, and as many other circles parallel 
 to the equator as they can conveniently draw upon its 
 surface. This will give them a practical idea of what is 
 meant by parallels of latitude. Are all parallels of latitude 
 of equal length ? Which is the longest of all ? How long 
 is it ? How far apart are the parallels on the surface of 
 the earth ? What is our latitude ? 
 
 To give some reality to meridians of longitude, take the 
 class out into the schoolyard exactly at twelve o'clock. 
 Show the pupils that the sun is exactly south from where 
 they are standing, and that a line from the north pole 
 to the south pole, passing through the place where they 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 35 
 
 are at twelve o'clock exactly, would also pass through 
 all the places on the globe that are having their noon at 
 the same minute. As meridian means "middle of the day/' 
 a definite signification is at once attached to this term. Draw 
 up the class in a line extending east and west. Let each 
 pupil imagine a line drawn from the north pole to the 
 south pole, passing through his body. Each such line is a 
 meridian. For convenience we select a prime meridian and 
 count from it. 
 
 The subject of longitude and time in arithmetic should 
 be studied at this time, the arithmetical problems helping 
 to clear up the geographical idea. 
 
 Change of seasons. Frye states clearly that the three 
 causes of change of seasons are the slanting of the earth's 
 axis, the constant pointing of this axis to the north star 
 (approximately), and the revolution of the earth in its orbit 
 round the sun. To the admirable discussion of the subject 
 in Lesson 19 let me add a word or two as to its presenta- 
 tion. Set a candle or lamp on a stand in the middle of the 
 room or of the platform. 
 
 This will represent the sun. Eoll a ball on this stand 
 round the candle, marking its circular path with chalk. 
 The class will readily agree to calling this circular path 
 the orbit in which the ball representing the earth has moved. 
 Tell them that a plane is a level surface and they will iden- 
 tify the surface of the stand as "the plane of the earth's 
 orbit." Ask them to imagine the table suddenly to become 
 invisible while the ball still keeps on its way, and they 
 have taken an important step towards the comprehension 
 of the terms orbit and plane, as applied to the earth. 
 
 This is the initial step. Next, mark the north and south 
 poles on as large a sphere as you can get hold of, and place 
 it on the table on the orbit chalked out, so that its axis is 
 
36 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. Develop the mean- 
 ing of these words, axis and perpendicular. Holding the 
 ball perfectly still, ask the class to tell how much of the 
 surface is lighted by the candle. They will see that one 
 half is lighted, or has day, while the other half is unlighted, 
 or has night. Rotate the ball slowly till the class sees that 
 the rotation of the earth on its axis is the cause of day and 
 night. Question them until they see for themselves that 
 if the earth merely rotated on its axis, there would be no 
 change of seasons. 
 
 Then carry the sphere round the lamp to represent the 
 revolution of the earth in its orbit round the sun, carefully 
 keeping the axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. 
 It will be seen at once that the rays of light are perpen- 
 dicular to the earth's surface at the equator and just reach 
 to either pole. Further, that there is no change from day 
 to day, throughout the entire revolution, in the amount of 
 heat and light received at any given place, and consequently 
 no change of seasons. Clearly, we have demonstrated that 
 revolution in the orbit with the axis perpendicular to the 
 plane of the orbit will not produce change of seasons. 
 
 Now incline the axis 23i° from the perpendicular and 
 repeat the revolution. The north pole will now be seen 
 alternately inclined toward the light during one half 
 of the revolution and turned from it for the other half. 
 The class is now ready to admit that to have change of 
 seasons not only must the earth revolve in its orbit, but it 
 must also have its axis inclined 23^° from the perpen- 
 dicular to the plane of its orbit. But this is not quite 
 enough. Repeat what you have just done, but now let the 
 north pole point, as you cause the sphere to revolve, to all 
 points of the compass in succession. How apparent is it 
 now that the north pole must always point to the same 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOCxRAPHIES 37 
 
 point in the sky to insure a regular change of seasons. 
 The equal importance of all these three causes of the change 
 of seasons will thus have been practically demonstrated. 
 Repeat the demonstration. If some members of the class 
 "don't see it yet/' have them perform the demonstration. 
 Some such practical demonstration must be made if any 
 real impression is to be made on the pupils. Memorizing 
 the words of the text will be worse than useless. 
 
 Make observations on the apparent path of the sun, the 
 moon, and the planets. The fact will soon be noticed that 
 they all move in much the same belt of sky. Later they will 
 get the idea that the orbit of the earth lies in this same belt. 
 
 Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 on page 24 on parallel rays of light 
 falling on the globe are worthy of the closest attention. 
 Verify by measurement the spaces covered by the parallel 
 rays in Fig. 1. The enormous size of the sun should be 
 realized. It is more than one million times greater than 
 the earth. The following is the best illustration I have 
 ever met with. At a distance of one thousand feet from 
 the schoolhouse imagine a white-hot ball, nine feet in 
 diameter, for the sun. In the schoolroom place a ball one 
 inch in diameter for the earth. Two and one half feet from 
 this put a ball one quarter inch in diameter (a pea) for the 
 moon. Some idea is thus given of the insignificance of 
 the earth as compared with the sun, and the pupils will 
 realize that the rays from the huge sun must fall parallel 
 upon the tiny earth, and that the apparent slant is due to 
 the curvature of the earth. 
 
 Remember what was said as to observations at the 
 equinoxes and solstices in the "First Course." Repeat these 
 observations as occasion arises. 
 
 By their aid the position of the vertical sun at any day 
 of the year can be readily imagined and the zones explained. 
 
38 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Winds and rainfall. The idea of the earth as a unit is 
 consistently maintained in the discussion of the winds and 
 rains as world-wide factors of climate. The map of the 
 winds at the foot of page 30 is the key to the understand- 
 ing of this great subject. This map should be drawn on 
 the blackboard and then sketched by each pupil until the 
 main facts are firmly fixed. Note the northeast trade winds 
 (dry) meeting at the equator the southeast trade winds 
 (also dry) to form the belt of rising winds accompanied by 
 heavy rains, known as the equatorial rainbelt. 
 
 Then note that from about Lat. 30° N. the winds are 
 southwesterly and rainy, while from about 30° S. the 
 northwesterly rainy winds prevail. Disregard the polar 
 winds ; they are neither well understood nor practically 
 important, but the world-wide view of the tropical and 
 temperate winds is to be learned thoroughly. Locate the 
 equatorial rain belt, the trade winds, and the stormy 
 westerlies on the continents from page 15 on. With this 
 simple plan well in mind, let the class attack the upper 
 map on page 31. Carefully trace the equatorial rain belt 
 of the northern summer; notice that while over Central 
 America and Africa it is distinctly south of the tropic of 
 Cancer, yet over India and China it lies decidedly north 
 of this line till it returns with an abrupt curve to the 
 equator. Observe that the southeast trades blow across 
 the equator towards this rain belt, bending toward the 
 right after they have crossed the equator. This equa- 
 torial rain belt is the belt of greatest heat and is north 
 of the equator, — an important fact. The northeast trade 
 winds can be traced along three quarters of the northern 
 hemisphere, but fail over southern and southeastern Asia 
 in the monsoon belt. Note this exception, but do not try 
 to explain it at this stage. 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 39 
 
 Now question on the map. In what direction does the 
 wind blow during the northern summer over southern Cali- 
 fornia and northern Mexico? (From the northeast and over 
 the land.) Is it a wet or dry wind ? (Dry.) What about 
 the summer winds over the Mississippi basin, north of the 
 gulf of Mexico ? They blow from the southeast, turning off 
 to the northeast. How do the winds blow over southern 
 Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern Asia ? (From 
 the northeast, mainly over land ; and therefore dry.) What 
 about southern and southeastern Asia? (The winds are 
 from the ocean and consequently bring rain.) 
 
 The class is now ready for the generalization that south- 
 ward from about 35° north latitude the ivestern portions of 
 the northern continents have a dry summer, while the cor- 
 responding eastern portions have summer rains or are mon- 
 soon regions-, — one in Asia known by this name and the 
 other, less marked, in the eastern half of the United States 
 where we live. North of this line of 35° north latitude 
 note the prevailing southwesterlies and summer rains. 
 These hints are not meant to take the place of anything 
 said in the text. They presuppose the use of every word 
 there set down, and merely dwell with emphasis on the 
 important points. Now have the pupils look south of the 
 equator on the same map. Note the dry southeast trades 
 from Capricorn to the north, except where the mountains 
 of Brazil, or eastern Africa, or of the islands between Aus- 
 tralia and Asia cool the wind by sending it upward and so 
 cause rain to fall. Notice further that from the tropic of 
 Capricorn southward the winds are from the southwest, 
 giving rain to the western coast of South America but 
 missing South Africa and Australia, which are dry at this 
 time, which is our summer but their winter. The extreme 
 southerly points of South Africa and Australia, however, 
 
40 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 just come within the belt of these winter rains, so their 
 winters are rainy. 
 
 Now take up the map of winds and rains of the northern 
 winter. The equatorial rain belt, which, as said above, is 
 also the belt of greatest heat, is now mainly south of the 
 equator. Over Mexico and north Africa the winds are still 
 from the northeast and dry. These regions are therefore 
 desert, as they get rain neither in the winter nor the sum- 
 mer. Over southeast Asia the monsoons are from the north- 
 east and from the land ; consequently the winter is dry, with 
 slight exceptions to be noticed later. Southern California, 
 southern Europe, and southwestern Asia, however, together 
 with the regions north of them, are in the path of the south- 
 westerlies and have winter rains. To sum up, then, the 
 northern parts of North America and Europe have rains 
 both winter and summer, while their southern regions have 
 a dry summer and a wet winter. The southeastern parts of 
 both North America and Asia come under a region of mon- 
 soons caused by the heated interior of the continents, and 
 have summer rains, and, in the case of southeast Asia, a 
 dry winter. The gulf of Mexico is mainly responsible for 
 the winter rains of the eastern half of the United States. 
 
 In the southern hemisphere during our winter, which is 
 their summer, the equatorial rain belt gives abundant mois- 
 ture to northern Australia, the Kongo basin in Africa, and 
 the Brazilian highlands, together with part of the Amazon 
 and La Plata basins. All south of this belt is in the region 
 of southeast trades and is dry, except where mountain 
 ranges condense the moisture into rain. The extreme south- 
 ern part of South America alone stretches into the belt of 
 northwesterlies, and consequently has rain during their 
 summer, as also during their winter. The great westerly 
 winds, known as the " Roaring Forties," will be noticed 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 41 
 
 blowing round and round the southern hemisphere unhin- 
 dered by opposing lands, raising huge waves, forty feet in 
 height, — the highest in the world. " Make haste slowly " 
 should be the guiding principle in teaching all this section 
 of Frye's Geography. Point to a coast on a wall map of the 
 world, and have the class from inspection of the maps in 
 their text-books decide what winds and rains, if any, are 
 due there both in summer and winter. 
 
 Do not try to memorize a single statement. Each fact 
 must be clearly demonstrated on the map repeatedly before 
 it is safe to discard this help and rely on the mental pic- 
 ture. But when the imagination is so well developed that 
 the pupils in their minds can see the continents in their 
 proper outlines and can feel the winds blow over them in 
 due order, then the work has been done and well done. 
 For those who never reach the high school much good will 
 result from gaining so clear an idea of the wind belts of 
 the world, and those who do go on will find the study of 
 physical geography there awaiting them an interesting 
 expansion of ideas already familiar. 
 
 Ocean currents. Cause and effect may be studied in the 
 map of ocean currents on page 32. Under the trade winds 
 as a propelling force flow the equatorial currents from east 
 to west, turned by the continents to the north and south 
 respectively, and then carried on to the northeast in the 
 northern hemisphere by the southwesterly winds and to 
 the southeast in the southern hemisphere by the northwest- 
 erlies. The great Antarctic eddy to the south will be seen 
 to owe its eastward motion through the open expanse of 
 ocean to the " Roaring Forties " referred to above. 
 
 The effect of these currents upon the winds which blow 
 over them and consequently upon the lands visited by these 
 winds should be carefully traced. 
 
42 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 The unity of treatment is still farther carried out in the 
 lessons on Races of Mankind, Religions, and Governments, 
 but the remarks already made in regard to these topics in 
 the "First Course" need not be repeated. 
 
 Plants and animals. The greater fullness and richness 
 both of description and illustration make these lessons 
 fascinating to those who review these topics, already treated 
 in the "First Course." Draw special attention to the map of 
 the principal plant and animal regions on page «43 and 
 locate the plants and animals under the regions there given : 
 Northern, including most of North America, all Europe, 
 north Africa, and most of Asia; South American, includ- 
 ing Central America and southern Mexico ; African ; Qrien- 
 tal ; and Australian. Draw attention to the boundaries of 
 these regions : the Australian region separated by a deep 
 channel through the islands, which from the earliest times 
 has cut off this continent and its adjacent islands from 
 contact with the higher and fiercer life of. Asia ; the Orien- 
 tal, separated from the rest of Asia by the impassable bar- 
 rier of the towering, snow-clad Himalayas ; the African, 
 cut off by the barren desert of Sahara from north Africa ; 
 the South American, but recently joined to North America 
 by the rise of Central America and therefore still preserv- 
 ing its individuality ; and lastly, the northern, showing a 
 connection existing in former days between north Africa, 
 Europe, and North America. Object lessons should be 
 given on the spices and other foreign products, while the 
 plants and animals of our own state should receive special 
 attention. The principal stress should always be laid 
 upon those plants and animals which are useful to man ; 
 the merely curious should receive less attention. Use the 
 illustrations to the full for oral and written language work. 
 As far as possible develop the idea that the plant or animal 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 43 
 
 is adapted to its environment. The stripes of the tiger, so 
 conspicuous when he is seen in a cage, match the stems of 
 the bamboo in his native home so closely that he can with 
 difficulty be detected even at close range. That means that 
 he can steal upon his prey without being seen. The shaggy 
 yak can stand the cold of high altitudes in the central 
 Asian mountains, while his great feet, clumsy as they seem, 
 are admirably adapted for safely climbing dangerous moun- 
 tain paths (see picture on page 162). The giraffe lives on 
 leaves of trees on the edge of the desert. Hence his neck 
 is long, but so little flexible that only with the utmost 
 difficulty can he pick up objects from the ground. The 
 trees on which the giraffe lives are defended by dreadful 
 thorns ; hence the giraffe is provided with a long, flexible 
 tongue which delicately picks off the leaves without touch- 
 ing the thorns. The polar bear is white, so that he can 
 creep up unnoticed on the seal asleep on the ice floes. 
 The spots on the leopard are like the patches of sunlight 
 streaming through the spaces between the leaves of the 
 tree, on the branch of which he crouches waiting for his 
 victim. Sometimes an interesting connection can be traced 
 between the plant and animal life of a region. In the 
 short, bright summers of the Arctic regions millions of 
 birds resort thither, make their nests, and hatch out their 
 young. All about them the ground is covered with the 
 flowers of the berries which grow there in countless num- 
 bers. But just about the time the berries are ripe the birds 
 have finished their summer task and are ready with their 
 young, now fit for flight, to depart for the South. What 
 do they live on in the meantime ? The answer is simple. 
 No sooner are the berries ripe than down comes the early 
 snow, and the berries, preserved in cold storage throughout 
 the winter, are ready for use by the birds as the snow melts 
 
44 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 in the beginning of the following summer. These are but 
 hints of the many interesting relations between life and 
 its surroundings which the teacher may work out. 
 
 Minerals. Get together as many specimens of minerals 
 as possible. Each will be the text for a discussion. Assign 
 topics for the children to work up at home. This will enlist 
 the interest of the parents. If there are any iron works 
 near by, visit them. A visit to a blacksmith's forge may 
 prove very serviceable as a text on which to base the con- 
 sideration of iron. Black mud from a swamp will help in 
 the comprehension of coal formation. 
 
 Get the boys to make charcoal by covering a little 
 pile of sticks with turf and setting it on fire within. 
 They may not succeed in making very good charcoal, but- 
 they certainly will be interested in the process. Enlist 
 their activities. 
 
 I have made the formation of petroleum quite intelligi- 
 ble and interesting by comparing it with a pot of soup on 
 the kitchen stove. The meat and vegetables are the plant 
 and animal remains buried in the layers of rock ages ago 
 when they were soft. The pot and its lid are the layers of 
 rock above and below the layers containing the remains. 
 The tire in the stove is the heat of the earth, which is 
 greater the farther down we go. Lastly, the petroleum, 
 which is what we are after, is the fatty scum which rises 
 to the top of the soup as it simmers on the stove. We 
 need only take off the lid and skim off the fat, or, in other 
 words, bore down through the overlying rocks until we 
 reach the oil which has been cooked for ages out of the 
 plant and animal remains. 
 
 Highways of trade. Take for your text the nearest 
 grocery or general store. Find out from what parts of the 
 world the various articles came which are to be found on its 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 45 
 
 shelves. Discuss the hauling of these goods along the road 
 from the nearest railway station or steamboat landing. That 
 leads to the great distributing centers, generally seaports. 
 Then treat of the ships or steamships which have brought 
 the goods from all parts of the earth. This course of treat- 
 ment makes real the whole subject of commerce. 
 
 Canals should also be discussed as supplementing the 
 work of the rivers in transporting goods. 
 
 Referring to the map of the continents on page 14, it 
 will be easily seen that it is of the utmost importance for 
 the nations living on the Atlantic to find easy ways of 
 getting into the great Pacific. The way round by the cape 
 of Good Hope naturally presents itself, but a shorter way 
 is through the Mediterranean and by means of the Suez 
 canal into the Red sea, which connects with the Indian 
 ocean, an extension of the Pacific. 
 
 In the opposite direction a voyage round cape Horn 
 brings ships into the Pacific. To shorten the distance the 
 United States is digging a canal across the isthmus of 
 Panama. There is another way. Let the class examine 
 the map on page 14 to find it. Some one will notice the 
 way to the north across the Arctic and out Bering strait. 
 What is the fatal objection to this passage ? Tell the class 
 something of the heroic sailors who strove to find a way 
 round North America and Asia. 
 
 Just here a short lesson can be given on the Mediterra- 
 nean, the seat of the commerce of antiquity, lying between 
 Europe, Africa, and western Asia. From it commerce 
 crept across the isthmus of Suez, transporting goods on 
 camels, then taking ship again on the Eed sea for the Ear 
 East, or else moved through the straits of Gibraltar and 
 round the western coast of Europe to the Baltic, or down 
 the western shore of Africa for some little distance. 
 
46 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Now have the children look between North and South 
 America. Is there a mediterranean sea there ? What are 
 its parts called ? Compare the Mediterranean as seen on 
 the Commercial Map of the World, on page 190, with our 
 mediterranean and note that each is made up of two dis- 
 tinct parts with a great and fertile island at the narrowest 
 portion of the junction of these parts. Find the name of the 
 island in each case. Measure each and compare dimensions. 
 They are nearly alike. Discuss the commercial possibilities 
 of our mediterranean. Look for another mediterranean 
 between Asia and Australia. Do you find it ? Is it like 
 the other two, or different ? In what way ? What products 
 come to us from this mediterranean ? Find them on the 
 map on page 190 and look up the illustrations given on 
 page 45. This lesson will do much to confirm the impres- 
 sion already given of the earth as a unit. 
 
 North America. As in the " First Course," review North 
 America as regards position, outline, area, relief, drainage, 
 climate, races of man, government, plant and animal life. 
 These points need not be fully treated here. With regard 
 to outline, the class would be advanced enough for such a 
 topic as the following : Which part of the coast line is more 
 broken, the northern or southern portions of both eastern 
 and western coasts ? What about the northern coast bor- 
 dering on the Arctic ? How shall we explain the differ- 
 ence between the even southern lines of coast and the 
 deeply indented northern shores ? Tell the children that 
 ages ago the northern half of North America was much 
 higher than now and consequently much colder. The snow 
 accumulated and became packed into vast fields of ice cov- 
 ering the whole continent down as far as New York and 
 then westward down the line of the Ohio, up the Missouri, 
 and out to Puget sound. Turn to page 10 and review what 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 47 
 
 is said of glacier action in the light" of this idea, especially 
 studying the pictures. 
 
 The glaciers riding over both hills and valleys of the 
 older time rounded off the hills, as shown in the picture 
 on page 10, and deepened the valleys. After ages of this 
 the ice melted, the land sank, and the waters of the ocean 
 flooded the valleys, leaving the ridges between as islands 
 or promontories. The numerous islands in the Arctic to- 
 gether with Hudson bay are thus explained in great meas- 
 ure. A picture of such a drowned valley is to be seen on 
 page 13, and another on page 19. 
 
 The teacher must study the illustrations throughout the 
 book so as to be ready to use exactly the right ones on 
 occasion. The pupils will be highly interested in the fact 
 that Long Island is nothing but a mass of loose rock and 
 gravel together with soil brought down by an ancient 
 glacier and left at its edge when it melted, as shown in the 
 picture on page 10. Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, and 
 Cape Cod are also moraines, as they are called. Cape Ann, 
 on the other hand, is a mass of ancient rock which the ice 
 was unable to wear away. The map of New England on 
 page 91 shows Nantucket Shoals. These were formerly 
 part of Nantucket, but the ceaseless dash of the sea waves 
 has worn away a large part of the island and is still wear- 
 ing it away. The class will learn with interest that New- 
 foundland was once joined to Canada, the St. Lawrence 
 flowing through the lowlands between Newfoundland and 
 Nova Scotia. The sinking of the land submerged these 
 lowlands and allowed the sea to back up as far as Montreal, 
 making this city a fine deep-water harbor, accessible to the 
 largest ocean steamers. 
 
 In like manner, for about 100 miles off the coast of 
 New England and New York the land sank and. the ocean 
 
48 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 backed into the valley of the Hudson, making the harbor 
 of New York what it is and giving depth and breadth to 
 the Hudson, which would otherwise have been but a small, 
 insignificant river. The Pacific coast from Puget sound 
 up will now, on inspection, teach its own lesson to the class. 
 
 Correlation of geography and arithmetic. To the use 
 of the four primary processes in arithmetic in connection 
 with areas, etc., may now be added drill in fractions and 
 percentage. The length of North America is 5700 miles, 
 the breadth from New York to San Francisco 3000 miles. 
 What fraction is the breadth of the length ? 
 
 ao oo _ |o _ io, What per cent is this ? 
 
 io of io T o\) = iooo = 52i f €f Q . 
 
 What fraction is the length of the Rio Grande of that 
 of the ' Missouri-Mississippi ? \%%% = if = f. What per 
 cent is this ? 
 
 3 f J_0_0 = 3 oo = 426 of . 
 
 This idea admits of wide application and will be found 
 to give precision to the geography and interest to the 
 arithmetic lessons. 
 
 It will be unnecessary to go over the lessons dealing 
 with the United States in detail, the plan being the same 
 as in the "First Course." The space thus saved may be 
 devoted to correlating geography and history. 
 
 Correlation of geography and history. Study the Relief 
 Map of the United States on pages 68-69 together with 
 the key on page 70. Between the Allegheny and Blue 
 ridge will be seen the Great Valley, drained in the south 
 by the Tennessee and its tributaries, and farther north by 
 the Shenandoah, and traversed from west to east by the 
 James, Potomac, Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hudson. 
 This Great Valley is continued up the Hudson, passes over 
 a low divide into lake George, then into the long, narrow 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 49 
 
 cleft of lake Champlain (see picture on page 88), and so 
 down the Richelieu to unite with the valley of the St. Law- 
 rence. The valley of the Richelieu, lake Champlain, and lake 
 George form a deep pass flanked by the Green mountains on 
 the east and the Adirondacks on the west. This is the gate- 
 way of Canada and has played a most important part in 
 American history from the earliest days of the French in 
 Canada until the closing scenes of the War of 1812. 
 
 Through it passed Champlain on the voyage of discovery 
 which gave the lake his name. On its waters he and his 
 party of Indians -met and defeated the Iroquois, and thus 
 early in the day began that undying hostility of the power- 
 ful Six Nations to the French, which effectually shielded 
 the infant English colonies from the French advance. 
 Through it passed the French and Indian scalping parties 
 who attacked the outlying settlements of the English. 
 
 Later the French built the strong fort, Ticonderoga, as 
 guardian of the passageway between lake George and 
 lake Champlain, and a bloody repulse which Amherst suf- 
 fered before its walls taught the English to- respect its 
 strength. Still later it fell, but only in the last days of the 
 great struggle between the rivals for the dominion over 
 North America. 
 
 When the Revolutionary War broke out the British 
 planned a masterly campaign. Clinton held New York for 
 the ~ British with a strong force. Burgoyne with 10,000 
 men moved down through the gateway of Canada, while 
 St. Leger with a sufficient body of troops moved from the 
 shores of lake Ontario along the Mohawk River valley 
 to join him. But the well-laid plan failed utterly. Howe 
 was absent in Philadelphia, and held that place as if it 
 really meant something to occupy the capital of the 
 young confederation. 
 
50 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Things were most critical for the Americans, for posses- 
 sion of the Hudson river by the English would effectually cut 
 off the New Englanders from their brethren to the south by 
 land, and the English at all times during the war, except for 
 the fatal period of Yorktown, held command of the sea. 
 
 But the strength of the American defenses at the high- 
 lands of the Hudson, where the narrow river runs between 
 steep heights, effectually stopped the British ships from 
 passing. The picture on page 92 shows where the continu- 
 ation of the Blue ridge crosses the line of the Hudson, 
 which has worn a deep gorge through the ancient moun- 
 tains. Washington had early seen the supreme importance 
 of this gorge in the Hudson and had fortified it strongly. 
 Now by masterly stratagems and feigned movements he 
 paralyzed two English armies, Clinton's at New York and 
 Howe's at Philadelphia, keeping each in expectation of 
 instant attack. In the meantime St. Leger, delayed by 
 Herkimer at Oriskany, had been outwitted by Arnold and 
 frightened into retreat. Burgoyne, who had lost a regi- 
 ment at Bennington, was hemmed in at Saratoga and, 
 cowed by the fierceness of Arnold's attacks, surrendered. 
 Twenty-four hours too late Clinton moved forward to his 
 support. Independence was virtually won the day Bur- 
 goyne surrendered, and the Great Valley at its northern 
 end was the scene of the campaign. 
 
 In the War of 1812 a strong British army, supported by 
 a powerful flotilla on lake Champlain, marched through 
 this same gateway of Canada. A splendid victory won by 
 Macdonough at Plattsburg annihilated the British flotilla, 
 and the army hastily retreated. 
 
 This brief outline indicates how essential to the com- 
 prehension of history is a clear grasp of the physical 
 structure of the land. 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 51 
 
 The War of Secession had for its theater in part this 
 Great Valley, farther to the south. One needs but to name 
 Jackson's valley campaign to indicate the strategical im- 
 portance of this great level highway, in the possession of 
 the Confederates, which led straight on to Washington. 
 Not until the Shenandoah valley had been utterly wasted 
 did the strength of Virginia begin to fail. Still further 
 south in this same valley lie Knoxville, Chickamauga, and 
 Chattanooga. These points must be won and held by the 
 North if they wished to cut off the army of Virginia from 
 supplies from farther south. When Chattanooga fell and 
 the Confederates were forced to retire from its neigh- 
 borhood, the way was open for Sherman to push on to 
 Atlanta. From the opening of the war the command of 
 the southern end of the Great Valley was the objective 
 point of the- northern armies in the west. With this in 
 mind the campaigns become intelligible. So much for the 
 Great Valley and its important part in the history of the 
 United States. 
 
 Of course, a clear perception of the whole French con- 
 flict is impossible without a study of the relief map of 
 North America. Entering the Mississippi valley by the 
 two great natural gateways, the St. Lawrence and the 
 Mississippi, the French apparently needed only a chain 
 of forts from Quebec and Montreal, through Fort Frontenac 
 (now Kingston, Ontario) and Fort Niagara, down the Ohio 
 where Fort Duquesne won such bloody renown, and so on 
 to Natchez and New Orleans, to hem the English in effectu- 
 ally behind the Appalachian barrier. The scheme was a. 
 great one, and history shows that most of the successes 
 were on the side of the French. But England at last pro- 
 duced a general, and Wolfe at Quebec ended the dream of 
 French dominion in North America. 
 
52 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Another point in American history to be really under- 
 stood only by a knowledge of the physiography of the 
 region involved is the Gadsden purchase, which, for $10,- 
 000,000, secured from Mexico the land south of the Gila 
 river. Why should so great a sum have been paid for a 
 seemingly worthless strip of sun-scorched desert ? 
 
 A glance at the relief map explains the motives of the 
 statesmen who made the purchase. The Colorado river 
 runs for hundreds of miles through the Great Basin in a 
 general course from northeast to southwest. How terrible 
 a barrier it is to communication from east to west may be 
 seen by a glance at the great chasm of the canyon of the 
 Colorado on page 66. But just south of the Gila river, the 
 first boundary decided upon at the close of the Mexican 
 War, lay an easy route from El Paso, Texas, down the Gila 
 river to its junction with the Colorado, where the moun- 
 tains stop and the way is clear to southern California. A 
 railway now runs through this very valley, and the wise 
 foresight of the authors of the Gadsden purchase is amply 
 justified. But ignorance of the physical conditions of the 
 region in question led to savage opposition at the time. In 
 fact, without the perception of these conditions which a 
 study of the relief alone can give, the Gadsden purchase 
 remains a barren item in history, mainly interesting as a 
 possible trap on examination days. 
 
 Another instance from the Pacific slope. In the great 
 stretch of coast from San Francisco to the entrance to 
 Puget sound, about as far as from cape Hatteras to the 
 most northerly point on the coast of Maine, there is but one 
 opening of commercial importance, the mouth of the Co- 
 lumbia. About the close of the eighteenth century it was 
 known that a great river came out into the Pacific some- 
 where on that coast, and the English captain, Vancouver, 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 53 
 
 skirted the shores in a vain search for its mouth. But a 
 great bar made of the materials washed down by the river 
 masked the entrance, and the prevailing southwesterlies 
 kept up a steady roll of breakers which still further dis- 
 couraged search. But where the Englishman failed, the 
 Yankee Captain Gray succeeded. In 1792 he crossed the 
 bar and gave the name of his ship to the river he had found, 
 and at the same time bestowed upon his country, by right 
 of discovery, the great states of Oregon and Washington. 
 Surely the historical question is made both clearer and more 
 interesting by calling in geography to aid in the discussion. 
 
 Reference merely need be made to the break in the chain 
 of mountains through which the Mohawk runs, giving an 
 easy way for the canal which has raised New York to 
 the rank of one of the greatest cities in the whole world. 
 Geography and history must go hand in hand in treating 
 questions such as these. 
 
 Climate of United States. It is presupposed that the 
 pupils have noted the winds and rainfall day by day, as 
 requested by Frye. It will have been noticed that the pre- 
 vailing wind is southwesterly. With this in mind notice 
 on page 74 how a storm eddies across the United States. 
 There is an area over the plateau between the Rockies and 
 Cascades where the air is descending from above, and is 
 consequently clear and heavy. From this center it streams 
 out in all directions to areas of less pressure. One of these 
 areas is seen southwest of lake Superior. From all sides 
 the air rushes in, for another area of high pressure is seen 
 over the country south of Hudson bay. A whirl is set up 
 like that in a bath tub when the stopper is pulled out, 
 only the air at the center rises while the water in the bath 
 tub descends. But rising air is cooled by expansion, and the 
 moisture is consequently condensed and falls as rain or 
 
54 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 snow, according to the season of the year. This center of 
 moist air moves off to the northeast in obedience to the 
 general law of moving bodies on the surface of the north- 
 ern hemisphere of a rotating sphere, and a wave of cold, 
 dry air streams in to take its place. This explains the suc- 
 cession of waves of warmer and of cooler air which follow 
 each other throughout the year. 
 
 With regard to the all-important maps of products it 
 need only be repeated that the relation between the cause 
 (the climatic factors) and the effect (the crops) must be 
 carefully noted. One instance of the close accuracy of the 
 maps of products may be mentioned. In the map of cotton 
 a strip is left uncolored along the shore of the gulf of 
 Mexico, and yet the maps of temperature and rainfall would 
 seem to indicate its fitness for this great staple. Corn also 
 fails along this strip, as the map shows. But the maps of 
 forest and of beef cattle cover this belt. The explanation 
 is that the land is either low and swampy, unfit for cotton 
 but good for marsh grass and swamp timber, or else so 
 sandy that only pines grow there, which allow of fair graz- 
 ing and supply good lumber. There is no map of rice, but 
 if there were, these swamps, unfit for cotton or corn, would 
 be seen to be the home of this valuable cereal. 
 
 Groups of states. In treating the New England states 
 dwell upon the admirable lesson on page 88, which shows 
 how the glacier of the ice age filled up the channels of the 
 older rivers with gravelly deposits so that they were forced 
 over rocky ledges to the one side or the other of their 
 former valleys in the search for fresh channels. These 
 rocky ledges wear down very slowly, so that rapids and 
 falls are formed which afford abundant water power- 
 In the Middle Atlantic states the stress is upon the re- 
 markable fact that the Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 55 
 
 Potomac, and James run straight through the mountains on 
 their way to the sea in apparent defiance of these barriers. 
 The explanation is that the rivers were there first when the 
 land sloped from the sources gently to the Atlantic. Gradu- 
 ally the mountains rose athwart the path of the rivers, but 
 so slowly that the rivers wore down their gaps as fast as 
 the mountains rose. This will impress on the pupils the 
 extreme slowness of mountain building and the tremendous 
 excavating power of running water. 
 
 Another cardinal point is the drowned bays of New 
 York harbor and of Delaware and Chesapeake bays. The 
 land was once much higher and the old coast line i was a 
 hundred miles farther out to sea. The rivers wore out 
 broad, deep valleys as they cut their way down to sea 
 level. Then the land sank, the ocean flowed in, making 
 fine harbors,, thus giving rise to cities like New York, 
 Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Norfolk. 
 
 For the southern states the stress is upon the rising 
 coast with harbors only at the mouths of rivers, and these 
 embarrassed by sand bars which hinder navigation. The 
 people, therefore, turned mainly to agriculture upon the 
 gentle slopes which fall to the Atlantic and gulf of Mexico. 
 The rapid streams, however, which descend from the moun- 
 tains give occasion for water power to develop electricity, 
 the coming power of the world. 
 
 The Mississippi valley is mainly to be considered as 
 a comparatively gentle slope from either side towards 
 its great central river, which drains the land and offers 
 opportunities for cheap water transport till now too 
 sadly neglected. Climatic conditions will explain the 
 variety of crops. 
 
 The mountain group of states mainly depend upon the 
 stores of mineral wealth deposited in veins in earlier ages 
 
56 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 and exposed to man's view by the subsequent uplifting of 
 the mountain ranges. 
 
 Above all, trace the bearing of the natural conditions 
 upon man's industries. These natural conditions have 
 decided the location of the cities and towns. Locate these, 
 then, always in the light of the natural products which are 
 brought to these points as the market most easy of access 
 and best adapted to further transportation. 
 
 Other continents. It should not be necessary to review 
 the other continents. Frye's plan is so symmetrical that it 
 applies to all the continents as well as to North America. 
 
 Use the sand map, make sketch maps, employ outline 
 maps to be filled in by the pupils as the work on each 
 county progresses, do not neglect the illustrations, bring 
 to the class as many objects as possible to illustrate home 
 and foreign commerce, and, above all, prepare your lessons 
 carefully so as to bring out the main points clearly, and 
 the result will be the acquisition by the pupils of the 
 power of independent, vigorous thought. 
 
 Commercial map of the world. This most valuable map 
 may be used as a test of all the knowledge acquired in pre- 
 vious study of the world. Let me give a sample of a lesson. 
 Suppose a ship starts from England (locate by latitude and 
 longitude) loaded with merchandise (consult text-book for 
 probable articles of export) for Australia. She sails down 
 the coasts of France and Spain, aided by the southward- 
 setting eddy of the Gulf stream, which has crossed the 
 Atlantic at the latitude of the Azores (trace course of cur- 
 rent on map), until she comes into the region of the New 
 England trades and corresponding north equatorial current, 
 which bear her steadily across to South America. From 
 cape St. Roque (locate) the Brazilian current (trace on 
 map) and the southeast trade, blowing across her direct 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 57 
 
 path but helping far more than hindering, carry her down 
 the belt of southwesterly winds (from about 35° south lati- 
 tude), which waft her over to Cape Town (locate, as well 
 as all following names of places, currents, etc.). Here she 
 puts in for orders telegraphed from England and gets fresh 
 supplies of food and water. Borne on by the strong unfail- 
 ing westerlies, the " Roaring Forties," she soon flies over the 
 southern edge of the Indian ocean until she reaches Mel- 
 bourne, Australia, having kept just north of the northern 
 limit of ice drift brought by the great Antarctic drift of 
 waters from the south polar regions. Here she discharges 
 cargo and refits, having gone fully 12,000 miles, most of the 
 way favored by winds and currents. She loads up again 
 with raw material for England's mills (find from map what 
 it is), and also valuable metals which take up but little room. 
 (What are they ?) She has been about three months on the 
 voyage if a fair sailer. To return the way she came would 
 mean head winds and opposing currents most of the way, 
 so she spreads her sails and continues to the east across 
 the whole breadth of the Pacific, passing to the south of 
 New Zealand, rounds cape Horn, and bears off to Africa, 
 having had the westerlies filling her sails the whole dis- 
 tance. The west African current helps her up the coast 
 to the northward until she gets into the southeast trades, 
 which carry her with extra sails set back to South America, 
 up the Guiana coast, aided by the Guiana current until she 
 crosses the tropic of Cancer, gets into the Gulf stream, 
 and, under the prevailing southwesterlies, speeds on across 
 the Atlantic for home. She has gone fully 14,000 miles on 
 her return trip, but has favoring winds and currents most 
 of the way. I maintain that a pupil trained in the use of 
 Frye's geographies, taught in the Frye spirit, would follow 
 such a voyage with an eager and enlightened interest. 
 
58 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Steamer voyages from England to Yokohama by way of 
 the Mediterranean and Suez canal would be a fine review 
 of waters passed through, lands touched at or sighted, and 
 possible products shipped to their destination. 
 
 Take another probable trade route of the near future. 
 Notice the vast area of Canada in the Great Central plain, 
 raising wheat in the southern portion and growing luxuri- 
 ant grass and oats and potatoes clear up to Great Bear 
 lake on the Arctic circle. Note how the Mackenzie with 
 its string of huge lakes needs but a short canal to connect 
 with the Saskatchewan draining the great prairies of 
 western Canada. The products of all this region together 
 with those of the Red River region find a natural outlet at 
 Fort York on Hudson bay. From that point to Hudson 
 strait the way is clear, unencumbered by the dangerous 
 shoals and islands which fringe the eastern shore of Hudson 
 bay. Reference to the map of North America on page 65 
 and of Canada on page 131 will give the details more 
 clearly. It is true that Hudson strait is full of drifting 
 ice, but it drifts in on one side of the strait and out on the 
 other, so that the steamers can come in with the one drift 
 and go out with the other with the minimum of danger. 
 
 Referring to a globe, it will readily be seen how much 
 shorter are the circles of latitude at 60° north latitude than 
 at 40°, so that a steamship drops down from Hudson strait 
 by a shorter route to Liverpool than if she climbed the 
 rotundity of the earth from New York to the same point. 
 From a point in Dakota fully 1000 miles may be saved by 
 the Hudson bay route over the New York route, and this 
 is enough to largely turn the course of trade from both 
 New York and from Montreal, her growing rival. 
 
 Trace in like manner the 14-foot water way to be 
 made from Chicago to the gulf and discuss its saving, 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 59 
 
 remembering that water freight "is only a fraction of 
 railroad charges. 
 
 Notice on the map of Canada that a chain of lakes and 
 rivers almost connects the continuous water ways of western 
 Canada with lake Superior, and that a canal could easily 
 be made to join them. Then trace the canal which Canada 
 is digging from Georgian bay to the Ottawa, avoiding all 
 the difficulties of Niagara and the rapids of Lachine in the 
 St. Lawrence. A straight water way from the Rockies to 
 Montreal would lessen freights for the summer months in 
 favor of Montreal as against all ports more to the south, for 
 England is the great market for most of the exports from 
 North America, as, in fact, from most countries of the world. 
 Exercises such as these will review the physical features of 
 the world and will stimulate the imagination of the children. 
 
 Discuss the Cape«to Cairo route through Africa; the rail- 
 way from New York through Mexico and Central America, 
 down the plateaus of the Andes, and across the pampas to 
 Buenos Aires ; the Trans-Siberian railway ; the New York 
 to Paris route by way of Bering strait ; the railway from 
 Constantinople to Bagdad and ultimately to India. All 
 these are possible, most of them are certain, and children 
 now in school should know of projects which they will live 
 to see in full operation. 
 
 Time belts. This should be treated in connection with 
 arithmetic, numerous examples being given. If the class 
 be taken out into the schoolyard at exactly noon and face 
 the south, they will soon grasp the idea that all places to 
 the east of them have already had their noon, for the earth 
 turns from west to east. Consequently the time is later to 
 the east of them, while places to the west of them have not 
 yet been turned round to the sun and have earlier hours 
 than they. The rest is easy if this is once understood. 
 
60 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 International date line. This is the last but not the least 
 difficult problem which awaits the pupil in geography. 
 
 I suggest the use of a globe with the supposition that it 
 is 12 o'clock noon at Greenwich on the day of the lesson. 
 Work to the east and have the pupils see that for every 
 15 degrees of longitude passed over it is an hour later of 
 the same day, until at 180° east longitude it is midnight 
 of, say, September 30, 1908. 
 
 Now proceed in like manner to the west. For every 15 
 degrees of west longitude it is an hour earlier than noon 
 of September 30, 1908. At last 180° west longitude will be 
 reached, and the first second of the first hour of September 
 30, 1908, has just begun. Here then is the same line, 180°, 
 and on the one side of it we have the first second of Sep- 
 tember 30, 1908, and on the other the last second of Sep- 
 tember 30, 1908. Before going further, repeat this till all 
 see it clearly. 
 
 Now as the earth turns from west to east it is clear that 
 when one more second has passed a new day has begun to the 
 west of the 180th meridian. So that one could stand across 
 the 180th meridian at midnight, or rather one second after 
 midnight, and have one foot, the eastern, in the very begin- 
 ning of September 30, 1908, and the other foot, the western, 
 in the very beginning of October 1, 1908 ; so that at will 
 he could step to the east into September 30 or to the west 
 into exactly the same second of October 1. If he steps to 
 the east over the line, he has gone back from October 1 to 
 September 30 ; if he steps to the west over the line, he 
 steps forward a whole day from September 30 to October 1. 
 Let an hour go by, and now on one side (the eastern) of the 
 meridian of 180° it is 1 o'clock a.m. of September 30, 
 while on the other, the western, it is 1 o'clock a.m. of Octo- 
 ber 1. The difference in date is exactly 24 hours, or 1 day, 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 61 
 
 to a second, and so on through the day. The rule for the 
 nations of the world then is that as soon as noon at Green- 
 wich has just- passed on a given day, a new day begins to 
 count at midnight on the meridian of 180°. 
 
 A device I have employed with success is to form exactly 
 24 pupils in a circle, one representing noon at Greenwich 
 and each of the others to the east of him one hour later, 
 and each one to the west one hour earlier of the same day. 
 When this is thoroughly understood so that each can call 
 out his hour, say, 9 o'clock p.m., September 30, have the. 
 whole circle move a little to the east, to represent one hour 
 of time. In a flash the pupil who represented at once the 
 first moment of September 30 and also the last moment 
 of September 30, sees that he is now 1 o'clock a.m. of 
 September 30, and that the space to his west, between 
 him and his next neighbor, must represent the first hour 
 of October 1, and that he is also 1 a.m. of October 1. The 
 teacher, representing a steamer, can now move in front 
 of this pupil within the circle, and all will see that he 
 passes in a moment from 1 a.m. of September 30 to 1 a.m. 
 of October 1 if he goes from east to west, and vice versa 
 if he goes from west to east. 
 
 Conclusion. If the fundamental idea of Frye's geog- 
 raphies — to treat the earth as a unit — be grasped by the 
 teacher, sq much life will be infused into her teaching that 
 geography will become perhaps the most interesting and 
 profitable subject in the curriculum. Geography taught in 
 accordance with Frye's method quickens the imagination, 
 stimulates the powers of observation, cultivates the judg- 
 ment, and develops the faculties of expression. 
 
 If it be objected that some of the points are too hard 
 for children, I may say that I know from personal knowl- 
 edge that they have been taught with success to pupils 
 
62 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 in several states, and I, for one, decline to admit that 
 the children of Virginia are not fully equal in mental 
 caliber to the children of any state in the Union, be the 
 same what it may. 
 
 VIRGINIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 It is to be presumed that the state of Virginia will not 
 be studied until the general features of the United States 
 have been taken up and the Atlantic coast states gone over. 
 The state can then be referred to its proper place in the 
 continent and in the United States. Have the children 
 locate it by parallels and meridians. AYhen the sun is ver- 
 tical over Cancer, with how great a slant do its rays fall 
 upon the southern boundary of Virginia ? on the northern 
 boundary? When the sun is vertical over Capricorn (on 
 what day is this the case?), what is the angle for Virginia? 
 
 How many hours' difference in time between Richmond 
 and Greenwich? Test in rapid review the pupils' knowl- 
 edge of the zones as applicable to Virginia. Size is then 
 taken up, — its length, breadth, and area. If the area of 
 the state is not already fixed in the mind of each pupil, now 
 is the time to do so by many arithmetical problems. The 
 standard of measurement of area for each child in Vir- 
 ginia should be 42,450 square miles. Next take up relief. 
 Reviewing past knowledge, have the pupils tell you that 
 Virginia lies on the secondary highlands of North America. 
 Further, that it is on the Atlantic slope, that it falls to the 
 sea by successive steps. Mold in sand and have them mold. 
 Represent the mountain, piedmont, and tide-water sections. 
 Name mountain ranges. Compare elevation with that of 
 Rockies (much less than one half). Consequently they 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 63 
 
 are but little obstruction to the winds that blow from the 
 interior, or vice versa. Probable cause — sinking of the 
 Atlantic floor and consequent uptilting and crumbling of 
 the layers of rock which underlie the state. Mountains 
 are the uplifted edges of these strata. The parallel val- 
 leys are to be then discussed. Piedmont region — pene- 
 plain — very ancient mountains worn down by frost and 
 rain of ages until an approximate plain is produced with 
 here and there a monadnock of very hard rock remaining, 
 which has resisted the elements. This peneplain is now 
 trenched by the rivers and streams whose bottom lands lie 
 below the general level of the plateau above them. Trace 
 edge of Piedmont region in fall line, where rivers plunge 
 over the outer edge of these ancient rocks, making falls 
 and rapids. Discuss effect of these rapids on navigation 
 of rivers. What cities are situated on fall line ? Why ? 
 Use of waterfalls for manufacturing purposes. 
 
 Tide-water Virginia reaches from fall line to sea. Rivers 
 have broad bays at their mouths ; the land is level, sloping 
 gently to Chesapeake bay. Outline very much broken. Dis- 
 cuss effect of this on early settlement. Which would be 
 easier to use, the bays and rivers, or make roads through the 
 woods from one settlement to another ? What river runs 
 into the head of Chesapeake bay ? (Susquehanna.) This 
 river made Chesapeake bay. This statement will not fail to 
 arouse the liveliest interest in the class. Explain that the 
 land once stood at a much higher level, the coast line of 
 the Atlantic being far out beyond its present location. The 
 Susquehanna then cut out a broad valley nearly down to sea 
 level, being joined by its tributaries, the present Potomac, 
 Rappahannock, York, and James. These also cut broad 
 valleys in the gently sloping land below the fall line. The 
 great river passed between cape Charles and cape Henry, 
 
64 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 on through the lowlands to the distant sea. The land then 
 sank and the sea water, backing in, drowned the valley of 
 the Susquehanna and the lower valleys of its tributaries, 
 transforming them into broad bays, and leaving the east- 
 ern shore of Maryland and Virginia, which was too high 
 to be drowned, as a peninsula between Chesapeake bay 
 and the Atlantic. This brief explanation will give a vivid 
 interest to the broken outline of Virginia on Chesapeake 
 bay. The relief thus disposed of, have the pupils trace 
 the drainage. 
 
 It is understood that the class has not yet studied the 
 text, but is merely making deductions from the map in 
 the light of past study of Frye's Geography up to this 
 point. This is most important. Do not deny to the chil- 
 dren the luxury of doing their own thinking. At this stage 
 they should be capable of very considerable efforts in close 
 reasoning, if Frye's Geography has been well taught up to 
 this point. 
 
 The class will notice that there are several distinct sys- 
 tems of drainage : the great rivers, Potomac and James, 
 which rise in the Allegheny mountains or even to the west 
 of them, cross ranges of mountains by means of deep gaps, 
 and finally flow into the Chesapeake bay; the lesser rivers 
 which rise in the Blue ridge and also flow into the Chesa- 
 peake ; and lastly, the New river, with its tributaries, which 
 rises east of the Blue ridge and flows west into the Ohio. 
 This remarkable drainage calls for explanation. Here are 
 rivers which instead of being turned aside by mountains 
 actually cut through them. Water cannot run uphill, yet 
 to cut through a mountain range it would seem that it 
 must first have done so. Nor did these rivers find the gaps 
 ready made. Examination of the walls of these gorges 
 shows that the rocks on either side were once continuous 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 65 
 
 across the chasm and that the river has cut its way down 
 to its present level. 
 
 The explanation is that the rivers were there first when 
 the land, but slightly upraised above the waters, sloped 
 gently to the east both in the north and the south of Vir- 
 ginia, and to the west in between these parts. Then the 
 mountains slowly rose, but so slowly that the rivers, by 
 means of their load of gravel, sand, and mud, were able to 
 wear down their beds faster than the mountains. The 
 greater rivers, as the Potomac and James, did this ; the 
 lesser rivers were headed off by the rising Blue ridge and 
 their upper waters flowed to the north, like the Shenandoah, 
 to be a tributary to the Potomac, or to the south, like the 
 Clinch and the Holston, to join the Tennessee. Between 
 these the New river maintains its course through the op- 
 posing ridges to join the Kanawha, and so on to the Ohio. 
 
 As the great mass rose, the harder edges of the upturned 
 strata remained as mountain ridges, while the softer strata 
 wore away more rapidly and became the parallel valleys 
 of Virginia and other states. The great truth is thus brought 
 before the pupils that rivers make their own valleys. Do 
 not be deterred by the fear that ideas such as the above 
 are beyond the comprehension of the pupils. They are 
 always delighted to trace the effect from the cause, and 
 what the teacher really knows, that she can make clear to 
 the - children. 
 
 The winds and rainfall may next be taken up, referring 
 to the previous sections of the geography which cover 
 this topic. It will be clear that the prevailing drift will 
 be from the southwest, but that the eddying whirl in which 
 the air advances will bring the wind at any one point from 
 different points of the compass in turn. Virginia lies open 
 to the mild sea breezes from the southeast, but also to the 
 
66 AN OUTLINE FOR TEACHERS 
 
 colder waves from the northeast, while the barrier of moun- 
 tains is too low to keep off the cold, dry winds from the 
 northwest. Great changes of temperature may thus be 
 expected, especially in winter. 
 
 Next take up the effect of the Gulf stream passing not 
 far from the coast, giving out abundant warmth and mois- 
 ture to the breezes which blow from it to the land. As 
 these breezes, thus laden with moisture, blow inland, they 
 rise with the gradual elevation of the land, become cooled 
 by expansion, and give out a copious rainfall. The logical 
 deduction from this abundant rainfall (find amount in text 
 and measure height on wall to correspond) is that Virginia 
 is naturally clothed with luxuriant forests. A further de- 
 duction from the steady descent from the mountains to 
 the coast and from the abundant rainfall is that the state 
 is rich in water power which, when utilized, will add enor- 
 mously to her wealth. Let the pupils make these deduc- 
 tions ; do not make them yourself. 
 
 Still further review of what the pupils already know 
 will show that Virginia is too far north for cotton, but lies 
 in the corn and tobacco belt, the conditions of heat and 
 moisture favoring these crops. In the higher parts of the 
 state cereal grains and grasses find their appropriate place. 
 The mineral wealth to be expected from the mountains 
 may then be discussed. 
 
 The historical element may now be taken up in connec- 
 tion with the geographical features which determined so 
 largely the course of the history of the state. The broad 
 lands of the tide-water region, open to the sea by the great 
 baylike estuaries, encouraged the formation of great estates. 
 The climatic conditions favored the growth of tobacco, a 
 great ready, money crop in great demand in the markets 
 of the world. Labor being scarce, slaves were introduced 
 
TO ACCOMPANY FRYE'S GEOGRAPHIES 67 
 
 from Africa and found profitable. "The far western part of 
 the state, however, cut off from ready access to the sea by 
 intervening mountains, got its population largely from the 
 north, the pioneers from Pennsylvania moving southward 
 down the parallel and easy valleys which invited them on. 
 Thus a diversity of origin was found between the two sec- 
 tions, and as slavery was not found generally profitable in 
 the western portion, a diversity of interests arose. This 
 culminated in the formation of West Virginia as a sepa- 
 rate state. 
 
 The surplus population of tide-water Virginia, however, 
 having possessed itself of piedmont Virginia and the Shen- 
 andoah valley, moved on to the south till, passing through 
 Cumberland gap, it transferred its ideals of life to the 
 fertile lands of Kentucky. 
 
 Having made this preliminary series of deductions as to 
 Virginia from previous knowledge of the general conditions 
 of North America and of the United States, the class is 
 ready for the detailed study of the text of the Supplement, 
 each paragraph of which will now be seen to be full of 
 meaning. 
 
 Note : — To Virginians not already familiar with the fact, it 
 will be a matter of interest and pride to learn that their distin- 
 guished scientist, Maury, first made clear to the world the sailing 
 plan outlined on pages 56 and 57. Millions of dollars have been 
 saved in freight and thousands of lives rescued from scurvy on 
 board ship by his epoch-making directions. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 A few books on geography are here set down, which will 
 prove helpful to the teacher. 
 
 Frye's Brooks and Brook Basins. 
 Frye's Child and Nature. 
 Shaler's First Book in Geology. 
 Shaler's Story of Our Continent. 
 Jackson's The Earth in Space, or 
 Astronomical Geography 
 
 A longer list would prove bewildering. When these 
 have been mastered, the teacher should turn to the manu- 
 als of physical geography by Davis, Dryer, etc., for special 
 information. 
 
 08 
 
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