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EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS: 
 
 EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS SHOULD BE 
 IN EVERYBODY'S HANDS, 
 
 EVERYBODY'S MOUTH, EVERYWHERE. 
 
 BY MARCUS DAVIS. 
 
 if 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. 
 
 1865. 
 
 PRICE EIGHTEENPENCE. 
 [All rights reserved.] 
 

 CHARLES A. MACINTOSH, 
 
 PRINTER, 
 
 GREAT NEW-STREET, LONDON. 
 
 Western Ont. Univ. Library 
 
 7 1940 
 
o 
 
 TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE 
 
 WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE, M.P., 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER', 
 
 IS, 
 
 RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED EY 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
OUR FRONTISPIECE. 
 
 The character on the left of our embellishment 
 represents an Old English Gentleman. Robert 
 Ainsworth informs us that the letter P is of no 
 great antiquity, nor, in fact, use. The name of 
 this letter is the same in English, Latin, Greek, 
 and Hebrew, HD , pe, signifying, in that tongue, 
 a mouth, which the figure somewhat represents. 
 The ancient Latins were sometimes at a stand 
 whether to write B or P ; as, for instance, in 
 Fabius ; whether pbtineo, or optineo ; since more 
 of this, than that was heard in pronunciation. 
 This is also proportionably demonstrated in its 
 very figure, P being half a B. 
 
 Concerning the origin, power, and use of the 
 letter Q, the ancient Latin writers have delivered 
 various opinions. Some of them took it to be 
 superfluous, and therefore probably were uncon- 
 cerned about it, how or whence it came into their 
 alphabet. Of this number were Nigidius Figulus, 
 and Licinius Calvus, who refused to use it at all. 
 Some used c for it, indifferently, as pequnia, 
 loquunter, obliquum, or pecunia, locunter, obli- 
 
Vlll OUR FRONTISPIECE. 
 
 cum ; others again regarded it as no letter ; but 
 only a combined note of cu, as quanda, some have 
 written cuanda. But with regard to our intro- 
 duction and use in the English language, they 
 appear indispensable acquisitions, and in con- 
 nection with the proverb " Mind your P's and 
 0,'s." Our learned friend, Dr. Wainwright, in- 
 forms us, that he communicated to the Editor of 
 " Notes and Queries," the origin of the expression, 
 and it originated with a coterie, among whom was 
 Sterne, and one of the party was continually 
 enunciating some doctrine which Sterne described 
 as peculiar, and every time these sentiments were 
 uttered, Sterne called out, "That's another 
 peculiarity," till they became so frequent, they 
 were termed " P. GTs," and thence those who told 
 any remarkable story were reminded to " Mind 
 their P's and 0,'s." But we are bound to say we 
 have the story from another source which is some- 
 what contradictory, and we leave it to the judg- 
 ment of the learned reader to decide between the 
 two versions. Churches were not always revered 
 as they are now, and this may afford argument 
 that w T e have become better with the strides of 
 civilization, and here we may allude to "an inci- 
 dent connected with Old St. Paul," which may 
 not be uninteresting. " In the year 1600, a 
 middle-size bay English gelding, the property of 
 Bankes, a servant to the Earl of Essex, and a 
 vintner in Cheapside, ascended to the top of St. 
 Paul's, to the delight — it is said by Dekker — of a 
 number of asses who brayed below. 
 
 "Bankes had taught hishorse, which went by the 
 name of Marrocco, to count, and perform a variety 
 
OUR FRONTISPIECE, IX 
 
 of feats. When the novelty had somewhat 
 lessened in London, Bankes took his wonderful 
 beast first to Paris and afterwards to Rome. He 
 had better have stayed at home, for both he and 
 his horse — which was shod with silver — were 
 burnt for witchcraft." 
 
 St. Paul's appears to have been the Exchange 
 of London. " It was here Falstaff bought Bar- 
 dolph, 'I bought him in St. Paul's/" And 
 Oliver Cromwell made it horse-quarters for his 
 soldiers, as he desecrated all the churches by con- 
 verting them into barracks and garrisons ; to 
 which places, no doubt, the poverty of his ex- 
 chequer contributed to the attraction, as in those 
 days the Church was enormously wealthy, and its 
 sculptured saints' embellishments were mounts of 
 silver and gold. A visit to our cathedrals in 
 Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, and those places 
 located by the Puritan soldier, bears testimony 
 to the devastations of the iconoclast of those 
 days ; indeed the soldier was often left to his own 
 resources, by foraging, to obtain provisions, to 
 the great dread of the farmer ; and whenever he 
 was met by his friends, who had intelligence of a 
 foraging party being on the road, he was told to 
 take care, or look after, his pigs and ewes, which 
 thence became corrupted into " Mind your P's 
 and Q V : and it is a strange coincidence that 
 the' word pecu in Latin signifies a flock of sheep. 
 
 " He Knows Everybody's Business." 
 We have the authority of Home Tooke, and a 
 host of respectable writers, to support us in the 
 proposition that the verb "to know" is derived 
 
 b 
 
X OUR FRONTISPIECE. 
 
 from the noun nose, but this will not be deemed 
 remarkable to those who are acquainted with the 
 works of those writers, who prove that a rump- 
 steak is derived from the word skewer. 
 
 Every nose has tw T o cavities, and knowledge is 
 supposed to have its seat in the brain, then we 
 may incontestably show that knowledge is con- 
 veyed through the nasal cellular passages to the 
 head and brain. To maintain our argument 
 we will produce a blind man, and place near 
 the tubes of his nose a rose or a twig of 
 lavender. We will stake our life the blind man 
 can immediately inform us that he is presented 
 with a rose or lavender, as the case may be. He 
 knows it through his nose. Therefore anyone 
 that is supposed more than usually cute is said, in 
 the vernacular, to be " up to snuff," and we have 
 the authority of some philosophers for saying 
 that people with large noses often become great 
 men. That is, a man with a large nose, and an 
 active brain proportioned to his nose, knows 
 many things more than ordinary mortals. This 
 appears to be a subject deserving some attention 
 from the medical practitioner, as, no doubt, good 
 and wholesome smells are conducive to health, 
 strength, and long life ; muscular as well as 
 intellectual strength, preservative also to our 
 cattle and beasts — the brute, as well as the 
 human animal. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Page 
 
 Everybody's Business, What it is 1 
 
 Hard words break no bones 2 
 
 Proper selection of Words 2,3 
 
 Advantages of knowing " Everybody's Business " 3 — 8 
 
 Limited Liability Companies ... 4 
 
 Lindley Murray's Trial ... ... 5 
 
 The Jury find him Guilty ... 6 
 
 His Sentence ... ... ... 6 
 
 Where Love comes from ... ... 6 
 
 A Large Family ... ... ... 7 
 
 Noughts and Crosses, and Puzzle-figure ... ... '7 
 
 A Polling Stone and Snow Ball 7 
 
 Good Wine— Writing on the Wall 8 
 
 Poyalty and Authors 9 
 
 Author's Objects 9—11 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Proper Language, What it is 
 
 Its Advantages 
 
 „ to the Merchant 
 
 „ Lawyer 
 
 A Dirty Little Blackguard ... 
 
 12 
 13 
 13 
 
 14 
 15 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 The Private Soldier . . . 
 The Queen 
 
 The Working Thousand 
 Importance of Learning 
 
 Page 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Language regulated by Fashion 
 
 Where to Select 
 
 Courts of Law 
 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 A Word, What is it ? 
 Walker 
 
 25 
 25 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 
 Words, Their arbitrary use ... 
 
 30 
 
 „ Their classification 
 
 30 
 
 The Noun 
 
 31 
 
 The Test 
 
 34 
 
 Proper Common Uses of the distinction . . . 
 
 36 
 
 Murray, Rice Cobbett 
 
 40 
 
 Capital 
 
 41 
 
 Number of Nouns 
 
 41 
 
 Gender, Nouns have no Gender 
 
 42 
 
 Transformation ... ... 
 
 43 
 
 Some of the Noun's representatives 
 
 ... 43,44 
 
 What person means ... 
 
 46 
 
 Different sorts of persons 
 
 46 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 Page 
 
 " It," said to be a great troubler 47 
 
 More about " It" ;. 48 
 
 Murray's Table of Personal Pronouns ... ... 49 
 
 His precepts verified ... ... ... ... ... 50 
 
 Case 51 
 
 All about Pronouns ... ... ... ... 53 — 64 
 
 Hodge's Epistle ... ... ... 65 
 
 The Cattle Plague 65 
 
 The Mizzles (Measles) 65 
 
 Hodge's literary capacity ... ... ... ... 65 
 
 Who's there? 67 
 
 Possessive Case ... ... ... ... ... 67 
 
 Mind your P's and Q's 68 
 
 Spell it with a We, Sam'ell 68 
 
 Vords, wery wexing ... ... ... 68 
 
 The Article 69,70 
 
 The Adjective 71 
 
 No Superlatives ... ... ... ... ... 72, 73 
 
 Murray, his further examination ... ... ... 73 
 
 The Conjunction 84 
 
 Oh Yes! Oh Yes! Oh Yes! 87 
 
 Abuse of the Interjection ... ... ... ... 87 
 
 The dog speaks, it says, " If you come near I will 
 
 bite you" 88 
 
 Ah! Ah! Ah! 88 
 
 The Ladies — sensation themes ... ... ... 88 
 
 Prepositions, a go-between 89 
 
 1,000/. (money) 90 
 
 1,000 lbs. (potatoes) 90 
 
 1,000 yards (cloth) 90 
 
 Prepositions ... ... ... ... 91 
 
 Adverbs ... ... ... ... ... ... 93 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Age of the Verb 
 
 All Verbs are active 
 
 Tense . . . 
 
 Mode ... 
 
 Participles 
 
 Bad Jokes 
 
 Marks and Eemarks 
 
 ... 100 
 ... 102 
 ... 106 
 .., 107 
 
 • . 108 
 
 117, 118 
 
 120 
 
EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS. 
 
 Everybody's Business should be in Every- 
 body's hands, and in Everybody's mouth 
 everywhere. 
 
 Everybody's Business! 
 
 What is Everybody's Business ? 
 
 It is Everybody's Business to speak ; and if 
 it is Everybody's Business to speak, it is worth 
 Everybody's while to speak correctly ; and this 
 is Everybody's Business. 
 
 " Shoemaker stick to your last." This is the 
 sententious proposition of the opponents to pro- 
 gress. Quite so ! We €C throw the glove " — if 
 need be — to our antagonists. We offer them 
 battle, and turn their own weapons on them. 
 
 Speaking, we fearlessly maintain, is the Last. 
 It is Everybody's Business ! ! therefore ,by 
 
2 everybody's business. 
 
 "sticking" to the Last; by learning how to 
 speak and write correctly — to make, as it were, a 
 nice fitting boot, we shall progress pleasantly and 
 satisfactorily ; and not like the clodhopper on his 
 clumps, whose habitation like the snail's, is almost 
 confined to his back. Progress and improvement 
 are the order of the day ; they are Everybody's 
 Business. 
 
 " Hard words break no bones." Nonsense ! 
 If " a mild answer turns away wrath," it will most 
 likely save our bones. " He persecuted me unto 
 the death," was not chastisement by blows, but 
 the instrument of torture was words ; and words 
 have as much effect on the constitution as 
 muscular action with the stick. We might call 
 one person a rogue, a thief, and a liar without 
 affecting his nerves in the slightest degree, whilst 
 those epithets, applied to more refined and de- 
 licately constituted persons would have a serious 
 and very alarming effect, the same as some persons 
 would scarcely be affected by a sound thrashing, 
 whilst to others, whose cuticle may be of a more 
 delicate nature, it would be punishment to the 
 death. 
 
 A proper use of words, will save our skin as 
 well as serve us more substantially. It is 
 Everybody's Business. 
 
 " But it is not my Business," says the sot. 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 6 
 
 " So long as I get my drop of beer and a bit of 
 bacca, I can be ' happy as a sand-boy.' " 
 
 Very true, but you may not be always able to 
 obtain your " beer and bacca." You may lose 
 your work, and when a good situation offers 
 itself; one that you may have the particular 
 capacity for ; you cannot find words to express 
 your capabilities and you lose the job. 
 
 To speak properly is your Business. It makes 
 a good servant, and finds a better master. It is 
 Everybody's Business. 
 
 " Mind your own Business" so say we to the 
 lawyer whose Business is philology. 
 
 He is no lawyer that is not a grammatical 
 scholar. There is no end of trouble and vexa- 
 tion of spirit that ensue, from the host of men, 
 to whom are entrusted the stewardship of our 
 estates, from their not being acquainted with the 
 proper use and construction of words, or neglecting 
 this most essential branch of their profession. 
 
 Acts of Parliament abound in tautology, and 
 rare redundant in verbosity, as if they were com- 
 posed for the express purpose of analyzation by 
 learned exponents. 
 
 These commentators are the lawyers, and of 
 paramount importance, and the chief element of 
 success, of prosperity in their career, is, an intimate 
 knowledge of Everybody's Business, 
 b 2 
 
4 EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 They are our advocates and defenders. Vast 
 estates — thousands of pounds in value — are sur- 
 rendered to their hands to protect, to vindicate and 
 uphold our rights against all comers — and very 
 often these thousands of pounds are lamentably 
 wasted and swept away, because of the woful 
 ignorance of legal gentlemen, of Everybody's 
 Business. 
 
 Among the professors of law, we have, recently, 
 had several pitiful cases of ignorance, or neg- 
 lect of Everybody's Business. Originators of 
 " Limited Liability Companies " have '*■ come to 
 grief " on this account, and a considerable amount 
 of money has been lost — squandered away broad- 
 cast — in consequence. 
 
 We have known instances of Companies pro- 
 posing to erect works, and stating in their pro- 
 spectuses " Interest at the rate of seven per cent, 
 per annum w r iLL be paid until the completion of 
 the buildings, &c," but their Articles of Associa- 
 tion stated " Interest at the rate of seven per 
 cent. may be paid during the construction of the 
 works." As if there was no distinction between 
 the words will and may. Such neglect of 
 Everybody's Business, could not avert the ruin 
 of any Company, and if the Lawyers who had the 
 supervision of such schemes were acquainted with 
 or paid proper attention to Everybody's Business, 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 5 
 
 those calamitous events would have been averted. 
 They are the very men to know Everybody's 
 Business. 
 
 But we know Everybody's Business! say the 
 Schoolmasters, the Learned Men of Letters, the 
 Professors, the Doctors, and the Logicians ! 
 
 Do you indeed ! 
 
 Well let us see ! ! 
 
 We will constitute ourselves your jury; and 
 put the credibility of your witnesses to the 
 test. 
 
 Now Mr. Lindley Murray stand forward ! we 
 will examine you, and in doing so, we include a 
 long role of others, some of greater and some of 
 less eminence than yourself; from a period 
 antecedent as well as subsequent to your time. 
 
 You inform us, in your English Grammar, 
 Chapter xi., on derivation, that " Substantives 
 are derived from verbs : as, from ' to love' comes 
 ' lover ' ; from c to visit ' visiter." 
 
 Are they really ! ! 
 
 You actually inform us ; that from the verb 
 " to love " comes the noun lover : that is from a 
 verb, a word in which consists the principle of 
 action, the noun is formed, in which is concen- 
 trated the essence of existence. 
 
 Weak ! Weak arguments ! ! 
 
 Is this your real and true opinion, Mr. Murray, 
 
b EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 and all you his host of followers ; or are you 
 endeavouring to cajole the jury, when you 
 seriously state that " To love ; " that is, the 
 action of loving was in existence before the 
 essential thing love was known ! or the loving 
 came first and the lover afterwards. 
 
 It might with just as much propriety be said 
 that speech came first and man afterwards ! 
 
 We find you all guilty, without extenuating 
 circumstances : and caution you not to repeat the 
 offence against Everybody's Business. 
 
 You, Oxford and Cambridge-men, quickly ! 
 doff your cap and gown, and make yourselves 
 properly acquainted with Everybody's Business. 
 
 Be considerate towards relations. It is Every- 
 body's Business. 
 
 The Great Home Tooke appears almost to 
 have ignored his relations, he alludes to them so 
 slightingly : for he says among such a large family 
 of offshoots, it may be difficult to trace our 
 original mother, the noun, and we are plunged 
 into an abyss of darkness ; and it is not so sur- 
 prising that people forget their relations after a 
 considerable period of absence. The famed tale of 
 " Rip Van Winkle/' is evidence of the difficulty 
 people have, under such circumstances, of re- 
 cognising their relations. 
 
 There are about forty thousand words in the 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. i 
 
 English language all related to one another, and 
 sprung from one original parent whose name was 
 "Beginning" — for her history we refer to page 
 33. This family is divided into nine branches in 
 the same way as we divide the human family into 
 Mothers, Fathers, Brothers, Sisters, Uncles, 
 Aunts, Nephews, Nieces, and Cousins. 
 
 To know our relations and treat them properly 
 is Everybody's Business. 
 
 "When we were small boys at school, we had 
 our little games of " Noughts and crosses -' and 
 "puzzle figure ;" and vexing puzzles we had over 
 them sometimes. 'Till we were initiated in the 
 mystery, they were like a maze, invented to 
 mislead, but the simplest things imaginable 
 when we were provided with the key : So ; 
 many books, that profess to instruct us in the 
 right use of words, lead us into a bewildering 
 maze of perplexity. To furnish the clew to 
 guide us through the winding labyrinth is our 
 business ; to know this is Everybody's Business. 
 
 " A rolling stone gathers no moss." This, like 
 many saws, has its obverse : "We know the snow- 
 ball gathers as it goes : 'Tis also said " Good 
 wine needs no bush f } but " w T e must not hide our 
 «andle under a bushel ; but place it on a table, 
 that all may see thereby : " Everybody says, that 
 " Everybody's Business " is the best book in 
 
8 everybody's business. 
 
 London, and when they say London, they mean 
 the World ! But how did they know this ? 
 Why ; because we hung out the bush, and, by 
 means of the press, placed our candle on the 
 table; that, like the "Writing on the Wall; 5 
 though not in the Scripture sense, "he that 
 runs might read" and know all about Every- 
 body's Business. 
 
 We will now say something about ourselves. 
 
 It is Everybody's Business to read this book, 
 and when Everybody has read it, he will know 
 something about Everybody's Business, but, at 
 the first blush, before he has progressed far into 
 its contents, he may be somewhat puzzled, by 
 seeing some one, who professes to know a little 
 about Everybody's Business, communicating 
 his knowledge in, what grammarians call the 
 plural number: that is, instead of the author 
 addressing his readers in his own proper person, 
 in the singular number and saying, — I will now 
 say something about myself, he has communicated 
 his notions as if he were — Author and Company. 
 This style of address — the use of the plural 
 number, is a privilege of Royalty and also of 
 Authors. Shakspere's King Lear says : — 
 
 " Meantime we shall express our darker purpose. 
 Give me the map there — know that we have divided 
 In three our Kingdom : and 'tis our fast intent . 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. V 
 
 To shake all cares and business from our age ; 
 Conferring them on younger strengths, while we 
 Unburden' d crawl toward death. — Our son of Cornwall 
 And you, our no less loving son of Albany, 
 We have this hour a constant will to publish 
 Our daughter's several dowers, that future 
 Strife may be prevented now." 
 
 It appears that the decrees of Royalty, infer 
 not only what the King wills, but its sovereign 
 might and power are established, because it speaks 
 with the voice and consent of its courtiers and 
 every loyal subject. It is a privilege to authors 
 to have this right of use of the plural pronoun 
 ceded to them. 
 
 The subject herein treated of, may appear to 
 the author to be placed in a clearer light than it 
 has ever appeared in before. It may, perhaps be 
 thought a very excellent work by many persons : 
 nevertheless many other persons may entertain a 
 different opinion; but, however this may be; 
 every author and every inventor knows, that, if 
 his productions are mediocral, to say nothing of 
 their attainment to excellence, similar ideas must 
 arise from existing facts in art or science, and 
 although they may be unpublished — in the 
 general acceptation of this term — yet these facts 
 may be known to many persons besides the 
 author. Perhaps the principles of grammar or 
 the art of speaking correctly has not been pre- 
 
10 everybody's business. 
 
 viously elucidated by publication in the way it is 
 done in this book, but that is no reason, that it is 
 entirely new. 
 
 There may be hundreds or thousands of persons 
 who know quite as much of the subject as we ; 
 and if they had chosen could have written — no 
 doubt — quite as clearly on the subject : therefore 
 it would be arrogance and presumption, and very 
 egotistical in any author or contriver of a scheme 
 or invention to be continually stating, I have 
 done this. I wrote that. This is my opinion. 
 This fact occurs to me, &c. 
 
 The clerk from his pulpit informs us that he 
 has a congregation of some five or six hundred ; 
 and if he, with the grace of God, be the means 
 of saving one soul of his flock he is satisfied ; he 
 has fulfilled his mission and done a good day's 
 work. 
 
 So, if we imagine we are relieving distress, 
 by an occasional dole to the miserable objects 
 we meet with in our rambles, and nine out of 
 ten are made up for the purpose of exciting 
 sympathy ; impostors, who simulate the depict- 
 ings of famished humanity and distress next to 
 death's door ; — if our mite has averted the calamity 
 of starvation ; or staved off the pangs of departing 
 life, in one case out of ten, we have done a 
 glorious day's work. And if we succeed in 
 
11 
 
 instilling into our readers' minds the value of 
 Everybody's Business, if we rescue any por- 
 tion of humankind from the dullard's abyss of 
 ignorance, which is the staunch ally of degrada- 
 tion and misery, to make them brighter, more 
 cheerful and content, our labour will not be in 
 vain — it will be satisfaction to the author and 
 a happy wind-up to Everybody's Business. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 The grammar of a country is the art of an 
 acquaintance with the proper words to use in the 
 formation of sentences, and with the reasons of 
 the words being used. It is also the art of 
 assigning the proper places to words to indicate 
 their relation to one another to render them com- 
 prehensible, and in accordance with the rules of 
 the period and country in which the language is 
 spoken, and comprises ability to express oneself 
 with perspicuity, so as to make our meaning, 
 our requirements, our intents, and designs as 
 intelligible to others as they are conceived by 
 ourselves. It also enables us to have a clear 
 conception of the full purport and just impres- 
 sions of all communications oral or transcribed. 
 
 Lacking this knowledge we may convey a 
 totally different meaning of our ideas than we 
 intended, and the most important transactions of 
 our lives may be rendered abortive. 
 
 When its principles are properly understood — 
 and they are attainable by almost the meanest 
 capacity — the possessor of this acquisition feels 
 
everybody's business. 13 
 
 himself on a footing of equality with those on 
 whom chance or fortune has bestowed her choicest 
 favours in the shape of worldly stores, or even 
 Governors or Princes. To speak fluently and 
 scientifically is the very aristocracy of mental 
 possessions — the key to excellence in any attain- 
 ments we aim at accomplishing — and although to 
 speak fluently may be a gift — a gift of the highest 
 order — and depends on the retentive properties of 
 the brain, or memory, and therefore is not attain- 
 able by all persons — yet to speak scientifically or 
 correctly, and also to have a just conception of all 
 instructions, commands, requests and information 
 imparted, or communicated to us is within the 
 capacity and reach of nearly all persons. 
 
 We don't know what we may have lost or may 
 lose by neglecting this acquisition. The com- 
 monest as well as the most important acts of our 
 lives are identified with it. It is the source of all 
 grandeur with the lawyer, and his mortification 
 and defeat generally ensue from his ignorance of 
 this knowledge. The merchant's contracts may 
 be susceptible of a totally different interpretation 
 from that he intended, and heavy losses may arise 
 through his ignorance of, or inattention to gram- 
 matical construction — as in Courts of Law — very 
 properly — explanation of intention is, as a rule, 
 inadmissible; and therefore we must receive 
 
14 everybody's business. 
 
 tilings as they are presented to us, and from 
 thence define the meaning. 
 
 The lawyer reaps his harvest from this rich 
 mine of crass ignorance arising from vague, crude, 
 uncertain and ambiguous combination of words 
 in their selection and relation to one another in 
 wills, deeds, contracts, agreements, and other 
 documents, and therefore, if it were as arduous 
 a task to master as it is easy, plain, and simple, 
 these arguments ought to suffice us to devote 
 some portion of our time to its accomplishment. 
 It is, in fact, a necessary of life ; as much so as 
 our clothing, our boots, our stockings, our 
 periodic meals, our breakfasts, our dinners or our 
 beds. We have done without those luxuries, as 
 we should have considered them some few hundred 
 years back, when we were content to be kicked 
 and cuffed as menials and taught to be thankful, 
 by those who set themselves up as greater than 
 we, for the boon of life, and when we became too 
 numerous, to rejoice in wars and fevers to rid us 
 of the incumbrance of a superabundance of 
 humanity : each living soul being in the way of 
 another, 
 
 "We don't know the value of grammatical know- 
 ledge if we do not possess it. We are totally 
 unaware of the powerful weapons of offence and 
 defence ; of the resources of advancement in life, 
 
everybody's business. 15 
 
 that are inherent in the attainment of a knowledge 
 of grammar. It enables us to measure our own 
 capacities, and to form a just estimate of the 
 abilities of others. The possessor of this acquisi- 
 tion can judge of the proper value to be set tg 
 the account of others as well as what is due to 
 himself. 
 
 "When we know, properly, how to esteem our- 
 selves, we will indeed smile at the ignorance, 
 added to the impiety — which is the pivot of 
 ignorance — of those who wonder if " the occupants 
 of the splendid equipages rolling slowly by are 
 there by right divine of noble birth and lofty 
 position." We will see in the dirty little black- 
 guard, a loathsome thing of rags, puddling in 
 filth ; a parcel of humanity as noble in its origin 
 as the peerless (?) occupants of those splendid 
 Belgravian mansions, or the inmates of the Most 
 Highly Esteemed House in the World situated in 
 Pimlico ; and in the private guardsman parading 
 this Great House quite as much greatness and 
 nobleness in his formation as in Her Majesty, 
 God bless her, or in any of her progeny. 
 
 We are all God's creatures, and, without dis- 
 tinction He has made us all in His own image ! 
 But, stop ! not so fast, says Mr. Parasite. If we 
 are all alike ; how is it, we see that evident dis- 
 tinction and deference paid to gentlemen, to men 
 
16 everybody's business. 
 
 of title and position ? In nearly all cases it is 
 outward show — hypocrisy — " Rustic children run 
 out of cottage doors to curtsey/' and they are 
 taught — as part of their servitude to the finely 
 dressed people, who may be " master's friends" — 
 to stoop, as the inferior animals, from infancy, in- 
 stead of holding proudly erect as man on equality 
 with his fellows and superior to brute organiza- 
 tion. They are brought up ignorant of their 
 position in creation; and hence the world of 
 crime — necessitating gaols, reformatories, penal- 
 ties and chastisements — punishments for criminals 
 whose misdeeds are engendered by our mistakes 
 in infant tutoring. 
 
 This book is not a composition intended for 
 children ; it does not include instruction in the 
 alphabet, in spelling and the attributes of words ; 
 although it is the intention of the author to place 
 the principles of the art he attempts to elucidate 
 in a clear and comprehensible light, to be within 
 the capacity of the boy from the plough-tail, and 
 useful to all classes of persons. 
 
 The wealthy man, great in his accumulation of 
 riches, if he be not in possession of knowledge 
 sufficient to command respect, and if he speak 
 
everybody's business. 17 
 
 ungrammatically, is not considered a gentleman, 
 though he may fancy himself high in man's estima- 
 tion, because of our infidelity. We are great 
 worshippers of the golden calf — We adore our 
 Queen, Her valued, Her highly-esteemed likeness 
 set in gold — our precious, dear and very best 
 friend — our best beloved good sovereign ; and so 
 in our unrighteous faith and hypocrisy, the rich 
 man is courted, feted and made much of whilst 
 our feet are under his mahogany. 
 
 Though we may know him to be as uncom- 
 panionable, as unintellectual, as uncongenial as a 
 donkey, yet we thrust him into the highest seats 
 in honoured and coveted places, and then he 
 becomes the subject of the scoffer; of ridicule, 
 the gibe — the jest, and food for merriment, when 
 his literary merits are the theme of a discourse. 
 
 We may depend such a man has superior 
 mental qualifications, or he would not become a 
 wealthy man of substance, but, unfortunately he 
 has not seen the advantages of mental acquisitions. 
 
 He is not aw T are that it is much easier to 
 acquire a clear and just conception of correct 
 speaking and writing, a branch of knowledge that 
 commands respect, than to become an adept at 
 striking a bargain : then why should any one 
 subject himself to become a butt to persons, who 
 perhaps, as far as the organization of the brain is 
 
 c 
 
18 everybody's business. 
 
 concerned, are infinitely inferior, and might not 
 be capable of approach if his intellectual faculties 
 were properly developed ? And why should not 
 the working man, the mechanic, the producer 
 have his place in society ? Why is an ill-dressed 
 man, in labourer's apparel, treated with contumely, 
 even in courts of justice, and unprotected in the 
 Legislative assembly ? Why are laws made to 
 compel men, who administer to our comforts and 
 requirements, to work at the wage of starvation, or 
 resort to cheating and misrepresentation ? Be- 
 cause they are totally unacquainted with that 
 branch of knowledge which gives to man a tower 
 of defence. They have not that command of 
 language which imparts confidence, not only to 
 assert our rights but defend them. They have 
 not the capabilities to make their w r rongs known; 
 They cannot maintain their own cause nor hire 
 advocates to plead for them. " Thou shalt earn 
 thy bread by the sweat of thy brow." This 
 Divine precept must not be taken to apply solely 
 to bodily exertion ; but the exercise and cultiva- 
 tion of our mental capacity is part of our duty ; 
 and 'tis neglect of God's Laws, and disobedience 
 to His commands, if we labour not somewhat in 
 this direction, to deserve our bread. 
 
 If the poor cab-driver, who is, by law, com- 
 pelled in all weather, to drive us in his carriage 
 
everybody's business. 19 
 
 at sixpence the mile, were to make himself 
 acquainted with the contents of this book, it 
 would materially tend to his advancement — to his 
 comfort — and improve his position. 
 
 He would be in possession of a power to make 
 himself heard. 
 
 He would be able to inform our Legislators 
 that they are wronging him by compelling him to 
 labour on terms that will not find him with 
 proper food and raiment, and however he may 
 incline towards respectability and honesty it 
 would be utterly impossible for him to respect 
 the law, and drive a hackney carriage. 
 
 That the law is oppressive in fixing a minimum 
 allowance for his labours. That the maximum 
 or most he might demand should be the subject 
 of legislation, with his option of charging on a 
 minor scale, which should be binding on him, 
 and published and made known for protection 
 of the public. We should not then hear so 
 much of dishonest cabmen; they would become 
 respectable, and our Police Courts relieved from 
 a heavy portion of their present business ; and to 
 these Police Courts — 
 
 This is a free country, and justice is distri- 
 buted even-handed. Though visit our Magisterial 
 Courts, and you will soon perceive the distinction 
 between broadcloth and fustian, from Constable 
 c2 
 
20 everybody's business. 
 
 Lockem of the " Hen division " to the dispenser 
 of justice on the Bench. 
 
 The cause of this is not from superiority 
 of habiliments, but because the well-dressed 
 man, generally, is in a position to command 
 attention. 
 
 We respect him because his outward signs 
 and appointments are indications of mental 
 cultivation. 
 
 To dress well is dependent on worldly acqui- 
 sitions ; and, we all know that parents — be they 
 ever so mean, in other respects — do not spare 
 their wealth in educating and cultivating the 
 minds of their children : therefore, when we see a 
 well-dressed man, we presume he is an educated 
 man, and is entitled to the respect of all persons of 
 common sense and understanding. The distinction 
 is written in legible characters everywhere. It is 
 not the difference between Fine Cloth and 
 Fustian — but the dignity and distinguishments 
 of education over ignorance. 
 
 You men in [coarse apparel then, mark this ! 
 and you will rapidly trip up the heels of the 
 wealthy, the manufacturer, and the merchant; 
 as they have, in the march of intellect, outridden 
 Princes and Patricians. 
 
 Learning, of all kinds, is a more valuable 
 acquisition than riches. It is easy of attainment, 
 
everybody's business. 21 
 
 and a possession of which we cannot be robbed 
 or cheated, for w r e may give and be none the 
 poorer, but rather gainers, by imparting our 
 acquirements. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 " He is a common man — quite uneducated. He 
 scarcely speaks a sentence correctly." These are 
 the terms applied to men who may perhaps be 
 possessed of a fund of general information : yet 
 being deficient in the knowledge of the modes 
 and rules of speaking grammatically, are pro- 
 nounced, especially by ladies, as not presentable 
 in society. 
 
 His tailor may have equipped him in all the 
 requirements of fashion. He may deport him- 
 self according to the formula of etiquette and 
 " 'twixt his finger and his thumb hold a pouncet 
 box." He may " shine so brisk and smell so 
 sweet," and withal be derided even by fair friends 
 to whom he would forsooth play the courtier as 
 inferior to "any waiting gentlewoman," and all 
 because he has not begun with the beginning. 
 He has no foundation, no corner-stone on which 
 the superstructure is dependent. 
 
 Many persons speak correctly from a habit of 
 imitation, and adopting the language of the per- 
 sons with whom they associate, knowing their 
 
23 
 
 superiority of education, although, the copyist 
 may be totally ignorant of the rules of grammar. 
 Euphony also guides many persons in the selection 
 of terms. To use such expressions, as " You is, 
 You was, A apple, A advantageous offer," the 
 ear almost informs us cannot be right. There is 
 no mellifluence in the combination : It grates 
 discordantly on the ear. It is unrefined, bar- 
 baric, inelegant, inharmonious. 
 
 We acquire, also, correct mode of speaking — it 
 grows imperceptibly on us — from our readings : 
 especially if we bestow our attention on works of 
 repute, and the press may be considered a very 
 good authority to guide us in the choice of 
 language, but the drama and the pulpit are 
 acknowledged to be the best schools, for here 
 may be acquired a style, correct in pronuncia- 
 tion as well as language. 
 
 There are also other places in which words are 
 made a grand and important study. These are 
 our Courts of Law. For this practice men are 
 educated, and make it the business of their lives 
 to construe or misconstrue, accordingly as they 
 may be hired. 
 
 The disciples of the law certainly do with 
 consummate artifice and subtlety divert words 
 from their actual import ; and the most extrava- 
 gant sums are paid to men who are notorious for 
 
24 everybody's business. 
 
 their ability in this respect. " To make the 
 worse appear the better cause/' they will appeal 
 to all the Powers of Heaven and Earth — and even 
 shed tears — every precious drop dearly paid for— 
 to attest the innocence of men deep in crime. 
 
 With the advance of learning, words will have 
 their proper weight, and our Courts of Law, 
 instead of being the arena for a contest between 
 hired advocates, will become an honoured institu- 
 tion, to seek truth and equity. Then the judicial 
 pleader will discard his powdered crown ; as men 
 will not be deluded, by such a miserable device, 
 to deem sagacity under so foul a head-piece : 
 The black guise will be thrown aside to give 
 place to the white garment; the emblem of an 
 upright man, of a noble mind, of truth, purity, 
 honour, and justice. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Having descanted upon the manifold advantages 
 derivable from an acquaintance with the art of 
 speaking and writing correctly, our next step is 
 initiation in the mystery. 
 
 To commence with the root of the tree of 
 knowledge, the radix or first principles, we must 
 begin with the nature of a word in its simplest 
 form out of which other words grow, or are 
 implanted and incorporated therewith. 
 
 Walker says "Word" is "a single part of 
 speech, a short discourse, talk, discourse, dispute, 
 verbal contention." Although the first attribute 
 is indisputable, " word " is " a single part of 
 speech," yet according to the prevalent notion, it 
 would be considered a vulgar plurality of the 
 term words if applied to " a dispute " or " verbal 
 contention," &c. What is here intended to be 
 conveyed by vulgarism, is a mode of expressing 
 oneself without regard to euphony or the har- 
 monious combination of words ; and the term 
 word is not correctly defined in representing it to 
 be a verbal contention or a dispute, but persons 
 
26 everybody's business. 
 
 who do not aim at speaking correctly, but use 
 any words that indicate their immediate require- 
 ments, might probably say " they had words 
 together," when others would express themselves 
 in more apt and better chosen terms by saying 
 " They had a dispute," or " were disputing," 
 though we never heard any one express himself 
 according to Walker- — in the singular number, 
 and speaking of " a dispute or verbal contention," 
 say they had a ivord together. It seems opposed 
 to all notions of propriety. 
 
 What is a w T ord ? 
 
 Oh ! some may say, a word is an articulate 
 sound composed of a number of letters. Let us 
 think again, is this an idea that can be substan- 
 tiated ? Can any number of letters compose a 
 word that will impart the slightest idea of its 
 attribute ? 
 
 Letters certainly are signs to which we ascribe 
 certain sounds, but these letters were an inven- 
 tion, necessitated from our advancement in litera- 
 ture long after the establishment of words, and 
 letters were of no use previously to the time we 
 communicated our requirements by transcribing 
 them. 
 
 Words are those terms by which we make 
 known our ideas, and are used arbitrarily ; that is, 
 every person does not employ the same word to 
 
everybody's business. 27 
 
 denote the same object. We may call our habi- 
 tation a house, but others may describe it as 
 " maison," both terms denote the same idea, and 
 yet the means of communication used by the 
 Frenchman and the Englishman, who are but an 
 hour or so separated one from the other, are 
 totally different. The cause of this distinction 
 or difference is, that words are not the subject 
 of immutable laws which are of universal ap- 
 plication and unalterable by time, but by rules 
 that are ever changing with the fashion of the 
 period. 
 
 It is a law that the apple falls to the ground. 
 We pronounce that law to be gravitation, or a 
 power of attraction concentrated in the earth: 
 and there are laws of electricity, mechanism, &c. 
 These laws are not subject to variation, they are 
 unchangeable ; but a rule is — with some excep- 
 tions — a precept established for our guidance, but 
 subject to the changes of the modes of the period. 
 The exceptions are those rules which are founded 
 on inherent laws, as the geometric rule of pro- 
 portion, or " the rule of three " of arithmetic, 
 in which laws or principles are involved that are 
 invariable ; so a ruler, it always did and will be 
 existent with the establishment of a law insepa- 
 rable from a right line, but a two-foot rule 
 
28 everybody's business. 
 
 may be subject to variation in its dimensions 
 to-morrow. 
 
 Law is the creation of a Power, which may be 
 our Heavenly Father. The Laws of God are 
 supreme ; they are certain, constant, and im- 
 movable. 
 
 Law is Right. 
 
 Laws may be made by our superior rulers on 
 earth ; our Legislators. The laws, made by those 
 persons chosen by a nation to rule and govern, 
 are right from their source ; but as man is not 
 fallible, so the laws created by him may, in the 
 course of events, require modifying or altering, 
 and what may be right at one period may be 
 wrong and unjust at another, therefore our laws, 
 which are absolutely right from our power to 
 enforce obedience, are, notwithstanding, alterable, 
 and may be adapted to meet the requirements 
 which the mutability of events may necessitate. 
 
 The art of speaking and writing correctly then 
 is founded on rules. These rules inform us, to 
 say " You were," and " You are," not " You 
 was," and " You is : " the latter would be incor- 
 rect ; It would not be grammar. Why is this ? 
 Because the combination of words " You were " 
 or S€ You are " is an universal law of grammar ? 
 Certainly not ; It is not immutable and maybe 
 
everybody's business. 29 
 
 altered at any time. It is a rule, an adaptation of 
 the period : and if the majority of literary persons 
 were to say " You was " and " You is," this con- 
 junction of terms would be correct and good 
 grammar. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Language consists of words : This we need 
 scarcely be informed of; It is a self-evident 
 proposition. 
 
 Words are arranged or divided into kinds 
 according to the office they fulfil in the composi- 
 tion of language. These words are termed by 
 grammarians " Parts of speech." They are 
 classified into nine parts, and every word that is 
 uttered belongs to one of these divisions, and is 
 named, a noun, a pronoun, an article, an adjective, 
 a verb, an adverb, a preposition, a conjunction, 
 or an interjection, according to its nature and 
 office in a sentence the word is intended to 
 fulfil. 
 
 The " parts of speech " that words are classed 
 under, may be known by referring to any dic- 
 tionary, the small letters immediately following the 
 words, are the initials of denomination character- 
 istic of the "parts of speech" of the words ; but 
 this reference ought only to be required in ex- 
 ceptional cases : as a little study and attention, to 
 -what is here set forth ought to be sufficient to 
 
everybody's business. 31 
 
 satisfy any enquirer, of the division under which 
 any word should be properly classified. 
 
 The first consideration we will give to the 
 Noun, because it is the chiefest word in language. 
 It is the foundation — the corner-stone — the com- 
 mencement of the fabric to which all other ivords 
 are subservient. 
 
 The first words uttered by infants are nouns, 
 " Papa," " Mamma," and " Tata," are almost the 
 first words given utterance to. Some grammarians 
 divide nouns into " nouns " and " nouns substan- 
 tive," but the classification is useless to those who 
 study grammar with a utilitarian purpose, as 
 words undergo no change in their construction, 
 by consequence of such division. 
 
 Our object is to prepare the mind to receive 
 and retain an impression of what a noun in the 
 general acceptation of the term is ; and to recognise 
 it under any circumstance. 
 
 The term " noun substantive " would imply 
 that a " substantive or noun substantive" is any- 
 thing that may be handled or felt — a sound sub- 
 stantial thing, a substance — but this would not 
 impart an idea of the attribute of all nouns. 
 " Papa " and " Mamma " are nouns. The pen 
 this is written with is a noun; but "Tata" 
 which implies farewell is also a noun and the 
 information herein imparted is a noun. 
 
32 everybody's business. 
 
 Lindley Murray informs us " A noun is the 
 name of anything that exists, or of which we 
 have any notion/' and this is a very good and true 
 definition ; but it is too laconic. Brevity and pre- 
 cision are certainly very desirable, but to lay bare 
 and detect, to analize and initiate, are more 
 important and infinitely more valuable than 
 conciseness. 
 
 Existence is the essential of a noun. A noun 
 is the essence of every sentence. As Murray 
 says : — It is anything that exists. 
 
 There must be existence previously to attri- 
 butes, which are the offices, the occupations of the 
 other 'parts of speech : also if anything exists, 
 we must have a notion of its existence. 
 
 Then our first business is to put the proof of 
 existence to words to discover if they are nouns. 
 
 If a noun implies existence, how are we to 
 know this ? How are we to test it ? How are 
 we to find its locality in a determinate way among 
 a mass of words ? 
 
 If the name of the word be Tree, Man, Monkey, 
 or Dog, we perceive an existence; because it 
 is a transparent and striking fact, and requires no 
 mental exertion to recognise the idea ; but four 
 words mentioned in this sentence are Existence, 
 Fact, Exertion, and Idea. Now these are nouns ; 
 and yet we can neither feel them nor see them, 
 
everybody's business, 33 
 
 although we may determine them to be un- 
 mistakeable nouns, and we may, by the same 
 means, be able to recognise any noun we meet 
 with in our conversations, our writings, our 
 readings, or our communings ; and herein lies the 
 test. We must premise — the noun is the first, 
 the principal word, and all other words are so 
 many predicaments or situations describing the 
 various circumstances in which the noun may be 
 placed. 
 
 It must have existence. Then by applying 
 some word that implies existence, and if it happily 
 coalesce with the word we subject to the test, we 
 may be certain the subject of enquiry is a noun. 
 
 Beginning is a noun. Everything in exist- 
 ence must have had a Beginning. 
 
 " In the beginning, God created the Heavens 
 and the Earth." 
 
 The Heavens and the Earth were a Beginning, 
 or a Being ; the very essence of Existence 
 from whence comes our verb " to be." Man and 
 every other animal, and everything substantial 
 and also ethereal — " The sun to rule by day, and 
 the moon to rule by night," all succeeded the 
 noun Beginning. 
 
 " Let there he light, and there was light." 
 
 Then if we can apply the verb " To be " so as 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 to make sense with any word, we may be sure 
 that word is a noun. As the words " be " and 
 " being " come from " beginning/' so am, are, 
 and is, are members of the same family, they are 
 like brothers, Beginning being their mother; they 
 are ramifications of the same word, — all implying 
 Existence, and if we connect a word denoting 
 Existence, with the word subject to enquiry, 
 and the implification of Existence is exemplified 
 by the coalition, that word is a noun. 
 
 Now, let us see if our reasoning is correct, and 
 if it bear the test. 
 
 We will place the word " The " before the 
 words we put to the proof, and the word "Is," or 
 the word " Are," which is the plural form of 
 the word " Is," after the word to be proven. By 
 this process we will ascertain if we have made 
 progress sufficient to distinguish this most im- 
 portant part of speech from all the other words ; 
 and we may, afterwards, learn if we are correct, by 
 reference to a dictionary. 
 
 The illustration by a few words from this sen- 
 tence will be sufficient for our purpose ; but 
 apply the principle to what words or sentences we 
 choose, the result will be the same. 
 
 The words in italics as we perceive are 
 nouns : — 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 35 
 
 The 
 
 The 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 apply 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 illustration 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 the 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 by 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 principle 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 a 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 to 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 few 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 what 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 words 
 
 are 
 
 The 
 
 words 
 
 are 
 
 The 
 
 from 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 or 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 this 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 sentences 
 
 are 
 
 The 
 
 sentence 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 we 
 
 are 
 
 The 
 
 will 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 choose, 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 be 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 the 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 sufficient 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 result 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 for 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 will 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 our 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 be 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 purpose ; 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 the 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 but 
 
 is 
 
 The 
 
 same. 
 
 is 
 
 The word will, appears to combine with the 
 and is. The eause of this is, that will has one 
 meaning which imparts the idea of a noun, but it 
 has also another attribute by which it is another part 
 of speech. It is not used in the sense of a noun, 
 in the sentence referred to by way of example. 
 This may be seen, by substituting a word ap- 
 proaching to the same nature as will. For in- 
 stance, if we use shall instead of will, and say, 
 " This sentence shall be sufficient for our pur- 
 pose/' it will not bear the criterion proof for a 
 noun. We cannot say the shall is. The words 
 d 2 
 
6b EVERYBODY S BUSINESS, 
 
 shall and will are words not implying existence, 
 but action. They are verbs, which will be seen 
 by and by. 
 
 Although so much has been said on this " part 
 of speech," which other writers have disposed of 
 in a few words; yet it is believed, not a single 
 statement or sentence is unnecessary to a clear and 
 defined comprehension of the subject. 
 
 We might, certainly, have been informed, " A 
 noun is the name of anything that exists, or of 
 which we have any notion ; " or " A noun may, in 
 general, be distinguished by its taking an article 
 before it, or by making sense of itself; " but this 
 would not have given the slightest clue to dis- 
 tinguish it. From this definition we should be 
 furnished with reasoning about as forcible as a 
 woman's, " It is, because it is." 
 
 We ought now to have a clear notion of what a 
 noun is, and to be capable of recognising it 
 wherever it be met with. 
 
 We have now to consider its changes, or how 
 the same noun is varied in its formation, according 
 to its several uses ; and to apply it, in accordance 
 with these variations, is the principle of correctness 
 in speaking and writing. 
 
 Firstly. — Nouns are divided into two kinds, 
 proper and common. 
 
 The advantage of a knowledge of this dis- 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. bi 
 
 tinction is, to inform us of the proper usage of 
 capitals in writing. To write correctly, the initial 
 letter of a proper noun must be a capital. 
 
 A proper noun consists in its individuality, or 
 separate and distinct existence of the person or 
 thing referred to. It is defined completely in 
 itself by implification of its term proper, and is 
 applied to represent but one particularized indi- 
 vidual or thing, as God, Victoria, Napoleon, James, 
 John, London, Dover, the Thames. 
 
 Nearly all grammarians inform us that the 
 proper noun requires no article ; that is the word 
 
 a , or the word the , to accompany it as 
 
 a prefix. Murray says, " When proper names 
 have an article annexed to them, they become 
 common names, as " He is the Cicero of his age." 
 
 Rice states, " Articles are not applied to proper 
 names, because they denote only individual, per- 
 sons or things ; but proper names are generalized 
 to avoid a circumlocutive mode of expression, and 
 they then admit the use of articles, as ' He is 
 quite a Demosthenes,' ' He is the Alexander of 
 the age. 5 " 
 
 Cobbett says, " Proper nouns take no articles 
 before them, because the extent of their meaning 
 is clearly pointed out in the word itself. In 
 figurative language, we sometimes, however, use 
 the article ; as * Goldsmith is a very pretty poet, 
 
38 everybody's business. 
 
 but not to be compared to the Popes, the 
 Dry dens, or the Otways.' And, again, ' I wish 
 I had the wit of a Swift/ We also use the de- 
 finite article before proper nouns, when a common 
 noun is understood to be left out ; as ' The Dela- 
 ware/ meaning the River Delaware ; also, when 
 we speak of more than one person of the same 
 name, as the Henries, the Edwards;" and no 
 end of authorities might be produced in support 
 of this assertion ; but, if we do not discard old 
 formulae, when we cannot perceive their sense, 
 nor their advocates have not the ability to indoc- 
 trinate us by reasoning, we may rely, we shall only 
 perpetuate error to the success of confusion. 
 Now, there is not the slightest apparent reason 
 why proper nouns shall not properly receive 
 an article as a prefix, even in the chosen phrases 
 of these gentlemen who have provided us with 
 examples. Murray states, " Cicero becomes a 
 common noun, because the article is prefixed to 
 it." Why is this? What is the reason he assigns 
 it a place among common nouns ? We are not 
 bound to receive his statement, unless he submit 
 to us the rule by which he comes to this conclu- 
 sion, and let us judge for ourselves. 
 
 A work that treats on language, is only fit for 
 pipe-lights, unless it furnish us with reasons that 
 will submit to a test. 
 
everybody's business. 39 
 
 " Cicero " is not a common noun, when an 
 article is prefixed to the word, on Mr. Murray's 
 own showing, as he himself treats it as a proper 
 noun, by writing the name with a capital initial 
 letter. 
 
 The same argument goes to disprove Rice's as- 
 sertion, and also Cobbett's ; but Cobbett goes 
 even farther, for he says, " In figurative lan- 
 guage w r e sometimes, however, use the article, 
 as • Goldsmith is a very pretty poet, but not 
 to be compared to the Popes, the Drydens, or the 
 Otways.' " 
 
 We are here actually told the article is used, 
 because i*t is figurative language; but why that 
 illustrated sentence should be deemed " figurative 
 language," and receive the prefixed article, and 
 be styled a proper noun, any more than another 
 sentence which might not be deemed figurative, 
 because describing the career of the Browns, or 
 the Joneses, or the Robinsons, appears to be very 
 futile logic ; and Mr, Cobbett would be a bold 
 man, and a waverer from his principles, if he were 
 to practise according to his teachings, and write, 
 " the Otways, the Popes, and the Drydens," com- 
 mencing with capitals, and the initials of the 
 Browns, the Joneses, and the Smiths with small 
 letters. 
 
40 everybody's business. 
 
 Mr. Cobbett then proceeds to say, speaking of 
 " the Delaware," the common noun, river, is 
 understood, " meaning the river Delaware." 
 
 They are altogether mistaken, and Mr. C, 
 by the same line of argument, might rule, that in 
 speaking of the Queen of England the word 
 woman is understood, meaning the "woman 
 Queen," or in referring to the Emperor of France 
 the word man is understood, meaning " the man 
 Emperor." This is so manifestly absurd, that it 
 is a matter of surprise that men with the learning 
 of a Murray, a Rice, a Cobbett, a Lowth, and 
 a host of others, profound scholars, should never 
 have attempted to eradicate so transparently 
 erroneous a notion from the treatises on English 
 Language. 
 
 As we have dwelt so much on the description 
 of the proper noun, little is left to enable us 
 to comprehend the nature of common nouns. 
 Common nouns are names applicable to all the 
 individuals of the same kind, as house, ship, 
 tree, and every noun expressing a general idea. 
 
 Now, as we can distinguish proper nouns from 
 common nouns, we should know the uses of the 
 distinction. It is chiefly to be sparing in the use 
 of capital letters. Nearly all words that are 
 common nouns, or any other part of speech, 
 
everybody's business, 41 
 
 should commence with a small letter, and when 
 we see writing abounding in unnecessary capitals, 
 we may look for more serious errors. 
 
 The rules for using capitals are, that every 
 proper noun begins with a capital. 
 
 Every sentence commences with a capital. 
 
 Every word to which we wish to direct par- 
 ticular attention, whatever part of speech it may 
 be classed under, may be commenced with a 
 capital. 
 
 The next consideration of the attendant cir- 
 cumstances on the noun is number, and this may 
 be disposed of, by dispensing with labyrinths of 
 examples, grammarians, generally, think proper to 
 furnish us with. 
 
 The number of a noun originates in unity, or 
 one, which is termed the singular number, but 
 when we desire our meaning to imply more than 
 one we use the plural form of the word, which in 
 many cases is effected by adding s, as word, words. 
 We know all plurals are not formed by adding s, 
 and almost everybody is acquainted with the 
 plural form of singular nouns, therefore it would 
 be waste of time to give examples. We would 
 indeed be geese to require to be informed of the 
 plural of goose. It is too absurd a proposition 
 to demand attention. 
 
 As grammarians have been so brief in their 
 
42 everybody's business. 
 
 instructions in imparting the qualifications of 
 words, so they have fallen into the opposite 
 extreme and become too prolix in assigning pro- 
 perties to nouns which are not only not inherent 
 in the words, but are wholly independent and 
 inconsequent of them, and are forced to a purport 
 of which they are not susceptible. 
 
 A vast amount of learning is certainly displayed 
 by these scholars, though the skill may be of 
 dubious value. They appear to clog the pivots 
 of learning with a mucous fluid, that retards the 
 rotation of the wheels, and they become feeble 
 and feebler in their action, so that before the 
 power of the spring reaches the balance, action 
 ceases, and we are lost! we can proceed no 
 further. 
 
 We are told that one of the attributes of 
 the noun is gender, and we are supplied with 
 elaborate lists of rules to distinguish it, but no 
 proofs are adduced, that gender is a property 
 pertaining to the noun, no more than strength, 
 ferocity, or meekness, is a consequence inherent 
 in that part of speech. A male and a female, a 
 man and a woman, a horse and a mare, an ewe 
 and a sheep, are words identical of animals of 
 different kinds, and there is not the slightest 
 pretence for the presumption that one of these 
 words can become changed or modified, for one 
 
everybody's business. 43 
 
 in this respect, to represent or bear affinity to the 
 other. "We might, with as much show of reason, 
 endeavour to maintain that strength, and weakness, 
 are incidental properties of the noun, and furnish 
 illustrated examples in the words, dog and fox, 
 cat and tiger, man and gorilla. But, may say 
 our grammarians, w r e cannot surrender gender! 
 We must have it for personification ; to personify 
 inanimate objects, to give force to language in 
 figurative speech ; that is, to describe a ship as 
 she, the sun as he, the moon as she, &c. ; but 
 this does not make it a part of grammar; no more 
 than speaking in figurative or forcible terms ; we 
 call a man a donkey, or brute ; or a charming 
 woman, an angel. 
 
 The noun undergoes no change from ] ife 
 primary form to indicate gender, but 2 it under- 
 goes an extraordinary mutation, and to z this 4 our 
 attention should be concentrated; because the 
 noun becomes so completely metamorphosed that 
 b it requires some discrimination to discover & it 
 in 7 its new guise. 
 
 We will point out the transformations, or 
 secondary forms of the nouns, in the sentence 
 preceding this; and we will place figures against 
 the transformed words to assist in reference. 
 
 The first change is in the word noun : it 
 becomes changed into l its. Instead of saying 
 
44 everybody's business. 
 
 (< the noun undergoes no change — in the nouns 
 prima?'?/ form " — we say l its primary form. The 
 second transformation is also 2 it, and is from 
 the same word, noun. The third is, the word, 
 mutation, transformed into the word, z this. The 
 fourth is the word, 4 our, standing in the place of 
 the author and his readers, The fifth, the word, 
 noun, becomes b it. The sixth, the same word, 
 noun, is represented by 6 it ; and the seventh word, 
 7 its, is also a representative of the same word 
 noun. 
 
 When a noun is transformed in this way, it is 
 called by grammarians, a pronoun, a word used 
 instead of a noun, and if it were not for the 
 invention, of this substitute for the noun, we 
 would be compelled continually to repeat the 
 primary words, to the great detriment of commu- 
 nication. 
 
 When the primary word is a male, its repre- 
 sentative is, he, his, or Mm; when a female, she, 
 hers, or her ; and when an inanimate object is the 
 subject, or we are unacquainted with its sex, we 
 say it or its. They, theirs, or them, or thine, 
 may represent any primary, or noun, male or 
 female, or inanimate object, or when the sex is 
 unknown, and this distinction, he, she, it, &c, 
 grammarians have called gender, but as a male 
 cannot represent, or by any means be transformed 
 
everybody's business. 45 
 
 into a female, the definition is nothing more than 
 a perpetuated mistake. 
 
 As we now have a tolerably clear notion of what 
 a noun is, and are also acquainted with it, in its 
 secondary stage, when it becomes, what is termed 
 a pronoun, we can follow up our inquiries, and 
 examine into the various changes, these parts of 
 speech undergo, to accord with the various words 
 to which they bear relation and refer. 
 
 The pronoun, as we perceive, undergoes a 
 change, according with the differing circumstances 
 in which it may be placed. We are informed, 
 that " To nouns, belong gender, number, and 
 case ; and they are all of the third person, 
 when spoken of, and of the second when spoken 
 to — as, ' Blessings attend us on every side ; be 
 grateful, children of men.' " 
 
 As a noun, in its primary form, admits of no 
 change to indicate person; that is, the nouns " bless- 
 ings " and " children/' whether we speak of them 
 or to them, we can make use of no other terms than 
 the words " blessings" or " children;" therefore, 
 we cannot discern if they are in the first or in the 
 third person, whilst, in their primary form ; but 
 when we press into service our powers of substitu- 
 tion, our pronouns, which are representatives of 
 all nouns, we immediately perceive, the full 
 range of a primary word, because its representative 
 
46 everybody's business. 
 
 undergoes a complete transformation, to represent 
 the different denominations of person, " Blessings 
 attend us on every side." 
 
 On referring back to page 35, we will perceive, 
 by our test, that "blessings" and "side" are 
 nouns. Now, what words will usurp the place 
 of these nouns ? what pronouns can we use in 
 their stead ? 
 
 But we do not yet know what person means ; 
 therefore, this must be our immediate subject of 
 inquiry. 
 
 If we wish to speak anything concerning our- 
 selves, as an individual, we must make use of 
 the word I" — " If /were you, I would listen 
 to what he says, aboilt him" In this sentence, 
 " I " represents the speaker, and he is termed the 
 first person. The person addressed " you," is the 
 second person; and "he," the person I am talking 
 about, is the third person. 
 
 The word " it," is classed by many of the 
 learned among personal pronouns ; but examples 
 by way of illustration are not given, showing 
 wherein the word " it," stands in the place of, or 
 represents a person. 
 
 Some writers, after a vast amount of labour at 
 this word " it/' have ultimately deserted it alto- 
 gether, and, as if it were an incumbrance they 
 did not know well how to rid themselves of, 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 47 
 
 have concluded by saying, " The word ' it,' is the 
 greatest troubler I know of in language. 9 ' 
 
 The only reason we can conceive for any pre- 
 tensions in this word to stand among personal pro- 
 nouns is, by taking one of Home Tooke's defini- 
 tions of its attributes. He informs us that " it " 
 is equivalent to "said;" as in the sentence, 
 " the man is good," that is, the said man is good, 
 " It" might refer to the man, or the said man ; 
 as, " It (the said man, or the man) is good." 
 
 This, certainly, is rather far-fetched, according 
 to our notions of propriety ; and, as we ought 
 only to define words, according to the sense they 
 are received in at the period of their adaptation, 
 this word " it," ought not to be classed among 
 personal pronouns ; for to adopt terms that seem 
 in direct opposition to reason, is worse than per- 
 petuating error ; because it can only tend to dis- 
 gust people with learning. They would, likely, 
 throw aside their book, when argument, not 
 admissible to common sense, is urged, imagining 
 they can never accomplish that, which may be 
 attainable, without the slightest mental effort, but 
 for these perplexing problems. 
 
 The word " it " is a pronoun, not used for 
 persons, when we know that the person is a man 
 or a woman. When the sex is unknown, or for 
 objects inanimate, we substitute the word "it" 
 
48 everybody's business. 
 
 for the noun, and say " It is a fine child." For 
 brute creation we may use " it," or the pronoun 
 denoting its sex, as " It is a fine mare," or " She 
 is a fine mare ; " but in the following phrases 
 doubt is implied, and therefore the word u it " is 
 properly used, as 
 
 " What is that yonder?" 
 
 " It is a man." 
 
 "Is it a man ? " 
 
 " I did not know it was you." 
 
 In all these cases doubt is implied. 
 
 " Who was that you were speaking to ? " 
 
 The sex is not named in this question, there- 
 fore the answer would be correct by replying, 
 
 " It was James." 
 
 The answer agrees with the question, which is 
 indeterminate. 
 
 But if we name the sex in an interrogatory, 
 that involves a personal pronoun in the reply. 
 We cannot properly substitute " it " for the 
 person, as 
 
 " Who is that lady ? " 
 
 " She is Mrs. Thompson/' 
 
 "Who is that gentleman? " 
 
 " He is Mr. Wilkinson." 
 
 To say "It is" in these cases would be evi- 
 dently improper. It would be a reply adverse to 
 the proposition. 
 
everybody's business. 49 
 
 We will here introduce Murray's table of 
 personal pronouns, He says, 
 
 " The persons of pronouns are three in each 
 number, viz. 
 
 /, is the first person ^ 
 
 Thou, is the second person > Singular. 
 
 He, she, or it, is the third person J 
 
 We, is the first person *\ 
 
 Ye or you, is the second person > Plural. 
 
 They, is the third person J 
 
 " This account of persons will be very intel- 
 ligible, when we reflect, that there are three 
 persons who may be the subject of any discourse : 
 first, the person who speaks, may speak of him- 
 self ; secondly, he may 'speak of the person to 
 whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may 
 speak of some other person: and as the speakers, 
 the persons spoken to, and the other persons 
 spoken of may be many, so each of these persons 
 must have the plural number. 
 
 " The Numbers of pronouns, like those of sub- 
 stantives, are two, the singular and the plural : 
 as I, thou, he ; we, ye, or you^ they." 
 
 The word " thou " has given place to you. It 
 is not in the fashion to say " Thou art," we say 
 " you are," though the former words are still in 
 use in the sectarian phraseology of " the Friends." 
 
 E 
 
50 everybody's business. 
 
 We are told that " all nouns are of the third 
 person when spoken of, and of the second when 
 spoken to/ 5 that is, all nouns, animate or inanimate, 
 are regarded as persons; and as nouns do not, 
 like other words, vary in their formation, we may 
 accept this definition, as it is sufficient for the 
 purpose, and we cannot be led into error by it. 
 
 Now let us refer back to page 45, and by 
 observing the precepts set forth from that to this 
 page our theory will be a proven fact. 
 
 " Blessings attend us on every side/' 
 
 Blessings is a noun, but, as this word under 
 all phases is precisely similar, there can be no in- 
 dication of, circumstance, in the word itself; 
 but if we substitute the pronoun that would re- 
 present the noun "blessings" we must use the 
 word " They." Hence the rule " They are all of 
 the third person when spoken of, and of the 
 second when spoken to/' We are speaking of 
 blessings, and " they," the third person plural 
 would be the substituted word for blessings, and, 
 as a principal is bound by its representative the 
 word " blessings " must be in the third person, 
 and the word side is bound by the same rule — its 
 place being taken by " it." 
 
 In the phrase, " Be grateful, children of men ;" 
 we are addressing the ehildren ; we are not speak- 
 ing of, but to them, and they would, properly, be 
 
everybody's business. 51 
 
 represented by the pronoun " You." It is the 
 second person, being spoken to ; the last word 
 "Men" is spoken of; and in the third person, its 
 representative pronoun being "them." This pro- 
 noun is in the third person of the Objective case, 
 but as we know nothing about " case" at present, 
 we shall understand this better when we have 
 more information on the subject; and this leads 
 us to the consideration of case. 
 
 A noun can only make sense, when in combi- 
 nation with a word that denotes some kind of 
 action " expressed or understood." This word 
 that is identified with action, is called a " verb," 
 and these "verbs" are representatives of words 
 which intimate, in their expression, that an action 
 is involved. 
 
 If an Action be performed it must have an 
 actor. It cannot, even, originate without an actor, 
 which may be the noun or the pronoun ; this is the 
 first simple position of the noun or pronoun, and 
 is called the Nominative case. We will produce 
 an example by way of illustration to our proposi- 
 tion. " The fire raged very fiercely, but the men 
 played on the flaming pile till they subdued it." 
 " Fire " is the noun, it is the nominative, and 
 raged is the subject verb that the noun acts upon, 
 as " The Fire raged." The next nominative is 
 " men." They " the men " played, and the third 
 e 2 
 
52 everybody's business. 
 
 nominative is " they," the subject being the word 
 " subdued." 
 
 The nominative then appears to be the naming, 
 the asserting the first proposition ; it stands by 
 itself as the principal governor or controller, the 
 chief actor and principal of a sentence or subject 
 referred to ; but if we ask, what is named, what is 
 asserted, who or what is governed or controlled ; 
 when we ascertain any of these replies we shall 
 find the answered noun, the object, and, as the 
 reply intimates, is in the " objective case." In 
 the illustrated sentence, (C The men played." 
 What did they play on ? On " the flaming pile ;" 
 that signifies clearly the object, and is in the 
 objective case. The men subdued — what did they 
 subdue ? " it " the flaming pile, and " it " is in the 
 objective case. It is very important to have a clear 
 definition of case ; because, although nouns have no 
 change to denote whether they are nominatives 
 or objectives, yet, when they become pronouns in 
 their new phase, the nominative case is entirely 
 different from the objective. The nominative 
 *'/" becomes objective " me" "We" nomi- 
 native changes to "us" objective. "He" 
 becomes "him" "She" becomes "her" and 
 "they" in the objective case is "them;" from 
 inattention to this, serious mistakes may occur, in 
 transmitting what we wish to express, as well as 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 53 
 
 in receiving the right impressions from subjects 
 imparted to us. 
 
 We are now prepared to receive, with some 
 capacity for comprehending, what Murray says 
 of pronouns : — 
 
 u Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, 
 the possessive, and the objective. 
 
 " The objective case of a pronoun has, in 
 general, a form different from that of the nomina- 
 tive or the possessive case. 
 
 " The personal pronouns are thus declined : — 
 
 Person. 
 
 Case. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 First 
 
 Nom. 
 
 I. 
 
 We. 
 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Mine. 
 
 Ours. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Me. 
 
 Us. 
 
 Second. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Thou. 
 
 Ye or you. 
 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Thine. 
 
 Yours. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Thee. 
 
 You. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 He. 
 
 They. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 His. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Him. 
 
 Them. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 She 
 
 They. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Hers. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Her. 
 
 Them. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 It. 
 
 They. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 Its. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 
 Obj. 
 
 It. 
 
 Them. 
 
54 everybody's business. 
 
 " Of the Relative Pronouns. 
 
 " Relative pronouns are such as relate, in 
 general, to some word or phrase going before, 
 which is thence called the antecedent : they are, 
 who, which, and that; as, ' The man is happy 
 who lives virtuously.' 
 
 " What is a kind of compound relative, includ- 
 ing both the antecedent and the relative, and is 
 mostly equivalent to that which : as, ' This is 
 what I wanted;' that is to say, ' the thing ivhich 
 I wanted.' 
 
 " Who is applied to persons, which to animals 
 irrational and things inanimate : as, ' He is a 
 friend, who is faithful in adversity ; ' ' The bird, 
 which sung so sweetly, is flown;' ' This is the 
 tree, which produces no fruit.' 
 
 " That, as a relative, is often used to prevent 
 the too frequent repetition of who and which. It 
 is applied to both persons and things : as, ' He that 
 acts wisely deserves praise ; ' ' Modesty is a quality 
 that highly adorns a woman.' 
 
 " Who is of both numbers, and is thus 
 declined : — 
 
 Singular and Plural. 
 
 Nominative. Who. 
 
 Possessive. Whose. 
 
 Objective. Whom. 
 
everybody's business. 55 
 
 " Which, that, and what, are likewise of both 
 numbers, but they do not vary their termination ; 
 except that whose is sometimes used as the posses- 
 sive case of which : as, c Is there any other doc- 
 trine whose followers are punished V 
 
 " And the fruit 
 
 Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
 
 Brought death." " Milton. 
 
 " Pure the joy without allay, 
 
 Whose very rapture is tranquillity." Young. 
 
 " The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife 
 
 Gives all the strength and colour of our life." Pope. 
 
 " This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being 
 
 a religion ivhose origin is divine." Blair. 
 
 " By the use of this license, one word is sub- 
 stituted for three : as, ' Philosophy, whose end 
 is to instruct us in the knowledge of nature/ 
 for ( Philosophy, the end of ivhich is to instruct 
 us,' &c. 
 
 " Who, ivhich, and what, have sometimes the 
 words soever and ever annexed to them ; as * who- 
 soever or ivhoever, whichsoever or whichever, or 
 whatsoever or whatever;' but they are seldom used 
 in modern style, except whoever and whatever. 
 
 " The word that is sometimes a relative, some- 
 times a demonstrative pronoun, and sometimes a 
 conjunction. It is a relative, when it may be 
 
56 everybody's business. 
 
 turned into who or zvhich without destroying the 
 sense : as, ' They that (who) reprove us, may be 
 our best friends:' i From every thing that (which) 
 you see, derive instruction.' It is a demonstra- 
 tive pronoun when it is followed immediately by 
 a substantive, to which it is either joined, or 
 refers, and which it limits or qualifies ; as, ' That 
 boy is industrious;' ( That belongs to me;' 
 meaning, that book, that desk, &c. It is a con- 
 junction, when it joins sentences together, and 
 cannot be turned into who or which, without de- 
 stroying the sense : as, f Take care that every day 
 be well employed.' * I hope he will believe that 
 I have not acted improperly.'^ 
 
 " Who, which, and ivhat, are called Interroga- 
 tives, when they are used in asking questions ; as 
 < Who is he?' ' Which is the book?' < What 
 art thou doing ? ' 
 
 " Whether was formerly made use of to 
 signify interrogation : as, ' Whether of these 
 shall I choose ? ' but it is now seldom used, the 
 interrogative which being substituted for it. 
 Some Grammarians think that the use of it 
 should be revived, as, like either and neither, it 
 points to the dual number ; and would contribute 
 to render our expressions concise and definite. 
 
 " Some writers have classed the interrogatives 
 as a separate kind of pronouns ; but they are too 
 
everybody's business. 57 
 
 nearly related to the relative pronouns, both in 
 nature and form, to render such a division proper. 
 They do not, in fact, lose the character of rela- 
 tives, when they become interrogatives. The 
 only difference is, that without an interrogation, 
 the relatives have reference to a subject which is 
 antecedent, definite, and known; with an interro- 
 gation, to a subject which is subsequent, indefi- 
 nite, and unknown, and which it is expected that 
 the answer should express and ascertain. 
 
 " Of the Adjective Pronouns. 
 
 " Adjective pronouns are of a mixed nature, 
 participating the properties both of pronouns and 
 adjectives. 
 
 t9 The adjective pronouns may be subdivided 
 into four sorts, namely, the possessive, the distri- 
 butive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 
 
 " The possessive are those which relate to pos- 
 session or property. There are seven of them ; 
 viz., my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 
 
 " Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were 
 formerly used before a substantive, or adjective, 
 beginning with a vowel, or a silent h ; as, f Blot 
 out all mine iniquities.' 
 
 " The pronouns, his, mine, thine, have the same 
 form, whether they are possessive pronouns, or 
 
58 everybody's business. 
 
 the possessive cases of their respective personal 
 pronouns. 
 
 "A few examples will probably assist the 
 learner to distinguish the possessive pronouns 
 from the genitive cases of their correspondent 
 personal pronouns. 
 
 " The following sentences exemplify the pos- 
 sessive pronouns. — 'My lesson is finished; Thy 
 books are defaced ; He loves his studies ; She 
 performs her duty; We own our faults; Your 
 situation is distressing ; I admire their virtues.' 
 
 " The following are examples of the possessive 
 cases of the personal pronouns. — ' This desk is 
 mine; the other is thine; These trinkets are his; 
 those are hers; This house is ours, and that is 
 yours; Theirs is very commodious.' 
 
 " Some grammarians consider its as a possessive 
 pronoun. 
 
 " The two words own and self, are used in con- 
 junction with pronouns. Gwn is added to posses- 
 sives, both singular and plural : as, ' My own 
 hand, our own house.' It is emphatical, and 
 implies a silent contrariety or opposition : as, ' I 
 live in my own house/ that is, 'not in a hired 
 house.' Self is added to possessives : as, myself, 
 yourselves ; and sometimes to personal pronouns : 
 as, himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, 
 
everybody's business. 59 
 
 expresses emphasis and opposition : as, ' I did 
 this myself,' that is, ( not another; ' or it forms a 
 reciprocal pronoun : as, ' We hurt ourselves by 
 vain rage.' 
 
 "Himself, themselves, are now used in the 
 nominative case, instead of hisself, theirs elves : 
 as, ( He came himself;'' c He himself shall do 
 this ; V They performed it themselves.' 
 
 " 2. The distributive are those which denote 
 the persons or things that make up a number, as 
 taken separately and singly. They are each, 
 every, either: as, e Each of his brothers is in a 
 favourable situation ; ' * Every man must account 
 for himself; \ ' I have not seen either of them.' 
 
 "Each relates to two or more persons or things, 
 and signifies either of the two, or every one of 
 any number taken separately. 
 
 "Every relates to several persons or things, 
 and signifies each one of them all taken sepa- 
 rately. This pronoun was formerly used apart 
 from its noun, but it is now constantly annexed 
 to it, except in legal proceedings : as, in the phrase 
 6 all and every of them.' 
 
 "Either relates to two persons or things taken 
 separately, and signifies the one or the other. 
 To say, ' either of the three/ is therefore im- 
 proper. 
 
 "Neither imports 'not either ;' that is, not one 
 
60 everybody's business. 
 
 nor the other ; as, ' Neither of my friends was 
 there/ 
 
 "3. The demonstrative are those which precisely 
 point out the subjects to which they relate : this 
 and that, these and those, are of this class : as, 
 ' This is true charity ; that is only its image. 5 
 
 " This refers to the nearest person or thing, and 
 that to the most distant : as, ' This man is more 
 intelligent than that.' This indicates the latter 
 or last mentioned ; that, the former or first men- 
 tioned : as, ' Both wealth and poverty are tempta- 
 tions ; that, tends to excite pride, this, discon- 
 tent.' 
 
 "The words former and latter may, at the first 
 view, appear to have the nature of demonstrative 
 pronouns ; as in the following example : ' It was 
 happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the 
 command with Minucius : the former's phlegm was 
 a check upon the latter's vivacity.' But those 
 words are to be considered as adjectives ; and, in 
 the example just given, as adjectives substantively 
 used. 
 
 " 4. The indefinite are those which express their 
 subjects in an indefinite or general manner. The 
 following are of this kind : some, other, any, one, 
 all, such, &c. 
 
 " Of these pronouns, only the words one and 
 other are varied. One has a possessive case, 
 
everybody's business. 61 
 
 which it forms in the same manner as substantives : 
 as, one, ones. This word has a general significa- 
 tion, meaning people at large ; and sometimes 
 also a peculiar reference to the person who is 
 speaking : as, ' One ought to pity the distresses of 
 mankind/ e One is apt to love ones self.' This 
 word is often used, by good writers, in the plural 
 number : as, c The great ones of the world ; ' 
 ' The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the 
 young ones ; ' e My wife and the little ones are in 
 good health.' 
 
 " Other is declined in the following manner : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Nom. Other Others. 
 
 Poss. Other's Others'. 
 
 Obj. Other Others. 
 
 " The plural others is only used when apart 
 from the noun to which it refers, whether ex- 
 pressed or understood : as, ' When you have 
 perused these papers, I will send you the others. 9 
 1 He pleases some, but he disgusts others. 9 When 
 this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or 
 plural, it has no variation : as, ' the other man,' 
 6 the other men.' 
 
 "The following phrases may serve to exemplify 
 the indefinite pronouns. c Some of you are wise 
 and good ;' ' A few of them were idle, the others 
 industrious ; ' c neither is there any that is unex- 
 
62 everybody's business. 
 
 ceptionable ; ' ' One ought to know ones own 
 mind ;' ' They were all present f ' Such is the state 
 of man, that he is never at rest ;' c Some are happy, 
 while others are miserable/ 
 
 " The word another is composed of the indefi- 
 nite article prefixed to the word other. 
 
 "None is used in both numbers : as, € None is 
 so deaf as he that will not hear ;' ' None of those 
 are equal to these.' It seems originally to have 
 signified, according to its derivation, not one, and 
 therefore to have had no plural ; but there is good 
 authority for the use of it in the plural number : 
 as, ' None that go unto her return again.' 
 Prov. ii. 19. i Terms of peace ivere none 
 vouchsaf 'd.' Milton. ' None of them are varied 
 to express the gender.' ' None of them have 
 different endings for the numbers.' Lowth's 
 Introduction. ' None of their productions are 
 extant.' Blair. 
 
 " "We have endeavoured to explain the nature 
 of the adjective pronouns, and to distinguish and 
 arrange them intelligibly : but it is difficult, 
 perhaps impracticable, to define and divide them 
 in a manner perfectly unexceptionable. Some of 
 them, in particular, may seem to require a 
 different arrangement. We presume, however, 
 that, for every useful purpose, the present classi- 
 fication is sufficiently correct. All the pronouns, 
 
everybody's business. 68 
 
 except the personal and relative, may indeed, in a 
 general view of them, be considered as definitive 
 pronouns, because they define or ascertain the 
 extent of the common name, or general term to 
 which they refer, or are joined ; but as each class 
 of them does this, more or less exactly, or in a 
 manner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to 
 this circumstance appears to be suitable to the 
 nature of things, and the understanding of 
 learners. 
 
 "It is the opinion of some respectable gram- 
 marians, that the words this, that, any, some, such, 
 his, their, our, Sec, are pronouns, when they are 
 used separately from the nouns to which they 
 relate ; but that, when they are joined to those 
 nouns, they are not to be considered as belonging 
 to this species of words ; because, in this associa- 
 tion, they rather ascertain a substantive, than 
 supply the place of one. They assert that, in the 
 phrases, e give me that, 9 ' this is John's/ and ' such 
 were some of you,' the words in italics are 
 pronouns ; but that, in the following phrases, they 
 are not pronouns ; c this book is instructive,' 
 6 somehoys are ingenious,' ' my health is declining,' 
 i our hearts are deceitful,' &c. Other grammarians 
 think that all these words are pure adjectives ; and 
 that none of them can properly be called pro- 
 nouns ; as the genuine pronoun stands by itself, 
 
64 everybody's business. 
 
 without the aid of a noun expressed or under- 
 stood. They are of opinion, that in the expres- 
 sions, ' Give me that;' ' this is John's/ &c. the 
 noun is always understood, and must be supplied 
 in the mind of the reader ; as, ' Give me that 
 book;' ' this book is John's;' ' and such persons 
 were some persons amongst you.' 
 
 " Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns 
 should be classed into substantive and adjective 
 pronouns. Under the former, they include the 
 personal and the relative ; under the latter, all the 
 others. But this division, though a neat one, 
 does not appear to be accurate. All the relative 
 pronouns will not range under the substantive 
 head. — We have distributed these parts of gram- 
 mar, in the mode which we think most correct 
 and intelligible : but for the information of 
 students, and to direct their inquiries on the 
 subject, we state the different opinions of several 
 judicious grammarians." 
 
 If words were confined merely to nouns, we 
 would not be likely to err; but the paucity of 
 terms, would not enable us to communicate our 
 diversity of desires. If we are ignorant of gram- 
 mar, we may have some difficulty in receiving a 
 clear notion of subjects imparted to us, or w T e 
 may use words, ourselves, that convey a different 
 idea to that which we intended. 
 
everybody's business. 65 
 
 *' Deer Jeames 
 
 " Hive bin werry unfortnight with They 
 pigs won hav bin cornfind with the cat-tell plage 
 and tother with a familee of 3 lade up, with 
 Mizzels hopping this Wil find you, Wei as it 
 leves Me, At presen, sow No moor, from Me at 
 presen 
 
 " Yore troolie 
 
 " Robbin Hodge." 
 
 There is a considerable amount of mental 
 capacity developed in Hodge's epistle. It bears 
 evidence of an acquaintance with letters ; and the 
 acquisition of possessing a knowledge of twenty- 
 six objects, all differing in formation one from 
 another, and mastering the difficulty of recognising 
 them in three or four different forms ; and not 
 only to recognise them, but to imitate, and repro- 
 duce them in all their various combinations, 
 indicates that the brain is an amazing, an admir- 
 able, a marvellous structure of an impressionable 
 nature for the retentive perception of objects, 
 more variable than the apparently infinite pro- 
 ductions from the evolutions of the kaleidoscope ; 
 and although it might be an arduous task in- 
 structing Hodge, or any one grown to manhood's 
 estate, who has not availed himself of the advan- 
 tages of acquiring a knowledge of ee common 
 things," yet his capabilities may be estimated 
 
 F 
 
68 everybody's business. 
 
 from the evident result of his application in 
 producing an epistle of the literary merits therein 
 displayed. If Hodge, who has all the elements 
 within him of an educated man, were properly 
 instructed, he would be able to adjust and to dis- 
 pose of his words in a comprehensible style, and 
 express himself as intelligibly as we ; and as there 
 is a wrong way, as well as a right one of address 
 on most subjects, there is an exhibition of as 
 much deficiency of literary accomplishment in the 
 following short sentences, as in Hodge's pithy 
 missive : — 
 
 " James and me went to the play last night." . 
 
 " William knows more than him." 
 
 " John, James, and Thomas told me all about 
 it, and I thanked him for the information. 
 
 At page 51 we have learned what case is; and 
 at page 53, we learn that the first person, nomina- 
 tive case, is "I," and the objective "me," and 
 " went " is a word expressive of action — 
 verb : then who originated this action ? Why, 
 " I " the nominative, and not " me," which is a 
 word denoting the objective case. It should be 
 " James and I went.' 5 " We " went ; not " us " 
 went. 
 
 We also see that "he- is nominative, and 
 "him" objective; therefore, we cannot say "him 
 knows," or " William knows more than him 
 
everybody's business. C7 
 
 knows; 5 ' it must be, " William knows more than 
 lie." John, James, and Thomas, are three per- 
 sons, and must be represented by a plural pronoun. 
 " I thanked them" not " him" 
 
 " Who's there ?" " Me." Here is a sentence, 
 the reply composed of only one word, and that 
 word as wrong, as wrong as can be. The answer 
 is in the nominative case* We cannot say, " Me 
 am here." It must be " I." 
 
 We have seen from our tables of pronouns 
 which are the words that indicate possession, or, 
 are in the " possessive case." 
 
 The possessive case of nouns is indicated by an 
 apostrophe s ; that is, the letter s is added to the 
 word, with a small dot or comma over the letter, 
 thus '5— as William's house, which means the 
 house of William. 
 
 When plural nouns end with an s, the apos- 
 trophe only is placed beyond the word, the 's 
 being omitted, as, " There were two boats' crews." 
 When possession is the attribute of two or more 
 persons or things coming together, or joined 
 together by a word expressive of the conjunction, 
 the sign of possession is attached to the last word 
 only, as, " Brown, Jones, and Robinson's Drapery 
 Establishment." 
 
 f 2 
 
68 everybody's business. 
 
 "Mind your Fs and Q's." 
 
 "That's right, Sam'ell, spell it with a wee, 
 spell it with a wee." 
 
 And this reference to our ancient friend, Mr. 
 "Weller^ reminds us to refer to some of our letters 
 as a part of grammar, because of their connexion 
 with " the article " which we have to say some- 
 thing about. 
 
 There are many persons like Sam'ell, who in 
 speaking pronounce words beginning with w as 
 if it commenced with v. They would call words 
 vords ; and the reverse of this practice, or rather 
 malpractice, is just as prevalent, and they speak 
 of something being very vexing as if it were 
 " wery wexing," but this has more to do with 
 pronunciation than the part of grammar we are 
 now treating of. 
 
 There are but three words which come under 
 the denomination of articles. They are a, an, 
 and the. We have already referred to this part 
 of speech in connexion with proper, and also with 
 common nouns at page 37. A and an are in- 
 definite articles, because they do not parti- 
 cularize, define, or point out the special object 
 referred to ; this is the office of the word " the" 
 which is therefore called the definite article. 
 " My "brother has purchased a house at Charlton, 
 will you come and see the house." A house 
 
everybody's business. 69 
 
 merely states the fact of a house being purchased, 
 without allusion to any particular house, but the 
 house refers to the particular house purchased. 
 It points it out, it defines it, and is therefore the 
 definite article. There are five letters in the 
 alphabet, distinguishable from the other tweaty- 
 one by their comprising perfect articulation within 
 themselves. They are called vowels, and are, a, 
 e, i, o, and u. 
 
 " A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect 
 in itself, and formed by a continued effusion of 
 the breath, and a certain conformation of the 
 mouth, without any alteration in the position, or 
 any motion of the organs of speech, from the 
 moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends." 
 
 The remainder of the letters are termed con- 
 sonants, and a consonant requires the assistance 
 of a vowel to fully intimate its sound, as, be, ce, 
 de, ef, &c. 
 
 "When we use the indefinite article before a 
 word commencing with a consonant, we use the 
 article a; but if an article be required for use 
 before a word which commences with a vowel 
 that article must be an. 
 
 Euphony would immediately inform us there 
 must be something wrong in the combination of 
 such words as "An mouse," "A orange," "A 
 apple." 
 
a 
 
 70 everybody's business. 
 
 In some instances we are permitted the use 
 of the article, a, before words commencing with 
 a vowel, as, "A usurper," "A useful article/' 
 "A universal account," but we cannot say, 6t A 
 untenable proposition." The reason appears to 
 be, a certain harshness in the sound of the words 
 An usurper," &c, arising from the words, 
 although commencing with a vowel, being pro- 
 nounced as if the first letter were a consonant, 
 and as if it were spelt yusurper, yuseful, &c. 
 Then, again, there are some words that commence 
 with the letter " H," but as far as the utility or 
 help of this in imparting a significant sound to 
 these words, it might be dispensed with. 
 " Hour," is pronounced " our ; " " Hotel," 
 " otel ; " and these words combine with the 
 indefinite article " An,'' as, " An hour, an 
 hotel," &c. 
 
 Almost all words that commence with "H," 
 except those set forth in the following list, take 
 the indefinite A before them, when the noun is 
 spoken of indefinitely. 
 
 Words that take the article " An " before 
 them, because the H is not sounded : — 
 
 Hotel. Hospital. 
 
 Hour. Heir. 
 
 Honest. Heiress. 
 
 Honour. Hostler. 
 
everybody's business. 71 
 
 Honourable. Humour. 
 
 Honesty. Humorous. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 An adjective is a part of speech that expresses 
 the quality, or defines the attribute of the noun ; 
 as, " A white house, A blue book ; " white and 
 blue are the adjectives. Adjectives belong to 
 nouns, and they may represent the nouns in two 
 stages. To adhere to the terms, as far as they 
 are consistent with reason, used by grammarians, 
 we wall call the first stage " The positive state " 
 of the adjective ; and the word that predicates 
 of the noun, something greater or less than the 
 adjective in its positive state, " the comparative," 
 as, "A good man," " A better man," " A bad 
 man," " A worse man," " A large house/' " A 
 larger house." " Good," is an adjective in the 
 positive state ; " better," is a comparative adjec- 
 tive. " Bad," is positive ; " worse," comparative. 
 " Large," is positive ; " larger," comparative* 
 These adjectives are so closely allied to nouns, 
 that if we institute a comparison between the two 
 parts of speech, we may, in many cases, readily 
 find that the adjective can be resolved into 
 the original noun from whence it receives its being. 
 
I A EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 " A little man," " A large child. 55 These adjec- 
 tives are the progeny of the nouns " least 55 and 
 " largest. 5 ' Grammarians have termed these 
 nouns, " least and largest, 55 adjectives in the su- 
 perlative degree of comparison ; but if we dip a 
 little below the surface, we may see how much 
 they are mistaken. 
 
 When we apply our test for nouns, we can per- 
 ceive that they are entitled to a place in that class 
 of words ; and we must be just enough to allow 
 them that pre-eminence over the adjective, which 
 we incontestably prove they are entitled to : — 
 The least is 
 
 The largest is 
 
 When a word can be treated in this way, we 
 may depend it is a noun. And we think, that 
 allw T ords that grammarians have designated adjec- 
 tives of the superlative degree, are deprived of the 
 rank, the honour, and dignity to which they are 
 justly entitled. They are susceptible of all the 
 attributes of nouns. They can claim substitution 
 by pronouns ; they may be in the nominative, the 
 possessive, or the objective case, and of the 
 singular or plural number. No simple adjectives 
 can be possessed of these powers. " I gave him 
 the least, and he did not seem to like it." u If I 
 give you the largest estate, will you be satisfied 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 73 
 
 with it" We may try our best to make an ad- 
 jective of the words least and best ; but we must 
 be very weak logicians, if we succeed in deceiving 
 ourselves. Then, you men of philological lore 
 must make up your minds to give up your super- 
 lative adjective. It is only a phantasm, a creature 
 of your too vivid imagination. It is entitled to 
 higher degrees than those of an adjective ; it is a 
 plain and simple noun ; and you have all these 
 several years clothed it in unbecoming habili- 
 ments. You have placed it in a false position ; 
 but when right at last prevails, she is dominant, 
 when she asserts her sway. 
 
 Cobbett had some doubts of the position of this 
 part of speech ; and, probably, if he had pursued 
 the subject farther, he would have discovered the 
 absolutism of superlatives, to the privileges of 
 nouns : for he says, " When adjectives are used 
 as nouns, they must in all respects be treated as 
 nouns. ' The guilty, the innocent, the rich, the 
 poor, are mixed together.' But we cannot say, 
 1 a guilty, 5 meaning to use the word guilty as a 
 noun." 
 
 And Murray is remarkably close to the same 
 idea, as he remarks that — 
 
 " An adjective put without a substantive, 
 with the definite article before it, becomes a sub- 
 stantive in sense and meaning, and is written as 
 
/4 EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 a substantive ; as, ' Providence rewards the good, 
 and punishes the bad. 3 " 
 
 Murray's illustrations of the qualities, force, 
 and uses of the adjective, with the exception of 
 the " degrees of comparison," enter so fully into 
 the particular merits of this part of speech, that 
 we might fail if we ventured to attempt any other 
 elucidation. He says : — 
 
 "Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, 
 belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood ; 
 as, c He is a good, as well as a wise man ; ' ' Feiv 
 are happy ; 5 that is, 'persons:' c This is a pleasant 
 walk ;' that is, ' This walk is, 9 &c. 
 
 "Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, 
 with their substantives ; as, f This book, these 
 books ; that sort, those sorts ; another road, 
 other roads.' 
 
 '" 1. Adjective Pronouns. 
 
 "A few instances of the breach of this rule 
 are here exhibited. ' I have not travelled this 
 twenty years ;' ( these twenty,' 'X am not re- 
 commending these kind of sufferings ; ? ' this 
 kind.' ' Those set of books was a valuable 
 present ; ' ' that set. 5 
 
 1 . " The word means in the singular number, and 
 the phrases, c By this means, 9 'By that means, 9 
 are used by our best and most correct writers ; 
 
everybody's business. 75 
 
 namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, . Addison, 
 Steele, Pope, &c* They are, indeed, in so 
 
 * " By this means, he had them the more at vantage, 
 being tired and harassed with a long march." — Bacon. 
 
 "By this means one great restraint from doing evil, 
 would be taken away." — " And this is an admirable means 
 to improve men in virtue." — " By that means they have 
 rendered their duty more difficult." — Tillotson. 
 
 " It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, 
 and by that means securing the continuance of His good- 
 ness." — " A good character, when established, should not 
 be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing 
 still further good." — Atterbury. 
 
 " By this means they are happy in each other." — "He 
 by that means preserved his superiority." — Addison. 
 
 "Your vanity by this means will want its food." — 
 Steele. 
 
 " By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will 
 vanish " — Pope. 
 
 " Which custom has proved the most effectual means to 
 ruin the nobles." — Dean Swift. 
 
 "There is no means of escaping the persecution." — 
 " Faith is not only a means of obeying, but a principal 
 act of obedience." — Dr. Young-. 
 
 "He looked on money as a necessary means of main- 
 taining and increasing power." — Lord Lyttelton's Henry 
 II. 
 
 " John was too much intimidated not to embrace every 
 means afforded for his safety." — Goldsmith. 
 
 " Lest this means should fail." — " By means of ship- 
 money, the late king," &c. — "The only means of securing 
 a durable peace." — Hume. 
 
76 everybody's business, 
 
 general and approved use, that it would appear 
 awkward, if not affected, to apply the old 
 singular form, and say, ( By this mean, by that 
 mean, it was by a mean ; ' although it is more 
 agreeable to the general analogy of the language. 
 ' The word means (says Priestly) belongs to the 
 class of words which do not change their termi- 
 nation on account of number ; for it is used alike 
 in both numbers.' 
 
 " The word amends is used in this manner, in 
 the following sentences : ' Though he did not 
 succeed, he gained the approbation of his country; 
 and with this amends he was content.' ' Peace of 
 mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices 
 of interest.' ' In return, he received the thanks 
 of his employers, and the present of a large 
 estate : these were ample amends for all his 
 labours.' 'We have described the rewards of 
 
 " By this means there was nothing left to the Parliament 
 of Ireland," &c. — Blackstone. 
 
 " By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands 
 of their masters." — Dr. Bobertson. 
 
 "By this means they bear witness to each other." — 
 Burke. 
 
 " By this means the wrath of man was made to turn 
 against itself." — Dr. Blair. 
 
 u A magazine, which has, by this means, contained, &c." 
 — " Birds, in general, procure their food by means of 
 their heak^ — Dr. Paley. 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. li 
 
 vice : the good man's amends are of a different 
 nature.' 
 
 " It can scarcely be doubted, that this word 
 amends (like the word means) had formerly its 
 correspondent form in the singular number, as it 
 is derived from the French amende, though now 
 it is exclusively established in the plural form. 
 If, therefore, it be alleged that mean should be 
 applied in the singular, because it is derived 
 from the French moyen, the same kind of argu- 
 ment may be advanced in favour of the singular 
 amende ; and the general analogy of the language 
 may also be pleaded in support of it. 
 
 " Campbell, in his ' Philosophy of Rhetoric/ 
 has the following remark on the subject before 
 us : c No persons of taste will, I presume, venture 
 so far to violate the present usage, and conse- 
 quently to shock the ears of the generality of 
 readers, as to say, " By this mean, by that mean." ' 
 
 " Bishop Hurd, quoted in Todd's Johnson's 
 Dictionary, under the word means, observes, that 
 ' The use of the word means, in English, is 
 remarkable, and may be thought capricious. It 
 seems to be of French extraction. The French 
 have le moyen frequently, but seldom les mot/ens. 
 We, on the contrary, prefer the plural termina- 
 tion means; yet still, for the most part, though 
 not always, we use it as a noun of the singular 
 
78 everybody's business. 
 
 number, or as the French le moyen. It is one of 
 those anomalies, which use hath introduced and 
 established, in spite of analogy. We should not 
 be allowed to say — a mean of making men happy. 5 
 
 " It is remarkable that our present version of 
 the Scriptures makes no use, as far as the Com- 
 piler can discover, of the word mean; though 
 there are several instances to be found in it of 
 the use of means, in the sense and connexion 
 contended for. ' By this means thou shalt have 
 no portion on this side the river/ (Ezra. iv. 16.) 
 'That by means of death,' &c. (Heb. ix. 15.) 
 It will scarcely be pretended that the translators 
 of the sacred volumes did not accurately under- 
 stand the English language ; or that they would 
 have admitted one form of this word, and rejected 
 the other, had not their determination been con- 
 formable to the best usage. An attempt, there- 
 fore, to recover an old word, so long since disused 
 by the most correct writers, seems not likely to 
 be successful; especially as the rejection of it is 
 not attended with any inconvenience. 
 
 " The practice of the best and most correct 
 writers, or a great majority of them, corroborated 
 by general usage, forms, during its continuance, 
 the standard of language ; especially if, in par- 
 ticular instances, this practice continue, after 
 objection and due consideration. Every con- 
 
everybody's business. 79 
 
 nexion and application of words and phrases, thus 
 supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled 
 to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point 
 of view. 
 
 " < Si volet U3U3 
 
 " Quern penes arbitriimi est, et jus, et norma loquendi.' 
 
 Hon. 
 
 " On this principle, many forms of expression, 
 not less deviating from the general analogy of 
 the language, than those before mentioned, are 
 to be considered as strictly proper and justi- 
 fiable. Of this kind are the following. 'None 
 of them are varied to express the gender ; ' 
 and yet none originally signified no one. ( He 
 himself shall do the work : ' here, what was 
 at first appropriated to the objective, is now 
 properly used as the nominative case. ' You 
 have behaved yourselves well : ' in this example, 
 the word yoa is put in the nominative case plural, 
 with strict propriety ; though formerly it was 
 confined to the objective case, and ye regularly 
 used for the nominative. 
 
 "Either is often used improperly, instead of 
 each : as, ' The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat 
 the king of Judah, sat either of them on his 
 throne ;' ' Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, 
 took either of them his censer.' Each signifies 
 both of them taken distinctly or separately ; either 
 
SO everybody's business. 
 
 properly signifies only the one or the other of 
 them taken disjunctively. 
 
 " Chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, 
 supreme/ &c. ; are sometimes improperly written, 
 6 Chiefest, extremest, perfectest, rightest, most 
 universal, most supreme,' &c. The following ex- 
 pressions are therefore improper. ( He sometimes 
 claims admission to the chiefest offices/ ' The 
 quarrel became so universal and national ; ' ( A 
 method of attaining the rightest and greatest 
 happiness/ The phrases, so perfect, so right, so 
 extreme, so universal, &c, are incorrect ; because 
 they imply that one thing is less perfect, less ex- 
 treme, &c, than another, which is not possible." 
 
 At page 74 we are told "I have not travelled 
 this twenty years " is an incorrect phrase, and the 
 word "this" is treated as an adjective and 
 " twenty years " as a compound noun. We are 
 advised that the word " this " ought to be 
 " these." It appears that " twenty years " being 
 used as a compound noun, to make the sentence 
 correct, should have a hyphen between the two 
 words, to show they are conjoined, or that the 
 two words are intended to be used as one ; thus, 
 " twenty-years : " but we don't see that any ex- 
 ception can possibly be taken to the phrase, " I 
 have not travelled this twenty-years." " Twenty," 
 if regarded as a noun, may be considered, a noun 
 
everybody's business. 81 
 
 of multitude, or several objects comprised in one, 
 an expression of unity, in combination with the 
 word, will prove this, and this proof of unity lies 
 with the indefinite article " a." " Twenty is a 
 large number." " Twenty years is a number of 
 years." 
 
 It would be sheer nonsense to say, " Twenty 
 years are a number of years." Therefore, " I 
 have not travelled— for a number — this twenty- 
 years " cannot be incorrect. 
 
 At page 79 " He himself shall do the work ; " 
 is referred to, as another example of an incorrect 
 phrase ; and we are told that " Here what was at 
 first appropriated to the objective, is now pro- 
 perly used as the nominative case." 
 
 But " himself " is a pronoun in the objective 
 case ; and seems strictly correct in its own proper 
 character. If we transpose the sentence, the force 
 of this argument will be transparent. 
 
 " He himself shall do the work/' 
 
 " He shall do the work himself/' 
 
 " He shall himself, or by himself, do the work." 
 
 Himself is clearly traced to a connexion with 
 the significant actor — the doer— which is an active 
 verb, governing the pronoun, "himself," the 
 word " by " which is called, a preposition, may be 
 supplied to show the government over the pro- 
 noun. 
 
 G 
 
82 everybody's business. 
 
 " He shall do, by himself, the work/' 
 
 At page 80 we are informed that " Chiefs 
 extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme," &c. 
 are sometimes improperly written " Chiefest, ex- 
 tremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most 
 supreme," &c., but we do not perceive the 
 slightest grounds for cavilling at this sentence. 
 
 " The chiefest is the superlative of eminence," 
 and we have a vivid conception of " The very 
 Chief, or the Greatest Chief." " There were 
 several chiefs assembled at West Africa, but 
 the King of Dahomey was the most powerful. 
 He was chiefest of them all." So we may 
 say, " The extremest point of the precipice," or 
 "He went to extremes," or "The greatest 
 extremes," and there appears no rigidity in the 
 expressions. We may regard anything as " more 
 chief" or chiefer, as more black or blacker, 
 or more white or whiter. 
 
 We consider Lindley Murray's the very best 
 book on grammar ; therefore it is with much 
 respect and reluctance we venture to differ from 
 him, and would not do so, if we could not adduce 
 undeniable evidence of the fallacy of his tenets ; 
 and, his very self, we may offer to testify to what 
 we have advanced. According to his showing we 
 cannot say " so perfect " or "more correct/' and 
 yet at page 122 we are informed by Mr. Murray 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 83 
 
 of what the practice is, of " the best and most 
 correct writers." 
 
 There are kome things from their very nature 
 involving invariable laws, w T ill not admit of com 
 parison by an adjective ; or of superlative exis- 
 tence by a noun, because such terms would imply 
 alterableness or variation, non-existent with their 
 material properties. A circle cannot be a circle, 
 if all the radii are not equidistant from its centre 
 to its periphery, therefore we cannot say " a more 
 circle" or "more circular/' as it would be ab- 
 surdly opposed to mathematical precision. So a 
 square : if at any point of its four sides there be 
 divergence from a true or right line, or any of its 
 angles measure not exactly ninety degrees it is 
 not a square, therefore we cannot say that one 
 object is more square than another ; this language 
 would militate against the necessary precision of 
 mathematical science, though it might not be a 
 flagrant offence against the rules of grammar. 
 We might say one object was rounder than 
 another, or " This stick is straiter than that," 
 although to express ourselves with mathematical 
 exactness such terms would be inadmissible. 
 
 "In some cases, adjectives should not be 
 
 separated from their substantives, even by words 
 
 which modify their meaning, and make but one 
 
 sense with them: as, <A large enough number 
 
 g 2 
 
84 everybody's business. 
 
 surely.' It should be, c A number large enough.' 
 f The lower sort of people, are good enough 
 judges of one not very distant from them.' 
 
 " The adjective is usually placed before its 
 substantive : as, '. A generous man;' 'How amiable 
 a woman ! *. The instances in which it comes 
 after the substantive, are the following. 
 
 " 1st. When something depends upon the 
 adjective ; and when it gives a better sound, 
 especially in poetry : as, ' A man generous to his 
 enemies ; ' f Feed me with food convenient for me ;' 
 c A tree three feet thick/ ' A body of troops 
 fifty thousand strong ; ' c The torrent tumbling 
 through rocks abrupt/ 
 
 "2d. When the adjective is emphatical : as, 
 6 Alexander the Great ; ' ' Lewis the Bold; ' 
 ' Goodness infinite ; ' ' Wisdom unsearchable/ 
 
 " 3d. When several adjectives belong to one 
 substantive : as, ' A man just, wise, and chari- 
 table ; ' ' A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous.' 
 
 "4th. When the adjective is preceded by an 
 adverb : as, c A boy regularly studious ; ' ' A girl 
 unaffectedly modest.' " 
 
 The Conjunction 
 A conjunction is a part of speech that forms a 
 
EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS. CO 
 
 connecting link, by which one portion of a subject 
 or sentence is joined to the other. 
 
 The word " and " appears to be the most 
 powerful and strongly marked by its cementing 
 properties, in uniting the several and separate 
 ideas, conveyed by words to each other ; and this 
 is called a " copulative conjunction." 
 
 The word "or" has equal power, but in an 
 opposite direction ; that is whilst it firmly joins 
 two parts of sentences together ; expresses 
 contrast or opposition. It seems a paradox to 
 speak of a word as a " disconnective connective ;" 
 but this is the term assigned to this particle. It 
 is called a disjunctive conjunction; from its 
 peculiar office of expressing opposition whilst it 
 has a combining character in connecting phrases, 
 &c, together. 
 
 " The following is a list of the principal Con- 
 junctions. 
 
 " The Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, 
 since, for, because, therefore, wherefore. 
 
 " The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, 
 though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwith- 
 standing." 
 
 Murray says, " Till men began to think in a 
 train, and to carry their reasonings to a consider- 
 able length, it is not probable that they would 
 make much use of conjunctions, or of any other 
 
86 everybody's business. 
 
 connectives. Ignorant people, and children gene- 
 rally speak in short and separate sentences. The 
 same thing is true of barbarous nations : and 
 hence uncultivated languages are not well sup- 
 plied with connecting particles. The Greeks 
 were the greatest reasoners that ever appeared in 
 the world ; and their language, accordingly, 
 abounds more than any other in connectives. 
 
 " Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all 
 sorts of writing. In poetry, where great concise- 
 ness of phrase is required, and every appearance 
 of formality avoided, many of them would have a 
 bad effect. In passionate language too, it may be 
 proper to omit them : because it is the nature of 
 violent passion, to speak rather in disjointed 
 sentences, than in the way of inference and 
 argument. Books of aphorisms, like the Proverbs 
 of Solomon^ have few connectives ; because they 
 instruct, not by reasoning, but in detached obser- 
 vations. And narrative will sometimes appear 
 very graceful, when the circumstances are plainly 
 told, with scarcely any other conjunction than the 
 simple copulative and: which is frequently the 
 case in the historical parts of Scripture. — When 
 narration is full of images or events, the omission 
 of connectives may, by crowding the principal 
 words upon one another, give a sort of picture of 
 hurry and tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of 
 
everybody's business. 87 
 
 description. But when facts are to be traced 
 down through their consequences, or upwards to 
 their causes ; when the complicated designs of 
 mankind are to be laid open, or conjectures offered 
 concerning them ; when the historian argues either 
 for the elucidation of truth, or in order to state 
 the pleas and principles of contending parties ; 
 there will be occasion for every species of connec- 
 tive, as much as in philosophy itself. In fact, it 
 is in argument, investigation, and science, that 
 this part of speech is peculiarly and indispensably 
 necessary." 
 
 O Yes ! O Yes!! O Yes ! ! ! We are now 
 fairly introduced to one of the most interesting 
 parts of speech in language, O Yes ! O Yes ! ! 
 O Yes ! ! ! These words are nothing more nor 
 less than interjections. There is no actual 
 meaning in the words, beyond a note-call to attract 
 attention to the relation that follows. 
 
 This part of speech is dreadfully abused by 
 Home Tooke. It appears considerably to have 
 hurt his feelings, which is evidence of its intensity. 
 He calls it, " The brutish inarticulate interjec- 
 tion " which " is only the miserable refuge of the 
 selfish," and says, " Will you find it amongst 
 laws, or in books of civil institutions, in history, 
 or in any treatise of useful arts or sciences ? No. 
 You must seek for it in rhetoric and poetry, in 
 
88 everybody's business. 
 
 novels, plays, and romances," and to sustain this 
 character of despising, one of the most expressive 
 signs pertaining to humanity as well as brutes ; 
 he places a period after the word ' No ; ' instead 
 of the proper and more appropriate mark of 
 exclamation ' No ! ' " 
 
 The fact is, Mr. Home Tooke's " Diversions of 
 Purley," abounds in interjections, according to 
 the generally received notion of the term. He 
 could not have written so cleverly, and so im- 
 pressively without their aid ; therefore, he, at 
 least, ought to be among the last to abuse that, 
 whose powerful aid he is so much indebted to. 
 
 We are prepared to admit, with Home Tooke, 
 that the grunt of the pig, or the bark of the dog, 
 are tantamount to interjections ; and what can be 
 more impressive than the bark of the dog, accom- 
 panied by a savage expression of the eye, and a 
 low growl ? It is speech of the utmost perspicuity 
 — as plain as dog can speak — " I am very angry, 
 and if you come near, I will bite you ! " And we 
 are often more deserving of merit than censure, 
 in forming our lines of conduct from the lessons 
 conveyed by the lower animals ; for shall we 
 " Fall out, and chide and fight," when " Birds in 
 their little nests agree." 
 
 No part of speech is more forceful than an in- 
 terjection. The dramatic " Ah! ah! ah!" the 
 
everybody's business. 81) 
 
 stage expletive, generally is introduced with 
 telling eloquence ! This word " Ah! " is an inter- 
 jection. Marks of exclamation in writing; thus, 
 " ! " have all the force of interjections. And 
 what a multiplicity of words is saved ! and what a 
 vast amount of intelligence is conveyed by this 
 mark ? of interrogation ! Such signs are not 
 to be despised. In the " play within a Play, 55 
 the mere nod of Lord Burleigh, is said to be 
 redundantly full of expression ; and if it were the 
 fashion for the ladies to " do the speeching " at 
 our public entertainments, their eloquence would 
 be sensation themes ! their eyes would speak 
 volumes ! ! and their every movement would be 
 indicative of some graceful expression to astonish 
 and delight us ! ! ! 
 
 Interjections are expressions of mental excite- 
 ment ; they portray the passions, and are expres- 
 sive of wonder, surprise, grief &c. ; such as Oh ! 
 oh! Alas! Lo ! Behold! Hark! All hail! Non- 
 sense ! Silence ! Is it possible ! really ! &c. ; but 
 many interjectional expressions may be resolved 
 into other parts of speech. 
 
 We have now to treat of prepositions. What 
 this unpretentious particle has done to be invested 
 with so much dignity, attributed to it by nearly 
 
90 everybody's business. 
 
 all grammarians, is beyond our comprehension. 
 It appears nothing more than a sort of " go 
 between." 
 
 When a verb is employed to govern a noun, 
 the preposition comes in as a helpmate, and 
 attaches itself to the verb, to assist in controlment 
 over the noun. They are always at the service 
 of the verbs; but, as the verbs to which they 
 refer are not always expressed, the connexion 
 appears to be lost sight of. Prepositions are in a 
 similar position to numerals, not of the slightest 
 use or any meaning in them of themselves, but 
 are intimately connected and amalgamated with 
 something else, without reference to which their 
 position could not be maintained. 
 
 Of what use is 1, one ; 2, two ; 3, three ; or 
 4, four, or the perplexing mass of figures the 
 accountant has to deal with ? They would be 
 utterly incomprehensible, without reference to 
 their principals on which they depend. One 
 thousand has no definite meaning in itself, but 
 requires the assistance of another, or of a sign 
 representing another w T ord to complete the sense, 
 as £1,000, which is significant of money, or 
 1,000 lbs., which may mean potatoes, or 1,000 yds., 
 which may mean cloth, or whatever the subject 
 matter refers to ; but like the prepositions, unless 
 we understand the objects, under relation, we 
 
everybody's business. 91 
 
 shall have but a cloudy comprehension of our 
 business. 
 
 Prepositions are said to govern the objective 
 case, because if a pronoun follow the preposition, 
 that pronoun must be him or them, &c, not he or 
 they ; but it is not the preposition that has this 
 effect over the noun or pronoun, but it is a verb 
 that is the controlling power ; and in consequence 
 of the preposition accompanying the verb, it is 
 said erroneously, " Prepositions govern nouns 
 and pronouns," "and cause them to be in the ob- 
 jective case." Thus, its original use seems to 
 be entirely lost sight of. A verb, or word, that 
 implies direct action to, or on its object, does not 
 seek aid from a preposition, as, " I beat," or " I 
 love." If we beat or love, it is evident the object 
 must be acted on, or the objective case must follow, 
 as, " I beat." Who ? " I beat him," " I love 
 her ;" hence the rule, " Active verbs govern the 
 objective case ; " but there are some verbs, or 
 words representative of action, which are what 
 grammarians call neuter, or intransitive ; that is, 
 they say, " The effect is confined within the 
 subject, and does not pass over to any object; as, 
 c I sit, he lives, they sleep.' " In fact, w T hat 
 grammarians have denominated a neuter or an 
 intransitive verb is virtually a transitive verb ; 
 the active power is inherent in the verb, but 
 
92 everybody's business. 
 
 requires the assistance of a preposition to transfer 
 its energy on the nouns and pronouns. 
 
 In the sentence " I am delighted with him" 
 the verb " to be " exerts its influence over the pro- 
 noun him by the assistance of the preposition 
 with. " I am him " does not make a sentence, 
 but with the help of the preposition the sense is 
 completed, " as I am with him," or " I am with 
 him delighted." This is so plain a matter as 
 scarcely to need further illustration ; but as gram- 
 marians have stated, " prepositions govern the 
 objective case," without reference to any other 
 part of speech, and furnish us with examples 
 such as " The house of my friend," it is neces- 
 sary to enquire what meaning can be attached to 
 such phrases ; and this will be the means of 
 strengthening our position in regard to the defi- 
 nition we have given. It is evident that the 
 words, " The house of my friend," intimates 
 nothing, but there must be some other notion 
 appended to convey the information intended. 
 "We may say, " That is the house of my friend." 
 Here we have a definite explanation, which is 
 entirely lost without the verb " to be," repre- 
 sented in the word " is." " That is of my friend, 
 his house I am speaking of; " and the word — the 
 preposition — "of" shows "friend" to be in the 
 objective case, but it is certainly in connexion 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 93 
 
 Of 
 
 into 
 
 above 
 
 at 
 
 off 
 
 to 
 
 within 
 
 below 
 
 near 
 
 on or upon 
 
 for 
 
 without 
 
 between 
 
 up 
 
 among 
 
 by 
 
 over 
 
 beneath 
 
 down 
 
 after 
 
 with 
 
 under 
 
 from 
 
 before 
 
 about 
 
 in 
 
 through 
 
 beyond 
 
 behind 
 
 against. 
 
 with the intransitive verb, and in the same way 
 every preposition will be found connected with a 
 verb, expressed or understood, if we trace it 
 properly, or complete imperfect sentences. 
 
 Some of the principal of these connectives and 
 verbs assistants, or prepositions, are as follows. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal preposi- 
 tions : — 
 f in 
 > wi 
 
 >r wi 
 y o\ 
 ith ui 
 l th 
 
 Murray says of adverbs, — 
 " An adverb is a part of speech joined to a 
 verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another 
 adverb, to express some quality or circumstance 
 respecting it : as, ' He reads zvell; ' ' A truly good 
 man ; ' ' He writes very correctly.' 
 
 " Some adverbs are compared, thus, c Soon, 
 sooner, soonest ; ' ' often, oftener, oftenest.' Those 
 ending in ly, are compared by more, and most : as, 
 ' "Wisely, more wisely, most wisely/ 
 
 "Adverbs seem originally to have been con- 
 trived to express compendiously in one word 
 what must otherwise have required two or more : 
 as, ' He acted wisely,' for he acted with wisdom ; 
 
94 everybody's business. 
 
 ' prudently,' for, with prudence ; ' He did it here/ 
 for, he did it in this place ; c exceedingly,' for, to a 
 great degree ; ' often and seldom,' for many, and for 
 few times ; ' very/ for, in an eminent degree, &c. 
 
 " There are many words, in the English lan- 
 guage, that are sometimes used as adjectives, 
 and sometimes as adverbs : as, ' More men than 
 women were there ; ' or, ' I am more diligent than 
 he.' In the former sentence, more is evidently 
 an adjective, and in the latter, an adverb. There 
 are others, that are sometimes used as substan- 
 tives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, ( To-day's 
 lesson is longer than yesterday's ; ' here, to-day 
 and yesterday are substantives, because they are 
 words that make sense of themselves, and admit 
 besides of a genitive case: but in the phrase, 
 6 He came home yesterday, and sets out again 
 to-day/ they are adverbs of time ; because they 
 answer to the question when. The word much is 
 used as all three : as, ' Where much is given, 
 much is required ; ' ' Much money has been 
 expended ; ' * It is much better to go than to stay/ 
 In the first of these sentences, much is a substan- 
 tive ; in the second, it is an adjective ; and in the 
 third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the 
 sense can determine what they are. 
 
 " Adverbs, though very numerous, may be re- 
 duced to certain classes, the chief of which are 
 
everybody's business. 95 
 
 those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, 
 Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Nega- 
 tion, Interrogation, and Comparison. 
 
 "1. Of number : as, ( Once, twice, thrice,' &c. 
 
 " 2. Of order: as, ' First, secondly, thirdly, 
 fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally/ &c. 
 
 "3. Of place : as, ' Here, there, where, else- 
 where, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, 
 whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, for- 
 ward, backward, whence, hence, thence, whither- 
 soever,' &c. 
 
 " 4. Of time. 
 
 "Of time present : as, 'Now, to-day,' &c. 
 
 " Of time past : as, ' Already, before, lately, 
 yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long 
 ago/ &c. 
 
 " Of time to come : as, ' To-morrow, not yet, 
 hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, 
 instantly, presently, immediately, straightways/ 
 &c. 
 
 " Of time indefinite : as, ' Oft, often, oft-times, 
 often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, 
 weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then. 
 ever, never, again,' &c. 
 
 " 5. Of quantity : as, ' Much, little, sufficiently, 
 how much, how great, enough, abundantly/ &c. 
 
 " 6. Of manner or quality : as, ( Wisely, 
 foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly/ &c» 
 
96 
 
 Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; 
 and they are generally formed by adding the ter- 
 mination ly to an adjective or participle, or 
 changing le into ly : as, ' Bad, badly ; cheerful, 
 cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably.' 
 
 " 7. Of doubt : as, ' Perhaps, peradventure, 
 possibly, perchance.' 
 
 "8. Of affirmation: as, c Verily, truly, un- 
 doubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, 
 indeed, really,' &c. 
 
 "9. Of negation : as, c Nay, no, not, by no 
 means, not at all, in no wise,' &c. 
 
 " 10. Of interrogation: as, 6 How, why, where- 
 fore, whether,' &c. 
 
 "11. Of comparison: as, 'More, most, better, 
 best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, 
 alike/ &c. 
 
 " Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there 
 are many which are formed by a combination of 
 several of the prepositions with the adverbs of 
 place, here, there, and where : as, c Hereof, thereof, 
 whereof ; hereto, thereto, whereto ; hereby, there- 
 by, whereby ; herewith, therewith, wherewith ; 
 herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there- 
 for,) wherefore (i. e. where-for,) hereupon, or 
 hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or 
 whereon/ &c. Except therefore, these are seldom 
 used. 
 
everybody's business. 97 
 
 " In some instances the preposition suffers no 
 change, but becomes an adverb merely by its ap- 
 plication : as when we say, ' he rides about ; ' ' he 
 was near falling ;' € but do not after lay the blame 
 on me.' 
 
 " There are also some adverbs, which are com- 
 posed of nouns, and the letter a used instead of 
 at, on, &c. : as, ' Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, 
 asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat,' &c. 
 
 " The words when and where, and all others of 
 the same nature, such as, whence, whither, when- 
 ever, wherever, &c, may be properly called adver- 
 bial conjunctions, because they participate the 
 nature both of adverbs and conjunctions : of con- 
 junctions, as they conjoin sentences ; of adverbs, 
 as they denote the attributes either of time, or of 
 place. 
 
 " It may be particularly observed, with respect 
 to the word therefore, that it is an adverb, when, 
 without joining sentences, it only gives the sense 
 of, for that reason. "When it gives that sense, and 
 also connects, it is a conjunction : as, ' He is good, 
 therefore he is happy/ The same observation 
 may be extended to the words consequently, ac- 
 cordingly, and the like. When these are subjoined 
 to and, or joined to if, since, &c, they are adverbs, 
 the connexion being made without their help : 
 when they appear single, and unsupported by any 
 
 H 
 
98 everybody's business. 
 
 other connective, they may be called conjunc- 
 tions. 
 
 " The same word is occasionally used both as a 
 conjunction and as an adverb ; and sometimes, as 
 a preposition. ' I rest then upon this argument ;' 
 then is here a conjunction : in the following 
 phrase, it is an adverb; ' He arrived then, and not 
 before.' 6 1 submitted ; for it was vain to resist :' 
 in this sentence, for is a conjunction ; in the next, 
 it is a proposition : ' He contended for victory 
 only.' In the first of the following sentences, 
 since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a pre- 
 position ; and in the third, it is an adverb : 
 ■■ Since we must part, let us do it peaceably : ' ' I 
 have not seen him since that time : ' ' Our friend- 
 ship commenced long since. 9 
 
 " 4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly ap- 
 plied as adverbs: as, 'indifferent honest; excellent 
 well ; miserable poor ;' instead of ' Indifferently 
 honest ; excellently well ; miserably poor.' c He 
 behaved himself conformable to that great ex- 
 ample ;' c conformably.' Endeavour to live here- 
 after suitable to a person in thy station ;' 'suit- 
 ably.' ' I can never think so very mean of him ;' 
 ' meanly.' ' He describes this river agreeable to 
 the common reading :' ' agreeably. 9 ' Agreeable to 
 my promise I now write :' ' agreeably.' ' Thy 
 exceeding great reward:' When united to an 
 
everybody's business. 99 
 
 adjective, or adverb not ending in ly, the word 
 exceeding has ly added to it : as, ( exceedingly 
 dreadful, exceedingly great ;' ' exceedingly well, 
 exceedingly more active :' but when it is joined to 
 an adverb or adjective, having that termination, 
 the ly is omitted : as, ' Some men think exceed- 
 ing clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly :' ' She 
 appeared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely.' 
 c He acted in the business bolder than was ex- 
 pected :' ' They behaved the noblest, because they 
 were disinterested/ They should have been, 
 ' more boldly; most nobly.' — The adjective pronoun 
 such is often misapplied : as, ' He was such an ex- 
 travagant young man, that he spent his whole 
 patrimony in a few years :' it should be ' so ex- 
 travagant a young man' i I never before saw 
 such large trees : ' ' saw trees so large.' "When we 
 refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word 
 such is properly applied : as, ( Such a temper is 
 seldom found : ' but when degree is signified, we 
 use the word so : as, i So bad a temper is seldom 
 found/ 
 
 " Adverbs are likewise improperly used as ad- 
 jectives ; as * The tutor addressed him in terms 
 rather warm, but suitably to his offence ; * 
 1 suitable. 7 ' They were seen wandering about 
 solitarily and distressed ; ' ' solitary. 9 ' He lived 
 in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason 
 h 2 
 
100 everybody's business. 
 
 and religion; ' ' agreeable? c The study of syntax 
 should be previously to that of punctuation; 9 
 s previous? " 
 
 AGE OF THE VERB. 
 
 He must be a very old fellow ! Very slight is 
 the difference between his age and that of the 
 noun. We might regard them as husband and 
 wife, one being entirely dependent on the other. 
 They must have been created in a reversed order 
 from mankind ; as the woman, whom we respect, 
 as the noun, was brought first into being ; but, as 
 she was useless without a helpmate, and alone, 
 a verb was provided for her. The noun man, as 
 a word, we class feminine ; and she could neither 
 eat nor drink ; sit nor walk ; talk nor sleep ; and 
 was, as helpless ! as helpless, could be ! without her 
 masculine auxiliary and companion, the verb! 
 without whose assistance, and energy ; things 
 would come to an untimely end ; and chaos and 
 darkness reign supreme ! 
 
 We must bear in mind, that, this attribute of 
 personality, we attach to the noun and verb, is 
 only an adopted notion, for the temporary pur- 
 pose of illustration. In all other instances we re- 
 present these words by their own impersonal pro- 
 nouns. 
 
everybody's business. 101 
 
 If our memory serve us we must have some 
 idea of the offices of the verb, from what has 
 already been said concerning it, in these pages. 
 At page 5, we were informed, that, in a verb, 
 "consists, the principle of action." At page 51 
 it was intimated to us that *' verbs are repre- 
 sentatives of words which indicate, in their ex- 
 pression, that an action is involved/ 5 and at page 
 90 to 93 we entered freely into the subject in 
 connexion with prepositions. Murray simply, 
 but expressively informs us " A verb is a word 
 which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ; as ' I am, 
 I rule, I am ruled.' " It expresses an action and 
 necessarily implies an agent, which is the actor, 
 and an object, which is the subject acted 
 upon. 
 
 Most grammarians define the verb in three 
 divisions, each representing difference of action, 
 which they classify into " active, passive, and 
 neuter." The active verb they also term "tran- 
 sitive," because the motion is transferred, direct, 
 without the intervention of any other sign, to its 
 object. The neuter verb, they say, is intransi- 
 tive, " because the effect is confined within the 
 subject, and does not pass over to any object ; 
 as, " I sit, he lives, they sleep ; " but we 
 maintain that all verbs are active; their very 
 nature consists in energy. They act on their 
 
102 everybody's business. 
 
 objects. We have a delicate instrument to de- 
 note the measurement of time, but from some 
 cause, with which we are unacquainted, its action 
 has ceased ; w T e resort to a skilful mechanician, 
 and he applies a drop of oil to lubricate some of 
 the bearings which act as pivots of support to the 
 finely constructed wheels. The machine is im- 
 mediately all life and motion. We, not knowing 
 better, may attribute this action to the deglutin- 
 ating fluid, and may appear to discourse very 
 learnedly of the wonders of a drop of oil. Pre- 
 positions are drops of oil. Philologists seeing, 
 whenever a preposition is used a noun follows in 
 the objective case, they jump at the conclusion, 
 which they inform us of, that " Prepositions 
 govern the objective case," and, there is, all the 
 while, the quiet, unobtrusive, though powerful 
 and energetic verb ; lying, snugly hidden, like a 
 mainspring of a watch ; and because there may be 
 a train of words, between it and its object, it is 
 neglected and forgotten. 
 
 " The wind broke the Tree." 
 
 " David killed Goliath/' 
 
 In these sentences, " broke " and " killed " we 
 are informed are transitive verbs, because there is 
 immediate transition from the verb to its subject 
 the noun ; that is, the breaking fell upon the tree 
 and the killing was transmitted to or fell upon 
 
everybody's business. 103 
 
 Goliath, but, what they are pleased to call neuter 
 verbs are equally transitive and active. To be 
 sure, the action may revert to or on ourselves, but 
 that does not make it less active. " I sit, he 
 lives, they sleep," can be made nothing less of 
 than active verbs, but if the action is confined to 
 ourselves, we seek no extraneous aid, from any 
 particle or preposition ; if it proceed beyond our 
 immediate self, then we press into service the pre- 
 position merely as an assistant : the real — the 
 principal operator, being the verb. It may not 
 alwaj T s be expressed, and there may be a retinue 
 of words in transition to its object, but there it is, 
 and if we seek, we may be certain to find it. 
 
 " I sit " upon a stool. 
 
 The sitting is the active instrument, and assisted 
 by the preposition upon, causes stool to be in the 
 objective case. 
 
 " He lives " upon his wits. 
 
 This is precisely the same ; the living is the 
 active principle which assisted by the preposition 
 upon, places wits in the objective case. 
 
 " They sleep " in comfortable rooms. 
 
 Sleep is the cause of action on the word rooms ; 
 the particle or preposition "in," helping in the 
 action. " I sit myself down," " I live there 
 myself," " I slept myself, in that room ;" I hurt 
 myself." 
 
134 everybody's business. 
 
 Here we have quoted the very illustrations 
 which our old instructors have produced as neuter, 
 or intransitive verbs, and shown even as a direct 
 agent, these are active or transitive verbs ; but 
 we can produce even much stronger proofs to 
 convince us of their errors. " Hurt," they call a 
 transitive verb, because they perceive the direct 
 application from the actor to its object; as, " I 
 hurt him ; " and " run/' they describe as a " neuter 
 verb. How then can they reconcile their teach- 
 ings with this sentence, " He sent some horses to 
 Aldridge's, and to prevent their being sold under 
 their value, ' he run them up.' " Without pur- 
 suing this subject further, we think we have pro- 
 duced sufficient evidence to show that all verbs 
 are of active signification. 
 
 Verbs are of two numbers, the singular and the 
 plural. This means, the words differ to express 
 ideas conveying a notion of one to that of more 
 objects ; thus we say, " I am," or " he is," when 
 speaking of one person : but if we speak of more 
 than one, we say, we or they were. Person also 
 belongs to the verb, and ;this may be understood 
 by referring to what we have said at page 49, 
 about pronouns. The verb undergoes change in 
 its formation, to agree with the noun or pronoun, 
 
everybody's business. 105 
 
 as, " I write/' but " John writes," or " he writes." 5 
 We see John, or he, is the third person ; and the 
 word write becomes zvrites. 
 
 The scheme to represent the idea of number 
 and person, is usually set forth thus : — 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 First Person. I write. We write. 
 
 Second Person. You write. You write. 
 
 Third Person. He writes. They write. 
 
 The second person singular, formerly, was 
 represented as, " Thou writest ; " this form of 
 address is now considered inelegant, and disused, 
 though the Society of Friends still adhere to the 
 ancient form of expressing themselves. 
 
 " In the plural number of the verb, there is no 
 variation of ending to express the different per- 
 sons ; and the verb, in the three persons plural, 
 is the same as it is in the first person singular. 
 Yet this scanty provision of terminations is suffi- 
 cient for all the purposes of discourse, and no 
 ambiguity arises from it ; the verb being always 
 attended, either with the noun expressing the 
 subject acting or acted upon, or with the pronoun 
 representing it. For this reason, the plural 
 termination in en, they loven, they weren, formerly 
 in use, w r as laid aside as unnecessary, and has long 
 been obsolete." 
 
106 everybody's business. 
 
 Many, Many hundreds ! aye ! ! thousands of 
 tenses verbs must have, according to the notions 
 of some of our grammarians ! If every attribute 
 of time be indicative of a tense, they, the tenses, 
 must be more numerous than " sands on the sea- 
 shore!" To speak definitely, present tense or 
 time is evanescent, it vanishes from our grasp 
 immediately we are possessed of it, and all the 
 time we are speaking or writing, we are growing 
 old and older, by indivisible particles, indefinable 
 to human perception, as time itself, with regard 
 to futurity is unlimitable to human comprehen- 
 sion ; and yet grammarians have attempted an 
 elaborate division with respect to the verb ; but as 
 such a division was too much for their expansive 
 minds to embrace, they have only bequeathed us 
 some dozen tenses. As these appear to have 
 been collected with a vast amount of persevering 
 and indefatigable industry, the compilers, that 
 followed in the footsteps of one another, appeared 
 most unwilling to loosen a stone from a fabric 
 piled with so much ingenuity, apparent care, and 
 assiduity ; and we are furnished with a numerous 
 family of moods, and auxiliaries, to keep company 
 with the tenses ; whilst the poor adjective they 
 have entirely overlooked, and only attributed to 
 this neglected word, three different states or 
 stages of existence. They inform us, in referring 
 
107 
 
 to the properties of the verb, that time may be 
 more past than past, and more future than future; 
 but an object cannot be more large or larger than 
 the largest. Some of the tenses or times of verbs 
 they describe as — 
 
 Present tense, 
 
 Imperfect, 
 
 Perfect, 
 
 Pluperfect, 
 
 Prseterperfect, 
 
 Praeter imperfect, 
 
 Plusquam perfect, 
 
 Perfect future, 
 
 Aorist, 
 
 First future, 
 
 Second future, and several 
 others, if we are curious enough to seek for 
 them ; but the only comprehensible division of 
 time, for the purpose of expression in the English 
 language, is Present, Past, and Future, and 
 this arrangement will simplify our examination of 
 mood or mode. 
 
 The mode of a verb is, the manner or method 
 of conjugation, or variations of the verb, to 
 express time or manner of acting in conjunction 
 with the tense. 
 
108 everybody's business. 
 
 The infinitive mode is the radix of the verb, 
 from which the present, past, and future time 
 radiates ; it is accompanied by the word " To," 
 and if this word is not expressed, it is understood. 
 Verbs in the infinitive mode are represented thus, 
 " To be," " To sleep," " To sit," &c. 
 
 The indicative mode is used for the purpose of 
 affirming or denying, without any conditions de- 
 pendent on the circumstance ; as " I am," " He 
 sleeps," " They sit," &c. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 A participle is a form of verb which involves the 
 condition of an adjective as well as a verb. As, 
 " The horse has fallen." If the horse has fallen, 
 it must be a fallen horse. 
 
 (e The participle is distinguished from the ad- 
 jective, by the former's expressing the idea of 
 time, and the latter' s denoting only a quality. 
 The phrases, ' loving to give as well as to re- 
 ceive/ ' moving in haste/ ' heated with liquor/ 
 contain participles giving the idea of time ; but the 
 epithets contained in the expressions, c a loving 
 child/ ( a moving spectacle/ ' a heated imagina- 
 tion/ mark simply the qualities referred to, 
 
everybody's business. 109 
 
 without any regard to time ; and may properly be 
 called participial adjectives. 
 
 " Participles not only convey the notion of time, 
 but they also signify actions, and govern the cases 
 of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as 
 verbs do ; and therefore should be comprehended 
 in the general name of verbs. That they are 
 mere modes of the verb, is manifest, if our de- 
 finition of a verb be admitted ; for they signify 
 being, doing, or suffering, with the designation of 
 time superadded. 
 
 " The following phrases, even when considered 
 in themselves, show that participles include the 
 idea of time : ' The letter being written, or having 
 been written ; ' c Charles being writing, having 
 written, or having been writing.' But when 
 arranged in an entire sentence, which they must do 
 to make a complete sense, they show it still more 
 evidently ; as, 6 Charles having written the letter, 
 sealed and despatched it/ — The participle does 
 indeed associate with different tenses of the verb ; 
 as, 6 1 am writing/ ( I was writing/ c I shall be 
 writing;* but this forms no just objection to its 
 denoting time. If the time of it is often relative 
 time, this circumstance, far from disproving, 
 supports our position/* 
 
110 everybody's business. 
 
 auxiliary verbs. 
 
 Why any one word in particular should be pro- 
 claimed "Auxiliary" to the prejudice of other 
 words, is beyond our comprehension. Murray 
 says, " The English verb is mostly composed of 
 principal and auxiliary ; and that these several 
 parts constitute one verb," and, " The future 
 tense is composed of the auxiliary and the prin- 
 cipal verb," but then all words are auxiliary to one 
 another ; and, in most cases, by depriving any 
 sentence — say the one we are now composing — 
 of even a single word, we will immediately see 
 how one is dependent on another. Then if we 
 discard the notion of auxiliaries as being com- 
 ponents of modes and tenses it will materially 
 assist and simplify our definition of the arrange- 
 ments and duties of the verbs, in regard to time 
 and modes of action. 
 
 The representation of our scheme of conjuga- 
 tion will be 
 
 Infinitive Mode. 
 To Have. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1st Person, I have. 
 
 We have 
 
everybody's business. Ill 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 2d Person, You have (old style, 
 
 Thou hast), You have. 
 
 3d Person, He, she, or it has. They have. 
 
 i 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 1st Person, I had. We had. 
 
 2d Person, You had. You had. 
 
 3d Person, He, she, or it had. They had. 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, having. Past, had. 
 
 To represent future time, we employ a form of 
 expression, that enters to a considerable extent 
 into the composition of the English language ; 
 this is called "The ellipsis," and it signifies that 
 something is omitted or left out, which must be 
 supplied to render fulness to our discourse. 
 
 The future tense is simply the verb in the 
 infinitive mood, as, To have. 
 
 And when I say " I will have," this is an 
 elliptical mode or arrangement of words, and 
 nothing more nor less is designed than in the 
 phrase, " I will to have/' the word "to" being 
 understood. 
 
 Then, " will" must be regarded as a principal, 
 and would conjugate as such — as " I will " — 
 "will" — is a principal verb, present time, indi- 
 
112 everybody's business. 
 
 cative mode, and indicating resolve or determina- 
 tion, it agrees with the nominative I. " Have," 
 is a verb in the infinitive mode future time, the 
 sign " to " being understood. 
 
 What grammarians have designated the " Im- 
 perative mode," is precisely the same and indica- 
 tive of futurity, as "Let me have," which sig- 
 nifies " Let, or allow, me, to have," and all the 
 various modes may be resolved in the same 
 manner. The most important consideration is 
 not to use may when we mean will, or can, or 
 shall. Attend firstly to the proper significations 
 of words, and then use them properly in accord- 
 ance with the rules of grammatical construction. 
 
 What our schoolmasters have taught us to con- 
 sider as the subjunctive, will furnish us with a 
 very clear illustration to convince us that these 
 various modes all belong to the infinitive, and 
 imply future time. Sometimes we hear ladies 
 and gentlemen who know how to speak and write 
 correctly say, " If it rain," and at other times, 
 "If it rains." And at page 34 of this book, 
 occurs a paragraph, in this style, " Now, let us 
 see if our reasoning is correct, and if it bear the 
 test." 
 
 We are told that " if, though," &c, are signs 
 of the subjunctive mood, and when these particles 
 are used, their accompaniment is a verb in the 
 
everybody's business. 113 
 
 plural number, that is, we must say, " If our 
 reasoning be correct," or " If it rain." Now this 
 evidence is decisive in our favour. " If it rain," 
 and "If it rains," are both correct, but the 
 meaning of the two terms is very different, one 
 from the other. When we say, "If it rain I 
 shall not go," " rain " is in the infinitive mode, 
 and signifies future time ; but " If it rains I 
 shall not go," is the indicative mode, and refers 
 to present time. The meaning of the last phrase 
 is that you are uncertain about its raining, but if 
 it does rain, or " it rains," grant or give this, " I 
 shall not go." So in the words, "Let us see if 
 our reasoning is correct." "Is," is in the indica- 
 tive mode and present time. We know it is 
 correct, but w r e are going to subject it to trial, to 
 see if it bear the test. 
 
 What is called the " passive verb," or the 
 "passive form of the active verb," is evidently 
 nothing but a participle following the principal 
 verb. " To be loved," or " I am loved," &c, are 
 terms clearly significant of loved persons. 
 
 When the past time of verbs, and also the 
 participles end in " ed " they are called " regular 
 verbs," and this " ed " is according to the termi- 
 nation of a large number of verbs, as, to love, past 
 time, loved, or " He loved her." 
 To walk — walked. 
 
iii 
 
 EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 When the past time of verbs are not formed 
 by the addition of " ed," they are described 
 "irregular," as " to be/ past time, "was/' or 
 "I was." 
 
 Conjugation of the Irregular Verb 
 To be. 
 
 Infinitive Mode. 
 
 
 To be. 
 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1st Person, 1 am. 
 
 We are. 
 
 2d Person, You are. 
 
 You are. 
 
 3d Person, He, she, or it is. 
 
 They are. 
 
 Pad Tense. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1st Person, I was. 
 
 We were. 
 
 2d Person, You were. 
 
 You were. 
 
 3d* Person, They were. 
 
 They were, 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present, Being. 
 
 Past, Been. 
 
 Conjugation of the Regular Verb 
 To Lore. 
 
EVERYBODY S BUSINESS. 
 
 115 
 
 Infinitive Mode. 
 To Love. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1st Person, I love. We love. 
 
 2d Person, You love. You love. 
 
 3d Person, He, she, or it loves. They love. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1st Person, 1 loved. We loved. 
 
 2d Person, You loved. You loved. 
 
 3d Person, They loved. They loved. 
 
 Participles. 
 Present, Loving. Past, Loved. 
 
 The first word in these conjugations, it will be 
 observed, are pronouns, and in the nominative 
 case; thence the theorem, " A verb must agree 
 with its nominative case," and it would be incor- 
 rect to say, " They is," " You has," or " You 
 loves," because such combinations of words do 
 not agree with the rules. They do not accord 
 with the conjugations. 
 
 There is no need for a multiplicity of examples, 
 accompanied by a long list of irregular verbs. 
 
116 everybody's business. 
 
 To be thoroughly imbued with principles is of 
 infinite more service for arriving at correct con- 
 clusions, than an array of terms, useless, unless 
 borne in the memory. 
 
 " He could not read nor write, 
 He could not spell his name, 
 Towards being a clerk, Sir Eppo, his (f) mark, 
 Was as near as he ever came. 
 He had felt no vexation 
 From multiplication ; 
 Never puzzled was he 
 By the rule of three ; 
 The practice he'd had 
 Did not drive him mad, 
 Because it all lay 
 Quite a different way." 
 
 Christmas is here, and now we must have some 
 fun. 
 
 There is still enough jollity in Old England for 
 enjoyments at those anniversary festivities, which 
 all the world hails w r ith glad hearts. We must 
 have our dance and our song. " Dos't think, 
 because thou art virtuous there shall be no more 
 cakes and ale." Aye, and we will be joyful and 
 loud with merriment, before the Yule log crack- 
 ling and blazing whilst we sit, gladsome before 
 the glowing hearth. We will have our glass of 
 
everybody's business. 117 
 
 good cheer, and be jovial — warm within, and 
 warm without. And we will tell many a merry 
 tale, and see what entertainment our old friend 
 Dickens has provided for us — for, of course, he 
 makes his appearance among us ; and Christmas 
 and the New Year is certain to be ushered in wdth 
 a new tale well told. We can't all be beautiful, 
 that's certain ; but if we choose we may know 
 "Everybody's Business," and to store the mind 
 with knowledge, is more than compensation, for 
 bodily defects ; it renders us satisfied with our- 
 selves and agreeable to others, and is infinitely 
 more estimable and permanent, than personal 
 charms. Referring to Christmas and the New 
 Year reminds us of the good things that will be 
 said, as well as many unpardonable. We have 
 heard young ladies, with hair suggestive of boiled 
 beef — complexion like a slice of Cheshire cheese — 
 an aspiring nose — and a mouth certainly not on 
 lease, it being held from y' ear to ear, say, " Do 
 you think I get pretty." 
 
 Nothing evinces so much bad taste as such in- 
 judicious^^ de mots, which is direct evidence of 
 deficiency in grammatical education, but very 
 often the last member of a sentence imparts a 
 totally different feature to the whole subject. 
 
 lt The mice have been to my closet, and eaten 
 a portion of medicine, with some philosophy." 
 
118 everybody's business. 
 
 This paragraph appears nonsense, because the 
 sentence is incomplete, but the remaining clause 
 makes the whole comprehensible, as " The mice 
 have been to my closet, and eaten a portion of 
 medicine, with some philosophy, and spoilt my 
 Encyclopedia Britannica." 
 
 " Do you think I get pretty ? " 
 
 It certainly is very discordant for " I get " to 
 represent " Highgate," but we have heard this 
 arranged in such a manner as to impress us with 
 a very favourable opinion of the proposer of the 
 question. It was thus, "Do you think I get 
 pretty. Excuse the way I put the question. Of 
 course you perceive there is a defect about the 
 e High ; ' this arises from a cold from the high 
 winds ; and whenever I go to Hollo way I think 
 about it, ' I get ill.' " But this letter " H " has 
 always been a meddling, troublesome fellow, and 
 Dr. Lushington recently referred to some person 
 turning "H" into" L." 
 
 A pronoun should always relate to and agree 
 with its nearest noun. 
 
 " I'll throw an egg against a wall and it shall 
 neither break nor fall," or, 
 
 " Houses upon houses, churches upon churches, 
 I'll take of my shoes and jump over them." 
 
everybody's business. 119 
 
 In the first proposition "it" is a pronoun, 
 singular number, and can only relate properly to 
 its nearest noun, wall, with which it agrees. 
 
 In the second proposition them is a plural pro- 
 noun, relating to its nearest noun, and agreeing 
 with, and taking the place of shoes. 
 
 The wall shall not break nor fall : and Pll 
 jump over the shoes. 
 
 We often hear such phrases as, " He is gone 
 to Hastings for the benefit of the air." As if 
 the air derived any benefit by his going to 
 Hastings, also, 
 
 " There are some roses that donH smell." 
 
 " A chicken eats nice." 
 
 We never knew that any roses did smell. Nor 
 that a chicken eats any nicer than a mouse. We 
 have actually been asked " If we ever saw 
 oysters feeding time," meaning that people went 
 at luncheon time to Sweeting's, the fishmonger, 
 but this is not so bad as 
 
 " When I saw Maria fall overboard, why did 
 it remind me of indulgences at a confectioner's ? " 
 
 " Because Ices and Ice creams." 
 
 Now these can never be passable puns ; accord- 
 ing to our notions of grammatical propriety they 
 are execrable. We know that the verb does not 
 agree with the nominative pronoun. We cannot 
 say, " I sees and I screams." 
 
120 everybody's business. 
 
 Marks and Remarks used in Writing. 
 
 A comma is the smallest division of time : it 
 is noted thus, ",?. A semicolon is a pause, 
 longer in the next degree, formed thus, " ; ". A 
 colon is marked in this manner, " : ". It is some- 
 times at the completion of a sentence, when the 
 sense is carried on in the next sentence ; as " A 
 comma is the smallest division of time. It is marked 
 thus (,)." A period is the finish of a sentence, 
 thus " . " 3 and a capital letter must follow. This 
 "!" is a mark of exclamation; and this, "?" 
 interrogation. They are among the most expres- 
 sive signs in writing — the last especially signi- 
 ficant — as, " She certainly is very beautiful V 9 or, 
 te Two gentlemen ? were fined forty shillings each 
 — at Marlborough Police Court — for creating a 
 disturbance. In their pockets were found several 
 knockers and bell-handles." In these descriptive 
 phrases, the mark of interrogation conveys an im- 
 pression that the beauty of the lady is doubtful, 
 and questions the title of those who were fined to 
 the appellation of gentlemen. 
 
 The dash " — " conveys an idea that something 
 is inferred beyond what is expressed ; sometimes, 
 when the sense would be complete if part of the 
 sentence were omitted, the dash is used. As 
 
everybody's business. 121 
 
 " Two gentlemen were fined — forty shillings each 
 — at Marlborough Police Court." It is a matter 
 of taste to use commas after the words " fined w 
 and " each," or the dash. Some persons use the 
 parenthesis " ( ) " in such cases, but it is very 
 seldom used by w r riters of taste. 
 
 " There are other characters, which are fre- 
 quently made use of in composition, and which 
 may be explained in this place, viz. : — 
 
 " An apostrophe, marked thus ', is used to 
 abbreviate or shorten a word ; as, His for it is ; 
 tho } for though ; e'en for even ; judg'd for judged. 
 It's chief use is to show the genitive case 
 of nouns; as, 'A man's property, a woman's 
 ornament.' 
 
 " A caret, marked A , is placed where some 
 word happens to be left out in writing, which is 
 inserted over the line. This mark is also called 
 a circumflex, when placed over a particular vowel, 
 to denote a long syllable ; as, ' Euphrates.' 
 
 " A hyphen, marked thus -, is employed in 
 connecting compound words ; as, ? Lap-dog, tea- 
 pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother- 
 in-law.' 
 
 " It is also used when a word is divided, and 
 the former part is written or printed at the end 
 of one line, and the latter part at the beginning 
 of another. In this case it is placed at the end 
 
 K 
 
122 everybody's business. 
 
 of the first line, not at the beginning of the 
 second." 
 
 We have now finished our historical account of 
 all that is necessary to be known of the words in 
 the English language, to enable us to arrange 
 them — to speak and write correctly. We com- 
 menced in the capacity of tutor, but with the 
 design of advancing our pupils in knowledge 
 suificient to be capable of critically examining all 
 the points we have urged. 
 
 There are many things herein advanced in 
 opposition to generally received notions of gram- 
 matical science, which have been honoured by the 
 sanction of time, and confirmed by authority of 
 the highest order. We might have extended 
 our views, and pursued the subject much further, 
 but this would have interfered with our object 
 in a commercial point of view. The price would 
 have been enhanced, which would have impeded 
 progress, by decreasing circulation. 
 
 C. A. Macintosh, Printer, Great New-street, London. 
 

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