OF THE llNITED BY ^LJXANDERJOHNSTOir » *— n •m Class __i^_Q.^^ Book '' C^pi^ht W „ J 7 3 ^ COHYRICIIT DEPOSIT. A SHORTER HISTORY THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS WITH AI^ INTRODUCTORY BISTORT OF THE DISCOVERY AND ENGLISH COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Wlitfi Plaps, ^lans, nnti Befcrrnce© to Supplementats HeaDtns ALEXANDER JOHNSTON PROFESSOR IN PRINCETON COLLEGE NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1890 t.^lS Copyright, 18y0, BY HENRY HOLT & CO. Robert Drummoks, Electrotyper and Printer, New York. PUBLISHEKS' NOTE. It should be known that with the exception of a few trifling verbal modifications not affecting two pages in all, the lamented author left the text of this work, after two careful revisions, just as it is presented. A word regarding the chief characteristics of the book, can be said with confidence justified by frequent discussion with the author, and may occupy, but not fill, the place of the preface he expected to wi'ite. Although the work was intentionally adapted for use in schools for which the author's larger history might be con- sidered too elaborate, it was not made briefer by mere omission, and especially, not by the omission of matter of great importance. It is not an abridgment of the earlier work, but rather a rewriting, Chapter X of the smaller book being the only portion not written entirely anew. The present work departs from its prototype in many respects; the chief of which are: I. Advantage is taken of the pupil's natural interest in per- sons, to associate events with the leaders most prominent in them, and, so far as possible, to give to an idea a human representative. It is believed that the emphasis thus placed upon the personal element in national life will quicken atten- tion and tigliten the grip of memory. II. The number of topics is considerably decreased, and many of those retained receive fuller treatment, in the belief that a text-book is made hard, not by much detail about a few things, but by a little about many different things. IV PUBLISHERS' NOTE. III. The dates to be learned are reduced to a minimum, the narrative being kept clear by insistence upon historical connection in such a way that the pupil cannot escape the impression of cause and effect. IV. Each chapter is supplemented with volnme-and-page references to pertinent poetry and fiction, as well as to stand- ard histories. These references are partly for the pupil and partly for the teacher, who, it is believed, will find ample material in them not only for the verification and expansion of the narrative, but also, if he wishes, for its imaginative embellishment. V. Special pains have been taken with the maps. A new series has been expressly prepared, and it is hoped that no statement in the text where such ilhistration would be useful, will be found without it. All the important features peculiar to the first history have been preserved. Some of the more noteworthy of these are : I. Smaller relative space (one quarter of the whole, as against the one half or more usual in other books) is given to colonial times, in order to make room for later events more practically important to the future voter. II. Most of the stories which usually appear in school histories are left to earlier or supplementary work, where they belong. III. "Events which seem likely to shed light on the re- sponsibilities of the citizen to the present and the future " are grouped, and " the light given in connection with the event." IV. An original and extremely useful system of cross- references, paragraphing, and topical study is followed. To most contemporary readers of this, it is probably superfluous to say that it was the author's effort to present topics with fairness and conciseness, but to omit no detail essential to a proper understanding of the facts and of the in- ferences to be drawn from them; and that he adapted his method of treatment and language to those qualities of mind with which he had become familiar by ten years of devotion to school work. PUBLISHERS' NOTE. V The publishers feel justified in calling attention to one class of testimonials to the author's former work, which is be- coming prominent; namely, the imitations — not only in selec- tion and arrangement of topics, but in subjects and in style of maps, and even in the typographical characteristics which he gave such valuable aid in determining. For seeing this book through the press and the prepara- tion of the maps, acknowledgment is due to Mr. George P. Butler of the Lawrenceville School, New Jersey. New York, November 8, 1890. SUMMARY OF REFERENCES. [The names given in italics in this list are the abbreviated titles which are used in the Supplementary Reading throughout the book. The titles following them are the ordinary library titles of the respect- ive book. Thus, if the reference in the Supplementary Reading is "A. H. Stephens, ii. 79," this list will show that the librarian must be asked for "A Constitutional View of the War between the Slates ; by A. H. Stephens." In addition to the list here given of books fre- quently cited, some 300 other works are referred to in various portions of the Supplementary Reading, but not more than once or twice for each. In such cases, the titles have not been abbreviated, except that the words "Life of" or "History of" are usually omitted: thus " Sparks's Penn" means Sparks's Life of Penn ; and " Greene's Rhode Island " means Greene's History of Bhode Island.] Adams : Railroads, Their Origin and Problems ; by C. F. Adams, Jr. J. Adams : The Works of John Adams. Andrews : The South since the War ; by Sidney Andrews. Appletoii : Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia. Atlantic: The Atlantic Monthly. Bancroft : History of the United States ; by George Bancroft (10 vols.). Benton : Thirty Years' View ; by Thos. H. Benton. Bishop : History of American Manufactures ; by J. L. Bishop. Botts : The Great Rebellion ; by John Minor Botts. Bryant and Oay : History of the United States ; by W. C. Bryant and Sidney H. Gay. Buchanan: Mr. Buchanan's Administration ; by James Buchanan. Calhoun : The Works of John C. Calhoun. Campaigns : Scribner's Campaigns of the Civil War. Carey : The Olive Branch ; by M. Carey. Carrington : Battles of the Revolution ; by H. B. Carrington. Cent. Mag. : The Century Magazine. Chalmers : Revolt of the American Colonies ; by George Chalmers. Chamberlain: Governor Chamberlain's Administration in South Caro- lina ; by Walter Allen. Cooper : Naval History of the United States; by J. F. Cooper. Creasy : Decisive Battles ; by Sir E. Creasy. Curtis : History of the Constitution ; by G T. Curtis. Davis : Rise and Fall of the Confederate States ; by Jefferson Davis. Vm SUMMARY OF REFERENCES. Dawson: Battles of the United States ; bj' H. B. Dawson. Dodye: A Bird's Eye View of the Civil War ; by T. A. Dodge, U. S. A Doyle: The English Colonics in America ; by J. A. Doyle. Drake: The Making of New England ; by S. A. Drake. Draper : The Civil War in America ; by John W. Draper. Dwighi : Tlie Hartford Convention ; by Theodore Dwight. Eighty Tears : Eighty Years' Progress of the United States (1867). Electoral Count: Proceedings of Congress and the Electoral Commis- sion (1877). Eneyc. Brit. : Encyclopaedia Britannica. Everett: Orations of Edward Everett. Franklin : The Works of Benjamin Franklin (1840). Frothingham : The Rise of the Republic ; by Richard Frothingham. Oillet: Democracy in the United States ; by R. H. Gillet. Gibson: A Political Crime; by A. M. Gibson. Oilman : History of the American People ; b}^ Arthur Oilman. Grant : Personal Memoirs of Gen. U. S. Grant. Greeley : The American Conflict ; by Horace Greeley. Green's Larger Hist. : A Larger History of the English People ; by John Richard Green. Greene : Historical View of the American Revolution ; by G. W. Greene. Hadley : Railroad Transportation ; by Arthur T. Hadley. Harper's Mag. : Harper's Magazine. Higginson : Larger History of the United States ; by T. W. Higginsou. Hildreth : History of the United States ; by Richard Ilildreth. Hudson: Journalism in America ; by Frederick Hudson. Jefferson : Tlie Writings of Thomas Jefferson (4 vols.). Johnson: Johnson's Cyclopaedia. Johnston : History of American Politics ; by Alexander Johnston. J. E. Johnston : Narrative of Military Operations ; by Gen. J. E. John- ston. TMmh : History of the City of New York ; by M. J. Lamb. Lauglilin: Elements of Political Economy ; by J. L. Laughlin. Lippincott : Lippincott's Magazine. Livermore : The War with Mexico Reviewed ; by A. A. Livermore. Jjodge: Short History of the English Colonies in America; by H. C. Lodge. Lossing's Rev. : Field-Book of the Revolution ; by B. J. Lossing. Txist Cause : The Lost Cause ; by E. A. Pollard. layman : Diplomacy of tiie United States ; by T. Lyman. McClellan: McClellan's Own Story; by Gen. G. B McClellan. McMaster : History of the People of the United States ; by J. B. Mc- Master. 8UMMABY OF REFERENCES. IX McPherson : Political History of the Rebellion ; by Edward McPber- son. McPherson's Rec. : History of the Reconstruction ; by Edward McPher- son. Mansfield: History of the Mexican War; by E. D. Mansfield. Moore's Diary : Diary of the Revolution ; by Frank Moore. N. A. Rev : North American Review. Niles : Principles and Acts of the Revolution ; by H. Niles. Palfrey : History of New England ; by J. G. Palfrey. Parker : Historic Americans ; by Theodore Parker. Perry: Political Economy; by A. L. Perry. Pitkin : History of the United Slates ; by T. Pitkin. Preston : Documents Illustrative of American History ; by H. W. Preston. Randall : Life of Thomas Jefferson ; by H. S. Randall. Reader's Handbook : Handbook of the American Revolution ; by J. Winsor. Record: Rebellion Record ; by Frank Moore. RicJiardson : History of American Literature ; by C. F. Richardson. Ridpath : A Popular History of tbe United States ; by J. C. Ridpath. Roberts : History of New York ; by E. S. Roberts. Roosevelt : Naval History of the War of 1812 ; by Theodore Roosevelt. Schouler: History of the United States ; by James Schouler. Scott: Autobiography of Gen. Win field Scott. Sherman : Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sberman. Spencer : History of the United States ; by J. A. Spencer. Spofford: Spofford's American Almanac. A. H. Stephens : Constitutional View of the War between the States ; by A. H. Stephens. Sumner : The Works of Charles Sumner. Swinton : Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac ; by W. Swinton. Taussig : History of the Present Tariff ; by F. W. Taussig. Trescot : Diplomacy of the Revolution ; by W. H. Trescot. Trib. Aim. : Tribune Almanac. Tucker : History of the United States ; by George Tucker. Von Hoist : Constitutional History of the United States (translation) ; by H. von Hoist. Watson : Annals of Philadelphia ; by J. F. Watson. Webster : The Works of Daniel Webster. Williams : History of the Negro Race ; by G. W. Williams. Wilson : Rise and Fall of the Slave Power ; by Henry Wilson. Winsor : Narrative and Critical History of the United States : by J Winsor. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. PAGE Period I. — Discovery. .... = , » 1 Period II. — Colonization ,c » 7 Period III. — English Colonization to 1748. . ..,,.» . ......:.... 13 Massachusetts Bay Colony » , » ........ 17 New Hampshire , .- , 33 Connecticut = . . . . „ .. = .o ,.,.,,.... . 22 Rhode Island ■....., ,...»....,.,,. 24 Vermont « = , ........ o . o.. . 26 New England in general. .,. ........ o , = 26 Virginia , . ., . , . . . . . . . « ...<..>.,...., 30 Maryland.,.. .., .. 34 North Carolina. ...... .o. o ».=. . 36 South Carolina. . o o = = .......,. <= 38 Georgia. ..... 39 The Southern Colonies in general. , , . . , 39 New York.. ..,,.., 42 New Jersey 46 Pennsylvania , , . . , 47 Delaware . . 49 The Colonies in general 49 Period IV.— Colonial History, 1750-63 56 French Settlement. 56 French and Indian War. , 60 Results of the War 63 Period V. — Colonial Resistance, 1763-75 65 Taxation without Representation 65 Lexington and Concord. 69 xi Xll CONTENTS. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Chapter I.— The Revolution: 1775-81. PAGE The Rise of the Republic 73 Events iu New Euglaud 76 Events iu Canada 77 Events in England and on the Coast 78 Independence .' 79 Events iu the Middle States, 1776-8 80 Buigoyue's Expedition, 1777 85 Aid'from Fiance, 1778 87 Events in the North after 1778 89 Events on the Sea 92 Events in the South, 1778-81 93 Yorktown, 1781.... 98 Peace. 1783 99 Chapter II.— The Confederation : 1781-9. Failure of the Confederation 104 The Ordinance of 1787 105 Formation of the Constitution 107 Chapter III. — The Establishment op National Government : 1789-1801. State of the Country, 1789 , 110 Washingtou's Administrations, 1789-1797 112 John Adams's Administration, 1797-1801 119 Chapter IV.— The Nation recognized Abroad and at Home : 1801-1829. Jefiferson's Administrations, 1801-9 125 Madison's Administrations, 1809-17 131 Monroe's Administrations, 1817-25. 142 John Quincy Adams's Administration, 1825-9 149 Cn/jTvaii v.— The Introduction of Railroads: 1829-49. Jackson's Administrations, 1829-37 153 Van Bureii's Administration, 1837-41 164 Harrison's and Tyler's Admfinistratious, 1841-5 168 Polk's Administration, 1845-9 172 Chapter VI.— Sectional Division: 1849-61. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849-53 183 Pierce's Administration, 1853-7 186 Buchanan's Administration, lb57-61 191 CONTENTS. Xlll Chapter VII.— The Civil War : 1861-5. PAGE Lincoln's Administration, 1861-5 201 Eveutsof 1863 208 In the West 208 On the Coast 212 In the East 214 Events of 1863 220 In the East 220 In the West 222 Internal Affairs 226 Events of 1864 228 In the East 229 In the West 231 On the Coast 234 On the Sea 236 Internal Affairs 23? Events of 1865 238 Conclusion of the War 238 Military Summary of the War 241 Death of President Lincoln 244 Chapter VIII. — Reconstruction : 1865-77. Johnson's Administration, 1865-9 248 Grant's Administrations, 1869-77 253 Chapter IX.— Recent Development : 1877-88. Hayes's Administration, 1877-81 261 Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations, 1881-5 264 Cleveland's Administration, 1885-9 268 Chapter X. — Past, Present, and Future. General Summary 273 State of the Country 274 Causes of Growth 279 The Future 282 Chapter XI.— The Constitution of the United States. 284 Appendix I. — The Declaration of Independence 295 Appendix II. — The Constitution of the United States 299 Appendix III.— Formation of States 313 Appendix IV. — Growth of the States 314 Appendix V. — Growth of the Cities 316 Appendix VI.— Washington's Farewell Address (Extracts) . . 317 Pronouncing Index 319 NOTE ON THE MAPS. In the historical maps, the colors show the political divisions at the time the map refers to ; but to aid in iinpressiug these on the memory, other political divisions, and prominent facts that may not strictly belong to the time, are sometimes indicated in black. xiv MAPS. See note on opposite page. COLORED. FACING PAGE The United States in 1890. . . . Frontispiece. European Provinces, 1655, . . . . . .13 British Cessions to 1733, . . . . .49 The United States at the Peace of 1783, . . .99 The United States, showing Acquisition of Territory, . 126 The United States in 1830, . . . . .156 The Areas op Secession, ..... 198 UNOOLORED. COLUATBUS'S VoYAUE, . De Soto's Expedition, Atlantic Discoveries, Atlantic Settlements, Massachusetts Bay Colony. Connecticut Colony, Rhode Island Colony, Early French Wars, Virginia Colony, Maryland, Carolina, The Middle Colonies, French Forts, PAGE 3 5 6 8 19 23 25 28 S2 34 36 43 58 XVI MAPS. The French War, .... Lexington and Concord, Around Boston, .... The Campaign in the Middle States, . Capture and Evacuation of Philadelphia, Burgoyne's Expedition, The Revolution in the Southern States, Surrender at Yorktown, . Movements of British Troops by Land and Sea, Barbary States, .... War of 1812; Lake Region, Niagara Frontier, .... Attack on Washington, Expedition against New Orleans, War with Mexico, .... Fort Sumter and Charleston Harbor, Washington and Vicinity, . Mill Spring to Shiloh, Bragg's Raid, .... Hampton Roads, .... The Lower Mississippi, Peninsular Campaign, Seven Days' Battle, First Invasion of the North, Second Invasion of the North, . The Vicksburgh Campaign, Murfreesboro to Chattanooga, . The Wilderness Battles, . From Chattanooga to Atlanta, . Sherman's March to Savannah, . On the Coast, .... Sherman's March Northward, Petersburgh and Appomattox, . PAQB , 59 . 70 , 76 81 , 84 , 86 94 99 , 100 126 133 134 135 138 177 202 205 209 210 212 213 , 215 , 217 218 . 221 223 , 224 , 229 . 231 . 233 . 235 . 239 . 240 INTRODUCTORY. DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION. PERIOD L— DISCOVERY. (1492-1583.) 1. The White Race. — It is not often realized by young people that of the many thousand years in which the white race has led the world, it has known America only three hundred years and has really been active on American soil only about two hundred. To the labors of the white race are mainly due the development of religion, science, art, law, and politics, the use of steam, air, electricity, and other natural forces in machinery, the stopping of the old brutal customs of war, of the torture of prisoners, and of the imprisonment of persons who cannot pay their debts; and while that race has been at work in these matters for many thousands of years, probably the most important of these developments have been accomplished during the two hundred years in which the race has added America to its field of labor, and a startling portion of them, relatively considered, has been accomplished on American soil. 2. The Discovery of America. — One of the greatest events in the history of the white race, and of the world, was the discovery of America. It opened a vast new continent, far larger than Europe, where the white race could increase in numbers and power. The colonization of this continent — that is, its settlement by parties of whites — has stirred up other men of that race to settle other parts of the world, until this race has already become the leading race of the earth, and will soon be the most numerous. So many of the great events which have since happened may be traced back to the dis- covery of America, that men have come to consider this the greatest event of modern times (§ 695). 2 DISCOVERT. 3. The Nations of Europe. — At the time of the discovery of America, the white race of Europe was, as now, divided into different nations; but these nations liad not very much to do with one another, except in the wars which broke out among them from time to time. Men lived and died within a few miles of their native villages, because generally it was not safe to go much farther away. Printing had lately been invented; but books were still scarce and dear, and most men did not care much about foreign countries, even when described in books. The nations along the Atlantic coast, England, Hol- land, France, Spain, and Portugal, had ships, though they were small ones, and did most of what little commerce was done. Just about this time they had begun to use the mar- iner's compass and other instruments of navigation, which enabled them to make longer voyages, out of sight of land; and they had begun to use gunpowder, which gave them a great advantage over the bows and arrows of savages. 4. Columbus. — It is not true that all men before Columbus believed that the earth was flat. Most men thought and cared little whether the earth was round or flat; but there were books, even tlien, which gave the reasons for the belief that the earth was round.* Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa in Italy, and a sailor, was the first to try to prove that the earth was round, by sailing westward from Europe. Portuguese sailors had already explored the west coast of Africa, had reached the Cape of Good Hope (1480), and had thus found a way to the profitable trade with the East Indies. It should not be forgotten that this trade was of very great importance, and that it was in the hope of finding a still shorter way to them that Columbus started to sail directly west- ward around the world. Wealth was far less abundant then than now; Columbus hud not the money to fit out the neces- sary ships himself; and the kings and queens to whom for many weary years he applied for help were too busy with other things to attend to him. Finally, Ferdinand and Isa- * It is believed by many that the "Northmen" (the people of Norway) dis- covered America by way of Iceland and Greenland, five hundred years before Co- lumbus. DISCOVERT. 3 bella, King and Queen of Spain, furnished him with three small ships, and he sailed out from Palos [^i)ah'-los\ in Spain, to change the history of the world. 5. Columbus's First Voyage. — The three ships went first to the Canary Isles, and thence due west, on a track which no ship liad evei sailed before. The ignorant sailors grew fright- ened. When Columbus taught them that the earth was round, they became still more terrified 500 1000 2000 Columbus's Voyage. at the thought that they were really sailing down hill and could never get back again. By one means and another he induced them to go forward, until after more than two months' sailing, they saw land, Oct. 12, 1492. It was one of the Bahama Islands, to which Columbus gave the name of San Salvador, Sailing slowly south and southeast, he ex- plored some of the islands of the West Indies; then his little fleet spread its sails and returned to Europe, bearing natives and new plants as proofs that a new world had been dis- covered. 6. America. — Columbus thought the earth to be about one third as large as we know it to be. He had no thought of a new world, but lived and died in the belief that he had reached the rich kingdoms of the East Indies. For this reason, he made no effort to have the new continent named after himself; tlie natives were called Indians*; and the islands * Another race, the "mound-builders," had inhabited the country before the Indians : they left certain curious mounds in the Mississippi Valley, and no other 4 DISCOVERT. which he found on his first voyage are still known as the West Indies. He never landed on the Xorth American con- tinent, though he visited the mainland of South America on his third voyage.* The whole continent was called America, from Amerigo Vespucci \yes-poot'-che\ (in Latin, Americiis Vespiicins), a mercliant and traveller of Florence, who was the first to describe it as a separate continent. 7. Spanish America. — Columbus's discovery caused a great excitement in Europe, as the printing-press scattered the news of it. Spanish vessels, with soldiers and sailors, began at once to sail westward across the Atlantic, making wonder- ful conquests in Mexico and Peru. All South America and the southern part of North America was soon Spanish. Ponce de Leon discovered the coast of what is now eastern Florida, giving it this name because he had discovered it on Easter Sun- day, called in Spanish Pascua Florida. Spanish discoveries went as far north as the coast of what is now South Carolina, but were mostly confined to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico.f Some of the Spanish governors of Mexico sent expeditions northward into what is now New Mexico and California, but these accomplished little. The Pacific coast of North America was explored by Drake, an English sailor; but this part of the continent had very few inhabitants while it was a part of Spanish America and until it became a part of the United States (§451). 8. De Soto's Expedition. — De Soto, the Spanish governor of Cuba, landed in Florida (1539) with 900 men, seeking to record of their existence. The remnants of the Indian tribes are now mostly beyond theMi?sissippi River, cared for by the Government. The strongest of their tribes were the Five Nations (afterwards the Six Nations; see § 97), in central New York, and the southern fribes, the Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and others. * Columbus made four voyages in all. He was ungratefully treated by the king to whom he " had given a new world," but who feared lest Columbus should make himself king of it. On one occasion he was even sent home in chains by one of Ferdinand's officials. + Florida remained Spanish for a long time. The United States purchased it in 1819 (§ 3.")5), and the old Spanish town of Saint Augustine (founded in 15t)5) became the oldest tow-n in the United States, the Spanish town of Santa F6 in New Mexico (founded in 1582) being the next oldest. DI8G0VEB7. find and conquer some rich Indian kingdom. After marching for three years through the present States of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas, and finding only savages in a wilderness, he died, 60 100 200 300 400 Dk Soto's Expedition. worn out by toil and exposure. His men succeeded in reach- ing Mexico. An im- portant result of the expedition was the discovery of the noble river, Missis- sippi, which De Soto crossed near the southern boundary of Tennessee. His death took place on the banks of the great river, and he was buried in its waters. The upper part of the river, however, remained unknown until it was dis- covered by French explorers from Canada (§ 133). 9. The Portuguese Bargain.- — Portuguese sailors had already made discoveries on the coast of Africa and in the East Indies (§ 4). Spain and Portugal agreed (1493) that Spain was not to interfere with Portugal in these discoveries, and that Portugal was not to interfere with Spain in America. Portugal therefore took hardly any part in American dis- covery. Holland was then subject to Spain, and attempted no settlements until it had become an independent country (§31). 10. British America.* — The most important events to the future people of the United States, next to Columbus's dis- covery, were the voyages of the Cabots, for they gave England a claim to the central part of North America. John Cabot, a merchant of Venice, Italy, then living in Bristol, England, * This name is now confined to that part of North America which was left to Great Britain when the United States became an independent nation (§ 236). 6 DISCOVERY. and his son, Sebastian Cabot fitted out a ship, the Matth and discovered Nortli Amei at Cape Breton Island, June 1497. They called it Pri Vista ("first sight")- The next year, Sebastian Cabot explored the whole Atlantic coast from Cape Breton to Albe- marle Sound, and claimed it for Eng- land. No attempt was made to settle the country for many years, but English sailors continued to fol- low the path of the Cabots across the 100 200 400 600 Atlantic Discoveries. northern Atlantic, in order to share in the Newfoundland fisher- ies. 11. French America. — French discoveries, like those of Spain, had very little to do future his- the United The New- foundland fisheries at- ti-actod French sailors also across the Atlan- and one of them discovered t h c Gulf of St. I.aw- rence. Car tier [kar'-fe-d] dis- covered the great river St. Law- rence (1534); and this drew the French off in that BAELT SETTLEMENT. 7 direction, so that whatever discoveries they made afterwards were made in Canada (§ 131). 12. Chronological Summary. — The discoveries of Spain, England, and France have been given separately. They may be collected, as follows: (Sp., Spanish; E., English; F., French.) 1492— Columbus (Sp.): West Indies §5 1497— The Cabots (E.): Cape Breton Island 10 1498 — Sebastian Cabot (E.): Cape Breton Island to Albemarle Sound. 10 1513— Pouce de Leon (Sp.): Florida 7 1534— Cartier (F.): lliver St. Lawrence 11 1539-1541— De Soto (Sp.): Mississippi River and Southern States 8 1565— Founding of St. Augustine (Sp.) 7 1579— Dralie (E.): Pacitic Coast 7 1582— Founding of Santa Fe (Sp.) 7 [Supplementary Reading.— Details as to the early voyages will be found in Irviug's Life of Columbus; Prescott's Ferdinand and Lsabella, Conquest of Mexico, and Conquest of Peru; Hildreth. i. ; Helps's Spanish Conquest in America, i. ; Bancroft, i. ; Bryant and Gay, i.; Boyle, i. As to still earlier voyages of the Northmen, see Anderson's Amer- ica Not Bucovered by Columbus. Novels: Reade's Cloister and the Hearth (for the social condition of Europe); Cooper's Mercedes of Castile; Simms's Vasconselos (for De Soto).] PERIOB IL —COLONIZA TION. French, English, Dutch, and Swedish Claims. (1540—1638.) 13. French Failures. — The French had most to do with what is now Canada. Cartier (§ 11) made a settlement at Quebec (1540), but gave it up after the second winter. French vessels still sailed up the St. Lawrence River from time to time, but for sixty years there was no further attempt to make a settlement here. It seemed, at one time, that the French would turn to the southern Atlantic coast. Tiiey made a settlement at Port Royal (1562), but it was starved out, and the colonists went home. Another French settlement was made near St. Augustine (1564), but the Spaniards attacked and destroyed it. Another French expedition took full re- jenge on the Spaniards, but there was no further attempt to continue the French settlement. 8 EARLY SETTLEMENT. 14. Canada. — It was not iintil more than a hundred years after Columbus's discoveiy tliat two Frenchmen, De Monts and Chaniplain, made successful settlements in America. De Monts settled iu Acadia, the French name for Nova Scotia (l(i05), and Champlain at Quebec, three years afterward. Other Frenchmen soon settled along the St. Lawrence Kiver. and took possession of what is now the Dominion of Canada. : remained a French possession until 1763 40), and the descend- 3f the original settlers often called French Failures. — For nearly a century after Columbus's discovery, the English did little in support of the claims which the Cabots had made for them, except that an English captain, Martin Frobisher, searching for gold, made an unsuccess- ful attempt to found a settlement in the cold and barren region called Labrador. After a time, England and Spain drifted into war; and while Elizabeth was Queen of Eng- land, English sailors like Drake (§ 7) Avere fighting the EARL Y SETTLEMENT. 9 Spaniards on every sea. Most of these were little better than pirates. One brave and pious gentleman, Sir Humphrey Gil- bert, saw that the American fisheries had more real value than any war could have ; and he undertook to make a settlement in Newfoundland. His first attempt (1578) was a failure; but he made another attempt, with five ships, five years afterward. His men were ungovernable, and he was com- pelled to return, taking for himself the smallest and weakest vessel of the five. A violent storm arose ; Gilbert was be- sought to go on board of a larger vessel; but he refused to desert his men, saying manfully, "' We are as near heaven by sea as by land." So they left the Admiral, sitting at the stern of his vessel, " reading a book." During the night, the watchers on the other ships suddenly saw the lights of his vessel go out, and Sir Humphrey Gilbert disappeared from history. 16. Raleigh. — Brave men were plenty in England, and Gilbert's half-brother. Sir Walter Ealeigh, next took up the work. Wonderful stories are told of Raleigh, of his wit, his learning, his never-failing courtesy, which, made friends for him everywhere; of the liking which Elizabeth had for him; of the dislike which her successor, King James I., felt for him; of the manliness which he showed through thirteen years of causeless imprisonment, and at his final execution. The common story is that he introduced into England, from the American Indians, the practice of smoking tobacco ; and that one of his servants, seeing him smoking and think- ing him on fire, threw a pitcher of beer on him to put out the fire; but it is quite certain that tobacco was used in England before Ealeigh's time. He has, however, a better claim to our remembrance. He was the father of English colonization in America. He never landed in North America ; but he made every effort to make settlements there ; he talked and wrote of the importance of such settlements ; and he was the man who did most to set Englishmen thinking of it, and to pre- pare the way for final colonization.* * In spite of Raleigh's failures, his colony of Virginia was a success (§ 67), before the year of his execution (1618). 10 EARLY SETTLEMENT. 17. Raleigh's Colonies. — The colonies which Ealeigh sent out landed on the coast of the present State of North Carolina.* Two of his vessels found a place for a colony on Eoanoke Island (1584). Raleigh named the whole coast Virginia, in honor of Queen Elizabeth, who was unmarried and was fond of being called the " Virgin Queen," and the name is still given to a part of it, the present State of Virginia. A colon}- Avas sent out the next year, but careful preparation had not been made, and the colony was starved out in a year. Another colony was sent out under White (1587). It began well. White's granddaughter, Virginia Dare, the first child of English parents born within the present limits of the United States, was so named because the colonists believed that tlie great colony of Virginia had now been begun. Xo one knows what calamity happened ; but when the colony was searched for three years afterward, it had disappeared, and no trace of the hundred or more persons who perished has ever been found, f IMiis failure exhausted Raleigh's money for the time. 18. Gosnold and Pring. — For nearly twenty years, attempts at a settlement ceased ; but English fishing and trading ves- sels were more often seen along the American coast, and their accounts of the new country kept alive the English desire for American settlements. Bartholomew Gosnold found a new route across the Atlantic, by the Azores [a-zorz''\ Islands, much shorter than that by way of the West Indies (1G02). He was in search of sassafras ; but he built a fort at what is noAV Buzzard's Bay, in Massachusetts, and attempted to make a settlement. At the last moment, the men became friglitened at the thought of being left in a strange land, and insisted on returning with him. jNIartin Pring, also in search of sassa- fras, examined and described the coast of New England; and no doubt there were many others, whose voA'ages have been quite forgotten. * For this reason, tlie capital city of North Carolina has been named Raleigh. t The tradition of the Indians was that the colonists, hungry and in despair, joined a neighboring Indian tribe. EARLY SETTLEMENT. 11 19. The Two Companies. — Under King James I. two com- panies were formed (1606) for tlie purpose of making settle- ments in America. To tlie London Company the king granted the coast of North America from latitude 34° to lati- tude 38°; that is, from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Eappahannock River. To the Plymouth Company he gave the coast from latitude 41° to latitude 45°; that is, from the mouth of the Hudson River to the eastern point of Maine. The coast between the Rappahannock and the Hudson was granted to both companies ; but neither was to fix a colony within a hundred miles of any colony already planted by the other.* 20. The English Claim. — The formation of these two com- panies was the first real sign that Englishmen meant to en- force the claim to central North America which the Cabots had made more than a hundred years before (§ 10). To avoid the Spaniards to the south and the French to the north, the king had granted only the central portion of the continent ; and this circumstance has helped to give the United States their present boundaries. The settlements planted by the new companies were better prepared than Raleigh's colonies, and were able to protect themselves from the beginning. We may thus date the beginning of successful English settlement in North America at the London Company's first settlement at Jamestown (1607) (see § 24). 21. The Dutch Claim. — Holland had rebelled against Spain (§ 9) about the time of the first English failures, and had be- come a strong naval power. Hendrik (Henry) Hudson, an Englishman in the Dutch service, discovered the mouth of the Hudson River (1609), and explored the coast more closely than other voyagers had done. Dutch traders at once sent vessels to Manhattan Island (now New York City), to trade with the Indians ; and Holland granted the territory from Delaware Bay to the Connecticut River to the Dutch West * In 1609 the London Company's grant was enlarged to extend 200 miles north and south of Pt Comfort (34° to 40°), and westward to the Pacific Ocean. In 1620 the Plymouth Company was reorganized as the Council of Plymouth, and its grant was enlarged to extend fiom Philadelphia to the northern point of Nova Scotia C40-48°) and westward to the Pacific. 12 EARLY SETTLEMENT. India Company (1621). Two years afterward, this company established the city of New Amsterdam (now New York), and called the whole territory New Netherlands. For the next forty years this continued to be a Dutch colony, thrust in be- tween the English colonies to the north and to the south of it. It was conquered by the English in 1664 (§ 102). 22. The Swedish Claim. — Sweden had no claims by discov- ery ; but Peter Minuit, who had been a Dutch governor of New Netherlands, but who had gone into the Swedish service, brought over a Swedish colony and settled it in the present State of Delaware (1638). Its chief town was Christina, near the present city of Wilmington. The Dutch took this terri- tory from the Swedes (1655); and the English finally took it from the Dutch, with the rest of New Netherlands. It was afterwards transferred to Penn (§ 113). 23. Chronological Summary. — All these steps are very important to our history, for one reason why our own country occupies its present territory is because at the be- ginning a single people, the English, got control of it. Spain had chosen the territory to the south, and France the terri- tory to the north ; Holland and Sweden tried to settle the territory between, but were not strong enough to resist England in the struggle for it ; and thus the whole Atlantic coast, from Flo/ida to Nova Scotia, became English. Tiie dates of the more important steps in the settlements are as follows : (Sp., Spanish; E., English; F., French; D., Dutch; Sw., Swedish.) Canada. 1540-Cartier (F.): Quebec (failure) § 13 1576— Frobisber (E.): Labrador (failure) 15 1578 aud 15S3— Gilbert (E.): Ncwfouudlaud (failure) 15 16(15— De JMonts (F.) : Acadia, or Nova Scotia (success) 14 1608— Cbaniplaiu _(F.) : Quebec (success) 14 (Here begins the French colouizaliou of Canada, § 14.) The United States. 1562— South Carolina (F.) : Port Royal (failure) 13 1564 — Florida (F.) : Near St. August ine (failure) 13 1565— Florida (Sp. ) : St. Augustine (success) 7 1582— New Mexico (Sp.) : Santa Fe (success) 7 1585— North Carolina (E.) : Roanoke Island (failure) 17 ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 13 1587— North Carolina (E.) : Roanoke Island (failure) 17 1603— Massachusetts (E.) : Buzzard's Bay (failure) 18 1607 — Virdnia (E ) : Jamestown (success) 20 (Here begins the English colonization of the United States.) 1609— New York (D.) : Hudson's discovery 31 162:^— New York (D.) : Dutch settlement (became English in 1664). 21 1638 — Delaware (Sw.) : Swedish settlement (became English in 1 664) 21 [Supplementary Beading: — (§ 13) Bancroft, i. 33, 61; Hildrelh. i. 46, 71; Bryant and Gay, i. 174 ; Doyle, i. 89. (§ 14) Bancroft, i. 25 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 313 ; Doyle, i. 146 ; VsivX^m'An'a Pioneers of France, 315. (§ 15) Bancroft, i. 86 ; Hildreth, i. 78 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 325 ; Doyle, i. 52 ; Edgar's Sea Kings. (§ 16) Bancroft, i. 91 ; Doyle, i. 56 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 240 ; Encyclopedia Britannica, art. Raleigh. (§ 17) Bancroft, i. 95-108 ; Hildreth, i. 80 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 341; Doyle, i. 60. (§18) Bancroft, i. 111-113 ; Hildreth, i. 90 ; Bryant and Gay. i. 262 ; Doyle, i. 105. (§ 19)^ Bancroft, i. 120; Hildreth, i. 99 ; Doyle, i. 109 ; the charter is in Pres- ton, i. (§ 21) Bancroft, ii. 264 ; Hildreth, i. 97 ; Bryant and Gay, i. 339 ; Roberts's New York, 19 ; Randall's New Yoi-k, 15. (§ 22) Bancroft, ii. 286; Hildreth, i. 413; Bryant and Gay, i. 465; NincenVs Delaware.~\ PERIOD III.— ENGLISH COLONIZATION. (1606-1748.) 24. Jamestown. — The two companies (§ 19) began the work of settlement at once. The Plymouth Company's settlement, near the month of Kennebec River, in Maine, was a fail- ure, and that company made no further settlements on its own account. The London Company's attempt was more successful. Captain Christopher Newport was sent out, with one hundred and five emigrants, to settle at Roanoke Island. A storm drove him out of his course and into Chesapeake Bay; he discovered the James River, which he named in honor of James I. ; and about fifty miles from its mouth, on the northern bank of the river, he planted the settlement of Jamestown, May 13, 1607. This was the first successful Eng- lish settlement and the beginning of the colony of Virginia (§ 67). * 25. Division of tlie Grants. — The two companies did not last very long. The king took away the charter of the Lon- don Company, Avhich he claimed was not doing its work faith- * Jamestown has since been destroyed (§ 73). 14 ENGLISH COLONIZATION. fully (1624). From this time, ;ill the territory of the London Company, which meanwhile had been extended northward to what is now the boundary between Maryland and Pennsyl- vania and southwurd to the Spanisli domains, belonged to the king, wlio divided it up into new colonies as he pleased. The Plymouth Company was also broken up (1G20), and a new one, the Council of Plymouth, was formed in its place. Fifteen years later, this company also gave up its charter. But, before doing so, it had pretty well divided \\\) its terri- tory among various colonies, so that the king never was able to form as many colonies of his own in the north as in the south. 26. The Southern Colonies. — Successive kings, it will be found, formed five colonies out of the territory of the London Company. (1) Virginia was that which was left of the Lon- don Company's grant after the following colonies were formed. (2) Charles I. (1632) formed the new colony of Muriihind out of the northeastern part of the original '' Virginia" (§ 75). (3) Charles IL (16G5) took off the southern part of " Virginia," the present State of North Carolina, and claim- ing the whole coast as far south as Florida, added it to what he had taken from " Virginia," and called the whole Caralina. Carolina thus covered the present States of North Carolina, Soutli Carolina, and Georgia, with the States west of them, as far as the Mississippi River {^ 80). (4) Carolina was di- vided into Korfh Carolina and Soiifk Carolina (1729) (§ 82). (5) The southern part of South Carolina was formed into the new colony of Georgia (1732) (§ 91). The five southern colonies were thus Virginia, Maryland, Xorth Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. f 27. The New England Colonies. — The Plymouth Company's territory has had the ^anie New England ever since 1614, when Captain John Smith (§ 68) visited and named the t All these colonies had " roj-al " names: Virginia from Elizabeth (§ 17); Mary- land, from Henrietta Maria, Cliarles II. 's queen; Carolina, from Charles II. (Latin, Caroliis); and Georgia from George II. Florida was not an English colony until 1763 (§ 146), nor a part of the United States imtil 1819 (§ 355). ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 15 coast. There were originally seven colonies formed from it : Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, New Haven, Providence, Ehode Island, and New Hampshire. Plymouth was afterwards united with Massachusetts Bay; New Haven with Connecticut; and Providence with Ehode Island. These unions left four New England colonies: Massachusetts (§ 34), New Hampshire (§ 45), Connecticut (§ 46), and Rhode Island (§ 52).* 28. The Middle Colonies. — The coast between Maryland and Connecticut was not settled by either company, but was settled by the Dutch (§ 31). Afterwards it was taken from the Dutch by the English (1664), Four colonies were formed from it. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. 29. Colonial Governments. — It was necessary that these colonies should have governments, and their forms may be roughly divided into three classes : (1) The Charier Colonies were Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. These had ''charters" from the king, written documents which gave the colonists the power to elect their own officers and govern themselves. (2) The Proprietary Colo nies were Miirj- land, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. These had been granted by the king to proprietors or owners, who formed govern- ments in them. They also had charters, like the charter colo- nies, but they were given to the colonists by the proprietors, not by the king. The proprietors appointed the governors; but, in almost every other respect, the colonists governed themselves. (3) The Royal Colonies were the remaining seven — New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. These had no charters, and their governors were appointed by the king. Most of them had been proj)rietary colonies, but had been given back to the king by the proprietors. As royal colonies, they kept their former governments, and thus governed them- selves in most respects ; but they could not be as certain as the charter and proprietary colonies of retaining that privi- lege. * Maine was part of Massachusetts until 1820 (§ 350) ; and Vermont was claimed by New Hampshire and New York (§ 55). 16 ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 30. The English Parliament. — For about a century after the beginning of English colonization in America, the event in England which had most influence on the history of the colonies was the rise to power of the English Parliament. Little by little, it had gained the jiower of taxing the people. When Queen Elizabeth died, just before the settlement of Jamestown, and a new king, James I., came from Scotland, Parliament became bolder in declaring its power. James, and still more his son, Charles I., resisted the claim, and even attempted at times to govern and lay taxes without calling Parliament together. But the people refused to pay such taxes, and after each attempt the king was compelled to call the Parliament together and ask for money. Then the Par- liament refused to levy taxes, unless the king would give up other powers which were considered objectionable. 31. The Commonwealth. — The quarrel at last broke out into open war. The Parliament was successful, defeated and captured the king, Charles I., and beheaded him as a traitor and tyrant. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Parliamentary army, became ruler of England, with the title of Lord Pro- tector, and held power until his death. This period of Eng- lish history is commonly called the Commonwealth. Its sup- porters were often called Puiitans, or Koundheads, since they cut their hair short, while the king's friends, the Cavaliers, wore long curling wigs. 32. The Restoration. — The English people grew tired of the Commonwealth and the rule of the army; and when Crom- well died, they sent for Charles L's son, who had been living in great poverty in Holland, and made him king, with the title of Chailes II. This event is known as the Restoration. 33. The English Kevolution. — Charles reigned for about twenty-five years, and wa^ succeeded by his brother, who had been Duke of York, but was now called James II. All these four kings, James I., Charles I., Charles II., and James II., were named Stuart. They were determined to rule by their own will, without Parliament; and James II. was most deter- mined of them all. After a few years, his subjects rebelled, drove him and his sons away to France, and called in his son* PLTMOVTH COLONY. 17 in-law and daughter, William of Orange and Mary, as king and queen. This event, which put an end to the rule of the Stuart family, is known as the English Revolution of 1688.* New England, [Colonization began in Virginia, in the London Company's terri- tory ; but, when it bad once begun, it went on more rapidly for a time in the northern colonies. We take, therefore, (1) the New England colonies, the Plymouth Company's grant ; (2) the southern colonies, the Loudon Company's grant ; (3) the middle colonies, the conquered territory.] (1) Massachusetts Bay Colony. 34. The Plymouth Colony — In former times it was thought necessary to punish by law all who refused to worship accord- ing to the form established by their government. Under James I. those who followed other forms than that of the Church of England (the original of our Episcopal Church) were punished so severely that many of them fled to Holland, where they were allowed to live in peace. After a time, a number of them, called Separatists, returned to Plymouth, in England, and thence set sail for New Amsterdam (New York), in order to settle there in the possessions of the Dutch, where they could worship as they pleased. Storms drove'their ves- sel, the Mayflower, from her course, and they landed, one hundred in number, in the present State of Massachusetts, at Plymouth, December 21, 1620. They named the place Ply- mouth, and gradually took possession of the irregular soutli- eastern part of Massachusetts, calling it Plymouth Colony. 35. The Pilgrims. — Only half of the Pilgrims, as the Ply- mouth colonists called themselves, lived through the first bitter winter. There was no help for them. England cared nothing for them ; and on the whole coast there were but two other * The dates of these events are as follows: 1603-1625, reign of James I.; 1625- 1649, reign of Charles I. ; 1649, the king beheaded; 1649-1660, the Commonwealth; 1653, Cromwell is made Lord Protector; 1658, death of Cromwell; 1660, Restoration; 1660-1685, reign of Charles II. ; 1685-1689, reign of James II.; 1688, the English Rev- olution; 1689-1702, reign of William and Mary. 18 PLYMOUTH COLONY. settlements, Jamestown and St. Augustine.* But the Pilgrims built log-houses, using oiled paper instead of glass; tliey caught fish and ate what little' food they had brought with them; and in the spring they obtained corn from the Indians. They had been too poor to provide many of the comforts neces- sary for a new settlement; they did not find a very rich soil; and there were not many opportunities for getting wealth by trading. So Plymouth was at first the poorest of the colo- nies ; but its people were hard-working and careful, and they gradually prospered. 36. Their Leaders. — Much of this success was due to the leading men of the colony, who were very able men. Miles Standish, their military leader, was an old soldier. He was " a man of very small stature, yet of a very hot and angry temper," and was much dreaded by the Indians. On one occasion, he stabbed a hostile chief in the midst of his tribe. John Carver was the first governor. He had been the busi- ness man of the colony, and managed its affairs very wisely; but he died during the first v/inter. William Bradford, as wise as Carver and more gentle than Standish, was chosen in his place, and was re-elected yearly for thirty years. The only years in which he was not re-elected were those in which, *' by importunity, he got off." Then the colonists chose Edward Win slow, who was much the same sort of man. 37. The Pilgrim Covenant.— The Plymouth colony never was a large one ; and its history, until its union with the larger colony of Massachusetts Bay (§ 44), was a quiet one. It had no charter, but governed itself under a covenant, or agreement, made by the Pilgrims in the cabin of the May- flower. This covenant has generally been held to be the be- ginning of that tendency toward democracy which finally controlled all the colonies (§ 121). It was in Virginia that the first Assembly was held ; but permission to hold this Assem- bly was given by the governor, and mainly to the wealthier planters (§ 71), while the Pilgrims took it upon themselves, and gave the privilege to rich and poor alike; so that the * There was also a Dutch trading station at the mouth of the Hudson (§ 21). MASSACHUSETTS BAT. 19 Plymouth colony is considered to have been the beginning of self-government in this country. 38. The Massachusetts Bay Colony. — Nearly ten years after tlie landing of the Pilgrims, they liad the pleasure of seeing a neighboring colony founded. Men who had not separated from the Churcli of England, but disliked some of its cere- monies, were called Puritans. They were not punished in England as the Separatists had been, but many of them were inclined to follow the Pilgrims across the Atlantic and found a Puritan church and colony. A company of them bought from the Council of Plymouth the northern part of the present State of Massachusetts, from about Boston northward; and Charles I. gave them a charter. At first, small parties Avere sent out, wliich settled at (^ Salem (1628) andCharlestown; but in a year or so the company itself (§ 39) moved over to America, ' with its officers, charter, and all its powers. Thus the Puritans obtained a colony of their own, without any dependence upon England, but with complete self-government. 39. The Great Immigration. — The Puritans supported Parliament against King Charles I. (§30); and the troubles which finally resulted in war inclined more of them to go to New England. The year 1630 made Massachusetts Bay a successful colony. At the beginning of that year, New Eng- 20 MASSACHUSETTS BAT. land had no settlers, except the little Plymouth settlement, and a few villages to the north of it: then came a fleet uf vessels, with 1500 settlers, and Boston, Cambridge, Lynn, and other towns were settled. Others followed; these settlors were richer than the Pilgrims, and did not suffer so much from the cold of winter; and Massachusetts Bay was soon the stiongest of the colonies. 40. The Leaders. — The Massachusetts Bay loaders wore many: most of them thought alike, and were determined to found a religious state, Avith only such settlers as were of their way of thinking. The leader whom they liked best was John Endicott, the first governor, a rigid Puritan, who dis- liked the symbol of the cross so much that he cut it out of the British flags in the colony, who also thought it of great importance that the women should wear veils at church and that the men should wear their hair short. Governor John Winthrop was a more useful leader, and careful of more im- portant things. He was an English lawyer, highly educated, very gentle and dignified, but believing very strongly in the system of the colony. Sir Henry Vane, a young man, rich, able, and accomplished, made a groat stir in the colony for a few years, but soon returned to England. John Cotton, Thomas Hooker, and Samuel Stone were the ablest of the ministers who took the lead in the colony's affairs; and the colonists said that God had given them " Cotton for their clothing. Hooker for their fishing, and Stone for their build- ing." 41. Beligioiis and Political Difficulties. — It was difficult to make all men in this colony think alike. The leaders suc- ceeded in having a law made that no one should be allowed to vote unless he was a membe^ of the church ; and this laAV gave rise to constant dissatisfaction. Men of other religious beliefs, who gave annoyance by disputing with the Puritan ministers, were driven out of the colony; but others came in their place. Roger Williams held objectionable views on religious liberty and on the relation of the colony to the crown: he was ordered back to England; but rather than MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 21 return, he went into the wiklerness and founded the colony of Rhode Island (§ 52). Two years afterward, Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her followers were driven away for teaching new doctrines. She also went to Rhode Island, and thence to New Netherlands, where she was killed by the Indians. These were but two of the i-eligious difficulties wliich were frequent in the early years of the colony. 42. The Quakers. — Much of the trouble came from the Quakers, who had no fear of punishment, and who returned to the colony again and again, and persisted in disturbing Puritan meetings. After trying other punishments, the Puri- tan leaders undertook to put to death those who returned after banishment. This was as ineffectual as other punish- ments; and all efforts to suppress Quakerism were finally given up. Difficulties with the Quakers ceased at once. 43. The Salem Witchcraft. — Most people of that time believed that there were witches, who received power from the devil to hurt or kill men and cattle; and laws against witches were common everywhere. At one time (1693) the town of Salem became crazed with the belief that witches were at work there. Before the terror died away, about twenty innocent persons, mostly old women and Indians, had been put to death as witches. Finally, the magistrates and people came to their senses; and punishments for witchcraft were stoj^ped. 44. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay United. — The Massa- chusetts Bay colony lived under its charter for some fifty years, gradually taking possession of the rest of New England to the north of it. Then the king's judges in England decided that the colony's government had been taking more power than had been given to it, and that it had no longer any right to its charter. The colony was not strong enough to resist, and it submitted to a new charter (1691), which made New Hamp- shire a separate colony, and united the colony of Plymouth, the province of Maine, and the tei'ritory of Nova Scotia, to the colony of Massachusetts Bay. Under this charter the colony prospered until the Revolution. 22 NEW HAMPSHIRE. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, i. 300 foil. ; ii. 120, 344; Hildreth, i. l.li-^UU. 22», 5u3; Bryant and Guy, i, 370. 400, 517; Doyle, ii. ol, 97, 31 1; iii. 98. :.'21, 298; Barry's Hixtory of Massachusetts; Bulfrey, i. 133, 164. 283; Adnina's Emancipation of Massachusetts, rii), 141; Lodge, 341 foil.; Mrs. liemniis's Latiding of the I'ilyrims; LougitUow's Courtship of Miles blandish; Hawihorue's Scarlet Letter. '\ (2) New Hampsliire. 45. New Hampshire. — One of the grants made by tlie Council of Plymouth gave the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers to Sir Ferdiiiando Gorges and John Ma«on (1G23). After a few years, the two proprietors divided their territory, Mason calling his share New Hampshire, from his own county of Hampshire in England, while the rest of the grant became part of Maine. New Hampshire never was a large colony; its settlements were mostly fishing villages, Portsmouth and Dover being the largest places. The colony joined Massachusetts Bay, was separated, and again joined it. In 1691, the king made it a royal colony, and it remained so until the Revolution.* [Supplementary Reading.— 5«ncro/<. i. 327; Hildreth, i. 168, 200, 502; Bryant and Gay, i. 333; Palfrey, 1. 522; Doyle, ii. 201; iii. 294; Lodge, 397.] (3) Connecticut. 46. The Connecticut Colony. — Many of the Massachusetts settlers thought that their colony did too much of the work of governing, leaving too little to the towns. Their leaders were Hooker, the ablest minister of the colony (§ 40), and Stone. After several years of discussion, Hooker's follower.^ determined to remove into the wilderness to the southwest, and established a colony of their own, where the people of each town could govern themselves more fully (1G34). Their first towns were Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford; and delegates from these towns met (1631)) and formed for the Connecticut eolony the first Avritten constitution in Amcriea. 47. The Saybrook Colony. — A number of proprietors in * Gorges's share became part of the province of IMaiue (see § 44). CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN. CoffNECTicuT Colony. England, whose leaders were Lord Say and Lord Brooke, claimed the territory along the Connecticut Eiver, and one of their parties made a settlement at the mouth of the river, called Saybrook (1635). They made no further effort to colonize, and their claims were pur- chased by Connecti- cut. 48. The Pequot War. — The early history of Connecti- cut was merely that of the usual colonial struggle against cold and hunger and Indians. The principal Indian difficulties were with the Pequots, a powerful tribe in eastern Connecticut. Two bat- tles, one near Groton, the other near Fairfield, put an end to the war (1637), and the colony had little further trouble with the Indians. 49. The New Haven Colony. — Jnst after the settlement of Connecticut, a company of English immigrants, under Kev. John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton, settled on the shore of Long Island Sound. They bought land from the Indians, and called their town New Haven. Soon six little towns were united under the name of the New Haven Colony. Its sys- tem was like that of Massachusetts Bay, in allowing no one but church-members to vote or hold office. 50. The Colonies United. — The leading man of tlie Con- necticut colony was John Winthrop, son of the Massachusetts Bay governor (§ 40). He was one of the wisest, kindest, and best of men; and after a time his colony sent him to England for the purpose of obtaining a charter from the king. When the charter (1662) was brought over, it was found to coverall the present State of Connecticut, taking in the former colony 24 RHODE ISLAND. of New Haven. The New Haven people submitted unwill- ingly; but tlie charter, wliich permitted the people to govern themselves in everything, to elect both governor and Assem- bly, to make their own laws, and to put the laws into effect, soon came to suit all the people so well that it remained in force long after the Revolution.* 51. The Charter Oak. — When James II. undertook to unite all the New England colonies into one royal colony (§ 59), his governor, Andros, appeared at Hartford and demanded the charter. While the argument was going on in the even- ing, the lights were suddenly blown out ; and before they could be re-lit, the charter had been taken out and hidden in a hollow oak-tree near by. When King James had been driven from the throne, the charter was brought out again, and the government went on as before. The story goes to show, at any rate, how much the people of the colonies had already come to value self-government; for Connecticut peo- ple called the tree the " charter oak," and took great care of it until it was blown down in a storm, nearly two hundred years afterward (1858). [Supplementary 'Re&Hmg.— Bancroft, i. 395; ii. 52, 430; Hildreth, i. 203, 229, 248, 26U; iii. 85; Bryant and Gay. i. 547; ii 1, 22, 391; Doyle, ii. 149; iii. 120, 245; Palfrey, i. 528; Hollister's Rutory of Conneaknt; Johnstou's Histm-y of Connecticut; DeFoiesl's Indians of Connecticut. '\ (4) Rhode Island. 52. Roger Williams. — When Roger Williams (§ 41) had been driven from Massachusetts, he took refuge among the Indians at the head of Narragausett Ray (1G36). Their chief, Canonicus, gave him a tract of land, and he called the place Providence, in remembrance of the manner in which he felt that God had guided him thither. Others followed him, and settled on the large island in the bay called Rhode Island, * The early rtivision into colonies was long marked by the fact that Ponnecticut had two capitals, Hartford and New Haven. Since 1873 Hartford has been sole capital. RHODE ISLAND. 25 Portsmouth and Newport being their chief towns. Another and smaller settlement was at Warwick. 53. Colony of Ehode Island.— These different settlements, or ''plantations," were quite separate for some years; but Williams was continually trying to unite them into one col- ony, and at last suc- ceeded. The charter which was granted by King Charles II. (1663) gave the col- ony the name of Rhode Island and Providence Planta- tions, which is still its proper name. It gave the people the same rights as in Con- necticut (§ 50); and just as in Connecti- cut, the people kept Rhode island Colony. their charter as their form of government until long after the Revolution (§ 429). 54. Toleration. — Rhode Island was but a little colony. Its people were farmers, except in the towns of Newport and Providence, which were engaged in commerce. The most notable point in the colony's history was its people's refusal to persecute those who did not agree with them in religion. The spirit of Roger Williams seemed to control all the early history of Rhode Island; and its people always welcomed those who had been driven out of the neighboring colonies, even while the stronger colonies around, Massachusetts, Ply- mouth, and Connecticut, claimed nearly all the territory of Rhode Island, and it seemed unsafe to provoke them. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, i. 367; ii. 61; Palfrey, i. 606; ii. 207: Hiklreth. i. -im, 291, 877. 39(i, 458; Bryant and Gay, i. 5»1; ii. 97; Doyle, il 113, 179, 267, 319: iii. 244; Greeim's History of Rhode Island; Gammell's Life of Roger Wiliiaias.} 26 NEW ENGLAND. 55. Vermont. — The present State of Vermont was not a colony. Its territory wus claimed by both New York and New Hampshire; and its people, the " Green Mountain Boys," finding that they were to be called upon to pay for their lands twice over, formed a government of their own, which was kept up throughout the Revolution (§ 199). (5) New England iii General. 56. The New England Union. — As soon as the first four New England colonies had been fairly settled, they joined for mutual defence in what was known as the New England Union (1643). They refused to admit Rhode Island, whose territory they claimed as their own. After some twenty years of existence, this Union was silently allowed to disap- pear, because it was known that the king did not like any such union of colonies, for fear they might set up for them- selves. 57. The Navigation Acts. — As the colonies grew richer, and began to turn to manufactures and commerce, English manu- facturers, who wished to keep the tiade of the colonies in their own hands, asked the English Parliament to help them. Parliament therefore passed the laws known as the Naviga- tion Acts (1G51), forbidding the colonies to trade with other countries than England, or to permit foreign ships to enter their ports for trade. These Acts were not Avell enforced; the revenue officers were careless or took bribes; and New Eng- land merchants were forced to be smugglers, and to engage in trade which Avas forbidden by law. The efforts to enforce these laws, a hundred years later, did much to bring on the Revolution (§ 154). 68. King Philip's War. — The "Wampauoags were a Rhode Island tribe of Indians, whose chief was called King Philip by the colonists. King Philip saw that the whites were driving his people slowly out of their lands, and he united the Indians, from ]\Iaine to the Hudson River, in a league against the English. The first blow was struck at Swanzey, KEW ENGLAND. 27 Massachusetts (1675); but similar attacks were made at the same time upon the villages all along the froutier, especially in western Massachusetts. For a time it looked as if the whites were to be driven into the sea, or back to England. But after nearly two years of fighting they hemmed in Philip's best men in a fort in a swamp near Kingston, Rhode Island, and killed nearly all of them. Soon afterward, Philip himself was caught and shot at nis principal residence, Mount Hope, near Bristol, Rhode Island, and the war was ended. From that time, there was little serious danger from the New England Indians. 59. The Andros Government The New England colonies had gone on prosperously for about fifty years, when King James II. determined to unite them all into one royal colony, under Sir Edmund Andros as his governor (1686). All the colonies submitted to him for a time (§ 51); but the colonists hated him, for he governed cruelly and tyrannically, and such a government was a different thing from the self-government to which they had been accustomed. At the first news of the revolution in England, which drove the king from his throne (§ 33), the Boston people seized Andros and sent him back to England. Connecticut and Rhode Island were allowed to put their old charters in force again; but the new king took the opportunity to change the old charter of Massachusetts (§ 44). 60. Early French Wars — During the early years of the colonies, England and France were very often at war. There was no good reason why the colonies should take part in these wars: and the English colonies, which governed themselves, had no desire to take part in them. But the French Colony of Canada was governed by officials sent out from France, and these were determined to do their share of the fiohtinsr. They sent out parties of French and Indians across the wil- derness between, and attacked and burned the outlying vil- lages, carrying away to Canada those who were not killed. The English colonies were thus forced into war; but these early wars were carried on mainly by New England and New 28 NEW ENGLAND. York. The first three of them are called, from the name of the English rulers, King William's War (1689-1 G97), Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), and King George's AVar (1744- 1748). 61. The French Strongholds. — The English colonists hardly hoped to capture the great French strongholds of Montreal and Quebec. They were anxious to capture Port Royal (now Annapolis), a town on a fine liarbor in Acadia (Nova Scotia), and Louisburgh, a strong fortress on the southeast coast of Cape Breton Island ; for it was from these places that French vessels sailed out and captured the New England fishing-boats Their first effort, during SCALE OF MILES 100 200 400 600 Early French Wars. on the Newfoundland banks. King W^illiam's War, to take Port Royal was successful; but the home government gave the place back to France at the end of the war. In Queen Anne's War it was taken again and kept. Louisburgh was held by the French for about fifty years, until in King George's War it was captured by a great expedition made up of New England and New York troops. Even then it was given back at the end of the war, and it was necessary to take it again in the last war, called the French and Indian War, in Avhich all Canada was finally conquered (§ 141). 62. Popnlation. — In the hundred and fifty years of which we have been speaking ('1()0G-1748), the po])ulation of New England had increased until its colonies contained perhaps half a million inhabitants, about as many as lived in 1880 in Chicago or Brooklyn. 'I'hey were scattered at first along the Atlantic coast; but, as land began to grow dearer in the origi- nal towns, some of the people had begun to move farther inland. NEW ENGLAND. 29 Parties of them had even entered what is now Vermont (§ 55). But such outlying settlements were exposed to attacks by French and Indians ; and the men had to be always in readi- ness for adventures of this sort. 63. Agriculture. — New England people were generally farmers; there were no such manufacturing towns as are now so numerous in New England. There was no such thing as agricultural machinery; the farmer sowed his grain by hand, used a wooden plough tipped with an iron point, cut the grain with a scythe, and threshed it with a flail on the barn floor. Most farmers could not send their grain to other coun- tries and get in return such things as they needed; it cost too much at that time to carry to any great distance such bulky articles as grain. Each farmer therefore raised all that he used, and used all that he raised. " Beef and pork, salt fish, dried apples, and vegetables, made up the daily fare from one year's end to another." Most men dressed in homespun, made in the house, and cut and sewed by a travelling tailor, with shoes made from calf-skin by a travelling cobbler. 64. Travel. — He who wished to travel might go on foot, on horseback, or, in some cases, by sailing-vessel; very rich men used their own horses and carriages. Most people stayed at home, for the cost and danger of travelling were very great. Not many men ever went five miles from their own town throughout their lives, unless it were to seek a new home. Toward the end of this period, stage-coaches were in- troduced ; but they were only covered wagons, terribly un- comfortable for the traveller, and six days were needed for one to go from Boston to New York. 65. Education. — Almost all New England people were edu- cated, though the schools would be thought ridiculously poor now. They only taught their pupils to spell, to read, to write, and to cipher a little. But even this was far more than could be said of the people of any other country at that time. There were two colleges in New England, two of the first three founded in America : Harvard, at Cambridge, in Massachusetts (1637), and Yale, at New Haven, in Connecti- 30 VIRGINIA. cut (1'700). But a college then was uot what it is now, a great number of fine buildings, with museums, libraries, many professors, and instruction covering every variety of subject; it was only two or three buildings, with a few professors, and subjects which would now be thought too easy for the lower classes in college. It should be borne in mind, however, that books give but a small part of education; the American of that day learned to think for himself; if he did not read many books, the few he did read were usually excellent books, and he studied them thoroughly; and the little colleges sent great men into the world, 66. Commerce and Manufactures. — New England winters seem to have been colder then than now; and the constant struggle against a severe climate made the people thrifty and hardy. Though most of them were farmers, they had begun to have ships, commerce, and fisheries, and there were the be- ginnings of mining and manufactures. Parliament had passed laws to stop such attempts (§ 57), so that the colonies would be compelled to buy English goods; but these laws were not obeyed, and only gave additional trouble, [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 56) Bancroft, i. 420; Hildreth, i. 285, 463; Palfrey, i. 623; Doyle, ii. 220. (^57) Bancroft, i. 218; ii. 122. (§ 58) Bancroft, ii. 98; Hildreth, i. 480; Bryant and Gay, ii. 402; Doyle, iii. 162; Palfrey, iii. 132; Lodge, 357. (t; 59) Bancroft, ii. 427; Jlil- dretn, ii. 82; Doyle, iii. 234; Palfrey, iii. 513. (4? 60-61) Doyle, iii. 281. 347. 369; Bancroft, iii. 220, 457. (g 63-66) Drake, 135, 231; Palfrey, ii. 5; Oilman, 244; McMaster, i. 18 foil.; Goodrich's Recollections, i. b3, 126.] The Southern Colonies. (1) Viy()inia. 67. The Virginia Colony. — The first Virginia settlement, the first English settlement in our country, was made in IGOT at Jamestown (§ 24). "rhe settlers there were not such men and women as liad come to New England, driven only by un- willingness to obey bad laws. They were men without wives and children, and men who had failed to do useful work in England, and hoped to find gold-mines, or some easier way of vmoiNiA. 31 becoming rich, in the new country. And so, for several years, the colony had a hard struggle for existence. The people had quite decided, several times, to return to England, when new supplies of men and food changed their purpose, and saved the colony. Before the Plymoutli colony was planted, Vir- ginia had become firmly establislied. It liad its town, its out- lying plantations, and a regular government of its own at a time when there was no other English settlement on the whole great continent, nor any Europeans, except the few French settlers in Canada (§ 14), the Dutch traders at the mouth of the Hudson (§ 21), and the Spaniards in Florida 68. Captain John Smith. — Most of this success was due to one man. Captain John Smith. Smitli Avas a man of vivid imagination, and a wonderful story-teller, though the truth of many of his stories lias been doubted. One of these is of his capture by the Indians, their decision to beat out his brains with a war-club, and his rescue by Pocahontas, the daughter of the chief Powhatan. It is true, however, that there was an Indian girl named Pocahontas, and that she married a white settler, visited England, and died there; and it was during her visit that Smith first told tliis story. In spite of the wonderful nature of Smith's stories, he seems to have been a bold and shrewd leader, able to make the lazy colonists work, to control the vicious, and to make a successful colony out of what seemed a certain failure. Much of the first knowl- edge of the coast as far north as New Ejigland came from his explorations. 69. Tobacco. — The colony of Virginia grew rich rapidly from the cultivation of tobacco, which was used in Europe more and more every year. The colonists built their own ships, shipped their tobacco to Europe, and brought back European articles in exchange. Tobacco became even their money, and everything was paid for in so many pounds of tobacco. 70. Plantations. — As the country became settled, life in Virginia grew far easier. The worthless men who had set- 32 VIRGINIA. tied at Jamestown at first soon gave place to wealthy gentle- men, with their slaves atid dependents ; and life in Virginia came to be more like English life than could have been expected in a colony. It was altogether different from that of New England. Instead of little towns, with a multitude of small farms, there were great plantations, each with its large mansion, furnished with luxuries from Europe, The planter usually sent his children to England to be educated. AVilliam and Mary College (1692), the second founded in the United States, was the only college in the southern colonies. 71. Government. — The loss of the London Company's char- ter (§ 25) made Virginia a royal colony. But the planters were so accustomed to rule on their own plantations that the governors found them difficult to control, and were forced to give them a share in the gov- ernment. They therefore intro- duced a law-making body known as The Assembly (§ 37), so that there was self-government in the original colony of Vir- ginia before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. But the colony was always inclined to side with the king rather than Avith the Parliament, and it rejoiced to see the Restoration (§ 32). It called itself the king's ''ancient dominion," since it had always been loyal to him; and Vir- ginia is still often called the "Old Dominion." But the new king showed the cplony little favor; on one occasion he even made a present of his "ancient dominion" to one of his court favorites, though he took it back again nine years afterward. 72. Indian Wars, — Twice, in the early years of the colony. ROANOKE I. SCALE OF M ILES 50 100 Virginia Colony. VIRGINIA. 33 the Indians treacherously attacked the outlying settlements and massacred a number of settlers. The first of these occa^ sions was about the time of the landing of the Pilgrims, and the second about twenty years afterward. By this time the colonists had become so numerous that there was peace until the year of King Philip's War, when the Maryland Indians seem to have known of it, and to have become troublesome to the Virginians. 73. Bacon's Rebellion. — Berkeley was then (1676) the royal governor of Virginia, and he and his friends had all the powers of government in their own hands. They be- lieved that the Maryland Indians had been unjustly treated, and refused to make war on them. Nathaniel Bacon, a young planter, made war without the authority of the governor. He raised troops among the colonists, defeated the Indians, and then drove Berkeley out of Jamestown.* Bacon's sudden death put an eiid to the rebellion, and then the enraged governor took his revenge by hanging all the leading rebels. Said the king, " The old fool has taken away more lives in that naked country than I have for the murder of my father." f 74. The Territory of Yirginia. — One colony after another was carved out of the London Company's grant (§26), but the part that was left still kept the name of Virginia, covering the present States of Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky. But Virginia claimed far more than this, asserting that its northern boundary ran northwest instead of directly west, so that it took in also western Pennsylvania and the present great northwestern States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. This claim of Virginia gave much trouble after the Eevolution (§ 242). [Supplementary Beading. — Bancroft, i. 120, 182; ii. 188; Hildretli, i. 99, 335, 509; Bryant and Gay, i. 272, 476, ii. 200, 290; Doyle, i. 109 foil.; * Jamestown was burned in the struggle, and was never rebuilt; and Williams- town became the capital . t The chase after these rebels had one good effect, in driving many of them to the southward, and thus beginning the settlement of North Carolina (§ 83). 34 MARYLAND. Lodge, 4\ foil.; Cooke's Virginia; Campbell's Virginia. (%6S) Bancroft, i. 130; Doyle, i. 153; iV^. A. Rev. 1867. {%10) McMastei', i. 72. (§71) Doyle, i. 158: Bancroft, ii. 209. (f? 72) Hildreth, \. 124,340. ( t^ 73) Hi'ldreth, i. 533; Bancroft, ii. 222; Z>o^^e, 241. (§74) H. B. Adams's Maryland's Influence.} (2) Maryland. 75. The Roman Catholic Colony. — Roman Catholics, as well as Quakers, were persecuted by English law; and Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a leading English Catholic, deter- mined to found a colony in which they should find a refuge. Charles I. granted him that part of Virginia east of tlie Potomac River, calling it Maryland, in honor of his queen (§ 26). Baltimore died, but the patent was given to his son, Cecil Calvert, in 1632. 76. Settlement of Maryland. — Within two years, Leonard Calvert, a brother of the new Lord Baltimore, brought over a party of settlers to St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. Other towns soon grew up. The two most flourishing places were Annapolis and Baltimore, but these were not founded until many years after the original settlement. To- bacco held the same place in Maryland as in Virginia, and was the great source of wealth. But the additional advantages of Maryland were the Chesapeake Bay, which gave every opportunity for commerce, and the Susquehanna River, which opened up to Maryland merchants the Indian trade. So the colony flour- ished, and Baltimore became one of the busiest places on the coast. 77. Government. — The Calvert family from the beginning provided for an Assembly to make laws and levy taxes; and the people of Maryland enjoyed self-government throughout their existence as a colony. All that the proprietors gained by the MABTLAND. 35 establishment of the colony was the annual payment of some small taxes by the people. When the English Eevolution (§ 33) took place, the Calverts were deprived of their proprie- tary rights by the new king ; and for about twenty years Mary- land was a royal colony. Then it was restored to the Calverts; but the last of the family died just before the Revohitionary war, leaving Maryland very much as it had always been, under its own control. 78. Toleration.— As long as the Catholics retained control of Maryland, religious persecution was not allowed, and men of any church were permitted to settle in the colony. The new settlers were not so liberal; and when they obtained control, they passed laws compelling all men to pay taxes for the support of the Church of England. A church thus sup- ported by the state is called an "established" church. The unfortunate Roman Catholics, who had founded the colony and admitted others to it, were now harshly treated, forbidden to vote, and forced to pay taxes for the support of a church to which they did not belong. This state of things lasted until the Revolution (§ 242), when the Catholics gave such hearty support to the American cause that all these old restric- tions were removed. 79. Mason and Dixon's Line. — When the colony of Pennsyl- vania had been formed to the north of Maryland (§ 113), there was a long dispute and many lawsuits between the two colonies as to the boundary line between them. Finally (1763) they agreed on the present line, and, from the names of the survey- ors who marked it, it is still known as " Mason and Dixon's line." It was long considered also as the boundary between the Northern States, which had abolished slavery, and the Southern States, in which slavery was still maintained by law. [Supplementary "Re&diing.— Bancroft, i. 236; ii. 238; Hildreth, i. 204, 346, 566; Bryant and Gay, i. 486; Doyle, i. 275; Lodge, 93; Neill's Terra Marm; Bozman's Maryland; Onderdonk's Maryland. (§ 79) Bancroft, ii. 394; Hildreth, ii. 74, 341; Lat robe's Mason and Dixon's Line.] 36 NORTH CAROLINA. (3) North Carolina. 80. Carolina. — Soon after the Restoration (§ 32), Charles II. granted all the territory now in the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Geor- gia, westward to the Pa- cific Ocean, to eight pro- prietors. A hundred years before (§ 13), the French had called this territory Carolina (or Carolana), in honor of their king, Charles IX. \irohis, in Latin), and the English etained the name, in honor of their king, Charles II. The country had re- mained uninhabited since the failure of the French colonies, except that a few Vir- carolina. ginians had pushed down the coast and settled the northern shore of Albemarle Sound. 81. Go"vernment. — The proprietors attempted to frame a government for their colony, different from those of the other colonies. There were to be nobles, called barons, landgraves, and caziques, each with a certain number of acres, and certain powers of government. The rest of the people were to have no share in the government, and were to be bought and sold with the soil, just as, until recently, the serfs were, in Russia. The plan was ridiculous for an American colony; the settlers would not obey it; and after trying it for about twenty years, the proprietors gave it up. 82. Division of Carolina. — Travel was very difficult in those days (§ 64), and it was found that the territory was too large for a single colony: the people at either end of it knew nothing of one another. It was therefore decided that, as the two parts already had two separate Assemblies, they should now be two separate royal colonies, under the names of North Carolina and South Carolina (1729). 83. North Carolina. — When the Carolina charter was given NORTH GAUOLINA. 37 (1663), a few Virginians had settled on the shores of Albemarle Sound, and more came after the suppression of Bacon's rebell- ion (§ 73). This was called the Albemarle settlement. Then other colonists came from Barbadoes and settled near the Cape Fear River. This was called the Clarendon settlement; but it was soon removed to South Carolina. Then for a long time population grew very slowly. Along the coast, where the great pine woods were, settlers were always few, and were mainly engaged in making tar and turpentine from the ti-ees. The country farther from the coast was found to be much more open and fertile, and most of the population was gathered here. It was increased, after a time, by a number of immi- grants who had been engaged in rebellion in Scotland, and had been permitted by the British government to settle in North Carolina. 84. Toleration. — The people refused to allow religious per- secutions, and made their colony a place of refuge for those who had been persecuted in other colonies or countries. Nearly every one in the colony thus came to have a spirit of personal independence which was not pleasant to their gov- ernors, who considered them " a turbulent people." 85. Government.— The colony, too, was unfortunate in its governors. Most of them were bad men and bad governors; and there was an almost constant struggle between them and their people. In several cases, the people imprisoned or drove away their governors. Just before the Revolution, Governor Tryon's administration became so intolerably bad that the people rose in rebellion (1771), calHng themselves Regulators, and trying to obtain better government. The governor de- feated them in a battle, and punished those whom he captured so cruelly that very many others were driven across the moun- tains, and thus began the settlement of Tennessee (§ 213). [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 129; HildretJi, ii. 25; Bryant and Gay, ii. 268; Doyle, i. 328; Lodge, 132, 148. (§81) Bancroft ii 146- Doyle, i. 335. (§83) Bancroft, ii. 156; Hildreth, ii. 27. (§85) HUdreth ii. 40, 569; Bancroft, vi. 381; Doyle, i. 348; Lodge, 145.] 38 SOUTH CAHOLmA. (4) South Carolina. 86. South Carolina. — Settlement in the southern part of Carolina began a few years later than in the northern part. The first settlement (1670) was at Charleston, not the present city of that name, but a place afterwards known as Old Charlestown, a few miles farther up the Ashley River.* It grew slowly, increased by the Clarendon settlement from North Carolina (§ S3), by Dutch settlers from New York, and by Dutch and Scotch immigrants. 87. Rice and Indigo. — The wealth of the colony began when the cultivation of rice was introduced, soon after the first settlement; rice was the money of the colony, as tobacco was in Virginia and Maryland. Indigo was introduced at a later period. Cotton was not much cultivated until after the Revolution; and it then brought more wealth than either rice or indigo had ever done. 88. Negro Slavery. — Negroes were brought into the colony as slaves at an early period; and more were brought when rice began to be cultivated. Before many years, there were twice as many negroes as whites in the lowland district along the coast, where it was unhealthy for white laborers. Here were the great plantations, where the rice and indigo grew. The upland district, toward the mountains, contained the smaller farms and the i)oorer people. 89. Toleration. — Most of the wealthy people of the coast district were members of the Church of England, and they made this the established church (§ 78) of the colony. But there cannot be said to have been any religious persecutions. 90. Government. — Until the separation, the troubles of the South Carolina colonists with their governors were much the same as in North Carolina, From that time. South Caro- lina enjoyed more peace. The leading and wealthier families of the colony were permitted to do most of the law-making, and they generally did their work well. South Carolina be- came a small colony when Georgia was carved out of it (§ 91) ; * Charleston was called Charlestown until after the Revolution. GEORGIA. 39 but at the Kevolution it was one of the richest and most prosperous of the colonies, and had least reason to complain. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 166 ; Uildreth, ii. 33; Bryant and Gay, ii. 355; Doyle, i. 355; Lodge, 158 ; (§ 87) Bancroft, iii. 20; Johnson, iii. 1637; Simms, 115. (§ 88) Williams, i. 289. (§ 90) Lodge, 163.] (5) Georgia. 91. Georgia. — James Oglethorpe, a kind-hearted English officer, founded the last and weakest of the colonies, as a refuge for the English poor. King George II. granted him the territory covered by the present States of Georgia, Ala- bama, and Mississippi (1732); and the colony was named Georgia in honor of the king. Parliament voted money to as- sist those who wished to emigrate. 92. Settlement. — Oglethorpe brought over a colony at once, and established the town of Savannah (1733). He treated the Indians so fairlv that they gave the colony little trouble. PojDulatiou increased very slowly, however; as a col- ony, Georgia was never more than a few settlements along the Savannah Eiver, and the rest of its territory was an Indian country. When the Eevolution broke out, it had a popula- tion of only about thirty thousand, while that of Virginia was nearly twenty times as large. 93. Government. — Slavery was at first forbidden in the colony. The proprietors, thinking that this was the reason for the slowness of the colony's growth, permitted negro slav- ery. As this brought no improvement, they then surrendered their charter to the king, and Georgia became a royal colony (1752). [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, iii. 418, iv. 130; Uildreth, ii. 362; Bryant and Gay, iii. 140; Lodge, 187.] (6) The Southern Colonies iji General. 94. Indentured Servants. — Many white persons came to the colonies under a system which resembled negro slavery. They were mostly persons who had been convicted of rebell- ion or lighter offences in the mother-country, and were sent 40 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES. to the colonies on condition of working a certain number of years for masters there. These were called indentured ser- vants. All the colonists got some of them. But the king's government was not fond of sending many of them to New England, whose people favored Parliament rather than the king (§ 30); and so most of them were sent to the southern colonies. Free white men did not look upon them as equals. So the population of the southern colonies fell into three classes: rich whites, poor whites, and negro slaves. This was different from tiie state of things in the other colojiies, where almost every one was equal, rich or poor ; and it made the peo- ple of the south different in many other points. 95. Plantations. — A colony in the south, then, was not, as in New England, a close collection of small farms, with a wilderness around it; it was a little village, and around it a number of largo plantations reaching out into the wilderness. Each plantation had one rich white family, some poor white families, and a number of negro slaves. The rich whites were well educated, and had a habit of commanding which made them natural leaders, and gave them a dislike of being governed by others. They really made up the " people" of the southern colonies, for the other whites were guided by them, and the slaves had no share in the government.* 96. Early Wars. — There was some trouble from pirates on the coast; but, excepting these, the southern colonies were less exposed to enemies than the other colonies. The French were not near them; and the Sjjaniards, who then held Florida, were no nearer than St. Augustine. In Queen Anne's War (§ 60), an expedition from South Carolina captured St. Au- gustine, but was driven away by the arrival of two Spanish war-vessels. The Spaniards then sent an expedition against Charleston ; but the South Carolinians fought so well that it was beaten off with the loss of half its men. When the next war against Spain came, thirty years afterward, Georgia had been founded, and the whole burden of the war fell on Ogle- * All this was less true of North Carolina, and parts of Maryland and South Carolina. THE SOUTHERN COLONIES. 41 thorpe. At first, he carried on the war in Florida itself, and with some success; but the Spaniards were too strong for him, and he retired to the mouth of the Altamaha [(d-ta-ma-hmo''\ River. Here he awaited the Spaniards, who had organized an expedition to follow him, and defeated them. This put an end to the war. 97. Indian Wars. — The southern colonies had also little trouble with the Indians. The only important struggle in North Carolina was with the Tuscaroras, who were beaten and driven off to New York, where they became one of the Six Nations of Indians (§ 6). As the settlements farther south began to extend into the country far from the coast, the set- tlers came into contact with Indians who were much more difficult to conquer. While there were no great wars, there was a constant increase of danger from Indians until the Revolution. 98. Population. — The number of persons in the southern colonies increased as rapidly as in the northern colonies. But there was this very great difference, that the territory of New England was very small, while that of the southern colo- nies was very large. Before the increase of population in New England had gone far. New England began to be a little crowded, and trades and occupations which are impossible in a thinly-settled country came into existence. Growth of population never made the southern territory at all crowded until long after the Revolution, all that happened was that the plantations were pushed farther out into the wilderness, and the whole country was still thinly settled. During the Revolution when armies came to march through New Eng- land and the Middle States, they met little towns every few miles; in the south, they came only to one plantation after another, with great stretches of forest between. This was one reason why there were few schools, or newspapers, or any such things, in the southern colonies. 42 NEW YORK. The Middle Colonies. 99. The Middle Colonies. — We have now followed the de- velopment of the colonies in New England and the South. It should be remembered that, before the English had a firm foothold in either of these sections, the Dutch had made a place for themselves between, and that they held this ground for some fifty years. To make all the English colonies one country, it was first necessary that the English should get control of this middle region; and we are now to see how this came about. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, iv. 129; Hildreth. \. 352; ii. 421, 428; Doyle, i. 381 foil.; Lodge, 78. 125, 201; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies; Ildrper's Mag , Feb , 1883; Cent. Mag., Jan., June, Oct., 1884; April, July, 188'); Fvske, 21; Thackeray's Virginians. (% 94) Bancroft, ii. 250; Hildreth, i. 428; Lodge. 70 (and see Index, under Ser- vants). (^ 96) Bancroft, iil. 209, 443; Hildreth, ii. 228, 376, 383. (§ 97) Bancroft, ill. 246; Hildreth, ii. 268, 334.] (1) Netv York. 100. New Netherlands. — We have already seen liow Hud- son found the great river which bears his name, and how the .Dutch fixed a colony at its mouth (§ 21). The Dutch control lasted for about fifty years. New Amsterdam (New York City) being the principal place. There were a number of little villages on Long Island and on the banks of the Hudson. The main business was the fur-trade with the Indians; wars with the Indians were generally avoided. 101. The Fatroons. — The Dutch granted large tracts of land to "patroons," men who were willing to bring over a number of settlers for those estates. The colony was thus dif- ferent from New England; instead of little townships, di- vided into farms owned by the farmers, it had large tracts of land owned by patroons, and the farmers were only tenants. On the other hand, it was also different from the southern colonies; the peojile lived closer together, and had more to do with one another. The patroon system was not changed under the English, and there were some remains of it until recent times (^ 429). ITBW Tons:. 43 102. Peter Stuyvesant. — The last of the Dutch governors was Peter Stuyvesant. He was an old soldier who had lost a leg in the service of Holland, a brave, obstinate man; the English called him '*' old Silver-Leg," and his own Dutch peo- ple, " Hard-koppig Piet " (Hard-headed Peter). He had con- quered the Swedish settlement in Dela- ware (§ 22), and had tried hard to make good the Dutch claim to Connecticut. It was a bitter blow to him when an English fleet entered the har- bor (1G64), bringing a demand for the sur- render of the colony. Charles II., claiming that all this territory belonged to England, and that the Dutch were only intrudersj had given it to his brother, the Duke of York (afterwards James II.). The Duke had sent out Colonel Nichols as governor. Stuyve- sant raged and stormed, but his peo- ple were tired of be- Middle Colonies. iug ruled by governors from Holland, and he was com- pelled to surrender. He lived for some twenty years after this, and died at his farm. The " Bouwerie." * * Corner of Third Avenue and 13th Street, New York City. 44 NEW YORK. 103. New York Colony, — Governor Nichois at once changed the n;ime of New Netherlands to New York, and that of New Amsterdam to New York (city). The colony was no such im- portant place as the State now is. It covered only the narrow strip of land on both sides of the Hudson, from New York to Albany, and Long Island, Beyond Albany there were a few scattered settlements, such as Schenectady, but almost all the territory belonged to the Indians or to the French, and could hardly yet be considered a part of New York, Until the opening of the Erie Canal (§ 358), New York was one of the small colonies and States, 104. New York City. — From Maine to Georgia the At- lantic coast of North America is cut off from the interior by the Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains, which follow the coast line, at a distance of one or two hundred miles from it. There is but one natural opening in this long barrier, the place whei-e the Hudson Kiver breaks through it, and gives easy access from the ocean to Canada and the whole West, The first Dutch settlers had therefore picked out for their city just the natural gateway for traffic between Europe and the AVest, So long as this traffic was nothing more than the fur- trade with the Indians, the advantage of the city did not amount to so much. But as the population of the colonies increased, so did the advantage of the city at the mouth of the Hudson River; and, under English rule. New York City steadily increased in importance, though it did not become the most important of American cities until the opening years of this century, 105. (xovernnient, — The government of the royal colony of New York was usually bad, James II, was not willing to permit it to have an Assemblv, which was only obtained under his successor. The governors were mostly hard-drinking gentlemen appointed by the king to please certain English families, not to benefit the colony. The rich New York fami- lies had altogether too large a share in the government, and affairs did not go well. One governor was believed to be a partner of the pirates who infested the coast; another NEW TORE. 45 swindled the colony and robbed its treasury; and another cheated the people by making them pay illegal fees. 106. Jacob Leisler. — Bad government in the colony had gone so far at the time of the English Revolution (§ 33) that the people made one of their own number, Jacob Leisler, gov- ernor. He was of a Dutch family, hot-tempered and hasty, but he felt, as the people did, the danger from the French and Indians, who were attacking such outlying settlements as Schenectady, The wealthy colonial families liated him, and their opportunity came when a new governor arrived. Leisler was not entirely respectful to the new governor; and he was tried for treason, convicted, and put to death. This political murder had a great influence on the subsequent history of the colony: for a long time political parties were usually divided into those who had supported or opposed the Leisler govern- ment. 107. Captain Eidd. — The American coast, in those early days, was infested by pirates; and they were much in the habit of running into New York to sell their captures and get sup- plies. Captain Robert (or William) Kidd, a New York ship- master, was sent against the pirates by the governor (1G97) and was charged with having become a pirate himself. He was convicted and hanged; and many persons still believe that he buried his booty somewhere near New York. The pirates were not suppressed for many years. 108. The Negro Plot.— At one time (1740) it was believed that the negro slaves in New York City had plotted to kill the whites and burn their houses. A number of the slaves Avere hanged; almost as many were burned; and more were ban- ished: but it is now quite certain that no such plot existed. 109. Growth of the Colony — Bad as the English rule was, the colony prospered under it far more than under Dutch rule. The peoj^le were left to do their own work in their own way; and this made up for a good deal of bad government. Com- merce began; ships were built; the population increased; New York City began to spread out farther into the country; and the outlying settlements grew in number and importance. 46 NEW JERSEY. New York City, Albany (called by tbe Dutch Fort Orange), and Kijigston (Esopus), were the principal jilaces. All of them were Englisli, and the Church of England had many members; but the life of the colony was always greatly influ- enced by the peculiar feelings of the original Dutch settlers and their descendants. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 264, foil.; iii. 37; Byrant and Ga}i,\\. 2-,'9, 247, 319; Ilildreth, \. 136.413, ii. 44, 246; Lodge, 285; Roberts; Duniap's Nem York; Riindall's New York; Irving's Knicker- bocker; Coffin's Old Times, chap. 30; Paulding'.s Dnfc/i man's Fireside; Myers's Yonnq Patroon. {% 101) Bancroft, ii. 279; Ilildreth, i. 142; Lodge, 286; Roberta 39. (g 102) Roberts. 68; Abbott'.s Stm/resant. (^ 105) Bancroft, iii. 61: Ilildreth. ii. 76, 187, 219. (§ 106) Bancroft, ii. 448; iii. 51; Ilildreth, ii. 91, 204; R/berts, 203. (§ 107; Roberts, 227; Cooper's Red Rover. (§ 108) Ilildreth, ii. 267; Williams, i. 148. (§ Wd) Ilildreth, ii. 512; Lamb. (2) New Jersey. 110. Colony of New Jersey. — When the Duke of York took possession of New Netherlands (§ lOG), he gave part of it to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Carteret had been governor of the island of Jersey, in the English Channel, and the new colony was therefore given the name of New Jersey. At first it was divided: East Jersey belonged to Carteret, and West Jersey to a company of Quakers who had bought Berkeley's share. All the proprietors soon gave up their rights, and the two parts of New Jersey became one royal colony (1702); but until after the Kevolution it was often called " the Jerseys." 111. Settlement. — The principal places were Elizabethtown and Newark, which Avere settled by New England people; Burlington, a Quaker town; and Perth Amboy, the commer- cial town of the colony, which was expected to be a greater city than New York. 112. Government. — The colony liad for many years the same governor as New York; but the New York governors interfered very little with the Jerseys. In order to attract New England settlers, the laws were made much like those of New England, and the New England system of self-governing towns was followed quite closely. The proprietors aiDpointed PENNSYLVANIA. 47 the governor and the council; but the people elected the As- sembly, and were well contented with their share of control over law-making. Few of the other colonies had so quiet a history as New Jersey. The fourth of the American colleges, the College of New Jersey, was established at first at Eliza- bethtown (1746), but was soon removed to Princeton, where it still remains. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ii. 315; HildretJi, ii. 51, 57, 207; Lodge, 363; Syplier aud Apgar's History of New Jersey; Rauni's History of New Jersey; Scott's History of New Jersey, (3) Feimsylvania. 113, Penn and the Quakers, — The Quakers had rules of conduct peculiar to themselves: they refused to fight, to take oaths, or to show particular respect to public men. For these reasons, they were considered a disrespectful and disobedient people by English magistrates, and were persecuted, A place of refuge in America was obtained for them by one of their leaders, William Penn, who had great influence at court in spite of his being a Quaker. The British Government owed his father a debt, and Charles II. paid the debt by giving Penn the territory now in the State of Pennsylvania (LGSl). Shortly after, Penn bought from the Duke of York that part of New Netherlands which is now the State of Delaware, and united it with his own colony. 114, Pennsylvania. — The name Pennsylvania (Penn's Woods) was given to the colony by the king, and it was a fitting name, for it was Penn's wisdom which turned a forest country into a flourishing colony. He bought his land over again from the Indians, aud made with them a treaty of peace and good-will which was not broken for seventy years. He gave the colony an Assembly at once; the laws were to be made by this Assembly and a governor appointed by the pro- prietor. He gave the people a charter, which permitted them to govern themselves in most respects; but there was to be no persecution for religious reasons. His descendants, who were proprietors after him, were not always as wise as he; and 48 PENNSTLVANJA. the colony often had trouble with them or with the governors whom they sent out. But all tliis never checked the love of the people for the memory of Willia-m Penn, or their regard tor his wisdom, kindness, and consideration for the i)eoi)le. 115. Philadelphia. — When Penn's grant was made, there were some Dutch and Swedish settlers in it, mostly at Ches- ter (then called Uplandt). Penn at once sent over a company of emigrants, and came over the next year with another. His treaty with the Indians was made under a great elm-tree by the side of the Delaware Eiver, and here he laid out hie capital city, Philadelphia.* The printing-press was intro duced ahnost at once, and a high-school (which has since grown into the University of Pennsylvania) was established within a few years. The city in the early history of our country was noted for its cleanliness, order, good government, and fine buildings. It was soon the largest and most impor- tant place of the whole continent, and retained this first rank until early in this century, when New York City at last passed it in the race. 116. Growth of the Colony. — Tiie security and peace of the colony attracted to it settlers of every race and of every sect. As a general rule, the English kept to the southeast- ern part, the Dutch and Germans to the east and northeast, and the Scotch and Irish to the central part. The region in the west, around Pittslmrgh, was unsettled, and was even suj)posed to belong to Virginia (§ 74). All the colonists de- pended on agriculture for their prosperity. There were a few manufactories, and some little iroii was mined; but the great industries of modern Pennsylvania w^re quite luiknown. Although Pennsylvania was one of the most prosperous of the colonies, it must be remembered, in watching the movements of the armies during the Revolution, that Pennsylvania then meant only tlie eastern part of the present State: the rest of it was a wilderness, for which armies cared nothing. • The name, formed from two Greek words, means The City of Brptherlj- Love. DELAWARE. 49 [Supplementary Beading'. — Bancroft, ii. 330, 363 ; iv. 139; Hildreth, ii. 62, 172, 186, 206, 243, 320, 466; Lodye, 227 (see also the great num- ber of authorities cited on this and the following forty pages); Watson; Spark's Pen?i; Johnson, iii. 1144, 1151; Encyc. Brit, xviii. 492; Franklin, iii. 109 foil. (§115) Bancroft, ii. 380; Hildreth, ii. 66; Watson, 117; Winsor, iii. 482.] (4) Delaware. 117. The Lower Counties. — We have already spoken of the Swedish settlement on the Delaware River, of its conquest by the Dutch and then by the English (§32). It came to Penn by purchase from the Dulce of York, had the same Governor as Pennsylvania, and was considered a part of Pennsylvania. But it had its separate Assembly, and was always spoken of separately as " the three lower counties on the Delaware," 118. Delaware. — There was so much difference, then, be- tween this district and the rest of Pennsylvania, that when the Revolution broke out and the new State governments were formed, the people of the three lower counties formed a State government of their own, at first under the name of " the Delaware State," then under that of the State of Dela- ware. Its colonial history, however, falls under that of Penn- sylvania. [Supplementary Beading. — Bancroft, iii. 35; Hildreth, ii. 242 ; and au- thorities under Pennsylvania.] The Colonies in General. 119. Colonization Completed. — The period which we have been studying covers about one hundred and fifty years, from the settlement at Jamestown in 1607 to about the year 1750. During these years, the thirteen Englisii colonies in North America were settled, and the beginning of a great change in the face of the continent was made. In 1607, the Atlantic coast was a wilderness, inhabited by only a few savages: in 1750, it held thirteen colonies, each with a well-ordered gov- ernment able to protect its people and secure their comfort. Communication between them had also become far easier. The early settlers at Jamestown, New Amsterdam, and Plym- outh were as far removed from one another as if there had 50 COLONIAL GOVERNMENTS. been an ocean between. 'J'he first Plymouth colonists could far better go to Loudon by sea than attempt to reach James- town or New Amsterdam by land. The completion of col- onization changed all this. A traveller might now go along the whole coast, without running any great danger from In- dians, wild beasts, or lack of food. George Whitefield, the great revivalist preacher, found little difficulty in travelling through the whole of the new country, from Georgia to Xew England. The spaces of wilderness around the first little towns had gradually been filled up, until now the settlements of different colonies had begun to touch at the boundaries, and there was almost a continuous line of settlements along the coast. There was so much communication among them that the British Government arranged a post-office system for them, though it was terribly slow and uncertain. 120. The Assemblies. — As we look back on the history of these thirteen English colonies, it is easy to see that the new feature in government which they introduced was their Assemblies. These were the law-making bodies of the col- onies, elected by the people, though in some cases, particu- larly in the royal colonies, there was another body, the Coun- cil, appointed by the king, which took part in making laws. These Assemblies were supposed to act by permission of the king or the proprietor (§§37, 71); but the real cause for their existence was that the colonies were so far from England that there was need of some law-making body close at hand and ac- quainted with the interests of the colonists, and this was a natural and easy way to meet the difficnilty. When the Eng- lish Parliament, years afterwards, seized the power of mak- ing laws for the colonies, it was naturally the Assemblies that resisted (§ 1G"2), and their resistance brought on the Eevolu- tion.* 121. Democracy, — When colonization began in North * The first Assembly was in Virginia in 1619 (§ 37). Similar Assemblies began in Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay. Connecticut, and other colonies as soon as their set- tlement took place, the greatest difficulty in obtaining them being in such royal colonies as New York. THE OROWTH TOWARD INDEPENDENCE. 61 America, in other countries the people were not allowed to take part in making the laws or in electing those who were to make them ; that privilege belonged to persons born in a few families, and in most countries the king could say with truth, as in France, "lam the State." In the colonies, al- most all men obtained the right to vote for members of their Assemblies. It was found that this made a wonderful differ- ence for tlie better in the nature of the laws and in the feel- ings of the people. Laws made by such Assemblies were naturally meant to suit as many of the people as possible, and not merely to suit a few influential persons or families. Now this is what is really meant by Democracy. It does not mean that all men are equally wise, or equally rich, or equally strong, but that the laws are honestly meant to treat all men alike. This democracy, in the form of self-government by representatives, was the new political feature brought into the world by these American colonies, through these Assem- blies; and other countries have adopted it, giving up more and more of the principle of government by birth until Great Britain, for example, is in many respects as democratic as our own country. * 122. The Grrowth toward Independence. — Under this new democratic system, the colonists were beginning to think and act differently from those who still lived in England. Tiie people of the charter colonies became so used to gov- erning themselves that they considered any interference with this privilege an unpardonable wrong. Q'hose of the proprietary and royal colonies worried their governors very much, for they wanted as much liberty of government as had been given to the people of the charter colonies. All this the king and the governing families of England never could understand. They were so used to making laws to suit a few privileged persons that it was impossible for them to under- * Democracy was by no means perfect in the colonies at first, for many of the colonists thought it a dangerous system. Some men were prevented from voting because they were not rich enough, or did not belong tea particular church; but such features have lon^ since disappeared, 52 SLAVERY. stand the new American system. This made little difference for the first hundred and fifty years, for the colonies were poor and far off, and the English government did not care much about them and allowed them to gain a considerable feeling of independence. All this, it will be seen (§152), brought difficulty when the English government finally at- tempted to interfere with the colonies. It was impossible for the king and Parliament to govern a country which they did not understand ; and if it had been possible, the colonists had become so accustomed to self-government that they would never have surrendered it. The real reason for the final Revolution was in these changes, and not in mere objections to the Stamp Act or Tea tax (§§ 155, 158). 123. The Growth toward Union. — The increasing differences between the mother-country and the colonies had also the ef- fect of inclining the latter more and more to united action. An effort to form a partial Union had been made by the New England colonies (§ 56). Then the Middle Colonies and New England began to help one another in their early wars (§ 60), as the southern colonies did in theirs (§ 96). In the great French war, of which we are to hear next (§ 138), all the colo- nies helped one another; and this united them so thoroughly that, when the English Government began to interfere with their governments, they joined in resisting it (§ 169). Democracy, Independence, and Union were thus all parts of one another. 124. Slavery. — Along with democracy came another system, absolutely opposed to it, that of negro slavery. V^q first hear of it in Virginia, in 1619, the year in which the first Assem- bly met, when a British war-vessel exchanged some slaves for provisions. All the colonics permitted slavery at first, though the slaves increased most j-a})idly in the wanner southern col- onies. For many reasons this was a terrible misfortune. (1) It brought in a system which was hostile to all the other ten- dencies of the country; and a four years' desperate war be- tween the two sections of the country was finally necessary to decide whether slavery or democracy was to have the suprem- WEALTB. 53 acy (§ 503). (2) It brought two different races of men into the same country, the strong and energetic white race (§ 1) and the weak and ignorant negro race. Wherever this has happened in other lands, the stronger race has been tempted into keeping the weaker under some sort of subjec-tion; and even now thiit slavery is abolished, our country still has to meet a difficulty which no other country has ever met suc- cessfully : that of keeping two such races separate in the same country and yet on equal terms. (3) Wherever there was slavery it had the worst effect on labor, which is the most im- portant thing in a state. If laborers are generally slaves, no free man likes to labor, for that will seem to bring him down to the level of the slave. For all these reasons, as well as from the cruelty of the system of slavery, its introduction was a terrible misfortune. 125. Population. — By the time colonization had been com- pleted, about 1750, the population of the colonies had in- creased to about 1,300,000, It grew more rapidly here than in other countries, and all these people considered them- selves Englishmen and were very proud of the name. Most of them had never seen the king, but all took great pride in being his subjects. One might think that the King of Great Britain would have seen how fair a chance he had of becom- ing more powerful than the other kings of Europe, having this new and fast-growing kingdom across the Atlantic. 126. Wealth. — The colonies were no longer such poor and struggling communities as had settled at first at Jamestown and Plymouth. Their people grew tobacco, rice, indigo, and other products, which the people of Great Britain were glad to take and pay for with their own manufactures. A great trade with these colonies had thus grown up, and it made both Great Britain and the colonies richer. The colonies were now so much richer and stronger that they were able to vote money, ships, and men to help the king in his wars. And all this increase of wealth and power had cost England or the king hardly anything. The only colony which had ever 64 TBB HOME GOVERNMENT. received help in money from tlie British Government was Georgia, the weakest of all. 127. The Board of Trade.— Unfortunately, the King of Eng- land never considered the colonies as his kingdom, but only as his colonies. At that time, a colony was considered by the governments of Europe as only a place for trade, with no right to govern itself ; and the monopoly of its trade belonged to the mother-country — that is, the colony was not permitted to have any direct trade with any other country. This was the reason of the Navigation Acts (§ 57). The British Government had formed a Board of Trade, composed of officials who were to watch the colonies and see that they obeyed these Acts. This Board found its task continually growing more difficult as the colonies grew richer; and at the same time the colonies found the Navigation Acts continually becoming more annoy- ing to them. But they had as yet no thoughts of declaring their independence. 128. The Home Grovernment. — The annoyances which were kept up by the Board of Ti'ade and the royal governors were the result of the fact that the king and the leading men of England never understood the colonies or their people (§ 122) : they were more alarmed than pleased at the growth of the colonies, lest the colonies should learn to unite and form a government of their own. Instead of studying the new coun- try, and trying to arrange everything so that its people would always be glad to remain Englishmen, they were continually doing things which only annoyed the colonies but did not clieck their growth. A father who neither likes nor under- stands his son must find his family government becoming more troublesome as the son becomes too old and strong to be forced to obey; and this was the main reason for the troubles of the years following the close of this period, until parent and child agreed to live apart. 129. Chronological Summary. — The following summary gives the colonies in the order of their founding, and the leading events in the history of each : CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. 65 1606 : English colonization begun § 20 1607 : Virginia first settled at Jamestown 24 1619 : First legislative Assembly 71 Slavery first introduced 124 1623 : Indian massacre 72 1624 : Virginia becomes a royal colony 71 1676 : Bacon's Rebellion 73 1692 : William and Mary College founded 70 1614: New York (New Netherlands) : settlement begun by Dutch traders 21 1623 : New York City (New Amsterdam) settled 21 1664 : Conquered by the English 102 1691 : Leisler's execution 106 Assembly granted 105 1740 : Negro plot 108 1620 : Massachusetts first settled at Plymouth 34 1628 : Massachusetts charter granted 38 1630 : Massachusetts Company transferred to America. . . 39 1637 : Harvard College founded 65 1691 : The two colonies united 44 1692 : The Salem witchcraft delusion 43 1623 : New Hampshire first settled at Dover and Portsmouth 45 1629 : New Hampshire set off from Maine 45 1641 : Became part of Massachusetts 45 1691 : Became a royal colony 45 1634 : Maryland first settled at St. Mary's 76 1635 : Legislative Assembly granted 77 1683 : Annapolis founded 76 1692 : Toleration ceased 78 1729 : Baltimore founded 76 1763 : Mason and Dixon's line fixed 79 1634-36 : Connecticut first settled at Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford 46 1635 : Saybrook settled 47 1637 : Pequot War 48 1638 : New Haven settled 49 1639 : Constitution adopted 46 1665 : The colonies united 50 1687 : The charter-oak incident 51 1700 : Yale College founded 65 1636 : Rhode Island first settled at Providence 52 1644 : The plantations united 53 1663 : Charter granted 53 1638 : Delaware first settled by Swedes 22 1655 : Conquered by the Dutch 22 1664 : Conquered by the English 102 1682: SoldtoPenn 113 703 : Became a separate colony 117 1643 : The New England Union formed 56 1651 : The Navigation Acts begun 57 1663 : North Carolina first settled at Albemarle 83 1711 : Tuscarora War 97 66 FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. 1729 : North Carolina becomes a royul colony .§ 82 1771 : Tryon's battle witli the regulators 85 1664 : New Jersey tirst settled at Elizabethtowii Ill 1702: Becomes a royal colony 110 1738 : Becomes a separate colony 112 1746 : Princeton College founded 112 1670 : South Carolina tirst settled at Old Charleston 86 1680 : Charleston settled 86 1706 : Spanish attack on Charleston 96 1729 : South Carolina becomes a royal colony 82 1675 : King Philip's War begun 58 1681 ; Pennsylvania tirst settled near Philadelphia 115 1683: Philadelphia founded 115 1686 : The Andros Ooveijiment begun 59 1702 : Queen Anne's War begun 60 1710 : Port Royal (Annapolis) taken 60 1713 : Queen Anne's War ended 60 1733 : Georgia tirst settled at Savannah 92 1740 : The Spanish War 96 1752 : Georgia became a royal colony 93 1744 : King George's War begun 60 1745 : Louisburgh captured 60 1748 : King George's War ended 60 PERIOD IV.— COLONIAL HISTORY. (1750-1763.) (1) The French Settlements. 130. The English Territory. — Though the English claims through the discoveries of the Cubots (§ 10) covered all the territory westward to the Pacific Ocean, yet the territory actually settled when colonization was completed was only the strip of land between the Alleghany Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. But population had already begun to fill this strip, and was now ready to pass over the AUeghanies. This was to be the beginning of a thirteen years' struggle with the French for the' valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi (1750-63). 131. The French Territory. — The French, passing down from Canada, had explored and claimed all the territory between the AUeghanies and the Mississippi River, calling it THE FRENCH FORTS. 57 New France, They meant to hem the English into a small territory, while the French colonies should have room to become powerful and prosperous. 132. The French Explorers. — The wanderings and adven- tures of the Frenchmen who did the work of exploring this territory make a wonderful story. The first to explore west- ern Canada and northern New York was Cham plain; Lake Champlain is named after him. Other explorers went farther than he, the most enterprising being French missionaries to the Indians. One of them, Marquette, with a tradei- named Joliet, found the upper Mississippi, and sailed down that river to about the place where De Soto had crossed it (§ 8), A few years afterward. La Salle sailed down the Mississippi to its mouth. For some time the French had been establishing trading and missionary stations in what are now our North- western States. The most important one, Detroit, was founded in 1701, 133. The French in the Southwest. — The French were anx- ious to get control of the country around the mouth of the Mississippi, and their first permanent colony was fixed at Mo- bile (1702). Soon afterward a company was formed, and made a settlement at New Orleans, which became almost at once the principal place of the Mississippi Valley. These French settlers at the mouth of the Mississippi were thus separated from their brethren in Canada by a long stretch of wilderness, whose only inhabitants were Indians and a few French fur-traders and hunters.* 134. The French Forts. — To connect the two parts of their American possessions, the French had built a chain of some sixty forts from New Orleans to Montreal, many of which have since become important towns. The present cities of New Orleans, Natchez, Vincennes, Fort Wayne, Toledo, Detroit, Ogdensburgh, and Montreal are near enough to the sites of some of these old forts to show the general course of the chain. Back of it, toward the Mississippi and the great * New Orleans and the country around it still have very many traces of the early settlement by the French. 58 THE FRENCH COLONIES. lakes, were other forts, as at Kaskaskia, Mackinaw, and Peoria. 136. The French Colonies. —The English colonies had grown far more rapidly than the French, and had about fifteen times as large a population as the French colonies at the beginning of this period. The cause of tins differ- ence in growth was that the French colonies were governed too much; their officials were sent out from France, and, think- ing that they knew what was best for the colonies, interfered with the colonists continually. Besides, many of these officials were not honest, and plundered the colo- given toIhorapToxSerSn'o! nists Under pretencc of taxing old Forts. WASHINGTON'S MISSION: 59 them. Thus work was discouraged at every step, and the French colonies never became prosperous or populous. 136. The Ohio Company. — As soon as it became evident that English settlement was about to pass beyond the AUe- ghanies, a number of Virginians and London merchants formed the Ohio Company (1749), to buy up western lands. Its land lay in western Pennsylvania, which was then claimed by Virginia (§ 74:). Tlie company at once sent out surveyors and traders, and began opening roads for emigrants. 137. Washington's Mission.— The French took the alarm at once at the Ohio Company's preparations, and sent men from , Canada to buikl a new chain of forts, from the place where Erie now stands southward to the Ohio River, in order to stop the advance of the English. George Washington was then (1753) a Virginia land- surveyor, not yet twenty- two years old, but already known for his prudence and clearheadedness ; nnd Governor Din- widdle, of Virginia (§ 74), sent him to remonstrate with the French who were building the new forts. He made his way through the wintry wilder- ness up the Potomac River to the Monongahela, down that river to its junction with the Alleghany, and up the Alleghany until he met the French commander. That officer refused to quit the disputed terri- tory, and Washington returned with what was really a declara- tion of war. The French War. 60 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. [Supplementary Reading.— J^rr/jcTO/i, iii. 118, 190, 344 ; iv. 42 \ Eil- dreth, ii. 99, 2J0, '281, 438; Gilman, 185; Bryant and Gay, ii. 499; iii. 254; Parkman'sPw«ee?'s of France, Jemits in North America, and Dk- covery of the NortMoext; Ridpath, 247. (g 132; Sparks'.s Marquette: Win- sor. iv. 103, 163. 263; v. 1; Bancroft, iii. 152; Hildreth, ii. 99, 113, 226. (§ 134) Hildreth. ii. 434. (§ 135) Winwr, v. 60. (gg 136-7) Bancroft, iii. 344; Hildreth, ii. 433; Lodge. 30; Ridpath, 252; Winsoi', v. 492.] (2) The French AND Indian War: 1754-17G0. 138. The War on the Frontier. — For about seven years after Wasliingtcu's mission, the colonies were engaged in the most destructive war tliat had yet been known in America, the French and Indian War. It raged all along the frontier, from Virginia to Maine, beginning with the surrender of Washing- ton and a few Virginia troops, in 1754, at Fort Necessity, near the French Fort Duquesne Ydu'-lidne] (the present city of Pittsburgh), and ending with the capture of Quebec and the conquest of all Canada from the French (17G0). It was this war which reall}'^ united the colonies into one people. 139. The Albany Plan of Union. — The colonies north of Virginia sent delegates to a meeting at Albany (1754), where Franklin (§ 172) proposed a plan of uniting all the colonies under one government. The delegates approved it. But the Albany plan looked so much like an independent government that the British Government refused to agree to it; and it gave the king so much power that the colonies would not accept it. It was, however, another sign of approaching union. 140. The First Three Years For three years (1755, 175G, 1757) the war went badly for the Fnglish. Even before war was openly declared, the first English commander, Braddock, was defeated and killed by a small force of French and In- dians, near Fort Duquesne; and his army was only saved from destruction by the Virginians, under Washington, Avho covered the retreat. Acadia was taken from the French and i-enamed Nova Scotia; and the English officers treacherously seized the French settlers and sent them as exiles to the English colo- nies. An English force, under Sir AVilliam Johnson, defeated FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 61 a French army near Lake George, but did nothing further. The English generals were mostly worthless men, while the French were under command of a great soldier, Montcalm, who used liis smaller forces so well that he kept his enemies out of all the disputed territory. 141. The Year 1758. — Everything was changed Avhen one of the greatest of Englishmen, William Pitt, came to the head of the British Government. He sent out capable men as generals, and brought all the force of the colonies into the war. The armies were thrown upon the French at three points and almost at the same time. (1) A sea expedition captured Louisburgh (§ 61). (2) A land expedition took Fort Duquesne, without resistance, and renamed it Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh). (3) The only failure of the year was a bloody assault on Ticonderoga, which was rejiulsed by Mont- calm's skill and care. 142. The Year 1759. — The next year brought even greater success. It was known that the English meant to attack Quebec from Louisburgh; and Montcalm was forced to gather all his forces to defend that city. Consequentl}^ Ticonderoga and the other French forts were abandoned, and the colonies no longer felt the former terrors of the border war. The English from Louisburgh, under General "Wolfe, sailed up the St. Lawrence Kiver to attack Quebec; but they found it im- possible at first to reach their enemy. The fortifications of Quebec were on the summit of lofty cliffs I'ising straight from the river-bank, and Montcalm was not to be tempted out of this stronghold. After a siege of three months, the English were much discouraged, and Wolfe decided as a last resort to climb the cliffs and find the enemy. 143. Capture of Quebec— Choosing a dark night, Wolfe landed his army in boats on the narrow river beach at the foot of the cliffs. The men succeeded in- clambering up the precipice, which the French had not taken the trouble to guard: the sailors dragged up some small cannon with them; and in the morning the English were drawn up on the Plains of Abraham, by the side of the upper city. The French army 62 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. moved out to meet them, and was completely defeated in the battle which followed. Both Montcalm and Wolfe died ot their wounds.* Tlie city surrendered five days after the battle. 144. Conquest of Canada. — The surrender of Quebec put an end to French control of Canada, for most of the French forces had been gathered there. Montreal and other French posts surrendered as rapidly as English troops could be sent against them; and the French dominion in Xorth America gave place to that of the Etiglish (1760), 145. The League of Pontiac. — JSIany of the Indians disliked to see the newcomers, and Pontiac, an Ottawa chief who lived near Detroit, formed a league to destroy them (1763). A friendly Indian betrayed it; the attack on the English gar- rison of Detroit was beaten back, and the Indians begged for peace. Tliis was the last great Indian revolt. 146. The Peace of Paris. — The war lasted for some three years after the conquest of Canada, but the colonies had little to do with it. Spain had come to the help of France; and, when England had overthrown both of them, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris in 1763. Spain and France sur- rendered to England all of North America east of the Mis- sissippi River, Spain giving up Florida, and France the rest. France tlius retired from North America, leaving to Spain all the territory west of the Mississippi River, with the city of New Orleans, f The Mississippi River was thus the main boundary between the Spanish and English possessions in America. 147. Louisiana. — Spain gave the name of Louisiana to her North American possessions, covering, in general, the great region between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi River, from British America to the Gulf of IMexico (§ 301). The name Louisiana is'now confined to the first State ad- mitted from this territory. * Both generals lived long enough to know the result of the battle. Wolfe, when told of it, said, "Then I die happy." Montcalm, when told that his wounds were fatal, said, " So much the better; 1 shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." t Many of tbe French crossed the rjver and settled the new city of St. Louis. GROWTH OF THE COLONIES. 63 148. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of the war are as follows: 1754: Surrender of Fort Necessity § 138 Albany Plan of Union 139 1755: Braddock's defeat 140 Conquest of Nova Scotia 140 Battle of Lake George 140 1756: Formal declaration of war 140 1758: Pitt becomes head of the British Government 141 Capture of Louisburgh 141 Capture of Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) 141 Battle of Ticonderoga 141 1759: Capture of Quebec 143 1760: Conquest of Canada 144 1763: Conspiracy of Pontiac 145 Peace of Paris 146 [Supplementary Beading: Bancroft, iv. ; Hildreth, ii. ; Lodpe, 30; Bryant and Gay, iii. 254; Chalmers, ii. 252; Gilman, 185; Kidpath, 245; Winsor, v. 407, 483. (§ 139) Franklin, iii. 22; Trumbull's Con- necticut, ii. 355; Preston's 2)(?CM?«e« is, 170; Frothingham, 136; Byrant and Gay, iii. 261; Hildretli, ii. 443; Bancroft, iv. 123. (^^ -i 40) Bancroft, iv. 184, 193, 210; Hildreth, ii. 457, 474; Winsor, v. 495; Longfellow's Evangeline; Harper s Mug., June and November, 1882; Cooper's Zrtsio/ the Mohicans. (§ 141) Bancroft, iv. 275. 295, 324, 358; Hildreth, ii. 48U; Bryant and Gay, iii. 296; Winsoi\ v. 540; Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe. (§142) Bancroft, v. 110; Hildreth, ii. 504; Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac; Cooley's Michigan, 40. (§ 14^) Bancroft, iv. 452; Hildreth, ii. 502; Bryant and Gay, iii. 312; Green's Larger Hist., §g 1457, 1458, 1479; Frothingham, 101.] (3) Results of the Wak. 149. Growth of the Colonies. — The population of the colonies was now about 2,000,000 (1763: see § 98). The wealth of the colonies was increasing as rapidly; and the country east of the Alleghanies began to look like an old and well-settled country. American ships were becoming more numerous on the ocean, trading even with countries with which trade had been forbidden by the Navigation Acts (§ 57). Americans had fought beside British regulars, and had sometimes held their ground while the regulars were run- ning away (§ 140). American privateers (§ 216) in the recent war had been more numerous than the whole British navy had been when emigration to America began. No single one 64 ■ TAXATION AND REPRESENTATION of the thirteen colonies was very powerful ; but it was more evident that all the colonies together were now quite a strong people. 150. Growth of Union, — The next event was to be a strug:- gle between the English colonies and the mother-country, which had together overthi-own the French in Canada. The war had united the colonies in very many of their feelings. It should have been evident that they would unite against any new enemy, even against England, as they had done against the French: and it was necessary that the British Government should be very wise and prudent, so that it should not appear to be their enemy. 161. The British Oovernment. — Most people in England had known very little about the colonies ; and now they heard with great surprise that these colonies were no longer a wilder- ness, that they had thriving towns and colleges and printing- presses, that they were supporting armies and a navy and were able to vote large amounts of money for carrying on war. It was like the sudden rising of a new country out of the ocean. But the first thought of the British Government was that this was a capital field for new taxation. 152. Taxation. — The English debt had grown to be very large, and the taxes which paid the interest on it were very heavy. The English Parliament (§ 30) had iiad great difficulty in arranging taxation to meet the new expenses growing out of the war, and it began to think seriously of providing for part of them by laying taxes on the colonies. The excuse for such a measure was that the war had been undertaken in de- fence of the colonies, in order to drive the French out of the Ohio Valley. 153. Taxation and Representation. — Men have always found it difficult to arrange systems which would give them good government: and most of the reasons for this difficulty are in this matter of taxation. AVhen the power of taxation is given to any part of a government, it must be given altogether: the taxing body must decide how heavy the taxes shall be. When those who are taxed have the privilege of voting for members COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 65 of the taxing body, they are able to try, at least, to change the taxing body, if it makes taxes too heavy. For this reason, the colonists had never objected to being taxed by their own Assemblies (§ 37). But when those who are taxed have no representatives in the taxing body, as the colonists had no representatives in Parliament, they had no real power to do anything more than beg that taxes be not made too heavy. " Taxation without representation" would really mean that those who are taxed hold all their property at the mercy of the taxing body. There were countless other evils, too, grow- ing out of taxation without representation, which would take too much space for the telling, but which the colonists were quick to foresee. They were wise enough to see that, if they allowed Parliament to lay the smallest tax on them, they really gave Parliament all power, and they were determined enough to resist. The next twelve years, then, is the story of colonial resistance to taxation without representation. [Supplementary Reading: — Bancroft, v. 286; Hildreth, ii. 515; Bryant and Oay, iii. 329; Winsor, vi. 15; Frothingham, 101; Green's Larger EM., sec. 1489; Lodge, 476; Preston, 189; Pitkin, i. 199; Green, 52. J PERIOD v.— COLONIAL RESISTANCE. (1763-1775.) (1) Taxation without Eepresentation". 154. The Navigation Acts. — The first step of the British Government was to enforce the Navigation Acts (§57), which had fallen into neglect. American vessels and goods brought from foreign countries were seized ; and the large American trade was thrown into confusion, English officers demanded ** writs of assistance " from American courts, and these writs gave them the power to search private houses for smuggled goods. All this made the colonists very uncomfortable, but they saw no way of resisting it„ 156. The- Stamp Act. — ^It was different, however, when 66 COLONIAL RESTSTANCE. Parliament in 1765 passed the Stamp Act,* the first attempt to tax the colonies. The Assemblies (§ 153), as fast as they met, declared that Parliament had no right to tax the colonies. Able and eloquent men, like James Otis, of Massachusetts, and Patrick Henry, of Virginia, led the Assemblies, and raised the feeling of the people so high that those who were to have sold the stamps were frightened out of the business, and thus the Stamp Act remained unenforced. The strongest sign of united resistance was the meeting of the Stamp Act Congress, at New York, composed of delegates sent by nine of the colo- nies (1TG5). It declared in plain terms that the right to tax the colonies was in their representatives alone. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act the next year, declaring, however, that it still claimed the right to tax the colonies if it pleased. 156. Taxes on Commerce. — Parliament thought that the colonists would have less objectio7i to taxes levied on articles imported into America. The year after the repeal of the Stamp Act another act was passed, imposing taxes on tea and a few other articles whenever they were imported into the colonies. It was believed that the agents who were to collect these taxes could not be frightened away from their work as the agents for selling stamps had been, for they were to live in the large towns on the coast, where the British naval officers could protect them. The colonists found another way by which to defeat this act. They made a general agreement not to buy, sell, or use the articles which had been taxed : no taxes were paid, for the taxed articles were no longer im- ported. 157. The Six Years' Striig-^le, — The colonists kept up this form of resistance for about six years (1767-1773). It did not come to open war; but it made the colonists every year less anxious to be called Englishmen, — that is, it made them less loyal to England. In England, those who supported the king * The objection of the colonists was to the tax. not to the way of collecting it, for a stamp tax is an easy way of levying taxes, and has been used without objec- tion by Congress. The tax is laid on an article, such as a bank check. Then he who makes the article buys a stamp which he puts on it from the government agents, and thus helps to collect the tax himself. COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 67 were commonly called Tories, and those who opposed him were known as Whigs. So those Americans who supported the colonies took the name of Whigs, and gave that of Tories to their neighbors who remained loyal to Great Britain. There were some cases of violence. The ill-feeling between the people of Boston and the British troops quartered there led to a street- fight called the " Boston Massacre," in which several persons were killed (1770). A number of Rhode Island people seized a British vessel, the Gaspee, by surprise, and burned her. In all the colonies in which the governors were not elected by the peo^jle, the Assemblies were quarrelling more or less with their governors. Every one was uneasy, for Parliament seemed to be desirous of punishing some one, if it could see a way to do so; audit was evident that the colonists would resist any such attempt by force. 158. The Tea Tax. — Parliament tried to quiet the Ameri- can feeling by taking oS. all the taxes except that of three pence per pound on tea (1770) ; but the colonists resisted this, as containing the p7i.7iciple of taxation without representation (§ 153), Then Parliament made its last effort. It passed an Act (1773) allowing English tea merchants to pay the tax in England, export the tea to America, and then get the tax back from the government. The colonists would thus get the tea as cheaply as in England, for no tax had really been paid: it would only seem to be paid. 159. The Boston Tea-Party. — When the cargoes of tea ar- rived, the people of New York, Philadelphia, and other coast towns did not allow them to be lauded, but sent them back. The iiing'j officers at Boston would not permit the tea-vessels to leave the harbor; and a number of persons, disguised as Indians, boarded the vessels and threw the tea into the harbor (1773). Thus, in various ways, the tea was prevented from getting into the colonies, and Parliament was again defeated. 160. The Intolerable Acts.— The " Boston Tea-Party " gave Parliament at last an enemy whom it could punish. Acts were passed at once to forbid ships entering or leaving Boston harbor so as to ruin Boston's trade; to change the charter of 68 COLONIAL RESISTANCE. Massachusetts so as to take away the power of the people over their government ; to send American offenders to England for trial; and to prevent Americans from settling the western territory which had been conquered from the French. Now these were Acts which the colonists could not resist as peace- ably as they had done in other cases: they must resist by force, and that would be nothing less than war. And they could not help resisting, particularly the Act changing the govern- ment of Massachusetts. That colony had a charter, which secured to it the right of self-government (§ 29). If Parlia- ment were permitted to change the charter of Massachusetts as it pleased, much more could it change the governments of colonies whicli had no other charters; and so no colony Avas safe. 161. Legislation aud Representation. — The first idea of the colonists, and of their friends in England, had been that while Parliament had no right to tax the colonies (§ 153), it had a right to make laws for them in other matters. The Acts just spoken of put an end to this opinion, for if Parliament could make laws for the colonies, it could make laws, as it had done, to punish them for refusing to submit to taxation. From this time, then, the Americans resisted " legislation without rep- resentation ; " that is, they held that Parliament, without American representatives, had no right to make any laws for the colonies, and that they were justified in resisting any such laws, even by force. 162. First Continental Congress. — The Assemblies in the different colonies passed resolutions condemning Parlia- ment so severely that the governors dismissed them; and many of the colonies were thus left without any real govern- ments. The call for another Congress (§ 155) was general, and it met at Philadelphia (1774). It is commonly called the First Continental Congress, meaning the first general Congress from all the colonies of the continent. Its main work was to draw up Articles of Association, to be signed by the people of the whole country, binding them not to buy, sell, or use English goods until the objectionable Acts should be repealed. It COLONIAL RESISTANCE. 69 also promised the support of all the colonies to Massachusetts, and called another Congress for the following spring. 163. Suspension of GrOTernment. — By this time there was general confusion in the governments to which the colonies had been accustomed. In New England, General Gage had been appointed Governor of Massachusetts, and he held Boston with a British garrison; but the towns did most of the work of government without much attention to their former rulers. In most of the colonies, the royal governors attempted to stop those parts of the colonial governments which were elected by the people. When these were stopped, the people had very little respect for what was left of the gov- ernments, and no one knew whom to obey. Government was left to committees, called Committees of Correspondence, who acted by common consent; and these were busy collecting arms and military supplies, and getting ready for open war, if it should come. It was most probable that the first conflict would come in Massachusetts, if Gage should attempt to en- force the Acts of Parliament against the colony; and the Massachusetts people had formed themselves into " minute- men," pledged to be ready for a battle at a minute's notice. [Supplementary Eeading. — From this poiut until the close of the Revoliitiou, only brief and general references ■will be given under each section, for Wiusor's Reader's Hand-Book of the RevolvHon will give the pupil all necessary guidance to special references Consult the index to Winsor, under the subject for which references are needed. (§ 154) Bancroft, Y. 91; FrothingJiam, '[hS; Hildreth, \\. 499 Bryant and Oay, iii. 329, 351; Winsor, vi. 23. (§155) Bancroft, v. 243. 269, 308 foil.; Frothingliam, 175; Hildretli, ii. 524; Winsor, \. 29, Ridj'ath, 2b9; Niles, 451; Pitkin, i. 170; Lodge, 476. (§156) Ilildreth, ii. 538; Gxnnn's, Larger Hist., sec. 1500; Green, 53. (§157) Winsor, vi. 43, 49; Ilildreth, ii. 554, 561; Ridpath, 293. (§ 158) Bancroft, vi. 352; Frothingham, 296; Hil- dreth, ii. 556; iii. 25. (§ 159) Bancroft, vi. 465; Hildreth, iii. 26; Winso?-, vi. 91. (% 160) Bancroft, vi. 511, 525; Hildreth, Hi. 32. (§161)5a?i- croft, vii. 126; Hildreth, iii. 34, 42; Green's Larger Hist., sec. 1508; Greene, 78 ; Frothingham, 335.] (2) Lexington" and Concoed: 1775. 164. Enforcement of the Acts. — Until this time the colo- nists had been able to make peaceable resistance ; frightening 70 COLONIAL RESISTANCE. stamp-officers, refusing to buy tea or English goods, or even throwing tea overboard, were proceedings which the British Government did not like but could not easily find a way of punishing. Matters had now come to a point where peace- able resistance was no longer possible. If Gage was Governor of Massachusetts under the new Acts of Parliament, it was his business to take care that no preparations for war were begun in his colony. When, therefore, he heard that military stores had been collected at Concord, a village about twenty miles from Boston, he ordered out 800 men to destroy them. If the Massachusetts people alloAved this to be done, it meant that they submitted to the new Acts of Parliament. If they resisted, it must be by force; that is, by war. 165. Lexiugton and Concord. — The march of the British was begun about midnight April 18-19, 1775, and just before day- break they entered the village of Lexington. Warning of their march had been sent out from Boston, and they found some sixty half-armed minute-men drawn up on the village green. A volley from the British killed several of the minute-men and scattered the rest. This was but a little battle in itself; but it meant tiiat the end had come, that England and her colonies were now to be separated by war, and that a new nation, with new ways of thinking and acting, was born. Pushing on to Concord, tlie British destroyed the stores there, and began their retreat to Boston. It was time: messengers were riding through the country around; the church-bell« Avere ringing the alarm; and the minute-men were gathering on the road between the British and Boston. 166. The British Retreat. — Wlien the retreat began, the soldiers Avere fired on from every fence and rock along the road. For a time they fired back steadily; then they broke Lexington and Concord. OOLOmAL RESISTANCE. 71 iuto a run, chased by the Massachusetts men. When another British force met them at Lexington, they lay down in the road and panted, " their tongues hanging out of their mouths like dogs after a chase." The retreat was begun again, and the Americans kept up the pursuit until the tired soldiers found refuge under the guns of the Britisli ships of war at Boston. 167. The Siege of Boston. — So many of the minute-men remained in front of Boston that the British were shut up in the town. As the news spread through New England, men left their farms and hurried to join in the siege of Boston. Ships still sailed into the harbor; but all the country around was now an enemy's country to the British. The Eevolution had begun, and with it the history of the United States. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, vii. 288; Hildreih, iii. 67; Bry- ant and Gay, iii. 377; Dawson, i. 26; Moore's Diary, 1. 63; Frothing- bam's Siege of Boston, 70; Everett, i. 73; Atlantic, June, 1875; ifo?-- per's Mag.,'^l?iy, 1865; 0. W. Hohncs's Lexington; Lougfellow's Pa«^ Revere's Ride. The account wilh the greatest number of authorities is in Winsoi', vi. 123, 174.] 168. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this twelve years' struggle (1763-1775) are as follows: 1763-66: Internal Taxation §152 1764: Parliament claims the right to tax the colonies 152 1765: The Stamp Act passed 155 Stamp- Act Congress 155 1766: The Stamp Act repealed 155 1767-73: Commercial Taxation 156 1767: Parliament lays taxes on commerce 156 The Americans stop using the taxed articles 156 1768: Boston occupied by British troops 157 1770: The Boston massacre 157 The taxes removed, except that on tea 158 1772: Burning of the Qaspee 157 1773: Tea sent to America 158 The colonists refuse to receive it 159 The Boston Tea-Party 159 72 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. 1774-65: Legislation §160 1774: Parliament passes Acts to punish the colonies 160 First Continental Congress 163 Articles of Association 1 62 1775: War 164 1775: Lexington and Concord fights 165 The Siege of Boston 167 Beginning of the American Revolution 167 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. THE REVOLUTION: 1775-81. 169. Rise of the Republic— The history of the United States as a separate country begins with the fight at Lexing- ton, though the name of the United Colonies was kept up for more than a year (§ 185). The Americans still considered the King of England as their king, and believed that they were fighting against the attempt of Parliament to govern them by its own will. When they at last found that the king was altogether on the side of their enemies, they rebelled against him too, and made their country an independent country. 170. The Colonial Governments. — Almost all of the colonial governments went to pieces at the outbreak of war. The royal governors, judges, and other oflficials ran away, and took refuge on British ships of war or in towns where there were British soldiers. The former Assemblies came together, calling themselves provincial congresses, and acted for a time as colonial governments. 171. The Second Continental Congress. — Soon after the fights at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress (§ 163) met at Philadelphia (1775). Each colony had sent its ablest men as delegates. Among the delegates from Massachusetts were John Adams, afterwards President, Samuel Adams, a trusted leader of the people, and John Hau- 73 74 THE REVOLUTION. [1775 cock, a Boston merchant, whose bold signature heads the list of signers of the Declaration of Independence. New York sent John Jay, afterwards chief justice. Pennsylvania sent Robert Morris, afterwards the skilful manager of the money affairs of the new people, and Benjamin Franklin. Virginia sent Patrick Henry, the most eloquent man of his time, Thomas Jefferson, who afterwards wrote the Declaration of Independence, and George Wasliington. The leading men in the eyes of the people were Franklin and Wasliington. 172. Franklin, — Benjamin Franklin was a Boston boy by birth, but settled in Philadelphia early in life. He was a printer and newspaper writer, self-taught, who first became widely known through his annual publication of " Poor Richard's Almanac." This was filled with good advice, al- ways put into easily remembered proverbs, such as " Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep tbee;" and " Plough deep, while sluggards sleep, And you shall have corn to sell and to keep." Poor Richard's proverbs seemed very good sense to most peo- ple; and it was found, when Franklin was given public work to do, that he acted in accordance with his own proverbs. Americans believed in his good sense and honesty; and many of them had supported colonial resistance because he favored it. Then, too, they liked him because he, like them, was ai)t to think for himself, and not to believe simply because other people had believed. For example, men had had very odd notions about electricity; Franklin, accepting none of these opinions, showed that electricity and lightning were the same thing, and that the lightning-rod might save houses from destruction. In other matters likewise, he thought for him- self; and men listened to him for that reason. 173. Washington. — Twenty years had passed since Wash- ington had gone on his mission to the French (§ 137), and he was now over forty years old. He was not yet so widely known as Franklin, but the people were soon to know him better. He had Franklin's good judgment, though he was 1775] THE REVOLUTION. 75 not so ready a talker; but he was as able to carry plans into effect as Franklin was to make them. He knew how to choose the best men to help him, to bear patiently with their imper- fections, and to select the wisest advice out of all that was offered him. Above all, men soon came to see that he had no selfish desires; that he cared nothing about obtaining a high place for himself, but cared only for the good of the country; and so they trusted him, and gave him the highest places they could make for him. 174. Jefferson, — Another member of this Congress, Thomas Jefferson, had not much influence at the time, but was to have more as the years passed by. He was a poor speaker, though a brilliant writer. Men liked to have him write out a thing after they had decided upon it, for he could put it into the words that were best suited to it; but they had not so much confidence in his good judgment, for he was apt to adopt new ideas merely because they were new. He was filled with a love of that principle of democracy, which has come, little by little, to have such great effects ou the people and on their government (§ 121). He felt that laws were good according as they left more liberty to each person; and that no government was good for the whole country un- less it made each person (that is, individuals) more free. The people did not generally agree with him at first; and he be- came their leader at last, not so much because they liked him or his ideas, but because his ideas were those which they could not help adopting. 175. Congress Accepts War. — When Congress met, it de- cided to adopt the minute-men before Boston as a " Conti- nental army," to send Washington to be its commander-in- chief, and to begin a navy. But it unfortunately did not attempt to lay taxes, but issued paper money, which was nothing but promises to pay, and there Avas no money with which to redeem them. For some years, then, interest turns to Washington's management of the army, while Congress was trying to raise money to support it. 76 THE REVOLUTION. [1775 (1) In New England. 176. Bunker Hill. — Before Washington could reach Bos- ton, the American forces had decided to seize a liill known as Bunker Hill, on a peninsula just north of the town of Bos- ton, from which their cannons could fire into Boston and drive the British out. Through the darkness of the night, they went nearer Boston, and fortified another hill, called Breed's Hill.* Gage, the next morning, sent over a force of picked men in boats to the foot of the hill to retake it. The great question was "whether the Yankees would fight," and it was soon settled that they would. Not a shot was fired until the attacking line was close to the breast- work; then came a sheet of flame, and as the smoke lifted, the British line was seen re- treating down the hill. The attack was renewed, with the same result. It was renewed a third time, and the defenders of the works, whose powder and bullets had all been used, fought desperately for a few minutes with gunstocks and stones. At last they retreated slowly to the mainland, f and the British took the fort, but Avith the loss of one third of their number. 177. Washington's Army. — Washington found his men, though not discouraged by the result of Bunker Hill, poorly armed and clothed, undisciplined, and unwilling to submit to the strict rules necessary for an army. He worked all through SCALE OF MILES Around Boston. * Breed's Hill is now known as Bunker Hill, and Bunker Hill Monument is erected upon it. t Among the killed was Joseph Warren, a Boston physician, and one of the American leaders. His amiable character and great abilities made his loss a seri- ous one. 1776] m NEW ENGLAND. 77 the winter with the energy of ten men; he obtained powder and arms from captured British ships; he persuaded the men to submit to discipline; and finally he had something like an army.* His headquarters were at Cambridge, near Boston; and here he raised the first flag of the United Colonies, having the stripes of the present flag, but a double cross where the stars now are, to represent the king.f 178. ETacuation of Boston. — In the following spring (1776) Washington seized Dorchester Heights, another hill much like Breed's Hill, but on the opposite side of Boston. Before his movement was discovered, he had made his positioii so strong that the British did not care to attack it, but agreed to leave Boston. They then set sail for Halifax, and Washington entered Boston in triumph. From this time the British Government made no serious effort to conquer New England ; and for a few months, until they attacked the Middle States (§ 187), there were no longer any British forces within the United States. [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 171) Bancroft, vii. 353; Hildreth, iii. 76; Greene, 89. (§ 172) Lives of Frauklin by Sparks, Bigeloic, Parton, and McMaster; Franklin, ii. 80 {Extracts from Poor Richard), i. I. (autobi- ography); Parker, 13. (§ 173) Lives of Wasliinglon by Sparks, Everett, Irving, Marshall, and Lossing; Parker, 75; Cnfi\\?,'s Recollections; Rush's Private Life of Washington; Brougham's Eminent Statesmen, ii. 131; Curtis, i. 380. (§ 1~4) Lives of Jefferson hy Randall, Parton, and Tucker; Parker, 2m; Webster, i. Ill; Schouler, ii. 200. (§176) Bancroft, vii. 404; Hildreth, iii. 72: Carrington, 92; Moore's Diary, 97; Bryant and Gay, iii. 396; Frothingham's Siege of Boston, 382; Wiiisor, vi. 135, and authorities from p. 184, with Reader's Handbook, 35. (§178) Bancroft, viii. 60, 291; HUdreth, iii. 85, 121.] (2) In Canada. 179. Ticonderoga. — Washington had been aiming to drive the British out of Canada, as well as out of Boston, so that * The uniform, when the men had one, was blue and yellow (or buff), and these were the "rebel" colors during the Revolution. But the men generally wore hunting-shirts, dyed brown, as they could afford nothing better. t When the colonies declared themselves independent of the king, they put the stars in place of the double cross. A stripe as well as a star v,^as added for the new States of Vermont andKentucky; and American soldiers and sailors fought through the War of 1813 under a flag with fifteen stripes and fifteen stars. It was then de- cided to retain only thirteen stripes, and add a star for each new State. 78 THE REVOLUTION. [1776 Canada might join the other colonies. The strong fort of Ticonderoga blocked the way from northern New York into Canada; but this was taken by surprise by Ethan Allen and a party of Vermonters (1T75). See map (§ 137). 180. Invasion of Canada. — Montgomery and Schuyler, two New York officers, led an Ameiican force into Canada at once and captured Montreal. Here Arnold joined them with more troops, after a perilous journey througli northern Maine; and the whole army attacked Quebec. JMontgomery was killed and his troops were beaten off. The next spring tliey re- treated to Ticonderoga, and Canada remained a British province. (3) In England and on the Coast; 181. Feeling in England. — Very many persons in England had believed that the colonists were right — that in figliting for the right of taxation by their Assemblies they were doing just what Englishmen had done long before in fighting for the right of taxation by Parliament in their own country (§30). This feeling died away somewhat as the war grew more angry, but it never was wholly lost. 182, Parliament's Measures, — Parliament was naturally very angry when it heard of the battles in Massachusetts and the siege of Boston. It declared the Americans rebels; it voted to hire German soldiers from Hesse, called Hessians, since it was not easy to induce Englishmen to go over and fight in America; and it directed that American vessels should be captured as enemies. All this was not likely to make Americans feel more kindly to tlie British Government. 183, On the Coast. — British vessels along the coast acted as if they were dealing with an enemy's country, instead of with colonies of their own, country. They fired into towns whore they were refused provisions; and the stories of such cruelties made the colonists still more angry. Soon after the evacuation of Boston, a British fleet attacked Charleston, but was beaten off by the South Carolina troops, one of the ships being burned. These events made the colonists feel that they 1776] m THE MIDDLE STATES. 79 not only wished independence, but were able to obtain it if they would fight for it. (4) Independence. 184. The Desire for Independence. — The movements of the armies make up most of the history of the Revolution, but they had little to do with the life of the people, who went on working, plowing, sowing, and reaping, except where the armies were placed. There were nearly three millions of the colonists by this time, and there were never more than about 40,000 British soldiers in America at any one time. They were too well-disciplined soldiers to be easily driven out; but they held only a few places, and very many of the people never saw one of them. Three or four noisy and lawless men would give as much annoyance to a village of three hundred inhabi- tants as the British armies ever gave the colonies. But the village would soon want to be rid of its troublesome members; and so the colonies came to wish to be rid of British rule; that is, to be independent. They no longer cared to be sub- jects of a king who was openly on the side of their enemy, the Parliament. 185. State Grovernnients. — The first sign of independence was in the spring of 1776, just after the evacuation of Boston. The separate colonial governments had gone to pieces (§ 163). Instead of them, the people of the colonies now formed governments of their own, without asking jDcrmission of king or Parliament. These no longer called themselves colonies, but States; so that the "United Colonies," as they had called themselves, were now really the United States. All that was necessary was to assume the name of the United States, and that was done in the Declaration of Independence. 186. The Declaration of Independence. — Virginia led the way in calling on Congress to declare independence; but it was some months before all the other colonies agreed to it. The resolution to that effect was adopted July 3. In the meantime, a committee had been appointed to draw up a Peclaration. The work of writing it was given to Jefferson 80 THE REVOLUTION. [1776 (§ 174).* The Declaration of Independence was adopted by Congress July 4, 1776. f [Supplementary Reading.— (i^ij; 179, 180) Winsor, vi. 156, 160, 213 Bancroft, vii. 339; viii. 68, \18: HildretTi, iii. 74, 102. (§182) Bancroft viii. 159, 255; Hildreth, iii. 61, III. (§183) Bancroft, viii. 230, 346, 394 Winsor, vi. 169, 229; Moore's Dw/r^, i. 157; Lossing, ii. 754. (§§ 185 186) Bancroft, viii. 378, 434, 462; Utldreth. iii. 124; Wimoi-, vi. 231 263, 269; Frothingham, 245, 548; Greene, hS. 100; Moore's Z)wr^, i. 261 Pitkin, \. ^^2; Curtis, i. 81; Randull, i. 172; Jefferson, i. 14,96,146 /. Adams, iii. 55; Preston, 210; Bryant and Gay, iii. 479. (5) In the Middle States: 1770-1778. 187. The New York Expedition.— The British forces had only drawn back for a more dangerous attack. They had given up New England, for its coast was stormy in winter and unsafe for sailing vessels, and had decided to attack the Middle States, where there was an excellent harbor for their ships, and a deep river reaching nearly to Canada, by securing which they might cut off New England from tlie rest of the Union. Washington had hurried from Boston to New York; and the work of fortifying the city had been begun when the British expedition appeared, just before the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and took possession of Staten Island. It was commanded by General Howe and Admiral Howe, two brothers. 188. Battles around New York. — After spending two months in efforts to make peace with the colonies, Howe sent part of his army over to Long Island, where part of the American forces were defending Brooklyn. The battle of Long Island showed the great superiority of trained over un- trained soldiers; the Americans were completely defeated and driven into Brooklyn, then only a ferry station. Washington * Jefferson was not a successful public speaker, and John Adams took upon himself the work of defending; Jefferson's form of the Declaration before Congress. The two men were therefore closely united in support of the measure; and it was a curious coincidence that the deaths of Jefferson and Adams fell on the same day, and that day the 50th anniversary of the passage of the Declaration, July 4, 18^. t The Declaration is in the Appendix. 1776] IN THE MIDDLE STATES. 81 succeeded in bringing them over to upper New York under cover of a fog, but the British fol- lowed, and AYashington re- treated northward before them, skirmishing as he went. When he reached the hilly country near Peekskill, where he had prepared fortifications, Howe was unwilling to attack, and drew back to take possession of New York, capturing as he went Fort Washington (now in upper New York City), in which an American force had been left against Washington's orders. From this time until the end of the war New Y^ork City was held by the Brit- ish. 82 THE REVOLUTION. [1776 189. The Retreat through the Jerseys. — It was evident that Howe meant to attack the Jerseys next, and Washington took part of his army across the Hudson and down its west bank to meet them. Part of the British army, under Cornwallis, succeeded in crossing the Hudson, and Washington could only retreat before them, delaying their advance as long as possible.* By the end of the year (1776), he had been driven across New Jersey and had put the Delaware Eiver between his little army and its pursuers. 190. Discouragement of the Americans. — The state of affairs had changed since independence was declared in the previous summer. The British now held Xew York and New Jersey, and were so near Philadelphia, then the largest city in the country, that Congress left that city, giving Washington power to do whatever he thought best. It was "a time that tried men's souls;" very many persons within the British lines had declared themselves British subjects again. Washington's army was growing smaller every day, and the British believed that they had only to wait until the Delaware Eiver should freeze over, so that they could cross, to catch Washington and end the war. 191. Trenton and Princeton. — An unexpected movement of Washington gave him back most of New Jersey. Crossing the river on Christmas night of 1776, with his best troops, he surprised and captured the Hessian garrison of Trenton; and the cheers which followed him as he marched his prisoners into Philadelphia showed that the current of the war had changed. Ten days later, having returned to Trenton and findingthat the British, under Cornwallis, were hemming him in between themselves and the Delaware, Washington broke camp by night, and marched around the sleeping British army. Coming to Princeton, he met and captured a British force on its way to join Cornwallis, and then marched toward * It was (hiring: this retreat that the British captured and hanereda young Amer- ican officer. Captain Nathan Hale. He was a spy, like Andr6 (§ 215"), but was not treated as was And r6. He was shown no sympathj-, and was not given time to write a letter or prepare for death. 1777] IN THE MIDDLE STATES. 83 New Brunswick, where all the supplies of the British were stored, as if he meant to attack that place next, Cornwallis hastily pursued him; but he turned off into the mountains of northern New Jersey, and fortified himself at Morristown. Here the British did not venture to attack him. 192. Winter Quarters. — At Morristown, Washington was in a position from which he could strike any British force which should attempt to pass along his front toward Philadelphia. The British soon found themselves so insecure that they drew in around New Brunswick and near Sandy Hook, leaving the rest of New Jersey to the Americans. The winter thus passed without much advantage to either side, except that Washing- ton's generalship had saved Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 193. Foreigners as American Officers, — In the following year (1777) the Marquis de La Fayette, a French youth of nineteen, crossed the ocean in a ship provided by himself and loaded with supplies for the American army, to take service under Washington. He brought with him Kalb, an expe- rienced German officer. Others followed his example. There had been war in Europe for many years, and many men had grown up knowing war as a business. War in Europe had now stopped for the time, and these men were anxious to take part in the American war. The best of those who came were La Fayette and Kalb, Kosciusko and Pulaski, two Polish patri- ots, and (in 1778) Steuben, a veteran German officer, who first instructed the American troops in the tactics used in Europe. Many of the other foreign officers, however, were selfish and ambitious men, who gave Washington and Con- gress a great deal of trouble. 194. Howe's Sea Expedition. — Howe found that Washing- ton was not to be moved fi'om his stronghold at Morristown, and in the summer (1777) he embarked most of his army on the fleet at Staten Island and put out to sea. He sailed southward and then up Chesapeake Bay, landing near Elk- ton, Md. Washington had brought his army to defend Phila- delphia, and was now drawn up between Howe and that city. 195. Brandj^wine and Germautown, — A creek called the 84 THE REVOLUTION. [1777 Brandy wine crosses the road from Elkton to Philadelphia; and. here at Chad's Ford, the two armies met and joined battle. The Americans were defeated, but did better fighting than they had yet done. Howe took Philadelphia; but Washington did not lies- itate to attack him again at Germantown (now a part of Philadelphia). This battle was doubtful for a time, but the Americans were beaten off after hard fighting. 196. Valley Forge. — Congress had fied from Philadelphia again, leaving Washingtpn in control. He found a place near Philadelphia, called Valley Forge, from which he could watch the l^ritish as well as he had done at Morristown. Here he spent the winter with his men. The winter was bit- terly cold, and the half-clad Americans suffered terribly. But Was?vington persisted in keeping his place at Valley 1777] THE BURGOYNE CAMPAION. 85 Forge, from which he could threaten the British if they should venture to move out from Philadelphia. But things were not so dark as they had been, for while Washington liad been fighting around Philadelphia, a British army had sur- rendered in northern New York (§ 201); and before the win- ter was over, France had entered the war as an ally of the United States (§ 20i). [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 187) Bancroft, viii. 458, ix. 37; Hildreth, iii. 142; Bryant and Gay, iii. 490; Winsar, vi. 375, 323. (§ 188) Ban- croft, ix. 76; Hildreth, iii. 148; Carrington, 199; Dawson, 150; Lossing's Rev., ii. 806; Harper's Mag.,h.\\g\i?,t, 1876. (§§ 189-191) Bancroft, ix. 194- 256; Bryant and Gay, iii. 520; Hildreth. iii. 154-168; Winsor, vi. 367; Carrington, 254-294. (§ 193) Headley's Washington and his Generals, ii. 271; S parks 's Pute^iy ^ovi an' s, Steuben; Kapp's *S'tewSe«-. (§§194-196) Bancroft, ix. 357,388,422,452; Hildreth, iii. 216; Greene, 257; Carring- ton, 362-412.] (6) Burgoyne's Expedition : 1777. 197. Biir^oyne's Expedition. — In the summer of 1777, while Howe was embarking his army for Philadelphia, General John Burgoyne, with an army of British, Hessians, Canadians, and Indiaus, moved southward from Canada, to attack northern New York, and fight his way down the Hudson Eiver to New York City. He reached Ticonderoga, which he captured without difficulty. Opposed to him Avas Schuyler (§ 180), with less than half as many men. 198. Schuyler's Defence. — Schuyler could only retreat, but he destroyed the bridges behind him, felled trees across the roads, and delayed the enemy as much as possible. Finally, he took a position on some islands where the Mohawk emp- ties into the Hudson, so that Burgoyne could not well pass him, and could attack him only under great disadvantages. Both armies halted for a time. 199. Fort Schuyler and Bennington. — By this time, Bur- goyne began to be in want of provisions. He sent one part of his army to the westward to take Fort Schuyler (now the city of Eome). The garrison of the fort, reinforced by Arnold, beat off the attacking force, and, instead of allowing THE REVOLUTION. [1777 it to rejoin Burgoyne, chased it into Canada. About the same time, Burgoyne had sent anotlicr part of his army east- ward into Vermont, whose peo- ple claimed to be a separate State (§ 55). The British ex- pedition was met at Bennington by Vermont and Xew Hamp- shire militia under Stark and "Warner. After a battle lasting nearly all day, the British sur- rendered, and Burgoyne thus lost a large part of his best Hes- sian soldiers.* 200. Bemis Heights and Still- water. — Congress had sent Gates with reinforcements to take Schuyler's place. Gates moved his army up the west bank of the Hudson and at Bemis Heights met Burgoyne, who had crossed to the same side of the river. A furious battle followed, in which the British held the ground, but were unable to drive the Ameri- can army from its position. Another attempt to break through the American lines, three weeks later,resulted in a de- feat of the British at Stillwater. 201. Surrender of Burgoyne. — Burgoyne's position was now desperate. His Indians were leaving him ; he had lost his best troops ; he was no longer able to get provisions irom * Stark's speech to his men beiore ihf Itattle, is said to have been: " There they are, boys; we must beat them to-day, or this night Molly Stark's a widow." SCALE OF MILES 1777] m TEE MIDDLE STATES. 87 Canada, for the Americans had passed his camp and blocked the roads toward the north ; and the American riflemen were swarming around him and making it dangerous to move even from one part of his camp to another. Unable to advance or retreat, and not having even bread for his men, Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. A trained British army had been captured by a hastily collected army of farmers. [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, ix. 322, 361,405; Hildretli, iii. 196; Winsor, vi. 292, 348; Bryant and Oay, iii. 581 ; 'Lossmg'?, Schuy- ler ; Dawson, i. 255; Carrington, 303; Creasy, cap. 13; Moore's -Deary, i. 496, 513 ; Greene, 263 ; Header's Handbook, 134 ; Sparks 's Stark.] (7) Aid From France. 202. France and England. — The men who then controlled the British Government were not well liked in other countries of Europe, and particularly in France. It is known now that France had kept agents at work in the British colonies ever since the conquest of Canada (§ 144), in order to get the first news of any inclination of these colonies to rebel against Eng- land; and when the Kevolution at last broke out, arms and clothing came secretly from the French Government to the American armies. Congress sent agents to Paris to induce France to take the side of the colonies openly; but the French Government was not ready for this until the colonies should prove that they were ready to do their full share of the fight- ing in the war with England which would certainly follow. 203. The Appointment of Franklin. — Franklin (§ 172) was one of the American agents sent to France. He reached that country in the darkest hour of the war, just before the battle of Trenton, and proved to be one of the wisest foreign agents that any country ever had. For more than a year he ob- tained from France all the secret aid which that country could give. The French people liked him better than any other foreigner whom they had seen, and their liking for him made their government more friendly to him. 204. The French Treaty. — The capture of Burgoyne's army helped Franklin immensely, for it showed that the 88 THE HEVOLVTION. [1778 United States would not leave all the fighting to France. When the news came, the French Government at last agreed (1778) to make a treaty of alliance with the United States, and to send a fleet of war-vessels and an army to America to take part in the war. This treaty was the first case in which another nation recognized the United States as a nation. 205. England Declares War. — The British Government at once declared war against France, and offered their former colonies all that they had asked three years before, freedom from taxation and representation in Parliament. It was too late, for the colonies were now determined to be inde- pendent.* 206. Battle of Monmoatli. — Clinton succeeded Howe as the British commander in Philadelphia during the winter after the capture of that city. On receiving the news of the French alliance, Clinton left Philadelphia, and moved his army across the Jerseys toward New York City, in order to unite all his forces before the French should arrive. Wash- ington hurried after him from Valley Forge, and overtook the rear of the British army at Monmouth Court-house (Free- hold). A battle followed, and lasted until nightfall without decided result. During the night the British drew off to Sandy Hook, and there embarked for New York City. 207. Washington's Headquarters. — AVashington moved his army northward and again took up his old position, his line running from about Peekskill, in New York, to Morristown, in New Jersey. From this line he could attack the British if they moved out in any direction from New York City. For the remainder of the war these positions were maintained, and the British held but two important places in the Northern States, New York City and Newport. Having evidently failed in New England and, in the Middle States, they were now about to make an effort to conquer the Southern States (§319). [Supplementary Beading.— i?a/;r?-q/7. ix. 133, 285, 811. 478, x. 124 ; Hildreih, iii. 177, 246; Lives of Frankliu b}- Parton, Bifflow.nud McMaftter; * Spaiu and Holland afterwards Joined France in the war. 1778] IN THE NORTS AFTER 1778. 89 Hale's Franklin in Finance; Sparks's Franklin; Oreen:;, 173 ; Lyman, i. 17; Trescott, 15; Pi^-jX i. 394, 400, 500 ; Bryant and Gay, in. b^S; J. Adams, iii. 123, ix. 477 ; Moore's Diary, ii. 43 ; Green's Larger Hist., sees. 1512, 1513 ; Carrington, 412 ; Lossiug's Rev., ii. 356.] (8) I:n" the North after 1778. 208. Attack on Newport. — When the French vessels arrived (§ 204), it was found that the bar at the mouth of New York harbor woukl not permit them to enter, and it was decided to attack Newport. An American army was sent to Rhode Ishmd to join in the attack by land; but a storm blew the French fleet off the coast, the attack failed, and the British still held Newport. 209. Change in the War. — After the French alliance, the v/ar became much more savage, for the British Government now considered the Americans to be not only rebels, but trai- tors who had gone over to the French. Americans who were taken prisoners were confined in old ships, or " hulks," where they were half-starved and were treated most cruelly. The Indians were sent against such frontier settlements as Wyoming Park and Cherry Valley, N. Y., and they spared neither men, women, nor children. Expeditions for plundering and burning houses and towns kept the shores of Long Island Sound and the New Jersey coast in alarm; and men who suspected their Tory neighbors (§ 157) of inviting British expeditions were not likely to treat such neighbors very kindly after the expe- ditions had returned to New York City. The war thus be- came more bitter and savage in the North, though never so much so as in the South (§ 221). 210. Paper Money. — Congress had begun by issuing paper money, or promises to pay money (§ 175), in order to carry on the war and pay the expenses of the army. Before long, more paper money had been issued than the country needed for business purposes; and then, as always happens in such cases, the people themselves would not take the paper as worth as much as gold. By the time of the French treaty, so much paper had been issued that eight paper "' dollars " would buy 90 THE REVOLUTION. [1778 only as much as one dollar in gold or silver. This made mat- ters worse, for Congress now had to issue eight times as much paper as before, and its value fell faster than ever. Before the end of the war the " continental " paper money had be- come almost worthless, and the people were left almost with- out any money which they could use in business. Such a state of affairs is worse for a people than can be described in any book, and was one of the severest trials of the war. 211. Discontent of the Army. — It was only poor food and clothing that Congress could buy for the soldiers; and the pay of the men, small enough at first, became hardly anything when a paper dollar had become worth only two cents. To- ward the end of the war the army no longer received any pay, and it was very difficult to obtain recruits. Several different regiments, starving in camp, and yet not permitted to return home, undertook to march to Philadelphia and compel Con- gress to provide for them ; and it required all Washington's firmness and influence to bring them back. At the end of the war, when the men were sent home without money, they would have broken out in open rebellion but for their respect for Washington. 212. Congress and the States, — Congress itself was not so much respected as at first, and the States did not submit to it so willingly as when they were all in fear of the British. Every year the States had more power and Congress less; and Congress could only go on begging the States for soldiers, borrowing money in France and Holland, and issuing more paper money, for it had no power to lay taxes for the purpose of paying the debts of the country. The United States had indeed become a nation, but a nation without a real national government (§ 247). 213. The Great West. — All this time the country Avest of the Alleghanies had been left in possession of the Indians. Such men as Daniel Boone had begun settlements in Ken- tucky and Tennessee; but these found it difficult to defend themselves against the Indians from the other side of the Ohio River, who had been set on by the British in Detroit and 1779] IN THE NORTH AFTER 1778. 91 Vincennes. In the year of the French alliance, George Eogers Clarke crossed the Ohio with a force of Kentuckians, captured Vincennes, and conquered all the territory now in the States of Indiana and Illinois. Virginia claimed it (§ 2-4), and called it the county of Illinois. But no American settle- ments were made in it until long after the war. Settlement was then begun in Ohio by soldiers from the American army, on lands which Congress had given them instead of pay (§ 364). 214. Stony Point. — For about three years Washington held his line (§ 207), watching Clinton in New York City. There were frequent skirmishes between the two armies, the most brilliant being the capture of Stony Point (1779). This was a rocky hill running out into the Hudson, and was the British post nearest to the x\merican lines. Washington sent a force under General Anthony Wayne* to take it. Wayne ordered his men not to fire a shot, but to trust to the bayonet. Forming his troops at the foot of the hill at midnight, he carried the fort by surprise. The fort was destroyed and the prison- ers were taken back to the American lines, for the object of the attack had not been to hold the place, but to show the men that they were now trained soldiers, who could use the bayonet as well as their enemies. 215. Arnold's Treason. — The country was shocked the next year (1780) by the discovery that Benedict Arnold, one of its bravest generals, and commander of the important post of West Point, had become a traitor. He had agreed to be- tray his post to the British in return for a large sum of money and a brigadier-general's commission in the British army. He had been reprimanded for misusing the public money, and took this means of revenging himself. The British agent in making the bargain was Major John Andre, Clinton's aide-de- camp, an amiable young officer. He was caught near Tarry- town by three American militiamen, while he was returning down the Hudson from an interview with Arnold ; and, after * Wayne's daring Rave him the popular name of "' Mad Anthony,'' but he was really as prudent as he was daring (§ •i~i)). 92 THE REVOLUTION. [1778 a fair trial and the kindest treatment, was hanged as a spy. All the American army lamented his execution; but Washing- ton felt that it was necessary, as a warning to other British officers not to engage in such affairs. Arnold escaped to the British lines, and was made a British general, though his plot had failed. At the end of the war, he went to England, where he lived and died despised by Englishmen as well as by Americans. [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 208) Bancroft, x. 146; Hildreth, iii. 252; Arnold's Rhode Island, 419. (§ 209) Bancroft, x. 140, 151; Hildreth, iii. 174; Lossiug's i?e?;., ii. 865; Moore's 2><«7'y, i. 374; ii. 219, 461; Stone's Brant; Stone's Wyoming; Peck's Wyoming; Campbell's Gertrude oj Wyoming; Dunlap'siVew York, ii. 147. (g 210) Bancroft, x. 169; Hildreth, iii. 271. {§ 213) Bancroft, x. 193; Hildreth, iii. 260; Shaler's Kejitucky, 76; Abbott's Boone; Ramsay's Annals of Tennessee. (§ 214) Bancroft, X. 2'28; Hildreth, iii. 282; Carrington, 472; Winsoi-, vi. 455, 557; Moore's Diary, ii. 192; Lossing's Rev., ii. 175; Harper's Mag., July, 1879; Lives of AVayne by Sparks and Armstrong. (§ 215) Bancroft, x. 371; Hildreth, iii. 319; Bryant and Gay, iv. 16; Carrington, 512; Boynton's History of West Point, Ab; Arnold's Arnold; Sparks's^rwoMy Moore's Diary, ii. 393; Lossing's i?e?j., ii.; Marshall's Washington, iv. 274; Sargent's Andre; The Galaxy, February, 1876.] (9) On the Sea. 216. Privateers. — Most of the Amei-ican vessels during the war were privateers, that is, vessels owned by private persons, but commissioned, or given authority, by Congress, or by one of the States, to act as ships of war. Tlie sailoj-s who were captured in such vessels were always harshly treated by the British, not so much because their vessels were privateers, for the British themselves sent out such cruisers, but because they were Americans, or ''rebels." Nevertheless, men in plenty were ready to undertake this 'dangerous service; and Amei-ican privateers captured great numbers of British merchant-ships and small war-vessels and sometimes almost put a stop to British commerce. They were very fast sailers, and skilfully handled; and their success in taking British vessels loaded with supplies helped to equip the American armies. 1778] nr THE SOUTH. 93 217. The Navy. — Congress had so little money that it was unable to form any large navy of its own. Some ships were begun, but in most cases they were burned before completion, in order to prevent the British from capturing them. 218. Paul Jones. — When Franklin arrived in France, he began to buy French vessels. The largest he placed under command of John Paul Jones, who had shown himself to be the boldest of the American captains, and Jones named it the Bonhomme Richard (" Goodman Richard ") in remembrance of Franklin's almanac (§ 172). During the cruise, Jones met an English frigate, the Serapis, and one of the most desperate sea-fights in history followed. Jones succeeded in fastening the two vessels together, and, after a long night-battle, in which both ships were on fire several times, the Serapis sur- rendered.* [Supplementary Reading.— Cooper's Naval Histwy, i. 179; Emmou's Naval History ; Peterson's History of tJw Navy ; hossiug's Story of the Navy ; Barney's Life of Joshua Barney ; Abbott's Life of Paul Jones; Mackenzie's Life of Paul Jones; Cooper's Pilot; Headley's Miscellanies, ii. 48; Bancroft, x. 271; Hildreth, iii. 123. 176, 300; Winsor, vi. 563; Bryant and Oay, iii. 618; Carrington, 654.] (10) In the South: 1778-1781. 219. Change of British Policy.— We have seen (§ 206) that the news of the French alliance forced the British, to give up Philadelphia and draw back into New York City. Their leaders seem to have become convinced that the war Avas going against them, and to have become desirous of gaining at least a part of their old colonies before peace should be made. They believed that the Southern colonies would not be so difficult to conquer as the New England and Middle States had been; for they were less closely settled (§ 98), and a larger part of their population were slaves, who were not con- sidered fighting men. For the remainder of the war, then, the British confined their main efforts to the South. 220. Conquest of Georgia — Late in the year of the French * Jones was a native of Scotland. He afterwards entered the Russian navy, but died in poverty and neglect. 94 THE REVOLUTION. [1778 alliance (1778), a British expedition from IS'ew York meeting with little resistance captured Savannah. Georgia was then so thinly settled (§ 92) that the British had little difficulty in extending their power over the whole State. The Americans, aided by a French fleet, made an attempt to recapture Savan- nah, but Avere repulsed. Pu- laski was among the killed (§ 193). 221. Whigs and Tories.— The Tories (§ 157) in Georgia and other Southern States were permitted by the British to injure their Whig neigh bors almost as they pleased; and the Whigs were quick to return sim lar injuries whenever it was in their power to do so. The war thus became more cruel and savage in the South than it had been in the North. For several years there was little peace or good feeling in any part of the South; and the shoot- 1780] ZZV THE SOUTH. 95 ing and hanging of men by their neighbors, and even of brother by brother, were results even more horrible than those of open battle. 222. Conquest of South Carolina. — General Lincoln, who commanded the Americans in South Carolina, kept the Brit- ish from Georgia out of his State for some time, until another British expedition from New York captured Charleston, with Lincoln and his army.* From Charleston, the British sent out expeditions in various directions, and soon had South Carolina also under their control. 223. Partisan Warfare. — South Carolina never quite sub- mitted to Cornwallis, the British commander, or to Tai-leton, his most active and cruel cavalry officer. Sumter, Marion, and other South Carolina leaders found places of refuge in the great swamj^s which are numerous in parts of their State, and from these they kept up an active warfare against the British. Their desperate battles, night-marches, surprises, and hair-breadth escapes make this the most exciting period of the Eevolution. Such "partisan warfare" was not con- fined to South Carolina. At King's Mountain, N. C, Corn- wall is's best force of scouts was suddenly attacked and capt- ured by a force of backwoodsmen from eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. 224. Camden. — Congress sent Gates, the victor of Sai-atoga (§ 200), to attempt to recover South Carolina. Some of his men were " Continental " soldiers, Americans who had been long in service and were well disciplined; but most were militia. The British met them at Camden, and defeated them. The militia ran at the first fire; but the Continentals fought desperately, losing their commander, Kalb (§ 193). The South now seemed more than ever at the mercy of Corn- wallis. 225. The Cowpens.— Gates had done so badly that Congress replaced him by the appointment of General Nathaniel Greene, one of the most cautious and successful of the American gew- * As a preliminary to this expedition, the British abandoned Newport, wbiclj they had biiberto held (§ 308). 96 THE REVOLUTION. [1781 erals. Greene's first step Avas to send Morgan, one of his ojfficers, into South Carolina witii a small force, to gather re- cruits. Tarleton hurried to meet him, found him at " the Cowpens," a pasture-field near Spartanburgh, and for the first time was completely defeated, losing nearly all his men. 226. Greene's Retreat. — Greene brought u^) all his men to support Morgan, but they were too few to face Cornwallis, who was hurrying, with his main army, to find and punish Morgan. Greene managed a skillful and fortunate retreat across North Carolina into Virginia. When Cornwallis at last gave up the chase, he was a long distance from South Carolina, and this gave the Whigs of that State further opportunity of partisan warfare against the decreased British forces which were trying to keep them in subjection. 227. Arnold in Virginia — Clinton, the British commander at New York, thinking that all the three Southern States were finally conquered, sent Arnold (§ 215) to begin the conquest of Virginia, and was anxious that Cornwallis should move northward and aid Arnold to complete the conquest of the South. La Fayette, who commanded tlie American troojis opposed to Arnold, could do little but watch liis enemy, and Arnold plundered Virginia without mercy. British officers, and Cornwallis among them, despised the traitor and objected to serving with him. He was therefore soon replaced by another British general; but his army remained near Rich- mond, in Virginia, and the British plan was that Cornwallis was to join it as soon as possible. 228. Guilford Conrt-liouse. — Greene obtained reinforce- ments in southern Virginia, and turned back into North Carolina to meet Cornwallis. The two armies met at Guil- ford Court-house (now Greensboro) in tlie spring of 1781. Again the militia ran away, and Greene was forced to yield the ground; but his Continentals inflicted such severe loss in return that Cornwallis was compelled to draw off to Wilming- ton, to obtain help from the British ships there. Greene gathered his army together, and passed soutlnvard into South Carolina, leaving Cornwallis at Wilmington; while Corn- 1781] IW THE SOUTH. 97 wallis, thinking that Kawdon, whom he had left in command in South Caiolina, was strong enough to meet Greene, pre- pared to carry out the plans of Clinton and move into Vir- ginia. 229. Reconquest of the South. — During the rest of the year 1781, by caution, activity, and perseverance, Greene recon- quered South Carolina without winning a single battle. His two principal battles were at Hobkirk's Hill (near Camden), and Eutaw Springs (near Charleston). He was defeated in each, but inflicted such heavy loss on his enemies as to drive them nearer the coast. As a result, for the rest of the war the British held only Charleston and Savannah; the remainder of the South had been reconquered. 230. Corn wallis in Virginia. — While Greene was moving southward into South Carolina, Cornwallis was moving in the opposite direction into Virginia. Reaching Petersburg, he took into his own force the army which Arnold had left, and made his headquarters at Yorktown, a little place on the pen- insula between the York and James rivers, where British ves- sels could easily reach him with supplies. By the end of the summer of 1781 the British held only New York City, Charles- ton, Savannah, and Cornwallis's post at Yorktown. [Supplementary Reading. — Ramsey's American Revolution; Garden's Anecd(jte^ of the Revolution; hee's Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department; Hartley's Heroes of the South. (§ 219) Bancroft, x. 283; Hildreth, iii. 274. (§ 220) Bancroft, x. 285; Hildreth, iii. 275; Los- sing's Rev., ii. 786; Marshall's Washington, iv. 97; Moore's Diary, ii. 138; Steven's Georgia, ii. 200; Sparks's Pulaski. (§ 221) Bancroft, x. 286, 300, 311, 3-28; V-Avion's Jackson, i. 70. (§222) Simms. 242; Ban- croft, X. 301; Hildreth, iii. 304; Winsor, vi. 471; Moore's Diary, ii. 269; Carrington,ill. (§; 223) Bancroft, x. 312,331; Hildreth. in. 313,317, 327; Bryant and Gay, iv. 31, 38; Irving's Life of Washington, iv. 183, 196; Greene's Greene; Lives of Marion by Weems &wd Simms ; Bryant's Marion's Men; Kennedy's Horseshoe Robinson; Draper's King's Moun- tain; Moove's Dia7'y, ii. 338; Ramsey's Annals of Tennessee, 225. (§224) Bancroft, x. 320; Hildreth, iii. 314; Winsor, vi. 476, 533; Carrington, 513; Moove's Diary, \i. 310; Knpp's De Kalb; Simms's The Partisan and Mellichampe. (§ 225) Bancroft, x. 456; Hildreth, iii. 342; Mar- shall's Washington, iv. 336; Winsor, vi. 480; Bryant and Gay, iv. 41; Carrington. 541; Greene's Life of Greene, iii. 139; Graham's Morgan. (§ 226) Bancroft, x. 468; Hildreth, iii. 343. (§ 227) Campbell's Vir- ginia, 168; Cooke's Virginia, 456; Lossing's Rev., ii. 434; Moore's 98 THE REVOLUTION. [1781 Diary, ri. 384. (§ 228) Bancroft, x. 476; Hildreth, iii. 346; Winsor, vi. 485, 540; Carrington, 556; Lossing, ii. C94; Greene's Greene, iii. 176. (§ 22^) Bancroft, x. 485; Hildreth, iii. 3-19; Bryant and Gay, iv 57; n.-£.Hi>«'e fivi'enp iii 'P.41 • T.oitxi'nn ii fi7fi- CnrrhifitotJ . 5fifi- Arnnrp's Marshall's Washington, iv. 430.] (11) YoRKTOWN : 1781. 231. The French Army. — In the summer of 1780, a French army under command of Rochambeau ai-rivod at Newport, and after a time Joined Washington at Morristown.- They were excellent troops, and their arrival made Washington for the first time superior to the British in New York City. 232. Washington's Work. — During the three years follow- ing the battle of Monmouth (§ 206), Washington had held his place in the Morristown lines, watching Clinton in New York City, getting no great amount of militai-y gloi'y out of the war, but doing its most important work. He had been constantly drilling his men, giving directions for military operations in other parts of the country, and meeting the ditficulties arising from the feebleness of Congress and the seltish efforts of men who disliked him, and who were trying to put some other gen- eral in his place. The arrival of the French army and a powerful French fleet gave him at last an opportunity to win the crowning victory of the war. But he had also to be thankful for a mistake of the British. They had allowed one of their armies, under Cornwallis, to get so far away from the two main divisions of their forces that a sudden attack upon it by an overpowering American army would be fatal before help could be sent to Cornwallis from New York City or Charleston. 233. The March to Yorktown. — Washington and Eocham- beau made open preparations on a grand scale for an attack upon New York City, and kept Clinton in a great sti;te of alarm. Suddenly the American and Fiench armies struck off through New Jersey to Philadelphia, and thence to Elk- ton. There they took shipping and sailed down Chesapeake 1783] PEACE. 99 Bay to the James Eiver, where they fonnd that a French fleet had arrived just before them, and had thus cut off Cornwallis's escape by sea. 234. Cornwallis's Surren- der. — Three weeks of close and determined siege by the allied armies brought Corn- wallis to such straits that he was compelled to surrender his army. His men were kept in Virginia as prisoners ; and the allied armies marched back triumphant to their for- mer position at Morristown. 235. End of the War.— Peace was not finally made until two years later ; but all parties, except the king, saw that the war was really over. Parliament voted so decidedly in favor of mak- ing peace that the king gave Surrender at Yorktown. way, and agreed to recognize the independence of the United States. The delay was caused by the necessity of arranging terms of peace. [Supplementary Reading.— ^ayzcrcfi!, x. 512; Hildreth iii. 366; Bry- ant and Guy, \w. 66; Winsoi\ vi 499.547; Johnslon's YoHtoicn Cam- paign; Moore's Diary, ii. 512; Lossing's Rev. ii. 508; Curriitgion, 646; Pai-ton's Franklin, ii. iiS; Atla)ific. January, 18S6; Gordon's R'voliUion, iv. 175: LippincoU, April, 1879; Cuslis's Recollections, 837; Kapp's; ISteaben, 453.] SCALE OF MILES (12) Peace: 1783. 236. The Treaty of Peace.— After two years of waiting, the final treaty of peace was made in 1783. Great Britain ac- knowledged the United States to be free and independent. 100 THE REVOLUTION. [1783 with Canada as a boundary on the north, the Mississippi River on the west, and Florida, extending west to the Mississippi, on the south. Spain owned the territory to the west of the Mississippi, called Louisi- ana (§ 147), and Great Britain now gave her Florida also. The United States thus had Great Britain as a neighbor on the north, and Spain on the south and 5t. . 237. Disbandment of the Array.— The American army was discharged from ser- vice ; but the soldiers went home very much dissatisfied, as they had been paid nothing of what was due them (§311). Washing- 1783] CBBONOLOOICAL 8UMMABT. 101 ton appeared before Congress, resigned his commission, and returned to his home at Mount Vernon. The British had evacuated Charleston, Savannah, and New York City; but they continued for some twelve years longer to hold Detroit and other posts in the northwest (§ 378). 238. The Tories. — The peace was a sad event for those who had taken the side of the mother-country, the Tories (§ 157). It was impossible for them to remain in their old homes, for their neighbors were too angry with them; and many of the States had passed laws to punish them by taking away their property. Most of them dejaarted with the British armies to Canada, Nova Scotia, the West Indies, or England; but a few of these returned, years after, when the passions of the war had died away. 239. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of the American Revolution were as follows : 1775-76: Principally in New England and Canada g 176 1775: Lexington and Concord; American success (April 19)..' 165 Ticonderoga; American success (May 10) 179 Bunker Hill; British success (June 17) 176 Quebec; British success (December 31) 180 1776: Evacuation of Boston; American success (March 17). . 178 Fort Moultrie, S. C; American success (June 28) 183 Declaration of Independence, July 4 186 1776-78: Principally in the Middle States 187 1776: Long Island; British success (August 27) 188 Evacuation of New York; British success (September 16) 188 Washington's New Jersey retreat; British success 189 Trenton; American success (December 26) 191 1777: Princton; American success (January 3) 191 British army transferred to Chesapeake Bay . . 194 Brandywine; British success (September 11) 195 Germantown; British success (October 4) 195 Burgoyne's invasion (June-October) 197 Bennington ; American success (August 16) 199 Bemis Heights; drawn battle (September 19) 200 Stillwater; American success (October 7) 200 Burgoyne's surrender; American success (October 17). 201 American winter-quarters at Valley Forge 196 1778: Treaty with France (February 6) 204 British retreat from Philadelphia; American success (June 18) 206 Monmouth; drawn battle (June 28) .* 206 Wyoming; massacre by Tories and Indians (July 4). . . 209 1778-81: Principally in the Southern States 219 102 THE REVOLUTION. [1783 1778: Capture of Savannah; British siiccess (December 29). .§ 220 1779: Conquest of Georgia; Biilish success 220 Attack on Savannah; British success (September) 220 Stony Point, N. Y.; American success (July 15) 214 1780: Capture of Charleslown; British success (May 12) 222 Conq\iest of South Carolina; British success 222 Arrival of the French army (July Id) 231 Camden; British success (August 16) 224 Arnold's treason (September) 215 King's ]\Iountain: American success (October 7) 223 Greene takes command in the Soutli (November). . . . 225 1781: Cowpens; American success (January 17) 225 Greene's retreat across Nortli Carolina 226 Guilford Court-house: British success (March 15). .. . 228 Hobkirk's Hill; British success (April 25) 229 Eutaw Springs; British success (September 8) 229 Keconquest of the South 229 Cornwallis moves into Virginia 280 Washington's army transferred to Virginia 2H3 Capture of Yorktown; American success (October 19). 234 1782: Suspension of ho.stilities 235 1783: Peace (September 3) 236 [Supplementary Reading. — Bancroft, x 536: Hildreth, iii. 415; Bryant and Gay, iv. 7"); Pitkin, ii. 528; Greene, 20."); Franklin, ix. 238; Par- ton's Franklin, ii. 458, 48'!; Rives's Madison, i. 336; J. Adams, i. 392; Sabine's American Loyalists.^ CHAPTER II. THE CONFEDERATION: 1781-89. 240. The New Nation.— The United States had thns be- come a 7iation, recognized as sucli by treaties vvith France, Great Britain, and other coiuiti-ies. But the new nation had come into existence rather because the American people could not help it than because the American people liad any great desire for it. Most Americans at this time loved their State far better than they did the United States; and many of them really believed that they could keep each State altogether independent of all the other States, as well as of the rest of the world, with a mere promise that all should help one another in foreign affairs. They were afraid of any " govern- ment of the United States," lest it should attempt to tyran- nize over the States, as the British Government had done over the colonies. 241. The Continental Congress. — At first, tlie people tried to get on without any real " government of the United States." The Continental Congress, under which the war began, soon became almost powerless (§ 212), except that Washington .and the armies obeyed its orders. It had no power to raise money by taxation, or to make laws and compel men to obey them : it could only advise, and as the danger from the British grew less, men came to pay little attention to its advice. 242. Land Claims, — Much of the difficulty of arranging a new government came from the claim of some of the States to western territory. Connecticut, for example, claimed that its territory extended westward to the Mississippi River, tak- ing in part of northern Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and 103 104 THE CONFEDERATION. [1787 Illinois. Other States made similar claims, and Virginia claimed almost all the Northwest (§ 74). These States did not want a government of the United States to be strong enough to take this western territory away from them; and yet tliat was just the government that the other States were determined to have. 243. The Articles of Confederation.— In 1777, Congress agreed upon a plan of government called the Articles of Con- federation. It was to go into force as soon as all the States should agree to it. As it really left the western territory to those States which had claimed it, the States which had no such claims refused for some four years to agree; and thus most of the fighting of the Revolution had been d(me without any real government. In 1781, however, it being understood that all the States would give up their western claims to the United States, the articles were at last ratified, and the United States had a government. 244. Failure of the Confederation. — It was soon found that the new government was a distressingly poor one. The new system had been carefully arranged to give the Govern- ment of the United States as little power as possible: it had no power to lay taxes, regulate commerce, or punish law- breaking. It could get no money to pay the debts of the United States, and could not prevent the States from making laws to injure one another, or foreign countries from injur- ing American commerce. The people felt every evil of a poor national government, and there was no certainty that the system would not prove utterly useless at the very time when a strong government should be most needed. 245. Land Cessions, — The best work which we owe to the Confederation was this surrender of their western claims by the States which had held,them: Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. It is true that they kept a lai'ge portion for themselves: Vir- ginia sold many acres in the West; and Connecticut kept that part of northeastern Ohio known as the Western Re- serve. But the surrender gave the United States a very large 1787] THE CONFEDERATION. 105 western territory, in wliich to carry the State system further by forming new States. 246. The Ordinance of 1787.— As soon as Virginia had given up its claim to the Northwest, the Congress of the Confederation adopted a plan of government for the terri- tory northwest of the Ohio Eiver, or the "Northwest Terri- tory." The plan is commonly known as the Ordinance of 1787. It forbade slavery in the Territory, and provided for common schools, trial by jury, and other privileges for the people. But its most important feature was its extension of the American system of self-governing States. Congress might have attempted to govern the people of the Terri- tory by its own will, as the British Parliament had attempted to govern its colonies, but it did not. It provided that the people of the Territory should do more of the work of govern- ing themselves and making their own laws as their numbers increased, until finally they should form five States, whose people should govern themselves in all points as the people of the old States had done. The result has been the formation of the five great States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The same plan was followed with the terri- tory south of the Ohio, except that slavery was not forbid- den in it; and the States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi have been formed there. The same plan has been followed whenever other territory has come to the United States; and thus the system of self-governing States has spread all over the country, making it quite different, in very many respects, from any other country.* 247. The Desire for a New Government. — We have not the space to tell all the reasons which the people had for dissatis- faction with the government established by the Articles of Confederation. It was not a government which did its proper work well. It gave the people no security; it built no light- houses; it gave American vessels no protection against the * There are now 0890) forty-two States, five Territories whieh it is intended shall some day become States, and three (the District of Columbia, Indian Territory, and Alaska) which are not likely to become States. 106 THE CONFEDERATION. [1787 attacks of pirates or the unjust laws of other countries. Less commerce was done yearly; there was less money to buy from the farmers; and the farmers, unable to pay their debts, saw their farms sold by the sheriff. People who thought about the matter saw that the root of the trouble was in the weak- ness of the government. 248. Difficulties of a Change — It was not easy to obtain any ciiange in the government. Most of the people still liked their 8tate better than any national government, and were very unwilling to make the national government stronger (§ 212). Besides, the Articles of Confederation had provided that they were not to be changed in any respect unless all the States should agree to the change. Congress asked for a number of very nece-sary changes; but there was always some State which refused to consent, so that the change fell thi-ough. It was difficult to see how a change could be made. 249. Shays's Rebellion. — When the Aiticles had been in operation for about five yeais, an event took place which brought dissatisfaction to a head. The farmers of western Massachusetts, foi'ced to pay debts when they had very little money, rose in rebellion under one Daniel Shays; and the State government had much difficulty in restoring order. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power to help Massachusetts; and this made many of the people more willing to have a stronger national government. 250. Hamilton. — The new desire for a stronger national government was represented by Alexander Hamilton, of New York. He was born in the West Indies, had come to New York City when a boy, and had become known at once as a brilliant writer. He had served under Washington in the Eevolution, and had then become a well-known lawyer. He was one of the ablest men of his time; and he and Jefferson (§ 174) soon came to reprei-ent two opposite wnys of thinking about public affairs. But ILimilton's way was so plainly the more advisable at this time that he became one of the most prominent leaders of the country. 251. The First Convention. — Just before Shays's rebellion, 1787] THE CONFEDERATION. 107 it had become evident that the country was to be disgraced by its failure to pay the money which it had borrowed abroad (§ 212), the payment of which was soon to fall due, for Con- gress had no power to raise money by taxation, and the States neglected to do so. Washington had been writing to influential men in all parts of the country, and the general feeling seemed to be that it would be best to change the Arti- cles of Confederation, even if they could not induce all the States to agree to the change, for they hoped that the States which should dislike the new system would be too few to re- sist. Washington induced the Virginia Legislature to call for a convention of delegates from the States at Annapolis in 1786; but only five States sent delegates, and the convention merely sent out a request for a second convention for the fol- lowing Spring at Philadelphia. In the mean time, Shays's Eebellion (§ 249) showed the evils of the old system so plainly that twelve of the States were now willing to send delegates to the second convention. 252. The Convention of 1787. — The second convention was composed of the ablest men of the country, and was more suc- cessful. It chose Washington as its presiding officer. For four months it held meetings, discussed proposed changes of every kind, and many times came near breaking up without accomplishing anything. Finally, however, it agreed upon the Constitution of the United States, and adjourned. The Constitution was to go into force when approved by conven- tions in nine of the thirteen States. 253. The Constitution. — The Confederation had had but one House of Congress, no president, and no judges. The Constitution provided for a national government which should have power to act, and not simply to make requests of the States. It was to be in three departments: a legislative de- partment, or Congress, to make laws; an executive depart- ment, the president and his officers, to carry out and enforce the laws made by Congress; and a judiciary department, the Federal courts, to decide disputed questions about the laws. The legislatures of the States were still to make such laws as 108 THE CONFEDERATION. [1789 concerned only their own States; but the Constitution was to be the supreme law of the land, to be obeyed by the national government, by the State governments, and by the people. The Constitution named a great many subjects, as to which Congress alone was to make laws. Among these were the powers to lay taxes and duties and to borrow money for the United States; to regulate commerce; to carry mails; to grant patents; to declare war; to maintain armies and navies; to suppress insurrections; to build forts and dock-yards; to help the States keep order; and to see to it that the governments of the States remained republican, giving no privileges to particular classes of its people. If the laws passed by Con- gress were disobeyed, the national government was to punish the offence: Congress was to determine the punishment; the President's officers were to arrest the offender; and the Fed- eral courts were to try him. But the punishment was always to be determined by Congress before the offence was com- mitted.* 254. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. — For nearly a year, it was doubtful whether the Constitution would be approved by nine States. Those who wished it to be approved took the name of Federalists, as they were anxious for a stronger fed- eral government; and those who opposed it were known as Anti-Federalists. State after State held its convention and decided Avhether to approve or reject the Constitution. Finally, it was found that eleven States approved it, one (Rhode Island) rejected it, and one (North Carolina) was not yet ready to decide. The Constitution was therefore to take the place of the Articles of Confederation as a system of na- tional government. 255. Preparations for Inauguration — The Congress of the Confederation was in session when the ninth State ajiproved the Constitution; and it decided that the new government should begin at New York City, March 4, 1789. In the mean time, the people were to vote for members of the two Houses of Congress, and for electors to choose a President and Yice- * For further consideration of the Constitution, see Chapter XTT and Appendix. 1789] THE COKFEDERATION. 109 President (§ 738), so that everything should be ready for the inauguration of the new system. It was found that all the electors chosen voted for Washington for President (§ 365). He was sworn into office April 30, 1789 (§ 739). 256. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this period are as follows : 1781-1789: The Confederation § 340 1781: Tlie Articles of Confederation go into force ' 243 1783: Final treaty of peace with Great Britain 236 1784: Land cession by Virginia 245 1786: The Annapolis Convention. 251 Shays's Rebellion 249 1787: The Federal Convention forms the Constitution 253 The Ordinance of 1787 adopted 246 1788: Ratification of the Constitution 254 1789: The Constitution goes into force 255 [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 340) Uigginson, 300; Greene, 104 Curtis, i. 133. (§ 341) McMaster, i. 133, 363; Bancroft, x. 168, 419 Greene, 113. (§ 242) Hlldreth, iii. 398; Frothingham. 574; Curtis,\. 131 (§ 343) Preston, 218; Andrew's Manual, Appendix; Johnston, 248 Frothingham, 569; Bancroft, ix. 436. Hildreth, iii. 395; Pitkin, ii. 12 Curtis, i. 124; Ridpath, 357. {§ 344) Frothingham, 578; Higginson, 395 Eidpath, 358; Curtis, i. 172, 241, 328; Bancroft's Constitution, i. 254; (§ 245) McMaster, i. 150; Hildreth, iii. 398. (§ 246) Preston, 240; An- drew's Manual, Appendix; McMaster, i. 165, 509; Hildreth, iii. 449, 463, 537; Schouler, i. 73; Curtis, i. 396, 302; Bancroft's Constitution, i, 154, 179; Tucker, i. 346; Higginson, 306; Ridpath, 359. (§ 347) Ban croft's Constitution, i. 18. (§ 348) Curtis, i. 368. (§ 249) McMaster, i 300; Hildreth, iii. 474; Pitkin, ii. 320; Higginson, 303; Schouler, i. 32 Curtis, i. 266. (§ 250) Lives of Hamilton by /. C. Hamilton, and Lodge; Bancroft, x. 409; Schouler, i. 24; Curtis, i. 406; Greene, 384. (§ 251) McMaster, i. 390; Hildreth, iii. 477; Curtis, i. 340; Bancroft's Constitu- tion, i. 267; Schouler, i. 30; (g 252) McMaster, i. 399, 436; Hildreth, iii. 482; Schouler, i. 31, 36; Bryant and Gay, iv. 100; Frothingham, 590; Pitkin, ii. 334; Thicker, i. 348; Higginson, 304; Curtis, \. 380; Bancroft's Constitution, ii. 1. (§353) Preston, 351; Ridpath, 360; Bancroft's Con- stitution, 321; Johnston, 11; Schouler, i. 41. (§ 254) McMaster, i. 455; Schouler, i. 54; Hildreth, iii. 533; Bancroft's Constitution, ii. 225-318. (§ 255) McMaster, i. 532; Hildreth, iii. 546.] CHAPTER III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: 1789-1801. 257. Preliminary Outline. — The ratilicatiou of the Consti- tution had given the country, for the first time, a real national government of its own; but for some years there seemed no great reason to believe that it would last long. Many of the people disliked it; others had no great liking for it, and had agreed to it mainly because such men as Washington and Franklin approved it. It was possible that some of the States might break away and try some other form of government, before the new national government should be strong enough, and well enough liked by the people, to prevent this. The twelve years covered by tliis chapter were those in which the Constitution was really established, that is, became assured of continuance. (1) State of the Country. 258. Cities and Houses. — The country was not yet thickly settled; and its population (4,000,000 by the Census of 1790) was not as large as that of the single State of New Yoik or Pennsylvania in 1880.* The largest American cities of the time, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, had hardly more than 20,000 persons in any of them, and other towns were only small collections of houses. The streets were pooi-ly paved, dirty, and seldom lighted at night. Some of the houses were large and well furnis]ied,but none of them had the conveniences that are so common now. There were no lucifer-matchcs, no gas, none of the modern oil-lamps, and water was carried from the town pump or well. The richest * See Appendices. 110 1789] STATE OF THE COUNTRY. Ill people were under difficulties which are hardly known now, and the life of the poor was very hard. 259. Life in the Country. — Xot many of tlie people lived in the cities: most of them lived on farms, where life Avas still harder than in the cities. It was not easy to work with wooden ploughs, and witliout any of the farming tools and machinery which have since been introduced. Everything used by the farmer and his family, even their clothing, was made at home or produced on the farm. In the Middle States and the South, life was easier, for crops cost less labor, and were more easily sold for ready money; but even here the farm or plantation had to produce almost everything that was used. 260. Books and Newspapers. — Books we^-e not very numer- ous, for most of the people had little spare money with which to buy them. The Bible and the almanac were the books most commonly owned. The newspapers were few, small, and not well jirinted, as we would think; and they circulated mainly in the cities and among the few richer men outside of the cities. Outlying villages seldom saw a newspaper; and, when one did appear, its news was weeks old. The only means of obtaining news in such cases was to ask questions of the occasional travellers: and thus travellers came to think that Americans vrere a very inquisitive peoj^le. 261. Travelling. — Sailing-vessels were the usual means of travel on the larger rivers and along the coast, and an unfa- vorable wind might detain the traveller for weeks. The voy- age from New York to Albany sometimes required a fort- night; and prudent men, it is said, made their wills before undertaking it, on account of its peril. The stage-coaches were slow and clumsy: they took as many days as the railroad takes hours to go from New York to Philadelphia, and a week" to go from New York to Boston. The roads were very bad; there were few bridges; and the rivers were crossed by means of clumsy and dangerous fhit-boats. There was more danger then in a voyage from New York City to Brooklyn than there is now in a voyage to Europe. 112 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1789 262. Washington's Usefulness. — It would have been no easy matter to set up any new government in a country whose people were so scattered and knew so little of each other; but the universal affection and respect for Washington made it mucli more easy than it could have been Avithout him. Those who knew little about the Constitution were satisfied to know that Washington was at the head of the Government. By the time he had been President for eight years, every one was satisfied with the Constitution and glad to retain it, no matter who might be President. 263. The Country in 1789.— The United States covered the territory east of the Mississippi, north of Florida, and south of Canada (§ 236). But the settled country was still mainly that part east of the Alleghanies. Between the Alle- ghanies and the Mississippi, all was a wilderness, except a few settlements in Tennessee and Kentucky (§ 213), and in the Northwest. Ohio and the present States northwest of it were less known than Alaska is now. 264. Ohio.— The passage of the Ordinance of 1787 (§ 246) made it certain that new settlers in that part of the country would be permitted to govern themselves; and many of the old soldiers of the Revolutionary armies were already seeking new homes in Ohio. Settlement began at Marietta and Cin- cinnati (1788), but these were for some years rather frontier forts than towns. [Supplementary Reading. — McMaster, i. 1-102. 515; Iligr/infion, 333: Schouler. i. 223; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies, and Building the Na- tion; Scudder's One Hundred Years Ago; Lowell's My i^tudy Windows; Lodge's Studies in History, 60; Bryant and Gay, iv. 91; Cook's Vir- ginia, 370 ; Cent. Mag., January, June and October, 1884, and April and July, 1885.] (2) Washingtox's Administrations: 1789-1797. 265. Washington's Inauguration. — When the Congress of the new Government met in 1789, and the votes of the elec- tors were counted (§ 738), it was found that Washington had been elected President and John Adams Vice-President, 1789] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 113 The new President travelled northward from Mount Vernon, receiving hearty welcomes at every town through which he passed, and was sworn into office in New York City, in the presence of Congress and a great number of other spectators. 266. The First Cabinet. — Washington chose able men as his Cabinet (§ 737). As Secretary of State, he took Jefferson (§174); as Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton (§ 250) ; as Secretary of War, General Henry Knox, of Massachusetts; and as Attorney-General, Edmund Randolph, formerly Gov- ernor of Virginia. Hamilton and Knox were Federalists, anx- ious to give the new Federal Government as large a share of power as possible; Jefferson and Randolph had supported the Constitution, but still wished to retain as much power as possible to the States. 267. The First Acts of Congress. — Congress was very busy during Washington's first four years of the Presidency, for it now had power to make laws, which the Congress of the Con- federation never had. It marked out the duties of the offi- cers in the different departments of the Government (§ 737); and laid taxes on goods brought into the country in order to provide money for the support of the Government. It arranged the whole system of Federal courts, much as we have them still. It selected a place for a national capital, the present District of Columbia, though it decided to hold its sessions at Philadelphia for ten years until the new capi- tal should be ready for it. It passed a law to pay the debts of the Confederation and the debts which the States had con- tracted during the Revolution. It provided for a National Bank at Philadelphia, to receive and pay out the money of the Government. These were only the principal Acts of a great number passed by the first two Congresses. 268. The Work of Congress. — These first two Congresses had almost as many able men as the Convention of 1787 (§ 252) ; and the acts which they passed have turued out to be excel- lent. The Constitution generally states only what work Con- gress is to do, leaving Congress to decide how the work shall be done. These two Congresses did their work so wisely and 114 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1794 well that it has not been necessary to alter it very much since, only to extend it as the country has gi'own larger and its needs have become greater. For the first time the people had a good national government, and tliey became more and more satisfied with their Constitution. To more fully satisfy those who had opposed the Constitution, ten Amendments to it — most of which were to protect the right of States and indi- viduals — were passed by Congress and ratified by the States (§ 747) ; but these did not alter the general system. 269. New States. — Two of the '"old thirteen" States, North Carolina and Rhode Island, which had not at first ratified the Constitution, ratified it during Washington's first term, and thus made tlie original States unanimous. But the State system was not to stop here. Vermont (§ 55) was admitted as a State, with just the same privileges of self-government as the " old thirteen." Then came Kentucky, which had been a part of Virginia, but which Virginia was now willing to allow to govern itself as a State. This was followed by Tennessee, whicli had been a part of North Carolina, so that there were sixteen States in the Union when Washington's Administrations were ended. 270. Indian Wars. — The Indians of Ohio were much dis- satisfied when they saw white settlers coming into their coun- try, and they attacked the settlements. Two expeditions were sent against them, under Generals Harmar and St. Clair ; but the Indians surprised and defeated both of them, and became still more bold in their attacks on the settlers. They even demanded, as the price of peace, that there should be no more settlements north of the Ohio Eiver. They were now to be taught that they were not dealing with the worth- less government of the Confederation, but with a national government, which was both willing and able to protect its people against them. Wayne (§214), with a strong force of soldiers, was sent into Ohio. The Indians could not surprise him ; and, when they came to open battle, he inflicted an overwhelming defeat on them, near the present city of Toledo (1794). 1794] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 115 271. Growth of Ohio. — The Indians, in order to obtain peace consented to give up all the land now in the State of Ohio ; and, now that it was safer to do so, an increasing stream of settlers began to pour in. They were compelled to travel through a wilderness in western Pennsylvania, and down the Ohio from Pittsburgh ; the Indians infested the river, so that the boats had to be built with shot-proof sides ; but nothing could stop immigration. From this time the Northwest had a wonderful growth. 272. Formation of Parties. — It can hardly be said that there .was more than one political party during Washington's first term (1789-93). The Anti-Federalists, who had opposed the Constitution (§ 254), were now very well satisfied with it ; and there was only the Federal party left. This state of things suited Washington, who considered parties an evil ; but it could not last long. The new government had done its work excellently from the beginning. It had given the people such comfort and security as they had not felt before ; and so men began to venture into new lines of business, and work and money became more plenty. But some who had supported the Constitution now began to have doubts. They thought that the Federalist leaders, not content with the powers which the Constitution had given to the new govern- ment, were attempting to claim powers for it which the Con- stitution had not granted. Thus one plan after another of Hamilton and the other Federalist leaders began to meet with opposition as unconstitntional measures {% 744) ; and two parties were formed. 273. Federalists and Republicans. — Jefferson was the ablest leader of the opposition, as Hamilton Avas of the Federal party. The Federalists were those who felt most strongly the necessity of a strong national government ; and the Kepubli- cans * were those who were anxious to have as much as possi- ble of the work of government done by the States. These * The Republican party was not (hat which is now known by that name. After about thirty years it began to talte the name of Democrat, which the Federalists had at first given it as a nickname (§ 3-13), 116 NATIONAL GOYETtNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1794 opposite opinions divided the people into parties upon almost every proposed measure. When Hamilton proposed to have a national bank (§ 267), the Eepublicans thought the proposal very wrong, because the Constitution did not plainly give Congress the power to establish such a bank ; while the Feder- alists thought that the bank was so necessary that the objec- tion was a poor one. In the same way the two parties disagreed on other subjects. The Federalists had a majority in Congress all through this period, until the Constitution was securely established. 274. The French Revolution. — The French people had been dreadfully misgoverned for centuries ; and about this time they took the government into their own hands, banished or killed the nobles, and cut off the head of their king. All this series of events is known as the French Eevolution. The new French government drifted into war Avith neighboring countries, particularly with Grer.t Britain, and for many years there was little peace between these two countries. 275. Genet's Mission. — The French navy was unable to meet the stronger British navy on the sea ; and the French Repub- lic sent a minister. Genet, to the United States to fit out privateers (§ 216) for the purpose of attacking British com- merce. If the United States had permitted this, it would really have been joining in the war with France against Great Britain ; and AVashington firmly prevented it. Genet was very troublesome and insolent, and was finally recalled by the French Eepublic at Washington's request. 276. The Whiskey Insurrection.— One of the early acts of Congress laid a tax on whiskey. The roads in the United States were then so bad that settlers in western Pennsylvania and Virginia could not carry their grain to market without paying for the carrying more than they could get for the grain. Accordingly tlit^y had found it profitable to turn the grain into whiskey, which took less room and could be more cheaply carried. They resisted the new tax so angrily that Washington was compelled to send a force of militia to Pitts- 1795] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 117 burgh to restore order (1794). The disturbance was known as the Whiskey Insurrection. 277. The Mississippi Treaty. — Settlers in Kentucky, Ten- nessee, and Ohio found it far cheaper to send grain by water than by land ; and their best market was the Spanish city of New Orleans (§ 236). But Spain claimed to own the lower part of the Mississippi ; and her officials were very trouble- some to American traders. These difficulties were removed by a treaty with Spain (1795), allowing both nations to use the river. 278. Jay's Treaty. — British officers still held Detroit and other forts in the Northwest (§ 237), and were believed to have helped the Indians against the United States ; and British vessels were in the habit of seizing American vessels which attempted to trade with countries with which Great Britain Avas at war. All this aroused so much anger in the United States that Washington sent Chief Justice Jay as Minister to England ; and he made a treaty which put an end to fears of war for many years (1795). Great Britain gave up the forts, and agreed to seize no more vessels ; but, as the treaty gave some advantages to Great Britain, it ex- cited strong opposition in the United States. 279. Presidential Elections. — There were no parties in the first two Presidential elections (1789 and 1792) ; Washington was elected President unanimously, and John Adams Vice- President with no great opposition. Before the next election (1796) Washington, in a Farewell Address to the people, de- clined to be President for a third term. The Constitution, as it then stood, provided that each elector should name two persons, not saying which was to be President and which Vice-President. The electors were supposed to vote for the best men, without regard to party ; and the person who was named by most electors became President, leaving the Vice- Presidency to the next highest. Many different persons re- ceived votes from different electors ; the result was that each party obtained one office — Adams, a Federalist, being elected President, and Jefferson, a Eepublican, Vice-President. 118 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. [1795 280. Increasing Prosperity. — Order and better government had given the country a new prosperity during these eight years. Commerce had increased, for tiic wars in Europe left trade mainly to American vessels. Banks and insurance com- panies begaii to be formed. Manufactures Avere springing up, and patents began to be more numerous. (The American flag began to be known in distant seas ; and during Adams's Ad- ministration a Boston ship, the Columhia, made the first American voyage around the world.) Turnpike roads were built out from some of the principal cities ; they were more carefully made than the old roads, and the expense was met by tolls collected from travellers. Canals began to be dug ; and John Fitch and others made the first attempts to move boats by steam, which led the way to Fulton's invention (§ 305). The Constitution had evidently been a great suc- cess while Washington was President ; it remained to be seen whether it would be as successful under other men. 281. The Cotton-gin. — The cultivation of cotton had been tried in the South, but had not been profitable, for its seeds stuck so closely to it that a slave could clean but five or six pounds in a day. In 1793 Eli Whitney, a Connecticut teacher living in Georgia, invented the simple machine called the saw- gin, or cotton-gin, in which revolving teeth dragged the cotton between narrow parallel wires, leaving the seeds behind. With this machine a slave could clean a thousand pounds a day. The cultivation of cotton at once became very profitable, and in- creased enormously. But unfortunately this also made negro slavery seem more profitable in the South, so that there was no longer any likelihood of its dying out naturally there, as it was rapidly dying at the North. [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 265) Schonler, i. 74: McMaster, i. 532, mS\ Ilildreth, iv. 46; Piikin, \\. ^M; Tucker, \. '^.m; Bri/ant and Gay, iv. 104; H'gr/inson, 309; Ridpalh. 3'i3; Lnwb. (J? 267) HUdreth. iv. (iS, 127. 152, 2i2. 256, 279; Ridpnih, 364. (§ 369) Ilildreih, iv. 147, 209, 268, 326. 631; McMasfer, ii. 35, 2S5. (g 270) Ilildreih, iv. 248, 285, 44-1, 520, 563; Bryai.tnnd Gny iv 114; McMaster, i. 598, ii. 44, 71. (^ 271) J/c- iVrtso. Tlie Democratic Party. — Toward the end of this i)eriod, all in the North ami South who disliked the '•' Ameri- can System" as a benefit to a few, or who thought that the Federal Government's taxing power had been used too much for private benefit, or who liked Andrew Jackson as a heartier friend of the people than other leaders were, began to unite into a party. At first they were known as "■ Jackson men," afterwards as the Democratic Party. 36G. The National Repnblicans. — In much the same way, those who believed in the " American Sj-stem" as resulting in national benefit began to be known as " Adams men," after- wards as the National Republican Party. Early in the next period, this name was changed to that of the AVhig Party (S 397). 367. The Presidential Election. — At the end of Adams's term (18:i8), the Democrats nominated Jackson for President 1828] JOHN qumCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. l5l and Calhoun for Vice-President. The National Republicans nominated Adams and Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania. In the election, Jackson and Calhoun received a majority of the electoral votes, and were elected. 368. The Railroad. — People had now become well enough used to the more rapid and cheap travel by steamboat and canal, to be still more discontented with the discomforts of their roads. It had been known for many years that a horse could draw a heavier load, and do it more rapidly and cheaply, on rails than on a bare road. Plans began to be made for systems of horse-railroads to connect the principal cities; and one, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, was intended to be a horse-railroad all tlie way from Baltimore to Cincinnati. It was not until just at the end of this perit)d that Stephenson invented the locomotive (§ 372) ; but it so happened that, be- fore the locomotive was invented, the railroads for the horse- railroad had been begun, and it was only necessary to use locomotives instead of horses. 369. Growth of the Country. — The twenty-eight years whose history has been given in this chapter had seen a great change in the position of the country. At the begin- ning, it was weak and was believed to be weaker than it really was ; its national government was begging other nations to be just to its citizens, and was receiving notliing but contempt or new injustice as a reply; and the political party which controlled the country thought honestly that it was for the best interests of the country that the national government should be made weak. At the end, it was a strong, self-reli- ant country ; its war-vessels were as powerful as any that were then afloat, and they had the reputation gained by their gallant sea-fights of the recent war; other nations knew that the United States would no longer submit to injustice of any sort, and took care to act accordingly; and the people them- selves had a new pride in the national government whose flag was now a sure protection to them at home and abroad. All this was growth in the true direction: it was necessary that national feeling should grov/ stronger as the country became 162 THE NATION ABROAD AND AT HOME. [1828 more populous and more widely settled, in order that it might remain one country. But the Missouri case {§ 353) was an indication of the different course of the next thirty years, when the influence of slavery was to be thrown against the new national feeling. 370. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of this period are as follows : 1817-21: Monroe's First Term §346 1817: Admission of Mississippi 350 1818: Admission of Illinois 350 1819: Admission of Alabama 350 Treat}' for the Purchase of Florida 355 1820: Admission of Maine 350 The Missouri Compromise 354 1821: Admission of Missouri 350 1821-25: Monroe's Second Term 348 1822: Comrress begins the construction of roads 357 1823: The'Monroe Doctrine 356 1824: A Protective Tariff adopted 360 Disputed Presidential Election 367 1825: The Erie Canal finished 358 1825-29: John Quincy Adams's Term 371 1826: Deaths of Jefferson and John Adams 186 1S27: Horse-railroads introduced 368 1828: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad begun 368 A new Protective Tariff adopted 362 Formation of new parties 365, 366 [Supplementary Reading. — Schouler, iii. 326; Ridpath, 423; Hi'gginson, 406; Von Ilolst, i. 3*:<8; Johnston, 96; Bryant and Gay, iv. 282: Tucker, iii. 372, 409; Sumner's Jackson, 202; Morse's Adams, 189; Benton, i. 32, 54. (§ 368) Hadley, 3 ; Adams, 37; Johnson, iii. 1511.] CHAPTER V. THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS : 1839-49. (1) Jackson's Administrations: 1829-37. 371. The New President. — Andrew Jackson was a very dif- ferent person from those who had hitherto filled the office of president. They had been educated men, long trained in public life, and quiet and dignified in manner. His life had been spent on tlie frontier, in farming, or fighting battles with Indians or British, or duels with enemies among his neighbors; he had little education and a violent temper; and his manners were odd. But he was intensely honest; no power or influence could make him consent to anything which he believed to be of disadvantage to the people; and he re- sisted any such measure with such persistence that the com- mon name for him was " Old Hickory." He was a crabbed old soldier, who was determined to do right, but to do right in his own way; and he had little respect for dignity in a man unless the man had other good qualities than dignity. He did the country some harm, and a great deal of good; but this change of presidents, which seemed shocking to many persons at the time, was only part of a general change among the people. 372. The Locomotive. — Until this time, no one had been able to invent a means for drawing wagons by steam. It had been intended to use horses (§ 348), though some had thought of a stationary engine to pull cars, somewhat like our cable railways. Just at the beginning of Jackson's first term, Stephenson, in England, invented a means by which a steam- engine, placed on a car of its own, could drive the wheels and 153 154 TBE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1829 move both car and engine along the rails: this is called a loco- motive engine, since it can change its place, and is thus differ- ent from a stationary engine. 373. American Railways. — The news of Stephenson's in- vention was brouglit to the United States, and xlniericans at once attempted to make locomotives of their own. They were clumsy and unserviceable, and it was more than a year before one of the Stephenson locomotives was obtained. Even that was found to be unsuited to American roads and climate; and a better form was soon devised. Since then, we have built our own locomotives. 374. EflFects of the Railroad. — The introduction of the loco- motive changed the whole life of the people at a single step. Poor roads had compelled Americans to move slowly, when they were eager to move quickly; and the enormous extent of their country had been rather troublesome than valuable to them. They had now found the instrument which they needed. When they could move five or six times as rapidly as before, and that in all weathers, thousands of tilings which had before been impossible became possible; and the people began to act, think, and speak differently. Railroads were built in every direction; and, wherever they went, they changed the life of the people, opened up new country to set- tlers, and made settlements possible by currying crops cheaply and surely. The United States thus had all the advantages of a small country, w-ith the wealth of a large one: from New York, the railroad takes passengers to Chicago in the same time that the stage-coach took them to Philadelphia. Before 1830, men thought that it would take three hundred years for settlements to reach the Rocky Mountains: the railroad did the work in thirty years. 376. Anthracite CoaK — The railroad brought other discov- eries. There were great fields of anthracite or hard coal in Pennsylvania; but wood had been generally used as fuel. It was supposed to be impossible to make this "iron stone" burn. It was now so mnch needed that the proper way to make it burn was soon found; and it contained so much heat- 1836] jAOKaON'S ADMimSTHATIOm. 165 ing power in so small u space that its use aided locomotives and steamboats very much. 376. The Screw Propeller. — About the same time (1836), Ericsson, in England, introduced the screw propeller. It was not thought to be a great invention at first; but it, with im- provements in steam boilers and engines, has since made ocean navigation safer and more rapid. It has put an end, also, U) the old sailing-navies, bringing in steam war-vessels in their place. But Fulton's old side-wheeler still keeps its place as the best for rivers, 377. Other Inventions. — This was a period of great inven- tions. One of these was McCormick's reaping-machine, from which grew all the present wonderful agricultural machinery: such machinery has made farming far more easy than before, and has made Western lands more profitable. Another was Colt's revolving pistol, wliich has made a change in the form of fire-arms. One of the most useful was the friction match, Avhich now took the place of the former clumsy ways of ob- taining fire: hardly anything has done more to increase the comfort of daily life than this one invention. 378. Growth in the East. — East of Pittsburgh, the map of the United States was then much as it is now, though some of our 23resent manufacturing cities, such as Lowell and Paterson, were not then on the maps; but all the cities have since grown larger, and the railroads more numerous. Busi- ness had begun to feel the effects of the railroad : men were now moving rapidly, instead of slowly, from one place to an- other, and were beginning forms of work which had been im- possible before. 379. Growth in the West. — In the Western States the most wonderful groAvth of our history had fairly begun. Steam- boats were carrying settlers and trade along the Ohio, the Mis- sissippi, the smaller rivers, and the great lakes ; and railroads in every direction were being planned. Almost all the pres- ent western cities, east of the Mississippi, had now appeared, though they were still small; but the steamboat had given them the beginning of that growth which the railroad was 156 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [183? soon to make still more rapid. When tlie first steamboat ap- peared at Fort Dearborn, at the end of Jackson's first term, there was no town there; six years afterward, it had become the flourisliing town of Chicago, and a line of eight splendid steamers was running to it from Buffalo and Detroit. North and west of Missouri, the country was still a wilderness. 380. Population.— The Census of 1830 showed that the population of the country was nearly thirteen millions, an in- crease of three millions in ten years (§ 349). Immigration from Europe had begun, though it was not nearly so large as it became during the next period (§ 4G9). The railroad and steamboat made it easier for immigrants to reach the fertile West, and to make a living after the}' got there. 381. New States — Arkansas, a part of the Louisiana pur- chase (§ 301), was admitted as a slave State 1836. Michigan, the fourth State formed from the northwestern territory (§ 246), was admitted as a free State (1837). These two ad- missions raised the number of States to 26, just twice the number of the ''old thirteen." 382. The Black Hawk War. — As settlers began to pour into the farther regions of the northwest, the Indians of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, led by Black Hawk, revolted, and were only put down after hard fighting. As a result, they were forced to give up most of their lands, and move farther west- ward. 383. The Seminole War. — A more serious war M'as with the Seminole Indians, in Florida, who were led by Osceola. It lasted for many years, for the Indians took refuge in the great swamps and Everglades, where it was very difficult to find them ; and from these they made sudden attacks on small part- ies of soldiers. Finally, they, too, were beaten and removed beyond the Mississippi. 384. Edncation. — The present public-school system had now been begun, and has since come to be recognized as a necessary part of American life. It has now come to be the rule that every man was to have a vote (§298): and it was seen that the State must in self-defence see to it that, bo far •ake Winnipeg n£,-itvi(1e West 15 from Wasliin^tuii 10 1837] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 157 as possible, every man is taught enough to enable him to vote wisely. Massachusetts had made the system better still, by beginning the system of normal schools, for training public- school teachers. Colleges were larger and more numerous; there were now more than sixty of them in the country. 385. Newspapers. — Up to this time, newspapers had been costly, slow in all their ways, and read by only a few of the people (§ 260). Now came the newspapers of small price, large circulation, and great enterprise and activity in collect- ing news. The 8i(n and Herald, of New York City, were the first of these, followed shortly by the Times and Tribune, and by similar newspapers in other cities. 386. Literature. — One of the strongest signs of vigorous life in a people is the appearance of great writers; and this, too, was not lacking. There had been few American authors of ability up to this time, except in political writing. Just about this time the number of American authors suddenly in- creased, including great poets, such as Whittier, Longfellow, Poe, and Holmes; and great historians, such as Bancroft and Prescott. Hawthorne began publishing his wonderful stories, many authors of lower rank appeared, and those who had been known before, such as Bryant, Irving, and Cooper, ceased to copy English writers, and wrote in a new spirit. 387. Increase of Wealth. — The railroad opened up so many new kinds of work, and so many new ways in which work might be profitable, that for the first time in the his- tory of the country men began to be comfortable, to live eas- ily, and to feel less anxiety as to the future. As population increased, and with it the number of buyers, manufacturers could afford to use better methods, make more articles at the same cost, and sell each article for less money. And so men were better off on both sides : they made more money, and they got more for the money when they spent it. 388. Social Changes. — As the people began to live more easily, they began to dislike many things of which they had heretofore thought little. The prisons had been managed, as in other Qountries at that time^ in a brutal way. One 158 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1837 State had used an old copper-mine as a prison, putting the prisoners under ground, and most of the States used whij)- ping and torture, under whjch prisoners grew worse. Now, the penitentiary system was introduced: under it, labor took the place of whipping, and some eifort was made to reform criminals. The foolish and cruel system of imprisonment for debt also began to be abolished. American sailors on war- vessels were still punished by being lashed on the naked back with a cat-of-nine-tails; but the feeling against the practice, which finally put an end to it (1850), was already evident. Drunkenness had been a great vice: it had been considered quite proper for a gentleman to get drunk after dinner, and not very improper for a clergyman to own a distillery. From about this time dates the dislike to intoxication, though it was not then nearly so strong a dislike as it has since become. It would be impossible to name all the changes in the feelings of the people which began during this period. [Supplementary Reading. — (§371) Pavton's Jr«cA;soH/ Suiiuier's Jack- son ; You HoM'a Cal/touH J- Hunt's Livingsio7i ; H/'f/f/inson, i'Sl; Tucker, iv. 287; Vo7i Hoist, ii. 29; Ridpath, 426. (§ 372) Adams, 5; Hadley. 9; Bislwp, ii. 91; Eighty Years, i. 191. (§ 31^) Adams. 36; Brovrn's First Locomotive in America; Bishop, ii. 330, 346, 363, 378; Eighty Years, i. 243. (§ 374) Adams, 71; Hadley, 16, 25, 33; Eighty Years, i. 192, 263; Atkiuson's Distribution of Products, 75. ;§ 375) Bishop, ii. 117, 185, 203, 260, 410; Eighty Years, ii. 120, 248. (§ 376) Eighty Years, i. 241; Johtison, iii. 743. (^ 377) Bishop, ii. 390: 2'ighty Years, i. 35; BisJiop, ii. 406, 737; Eighty Years, i. 33; Bi-shoj). ii. 407. (§ 381) Von Hoist, ii. 139; Benton, i. 627; Laiiman's Red Book of Michigan ; Cooley's Michi- gnn. (§ 382) Bryant and Gay, iv. 295; Ridpath, 429; Von Hoist, ii. 143; (^ d8S)'Higginson, 453; Bryant and Gay, iv. 350; Tucker, iv. 251, 269; Ridpath, 431, 437; Giddinff's Exiles of Florida. (§ 384) Schovler, iii. 526; Eighty Years, ii. 355, 387. (§ 385) Schouler. iii. 528; Eighty Years. ii. 302; Hudson, 349. (§ 386) Schouler, iii. 528; Ricliardson, i. 276, 399, 403, 459. (§ 388) Eighty Years, i. 435: Schouler, iii. 518; Benton, i. 291; Griffis's Perry, 265.] 389. The Abolitionists. — While such changes of feeling were going on, it was impossible that people should continue to feel as they had done about negro slavery, and it came in for its first serious attack. ]\Iany good people had hoped that slavery would disappear gradually now. William Lloyd Gar- 1831] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 169 risou, a Boston newspaper editor, called for the " mimediate abolition" of slavery (1831); and those who agreed with him, called Abolitionists, formed an Anti-Slavery Society. As their societies multiplied, the South became very much alarmed. The alarm was increased by an unsuccessful negro insurrection in Virginia; and thus there were new reasons for ill-feeling between the two sections (§ 352). 390. Foreign Affairs. — The United States Government was now able to take a firmer tone in foreign affairs than it had ever done before. Its claims -against France and other countries for injuries done to American commerce thirty years before were at last paid; though the American navy had to be sent, in some cases, as a collecting agent. It has never since been difficult for the United States to obtain re- spect and attention to such claims; and it has even been pos- sible to obtain a settlement of such matters by arbitration, that is, by umpires (§ 649). 391. Political Affairs. — All this sudden and peaceful de- velopment of wealth and comfort belonged to the social life of the people:. the political history of these eight years was one of almost continual excitement. When President Jack- son believed that a measure was injurious to the people, he attacked it as if it were an enemy of his own, regardless of the feelings of his opponents, who were quite as confident that they were right; and so Jackson's friends and enemies accused one another of almost every crime imaginable. The President's principal struggles were with the former office- holders, the United States Bank, the ^'American System," and the Southern nullificationists (§ 400). 392. The Office-holders. — Jackson began the general prac- tice of turning out the civil office-holders of the opposite party, post-masters, clerks, marshals, and otiiers, no matter how faithful they had been as public servants, and putting his supporters in their places. All political parties followed his example for over forty years, until it was found that the effects on the public service were exceedingly bad, and efforts were made to put a stop to the system (§ 673), 160 THE INTRODUCTION OF RAILROADS. [1832 393. The Bank of the United States,— Jackson believed that Ji National Bank (§ 341) was uunecesgary, and that its establishment was only a plan to enrich a few men by grant- ing them the use of the public moneys for nothing. He stated this belief in his Messages to Congress; his supporters sided with him, and the country was divided by the question of " Bank or no Bank." His opponents in Congress were strong enough to pass an Act to continue the Bank for twenty years (183"-?); but the President vetoed it (§741); and the friends of the Bank in Congress were not numerous enough to pass the Act over the veto. 394. The Removal of the Deposits. — The next year the President ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to cease de- positing the public revenues in the Bank (§ 341); and now the friends of the Bank in Congress were not numerous enough to forbid this "removal of the deposits." Little by little, Jackson gained a majority in Congress; and the Bank gave up the struggle and ceased to be a government in.68 Texas. 1845 376.133 Mexican Cession, 1848 545,783 Gadsdnn Purcliase from Mexico, 1853 45,535 Alaska, 1867 577,390 [Supplementary Reading.— (g 440) Bartlett. iii. 428; Ridpath, 447; Greeley, i. 186; Gilman, 455; Von Holsl, iii. 8:5; Wilson, ii. 7. (§ 441) Barilett, iii. 428; Ridpalh, 450; Greeley, i. 187; Draper, i. 395; Benton, ii. 677; Gilman. 456; Von Hoist, iii. 232. 239; Johnston. 143; Wilson, ii. 9; Livermore, 57, 163; Ramsay's The Other Side. (§ 442) Bartlett, iii. 431; Ridpath. 449; Gilman, 457; Bryant and Gay, iv. 370; Wilson, ii. 10; Livermore. 125. (i^ 443) Bartlett, iii. 436, 437; Ridpath, 452; Benton, ii. 683, 688, 716; Gilman, 458; Von Hoist, iii. 258; Bryant and (ray. iv. 372; Royoe's California, 151. (§ 444) Vo?i Hoist, iii. 268: ^Livermore, 187; Sherman, i. 43. (§ 445) Bartlett, iii. 434, 438; Ridpath, AT)!, 'irt'i; Gilman. m); Von Hoist, iii. 29\, 298, SS\; Bryant and Gay,iv. 371, 373; Livermore, 129. (^ 446) Bartlett. iii. ASS), 4-i2; Ridpath, 4:^)4 ; Scott, 415; Draper, i. 396; Gilman, 465; Von Hoist, iii. 298, 331; Livermore. 133; Griffis's Perry, 197. (^ 447) Bartlett. iii. 443; Draper, i. 397; Von Hoist, iii. 332; Bryant and Gay, iv. 376; 5w«, 430. (>5 448) Bartlett, iii. 446; Ridpath, 456; Draper, i. 398; Bryant and Gay. iv. 377; een found that this Rocky Mountain region is rich in almost every kind of mineral. Wells sunk near Titusville, in north- western Pennsylvania (1859), struck a vast underground sup- ply of petroleum; and this at once became a new and large source of wealth. It seemed as if nature was generously pouring wealth into the lap of this fortunate people. 488. Patents — Now that the country had grown so popu- lous, a patent on a useful invention was a source of great wealth, for there were many more buyers of patented articles. Thus the attention of the people was turned strongly to in- vention; the inventions made it easier to produce wealth; and the new wealth urged on further invention. 489. Literature. — The writers who had appeared thirty years before (§ 386) had come to their full powers, and an in- creasing number of new men, such as the historian Motley, the poet Lowell, and the essayist Emerson, were at work with them. Newspapers and magazines had become very numer- ous, and employed many of the country's ablest men. 490. Education — The public schools (§ 384) had become a great feature of the republic, and in them an army of pupils were studying at the State's expense. In addition to these. 194 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [!«(<; there was a great number of private schools, and nearly 400 colleges." 491. Condition of the Country. — The life of the people w:is very different from what it had been fifty years before. 'J'lu' farms were cultivated more easily and jDrofitably by improved machinery worked by horses or by steam. New fertilizers, such as guano, were making old farms produce more. Log- cabins and shanties were disappearing, and were replaced by comfortable houses, containing conveniences which the rich- est of men could not have bought fifty years before: gas, liot- air furnaces, sewing-machines, and inventions of every sort to save labor or trouble, Tiiere were now few villages in th<' older part of the country that were not within reach of a rail- road or telegraph, by which their people could go or send easily and quickly to any part of the United States. 402. The Cities — Not only tlie population, luit the com- fort, of the cities had increased. The dwellings had grown larger, the stores richer, and the streets finer; and the cities themselves had taken much the appearance which they still have, though they have since increased in size, and the inven- tion of elevators has caused the erection of very much loftier buildings than were possible in 1860. Great water-works brought pure water from a distance, and distributed it through the cities. Spacious parks were opened, as breath- ing-places for the cities. New York City had just opened the finest of these. Central Park, and other cities were at work in the same direction. Public libraries, such as the Astor Library in New York City, were appearing. Thirty years be- fore, the '^ watchmen" had walked the streets at night with canes and lanterns, and there wei-e hardly any arrangements to punish them for going to sleep or neglecting their duties. Now the new police system had been introduced, with officers to manage it and punish neglect or carelessness in the men.* 4;):{. Condition of the South. — The prosperity shown by the census of 18G0 was a pleasing picture; but the South did * This city police system is an Enslish idea, introduced in London in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel: and for this reason the policemen were at first often called " peelers.'" I 1860] BUCHANANS ADMINISTRATION. 195 not shure in it. It paid no wages for its labor,, and its crops sold for large amounts; yet the money did not build up manufactures, colleges, schools, libraries, I'ailroads, or other signs of growth, as in the North: it went to the North or abroad to buy things which could not be made at the South. The secret of the backwardness of the South was in its slave system. Slaves worked only because they were made to work; they worked slowly, carelessly, and stupidly, and were fit for nothing better than to hoe cotton. In factories or on rail- roads they were of little use. The rich whites did not need to work; and the poor whites did not wish to work, because they had grown up in the belief that work was a sign of slavery. Tlius the South had no great number of persons who really wanted to work, and everytliing stood still; while in the North there was a general race for work, and every- thing was in active motion. 49-i-. The Territories — The South, however, could not see this in 1860. It could only see that five Territories had become free States since the last slave State, Texas, had been admitted; and that it had been beaten in the struggle for another, Kansas; and it came to believe that this struggle against slavery in the Territories was really intended to make the South still weaker, and the North still stronger. 495. The Dred Scott Case — Congress had forbidden slavery in the Louisiana purchase, outside of Missouri (§ 354), One Dred Scott, a Missouri slave who had been taken by his owner into the territory in which Congress had forbidden slavery, brought suit to be declared free, and the ease came before the Supreme Court (§ 744). The Court's decision (1857) sustained the Southern view of slavery in the Territories; it held that a slave-owner had as much right to take his slaves as his cattle from one State to anothe]-, or to the Territories, and that Congress had no right to forbid slavery in any of the Territo- ries. It held .that the Constitution considered slaves to be property, not persons; from which it would follow that Con- gress being bound to protect property in the Territories was bound to protect slavery there. 196 SECTIONAL DIVISION. [1860 496. Effects of the Decision — 'JMie decisions of the Su- preme Court have usuulh^ been accepted as settling such dis- puted questions; but the effect of this decision was only to make the Soutli more certain that it was right, and to make the Xorth exceedingly angry with the Supreme Court itself, so that any peaceable settlement became still more difficult. The people of the North continued to insist that negro slaves were considered by the Constitution as "peisons held to labor" by State law, and that tliey ceased to be slaves when taken out of their State, for the State law alone had made them property. 497. Joim Brown's Raid. — Sectional feeling was made stronger still by an attempt of John Brown to excite a slave insurrection in Virginia (1859). He liad been one of the Free-State leaders in the Kansas troubles, and had grown into a religious fury against slavery. He seized Harper's Ferry, which contained the United States arsenal, intending to carry the arms off to the mountains near by, and use them to arm the slaves. The telegraph carried the news through the South, and a wild excitement followed for a few days. Brown's party was soon captured or shot; and Brown him- self, with the survivors, was hanged by the Virginia author- ities. But the South liad been too much startled to be easily quieted ; and there was a strong feeling of anger because the "raid" had been planned m tlie North. 498. The Democratic Party. — When the Democrats lield their next national convention (1860), it was found that slavery hud at last split their party also (§ 474). Southern Democrats claimed that the party should accept the Supreme Court's opinion that Congress must protect slavery in the Territories. Northern Democrats, under Douglas, knew that they could win no moi'e elections in the North if tliey yielded to this demand, and tiiey refused ; so the conven- tion broke into two parts, which made different nominations. 499. Parlies in ISOO. — As the Presidential election of 1860 drew near, tliere were four parties at work, as follows: (fl) The Republican Party nominated Abraham Lincoln, 1860] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. li^7 of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for President and Vice-President. Their '' platform," or declaration of principles, declared that it was the right and duty of Con- gress io forbid slavery in the Territories. {h) The Southern Deiiwcrat,s nominated John C. Breckin- ridge, of Kentuck}^, and Joseph Lane, of Oregon. Their platform ileclared that it was the right and duty of Congress to pro/ect slavery in the Territories, whenever a slave-owner took his slaves thither. (c) The Nortliern Democrats nominated Stephen A.Doug- las, of Illinois, and Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia. Their platform declared that they still believed that the people of each Territory ought to control the matter of slavery in that Territory; but that they were willing to submit to the decision of the Supreme Court, whatever it might really mean. {(l) The American Party nominated John Bell, of Ten- nessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. Their plat- form declared that they wished only for "the Constitution, the Union, and the enforcement of the laws." This was not intended to mean much, except that its Southern supporters did not wish to go to war in defence of slavery in the Ter- ritories, and wanted the slavery question dropped out of poli- tics. 500. Presidential Election of 1860 — The division in the Democratic party made the success of the Republicans cer- tain. Lincoln and Hamlin received the electoral votes of all the free States except three votes in New Jersey, and were elected,* [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 484) Ridpatli, 475; Bryant and Gay, iv. 427; Ferris's Mormons; Guuuison's Mormons; Tucker's Mormonism. (§ 485) Barrow's Oregon; Hollowav's Kansas; Spi'iu^'s Kcuisas. (% 486) Johnson, i. 993, ii. 596, iii 784, '1185; Eighty Years, ii. 70, 116, 133, 164, 204: Browne's Resources of the Pacific, (ij 488) Johnson, iii. 1113. (i; 489) Richardson, i. (see Index under" names mentioned). (§ 490) Draper, i. 491; Eigliiy Years, ii. 355; Liddel and Schem's (Jyelopxdia. (g 491) Eighty Years, i. 30. 35, 100, 175, 209; ii. 247, 423. (§ 493) Von Hoist, iii. 563: Olmstead, i. 19, 81, 112, 122, 188; Draper, i. 465. 487; * The electoral votes were 180 for Lincoln and Hamlin, 72 for Breckinridge and Lane, 39 for Bell and Everett, and 12 for Douglas and Johnson. 198 ISErriONAL DiviaiON. [1861 Theodore Parker's WorkH, v. 44, vi. 35; Cent. Mag., March, 1887. (^ 494) Ca^A«m, 87; A.'ll. Stephens, W. Z\2, 324, 714; Davis, i. 229. (§ 504) Draper, i. 558; Lost Came, 87; Scott, 613; McPherson. 27. (§ 505) Draper, i. 542, 559; Campaigns. \. 20; Bu- chanan, 163, 190: Scott, 621; McPherson, 32; Lost Cmise, 97: Drap&r, i. 519, 554; liidpath, 481; Wilson, iii. 33, 61, 85: Buchanan, 153; Curtis's Buchanan, ii. 187; McPherson, 48; Johnston, 183; Lost Canse. 92.] CHAPTER VII. THE CIVIL WAR: 1861-65. LiNcoLx's Administration. I. Events of 1861. 508. The New President. — Abraham Lincoln, now a man of 52, was a Kentucky boy, born of poor parents, with whom he emigrated to Illinois. As he grew up, he found work as a farm-hand, rail-splitter, and boatman. By hard work he educated himself, and became a successful lawyer and a polit- ical leader in his State, where he was commonly known as " Honest Abe Lincoln." He was still little known outside of Illinois; and when he was elected President there was a very wide belief in the North that the " rail-splitter " was a reckless and dangerous man. In tiie South, it was even believed that he was a mulatto (and Hamlin a full-blooded negro), elected as an insult to the South. It was not until his death that people began to see that he was one of the wisest, greatest, and most kind-hearted men of history, who loved one section as well as he did the other, and his whole country more than either. 509. Fort Sumter. — Peace was broken a little more than a month after Lincoln's inauguration. It became necessary to send supplies from the North to Fort Sumter; and the at- tempt thus to relieve the fort brought on an attack by the South Carolina batteries. After a bombardment of thirty hours, Major Anderson surrendered (April 13, 1861). 510. The War Excitement.— The belief that the North and West would not fight disappeared at once; the act of "firing 301 ^02 THE CIVIL WAR. 1861 oil the flag" routed their people to such u pitch of anger as had not been known since the Revolution. President Lin- coln's call for 75,000 volunteer soldiers was answered foui- times over; and money and help of every kind were offered in abundance by States and private persons. No one had been killed at Sumter: the first blood of the war was shed on the anniveisary of the fight at Lexington (x\pril 19: J^ 165), when V .^^^^ SCALE OF MILES V. 1 Fort Sumter and Charleston Harbok. a Massachusetts regiment on its way to Washington had to fight its way through the streets of Baltimore. 1'his increased the excitement at the North, and the people of the South, on their side, were as wildly excited at the thought that North- ern soldiers were coming to attack the South. From this time all hope of peace was gone and civil war had begun. 511. The IJlockade. — The first effort of President Lincoln was to establisii a blockade of the Southern ports (§ 308). At first he had but three vessels to use for that purpose; but others were soon bought or built, and the navy soon became very Lirge. It was not believed that any force of vessels could stop commerce on a coast 3,000 miles long, in which the Gov- ernment did not hold a single harbor as a refuge for its ves- 1861] EVENTS OF 1861. 203 sels in case of storm or distress. But the Government was determined, and did the work : the blockade never was broken throughout the war. Some swift-sailing steamers, called " blockade-runners/' succeeded in stealing into Southern harbors by night with cargoes of goods, but most of this class of vessels were captured. Toward the end of the war, even blockade-running was stopped (§ 588). Late in this year, expeditions were sent out, which captured Hatteras Inlet, in Xorth Carolina, and Port Royal, in South Carolina, as harbors of refuge for the blockading vessels; and the navy seized Ship Island, near the mouth of the Mississippi, for the same pur- pose. 512. The Second Secession. — The Government's call for troops brought on a second secession, of four of the Border States, lying between the North and the Gulf States, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. They disapproved the purpose of the Government to force the seceding States back into the Union. Even in tiiese States the people seem to have had no great desire to secede; and secession was car- ried through mainly by the governors and other State officers. Much the same thing was attempted in Kentucky and Mis- souri; but the majority of their people finally held those States in the Union. 513. The Confederate States. — After this second secession the Confederate States were eleven in number: Virginia, North Carolina, Soutii Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. Their capital was changed from Montgomery to Richmond as soon as Virginia seceded; and their troops poured into east- ern Virginia, which was to be the great battle-ground of the war. Richmond was the meeting-place for the Congress of the Confederacy, which made its laws; from this place, its President, Uavis, directed the movements of its armies; and near it were gathered the ablest of the Confederate generals, Lee, Johnston, Beauregard, and others. From Harper's Ferry there were soon lines of forts, armies, and other de- fences southward through Virginia to Norfolk, along the coast 204 THE CIVIL WAli. [1861 of the southern Atlantic and tlu* Gulf of Mexico, through western Virginia and southern Kentucky, and along the Mis- sissippi. 514. The United States. — The Government of the United States refused to recognize the existence of the Confederate States, or to consider its jieople as anything else than rebell- ious citizens. At first it cared only to hold Maryland, Ken- tucky, Missouri, and parts of Virginia, until its new soldiers could be trained and formed into armies. In this it was suc- cessful; witliin three nujiiths after the surrender of Fort Sumter, the people of eleven States, 9,000,000 in number, were surrounded by a line of hostile fleets and ai-niies which was not broken until the end of the war. 515. Congress. — The regular meeting-time of Congress was not to come until December. But President Lincoln had been compelled, in taking steps to defend the country, to do many things for which no laws had been passed (>; 740) ; and he wished to have Congress in session to provide for such matters in future. He called a special session for July 4. It voted to consider nothing but war business, appropriated $500,000,000 for war expenses, authorized the President to call out 500,000 volunteers, and gave him all powers necessary to carry on the war. 51G. Bull Kun. — There had been some skirmishing as the armies came into position, but both sides were now eager to fight. Scott had been put in connnand of the Uiiion armies, and soon after Congress met he gave an unwilling consent to an advance of the army near Washington. It met the Con- federates at a little stream called Bull Run, about 35 miles from AVashington, where Beau I'egutird was posted at^Iauassns \ma-n((s'-s(is\ Junction. At first, the advantage was with the Union army; but in thq afternoon the Confederate General Johnston brougld up a fresh army from the Shenandoah [s//en-(ni-«w«, i. 429. (§ 521) Draper, ii. 31, 501; Apple- ton, \. 259. (i^o22) Draper, ii. 540; Ridpath, 494; Appleton, i. 693; McPherson, 338; ifecorrf, ii. 92, 116. 123; Zi ///e HW. 523. Grant's Advauce. — This year in the West was notable for the fii'st great success of the general who was to end the war, Ulysses S. Grant. General D. C. Buell commanded the Union forces in Kentucky, and Grant commanded under him at Cairo. Early in the year, by a successful attack on Mill Spring, part of Buell's forces had broken the Confeder- ate line, which ran through southern Kentucky, under com- mand of General Albert Sidney Johnston. Grant, however, achieved a still more important success. Moving up the Tennessee River with a fleet of gunboats to aid his army, he captured Forts Henry and Donelson, and broke up the west- ern part of the Confederate line. Giving his opponents no time to recover, Grant advanced directly southward, seizing Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, on his way, and finally established his army at Pittsburgh Landing, on the west side of the Tennessee River, in the southern part of Tennessee. Buell's army was hurried forward, down the eastern side of the river, to join Grant. &24. Pittsburgh Laiidinsr, or Sliiloh.— Before Buell could reach Grant, Johnston had gathered all his forces to strike the camp at Pittsburgh Landing. His attack was made early in the morning, and was at first successful. The Union forces had no suspicion that an enemy was near them, when the Con- .federate line burst on tliem from the woods and drove part of the line down to the river bank. The remainder made a stubborn resistance, aided by the gunboats in the river. Dui- 1862] 1862 IN THE WEST. 209 ing the afternoon and night, part of Buell's army reached Grant; Johnston had been killed duriug the battle; and the next moruing the Union forces advanced and drove the Con- federates oif the field. This was the first of the great battles of the war: the killed and wounded in it were nearly as many SCALE OF MILES Mill Spring to Shiloh. as the whole army on either side at Bull Run. It is often called the battle of Shiloh, from the name of the little church around which the heaviest fighting took place. 525. Corinth — There had been many severe criticisms on Grant's management at Shiloh. Halleck (§ 519) was now put in command of the army; and he slowly forced the Con- federates south through Corinth, which he captured. This was the point at which the army had been aiming; for the most important railroad of the South passed through it, from Memphis to Chattanooga [cJiaf-fa-7ido'-f/a]. Here the Union advance stopped for the time. It had opened up the Mis- sissippi from Cairo to Memphis; and the Union line now ran along the railroad near the southern boundary of Tennessee, 210 THE CIVIL WAR. [1862 This success raised Halleck's reputation so high that lie was transferred to Washington by the President, leaving Buell again in coniniand. 526. Bragg's Raid. — General Braxton Bragg now took Beauregard's place. During the summer he quietly moved the larger part of his army eastward until he had passed the -> CmftdiruU Forrtt SCALE OF MILES 100 200 Bragg"s Raid. Union line, and then struck north for Kentucky. Buell, who was then moving eastward toward Chattanooga, hurried northward with a weaker army, and reached Louisville ahead of Bragg. Finding that the Kentucky people would not join him. Bragg turned slowly southward again, after plunder- ing the country for a month. Buell overtook Bragg at Perry- ville; but the bittle was indecisive, and the Confederates sue ceeded in carrying off their long trains of plunder to Chat- tanooga, while the Union army took post at Nashville. 527. Murfreesboro. — General William S. Rosecrans had taken BuelFs place, and just at the end of the year he moved southeast from Nashville in an attempt on Chattanooga. 1862] 1862 IN THE WEST. 211 About half-way between the two places he came on the Con- federates, fortified at Murfreesboro. One of the bloodiest battles of the war followed, lasting for three days: it is often called the battle of Stone River, from a shallow stream which flowed between the two armies. In the end,, the Confederates slowly left the field and retired for a few miles, while the Union troops were unable to pursue. Both armies then went into winter quarters, each watching the other. 528. Gr.ant and Sherman. — All this time, Grant was left in command at Corinth, almost in idleness, though he re- pi^lsed two attacks of the enemy. Toward the end of the year, he made a first attempt to reach Vicksburgh ; but the Confederate cavalry swept in, in the rear of his army, de- stroyed the supplies which he had collected, and compelled him to return. All this must have been a discouraging lack of success for Grant. It was balanced, however, by the close friendship which he had already formed for General William T. Sherman. From this time the names of Grant and Sher- man are as clearly connected as those of Lee and Jackson on the other side (§ 54 L). 529. Pea Ridge. — The Confederates had by this time com- pletely given up Missouri; and a complete defeat at Pea Ridge, in northwestern Arkansas, forced them to abandon Arkansas also for a time, though there was still some guer- rilla fighting, that is, attacks upon small parties of Union troops by armed men who were not regular soldiers or under any military control. 530. The Western Gunboats. — Much of the year's fighting in the West had been done by gunboats. Most of them were river-steamboats, covered with iron plates or rails, a ram or beak being sometimes added at the prow. Fleets of these gunboats controlled the western rivers, clearing the Mississippi of the enemy as far south as Vicksburgh. The strongest re- sistance made by the Confederates was at Island Number Ten, near New Madrid. They fortified it and stopped the gun- boats for nearly a month; but the garrison finally surrendered. 212 THE CIVIL WAR. [1862 {b) On. the Coast. 531. The Merriinac. — At the opening of the war, the Con- federates had seized the navy-yard at Norfolk, and in it the frigate Merrimar. I'hey had turned lier into what was then a new thing, an iron-clad ram. Early in this year, she sailed out from Norfolk into Hampton Roads, where there was a fleet of the finest vessels then in the United States navy. They could do nothing with her. They poured a storm of heavy shot on her, hut these bounded from her iron roof like rubber balls. She sailed around the harbor, ramming and sinking the opposing vessels or driving them ashore, until dark, when she retired to Norfolk. There was then apparently nothing to stop her from sailing to Washington or along the coast, break- ing the blockade, and destroying the great Atlantic cities; and the telegraph carried the alarming news everywhere. 532. The Monitor. — Captain John Ericsson (§ 376) had been building an iron-clad at New York, which he called the Mon- itor. She was much smaller than the Merriniac; her deck hardly appeared above the water; and she had but two guns, which were fired through a small movable turret. The Con- federates called her *' a Yankee cheese-box on a raft." She ari'ived at Hampton Roads ^ two hours after the Mer- riniac went back to Nor- folk; and the next morn- ing, when the Merrimai- sailed out again to finish her work, the little Monitor moved out between her and the wooden frigates. After four hours of firing and lamming, neither vessel was seriously injured; but the Merrinuic could do nothing with her antago- nist, and steamed back to Norfolk, from which she never came out again (§ 538). The SCALE OF MILES 1862J 1862 ON THE COAST. 213 telegraph carried the joyful news everywhere that " the Mo?ii- tor had whipped the Merriinac," and the danger was over. The Government soon had a great number of Monitors afloat; and other nations began to give up wooden ships and form iron- clad navies, so that tins one fight changed tlie navies of tlie world. 533. Captures on the Coast.— Successive expeditions cap- tured Roanoke Island (§ 17), 8t. Augustine, and Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah Kiver. Charleston, Wilming- ton, and Mobile were then almost the only good harbors left for the blockade-runners; and these were closely watched by the navy. But the most important capture was that of New Orleans, for it opened up the lower Mississippi. 534. New Orleans. — The Confederates had made the lower Mississippi as dangerous as possible, by forts, iron chains, iron-clads and fire-rafts. Early in the year, a naval expedition, with an army, was sent to Ship Island (§ 511). Commodore David G. Farragut, who com- manded the fleet, becoming tired of bombarding the forts, chose a dark night and under- took to force his way up the river. Each vessel fought for itself, firing at the forts, the gunboats, and the iron-clads as they came near her; and none of them knew much about the the lower Mississippi. result until the smoke cleared away, and they found them- selves above the forts. The Confederate fleet had been de- stroyed in the battle. The forts and the city of New Orleans surrendered soon after. 535. The Mississippi River — Farragut's fleet sailed up the Mississippi until it met the fleet from Memphis; and the river was open through nearly all its course. The Confederates still had strong forts at Vicksburgh and Port Hudson; but 214 THE CIVIL WAR. [1862 they were on bluffs high above the river, so that tlie fleet could not capture them, though they could run past in the night. There was no army at hand to give assistance, and the cap- ture of these two places was left until the next year (§ 558). [Supplementary Reading.— (^o'23) Draper, ii. 260. 281; Greeley, ii.41; Ridpnth, 496; Dodge, 26; Appleton, ii. 26; Grant, i. 284; R. W. C. Diary. i. 110 ; Davis, i. 405. ii. 18 ; A. 11 Stephens, ii. 542 ; Ij)st Cause, 202. (§524) Draper, ii. 291; Greeley, ii. 61; Dodge, 42; Appleton, ii. 68; Grant, i. 330; Sherman, i. 251; Cent. Mag.. ]March, 1886; Campaigns, ii. 123; Davis, ii. 52; Lost Cause, 237. (§525) Draper, ii. 306; Greeley, ii. 71; Appleton, ii. 75; Grant, i. 374; Sherman, i. 278; Lost Cause, 320. (§526) Draper, ii. 351; Greeley, ii. 212; Dodge, 85; Ridpath. 499; Appleton, ii. 146; Campaigns, vii. 48; Davis, ii. 382; J., i/! Stephens, ii. 545; Zo«i Cause, 327. (§ 527) Draper, ii. 360; Greeley, ii. 270; Campaigns, vii. 87; Ridpath, 500; Appleton, ii. 158; Davis, ii. 384; ^4. i/. Stephens, ii. 545; /.os< C'/Mse, 346. (§ 528) Draper, ii. 312; Appleton, ii. 152; (r?vt«<, i. 404, 432; Sherman, i. 307; Z>o(Z£r6, 89; Zos« C««s<;, 334. (§529) Draper, ii. 237; Greeley, ii. 27; Appleton, ii. 56; Zo«< Cause, 352. (§ 530) Draper, ii. 210, 294; Ridpath, 497; 2)od£r^, 29; Appleton. ii. 60, 640: Hoppin's i^(W<«. (§g 531-2) Draper, ii. 207; Greeley, ii. 115; i^of^^re, 38; Ridpath, 497; Appleton, ii. 607; Campaigns, ii. Ill; 6fe/i<. ilf^^., December, 1885. (g§ 534-5) Draper, ii. 327; Greeley, ii. 81; Ridpath, 496; Appleton, ii. 631, 645; Parton's 5«/ier m iVew Orleans; Cent. Mag., July, 1886.] (c) /// ///e ^«.si'. 536. The Virginia Campaigns. — This was a battle-year in Virginia. There was almost constant fighting, and four dis- tinct campaigns: (1) McClellan's campaign on the Peninsula; (2) Pope's campaign l)efore Washington ; (3) the Confederate invasion of the North; and (4) Burnside's Fredericksburgh campaign. 537. Tlie Peninsula Campaign. — McClellan wished to take his army by water to Fortress Monroe, and thence to move up the peninsula between the York and James rivers against Richmond. The objection to this was that it opened the way to the Confederates for a sudden rush on "Washington, a more valuable prize than Richmond. It was finally decided to fol- low McClellan's plan, but to keep a part of his army, under McDowell, in front of Washington, at Fredericksburgh, and an army, under General N. P. Banks, in the Shenandoah Valley. 538. Yorktown. — As McClellan's army was moved to Fortress 1862] 1862 IN Tun EAST. 21.0 Monroe, the Confederate general, Johnston (§ 516), moved his force from Manassas Junction to meet it. McClellan took Yorktown (§ 234) after a siege of a month, and followed the retreating enemy nearly to Richmond. The Confederates had destroyed the Merrimac, because she drew too much water to sail up the James River; and the Union gunboats controlled that river to within eight miles of Richmond. 639. The Chickahominy. ^McClellan undertook to push his line far enough north to join McDowell at Frederic ksburgh, and get the assistance of that army without uncovering Washing- ton (§ 537). This divided his army, leaving its two parts on opposite sides of the Chickahominy, a little stream which passes Richmond on the north and emp- ties into the James. It is a dangerous thing thus to divide an army; and in this case it ruined a prom- ising campaign. 540. Seven Pines and Fair Oak s.— Heavy rains came on; the Chickahominy rose rapidly and car- r i e d away the bridges; the whole country on its banks became a great swamp, and the two parts of McClellan's army might as well have been miles PENINSULAE CAMPAIGN SCALE OF MILES 216 THE CIVIL \VAR. [1862 apart, for they could no longer help one another. Johnston at once attacked the weaker part, on the Richmond side of the Chickahominy, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, but in this first attack the Confederates were beaten. Johnston was so badly wounded that he gave up the command to General Robert E. Lee. 541. Lee and Jackson. — Lee, who had been considered the ablest officer of the United States regular army, liad followed his State (§ 502) when Virginia seceded. From this time, he was recognized as the ablest Confederate general. His ablest lieutenant was General Thomas J. Jackson, also a Virginian, commonly called " Stonewall " Jackson, from the obstinate way in which he had held his ground at Bull Kun. He was a man of simple character, so intensely religious as to be considered a fanatic, and a wonderful general. He was now in command in the Shenandoah Valley, against Banks (§ 537), but was soon to join Lee. 542. Jackson's Raid. — Jackson attacked Banks suddenly, beat him with a rush, and chased him to the Potomac. In- deed, it seemed that the road to Washington was open to him, and the authorities at Washington were so much alarmed that they called McDowell back from Fredericksburgh to de- fend the city. This was just Avhat Jackson wanted, for it balked McClellan's plan. He made as much noise as possible, but prepai-ed to join Lee before Richmond. 543. The Seven Days' Battles. — Hurrying southward, Jack- son joined Lee, and the two attacked that part of McClellan's army north of the Chickahominy at Mechanicsville, a little place just north of Richmond. They were repulsed; but another battle, next day, at Gaines's Mill, enabled them to cut off McClellan from his supplies on the York River. Then McClellan began a retreat, southward to the James River, in order to reunite the two parts of his army. Lee and Jackson followed; and for the rest of the week there was desperate tigliting every day, the principal battles being those of Savage's Station, Glendale or Frazier's Farm, and Malvern Hill. The last-named battle ended the retreat, for Lee was 1862J 1862 IN THE EAST. 217 repulsed, and McClellan had reached the James Eiver in safety. 544. Pope's Campaign. — General John Pope was now in command of the Union forces between Fred- ericksburgh and Wushnig- ton. Leaving Lee to watch McOlellan, Jack- son moved north, attacked and beat Pope on the old Bull Run battle-field, and chased him back to Wash- ington. The authorities there hastily called Mc- Clellan back to defend the capital, and as fast as this was done, Lee moved his army north to rejoin Jackson. Thus, at the end of the summer, the two armies were about where they had been at the opening of the year. 545. First Invasion of the North. — McClellan had hardly reached Washington when Lee crossed the Potomac, apparent- ly intending to move right oii to Pliiladelphia or Baltimore. By hard marching, McClellan came up between Lee and Bal- timore, and Lee turned to the northwest, through the moun- tains, to meet Jackson, who had captured Harper's Ferry, with its garrison and a large amount of supplies. 546. Antietam. — A successful battle at South Mountain brought McClellan through the mountain-passes, and Lee turned and fought the great battle known as Antietam \an-tee'-tam^, from the little creek which runs through the battle-ground, or Sharpsburgh. It was a drawn battle, but the Confederates were forced to give up the invasion of the North, and retire to their old position near Fredericksburgh. McClel- SCALE OF MILES Seven Days' Battlrs. 218 THE CIVIL WAR. [1862 lau was blamed for his slowness in pursuing, and the command of the army was taken from him and given to Oeneral Ambrose E. Huruside. 547. Fredericksburgh, — Crossing the Rappa- luiunock at Fredericks- l)urgh, Burnside sent his army to storm the hills on the other side, which Lee and Jackson had carefully fortified. There was a frightful slaugh- ter, and after the worst defeat of the war, tlie Army of the Potomac retreated across the Eap- pahannock. The com- mand was then taken from Burnside and given to General Joseph E. Hooker. Operations in the East ceased, for it was now late in December. 548. Military Sum- First Invasion of the North. mary. — ine advantages were all with the Union forces in the spring of 1862. Mill Spring, Forts Henry and Donelson, Pea Kidge, Pittsburgh Landing, and Corinth, in the West, the naval battle in Hamp- ton Roads, Roanoke Island and New Orleans, on the coast, were all important Union victories. Bragg's raid into Ken- tucky, and the disasters in Virginia during the rest of the year, were discouraging, but they lost no territory. The two great attempts by Lee and Bragg to break through the besieging lines of armies had been beaten back. The Union lines had been advanced across the whole State of Tennessee; the Mississippi Cvn/rilir SCALE OF MILES 1862] 1862 m THE EAST. 219 had beeu almost opened, aud great pieces had been taken out of the Confederacy in every direction. The blockade was growing stricter, so that the Southern people wei-e in want of such common medicines as quinine. But there was no notion now that the war was to be an easy conquest. More than a million volunteers had been called for, and there were more than 600 vessels in the navy. The Government was spending more than $3,000,000 a day. 519. Emancipation. — There was a strong feeling in the North that slavery was the real cause of the war, and many even of those who had once censured the Abolitionists (§ 414) now felt an increasing desire that the President should attack slavery as a war-measure. Just after the battle of Antietam President Lincoln issued his first Emancipation Proclamation, warning the seceding States that he would declare their slaves free unless they returned to the Union before the end of the year. No seceding State returned, and the final Emancipation Proclamation was issued, January 1, 1863. From that time the army and navy considered all negroes free men, and re- fused to allow their former masters to treat them as slaves. Colored men were also enlisted as soldiers and sailors.* 550. Paper Money. — Much of the cost of the war liad been met by loans in the form of bonds, or promises to pay, with interest, in future. As a further resource, the Government now began to issue paper money in bills, often called '' green- backs," from the color of the ink with which their backs were printed. They were promises to pay in future, without in- terest, but were made legal tender: that is, any one who owed a debt had the right to pay it in paper, no matter how much the paper might have decreased in value. It did decrease in value (§563), but never as much as Continental money (§ 210) or Confederate money (§ 563). 551. Confederate Privateers. — Confederate agents in Eng- land built and armed two fast-sailing steamers, the Alabama and the Florida. The British Government was not sufficiently * It was not until 1865 that the Constitution was so amended as to forever foibiii slaverj- (§620). 220 THE CIVIL WAR. [1863 careful to detain them, and they escaped to sea, and soon almost entirely drove American commerce from the ocean. Whenever they were closely chased by American war-vessels, they found refuge in British hurbors. And, as they were British built, British armed, and manned mostly by Britisli sailors, the American people were indignant at what they con- sidered a British trick to destroy the commerce of a friendly nation (§ 649). [Supplementary Reading. — (§g 537-8) Draper, ii. 368; Greeley, ii. 107; Campaigns, m; Dodge, 49; liidpaih, 502; McClellan, 25'd; J. E.Johnston, 117; Appleton, ii. 83; Swinton, 79, 108; B. W. C. Dmry. i. 129; Cent. Mug., May, 1885; Davis, ii. 87; Lost Cause, 265. (§§539-40) Draper, ii. 384; Greeley, ii. 141; Itidpath, 503; Dodge, 55; Appleton, ii. 100, 113; Sicinton, 123, 129; McVlellan, 346, 361; J. E. Johnston, 132; Davis, ii. 120; A. II. Stephens, ii. 539; Lost Cause. 279. (§ 541) Cooke's Lee; Ches- uey'& Military Biography; Dahney'& Jackson ; Cooke's Jackso7i; Rau- dolph's Jackson; Foliaid's Davis, 229, 425. (§542) Draper, ii. 390; Greeley, ii. 176; Dodge, 55; Ridpjath, 502; Appleton, ii. 105; Cooke's Jackson, 137; Kundolph's Jackson, 133; Cent. Mag., June, 1885; Davis, ii. 106; Lost Cause, 272. (§543) Draper, ii. 400; Greeley, ii. 152; Bid- path, 504; McClellan, 410; Dodge. 62; Appleton, 118; Sitinton, 140; Cent. Mag., June, July, and August, 1885; Cooke's, Jackson. 200; Randolph's Jackson, 175; B. W. C. Diary, i. 136; Davis, ii. 130; Lost Cause. 283. (§544) Draper, ii. 427; Greeley, ii. 172, 179; Campaigns, iv; Bidpath, 505; Dodge, 69; Sicinton. 168; Appleton, ii. 126; Cooke's Jackson, 251; Randolphs Jac^-«o«.. 211; Z>«rM, ii. 312; ios< C«wse, 299. (§§545-6) Draper, ii. 449; Campaigns, v; Greeley, ii. 193; Swinton, 195; Bidpath, 506; McClellan, 54Q; Appleton, ii. 137; Dodge, 102; Cent. Mag., May md June, 1886; Cooke's Jackson, 307; Pollard's i>«w, 240; ix)*^ C«i/««. 310. (§ 547) Draper, ii. 468; Greeley, ii. 342; CamjMigns, v; Bidpath, 509; 2)e/(f5^e, 110; Appleton. ii. 165; Sicinton, 230; O/i^. 3/«£?., Sept., 1886; Cooke's /«<;A-w?i, 367; Davis, ii. 351; Zos< C«m ii. 186. (§550) Z>mj9e;-, ii. 572; McPherson, 251; Gillet, 286. (§551) Greeley, ii. 642; Appleton, ii. 381, 600; Cfe»<. Jfa^^., April, 1886.] ' III. Events of 18G;J. (a) 7w ^7/e .£Vif.s'/. 652. Chancellorsville. — Hooker (§ 547) was known as a "lighting general"; and after some months of preparation he led the Army of the Potomac across the Rapiiahannock again, keeping to the north of the strong defences behind 1863] 1863 IN TEE EAST. 221 Fredericksburgh. Lee aucl Jackson met him at a little place called Chancellorsville, and by skilful generalship defeated him and drove him back again over the Rappahannock. But during the night after the first day's battle, the Confederates suffered the heavier loss in the death of " Stonewall " Jackson, who was shot, through mistake, by some of his own men. Lee said very truly, that he had lost his right arm in losing Jackson. 553. Second Invasion of the North. — Early in the summer. SCALE OF MILES 20 60 100 Second Invasion of the North. Lee attempted a second invasion of the North, moving north- ward through the Shenandoah Valley, while Hooker moved in the same direction, but nearer Washington. Lee's advance came near Harrisburgh, and caused great alarm in the North, 222 THE CIVIL WAF. [1863 All business was stopped in Philadelphia, and militia regiments were hurried forward from all tlie States to increase the Army of the Potomac. General George G. Meade took the place of Hooker as commander. 554. Gettysbnrgh. — Under its new commander, the Army of the Potomac moved up between Lee and Philadelphia, and the great battle of Gettysburgh followed (July 1, 2, and 3). The Union army was on the crest of a line of iiills called Cemetery Kidge; the Coiiledenite army was on the crest of a line of hills opposite, called Seminary Ridge; between them, in the valley, was the town of Gettysburgh. The first day's fighting was rather in favor of the Confederates. On the second day, they even gained one of the Union positions. The final struggle came on the third day. After a tremendous fire of two hours from 150 cannon, the Confederates made their last charge in a line more than a mile long. It was gallantly made, and gallantly repulsed after a three hours' struggle. When the sun set, the battle of (iettysburgh was over, and Lee was defeated. 555. Lee's Retreat. — Lee's army never fully recovered from its terrible losses at Gettysburgh. It made good its retreat, and was followed by the Army of the Potomac to its old posi- tion on the Rapidan. Here it remained in sullen quiet until Grant came to give it its last campaign in the folloAving year (§ 573). {h) In the West. 556. Grant's Army. — The great object of this year in the West was to take Vicksburgh and Port Hudson (§ 535), so as to gain entire control of the Mississippi. sj)lit the Confederacy into two parts, and prevent the Confederates from bringing cattle and grain from the country beyond the ^lississippi, which had felt very little of the war. One Union army, under Rosecrans, was near Murfreesboro (§ 527). Another, und(M' Banks, in Louisiana, was to attack Port Hudson. Another, at Holly Springs, was under Grant; and the great work of at- tacking Vicksburgh fell to liim. His ablest assistant was Gen- 1863] 1863 IN THE WEST. 223 eral William T. Sherman; and it was during this year that Grant and Sherman became the leading Union generals (§ 528). 557. The Confederate Forces. — The Confederate conimandor in the AVest was J. E. Johnston (§ 540), who was, next to Lee, the most skilful of the Confederate generals. He wanted no siege of Vicksburgh, but wished to fight Grant in the open field. But Pemberton, who was in command at Vicksburgh, was so much elated at his success in driving Grant back the year before (§ 528), that he gave but a half-heartetl obedience to Johnston's orders, and went on preparing for a siege. 558. The Vicksburgh Campaign. — Early in the year. Grant moved his army down the Mississippi to a point op- posite Vicksburgh, where he endeavored unsuccess- fully for two months to cut a canal across a bend in the river, so as to turn the river from its course, and leave Vicksburgh at a distance from it. He then moved his army still far- ther south, and crossed the river to its Vicksburgh side, at Grand Gulf. His army was stronger than Johnston's or Pember- ton 's separately ; and, by moving northeast to Jackson, where Johnston was posted, he broke in between them. Attack- the vicksburgh campaign. iug Johnston, he drove that army eastward beyond Jackson. Then, turning and moving straight westward, he drove Pem- berton's forces into Vicksburgh, and formed the siege of that place. From that time, his grip on the place could not be SCALE OF MILES 224 THE CIVIL WAR. [1863 loosened. He threatened Johnston in his rear, while he be- sieged Pemberton in his front; and, after a siege of six weeks, the place surrendered, with the army within it (July 4). Port Hudson surrendered five days afterward. 659. Chickamaiig-a. — Wliile Grant was besieging Vicks- bnrgh, Rosecrans was moving south from Murfreesboro, and gradually moved part of his army so far around Chattanooga that Bragg was forced to evacuate that place, and retire about twelve miles south to a little creek called the Chickamauga [chik-a-maw' -ya\ Rosecrans pursued, and was defeated in the battle of Chickamauga. Most of his men fled in confusion to Chattanooga; but a part, under General George H. 'I'homas, held their ground obstinately, and covered the retreat. Bragg followed and shut the Union army up so closely in Chattanooga that it was almost starved. The whole country was alarmed lest it should be forced to surrender. 660. Lookout Monntain and Missionary Ridge. — All eyes were now turned to Grant, who was given command of thewestern armies. He went to Chat- tanooga, taking Sherman and other generals in whom he had confidence, and drawing men from other armies. He found Bragg's Lookout Mountain irmy [)osted on and Missionary Ridge, nearly half a mile high, acrosi^ the river from Chattanooga, and sd strongly fortified as to seem to defy attack. Having made all prepara- tions. Grant gave the order; the men crossed the river, and the lofty positions of Bragg's army were carried by sudden assaults. The result surprised the Union troops almost as 1863] 1863 IN THE WEST. 225 much as it did the Confederates. Part of the fighting was done so high up the mountain-side that the troops were hid- den by the clouds, so that the battle of Lookout Mountain is often called " the battle above the clouds." Bragg's army retreated to Dalton, where Johnston was put in command of it. Operations in the West then ceased for the rest of the year. 661. Military Summary. — The war had brought out a new set of generals in the West, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Thomas, and others, who were very hard and fast fighters, and gave the enemy no rest. They had opened the Mississippi, and had thus split the Confederacy into two parts, each of which had to fight for itself, while the Federal Government could send troops from the North to either side of the river. They now held the West down to the southern boundary of Tennessee. In the East less had been done, and Lee was still a match for his opponents; but his last and strongest attempt to break through the attacking line and carry the war into the North had been a failure, and his army was no longer in any condi- tion to renew it. It seems now that the month of July, 1863, in which came the battle of Gettysburgh and the surrenders of Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, was the turning-point of the war, after which the Confederacy grew steadily weaker and its armies less confident. [Supplementary Reading.— (§ 552) Drape?', iii. 106; 0-reeley, ii. 342; Campiiigns. vi; Ridiiaih, 518; Swinton, 267; GUman, 522; Dodge. 127; Appleton, iii. 80; Cent. Mag.. Sept.. Oct., 1886; Davis, ii. 357; Pollard's Davis, 271; Lost Cause, 371; Cooke' s Jackson, 398; Randolph's JacAsoTi, 296; R. W. C. Diary, i. 307. (§S 553-5) Draper, iii. 125, 136; Oreeley, ii. 367; Swinton, 308; Ridpath, 519; Dodge, 132, 136; Appleton. iii. 87, 102; Campaigns, vi; Cent. Mag., Nov., 1886, Feb., 1887; Davis, ii. 437; Pollard's Davis, 288; Lost Cause. 402; R. W. C. Diary, i. 354, 366. (§8 556-8) Draper, iii. 25; Oreeley, ii. 286, 322; Campaigns, viii; Ridpath, 511; Gilman, 523; Dodge, 142, 156; Grant, i. 439,473; Sherman, i. 332; Appleton. iii. 41, 58, 69; Cent. Mag., Sept., 1885; Cave Life in Vicksburgh; J. E. Johnston, 174, 216; Davis, ii. 391, 414; Pollard's Davis, 297; Lost Cause, 386; R. W. C. Diary, i. 374. (i^ 559) Draper, iii. 57; Greeley, ii. 404; Ridpath, 513; Gilman, 524; Dodge, 172; Campaigns, vii. 193: Sher- man, i. 378; Cent. Mag., Nov., 1885, April, May, 1887; N. A. Rev., Dec, 1885; Davis, ii. 429; A H. Stephens, ii. 579; Lost Cause, 447; R. W. C. Diary, ii. 49. (§ 560) Draper, iii. 57; Greeley, ii. 404; Ridpath, 515; Oilman, 527; Dodge, 184; Oraiit, ii. 17, 31; Slierman, i. 372; Cent. 226 THE CIVIL WAR. [1868 Mag., Nov., 1885, April, 1886; Davis, ii. 434; A. H. Stephens, ii. 580; R. W. C. Diary, ii. 105; Lost Cause, 455.] {c) Internal Affairs. 662. Affairs in the South. — There was by this time great and general distress among the Southern people. Their gov- ernment had forced all the men between the ages of 18 and 45 into the army, so that women and children now had to do men's work. The soldiers were badly fed, clothed, and equipped. Food was scarce and dear, for the people could now get no cattle from beyond the Mississippi, no grain from Virginia or Tennessee, no sugar from Louisiana, and no salt or fish from the coast. Cotton could not be sold, for the blockade was so strict that it could not be sent abroad. The railroads were wearing out, and there were no great iron-works to replace them. It was almost impossible to get such com- mon articles as pinB or paper; and printing was sometimes done on one side of old wall-paper. The government had issued so much paper money that it was almost worthless: one dollar in gold was worth twenty dollars in Confederate money; and it required twenty times as much paper money as gold to buy anything (§ 550). 563. In the North and West. — There was no such distress in the North and West. Food, manufactures, and money were abundant; and the government was able to borrow a large part of the money needed to carry on the war. Paper money had been issued (§ 550), and had fallen in value so that one dollar in gold was worth one and a half dollars in paper; but wages had increased nearly enough to make this good. 664. The Tariff. — The Northern people urged their repre- sentatives to tax them heavily in order to carry on the Avar. Much of this taxation fell on manufacturers; and it was felt to be but fair that the duties on imports should be increased, in order that the price of foreign goods in this country should not be lower tlian that of the highly-taxed American goods, but that the foreign and the American manufacture should 1863] INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 227 both be taxed alike. The tariff of duties on imported goods was therefore increased steadily throughout the war. All this was voted for hymen who were not Protectionists, but it made a still more Protective Tariff (§ 340). It was not altered for nearly twenty years after the war. 565. The National Banks. — In order to encourage the sale of bonds, the National Banking system was established this year. Banks were not allowed to issue bills without depositing a slightly larger amount of bonds at Washington. This made the bills perfectly safe (§ 406), while it comj)elled the banks to buy bonds, that is, to take part in loaning money to the government. 566. The Army. — The Union soldiers were well fed, clothed, and equipped, and the people formed Sanitary Com- missions, Christian Commissions, and other associations to care for the comfort of the soldiers in the field. These associations built hospitals, distributed food, medicines, and assistance of every kind, and cared for the sick and wounded. To help pay their expenses, great fairs were held all over the country, on a scale never equalled before or since. 667. The Draft. — Volunteering had become slow, and a draft was used to fill up the armies. Names were drawn by lot from lists of able-bodied men all over the country, and those whose names were drawn were forced to enter the army or pay for a substitute. The first draft in New York City, in July, was stopped by a great mob, which held control of the city for several days, burning houses and murdering negroes at its will, from an idea that they had caused the war and the draft. Finally, it was scattered by soldiers hurried back from Gettysburgh (§ 554), some smaller riots elsewhere were suppressed, and drafting went on unopposed. 568. West Virg-inia. — The western part of Virginia, which had refused to take part in secession (§ 517), was admitted to the Union as the State of West Virginia (1863). 569. Confederate Privateers. — American commerce was ruined this year by the Confederate privateers, Alabama, Florida and Georgia, all built in Great Britain (§ 551). It 228 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 had become so unsafe for American merchantmen to attempt voyages tliat they were often sold to foreigners, generally to British firms. 570. Mexico. — After the troubles in the United States began, France overturned the republican government of Mexico, and made it an empire, with Maximilian, an Austrian archduke, as emperor. The United States considered this an unfriendly act (§ 35 G), but could do nothing just then to resist it. [Supplementary Reading. — (^ 5^2) Draper, ii. 171, iii. 480; Cent. Mag., Aug., lUbd ; Appkton, iii. 16, iv. 206; Lost Cause, 478; Pollard's Davis, 826, 837, 349, 363 ; E. W. C. Diary, ii. 16. 35, 56, 77, 96, 101. 114, 183 ; Andrews, 7, 31 ; Estvan's War Pictures from ike South ; Eggle- stou's Rebel's Recollections. (§ 564) Taussig, 8 ; Appleton, iv. 371. (§ 565) Appleton, iii. 296, 400. (§ 566) Draper, iii. 515 ; Appleton. iii. 502, iv. 733, bOl ; AlcoU's Hospital Sketches; Frank Moore's Women of the War. (§ 567) Draper, iii. 437, 442 ; Oreeley, ii. 487, 501 ; Ridpath, 522 ; Appleton, \\\. ZQ\. mi. (§568) Johnson, iv. 1377; Appleton. iii. 845. (§569) Greeley, ii. 641 ; Draper, iii. 200; Appleton, iii. 340, 661 ; Davis, ii. 245. (§570) Draper, ii. 515 ; Appleton, iv. 314, 519.] IV. Events of 1864. 571. Confederate Positions. — There were now but two great Confederate armies in the field, Lee's in Virginia, and John- ston's at Dalton (§ 560). Johnston's position was in a moun- tainous country, which extended beyond Atlanta, giving him a great many defensive points, and making it difficult to drive him back into the flat country between Atlanta and the sea. 572. Union Positions. — Grant was now given command of all the Union armies, with the rank of lieutenant-general, and went to Virginia to meet Lee, taking his best cavalry officer, Sheridan, with him. He left Sherman to command the western armies which had been gathered in front of Ualton. Grant and Sherman agreed that the forAvard move- ment should begin on the same day, and that each should keep his opponent so busy that the two Confederate armies should not be able to help one anothei', as they had been in the habit of doing. 1864] 1864 IN THE. EAST. 229 {a) In the East. 573. The Wilderness. — Grant had decided to take the overland route from the Eappahannock to Richmond througli what was known as the " AVilderness." It was crossed from Vnion Forces __»— >— -Ca Confederate . SCALE OF MILES s= west to east by many rivers, and was filled by Confederate fortifications, manned by the best of the Confederate armies commanded by the best of the Confederate generals. As soon as the Army of the Potomac was fairly across the Rappahannock, the struggle began ; and for two weeks, in the Wilderness and at Spottsylvania, the two armies grappled. The fighting and the slaughter were the most frightful of the war ; and the scene was made worse by the dense darkness of the woods and thickets filled with smoke, or by the forest fires which sprang 230 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 up aud roasted the wouuded. And after all, Lee held his ground : the direct attack had failed, 674. Flank Moyements. — Grant was superior in men, and he used this superiority to drive Lee from liis defences, by attacking lightly in front, at the same time pushing part of his force to the left, attacking the rear of Lee's army, and so forcing him to retreat to a new position. In this manner Grant worked his way southward as fur as the Chickahominy (§ 539). Lee was now inside of the main defences of Rich- mond, the centre of which was at Cold Harbor. Here the direct attack was tried again. The whole army was ordered to assault the Confederate lines at once ; but the assault was re- pulsed with heavy loss to the assailants. 675. Passing the James. — It was evident that the defences on the north of the city, prepared as they had been by years of work, were too strong to be taken by assault ; and Grant determined to move his army around to the left, pass the James River, and attack the city from the south. In doing so, the army followed nearly the line of the Seven Days' Battles of two years before (§ 543), but with little fighting. The army had no sooner crossed the James than it came up against the fortifications of Petersburgh, which were also too strong to be taken by assault. Within them was Lee's army, which had moved across from Richmond as Grant had moved. 676. Siege of Petersburgh. — It was now clear that Peters- burgh and Richmond could be taken only by regular siege ; and the siege lasted until the end of the war, nine months afterward. The Confederate fortifications from the north of Richmond to the south of Peiersbui-gh were about thirty miles long. Grant's army, about twice as strong as Lee's, was fortified before it, attacking it at different places, and keeping Lee so busy that he could not interfere with the operations in the AYest. Grant's constant effort was to push his lines farther round to the southwest, so as to seize the railroads which brought food to Lee's army. "Whenever he succeeded in doing so, Lee had to face him with new fortifica- tions. Thus Lee's line was always growing weaker as it grew 1864] 1864 IN THE WEST. 231 longer, for he could hardly get any fresh troojjs, while Grant had as many as he needed. 577. Winchester. — The Shenandoah Valley was guarded by a Union army under Sheridan, who had defeated the Con- federate General Early in the battle of Winchester. About a month after the battle, Early surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek, some twenty miles southwest of the place of the former battle, and defeated it while Sheridan was absent at Winchester. The news came to Sheridan, who galloped the whole distance, met and turned back his retreating men, and defeated Early, driving him far up the valley, and ending the war in this part of Virginia. (b) In the West 678. Sherman's Adyance. — Johnston's retreat before the ad- vance of Sher- man's superior army, from Dal- ton to Atlanta, has always been admired by Union officers as one of the most skilful operations of the war. Every posi- tion was held just long enough, and abandoned as soon as Sherman's forces began to lap around toward the rear ; then Johnston retired cautiously to another position, and the same process was gone through again. Neither general was careless enough to give the other the slightest advantage. The prin- cipal battles were at Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, and then Johnston was at his strongest position, Atlanta, 232 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 All Sherman's supplies were now brought by a single railroad, 300 miles long, from Nashville ; and many of his men had to be placed to guard it, for any accident to tliis road would leave his men without food. Johnston was behind fortifica- tions which he had prepared long before, and he was now ready to fight the long-delayed battle. 579. Removal of Johnston. — The people of the Confederacy did not quite understand the skill of Johnston's retreat. They were startled as Sherman's storm of war came rolling up to the edge of the Georgia mountains above them ; and Jefferson Davis, who had a singular dislike for Johnston, made this feeling an excuse for removing him and putting General J. B. Hood, a " fighting general," in his place. The results were that he thus threw away all the advantages gained by John- ston ; one of the two great Confederate armies was utterly lost before the end of the year, and the Confederacy itself fell in the following spring. 580. Capture of Atlanta. — Hood made three furious attacks on Sherman, the severest battles yet fought in Georgia, and was beaten in all three. Sherman then fought his way around to the rear of Atlanta ; Hood was compelled to leave the city, and Sherman was able to telegraph north, "Atlanta is oui's and fairly won." 581. Hood's Cliang:e of Plan. — Early in the autumn, by Davis's directions, Hood changed the whole plan of the Con- federate campaign. He left Sherman's front, and marched northwest toward Tennessee, hoping to compel Sherman to pursue him and thus change the war to a point nearer the North. Davis had been unwise enough to make speeches announcing the change of plan, so that Sherman had pre- pared for it by sending nearly half his army to Nashville, under Thomas (§559), and calling troops from all over the North to the same place. ' He made a show of pursuing Hood until he saw him fairly started for Tennessee, and then re- turned to Atlanta, tearing up the railroad behind him as he came, so as to have no further communication with the North (§ 583). 1864] 1864 IN THE WEST. 233 582. Dispersion of Hood's Army. — As Hood drew near Nash- ville,, he suflfered severely in a battle at Franklin; but lie pressed on and besieged Nashville. After long preparation Thomas burst out upon the besiegers, completely defeated them, and kept up the pursuit so vigorously that Hood's army was scattered in every direction. One of the Confed- eracy's two great armies had thus faded into nothing. 583. Sherman's Position. — Sherman, at Atlanta, had an army of GO, 000 picked veteran troops, one of the finest armies of the war, and before him a country in which there was not an organized Confederate army between him and Virginia, nor the material to make one. In the middle of November he burned Atlanta, cut the telegraph wires to the North, and set out on his march southeast to the sea. But the sea was not his final destination : his real aim was at the back of Lee's army, far away in Virginia.* 584. Marching through Georgia. — For nearly a month tlie people of the North knew little as to what had become of Sherman's army. It was marcliing leisurely through Georgia, by way of Milledgeville and Millen, to Savannah. It moved * Sherman says : "In fact, I simply moved from Atlanta to Savannah as one sfep in the directioa of Richmond." 2B4 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 in four columns, covering a strip of country 60 miles wide, all of which was made desolate. The railroads were destroyed; and the depots, bridges, and public property were burned. This the army liad a right to do, for it was making war on the owners of this property. The army " lived on the country," that is, took necessary food wherever it could find it ; this also is a right of war. Besides all this, there was a great deal of damage to private property, of which we can only say that it was impossible to guard against it. There was hardly any resistance to the march; indeed, it is doubtful whether on the open field any army of the war could have successfully resisted this army of Sherman's. 685. Capture of Savannah. — The army reached Ossabaw Sound, on the Georgia coast, in safety, and opened communi- cation with the blockading vessels. Fort McAllister, which guarded Savannah, was taken by assault ; and just before Christmas Savannah surrendered. The army remained here for some two months. (c) On the Coast. 686. The Blockade. — All through the year the blockade was kept up strictly; and attacks were made on various points of the coast, in order to prevent the Confederates from send- ing assistance to Hood and Lee, and to capture Mobile and Wilmington, the last ports of the Confederacy for blockade- running (§ 511). In Louisiana a land expedition was sent up the Red River, under Banks, for the pur})Ose of seizing the country west of New Orleans ; but it was a failure. 687. Mobile Bay. — While Sherman was fighting before At- lanta, Farragut (§ 534), with four monitors and a number of wooden frigates, fought his way into Mobile Bay, passing two strong forts and a nuhiber of torpedoes, and capturing a powerful iron-clad ram. The passage of the forts, during which Farragut stationed himself in the rigging of his vessel in order to see over the smoke, is oftenost spoken of ; but the fight in the bay is fully as noteworthy, for Farragut attacked the iron- 1864] 1864 ON THE COAST. 235 clad ram with his wooden vessels, which ramTned her until their bows were broken off, and helped materially ia capturing her. Farra- gut's exploit ended blockade-run- ning at Mobile. 588. Capture of Wilmington. — The entrance to Wilmington was guarded by Fort Fisher. Just as Sherman reached the coast, an ex- pedition was sent from Fortress Monroe to take Fort Fisher but it returned without ac complishing the work Grant sent it back again at once un der anothei commandej-. General Terry, who took the fort by assault, and Wil- mington surrendered soon after. The Coufed- erates had now but one har- bor on the coast, Charleston, and that was blockaded very closely. 58C. Military Summary. — The year's operations had crushed in the shell of the Confederacy. One of the two great Con- federate armies had been destroyed in the battle of Nashville. There was but one other — that of Lee, in Virginia; and he could do nothing to help the States farther south, for any weakening of his line would be followed by an instant attack from Grant, who was watching him closely. Sherman at Savannah could go where he pleased, for there was nothing to resist him ; and it was evident that he meant to go to Vir- ginia, and crush Lee between two armies. The people of the 236 THE CIVIL WAR. [1864 Confederacy seemed to be worn out and discouraged by the terrible distress which they had endured for four years; and so many of tlie able-bodied men had been killed or crippled that it was not easy to find men for new Confederate armies, [Supplementary Reading. — (§ 573) Draper, iii. 364 ; Campaigns, xii. 18; Crrant, ii. 177, :ilG ; Greeley, ii. 566; Swinton, 402; Ridpath, 535; Dodge, 197; Appleton, iv. 95; Cent. Mug., Feb. 1886, June 1887; Davis, ii. 518; A. H. Stephens, ii. 584 ; Lost Cause, 513. (§ 574) Draper, iii. 381; Greeley, ii. 577; Ridpath, 535; Dodge, 213; Campaigns, xii. 119, 160; Appleton, iv. 113; Swinton, 574; Grant, ii. 243, 264; Davis, ii. 523; Lost Cause, 524, 527. (;i 575) Draper, iii. 390; Camimigns, xii. 194; Greeley, ii. 583; Ridpath, 536; Dodge, 244; Appleton, iv. 119; Grant, ii. 279, 292; Lost Cause. 528. (v^ 576) Draper, iii. 395; Campaigns, xii. 246: Greeley, ii. 584; Ridpath, 538; Do^/^-e, 248; Appleton, iv. 120; Gra»<, ii. 299, 307; Swinton, 497; Davis, ii. 637; io6< 6V;/s«, 536. 607. (^ 577) Draper, iii. 410; Campaigns, x\.; Greeley, \\. QQl; Ridpath, Tt'dl; Sicinton, 556; Dodge, 269; Appleton, iv. 152; 6V««<, ii. 317. 329, 336; Davis, ii. 533; Lost Cause, 5y3, 598. (^^ 578) Draper, iii. 267; Campaigns, \x.; Greeley, ii. 625; Ridpath, 525; Dodge, 223; Appleton, iv. 68; Grant, ii. 159; Sherman, ii. 5; Ce?i^. Jl/r;^'.. July, Aug., 1887: Davis, ii. 547; i 579) Draper, iii. 290; Greeley, ii. 630; Dodge, 255; Appleton. iv. 79; Sherman, ii. 72; Z>av««, ii. 556; /. ^. Johnston, 349; Pollard's i)am. 372, 383; Zo«; Cawse, 577. (§580) Draper, iii. 304; Campaigns, ix.; Greeley, ii. 635; Ridpath, 526; Dodge, 261; Appleton, iv. 85; Grant, ii. 175; Sherman, ii. 96; Davis, ii. 563; Pollard's2>aw, 382; Zos< ft/wse, 580. (§§581-2) Draper, iii. 307, 312, 343 ; Campaigns, x. 81 ; Greeley, ii. 639, 677 ; Ridpath, 526, 2>0(f0(f£re, 286, 291 ; Appleton, iv. 140, 151 ; (7?«/i^ ii. 369 ; Sherman, ii. 180, 195; CtfM<. i/fl<7.. July, Oct., 1887; Zfam, ii. 571; Pollard's Davis, 392, 400 ; Lost Cause, 582, 610, 613 ; R W. C Diary, ii. 338, 356, 367. (§ 586) Draper, iii. 161, 189, 229, 244 ; Greeley, ii. 536 ; Ridpath, 524; Appleton, iv. 51. 62; Lost Cause. 492. (§587) Draper, iii. 220; Greeley, ii. 649 ; Ridpath, 531 ; Headley's Farragut; Cliesuey's Military Biography; Davis, ii. 206 ; Lost Cause, 544. (§ 588) Draper, iii. 521 ; Greeley, ii. 708 ; Ridpath, 532 ; Dod^^re, 302 ; Grant, ii. 387 ; R. W. G. Diary, ii. 387.] {d) On ihe Sea. 690. Confederate PriTateers. — Three of the Confederate privateers, the Alabama, the Florida, and the Creorgia, were destroyed during the year. The Alabama had challenged the United States steamer Kearsarge to a naval combat off Cher- 1864] 1864, INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 237 bourg in France, and after a battle of an hour the Alabama was sunk. (e) Internal Affairs. 691. Weariness of the War. — Both sides were by this time thoroughly tired of war and warlike things. In the North it was simply a heartsickness of the long lists of dead and wounded in the daily newspapers, and of the mourning which the war had brought into countless households. In the South these things were made even worse by the money disorders, and the march of contending armies through the country, leaving fire, ruin, and desolation everywhere behind them. The people, and especially the women and children, felt these distresses far more than did the politicians who had brought on the war. They had begun to feel an un- easy consciousness that the end of the war was near; but they showed a wonderful patience in resisting until resistance was no longer possible, though they had none of the encourage- ment which the successes of this year brought to the people of the North. 692. Presidential Election. — The Democrats nominated (1864) General McClellan (§517) for President, and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, for Vice-President; while the Republicans nominated President Lincoln, with Andrew Johnson, of Ten- nessee, for Vice-President. The Democrats declared that the war had been a failure, and ought to cease ; but this declara- tion had hardly been made when Sherman's advance and the capture of Atlanta, the fight in Mobile Bay, and Sheridan's victories in the Shenandoah Valley revived the flagging spirit of the people, and Lincoln and Johnson were elected. 693. Nevada. — Nevada was admitted to the Union (1864). Its wealth was in its silver-mines (§ 487). 594. Tlie Prisoners. — The country was horrified by accounts of the sufferings endured by the Union prisoners shut up amid the misery of the Confederacy, particularly at Ander- sonville, a prison near Macon, in Georgia. Nothing could be 238 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 done, for exchange of prisoners had been stopped by a quarrel over the exchange of negro soldiers, whom the Confederates insisted on considering slaves. [Supplementary Reading. —(^ 590) Draper, iii. 200; Rulpnth, 533; Cent. Mag., April. 1886; Lost Cause, 550. (ij 591) Draper, iii. 480; A. H. Stephens, ii. 6^4; Pollard's Davis, '^76; Lost Cause, 6S0; E. W. C. Diary, ii. 230, 281, 288, 304, 314, 330, 349, 368, 393. (Ji 592) Draper, iii. 471; Wilson, \\\. 546; McPherson, 403; Johnston, 193; Shernutn, ii. 109; Gillet, 334; R. W. C. Diary, ii. 285. (§ 593) Johnson, iii. 786. (J< 594) Draper, iii. 500; Appleton, iv. 684; Andreics, 301; Sherman, ii. 143; Abbott's Prison Life at the South; Spencer's Narrative of Andersonville; Sani- tary Qommx^sSon'^ Narrative of Sufferings of Prisoners; R. W. C. Diary, ii. 345; Davis, ii. 596; Lost Cause, 616.] V. Events of 1865. Conclusion of the War. 695. Weakness of the South. — At the beginning of this year the South seemed to have no power of defence left south of the Savannah River. Union forces were moving from jilace to place, seizing Confederate arras and supplies, and scatter- ing any body of Confederate troops that attempted to make head against them. 696. Sherman's March Northward. — When Sherman set out from Savannah for his final march toward Virginia his prin- cipal difficulty was from the winter rains and the swollen rivers and swamps. He moved directly north to Columbia, and thence northeast to Fayetteville, meeting little open re- sistance. As he went, the Confederate garrisons in Charles- ton and other coast towns were forced to leave their positions and hurry northward ahead of him; and thus the whole At- lantic coast fell into Union hands. But these garrisons, with the fragments of the scattered Western armies, made up a considerable force, and the outcries of the Southern people had compelled Davis to call Johnston (§ 570) back to com- mand it. lie liad made an army of it. 697. Sherman's Closing Battles. — As Sherman's advance came up toward Bentonvilleand Gold sboro, Johnston attacked him furiously, and checked his march for the moment. But 1865] EVENTS OF 1865. 239 Sherman drove Johnston back, and reached Goldsboro. Here he was joined by fresh troops from Wihnington, and halted for a time. He had no desire to jiush Johnston so far Xorth as to force him into joining Lee, bnt preferred to wait until Grant should begin his attack on Lee. 698. Hatcher's Run — It has already been said that Grant's general plan was to push his lines farther to the southwest around Petersburgh, so that, while he had men enough to keep his own line strong, Lee should be forced to lengthen and weaken his line (§ 576). Just as Sherman was starting from Savannah, Grant made another movement to the south- west, reaching a little stream called Hatcher's Run, and hold- ing his ground. He then waited for Sheridan, who, with 10,000 picked cavalry, moved eastward from the Shenandoah Valley, along the northern defences of Richmond, destroying the canal, railroad, and bridges from Lynchburgh to Rich- mond as he came. 599. Five Forks.— Sheridan had been known principally as a cavalry officer, but was now to gain new reputation in the fighting which ended the war. He reached Petersburgh while Sherman was at Goldsboro. Grant put him in com- jnand of the force at Hatcher's Run, and he at once pushed 240 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 on beyond that point to Fivo Forks, and held that position in spite of Lee's furious attacks. This decided the fate of Lee and of the Confederacy. 600. Fall of Petersburg!! and Richmond. — Lee lengthened his line again to meet this new danger; but it was now so Union Forces — — » I Confederatt > ^ SCALE OF MILES r long that his army could no longer guard it. Grant at once advanced his whole line, and it broke over Lee's intrench- ments. Lee retreated westward during tlie night, and Peters- burgh and Richmond were entered by the Union army. Davis and the Confederate autliorities escaped by railroad to North Carolina.* * Davis was captured in Georgia the next month, and was imprisoned in Fort- ress Monroe for two years, but was then released without trial. The United States put no one to death for treason. 1865] MILITARY SUMMARY. 241 601. Surrender of Lee. — Lee retreated westward, between the Appomattox and James rivers, toward Lyncliburgli, from which point he meant to make his way into North Carolina and Join Johnston. Grant's army was in hot pursuit ; Sheri- dan succeeded in passing Lee and heading him off from Lynchburgh; and Lee surrendered the remnants of his army at a little place called Appomattox Court-Houae. Grant gave him the most generous terms, and treated his men with the greatest kindness. 602. General Surrender. — Sherman at once pushed forward to Ealeigh, and here Johnston surrendered to him. The remnants of othsr Confederate armies surrendered to the nearest Union force in like manner. The war was over, and the soldiers of the Confederacy went quietly back to their desolated homes, there to begin a new struggle against pov- erty. 603. The Grand Review.— The victorious armies of Grant and Sherman were marched to Washington, and there passed for two days in review before their commanders and the offi- cers of the government. The disbanding of the army then began (§ 617). The regiments were given similar triumphal receptions on their arrival in their own States, and the com- panies on their arrival at their towns. The "volunteers" had now become "veterans"; and they still maintain an as- sociation under the name of the " Grand Army of the Re- public." Military Summary of the War, 604. General Course of the War. — The war seems to fall naturally into two parts. For the first two years the Federal Government was busied in fixing its encircling lines and in winning territory piecemeal from the Confederacy. For the last two years its energies were bent on seeking and defeat- ing the principal Confederate armies. The turning-point of the war was in July, 1863 (§ 561); and the leading Union gen- erals at the end were not those who had led at the beginning. 242 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 606. Events of 1861(§ 508).— The principal battles of 1861 were those of Bull Run and Wilson's Creek, in both of which the Union forces were defeated. But the Union armies had seized and held a vast extent of doubtful territory, so that the Confederacy was much smaller than had been expected ; and operations on the Atlantic coast had been fairly begun at Port Royal. 606. 'Events of 1862 (§ 523).— Two attempts were made dur- ing the summer, by Bragg in the West and by Lee in the East, to break through the encircling line; and both were defeated. The great battles of 1862 in the East were the Seven Days' Battles, Antietam, and Fredericksburgh; and of these the only decided Union success was at Antietam. The Union victories of the year were mainly in the West — Fort Donel- son, Pittsburgh Landing, New Orleans, and Murfreesboro. The result of the year's work was the winning of a great amount of territory in the West, but the Confederate armies were still as strong and as confident as ever. 607. Events of 1863 (§ 552).— In the East the principal battles of 1863 were Chancellorsville, a Confederate victory, and -Gettysburgh, a Union victory, which defeated the last great attempt of Lee to break through the encircling line. In the West, a Confederate army was captured at Vicksburgh, the Mississippi was opened, and the Confederacy was divided. The Confederate victory of Chickamauga was followed by the Union victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. The advantages of the year's operations in the West were evidently with the Union forces, and the Confederate armiec in that section for the first time began to show a falling off in strength and confidence. 608. Events of 1864 (§ 571).— The great battles of 1864 in the East Avere the Wilde/ness battles and Cold Harbor, fol- lowed by the siege of Petersburgh, which lasted until the end of the war. While it was going on Sherman captured Atlanta; the Confederacy lost its last harbors; its Western army was blotted out at Nashville; and Sherman, with hardly an enemy 1865] MILITARY SUMMARY. 243 before him, had reached Savannah on his way northward to crush Lee. 609. Eyents of 1865 (§ 596). — Sherman's march northward from Savannah swept up before it all the available forces of the Confederacy into a great trap, from which there was no escape. But Sherman took care not to push fast or far enough to drive Johnston and Lee close together. The operations of the two Union generals were so timed as to prevent the scat- tered Confederate forces from uniting into one army. One by one they were driven to surrender; and the war Avas over. 610. Cost of the War.— Outside of the half million dead, and the hosts of wounded and crippled men, on both sides, the cost of the war is beyond calculation. Enormous amounts were raised by taxation and spent on the war; a debt of nearly $3,000,000,000 was incurred, to be paid in coming years; pen- sions were paid to wounded soldiers and to the relatives of the dead, with far greater liberality than any other nation has ever shown; and there was besides a terrible destruction of private property by the contending armies, and by war ves- sels. 611. Object of the War. — The national people did not spend this amount of blood and money in order to show which sec- tion was the stronger, for every one knew beforehand that the North was the stronger. Nor was it the object of the war to show which had the braver men: the soldiers on both sides came out of the war with an equal respect for each other's bravery. It was not to satisfy any hatred of the North against the South, for there was no such thing. It was not to abolish slavery, though slavery was abolished as a part of the war. The object of the war was to keep the nation one, to prevent any future attempts to secede, and to see to it that there should not be two nations in place of one, waging wars with one another and taxing men, women, and children to carry them on. This was the object for which the Union men fought, and, when necessary, died — to secure perpetual peace and a united nation to their children and their children's children forever, 244 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 Death of President Lincoln. (>12. Lincoln's Work. — In the outburst of public rejoicings, the meetings and processions which followed Lee's surrender, the manner in which the character and work of President Lincoln were sj^oken of showed that people had come to know him better than they had done four years before (§ 508). The tall, lean, self-educated Illinois lawyer, who had a funny story ready to illustrate everything he did, was at last recognized as a wise, prudent, and great-hearted leader of men. In all the ups and downs of the war he had not lost his temper or his courage, and he had always done the sensible thing at the fit time. Even tiie Southern peoj^le, who had hated him, had come to see that he hud no liatred for them. His Gettysburgh Address had been a wonderful statement of the Union feel- ing; and now it seemed that he was just the one to calm the passions of the war, and to be the leader of a reunited people in the spirit of his second Inaugural Address: "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right." 613. Assassination of the President. — Lincoln had not seemed to know what fear meant, and had always refused to have a guard about him; and it was not a difficult mat- ter for a murderer to reach him. One of his few pleasures, when tired out, was to attend the theatre. One evening, the President was sitting in a box in the theatre, when a man named John Wilkes Booth, half-crazed by anger at the fall of the Confederacy, and by a desire to be talked about, shot him through the head fro)n behind, so that he died the next day. Booth was chased into lower Maryland, and killed in a barn in which he had hidden himself. Some associates in his plot had attempted to kill ot'her officers of the government, but had failed. The President was buried at his home in Spring- field, Illinois. 614. President Johnson. — Andrew Johnson, the Vice- President, beca-iae President at Lincoln's death. As Liu- 1866] CmtONOLOQIGAL SUMMARY. 245 coin had served but little more than a month of his second four years, his second term will be considered Johnson's administration. 615. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of Lin- coln's administration, including the war for the Union, are as follows : (U., Union victory; C , Confederate victoiy; Ind., indecisive.) 1861-65: Lincoln's term § 508 1861: Fort Sumter, S. C, evacuated, April 13 (C.) 509 Volunteers called for by the President, April 15 510 First bloodshed at Baltimore, April 19 510 Secession of four Border States, May and June 513 Meeting of Congress, July 4 515 Battle of Rich Mountain, W. Va., July 11 (U.) 517 Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21 (C.) 516 Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 10 (C.) 519 Capture of Fort Hatteras, N. C, August 39 (U.) 511 Capture of Port Royal, S. C, Nov. 7 (U.) 511 Treat affair, Noventber 8 532 1863: Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 19 (U.) 523 Capture of Fort Henry, Tenn., Feb. 6 (U.) 523 Capture of Roanoke Island, N. C, Feb. 8 (U.) 533 Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 5-8 (U.) 529 Battle of Monitor and Merrimac, March 9 (U.) 531 Battle of Pittsburgh Landing or Shiloh, Tenn., April 6-7 (U.) 534 Capture of Island Number Ten, April 7 (U.) 530 Capture of New Orleans, La., April 25 (U.) 534 Capture of Yorktown, Va., May 4 (U.) 538 Capture of Corinth, Miss., May 30 (U.) 525 Battle of Fair Oaks, Va. , May 31 (U.) 540 Jackson's raid on Banks, Va., June (C.) 542 Seven Days' battles, Va., June 25-July 1 (Ind.) 543 Pope's campaign, Va., August (C.) 544 Second battle of Bull Run, Va., Aug. 30 (C.) 544 Capture of Harper's Ferry, W. Va., Sept. 15 (C.) 545 Battle of Antietam, Md.. September 17 (U.) 546 Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, September 526 Battle of Perry ville, Ky., October 8 (Ind.) 526 Battle of Fredericksburgh, Va., Dec. 13 (C.) 547 First attempt on Vicksburgb, Miss., Dec. 29 (C.) 528 Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., Dec. 31- Jan. 2 (U.) 537 1863: Emancipation Proclamation, January 1 549 Draft Act passed, March 3 567 Grant's campaign before Vicksburgh, Miss., May 1-17 (U.) 558 Battle of Chancellorsville. Va. , May 2-3 (C.) . . 552 Admission of West Virginia, June 20 568 Lee's second invasion of the North, June 553 246 THE CIVIL WAR. [1865 1863: Battle of Gettysburgb, Pu., July 1-3 (U.) § 554 Capture of Vi'cksbuigh, Miss., July 4 (U.) 558 Capture of Port Hudson. La.. July 9 (U.) 558 Draft riots, New York City, July 13-16 567 Battle of ChickamaugM,;Ga., Sept. 19-20 (C.) 559 Siege of Cliattauooga, Teuu., Oct. aud Nov 559 Battle of Lookout Mouutaiu, Tenn., Nov. 24-25 (U.). . . 560 1864: Grant made Lieutenant-General, jMarcb 3 572 Red River expedition, La., April (C.) 586 Battles of tbe Wilderness, Va., May 5-7 (Ind .) 573 Battles at Spottsylvania Court-bouse. Va. , JVIay 8-1'^ (Ind.) 573 Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14-15 (U ) 578 Battle of Dallas. Ga., May 2.5-28 (U.) 578 Battle of Cold Harbor. Va., June 3 (C) 574 Siege of Petersburgb, Va., begun, June 576 Battle of Keurmrge and Alabama, June 19 (U.) 590 Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga., June 27 (U.) 578 Battles before Atlanta. Ga., July 20-28 (U ) 580 Battle of Mobile Bay. Ala., August 5 (U.) 587 Capture of Atlanta, Ga., September 2 (U.) 580 Battle of Wincbester. Va., September 19 (U.) 577 Battle of Cedar Creek. Va., October 19 (U.) 577 Admi-ssion of Nevada, October 31 593 Sbernian's marcb to tbe sea, Nov. and Dec 584 Battle of Franklin, Tenn. , November 30 (U.) 582 Capture of Fort McAllister, Ga., Dec. 13 (U.) 585 Battle of Nasbville, Tenn., Dec. 15-16 (U.) 582 Capture of Savannab, Ga.. Dec. 21 (U.) 585 1865: Capture of Fort Fisber, N. C, Jan. 15 (U.^ 588 Sbermau's marcb norlbward, Feb. and March 596 Capture of Columbia, S. C. , February 17 (U. ) 596 Capture of Charleston, S. C. Feb. 18 (U.) 596 Capture of Wilmington, N. C, Feb. 21 (U.) 588 Battle of Goldsboro, N. C, March 19 (U.) 597 Sheridan's raid, Marcb 599 Battle of Five Forks, Va. . April 1 (U.) 599 Capture of Petersburgb, Va., April 2 (U.) • 600 Capture of Richmond, Va., April 3 (U.) 600 Surrender of Lee, April 9 601 Assassination of Lincoln. April 14 613 Surrender of Johnston, April 26 602 General surrender, April and May 602 [Supplementary Reading.— (§ 595) Pollard's Davis, 477; Lost Cause, 743; K W. C. Diary, ii. 438, 451. (^ 596) Draper, iii. 542; Greeley, ii. Q9Q; Eidpatli, 5-28; Dodge, '602; Appleton, y. 41 \ Sher7nan,u.268; Grant, ii. 401; Cent. Mag., Oct , 1887; Davis ii. 625; I^st Cause, 662. (§ 597) Draper, iii. 555; Greeley, ii. 706; Sherman, ii. 299; Grant, ii. 416; Appleton, V. 49; Atlantic, Sept., 1882; Davin, ii. 631; /. E. Johnston, 371; Lost Cause, 675. (^g 598-9) Draper, iii. 561, 566; Greeley, ii 726; Siointon, 581, 591; Dodge, 210; Appleton, v. 312; Campaigns, xii. 312, 316, 322, 342; Grant, ii. 436; Pollard's Davis, 486; Lost Cause, 687. (§§ 600-602) Draper, iii. 573, 580, 603; Greeley, ii. 735, 740, 751; Cam- 1865] SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 247 paigns, xii. 363, 373, 393; Ridpath, 538; Appleton, v. 60, 64. 66; Grant, ii. 446. 454, 464, 478, 515; Sherman, ii. 343; Davis, ii. 654. 700; Vo\- \&vdi's Davis, 487, 509, 515; A. H. Stephens, ii. 6-37, 803; J. E. Johnston, 402; Lost Cause, 693, 703, 715. (§ 603) Grant, ii. 534; Sherman, ii. 376; Appleton, V. 74. (§ 610) Draper, iii. 646; Campaigns, xiii. 67; Greeley, ii. 759. (§ 612) Authorities under § 508; Lowell's Among my Books; Cent. Mag., Oct., 1885; Sherman, ii. 328. {§ 613) Draper, iii. 626; Rid- path, 542; Wilson, iii. 579: Greeley, ii. 747; Appleton, v. 474.] CHAPTER VIII. RECONSTRUCTION: 1865-77. (1) Johnson's Administration. 616. The New President. — Andrew Johnson, elected Vice- President with Lincoln, became President at Lincoln's death (§ 614). He was from Tennessee, a '' poor white," who had worked his way upward until he had been sent to Congress, had become Governor of his State, and was then sent to the United States Senate. He was an ontspoken Union man, who held to the Union even after his State seceded; and, although he had always been a Democrat, the Eepublicans nominated him in 1864 in order to get the votes of those Democrats who supported the war. In this tliey were only repeating the mistake of Tyler's case (§ 421). Johnson wished to punish the rich and influential Southern leaders; but he cared little about the negroes who had been set free by the war. The Eepublicans were determined to protect the freed- men, even if they had to punish the seceding States in order to do it; while Johnson was determined that States should not be punished. Johnson was a passionate man, and hasty of speech; and he soon managed to bring about a quarrel with Congress, which lasted throughout his term of office. His term had scarcely begun before every one saw what a terrible misfortune it had been to lose the wise, kindly, lai-ge-hearted and large-minded Lincoln when the country needed him so much. 248 1865] JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 249 617. Disbanding the Army. — Many persons had thought that it would be very dangerous to break up the armies at the end of the war; that the million of soldiers would not find work, but would join in lawless companies for robbery. Nothing of the kind followed. The men, except about 50,000, who were retained as a standing army, were paid off and sent home at the rate of 300,000 a month. The old sol- diers turned out to be better lawyers, editors, managers, and workmen than they had been before the war through the habits of prompt obedience learned in the army. 618. The Southern State GoTernments. — When Johnson be- came President the Union cavalry forces were ranging through the South, capturing governors and other leading men, and sending them to forts for safe-keeping. They were released after short imprisonments; but at the time no one was sure that the Confederate leaders would not all be hanged or shot for treason. Every Southern man who could have been of ser- vice in government was only anxious to keep out of the way; and the Southern State governments were broken up. The first business was to get some form of government that would keep order. 619. The President's Plan — In each State the President appointed temporary governors, Avho called conventions elected by the white voters. These conventions repealed the ordinances of secession (§ 501), promised never to pay the debt incurred in support of the Confederacy, and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, They then formed State gov- ernments. 620. The Thirteenth Amendment. — The Emancipation Proc- lamation (§ 549) had only freed the slaves, and would not have prevented a new establishment of slavery. It had been necessary for Congress to propose the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, forever forbidding slavery, and for three fourths of the States to ratify it (§ 747). It thus became a part of the Constitution (1865). 621. The Freedmen. — The new Southern State govern- ments, believing that the freedmen, or freed negroes, would 250 BECONSTRUCTION. [1866 not work willingly, began to pass laws to make them work. This looked like setting up slavery again under another name; and, when Congress met, its Republican members voted not to admit the members whom the Southern States had elected. As long as these Southern members were kept out, the Repub- licans had a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Congress — suflficient to pass any law they pleased over the President's veto (§ 741). 622. Readmission of Tennessee. — Tennessee had reorganized its State government in such a manner that the freedmen seemed secure; and Congress readmitted the State to repre- sentation (1866). 623. Quarrel of the President and Congress. — The Presi- dent was very angry, partly that States should be denied their right to be represented in Congress, and partly that Congress should have such a majority opposed to him. He was suj)- ported by the Northern Democrats and by the Southern peo- ple, who did not count for much, however, so long as their representatives were not admitted to Congress. As soon as the elections showed that the Republicans were to have the same two-thirds majority in the next Congress, they went on to pass, over the President's veto, the Reconstruction Act (1867), containing their plan of forming new governments in the Southern States. 624. The Reconslrnction Acts. — The Reconstruction Acts provided that the States which had seceded, except Tennessee (§ 622), should not govern tliemselves for the present, but should be put under military governors, who were to call con- ventions to form new governments. The freedmen, who had never voted before, were to have the right to vote for mem- bers of these conventions; but the leading Confederates, who had always been influential men in their States, were forbid- den to do so. If the nfew governments should permit freed- men to vote, and should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, which denied to the leading Confederates the power to hold office. Congress would admit their Senators and Representar tives. 1868] JOHNSOJ^'S ADMINISTRATION. 251 626. Reconstruction. — For more than a year the work of "reconstruction" went on, and then (1868) six States were readmitted: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. The ratifications of theee States made the Fourteenth Amendment * a part of the Con- stitution. But these State governments were different from what had been known at the South. They were largely con- trolled by the freedmen, who had been slaves but two or three years before, but were now in political affairs equal or superior to their former masters; the whites, in addition to the bitter- ness of defeat in the war, now had to submit to be governed by their former slaves. It was hoped at the North that the freedmen wonld be made secure by having the right to vote for representatives in their State governments: the unhappy result was that the whites disobeyed the new governments at every opportunity, and were continually at work to get control of them, in ordei- to keep the freedmen out. Four States, Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia, refused to be "reconstructed," and were not readmitted until two years later (§ 635). 626. The Tenure-of-Olfiee Act. — Among the many Acts of Congress passed over the President's veto was the Tenure-of- Office Act, forbidding the President to remove the higher classes of office-holders without the consent of the Senate (1867). The President, believing that the Constitution gave Congress no power to pass such an Act, determined to dis- obey it. He removed Stanton, the Secretary of War, and, when the Senate refused to consent to the removal, Johnson paid no attention to the refusal, and ordered Stanton's suc- cessor to take possession of the office. 627. Impeachment. — The President was impeached (§ 732) at once; but, after a long and angry trial, the Senators who voted to convict him were not two thirds of the whole num- ber, and he was acquitted. 628. Presidential Election (1868).— The Presidential elec- tion of 1868 turned on Eeconstructiou, as Congress had man- * It -will be found in the Appendix. 252 RECONSTRUCTION. [18G8 aged it. Tlie Republicans supported it, and nominated Gen- eral Grant, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana. Tlie Democrats opposed it, and nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. The Republicans were suc- cessful, and Grant and Colfax were elected. 629. The Debt. — At the end of the war tne American jjeople had incurred a debt larger than most countiies had ever reached at that time. Other governments have debts now which are as large or larger, but they make no attempt to pay them. On the contrary, the American policy was to begin to pay tiie debt at once: before the armies were quite disbanded, $30,000,000 of the debt had been paid; taxes were kept up; and whatever could be spared out of the large re- ceipts of the government went to help pay the debt (§ 679). 630. Mexico. — Before the armies w'ere disbanded a strong force was moved to the Rio Grande, and demand was made that the French troops should leave Mexico at once (§ 570). The demand was agreed to by France; but Maximilian, re- fusing to leave with tlie French army, was captured by the Mexicans and shot, though tlie United States asked that his life should be spared. 631. The Atlantic Telegraph. — The telegraph had not been in operation long before it Avas found that lines could be worked under water. This suggested the idea of a line from America to Europe, over the flat bed of the Atlantic Ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland. Such a line had been laid (1857), but failed to work long. It was now tried again, and proved a success (18G6). Other cables of the kind have since been laid, so that it is now hardly possible that any accident should entirely break off telegraphic communication between the United States and Europe. 632. Alaska. — A treaty was made with Russia for the pur- chase of Alaska (1867). ' This is the last addition to the ter- ritory of the United States (§ 452). 633. Nebraska. — Nebraska, a part of the Louisiana pur- chase (§§ 301, 476), was admitted as a State (1867), with the provision that it should allow negroes to vote. 1869] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 253 [Supplementary Reading. — (%&\Qi) Ridpath, 544; Oillet,2i'6Z; Johnson, ii. 1429. (i^ ^511) Appleton, v. 18; Sherman, ii. 413. (§ rtm, ii. 743; Pike, 12; (?»■«< 320. (§ 626) Appleton, vi. 241; McPherson's Rec, 173; Ahdxtina (Jlaims. (§650) Ridpath, 556, 557; Appleton, xii. 239. (§651) Bowles's Acr'o,ss the Con- tinent, 255; Ridpat/i, 553, 560; Appleton, ix. 16. (§653) Ridpath, 557. 558; Appleton, xi. 394, 773, xii. 503; Goodspeed's Chicitgo Fire; Roe's Barriers Burned Away. (§654) Ridpath. 561; Aj>pleton, xvi. 118; John- son, i. 1033; Wharton's 7/<,vto7'.y of Denver. (§655) Ridpath, 563; Ap pleton, xvi. 194, 262; First Century of the Republic. {'^doG) Ridpath. 560; Appleton, xiii. 283.] CHAPTER IX. RECENT DEVELOPMENT : 1877-88. (1) Hayes's Administration: 1877-81. 659. Peace and Prosperity. — U'his history has to tell of no more wars or buttles. Prosperity came with peace. The panic of 1873 (§ 656) passed ofE gradually, as the growth of the country brought into use and profit the railroads which had been useless and unprofitable. The story is henceforth that of the daily labor of 50,000,000 people who were working busily, filling new regions like Dakota, and selling the prod- uce of their labor in enormous quantities to other nations. Under such circumstances the points of interest are mainly social and economic questions: that is, laws and other mat- ters affecting the work, wealth, and comfort of the people. 660. The Census of 1880. — The population of the country in 1880 was 50,000,000, an increase of 11,000,000 since 1870 (§ 652). The highest rates of increase were now in the Southern States. The census report showed that the United States had now become one of the wealthiest countries of the world (§710). 661. Electricity. — This period was remarkable for the new and wonderful ways in which electricity was set to work for man. It had already been put to use in the telegraph (§426). Now the telephone was perfected: it has enabled men to converse when hundreds of miles apart, and has made work of every sort easier, quicker, and more effec- tive. The electric light was first brought into use at this 261 262 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1877 time for lighting buildings and streets. The first promising attempts were made to use electricity as a power in driving ordinary machinery and locomotive engines. 662. Railroad Strikes. — At the beginning of this admin- istration (1877) the first great railroad strikes took place. The railroads attempted to lower the wages of the men; most of the men refused to work for the new wages, and some of them refused to permit the trains to run. In some cases they resisted the troops which were protecting the railroads; and there were dangerous riots at Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Louis, and other places. After nearly two weeks of general confusion, the riots were suppressed, and the trains began running regularly again. 663. Tlie Fall in Silver. — Silver had been decreasing in value for some years all over the world, partly because of the enormous production of the silver mines of Nevada and other Pacific States and Territories. The value of gold and silver, like that of anything else, depends not only on the use that people have for it, but on the cost of getting it. If silver were as plentiful and as easy to get as iron, it would be worth no more than iron, and would buy no more corn or clothes than the same weight of iron. In Nevada the miners had found new and cheaper ways of getting the silver out of the ore; and the mines there were yearly sending out laiger quantities of silver. Its price, as compared with gold, was steadily falling. 664. Demonetization of Silver. — If men who owe money have a choice of paying in gold dollars worth one hundred cents, or in silver dollars worth eighty-five cents, they will prefer to pay in silver. To prevent such operations, many countries had ''demonetized " silver, that is, had passed laws providing that debts sl\ould be paid in silver only by agree- ment of both parties. To prevent foreign countries from sending all their useless silver to the United States, Congress also demonetized silver (1873). 665. Remonetization of Silver.— ]\Iany persons came to the conclusion that the law of 1873 was onlv intended to enrich 1879] HATES- S ADMINISTRATION: 263 bond-holders by paying the national debt in gold; and the popular excitement frightened both parties in Congress (1878) into remonetizing silver, that is, ordering that the silver dollar should be coined again, and should be received in pay- ment of all debts. 066. Resumption. — Paper money, issued by the government or by national banks (§§ 550, 565), had been the only money in general use since 1862. It had been worth less, sometimes much less, than gold, partly because such large amounts of it had been issued, and partly because it had sometimes been doubted whether the government would be able to pay coin for it (§ 563). It was now decided that the government should resume specie payments, and on the appointed date (Jan. 1, 1879) it was ready to give gold or silver for any of its notes. But as soon as this was certain, the notes became as valuable as coin, and the people found them more convenient than coin and used them instead of demanding coin for them ; so that Eesumption was really no more than an offer by the gov- ernment to give coin for its notes. 667. Refunding-. — The more doubt there is as to the payment of a debt, the higher the rate of intei'est that must be paid for it. The United States had been paying a high rate of interest on its debt; but the people had resisted every temptation to ease themselves of the burden of the debt : they had taxed themselves heavily to pay it as rapidly as possible ; and it was now so certain that the debt would be paid that men who had money to lend were glad to lend it to the government at lower rates. As fast as possible, new bonds were sold at low inter- est, and the money was used to pay off the old bonds. This is the operation called "refunding," and it made a saving of $30,000,000 a year in interest. 668. Chinese Immigration.— Many Chinese had settled in the Pacific States. They had been accustomed to live far more meanly than white laborers were used to do. They could there- fore work for lower wages than white laborers, who now had to bid for work at lower wages than they had been accustomed to. The consequence was that there were riots, attacks on the 264 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1880 Chinese, and a general liatred of them in California, and a treaty was made with China (1880), which allowed the United States to stop Chinese immigration for a time. 669. Congress and the President. — The Democrats were in a majority in Congress, atid they wished to re])c'al certain laws which had been passed by former Republican Congresses. The repealing Acts were vetoed by the President, and the majority in Congress was not large enough to pass them over the veto (§ T41). The result was that there was a great deal of excitement, and very little was done. 670. Presidential Election (1880).— In the Presidential elec- tion (1880) the Democrats nominated AVinfield S. Hancock, of New York, and William H. English, of Indiana ; and the Republicans nominated James A. Garfield, of Oliio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York. The Republican candi- dates were elected. [Supplementary Reading.— (§ 660) CenmiH Reports o/'1880; Appleton, xxi. 848, xxii. 815. (§ 661) Johnson, iv. 1596; Appleton, xix. 335. (^ 662) Oilman, 567; Iladley, 128; Appleton, xvii. 423. (^^&d)Johnson, iv. 291; Laughlin, 310. (§§ 664-5) Langhlin, 310; Johnston, 239; Appleton, xviii. 138. (§ 666) Laughlin, 319, 32f); Appleton, xvii. 290, xix. 763. (§667) Appleton, xix. 757, xx. 257. (^668) Gilmau. a^^; Appleton, XX. 105; Seward's Chinese Immigration. {^ 669) Johnston, 242; Apple- ton, xix. 226, XX. 155. (§670) Gilman, 570; Roberts's i\'(?/r York, 709; Johnston, 244; Appleton, xx. 693; 2'rib. Abn., 1881, 19; Spofford, Index uuder Eleetions.'\ (2) Garfield's and Authur's Administrations, 1881-5. 671. Assassination of the President. — Since Jackson's time (§ 392) every President had been expected to inake appoint- ments for the good of the party — to appoint such men as would spend part of their time in working for the i^arty's suc- cess at the next election'. It was always the case that many were disappointed in their expectation of offices, and that there ^vas much bitterness of feeling. Such cases were un- usually numerous at the beginning of Garfield's term of office; and finally Guiteau [^/tVo], a disappointed villain who had 1882] GARFIELD'S AND ARTHURS ADMINISTRATIONS. 265 been refused an office, sliot and mortally wounded the Presi- dent at a railroad depot in Washington. After lingering nearly three months, President Garfield died at Elberon, near Long Branch, on the New Jersey coast, to which place he had been removed from Washington. Vice-President Arthur be- came President at Garfield's death. 672. Civil Service Reform. — Garfield's death, caused mainly by the scramble for offices, brought about a clearer view of the evils of the old system of appointment. The people began to urge Congress to make some reform in the civil service, so that appointments should depend in some way on the merit of the applicant, not on his usefulness to his party ; and Congress passed the Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883), per- mitting the President to appoint examiners, and to make appointments on their recommendation. This new system applied at first to but a small part of the offices; it has been extended to a larger number by Presidents Arthur and Cleve- land, who have found it a relief from needless woi'k and an- noyance. Some of the States and cities have begun to imitate the system in order to cure similar evils. 073. The Mormons. — A still more severe act was passed by Congress (1882) for the purpose of compelling the Mormons (§ 484) to give up their system of polygamy, which had be- come disgraceful and dangerous to the United States. It is not yet certain that they will obey the law ; and it will not be safe to admit Utah as a State until they do so, for the Legis- lature of a State can make what laws it pleases about marriage. This object has not yet been reached. 674. General Prosperity. — The country had now fully re- covered from the panic of 1873 (§ 656). Work was plenty for everybody, and agriculture, trade, and manufactures were flourishing. This growth was even more noticeable at the South than elsewhere. That section had found free labor more profitable than slave labor (§ 493). Its crops were very large; railroads were building in every direction ; rich iron- mines were opening ; and manufactures were appearing as they had never done while the workmen were slaves. Success- S66 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1883 fill Expositions at Atlanta (1881) and New Orleans (1884-85) showed the great resources of the "New^ South'" and its won- derful advances since the Civil War. 676. The Race Question. — The great question left by slavery and reconstruction (§ 624), the most difficult in some respects that any people has ever met, is still unsettled. Two differ- ent races inhabit the same territory ; and politics, church affairs, and all the relations of human life are affected by the question of the terms on which these two races are to live to- gether. Every year the number of negroes in the South who are raising themselves to wealth, intelligence, respect, and in- fluence is increasing ; and it is becoming more difficult to make such men ride in " negro cars," or to refuse them ad- mission to hotels, theatres, churches, and schools, or to keeji them from voting. It is becoming evident that it will depend mainly on the negroes themselves hoiv this race question in the South Avill be decided, but itilien no man can say. 676. The National Debt.— About half of the debt had now been paid. Most of the remainder was not due for more than twenty years, the government having put off payment, as jiart of the plan of '"refunding" (§ 667); and those to whom it was due were very unwilling to be paid, as they were persons who preferred to leave their money with the government, even at low interest, since its security was perfect. It was therefore becoming more difficult for the government to use its great revenue in a further decrease of the debt, even by offering to pay its creditors their money before it was due. And yet the revenue was pouring in more rapidly than ever. The government had thus a '' surplus," — more money than it really needed; and men began to talk of ways of reducing taxa- tion.* 677. The Tariff of 1883.— Congress directed a Tariff Com- mission, composed of men familiar with the subject, to be * The debt touched its highest point in August, 1665, when it was S3.844,640,626. Every month the government had paid some of it— sometimes more, sometimes less; and in December, 1H8;}, the debt, less cash in the Treasury, amounted to $1,510,000,000, and $.556,000,000 of this was in the form of paper money, bearing no interest. Such a reduction of debt lias no parallel in the history of any country. 1884] QARFIELD'S AND ARTHURS ADMimSTRATIONti. 267 appointed ; and on their report it adopted a new tarifi of duties on imports (1883). The reduction proved less than had been expected, and the Democrats in Congress attempted to make a further reduction the next year; but the attempt was defeated by the Republicans, with the aid of some Democrats. The difficulty was, that under a system of protection men invest their money in manufactories ; that they fear that a reduction of duties on imports will enable foreign manufactur- ers to sell their goods in this country cheaper than they can ; and that they will thus lose the money which they have in- vested, and be ruined. And, on the other hand, the fear of injuring them makes it very difficult for the government to reduce the tariff duties, even when it is necessary to reduce the revenue. 678. Presidential Election (1884).— The Presidential Elec- tion of 1884 came on in the midst of the discussion of the tariff. The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine, of Maine, and John A. Logan, of Illinois, supporting the system of pro- tection, and denouncing the attempt of the Democrats in Congress to reduce the tariff duties. The Democrats, saying as little as possible about the general question of protection, demanded a reduction of the revenue, and nominated Grover Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indi- ana. After an exciting struggle the Democratic candidates were elected. [Supplementary Reading. — From this point reference would be mostly to bound newspapers or periodicals, which would be unavailable to most pupils. The followins: maybe of service: (%Q11) Appleton, xxi. 194, 317, 846; xxii. 127; Bundy's Garfield; Ogiivie's Qarfield. (§ 672) Appleton, xxi. 36. (§'.673) N. A. Rev., Jan., 1871 ; Atlantic, July. 1877; N. A. Rev., June, 1881, July, Oct., 1882; Cent. Mag., June, 1882; Trib. Aim., 1884, 36; Appleton, xxiii. 165. (§ 674) Stevens's Yorktown Centennial Hand-Book; Appleton, xxi. 869. (§675) Trib. Aim., 1883, 15; Appleton, xxi. 859, xxiii. 812; xxiv. 791. (§676) N. A. Rev., Jan., Feb.. May, July. Nov.. 1880, Feb., Dec, 1881; Appleton, xxi. 714. (§678) Cent. Mag., March, 1887; Harper's Mag., March, 1887; Appleton, xxi. 260; Kelley's Old South and the New. (§ 679) Laughlin, 287; Spof- ford. Index under Debt. (§680) Taussig, 76; Trib. Aim., 1884, 15; Ap- pleton, xxii. 139, xxiii. 193. xxiv. 784. (§681) Trib. Aim., 1885,17; Roberts's New York, 713; Appleton. xxiv. 767.] 268 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1887 (3) Cleveland's Auministuatiox: 1885-9. 679. The New President. — The country had not hitherto seen so sudden a rise to prominence as the elections of Grover Cleveland as Mayor of Buffalo (1881), Governor of New York (1882), and President of the United States (1884). Much of this rapid elevation had been due to his fearlessness and ad- mitted integrity; and the circumstances of his administration were such as to test both these qualities. 680. Foreigrii and Naval Affairs. — A French company had been digging a canal acro.ss the Isthmus of Panama, while an American company proposed to dig another across Nicaragua. It was felt by many Americans that the United States ought to have control of the successful canal, as an important route for commerce between our Atlantic and Pacific coasts; and yet other nations would not take this kindly. The French com- pany, however, proved a failure; it broke down in the midst of its Avork (1889). There were disputes with Great Jiritain about the right of American fishermen to buy ice and bait in Canadian ports, and Avitli Germany about a group of islands in the Pacific called Samoa. All these misunderstandings were settled peacefully, but they led to the appropriation of large sums for the construction of improved and more power- ful and swift iron-clads for the navy. 681. The Presidential Succession Act. — The laws were so changed that in case of the death of both President and Vice- President the members of the Cabinet (§ 731) would succeed to the Presidency in an order stated in the law (1886). Un- der this system it seems not jiossible that the death of any one or more men should throw the government into confusion. 682. The Electoral Count Act. — Another Act of Congress was at last passed (1887) to relieve the country of the danger of such disputed elections as that of 1876-77 (§ 645). It was intended to provide a way in which each State could decide for itself which were its electoral votes, so as to remove the subject from Congress. 683. Ballot Reform.— During 1887 and 1888 promising efforts began to be made in the different States to change the 1887] CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 269 method of voting to that which had beeu remarkably success- ful in Australia, Great Britain, and other coujitries in stopping bribery and interference with voters, and securing an abso- lutely secret ballot. 684. New States. — Provision was made for the admission of four new States — North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington (1889). This increased the number of States to forty-two. * 685. Inter-State Commerce Act. — One of the most important laws passed was the Inter-State Commerce Act (1887), in- tended to prevent railroads operating in more than one State from charging unfair rates for carrying goods. Such prac- tices Avere forbidden, and a Commission of three persons was appointed to hear and try complaints against any railroad disobeying the law. Each State, however, continued to con- trol the railroads operated only within its own territory. 686. Labor Troubles. — The increase of wealth had brought an increase in the number of very rich men. If all their wealth should be divided among their fellow-citizens it would give very little to each; but the sight of their easy and pleas- ant life was enough to persuade many workingmen that they were working harder tlian was necessary. Great numbers of them formed associations which refused to work unless for higher wages and with shorter hours. This they had a perfect right to do. They were successful in some cases, and failed in others. In some cases when they failed they tried to frighten other men from taking their places. These latter were workingmen, who had a right to work where they pleased ; and public opinion turned against the associations which were oppressing labor in their way as badly as the employers of whom they complained. Some employers had made '"black- lists" of men whom they did not like, and these lists were sent from one employer to another, so that the men could find employment nowhere. The early years of Cleveland's term were full of these '* labor troubles," and of efforts to make * In 1890 Idaho and Wyoming Territories were admitted as States, making in all forty-four States. 270 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1887 laws to settle them. Some rich employers brought large num- bers of workmen from Europe at very low wages; and Con- gress passed a Contract Labor Act, hoping to stop this prac- tice, and a still stronger Act against Chinese immigration (§ 668). Some violent men called Anarchists, mostly from Europe, who wished to destroy all government, made loud threats of disorder, and rose in riot in Chicago. When they had been put down, there were many proposals to check im- migration in some way, but they came to nothing. 687. The President's Policy — President Cleveland had a decided belief that there was a disposition to pass too many Acts of Congress, and too hastily; and he had no fear of put- ting his belief in practice. He vetoed (§ 741) a number of Acts, particularly for special grants of pensions, and thus made the opi^osition to him more intense. He enforced the Civil-Service Act (§ 672), but the old system of appointment continued as to many of the offices to which that Act did not apply; and for this he was warmly attacked. At the same time, however, by repealing the Tenure-of-Office Act (§ 626) Congress increased the President's power of removal. 688. The Tariff. — By this time the internal-revenue taxes (§564) had been gradually abolished, with the exception of the taxes on tobacco and intoxicating liquors. The "surplus" was growing larger, for the Government's revenue was increas- ing, while its need for money was decreasing (§676). The Tariff of 1883 had made but a slight reduction in the duties (§677), and the growing "surplus" brought the question up again. 689. The Surplus. — It may seem a very good thing for a government to have so large an amount of money to its credit as was then lying unused in the Treasury,* but it was really a very bad thing, for many reasons. This surplus was a very small part of the country's wealth, but a very large part of its money; and the country needs all its money to carry on its business. To lock up part of the country's money in idleness ♦ In December, 1887, the Treasury estimated the surphis for the year at $113,000,000. 1S88J CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION. 271^ is to hinder just so much of the country's business, and give every one just so much less woi'k and wealth. And, further, so much idle money in the Treasury is a constant temptation to Congress to spend it wastefuUyand extravagantly, and keep up the taxation. The two parties were therefore compelled to consider ways of reducing taxation. The Democrats wished to reduce the tariff duties: the protected manufacturers de- clared that this would ruin them (§ G77), and the Eepublicans upheld the view of the manufacturers. 690. Cleveland's Message. — When Congress met in Decem- ber, 1887, the Treasury reported to the President that, if the withdrawal of money from business into the Treasury should continue, the result would be a panic (§ 408). The President therefore confined his annual Message to an appeal to Congress to reduce the duties on imported goods, as the only advisable method of decreasing the revenue and the surplus. This brought up again the old issue of Free Trade (or a Revenue Tariff) against Protection (§ 359). 691. The Trusts. — The interest in the matter was increased by a new feature in business management about this time. Corporations are bodies of men united under control of law so that they can sue and be sued in the courts. Some of these corporations began to unite into "trusts," for which there was no law. It was asserted that they kept prices high, and were aided in so doing by the tariff, which kept out for- eign goods. 692. The Mills Bill.— The Democrats, who had a small majority in the House of Representatives, brought in a bill to reduce the duties on imports: it was called the Mills Bill, from the name of its author. A few of the Democratic Con- gressmen were protectionists, and it was only after nearly six months of argument that they consented to support the Mills Bill, which was then passed by the House, but was lost in the Senate, where the Republicans had a majority. 693. The Presidential Election (1888).— In the midst of the discussion, nominations for the Presidential election of 1888 were made by both parties: Grover Cleveland, of New 272 RECENT DEVELOPMENT. [1889 York, iiud Allen G, Tlmrnian, of Ohio, by the Democrats; and Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New- York, by the RepublicaTis. Tlie Democrats supported the Mills Bill, as the only advisable method of reducing the sur- plus; the Republicans denounced it as an attack on the pro- tected industries of the country. The election was decided by the electoral votes of the State of New York; they were cast for Harrison and Morton, who were elected. 'I'hey were inaugurated March 4, 1889. This completed the first cen- tury of the republic under the Constitution (Chap. XI). 694. Chronological Summary. — The leading events of Hayes', Garfield and Arthur's, and Cleveland's administra- tions were as follows : 1877-81 : Hayes' Term of Office §659 1877 : Railroad Strikes 663 1878 : Remouetization of Silver 665 1879 : Resumption 666 Ref uudiug 667 1880 : Chinese Immigration Acts 668 Census of 1880 660 1881-85 : Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations 671 1881 : Assassination of the President 671 1882 : Anti-Polygamy Acts 673 1883 : Civil Service Act 672 Tariff Act 677 1885-89 : Cleveland's Administration 679 1886 : Presidential Succession Act 681 1887 : Electoral Count Act 682 Inter-State Commerce Act 685 1888: Mills Bill before Congress 692 Election of Harrison and Morton 693 1880 : New States 684 CHAPTER X. PAST, PRESENT. AND FUTURE. (1) General Summary. 695. The History of the United States. — The rise of other gi'eat nations has been long and slow, and most events in their early history are buried in obscurity; but it is not so with the United States of America. It is less than four hun- dred years since the discovery of America (§ 5), and less than three hundred years since the English colonies in America were begun (§ 24). During this period there are but few occurrences about which there is any uncertainty: the student can see quite clearly the birth and growth of the nation. 696. The State System. — The States were the first to ap- pear, and they have always been a necessary part of the nation. Thirteen of them were founded, one by one, along the Atlantic coast, and thirty-one others have since been founded as they have been needed. They have made the United States dif- ferent from any of the other great nations. France, for example, is everywhere alike; and all parts of it are governed, as far as possible, by the government at Paris. In the United States each State is left as far as possible to govern itself; and it is only in matters relating to the whole people that laws are made by the government at Washington. This is the only wise system under which so large a country as the United States could be kept under one government.* * If the government at Washin^on attempted, as in France, to make laws for the whole country in small as well as in great matters, it would not know what would be 373 274 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 697. The Nation. — The nation was born of the union of the colonies or States against Great Britain. Tiiey liad always been glad to acknowledge the King of Great Britain as their king; but they would not be governed l)y a distant Parliament, which could know nothing of their needs. Bad laws were made by Parliament, and were resisted peaceably by the col- onies. At last tlie resistance came to force in the fight at Lexington (§ 165), and that made the new nation. It still acknowledged the same king; but it when found that the king was determined to be on the side of Parliament, it abolished his authority, and declared its independence of him also (§ 186). The States were independent colonies without the nation; the nation could not long maintain its existence with- out the State organizations. Each is necessary to the other: and the two have made the country what it is. 698. Growth of the Nation. — This history has been told to very little purpose if it has not kept before the mind of the reader the wonderful growth of the nation — a growth which was wonderful even in its small beginnings, and which is now taking such leaps that it is even more talked about and thought about in other countries than ni our own. Every vear brings to our shores thinking men from other countries, who do not come to settle here, or merely to look at Niagara or the big trees of California, but to see with their own eyes a growth such as has never been seen on earth before. It is proper, then, for us to conclude by considering the present state of the country, the reasons for its wonderful growth, and the possibilities of its future. (2) State of thk ("oixtky. 699. Territory of the United States. — The Chinese Empire, the British Empire, including its various de]iendencies, and the Russian Empire, are larger than the United States. best for distant parts of the country. The result would be bad laws, discontent, rebel- lion, and finally the splitting of the country into different countries. All this is avoided by leaving each State to make laws which relate particularly to its own people and territory, STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 275 But these are not really single nations like the United States: each of them is a union of a great number of nations, under the control of a single government. If we compare our own country with the single Jiations that we are accustomed to read of in history, the United States (not including Alaska) would make about twenty-five such countries as Italy or Great Britain, or fifteen such countries as France, Sj^ain, Germany, or Austro-Hungary. Texas alone is larger than any of the four last named, and California than either of the two former. 700. Natural Advantages.— The country is almost a world in itself. If the rest of the world were blotted out, the soil of the United States could still produce almost everything needed by its inhabitants. The American may experience almost every variety of climate without leaving his own coun- try: some of the Dakota farmers regularly spend their winters among the orange-groves of Florida. The fertility of the soil is remarkable almost everywhere: regions like Nebraska, which were at first thought to be desert, have been found to be remarkably productive. Most other nations use more wheat than they produce: the United States consumes 300,- 000,000 bushels of wheat every year, and still has 150,000,000 bushels to sell to other nations. Coal,* iron, gold, silver, cop- per, lead, oil, all the metals and minerals needed by man are stored away for his use beneatli the surface of the United States in abundance. The American may get almost any- thing he wishes from his own country by working for it. 701. Growth of Population. — The population of the United States was over 50,000,000 in 1880 (§ 6G0). This is already greater than that of any other thoroughly civilized nation. It is not so large as the population of China, British India, or Russia; but these people are strong only in numbers, while the people of the United States are strong in all the forces of * In modern times, when machinery connts for so much^ the wealth of a coun- try depends very much on its supply of coal. Great Britain's coal supply will be used up in a century, and it is hard to say what she will do then. We know already of 200,000 square miles of coal territory in the United States— forty times as muciB as in Great Britain, and twenty times as much as in all Europe together. 276 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE, civilization. But it is not tlie present alone that is remark- able: it is the possibilities of the future. It was noticed long ago that the American people doubled in number every twenty-five years. Now a doubling, when the population was only about 2,000,000, was not so striking an event; but a doubling when the population is already 50,000,000 is some- thing which must attract attention. It means that, by natu- ral increase, a regiment of fighting men is added to the strength of the United States every day, or an army of 300,- 000 fighting men every year. It means that the population ought to be 100,000,000 fifteen years from now, in 1905, and 200,000,000 in 1930. Good judges think that the territory of the United States will support tlie 800,000,000 persons; that may be the population of the United States before the end of the next century. 702. Material Advantages. — Numbers, or extent of ter- ritory, would be but poor things if they were all the country could boast of. But the power of the country grows far faster than its numbers grow. Every year a million sewing- machines are produced; they can do more work than twelve million women could do by hand; and thus the working power of the country grows faster even than its women in- crease. It is the same with steam machinery in regard to men. When the population numbers 200,000,000, with all the powers of machinery, steam, and electricity to help it, it will be a power such as the world has never seen, and will probably not see elsewhere.* 703. Peace.— The natural condition of the American peo- ple is one of peace. They have no neighbors strong enough to annoy them, and they have no desire to war on others, for their territory is already as large as they can manage. Since the disappearance of slavery, there is nothing within the country to make war necessary. Other countries may jierhaps have wars, battles, wholesale destruction of life and property: * The people of Great Britain and other civilized countries have the same advan- tages of machinery, bnt tlieir territory is so small that they can never approach ih^ future numbers of the United States. 8TATE OF THE COUNTRr. 211 the people of the United States have no desire for such things, and are not likely to have them forced upon them. 704. The Army.— Armies are not needed here. Russia must keep a million of men constantly in her army, and France and Germany half a million each, for their neighbors will plunder them if they do not. The American people have an army of 25,000 men, and yet the people often grumble as if that were too many. They are fearless of attack from their neighbors, for other countries know that in a just war Con- gress can have for the asking three million soldiers. And so the people are not taxed, nor workingmen taken away from work, in order to keep up a monstrous army in time of peace. 705. Railroads and Telegraphs. — There were more miles of railroad in the United States in 1886 (133,607 miles) than in all Europe, and neai'ly as many as in all the world outside of the United States. The number is increasing at the rate of about 10,000 miles each year. There were three times as many miles of telegraph in the United States in 1887 (176,- 000 miles) as in any other country. This quantity is in- creasing at the rate of about 20,000 miles each year. 706. The National Deht— In 1865, the government was weighed down by a debt of nearly three thousand millions (§ 676). It went to work by the old-fashioned method of paying the debt as fast as possible. In twenty years it has paid about 11,200,000,000, and only stops now because its creditors will not consent to be paid any further at present. 707. Education.— There were in the United States in 1880 nearly a quarter of a million public schools (225,880), in which over six million pupils were in daily attendance (6,276,- 398). The expenses of these schools are paid by the people, by taxation, and the results have been so excellent that other countries are rapidly following the same plan. There were nearly 400 colleges (364) in addition to schools of medicine, law, and theology. There were more than 11,000 newspapers and periodicals (11,314).* * Of the newspapers, 971 were published daily, Issuing 3,566,395 copies per dav. The weekly press issued 88,213,391 copies per week. 278 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 708. Religion. — It was for a very long time a settled belief of most Christian denominations that the state should aid the church by taxing the people for its support. Nearly every nation had its state church, and most of the States, while they were colonies, followed the rule. Since they have become a nation they have changed it. The chuiches are supported by the free-will offerings of those who belong to them, and they have prospered by the change. It is believed that there are about 90,000 congregations in the United States belonging to the various denominations ; and they are more generally prosperous than if they depended on govei-nment aid. They not only carry on their own work, but aid others. In the South, in the frontier towns of the far West, and in the evil places of the large cities, there are great numbers of missions supported by churclies. 709. Benevolence. — Private and public benevolence is ex- ceedingly common ; so much so as to be sometimes unwisely directed. Hospitals, asylums, charitable associations of every kind show the kindly spirit of the people for misfortune. That kind of public spirit which is shown by giving money to public uses is exceedingly common in the United States. There are not many cities or towns which cannot show a lios- pital, a park, a library, a college, or some similar public in- stitution, presented to the public by some one who has pros- pered in the place. There is a general feeling of contempt for the ii(di man who dies without "leaving some of his money to the place where he made it." 710. National Wealth. — The country is not yet the richest in the world, but it is surpassed by Great Britain only. In 1870 the United States stood third in wealth ; in 1880 it passed France and stood second. In its yearly income and increase of wealth it already surpasses Great Britain and all otiier countries.* 711. State of the Conntry. — Here, then, is a country in ♦ The following table will Rive rough estimates of the wealth, the annual income, the manufactures, and the total industries of Great Britain and the United States uud the increase of each since 18T0. It is taken from an English writer (Mr. Mul- CAUSES OF GROWTH. 279 which there was uot a settler 280 years ago ; and now (1888) it contains one sixth of the wealth of the world. It has ter- ritory sufficient to accommodate almost any number of peo- ple ; and the people who inhabit it are, to say the least, as active, as intelligent, and as civilized as any in the world. The sunlight, as it passes every day from the Atlantic to the Pacific, wakes a population of nearly 60,000,000, whose workers labor very hard. They already do one third of all the mining in the world, one fourth of all the manufactur- ing, and one fifth of all the agriculture. Every night they are stronger by a regiment of fighting men, and richer by two millions of dollars than the night before. "It would be impossible," says Mr. Mulhall in 1882, " to find in history a parallel to the progress of the United States in the last ten years." And yet all this is very little, compared with what the future is to see. (3) Causes of Growth. 712. Growth of Other Countries. — Other countries have had as fair opportunities as the United States, but have made no such use of them. The Spanish colonies in South America and Mexico had a far larger territory and richer soil than the English colonies of ]S[orth America, but they have never formed a great nation, or become powerful separately. There hall), considering the poimd sterling as five dollars. The figures represent millions of dollars. Great Britain. United States. (Millions of Dollars.) {Millions of Dollars.) Wealth, total Increase in ten years. . 44,800 3,350 39,400 7.800 Annual Income ...... Increase in ten years. . .5,780 975 7,030 1,720 3,790 580 4,440 1,030 Increase in ten years. . Total Industries Increase in ten years . . 10,130 1.685 10,020 2.625 '280 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. must be reasons wliy these English colonies liave prospered so amazingly, and it would be well for us to consider them, that we may do no worse, at least, than our fathers have done. 713. Democracy.— The institutions of the country have had much to do with its progress. From the beginning the country has had no privileged classes or noble families ; no man has been able to claim an office or support from the peo- ple as his right merely because his father had won a victory or gained wealth. Every man has known that, no matter how poor he might be at first, he could go just as high as he was able to overcome the natural difficulties in the way; there were few artificial ones. When a whole people have ambition, and have hopes of success for themselves and their children, they are certain to do far harder and better work for it. The boy cutting rails on the prairie knows that his poverty cannot of itself prevent him from reaching the highest position the country affords ; the children of the President know that the dignity of his position cannot of itself prevent them from fall- ing to the lowest class, if they should prove unworthy. 714. Education. — The American people have set apart a large portion of their wealth to take care that the children of every man, rich or poor, shall have the opportunity, at least, to obtain an education. They have thus made their farmers, mechanics, and miners more intelligent than those of othei- countries, more quick to hit on new and ui^efnl inventions, and more handy in managing the inventions already in use. They have also helped their voters to vote more intelligently, and have helped to diminish crime, for it is not quite so likely that a man will become a criminal if he has the power to vote and a fair share of education. 715. Work. — Americans have always been a hard-working people, and their hard work has done very much to make tiieir country great. They have always been anxious to make inven- tions, not for the purpose of avoiding work, but for the {)urpose of making their work still more effective. The young man who goes from the country to the city because he has or seeks the opportunity to work harder or more effectively, aids in the CAUSES OF GROWTH. 281 growth of the country : but he wlio goes for the purpose of avoiding hard work is really doing all he can to injure the country which should be dear to him. He who gives up farm- ing or a trade to work harder or more effectively in some other way does well: but he who does so only for the purpose of living more easily does foolishly, and will live and die a failure, for he has none of the American spirit in him, and will be beaten in the race by others who have it. 716. Energy. — This power of hard work has come largely from the energy of the people : they have never been afraid of difficulties. The greater the difficulty has seemed, the greater has been the fury with which they have attacked it again and again until it has gone down before them. From the starving time in Virginia and the first bitter winters of New England until now, the American has always been ready to do or en- dure anything if he can see that it is of any use to himself or others. Until 1861 the people of other countries believed that all this energy was simple greed, and that Americans were " dollar-hunters," who thought only of getting money. In 1861 the danger of a tremendous civil war fell on them, and they showed the same energy in granting their money, in taxing themselves unmercifully, and in fighting as stubbornly as men can fight. At the end of the war they attacked their debt in the same spirit and paid it iu the same way. Ameri- cans believe that there is no difficulty that they cannot master in time; and their children must be taught the same belief. 717. Honesty and Good Faith. — Many men in other coun- tries believe that, in a country where every man, good or bad, lich or poor, has a vote, the people will vote for evil measures because they seem to be to their own profit. This has not been so in the United States. It would have been to the profit of the people for a time, if they had refused to pay their debt ; and there was no power which could have made them pay. Instead of refusing or hesitating, their representatives in Congress were urged to tax the people steadily until the debt was mastered. And now, if the United States should wish to borrow money, the rich men of other countries would 282 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. contend witli one another for the privilege of lending it, for they know that the honesty and good faith of the American people would make it absolutely safe. Amei-icaiis have made mistakes ; but they have regularly meant and tried to do the thing which was right and hojiest. 718. The Land and the People. — The natural advantages of the country, its soil, mines, rivers, and harbors, are great; but it is the qualities above named that have enabled the Americans to make such wonderful use of their advantages. If their children shall learn to think, feel, and act as their fathers did not ; if they shall forget the honesty, the energy, the love of work, the cultivation of education, and the relig- ious feeling which marked their ancestors, the natural advan- tages of the country will help them no more than those of Brazil or Mexico have helped their people. It is the people that make the land great : the land alone will never make the people great. (4) The Future. 719. The Possibilities of the Future. — Fifty years hence, when we number two hundred millions or more, there will be no power on earth to be compared with the United States of America. For the two hundred millions will not be such as live in China, Hindostan, or Russia, but civilized men, helped by steam, electricity, and macliinery, so that each of them can do the work of a score of Chinese. They can, if they should be foolish or wicked enough to wish to do so, maintain fleets and armies sufficient to overawe the rest of the world. They can make other nations dread their anger and vield to their slightest demand. They can make their coun- try a bully and a nuisance among the nations. 720. The Danger. — Such a power, so mansiged, would be the most terrible evil the world has yet seen. It would bring its own punishment upon the guilty people. If the moral forces which have made the country what it is should be lost, national decay would soon rid the earth of the evil, and free THE FUTURE. 283 other nations from anxiety. North America lias been the graveyard of other races before ours (§ 6); and it may yet be the graveyard of our own. 721. Responsibility of the People, — It is the boundeu duty of those who are growing up to manhood and womanhood to take care tliat no such evil shall come to pass. Each of them is, to some extent, an engineer to whose cure has been en- trusted an engine whose explosion would injure the whole hu- man race. Wherever he sees an ignorant voter, a wicked voter, or a man who makes voters ignorant or wicked, he sees an enemy of himself, of his country, and of humanity. Wher- ever he finds evil, even in himself, he sees his proper battle- ground ; and he can there fight for his country as truly as with rifle or sabre. Tf he lives out man's allotted time of life, he will be rewarded in seeing his country respected and hon- ored by all other nations as no nation has yet been respected or honored, and in feeling that he has done his part in the work. CHAPTER XI. The Constitution of the United States, 722. The New System.* — The adoption of the Constitution in 1789 made the third form of government under which tlie people of the United States have lived. The first was that of the British Empire, the people living in separate col- onies under that government. The second, following the change of the colonies into States, was known as the Con- federation, the general or national government being a very feeble one. The third was that provided for by the Constitu- tion, under which we still live and by which a far better national government iias been introduced. 723. Forms of Government. — Under the present system, the American citizen lives at the same time under three forms of government: (1) The town (or school-district), county, or city, being the form which has most to do with the citizen and is of the most constant importance to him; (2) the State, which has less to do with the citizen, but is of the greatest importance to the country; (3) the Federal gov- ernment, which has least to do with the citizen, but which is of the greatest importance to the country as a nation, both in its dealings with other nations and in the defence of its own existence. 724. The Individual. — If political institutions, that is, gov- * It is evident, of course, that there is space here for only the merest outline of the governmental system of the United States, for those great features which it is im- portant that every pupil should know. More minute details will require a more spe- cial course of study and text-book. This outline has been reserved to the end of the book, while constant cross-references to it have been inserted in preceding chapters; it is hoped that in this way pupils will come to this chapter better prepared to appreciate its practical importance. 284 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 285 ernmeut and laws of every kind, are sound and good, their purpose will not be to show the power and grandeur of the government or of the people, but to give every single person just as much freedom of action as can possibly be given him without interfering with the like freedom of other persons. This is what is meant by individual liberty. A man harms himself by voting for any law which is to interfere unjustly with the freedom of other men, for he thereby cuts down his own freedom. There must be some laws which, for the gen- eral good, interfere with the liberty of the individual; but it is to the interest of every one that there should be as few of these as possible, and that most of these should be laws made in their town, county, or city governments by the very people who are to be interfered with. The great success of the American system is the closeness with which it ap- proaches perfection in this respect. 725. Town and County Crovernments, — These are the oldest of our three forms of government, for we find the first of them in the very beginnings of colonization. The town gov- ernment was the form adopted by the New England Colo- nies. The Southern Colonies, which had more tei'ritory, did most of their governing through counties or parishes some- what larger than the towns of New England; but the prin- ciple of government, was about the same for both. The Middle and Western States have united the two, doing part of their governing through townships or school districts, and part through counties. These town and county governments are the closest to the citizen's daily life, and ought to have his most constant interest. They care for schools, roads, bridges, police, the poor, the trials of small law-suits, and all the matters of daily life in which most men are oftenest in- terested. 726. Cities — When a part of a town or county becomes more thickly settled, it comes to have needs of its own. The State therefore sets it off from the rest of the town or county and makes it a city (in some cases a village or borough), as a form of government through which it may better care for 286 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. these needs. It must have gas, water, sewerage, high-schools, paved streets, and other more costly conveniences; and it is best that the need for such things and their cost should be decided by those who are to- pay for tliem. 727. Taxation.— Taxes for such purposes are paid in the first place mainly by those who own hind, houses, and other property. But that does not end the matter. The owners who have paid the tax on the bntclier-shops of a town always try to get it back by raising tlie rent of the shops; and in this way the butchers who rent shops often pay back more than the original tax. But that does not end the matter either. The butchers try to make up this increase of rent by adding a few cents to the price of every side of beef and quarter of lamb; and in this way their customers pay in trifles and with- out noticing it more than the original tax, a sum which would frighten them if it were called for in the lump. So the poorer people, who own no land or houses, and think they pay no ta.xes, are the real tax-payers in the end; and they are the ones who ought to watch taxes most carefully and get the worth of their money for them. 728. The State. — In the smaller number of matters which concern all the people of a State, and not the people of a town, county, or city alone, the State government acts, makes laws, and levies and expends taxes. The name " State " is apt to be misleading. In other countries than ours tlu; term " Sov- t-reign State " means a completely independent nation, like France or Great Britain. Many of our people have been dis- posed to speak of the States as "Sovereign States," although none of them (except Texas) has ever been sovereign "and in- dependent; and they have always acted together, as colonies of one empire, as United Colonies, or as United States. If a State were really sovereign and independent, it could withdraAv (or secede) from the Union when it wished. This has been tried {% 501), and it has been found that it is so injurious to the rest of the Union that civil war is the inevitable result. Nevertheless, the term "Sovereign State'' is still occasionally heard, but it now means merely that a State, under our sys- THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 287 tem, has supreme control over such matters as the Constitu- tion has left to it. 729. State Rights. — But it is as true as ever that our sys- tem of States is the peculiar excellence and glory of the American Union, the feature which distinguishes it from other countries, and that which makes it possible to hold so large a territory under one government with so little difficulty. If the Federal Government were ever so powerful, it could not know enough of the needs of Oregon or Texas to manage all the affairs of those distant States wisely and well. Thence would come discontent, murmurs, resistance, rebellion, and war; and this could not happen often without a break-up of the Union itself. By leaving State affairs to the State governments the Union has spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and forty-two States find as little difficulty in living together as thirteen. Experience shows that it is best to leave as many rights as possible to the States, so that " State rights" is a term as correct and proper as "State sover- eignty" is misleading.* 730. The State GrOYerninents. — Each of the States has its own Constitution, framed by its people. These State Con- stitutions differed very much at first, but now they have all come to be much like the Constitution of the United States. The Governor of the State answers to the President of the United States, the two Houses of the Legislature to the two Houses of Congress, and the State courts to the Federal courts. The State has its militia army (but no navy), taxes its own citizens for such purposes as it thinks best, controls the corporations Avhich do business within that State, man- ages the general school system, and all the other general interests of the State, and forms town, county, and city governments wherever they are needed. 731. The Federal GoTernment. — The Constitution took away some of the powers Avhich the States had formerly exei'- cised, and gave them to a Federal government, composed of * The pupil should be informed, however, that in books written before 1865 it was the common and bad practice to use the term " State rights " as if it meant '•State sovereignt3-." 288 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. three departments, Legislative, Executive, aud Judicial (§253). The Legislative Department consists of the two Houses of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. In the Senate, every State, large or small, has the same repre- sentation. In the House of Representatives, the States are represented according to population, the large States having more members and the small States less. The consent of both houses is necessary for the passage of a law. The Executive Department consists of the President and the pub- lic servants under him (§ 736). The Judicial Department consists of the United States courts (§ 743). 732. The Senate. — The Senate consists of two Senators from each State, chosen for six years by the Legislature of the State. There are (in 1890) 88 Senators, from 44 States. As one third of the Senators go out of office every two years, so it takes some years to make any considerable change in the whole body. The usual work of the Senate is to take part with the House of Representatives in making laws; but it has three powers of its own: (I) It ratifies treaties: no treaty which the President makes with a foreign country is of any force until two thirds of the Senators have voted to approve it. (2) It confirms the President's appointments of officers; except in cases as to which some law has given up the power, the Senate must confirm an appointment by the President before it takes effect. (3) It tries impeachments: when the House of Representatives votes to " impeach " (accuse) any public officer of misconduct in office, the Senate tries the case. If it is the President who is being tried, the Chief Jus- tice of the Supreme Court presides over the trial, and two thirds of the Senators must vote guilty in order to convict. The punishment in case of conviction is removal from office. 733. The House of Representatives. — The other body which takes part in making laws is the House of Representatives. Its members are elected foi- two years by the people of the States, in proportion to population. In 1890 there are 332 Representatives, New York having the greatest number (34), THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 289 and Colorado, Delaware, and Nevada the least (one each). The House has one power peculiar to itself, already i-eferred to, that of impeaching public officers. 734. Powers of Congress. — The subjects on which Congress may pass laws are in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. They are very numerous, but it must not be supposed that these are all the subjects as to which laws might be passed, if the Constitution permitted it. There are many more subjects not named here; but these are reserved to the State Legisla- tures. Some of the powers which Congress has are : to lev}^ taxes of every kind (except on exports), for the purpose of paying the debts and providing for the general defence of the country; to borrow money; to regulate commerce; to coin money; to declare and carry on war; and to govern the Ter- ritories. Laws on the subjects named must be passed by both Houses, and the President has a limited vote upon them (§741). If Congress should pass a law on some subject with which the Constitution has not empowered it to deal, the law is said to be unconstitutional (§ 744). 735. Powers denied to the States. — Some powers which might seem to be reserved to the States are denied to them by the Constitution. A State can make no treaty, and can- not tax imports; nor can it, without the consent of Congress, arm itself, prepare for war, or make war, except in self- defence. 736. The Executive. — The word " Executive " is usually taken to mean the President. It really means the President, all the "civil service" (Department secretaries, clerks, post- masters, Indian-agents, marshals, etc.), and all the army and navy; so that the Executive Department really numbers about 150,000 persons. The duties of these persons are marked out by laws passed by Congress, and the President oversees them, removing them from office if they disobey or are inefficient, and appointing others to their places. 737. The Cabinet. — The executive force is divided into Departments, of which there are (in 1890) eight: The De- partments of State, of the Treasury, of War, of the Navy, of 290 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. the Interior, of the Post-office, of Justice, and of Agricul- ture. They have now large buildings of their own in Wash- ington, and are divided into bureaus, each consisting of a great number of clerks. Each Department is managed by a Secretary, and these Secretaries form what is called the President's Cabinet, as they meet from time to time to give him advice, which he follows or not, as he pleases.* 738. The Electoral System. — The people do not elect directly the President or Vice-President, but vote every four years for officers called ''electors." The electors are sup- posed to choose the President and Vice-President, but really each elector now votes for the candidates selected by his own party (§ '^89) ; and whichever party elects most electors, if they are a majority of the whole number, elects its candidates. Each State chooses as many electors as it has Ivepresentatives and Senators together, so that there are, in 1890, 420 electors. The Legislature governs the manner of election. In early years the State Legislatures generally chose the electors themselves; but since 1824 the electors have been chosen by a majority vote of the people of the State, f 739. The President. — The duties of the President are summed up in the oath which he takes on entering office, to ••' preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." He appoints such officers as Congress has not ordered to be appointed by the Secretaries or the courts. He removes incompetent or disobedient officials. In time of peace, he and the great army of officials under him are en- gaged in carrying into effect the laws of every descrijition which Congress has made. If these laws are disobeyed, the offenders are seized by the President's marshals and handed over to the Federal courts for trial and ])unishnient, the Presi- dent retaining the power of reprieve and pardon (except in * The cost of all these Departments is now more than Sli>0,0(X).000 a year. This expense is met by taxation, paid in various ways hj- all the people of the countrj*. t Presidential elections (except the first one. in 17^9) come in tlie years whose last two dibits are exactly divisible bj- 4. Tlius.it is easy to remember that the year 1824 was a I'resi98 DECLARA TTON OF INDEPENDENCE. NEW JEKSKY. Ilicliard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkiusou, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franl\iin, John ]\Iorton, George Clymer. James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. UELAWARK. Cae.sar Rodney, George Read, Tliomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Cha.se, William Paca, Thomas Stone, [rollton Charles L'arroll, of Car George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harri.son, Thomas Nelson , Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Bra.xton. NOKTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penu. t^OUTII CAROLINA. .Edward Riitledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middletou. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Georjre Walton. Resolved, That copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assem- blies, conventions, and committees, or councils of .safety, and to the several commanding otiicers of the continental troops; that it be pro- claimed in each of the United States, and at the head of the army. APPENDIX II. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PREAMBLE. WE the People of the United States, iu Order to form a more perfect Uuion, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section L 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress ' of the United States, which shall consist of Legislative a Senate and House of Representatives. powers. Sec. II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Mem- bers chosen every second Year by the People of the sev- House of eral States, and the Electors in each State shall have the representa- Qualiflcations requisite for Electors of the most numerous tives. Branch of the State Legislature. 3. No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citi- onaliflca- zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, tions of rep- be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen, resentatives. 3. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers,'^ which shall be determined by Apportion- adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including mentofrep- those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding resentatives. Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.^ The actual Enu- meration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand; but each ' The body of senators and representatives for each term of two years for which representatives are chosen is called one Congress. Each Congress expires at noon of the Itli of March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session, when a new Congress begins. '' The apportionment under the census of 1880 is one representative to every 154,325 peisons. ' This refers to slaves, and is no longer in force (see Amendment XIII.). 399 300 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. yiate shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the Slate of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts, eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one, Connecticut, live, New York, six, New Jersey, four, Pennsylva- nia, eight, Delaware, one, Maryland, six, Virginia, ten, North Caro- lina, tive, South Carolina, live, and Georgia, three. 4. When vacancies happen in tlie Representation from Vacancies. j^,jy gtate, tlie Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to till such Vacancies. Officers, how 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their appoiuted. speaker and other officers,' and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Sec. III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each Stale, chosen by the Legislature Senate. thereof, for six Years, and each Senator shall have one Vote. 2. Immediately after they .shall be a.ssembled in Consequence of the tir.st Election, they shall be divided, as equall}' as may be, or'senator^" '"'" ^*'*'<'<'' ^^''-'isses. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second year; of the second Class, at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class, at the Expiration of the sixiii Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen, by Resignation or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then till such Vacancies. 3. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age Qualifications of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United of senators. States, and wlio shall not, when elected, be an luiiabitant of that State for wliich he shall be chosen. President of 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be Pres- the senate. ident of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall chuse their Officers,- and also a president pro tem- pore, in the Ab.sence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the LTnited States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. Senate a When sitting for that Purpo.'^c, they .shall be on Oath or court for Allirniation. When the President of the United States is trial of iin- tried, the (Miief Justice shall preside; and no Person shall peachments. |^g convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. 7. Judgment, in Cases of Impeachment, shall not extend further than Judgment in' to removal from Office, and discpialitication to hold and case of eon- ' enjo}' any Office of honor, Trust, or Profit, under the viction. United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment, and Punishment, according to Law. ' Cleric, serpeant-at-arms, door-keeper, and postmaster, and others. The Speaker •1 tile presiding officer. ■•' Secretary, sergeant-at-arnis, door-keeper, and postmaster, and others. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 301 Sec. IV. 1. The Times. Places, and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each £|g,ctions of State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may, at senatois^aud any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except of repiesen- as to the Places of ch using Senators. tatives. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the tirst Monday in December, unless Meeting of they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Congress. Sec. V. 1. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns, and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority organiza- of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a tion of Con- smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may gress. be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent jMembers, in such Manner and under such Penalties as each House may provide. 2. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceed- Ruleof pro- ings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, ceeding. with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. 3. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may, in journal of their Judgment, require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays Congress. ^ of the Members of either House, on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal. 4. Neither Hou.se, during the Session of Congress, shall, Adjourn- without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than ment of three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the Congress. two Houses shall be sitting. Sec. VI. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a Compen- sation' for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid pay and out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in privileges of all cases, except Treason, Felony, and Breach of the Peace, members, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office, under the plurality Authority of the United States, which shall have been of offlce's created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been en- prohibited, creased, during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continu- ance in Office. Sec. VII. 1. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or Revenue concur with Amendments, as on other Bills. bills. 2. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the Presi- dent of the United States. If he approve, he shall sign it. How bills be- but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that come laws. House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it ' The present compensation is $5,000 a year, with twenty cents for every mile of travel by the most usually travelled post route to and from the national capital. 302 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. shall be seut, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be recousidered, and if approved by two thirds of tliai House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases tiie Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it .shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. 3. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote, to which the Concurrence of the \uDroval Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (ex- arid veto <-"ept ou a question of Adjournment) shall be presented tft powers of the the President of the United States; and before the Same president. shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being dis- approved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Sec. VIII. The Congress shall have Power — Powers 1- ^o lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts, and Excises, ve.sted iu lo pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and Congress. general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Im- posts, and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: 2. To borrow Money on the credit of the United States: 3. To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes: 4. To establish a uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States: 5. To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures: 6. To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States: 7. To establish Post OtMces and post Roads: 8. To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing, for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective AVritings and Discoveries: 9. To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court: 10. To dctine and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and oifences against the Law of Nations: 11. To declare War. grant letters of Marcpie and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water: 12. To raise and supjiort Arnnes, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years: 13. To provide and nuiintain a Navy; 14. To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces; ' 15. To provide for calling forth the INIilitia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections, and repel Invjisions; 1(5. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the ]\Iilitia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- ment of the OlKcers, and the Autliority of training the Militia accord- ing to the discipline prescribed by Congress; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. -yO'S 17. To exercise exclusive Legislation, in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of Government of the United States;' and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased bj' the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dockyards, and other needful Buildings: And 18. To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- ing into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution iu the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Sec. IX. 1. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit; shall immigrants not be .prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one how admit- ' thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or dut3- may ^ed. be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.'^ 2. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not Habeas cor- be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Inva- pus. sion the public Safety maj^ reijuire it. S. No Bill of Attainder, or ex po.st facto Law, shall be Attainder, passed. 4. No Capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore '^"■^*^' taxes, directed to be taken. 5. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported „ from any State. Sdt^' 6. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of duties. Commerce or Revenue, to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Ves.sels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. 7. No IVIoney shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Moneys, how Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regu- drawn. lar Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. 8. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United Titles of States: and no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust nobility under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, prohibited, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title of any kind what- ever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Sec. X. 1. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Con- federation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin pov.ersof Money; emit Bills of Credit: make Anything but Gold states and Silver coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any ciefi"*"'!- Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts; or grant any Title of Nobility. 2. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutel}^ necessary for executing its inspection Laws; and the net Prodr.ceof all 1 The District of Columbia (§ 291). " This has reference to the foreign slave trade (§ 896). 304 COJS'sTITUriON OF THE UNITED STATES. Duties aud Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Coulroul of the Coni^ress. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, la}' any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agree- ment or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or en- gage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. Section I. 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President Executive ^^ ^^^ United States of America. power, in He shall hold his Office during the Terra of four Years, whom vested. aQ(j^ together with the Vice-President, chosen for tpointed; and and of house i^ there be more than one who have such ^lajority. and have of represen- an equal Number of Votes, thcTi the House of Representa- tatives. tives shall immediately chuse, b> Ballot, one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five high- est on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the Presi- dent. But in chusiiig the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a ^lember or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States .shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from th(?m by Ballot the Vice-President.] ' Time of 4- The Congress may determine the Time of chusing choosing the Electors, and the Day on which the}- shall give their electors. Voles; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States."^ > This clause, within brackets, has been superseded by the 12th Amenilnient. See p. 310. ' The electors are chosen on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in Koveni- CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 305 5. No parson, except a natural boru Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of tliis Constitution, ouaiiflca- shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall tionsofthe any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have at- pi'esident. tained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resi- dent vfithin the United States. 6. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers Resort in and Duties of the sjiid Office, the Same shall devolve ou case of his the Vice-President, and the Congress may by Law pro- disability, vide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 7. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor di- minished during the Period for which he shall have been prls^J^t**^^ elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.- 8. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Con- stitution of the United States." Sec. II. 1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the prin- p,I^sMe°V^* cipal Officer, in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 3. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, treaties^ an- other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme point am- Court, and all other Officers of the United States whose bassadors. Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and -"^ ^^^' which shall be established b}^ Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 3. The President shall have Power to till up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, bj^ granting Com- May fill missions which shall expire at the End of their next Session, vacancies. Sec. III. 1. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- ber preceding ttie expiration of a presidential term, and vote for president and vice-president on the first Wednesday of the December following:. The votes are eoimtt'd and declared in Congress the second Wednesday of the following February. > The salary of the president was $25,000 a year until 1872, when it was increased to foO,000. Tiiat of the vice-president is $8,000 a year. 306 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. mation of the State of the Uuion, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he sliall judge necessary and expedient ;' he may, on May convene extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of Congress. them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, witii Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully exe- cuted, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. Sec. IV. 1. The President, Vice-President, and all civil Officers of I low officers ^^^" United Slates, shall be removed from Office on Impeach- iiiaybere- meut for, and Conviction of, Treason, Briber}', or other moved. high Crimes aud jMisdemeauors. ARTICLE III. Section I. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be Judicial vested in one supreme Court, aud in such inferior Courts power, how as the Congress may from time to time ordain and estab- vested. ]ish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good behaviour, and sliall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation, wiiich shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Sec. II. 1. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising imder this Constitution, the laws of the United States, , and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their cases k .Vutliority ;— to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other extends. public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Juri.sdictiou ;— to Controversies to whicli the United States shall be a Party ;— to Controversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State ;-— between Citizens of different Stales ;— between Citizens of the same Slate claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign Slates. Citizens, or Svibjecls. 2. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- , ■ ■• »• suls, and those in which a State sliall be a Party, the su- .lunsdiction ■^"■'. "■ . , ,, , • • i t • i- .• -11141 ..ftliesu- preme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the lireni" court, other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Excep- tions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. 3. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the Stale where respecting the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but when trials. not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. ' The president does this in messages at the opening of each session. Washing- ton and .Tohn Adams read their messages in person to both houses of Congress. .Jefferson introduced the present practice of sending to the two houses a written message by his private secretary. " See Amendments, Art. XI CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 307 Sec. III. 1. Treason agaiust the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Ene- mies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be defined' convicted of Treason, unless on the Testimony of two Wit- nesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. 2. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corrup- tion of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the ^aYshed Person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Section I. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may bj' general laws pre- ^'atesf scribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records, and Pro- ceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Sec. II. 1. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled . to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several of 'Jjt^fnl States. 3. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice and be found in an- Executive other State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority requisitions. of the State from wliich he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.' 3. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of lq^^ regulat- any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such ing service Service or Labour ; but shall be delivered up on Claim of or labor, the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.'- Sec. III. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new States shall be formed or erected -^^^ states within the Jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be how foimed formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of aud admitted. States, without the Con.sent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 3. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other p,^^,^^ of Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in Congress this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any over public Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. lands. Sec. IV. 1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall pro- Republican tect each of them against Invasion, aud on Application of government the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature guaranteed, cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. « See also § 422. ^ gee | 463, 808 CONSTITUTION OF TEE UNITED STATES. ARTICLE V. 1. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendmeuts to this Constitution, or, on tlie Constitution, Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several how to be ' States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, amended. which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Pur- poses, as Part of this Constitution, when ratilied by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided, that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner alfect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VL Validity of 1- ^^^ Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, debts recog- before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid nized. against the United Suites under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 2. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall Supreme law ^^ made in Pursuance thereof; and nil Treaties made, or of the land which shall be made, under the Authority of the United defined. States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Con- stitution or Laws of anj^ State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the ^lem- bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Offi- o th- f cers, both of tiie United States and of the several States, whom re- shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Con- quired, and stitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a for what. Qualification to any ()tfice or public Trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. 1. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, Ratification, ^j^^^jj ^^ sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.' DoNK in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Da^^ of Sejitembcr in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the Independence of the United States of* America the Twelfth. In witness where- of. We have hereunto subscribed our Names.' GEO. WASHINGTON, Presidt. and deputy from Virginia. ' See § 254. ' The number of delegates chosen to the convention was sixty-five; ten did not attend; sixteen declined signing the Con.^titution, or left the convention before it was ready to be signed. Thirty-nine sijjned. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 309 NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Laugdon, Nicholas Gilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. CONNECTICUT. Wm. Saml. Johnson, Roger Sherman. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NEW YORK. John Dickinson, Alexander Hamiltou.Ricbard Bassett, Jaco: Broom. NEW JERSEY. Wil. Livingston, Maryland. David Breavley, James M'Henry, Wm. Paterson, ~ '" Joua. Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. B. Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt. Morris, Geo: Clymer, Tho: Fitzsimons, Jared IngersoU, James Wilson, Gouv: Morris. DELAWARE. Geo: Read, Gunning Bedford Jun'r, Charles" °C o t e s w o r t h NORTH CAROLINA. Wm. Blount, Rich'd Dobbs Spaight, Hu. Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. J. Rutledge, Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. Dan: of St. Thos. Jenifer, William Few, Danl. Carroll. Abr. Baldwin. Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, Secreta/ry. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 'Art. I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridg- Freedom in ing the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of religion, the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Gov- speech,press. ernment for a redress of grievances. Art. II. A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed. Mihtia. Art. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Soldiers. Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches Search and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall warrants, issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Art. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service, in time of War or public danger; nor Capital shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice crimes, put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any Criminal Case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or 1 The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and declared adopted in 1791. 310 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. property, withoul due process of law ; uor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Art. VI. In all crimiual prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district Trial by shall have been previously a.scertaiiied by law, and to be jury- informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the Assistance of Coun- sel for his defence. Art. VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy Suits at com- shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by Jury shall inon law. be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States than according to thf rules of the common law. Bail, fines, Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, uor f^tc. excessive tines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Certain Art. IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of cer- rights. tain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Powers Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United States reserved. by the Constitution, nor piohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Judicial 'Art. XI. The Judicial power of the United States power shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or limited. ecjuity, commeuced or prosecutedagainst one of the United States, by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. *Art. XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; Amendment they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as Sec^'4" ^^"' President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as 'respecting Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all per- electionof sons voted for as Pre.sident, and of all jn-rsons voted for as aiid^Wce^ Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which president. Usts they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; — the President of the Senate shall, in the pres- ence of the Senate and House of Kepresentatives, open all thecertiticates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors a|)pointed ; and if no person have such majority, then frcjm the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as Presi(lent. the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes sh.nli be taken by states, the rep- resentation from each state having one vole ; a ((Uorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and ' The eleventh amendment was proposed in 1T04, and declared adopted in 1798. " The twelfth amendment was proposed in 1803, iiud declared adopted in 1804. (JONBTITUTIOH^ OF THE UNITED STAT£!S. 311 a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Represeutatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the VicePresident,"if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi- dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be neces- sary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President, shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 'Art. XIII. Sec. I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the ^ avery. party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. ■^Aht. XIV. Sec. I. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the Stale wherein they reside. No State shall make or en- force any law which shall aliridge the privileges or immunities of citi- zens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laM's. Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the E.xecutive or Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legis- lature thereof, is denied to an}' of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole num- ber of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Sec. III. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Ck)n- gress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold an}' office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oatli, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each House, remove such disability. Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, au- thorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and > The thirteenth amendment was proposed and adopted in t86.5 (§ 620). * The fourteenth amendment was proposed in 1866, and adopted in 1868 (§ 625). 312 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sec. V. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 'Art. XV. Sec. I. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec. II. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 1 The fifteenth amendment was proposed in 1869, and adopted in 18T0 (§ 636j. APPENDIX 111. FORMATION OF STATES. 1. Delawcare ratifled the Constilutiou Dec. 7 2. Peuusylvauia " " Dec. l'^ 3. New Jersey " " Dec. 18 4. Georgia " " Jau. 2 5. Conuecticut " " Jan. 9 6. Massachusetts '• " Feb. 6 7. Maryland " " Apr. 28 8. South Carolina " " May 28 9. New Hampshire" " . . .June 21 10. Virginia " " June 25 11. New York " " July 26 12. North Carolina " " Nov. 21 13. Rhode Island " " May 29 14. Vermont admitted to the Union j\Iar. 4 15. Kentucky " " June 1 16. Tennessee " "• June 1 17. Ohio " " Nov. 2!) 18. Louisiana " " Apr. 30 19. Indiana " " Dec. 11 20. Mississippi " " Dec. 10 21. Illinois " " ... Dec. 3, 22. Alabama " " Dec. 14 23. Maine " " Mar. 15 24. Missouri " " Aug. 10 25. Arkansas " " June 15 26. Michigan " " Jan. 26 27. Florida " " Mar. 3 28. Te.vas " " Dec. 29 29. Iowa " " Dec. 28 30. Wisconsin " " May 29 31. California " " Sept. 9 32. Minnesota " " May 11 33. Or<-gon " " Feb. 14 34. Kansas " " .Jan. 29 35. West Virginia " " Junel9 36. Nevada " " Oct. 31 37. Nebraska " " Mar. 1 38. Colorado " " Aug. 1 39. North Dakota " " Nov. 3 40. South Dakota " " Nov. 3 41. Montana " " Nov. 8 42. Washington '• " Nov. 11 43. Idaho " " July 3 44. Wyoming " " July 7 1787 1787 1787 1788 17^8 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1789 1790 1791 1793 1796 1803 1813 1816 1817 1818 1819 18'20 1821 ]8;:56 1837 1845 1845 1846 1848 1850 1858 1859 1861 18C3 1864 1867 1876 1889 1889 1889 1889 1890 1890 814 GROWTH OF THE STATES. ■~a o> 1 1- ^ O ■» fTi ■--) ^ -(^ ^_ o •v^ i" l- ©1 o « irj g t- TP e* s s w ^ i::i § c: s fe o o S 8 or. s s «e es (^ ao « i5 '^ s* !% ^ ^ r^ «£ CO S^ 'Tp o> ^ § in in «> TO ffj 1i (TJ OJ *J " »M •- ^ ri " " " a a 02 .2 H "3 H ft OQ o O -o oo 5 S S I ^ ost-icoioaiowi- ir; cs o lO o ^ cs t- ci — — - I- o — c ■ 00 oi«Or-i^i-i/:o:4Dw:c«nmcC4r:ccc*T^Oit-»^ •ra 'T TO M 0» ej .-< .-. *n in OS I- OJ X in >-• o; I- OS o !-• OS m t- Tc in e» c» «c in :o o o n o S c T- .n t- ;o V cs ;= ^ cc C-. o <- o: ~ TO_^ in in :r t- [ w m" ^r '?r i-T X -O « ^ TO >— 2 o ^ ft TO inin«-'^*t:o»oxTOcC'^50"^^X'W»-«ia^TOin-^ TO*-«int-t— t?D^-'W»-""XXOX»-tWOTOO^OOS i-dosinooci-^i-iosiec^xxTOw^fOiJO-co: »-c5C»'-i'^oo5-tini-c-. intc X O — TO X TO O •^ i- in in o (- OS OS -o 0»C*0»OT'-'0S0SOTO -- C. ^ OS OSOSXOOOINCOi-X — ^ — =^ — TTXl*^ TO CI 1-t O^ O ^ TP t'^ CO_ x' -T^ CO*" of to" l-^ 5» ei J>- 1-1 00 TO TP I- ^ iO_ eo i- X TO in TO X X t- J- o i-H TT in TO •'T 1-1 i- ?> in t- OS Cs -< CI o OS O Tl O O C> in S o iT r* as ^ 2 o »n i' c: c^ CO ^»-«OSOClTOOTO t- OS IJJ TO in OS t- t-T x' t- TO f X ^ OO ^ OS i- « t- J- TO O X ?» CJ IT o in X T-T i- cs' o" 55 i- TO TO CO O 1-1 CD ?J i5 8 S d M 5 .£f X cS * a eS -^ « s .a ~ * a^ H O S ?; fe = o c .2i 2 o s u 0) ■-5 ■r. tt E o u u o "5 1) a 08 B tn "S > >5 < /5 « « s o iz; (i^ H O S •-< c> TO iji m' CO I- ad OS o •-< > CD (W o •^ in o* 00 O o- 0- ■^ CO to TO (M o -^ Of l^ CD W GO W 05 iO o i- jcf 00 us" ■ p' o' 00 in p' O' o o" 00 in OT in' at ai ao_. Of' Of OC i- Q*^ in TO i-T TjT o^ „^ Oi OJ 00 '^ c^ 2 ■v CO V- rr TO Of 00 o CO 00 CO Tf '7* l- iH »~^ ■^ '■^ c c l- i- CO 5 TO TO vs TO TO TO ei OT '•t i-« 1-* T-l t-1 * o*^ CO t' io '^iT' S TO t-. "o" to 1^ TO _ ,-, ;^ 00 ~~ tf> i — Oi rr^ i- T? -f TT p TO OJ OS TO cs 1 O »q *^^ c: T o- ■^ OS OT ^ OS in Of l- • G^f 00 00 iO «f sf ^ oo' £[ oo' -I* os' to' to e* ■^ cc * ' ' Gi 1.^ lO 00 g s TO in O^ s CO 3 OS ^ ^ ^ TO TO s • : : . ffi t- in i ro "",-< m TO ""^" "-sT ~in~ "^ 00 ""q~ "to" "^^ 7" TO ~ in o — o I- Oi in CO ^ o in 0} • . ; OS o r. o CO ■^ « O: a p. TT s 00 t- TO TO in OS c c TO t- s' '^'" 5a' 2? S at Ji^ to" c j-T OO t~r ^ o' If; ! ! ; Of ^ « 1 qq" 2 P C30 ?* (?j OC ■^ TO (N 00 OS Of »o ■^ t- i- ■^ in to TO d " TO i' OC "o" « "^ I- OS ■«1« TO o »n to ~8 o >n o 2 ^f J>. £: SJ 1^ 5i CO '•'■'• in d Of O J-^ "^1 o 00 o '"' Ol 0* ■* p_ to_^ p -* o . . . £ c Tt< TO 00 TO »n oo' 00 fc o sg' a o' to in o: '. to" ir TO^ o TO o 0* 00 CD (N TO ■* CJ t- in {■- S I- ■^ t- CO ■^ o TO TO ^, TO ^ T^ Q^ "^ ~w "^ in to "in" o T" ^ ~ ~7^ l^ CO OS Oi to ■* at 00 V» S. cS) lO 00 I'- l.- 'I ■^ OS in Of CO Oi M us 00 oT t-" s P fe t- I- to' OJ w 5D o 00 t: 00 00 't c in OS to K 5 in « in TO TO f-H i' ocT ■!(■ y^ O! 00 ^~ t- "^ o 00 ~ir ~Of TO 05 t- OS t* tr -* in o >* m in ■* c ^ t- ^ in GO os_ i- ■* S cf o g o s in S 1 OS s TO § 00 in TO ■" o TO oT « CO CO '■ IN JS o y^ in ■^ ^ o in ■* p to TO OS l^ 00 in • O OS 00 tc 00 00 »o o" o' : ^ CO ^ to' t~' o T oT I- 00 CO « l- t- (J rH rf TO CJ (N s If ^_, oD : (N OS 00 IN in cr TO S2 O O! o « CO t- OS 00 in o i- 00 -* OJ C ■* s OS ■^ s -^ ip 00 to in •H TO TO c4 > s B o O 6 c 3 1 c c c O E t i 1 s a _tS o O o C c o t* 9 5 o a ■£ o 5 5= 5 : 1 ^: fill S 2 ^ 1 E ; "o O CM 1 z o ■ !i 3 0. O Ph 1 CO s in CO 00 03 o CO rf in CO t^ 00 OS c i-I 'W CO ■Tf' £ 6 c? TJ IJ C 0» c* TO TO cc TO TO TO TO ■^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 316 GROWTH OF tub: cities. I— I ffl Oh K O CD Oi^i-^irt w^-'r^a, «^5C *r; ?? ;d -^^c; -v^ o^:c^»-^^*.'^^"T^c:^*r: cc cc --t o :c cc ?c c:_x w 2 j* »o J^'ITTJ'OCM CUK 0-t*:Or3'^'?'l-050:'^l-'rt"«OOCCCOOCSOGO'MC5'?JCO rj- ^ TO "C o i- ^ 35 1» X 7> 4^ 7) o :» i- c: -T o X -T T( in c; G. cs d cc JL TT c I? -T is is ■71 X O W 35 — TO <■- TO r» f :D O 7-* ^ O ' .. .. . . -rixTJTJOo — ino — c 03:"TO3-. " o* le TO >-i TJ 7J 1-1 .-1 r-i03 ■tax— «ocr. TO — — 05-< " — " O •— T -■- - ^ TO — ?t'-X5D«r;o^*"TTTTO'TO^ {-xi»->»05 — «xoxc3'mi»ffiot-x« CO « — t- o x> u o ■x> ■ TO — -^^ X — irtTOO'^'JJOS-^CD CO'^iOaOTO'O— tDTOTO-??— TOO t- Tj o X x_ii -ft Si •T<_^o_xoo « iOOJCOTOOi-T — 5» — T-irlN O5TOTOTOO;05X — XCi'TJ'T* • ~ OI-TOt-TTOOSt-. ■V'^TOOO^^:00 •O '7^ -7) TO X . — CO I* 0> *^ ■?* 3; T »n l^ TO t* TO 'Tj ^f O TO O CO ■O X O -^ ■?> Ci XX in TO 05 i- w. ct'to'i^'cj'to TOO»t-C53i i-rOifi-Tl ■o> i-< — ■no (TJXTO .O t- lo ira o o i5 . ■T' -* ^« 2> 35 - lO lO — SJ35 coo ■>} 03 X TO .in OTOO ." in oco .»-< M'x'>-i' •«" -TTO — ■^tnini'-Tfin^-TOOTOOcO'-'Osmi-ios c;xcoc5T*-''*W'*o^^i-0:oi^l*c*XQg« — TOOXTOTOinTOOco_»nin-*xc- c»x i-oo to'to'o'x'o ^o' in — o'co' »-<'{-' co't--^'« to' x'o't> '^TOC^TO'T* — ^^ — -T-WC^TOt^TOW Oi-^l-l • ^^in TO ini- TO -^ o'co' TO O O t~ . X 0» 7> O OH'J t^cc^^ oc Tf TO CO CO in C5 — TO^o . — inxoojx oo'co'to •i-'^jco'co'cs'in r-ir-i-^O -CO—ii-ti-t l^t-COCO COXl-COUJX o-^i-o ^^*Tco-^oc; m ^^ ^- 1* . ^^ o I- o in in co't-'r-'ro -x't-'— Tj' — Ti>" oj W • o — — • -r t- _ _.- _CITO_ .CO_l-Ci in't— 'co" "cD'^Tro'cr — OJ 'OJ 1-1 o o (75 . t- in 'I' J- -1"OX XCO — TO o m ■v . w in CO in Tji'ooo" 'p'— i.~in p— .o ;o^ C TO C» . X CO m — . in_ . TO J- in to' ">r 'co'to" C3 -^ CO inTO'oi APPENDIX YI. EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL AD DRESS TO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE: Sept. 17, 1796. Friends and Fellow-Citizens: — The period for a new election of a citizen to administer the executive government of the United States be- ing not far distant, it appears to me proper that I should now apprise you of the resolution which I have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those out of whom a choice is to be made. In looking forward to the moment which is intended to terminate my pub- lic life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledg- ment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to ray beloved country for the many honors it has conferred upon me ; still more for the steadfast contidence with which it has supported me, and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my attachment by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. If benefits have resulted to our country from these services, let it always be remem- bered to your praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that the constancy of your support was the essential prop of the efforts, and of the plans by which they were effected. Here, perhaps, I ought to stop ; but solicitude for your welfare urges me to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some senti- ments which appear to me all-important to your felicity as a people. Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to confirm the attach- ment. The unity of government, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to you. It is justly so ; for it is a main pillar in the edi- fice of your real independence — the support of your tranquillity at home, your peace abroad, of your safetj^ of your prosperity, of that very lib- erty which you so highly prize. While, then, every part of our country feels an interest in the Union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find greater strength, greater resource, greater security from external danger, a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations, and an exemption from wars between themselves. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the necessity of those overgrown military establishments, which are particularly hostile to republican liberty. In this sense it is that your union ought to be considered as the main prop of your liberty. Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that 317 318 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these groat pillars of human happiness. The mere politician, equally with The pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them. Promote, as an object of primar)- importance, institutions for the gen- eral diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the strucline of a gov- ernment gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. As a very inVportant .'^oiuce of .strength and security, cherish public credit. One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as possible, avoiding the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of e.xpen.se, Init by vigorous exertions in time of peace to discharge the del)ts wliich unavoidable wars may have occasioned. The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as WiiXa jwUticul connection as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fultilled wilh perfect good faith. Here let us stop. It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world. Tiiough, in reviewing the incidents of my administration. I am un- conscious of intentional errors, I am nevertheless too sensible of my de- fects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indul- gence; and that, after forty-live years of my life dedicated to its service wilh an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be con- signed to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest. Re- lying on its kindness, and actuated by that fervent love towards it wliich is so natural to a man who views in it the native .soil of himself and his progenitors for several generations, I anticipate with pleasing expecta- tion that retreat in whicli I promise myself to realize the sweet enjoy- ment of i)artaking, in the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign in- fluence of good laws under a free government— the ever favorite object of my heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, la- bors, and dangers. G. WASiiiNGroN UNrrKD States. ITth Septeiulier. 179(1. [The above is but a small portion of this celebrated address, and has been abbreviated with the purpose of enabling the pupil to imderstand something of Washington's advice to him] PRONOUNCING INDEX. XoTE.— The references are to Sections, not to Pages. .b'<. and Foit are considered parts of the reference name : de and von are not Thus, look for St. Louis under the letter S; for Fort Sumter under F; for de Grasse under G; for von Steuben under S. The pronunciation is indicated in all fairly doubtful cases, and the characters which indicate it have been made as few and simple as possible. Pronounce a as in mate, e as in mete, i as in mite, 6 as in mote, u as in mute : a as in bag, e as in beg, i as in big, 6 as in bog, u as in bug ; a with the obscure sound of a in idea : ah as a in father ; aw as in saw ; ow as in cow ; oo as in foot ; ch as in chamber ; g always hard, as in get, j being used for the soft sound of g. Italic e is silent, but shows that the vowel preceding it in the same syllable is loujr. In French names, the capital letters h and r are to be pronounced more forci lily than we are ac- customed to pronounce them in English. An(g) is the French nasal sound ; it is uttered vei-y much as spelled, except that it stops before tlie sound of ng is quite completed. Letters not mentioned here, or unmarked, are to be pronounced as they would be in an English word. Abolitionists, first appearance of, 389; attacks on. 414. Abraham, Plains of. Que., battle on, 14-3. Acadia (a-ka'dia), settled by De Monts. 14; British capture of. 140; exile of French colonists, 140. Adams, Charles Francis, nominated for Vice-president by Free-Soil Party, 456. Adams, John, delegate to Continental Congress, 171 ; defends Declaration of Independence, 186, note; death, 186, note; elected Vice-president, 265, 279; elected President, 279; career as Presi- dent, 382. Adams, John Quincy, in Monroe's Cabi- net. 347; elected President, 361; admin- istration of, 362-366; renominated for President, 367. ,\dams, Samuel, delegate to Contmental Congress, 171. "Adams men." afterwards National Republican Party. 366. Africa, early exploration in, 4. 9. Agricultural Depfirtment, 737. Agricultural machinery, its poor con- dition in 1790.2.59; inventions in, 377; effect of invention on Western lands, 377; influence of, 491. Agriculture, condition of early New England, 63; difficulties in 1790, 259; prosperity in 18S1. 674. Alabama (al o-l)ah'ma), early explora- tions in. 8; formation of State. 246; paucity of population in 1812. 321 ; ad- mitted, 350; secession, .501, 513; read- mitted. 625. Alabama, the, equipment. .551: ravages of, 551, 569; sunk by the Keursarge, 590. Alabama claims, decision of the, 649. 650. Alaska, purchase of, 632. Albany (awl'bo-nii. N. Y., early Dutch settlement, 103: Dutch name of, 109: meeting of Colonial delegates at. 139: plan of union. Ir,'.). Albemarle (al-be-niarP). a Virginian set- tlement in North Carolina, 83. Albemaile Sound, southern limit of Se- bastian Cabofs explorations, 10. Alert, the, captured by American navy, 333, note. Algiers (al-jeerz'). piracies of, 300. Alien laws, 28(). Alleghanies (al'le-ga-nlz), boimdary of settled country in 1789, 263. Allen, Ethan, captures Ticonderoga, 179. Altamaha (al-ta-mo-haw') River, defeat of Spaniards on, 96. Amendments to Constitution, objects and adoption of first ten. 268; adop- tion of the Twelfth, 289; ratification of the Thirteenth. 619. 620; adoption of Fourteenth, 624, 625; adoption of Fifteenth, 636; how passed, 747. America, discovery of, 2; origin of the name, 6; Spanish, 7. American Party, rise of , 475 and note: defeated in 1856. 482: nominations in 1860, 499. Amei'ican System. Clay and Adams unite protective tariff and internal im- provements under this title, 362: op- position to, .363, .365; opposed b}' Jack- son, 395. Anarchists (an'ar-kists), riots in Chicago, 686. Anderson, Major Robert, in command at Foit Sumter, .505; surrender of, 500. Andersonville. Ga., sufferings of Union prisoners at. 594. 319 320 PRONOUNCINQ INDEX. The references are to Sections, not to pages. Andr6 (an'drl), Major John, execution of, 215. Andros (an'drose). Sir Edmund, pro- ceedings at Hartford, 51; appointed governor of New England colonies, ,59; tyranny, 59; seized and sent to England. 59. Annapolis (an-nap'o-lls). Md., settle- ment, 76; first attempt to hold Federal Convention at, 251; naval school estab- lished at, J31. Antietam (an-te'tam), Md., battle of, 546, 601). Anti-Federal Party, its origin, 254; dis- appearance of, 272. Anti-rent disturbances, 429. Anti-slavery Society, formation of, 389 Appomattox (ap-po-mat'tocks),'Va,, sur- render at, 601. Argus, the. captured by British, 33.3,note. Arizona Territory, part of the Mexican territory, 444. .Arkansas (ar'kan-saw), early explora- .(tioiis in. 8; formed out of Louisiana territory, 301. note; admitted, 381; secession, 512, 513; Confederate relin- quishment of, 5J9; readmitted, 625. Arrav, discontant in, 211; disbanded in 1783 without just treatment, 237; in- efficiency in 1812, 322; disbandment in 186>. 60i, 617. Armv of Potomac (po-to'-mak\ organi- zation of. 518; increasing the, 5.53; in battle of GJttysburgh, 5o4; in the Wil- derness. 573. > Arnold. Benedict, in invasion of Can- ada. 180; defence of Fort Schuyler. 199; traason of. 215; his fate, 215; ravages Virginia. 227. Arthur. Chester A., elected Vice-pres- ident, 670; becomes President by death of Garfleld. 671. Articles of Confederation, ratified by the States. 213; dissatisfaction with. 247; found to be worthless, 247, 2)8; impossibility of amending, 248; suc- ceed3l by Constitution, 251. Assemblies, law-making bodies of the colonies. 12 >; effect on Revohition, 120; that of Virginia the first, 37, 71, 12), note; action in regard to Stamp Act, 155; uneasy times in, 157. Astor Library. 492. Asylums. 709. Atlanta, Ga., .Johnston's position at, .578; captured 580, 60S; Exposition at, 674. Avon, the, captured by ^ American navy, 3-33, note. Azores (azorz'), the, 18. Bacon, Nathaniel, his rebellion and death, 73. Bahama (ba-ha'ma) Islands, discov- ered by Columbus, 5. Ballot reform. ('iP3. Baltimore (bawl'tl-more'l Md., settle- ment, 76; beats oft the British, 328; fight with 6th Massachusetts Militia in. 510; threatened by Lee, 545. Baltimore and Ohio RR., early scheme for horse operation, 3n, ].'':8- 168; union in. 1.50; fall of British gov- ernment in, 170. Colonization, effects of. 2; completed, 11"); weakness of French. 1.35. Colorado, part taken from Louisiana territor.y, 301, note; part of the Mexi- can teiritory, 444; discovery of gold in, 487; admitted. 654. Colt, Samuel, invent' r of revolver, 377. Columbia, the, first American voyage around the worhi. 280. Columbia River, exploration of, .302; sur- veyors" boundary of British America, 439. Columbus, (^hristopher, efforts to ac- complish his design. 4; discovery of land across the Atlantic. 5; subsequent voyages, 6; treatment of, 6, note. Commerce, attempt of Parliament to regulate it by Navigation Acts. 57, 66; early. 66: taxes on, 156; under the Constitution. 253: prosperity in 1796. 280; Barbary States' interferences with Ameiican, 300; British and French interferences with Ameiican. 308-310: decay in 181.5, 340: increase in 18.50.467; improvement during Pierce's administration. 469; prosperity of Northern, in first year of Rebellion, .520; ruin of Southern, in first year of Rebellion, 520; destruction of Ameri- can, .569. Coinp 'ss, mariner's, influence of, 3. Compromise of 18.50, 462; results of , 465, Comstock mines, 487. PRONOUNCING INDEX. 323 ^^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. Concord (kong'kurd), Mass., battle of, 165. 166. Confederate States, formation of, 503; number. .513; defences of, 513; refused recos'iition bv Federal government, 314; successes in first year of war, 520; difficulty of recognition by foreign powers, 521; declared a helligerent power, 531; armed privateers, .551 ; hardships in, 5(J2; depieciation of cur- rency, 56'i; positions of armies in 1864, 571 ; weak condition of, 589, 595; effect of continuance of the war, 591; break- up of governments in, 618. Confederation, the. See Articles of Confederation. Congress, Confederate States, sits at Richmond, -tIS. Congress, United States, flees from Phil- adelphia, 1!I6; limited power of, 312; powers under Constitution. 233, 734; first acts of, 267; legalizes debts of Confederation and States, 267; charac- ter of laws passed. 268; charters first Bank of United States, 267; taxes whiskey, 276; declares war against Great Britain in 1812, 318; charters second Bank of United States, 341; the two sections in, 3i2; declares war against Mexico. 441; discusses Kansas affairs, 481 ; action of representatives of Southern States in, after secession, 504; special session, I8t5l, 515; vote for war expenses, -^lo; exclusion of South- ern members, 621 ; quarrel with Presi- dent Johnson, 623; complete represen- tation of States in, 635; disputes over election of 1876.646: constitutes Elec- toral Commission, 647; passes Contract Labor Act, 686: war powers of, 740. Connecticut (kon-net'i-kut). boundary of Dutch West India Company's grant, 21; formation of colony, 27; colony uni- ted with that of New Haven, 27; self- government, 29; colonized by Massa^ chusetts settlers. 46; constitution, 46* charter of, -5(1; land claims of, 242; sur- render of Westeru claims, 342, 354; copper in, 428. Coiistit}itiim, the, captures the Guer- riere, 332. Constitution of the United States (see also Amendments), first written Con- stitution in America, 46; its forma- tion, 352, 253; its terms, 2.53, Appen- dix 11 ; success of, under Wash- ington, 280; adoption of Twelfth Amendment, 289; ratification of Thir- teenth Amendment, 619, 62(t; Four- teenth Amendment. 634. 625; Fifteenth Amendment. 036; systems under which country has been governed. 722; the three forms of government imder, 723; individual liberty and restraint, 724; powers denied to the States, 7.35; Amendments to, 747; the supreme law pf the land, 748; success of, 749. Continental arm.y. uniform of, 177, note. Continental Congress, first, 162; the sec- ond. 171 ; presses the war, 175; waning power of. 341. Contract Labor Act. 686. Contreras (kon-tra'rahs), battle of, 448. Convention. Federal, 2.52. Cooper, James F. , literary work of, 386. Copper, discovery on Lake Superior, 427; in Connecticut and New Jersey, 428; production of, 700. Corinth (kor'inth). Miss., capture of, 525; Grant's idleness at, 528; battle of, 548. Cornwallis (korn-wol'is). Lord, pursues Washington through New Jersey, 189; drives Washington to Morristown, N. J., 191 ; campaign in South Carolina, 333; chases Greene across North Car- ohna, 336; moves north into Virginia, 228, 330; caught at Vorktown by the French and Americans, 23 i; surren ders, 334. Cotton, in South Carolina, 87. Cotton. Rev. John. 40, Cotton-gin, invention of, 281 ; influence on slavery. 281. Cowpens (kow'penz), S. C, battle of the, 225. Crawford. William H , in Monroe's Cab- inet, :M7; candidate for Presidency, 361. Credit, 717. Creeks, the, 6. note. Creek War. the, 3.35. Cromwell (krum'well), Oliver, 31. Cuba, De Soto governor of, 8; offer to purchase, 472 Cumberland, Md., terminus of national road, .357. Currency, depreciation of, 210. Cyanv (si'an*-). the, captured by Amer- ican navy, .333, note. Dakota, material improvement, 659. Dallas, George M., elected Vice-presi- dent, 4.30. Dallas. Tex., battle of, 578. Dalton Cdawi'tun), Ga., Bragg's retreat to, 560. Dare, Virginia. 17. Davenport fdav'en-port), John, a founder of New Haven, 49. Davis, Jefferson, elected President of the Confedeiate States, 503 ; head- quarters at Richmond, 513 ; puts Hood in Johnston's place. ,579 ; impol- itic action of, 881 ; recalls Johnston, 596 ; escapes from Richmond, 600 ; capture, imprisonment, and release of, 600, note. Dayton, William L., nominated for Vice- president, 482, Debt, the public, 629 ; refunding, 667 ; difficulties of reducing the national, 676 ; reduction of national, 676, note, 706. Declaration of Independence, 186, and note, Appendix I, 824 PRONOUNCINO INDEX. The references are to Sections, not to pages. Delaware (del'a-wur), formation of col- ony, 28 ; propi ietary colony. 29 ; bought by Penn from Duke of York, 113. 117; settled by Swedes. 117: taken by Dutch, 117 ; taken l)y English from Dutch, 117 ; history, 118. Delaware Bay, boundary of Dutch West India Company's grant, 21. Delaware River, Swedisli colony on, 22 ; crossed by Washington. 189. Deniocriicy, defined. 121 ; influenceof.713. Democratic Party, known at first as Re- publicHU Party (see Republican Party OF 1792), 273, note : rise of. 343. 3G5 ; success in 1832, 396 : success in 1S3G, 403; policy of, 410 : defeat in 1840, 418; success iii 1844, 430; puts an end to pi-otection,437: supports Mexican War, 441 ; defeat in 181H, 4.5fi; sections in, 466; increase of strength in the South, 466; -uccess in 18.i2, 468 ; success in 1856. 482; split iiy slavery question. 498; nominations of Southern branch in 1860, 499; nominations of Northern branch in 1860, 499; defeat in 1860, 500; defeat in 1864, 592; Northern section supports President Johnson. 623; de- feat in 1868. 628; coincides with Liberal Republicans and is defeated in 1872, 642; loses the Presidency in 1876,644; defeat in 1880. 670; success in 1884, 678; views as to taiiff in 1887. 689; intro- duces Mills Bill, 692; defeat in 1888. 693. Detroit, Mich., settled, 132; Pontiac's attack on, 145; held by the British, 237; suirendered by British. 278; sur- rendered to British by Hull, 324; re- gained from British, 324. Dinwiddle (din-wid'dl). Governor, 137. Discovery, of America, 2; Spanish, 5-8. District courts. 743. Dock-yards, power to establish, vested in Congress. 253. Donelson, Andrew J., nominated for Vice-president. 482. Dorchester HeiL'hts, Mass., seized by Washington, 178. Dorr Rel)ellion. the, 429. Donirliis (rs, 661 . Elevators, invention of, 492. Ehzaheth. Queen, 15. Elizabelhtown. N. J . settlement, 111. KIkton, JId., British land at, 194; Wash- ington embarks at. for Yorktown, 233. Emancipation. See Sl.avh;ry. Emancipation Proclamation, effect of, 620. Embargo Act, its passage and failure, 311.312. Emerson, Ralph W., rise of, 489. Endicott (en'dl-kut), John, first gov- ernor of Massachusetts Bay Colony. 40. Energy, a nation of, 716. England, early discoveries of, 10; fail- ures of, 15; war with Spain. 15; claim to central North America, 20; estab- lishment of commonwealth, 31 ; revolu- tion in, 33; Separatists sail for Amer- ica from, 34. See also Great Britain. English, William H., nominated for Vice-president, ()70. Eperviir (aper've-a). the, captured by American navy, 333. note. Era of Good Feeling, the. 348. Ericsson (er'Ik-sen). John, introduces the screw propeller, 376; builds the Monitor. 532. Eiie Canal, establishment of. 3-58. Essex, the, captured by the British, 333. note. Ether, its application to surgery. 432. Europe, nations of, 3; estimate of coal supply. 700, note. Eutaw(u'taw) Springs, S.C.,battleof,229. Everett (ev'er-et). Edward, nominated for Vice-president. 499. EverglHdes, Fla., scene of the Seminole War. 383. Executive Department, the. 731. 7:^6. Exposit ions. London. 470; Crystal Palace. New Y..rk. 470. E.vpress companies, their origin. 413. E.\tradition, 745. Fairfield, Conn., scene of the Pequot War, 48. Fair Oaks, Va., battle of, 540. PRONOUNCING INDEX. 325 The references are to Sections, not to pages. Farewell address, extracts from Gteorge Washington's, Aiipendix VI. Farragut (far'(i-gut), David G., at battle of New Orleans, 534; in Mobile Bay,587. Fear, Cape, boundary of London Com- pany's grant. 19. Federal convention, ~'51. ^52. Federal government, 723; early fear of, 840; established by the Constitution, 253, 254; its three departments, 253; constitution of, V3I. Federal Party, iis origin, 2.54; success of, 272; its purposes, 273; advocates Bank of United States, 2^3; defeat in 1800, 287; downfall of. 290; stability of its work. 298; decline of influence of, 299; defeat in 1804, 306; supports De Witt Clinton. 319; becomes extinct, 343, 348. Ferdinand, King of Spain, 4. Filibusters, attacks on Cuba, 472 and note. Fillmore, Millard, elected Vice-presi- dent. 456; becomes President through death of Taylor, 464; nominated for re-election, 482. Firearms, improvements in, 377. Fires, great, 653. Fisheries, early. 66. Fishery question, decision of the, 650. Fitch. Joim, attempts to propel vessels by steam, 280. Five. Forks. Va., battle of, .599. Five Nations, 6, note. Flag, constitution of. 177, note. Florida, discovery.and origin of name. 7; purchase of, 7. note; an English colony, 26, note; part of United States, 26, note; surrendered by Spain, 146; pur- chase of. 3.55; Seminole War, 383; ad- mitted, 425; secession, .501, 513; read- mitted, 625; disputed election returns in. 644, 645. Florida, the, equipment of. 551 ; ravages of. 551. 569; destruction of, .590. Food of early New Englander, 63. Fort Dearborn, foundation of city of Chicago, 'i'i^. Fort Donelson, Tenn., capture of, 593; battle of, 548. 606 Fort Duquesne 0lu-k5ne0. 1.38; defeat of Braddock near, 140; British capture of, 141. Fort Fisher, N. C. first attack on, 588; captured by Terry, .588. Fort Henry, Ky., capture of, 523; bat- tle of, 548. Fort McAllister, Ga., capture of. 585. Fort Necessity, surrender at, 138. Fort Pitt, 141. Fort Pulaski. Ga., capture of, .533. Fortress Monroe. Va., 537; McClellan's movement to, .538. Forts, early French, 134, 137; power to build, vested in Congress, 253. Fort Schuyler, successful defence of.]99. Fort Sumter. S.C., Southern preparations to attack, 505; bombardment of, 509. Fort Washington, capture of, 188. !■ ranee, discoveries of, II; failures in colonization, 13; explorations beyond Canada, 131 ; her explorers in America, 132; settlements within the United States, 132, 133, 134; early forts, 134, 137; weakness of colonies, 1.35; efforts to keep English east of Alleghanies, 137; loses Canada. 144; aids Americans, 202; treaty with. 204; England declares war against, 205; United States, na- tionality recognized by. 240; revolu- tion in, 214; war with Great Britain, 274; demands aid from the United States, 275; difRcnlties with. 283; war with, 284; peace with, 285; wars with Great Britain. 285; sells Louisiana to Unitelumbus, 4. Geography, early notions of, 4-6. George II., 91. George III., rebellion against, 169. George, Lake, N. Y . battle near, 140. Georgia, early exploratlimsin, 8; settle- ment of, 26, 92; origin of name, 26, note, 91 ; royal colony, 29, 93; a refuge for English poor, 91; slavery in, 93; a proprietary colony, 93; government, 93; conquest of, 220; surrender of western claims, 245; secession. ."iOl, 513; Atlanta campaign, .580; Sher- man's maich through, 584; refused reconstruction. 625; readmitted. 635. Georgia, the, ravages of, 569; destruc- tion of, 590. Germaniown, battle of, 195. German.y. disputes abont Samoa, 680. Gerry ( ger'rl ), Elbridge, elected Vice- president, 319, Gettysburgh, Pa., battle of, 554, 607. Ghent (gnnt). treaty of, :i38. Gilbert, Sir llnniplirey, attempted set- tlement in Newfoundland, 15; death of, 15. Glendale. Va., battle of. 543. Gold, In Southern States, 428; discovered in California. 457, 4.5S; greai discover- ies of. 487; production "if, 700. Goldsboro. N. C, arrival of Sherman at, 597. Good fHith, a nation of. 717. G'lod Hope, Cape of, discovered, 4. Goodyear, Charles, his process of vul- canizing rubber. 432. Gorges, (giir'jez). Sir Ferdinando, grant to, 45. Gosnold fgoz'nnld). Bartholomew, dis- covers new route to America. IS. Government, colonial, 29; effect of re- publican form, 297. Graham, William A., nominated for Vice-president, 468. Grand Army of the Kepuhlic, 603 Grand Gulf. Miss. .Granfs advance fo.55S. Grant, U. S.. first grt*at success of, .523; in battle of Pittsliupgh Landing. .521; work (itPittsburgh Landing criticised, 525; position at Corinth, 528; first attempt on Vicksburgh. 528; friend- ship with Sherman. .528; position at Holly Springs, 556; assigned to capture of Vicksburgh, 556; captures Vicks- burgh, 558: command of Westei-n armies given to, .560; advance on Chat- tanooga. .560; created lieutenant-gen- eral. 572; movement against Lee. 572; reaches Chickahominy, 574; before Petersburgh, .576; Lee's surrender to, 601: elected President. 628: character of. 634: re-elected President, 642: po- litical scandals against. 643; unhappi- ness of second term, 6.57. Great Britain (see also Engi.and). rising power of Parliament. ;iO: claim to ter- ritory, 130; struggle with France for territory, KW; ignorance of colonies in, 151 : increase in national debt, 152: sym- pathy for AmericMUs. 181 ; declares war against France. 205; United States, na- tionality recognized by. 240; surren- ders De'tr-oJt and other forts. 278; wars with France, 285; injuries to American commerce, 295. :iu8-3IO; war with United States, 295; asserts light of im- pressment and search, 308; loses trade with the United States, 312. 316; in- volved in war with United States. 316: her navy, 322, 3;i0; sends expedition against Louisiana. .3:36. 837: makes treaty of peace, 3;i7. 3:W; conquers France, 3.i8; claims the Oregon coun- try, 416: treaty with. 422; settles Maine boundar-y, 422; comprorrrises Oregon disfute, 4:39: Confederate ships briilt in, .521; action in the ca.ses of the Alubamn and the Floridn, ,551: treaty of Washington. 649: decision of Alaba- ma claims. 649. 6.50; fishery dispute with. 680; estimate of coal supply, 700, note: surpasses United States in wealth, 710. Gvent Western, the, crosses the Atlantic by steam, 417. Gr-eelev, Horace, nominated for Presi- dent. 642. Greene. Gen. Nathaniel, succeeds Gates. 225; his success, 226; reconquers South Carolina. 229. Green Mountain Bovs. 55. Greensboro, N. C. haitle at. 2'2S. Groton (grot'n). Conn., scene of Pequot War, 4K. Guano, influence of u.se of, 491. Giierriere (ger-rearf-') the, captured by the Cnti.ttitiitioti, ?Si. Guerrillas, activity of. .529. Guilford Coirrt House. N.C., battle of. 228. Guiteau. C. J., assassinates Gar-field. 671. Grmboats, work of, on Western rivers. .530. Gunpowder, influence of, 3. Hale, John P., nominated for President, 46H. Hale, Capt. Nathan, execution of, 189. note. Halifax, N S.. British troops leave Bos- ton for, 178. PRONOUNCINO INDEX. 327 ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. Halleck, Gen. Henry W., drives rebels out of Missouri, 519; assumes com- mand of the army, 5:J5; transferred to Washington, 5Ai. Hamilton, Alexander, career of, 250; Secretary of the Treasury, :i(j6: leader of Federal Party, 2Ti. 273; differ- ences with Adams, 282; shot by Burr, 299. Hamlin, Hannibal, nominated for Vice- president, 499; elected Vice-president, 500. Hampton Roads, the Merrimac in, .5.^1 ; fight between Monitor and Merrimac, 532; battle of, 548. Hancock, John, delegate to Continental Congress. 171. Hancock, Gen. Winfield S., nominated for President, 670. Hai-niar, Gen., expedition against In- dians. 270. Harper's Ferry, Va., John Brown's raid, 497; captured by Jacksun. 545. HarrisLiui-gh, Pa., Lee's advance near, 5.53. Harrison, Gen. Benjamin, elected Presi dent. 693. Harrison, Gen. William H., fights battle of Tippecanoe, 317; made commander- in-chief of the West, 324; defeats British in battle of the Thames and recovers the Northwest, 324; elected President, 418; death of, 420. Hartford, Conn., settlement, 46. Harvard College, founded. 65. Hatcher's Run, Va., Grant's movement on, 598. Hatteras Inlet, N. C, capture of. 511; United States secures harbor in, .520. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, literary work of, 386. Hayes, Rutherford B., nominated for President, 644; declared President by Electoi al Commission, 647. Heating appliances. 491. Hendricks, Thomas A., nominated for Vice-president, 644; elected Vice-presi- dent, 678. Henry, Joseph, inventor in electric telegraphy, 426. Henry. Patrick, leader of Virginia As- sembly, 155; delegate to Continental Congress. 171. Hessians, hired by Eneland. 182. Hobkirk's Hill, S. C, battle of, 229. Hoe, R. M., invents cylinder printing- press, 432. Holland, early! restrictions on explora- tion, 9; rebellion against Spain, 21; refuge of English nonconformists, 34; alliance with France, 205, note. Holly Springs, Miss., Grant's position at, ' 556. Holmes (homz), O. W., literary work of, 386. Honesty, 717. Hood. Gen. J. B.. succeeds Johnston, 579: defeated by Sherman, 580; change of plan,.581 ; dispersion of his army. 582. Hooker, Gen. Joseph E., succeeds Burn- side in eommand, 547; movements parallel to Lee. 553. Hooker, Rev. Thomas, 40, 46; heads emi- gration to Connecticut, 46. Horse-shoe Bend, Ala., battle of, 335. Hospitals, 709. House of Representatives, 731 ; constitu- tion and powers, 733; election by, 361. Howe, Adni. Richard, in command of expedition against New York, 187. Howe,Elias.patentssewitig-machine,432. Howe, Gen Sir VVdliam, in command of expedition against Ne\v York, 187; expedition to Chesapeake Bay, 194; captures Philadelphia, 195. Hudson, Hendrik, discovers Hudson Riv- er, 21. Hudson River, boundary of Plymouth Company's grant, 19. Hull, Gen., surrenders Detroit, 334. Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, jjersecution and murder of, 41. Idaho, United States' claim to, 302; dis- covery of gold in, 487; admitted, 684, note. Illinois, conquest of territory, 213; coun- ty of, 213; claim of Connecticut to, 242; formation of State, 246; admitted, 350; lead mines in, 428; Mormon settle- ments in, 484. Immigration, the great, 39; European, 380; ol)jectionable increase of, 47."). Impeachment, power of Senate in re- gard to, 732; power of House of Rep- resentatives in regard to, 733. Impressment, right of, asserted by Great Britain, 308. Imprisoimient for debt, decrease of, 388. Independence, growth toward, in colo- nies, 122; desire for, 184; Declaration of, 186, Appendix I. ; recognition of, by Great Britain. 235, 236. Indiana, conquest of territory, 213; claim of Connecticut to, 242; formation of State, 246: immigration, 292; admitted, 342. Indian and French War, the, 138-148. Indian frauds, 643. Indians, origin of the name, 6; troubles of Connecticut with, 48; Narrag,".nsett. .52; troubles in New England with, 58: troui)les of Virginia with, 72, 73; treat- ment in Georgia, 92; fin- trade with, 100; treatment in Pennsylvania, 114: massacres by, 209; possessions west of Alleghanies, 213; outbreak in Ohio, 270; allies of British in 1812, 324: troubles with the Creeks, 335; Black Hawk War, 382; Seminole War, 383. Indian Territory, formed out of Louisi- ana territory, 301, note. Indigo, in South '^'arolina. 87; commerce in, 126. 328 PRONOUNCING INDEX. t^0~' The references are to Sections, not to pages. Insurance companies, rise of, 380. Insurrections, power to suppress, vested in Congress, iiH^i. Interior, department of the, established, 436. Interstate commerce, appointment of coniniissioii to regulate, 685. Interstale relations. 74.5. Intolerable .\cts, the, KiO. Inventions and discoveries during Folk's adiiiinislratiou, 4Sd. Iowa, formed out of Louisiana territorj-, 301, note; lead in, 4iH; admitted, 438. Iron, in Pennsylvania, 4',i8; production of. 700. Irving, Washington, literary work of, 386. Isabella. Queen of Spain. 4. Island No. 10, fortification of and final capture, 530. Jackson, Andrew, [mt in command of Tennessee troops, 335: defeats the Creeks, HSH; m battle of New Orlean.s, 3oB. 337; prominence of 347; candi- date for Presidency , 361 ; elected Presi- dent, 367; his career. 371 ; foreign pol- icy of. 39t); political contests. 3!)1; chantres the civil service, .39J; over- throws Bank of United States, :i'M. 3.14; attacks the American System, 3:i5: re- elected President. 396; resists nullifi- cation, 401; general success, 404; re- tirement, 404; influence. 405. Jackson, Gen. Thomas .\. ("Stonewall"'), his career, .541; defeats Banks, 542; stratesj.v of, .542; in second Ijatile of Bull Riin.544; captures Harper's Fer- ry. 545; killed, .552; Lee's union with, 5.52. '• Jackson men, " afterwards Democratic Part,\-, 3(;5. James I., settlements tmder. 19. James H., reign and expulsion of. 33. James River, discovery of, 24; Union control of, 538; crossed by Grant, 575. Jamestown, Va., settlement of 2ii, 24; destruction of, 24. note; settlement, 67. .Japan, opened to American commerce, 473. Java. the. captured by American navy, SiS, note. Jay. John. deleg.Tte to Continental Con- gress. 171 ; appointed minister to Eng- land, 278. Jefferson, Thomas, delegate to Conti- nental Congiv.ss, 171; character of. 174; draws Dt'claration of Indt'pet^idence, l.**!!; as a sp.-aker. 186. note; death of. 186. note: Secretarv of Stnte, 266; leader of Republican Party, 273: elected Vii-e pre-sidt-nt, 279; elected I'resideiit, 2".)9; elected President. 500; in- augurated, .506; early life, 508; calls for volunteers, 610; re-elected Presi- dent, 592; character of his work, 612; assassination and burial of, 613. Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, capttu-ed at Charleston, 222. Literature, scarcity of, in 1790, 260; growth of, 386. Loans, French and Dutch, 212. Locomotive, the, invention of, 368, 372. Logan, Jt)hn A., nominated for Vice- president, 678. Log-cabin campaign, 418. London Company, established, 19, 20; success of, 24; forfeiture of chaiter, 25. Longfellow, H. W., literary work of, 386. Long Island, defeat of Americans on, 188. Long Island Sound, shores of, harassed. 209. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 560, 607. Louisburgh (loo'is-burg), taken by the English, 61; expedition against, 141; attack on Quebec from, 142. Louisiana State, formation of State. 301 ; attacked by British. 336, 337; ad- mitted. 342; secession, 501, 513; Red River expedition, 586; readmitted, 625; disouted election-returns in, 644, 645. Louisiana Tenitory, named, 147; Spain's territory becomes western boundary of United States, 236; transferred by France to United States in 18(13, 301; partition of territory into other States, 301, note. Lowell (lo'el), James R., rise of, 489. Lucifer match, not known in 1790, 258. Lundy's Lane, battle of. 32.5. Lynn (lin). Mass . settlement, 39. Lyon, Uen. Nathaniel, killed in battle of Wilson's Creek, 519. McCtEU.AN. Gen. George B.. victory at Rich Mountain, 517; appointed to command Army of Potomac, 518; campaign on the Peninsula. .536. 537; designs as-ainst Richmond, 537; i>ur- suit of Confederates towards Rich- mond. .538; attempt to join McDowell, 539; divides his armv on the Chicka- liominy. 539; cut off from supplies, .543; retreat to Jairies River, 543: success at Malvern Hill, 543; recalled to de- fend Washington. 544; in battle of Antietam. 546; relieved of command, 546; nominated for President, .592. Mccormick. Cyrus H., inventor of reap- ing-machine, 377. Macdoiiough, Commodore Thomas, victory on Lake Champlain. 334. McDowell. Gen. Irwin, covers Wa-^hing- ton. .537; recalled from Fredericks- burgh to defend Washington. 542. Macedonian, the, raptured by Ameri- can navy. .333, note. Mackinjiw (mak'in aw), early French fort, 134. 330 PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. Madison, James, elected President, 313; his career, 315; re-elected President, 319. Magazines, increase in 1860, 489. Mails, carriatie of. ;!53. Maine, set off from Massachusetts, 27, note; united to Massachusetts Bay Colony, 44; admitted, 350; boundary dispute, 41(5, 'iJri. Malvern (mawl'vem) Hill, Va., battle of, 543. Manassas (tnri-nas'sas) Junction, Va., battle of, 517. 31anhattan (man-hal'tau) Island, estab- lishineut of tradmg posts on, 21. Manufactures, begun in New England, m\ rise of, 2H0; decline after 1SI5, 340; lack of, ill slave States, 31)4; increase in 1850, 4(i7; improvement during Pierce's adiiiinisiration, 409; pros- perity of Northern, in Hist year of Ke- bellion, 5-.i0; ruiu of Southern, in first year of Rebellion, 5^0; prosperity in 1881, 074. Marcli to the Sea, 584. Marietta (ma-re-ei'ta), O., settled, 'i&i. Mariner's cumpass. influence of, 3. Marion (in&'il-un), Gen. Francis, 223. Marquette, Jacques (zliahk mar-kef), finds the Mississippi, 132. Maryland, formatiou of colony, 26; ori- gin of name, 26. note, 75; proprietary colony, 29, 75; first proprietor, 75; an asylum for Roman Catholics, 75; set- tlement, 76; self-government in, 77; made a royal colony, 77; restored to the Calverts, 77; religions toleration in, 78; Mason and Dixon's line, 79; position in election of 1856,482; held by Federal Government, 514; saved to the Union, 520. Mason. James M., seizure, imprison- m'-nt, and liberation of. .522. Mason, John, proprietor of New Hamp- shire, 45. M.ison and Di.von's line, 79. Mnssachusetts. formation of colony, 27; Maine set off from. 27, note: self-gov- ernment. 29; British attempt to de- stroy self-government, 160; Gen. Gage appointed governor, 103; prepara- tions for revolution, 163; sends .John and Samuel Adams and John Hancock toContinental Congress. 171 : surrender of Western claims. 245; Shays's re- bellion, 249; troops attacked in Balti- more, 510. , Massachusetts Bay Colony, formation of, 27, 38; united with that of Ply- month, 27; new charter, 44; union of colonies with, 44. Matamoras (mnt-amo raa), Mex., seized by Taylor, 442. Matches, invention of friction. 377. MatthfW, the, early exploring ship, 10. Maximilian, made emperor of Mexico, 570; shot, 630. Mayflower^ the, 34. Meade, Gen. George E., succeeds Hooker in command, 553. Mechanicsville, Va., action at, 543. Mtrrimac, the, operations of, 531; action with the Monitor, 532; destruc- tion of. 5;i8. Mexico, Spanish conquests in, 7; claims Nueces River as western boundary of Texas, 440; war declared with, 441; G«n. Scott's opei'ations in, 446-450; capture of city of Mexico, 450; peace concluded, 451; evacuation of, 451; formation of empire in. 570; evac- uation by France, 630. Mexico, Gulf of, Spanish discoveries in, 7. -Miclii^'an, formation of State, 246; re- gained by the British, 324; admitted, 381. Middle Colonies, settled by Dutch, 28; captured by English, 28; colonies formed therefrom, 28; under English control, 99. Middle States Revolutionary war in, 187. Milan (ml-lan') Decree, the, 309. Milledgeville, Ga., Sherman's march through, .584. Millen, Ga., Sherman's march through, 584. Mills. R. Q . introduces tariff bill, 692; ta- riff bill made issue in election of 1888, 6113. MiU Spring, Kv., battle of. 523, .>18. Minerals, wealth of the country in, 428. Minnesota, part of, taken from Louis- iana territory, 301, note; admitted, 465. Minuit(min'u it), Peter, establishes Swed- ish colony, 22 Minute-men. 165: nucleus of Continental army, 175. Missionaries, early stations of, 132. Missionary Ridge captured, 560, 607. Mississippi, State, early explorations in, 8; formation of, 246<;"' paucity of popu- lation in 1812. .321 ; admitted, 3,50; secession, .501,513; refused reconstruc- tion, 625; readmitted, 63."i. Mississippi River, discovery of, 8; French discoveries on. 8; exploration of. 132. boundary between Spanish and Eng- lish possessions, 14ti: boundary of United States in 178:^, 236; Burr's ex- pedition on, 307; increa.se of trade on, 379; opened from Cairo to Memphis. .525; defences of, .534; Farragut's ac- tions on, 534. .535: opening of naviga- tion on, .535. 548, 607. Mississippi treaty, the. 277. Mississippi Valley, early inhabitants of, 6, note. Missouri, State, formed out of Louisiana territory, 301. not« ; admitted, 3.50; trouble over admission, 353; Dred Scot case, 495; maintains Union. 512; held by Federal Government, 514; saved to the Union. .520: Confederate relinquish- ment of. 529. PRONOTTNGING INDEX. 331 ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. MiBSOuri Compromise passed, 354. Missouri River, exploration of, 302. Mobile (mo-beel'), Ala., settlement. 133; blockade running from, 533. Mobile Bay, battle of, 5t*7. Molino del Rey (mo le'no del ra), battle of, 449. Monitor, the, building of, 533; action with the Aterrimac, 532; effect on na- vies of the world, 532. Monmouth imon'muth). Dattle of , 200. Monroe (mun-ro'j, James, elected Presi- dent, 3!4; career of, 346; re-elected President. 348: Monroe Doctrine, Its announcement, 356. Montana, formed out of Louisiana terri- tory, 301, note; admitted. 6^4. Montcalm (mont-kahm'). Marquis de, ability, 140: defeats British at Ticon deroga. 141; defence of Quebec, 142,143; death of, 143. Monterey (mon te ra'j), Mex.. battle of, 445. Montgomery, Ala., formation of Confed- erate Government at, .503; Confederate capital removed from, 5:3. Montgomery, Gen. Richard, invades Canada, ISO: captures Montreal, ISO; killed at Quebec, 180. Montreal (mont-re-awl') surrender of, 144; captured by Montgomery, 180. Monts (mawn(g)), de, found settlements, 14. Morgan, Gen. Daniel, in command of Americans at the Coupens, 225. Mormons, the, early history and settle- ment in Utah, 484; United States legis- lation against polygamy, 673. Morocco, piracies of, 300.' Morris, Robert, delegate to Continental Congress, 171. Morristown, N. J., fortified by Washing- ton, 191; Washington's position at. 207. Morse, Samuel F. B., inventor in electric telegraphy, 426. Morton, Levi P., elected Vice-president, 693. Morton, Dr. W. T. G., application of ether. 4:^2. Motley, J. L., rise of, 489. Mound- builders, the, 6. note. Mount Hope, R. I., King Philip's head- quarters. 58. Mount Vernon, Va., Washington retires to. 237. Mulhall. comparative table of wealth in Great Britain and United States, 710, note. Municipal government, 723. 725, 726. Murfreesboro (mur-freez-bur'ro), Tenn., battle of, 527,606; Rosecrans's position at, 556. Nashville, Tenn., siege of, 582 ; destruc- tion of Hood's army at, 608. National banks, establishment of, 565. National Republican Party, rise of, 366 ; Dominations in 1828, 367; nominations in 1832, 396. National road, appropriations for, 357. Natural advantages, 718. Naturalization, position of the United States in regard to, 4;i. Nautilus, the, captured by American navy. :i33, note. Naval school established at Annapolis. 434. Navies, power of maintaining, vested in Congress, 253. Navigation, effects of introduction of screw propeller on, 376 : ocean steam, 417. Navigation Acts, their passage and pur- pose, 57,127 ; evasion of, 57. Navy, fights with French, 284 ; chastises the Barbary States. 300 ; numbers in 1812, 322 ; brilliant success of, : 31-3:^4 : success on the Lakes, i;34 ; abolition of flogging in. 388 ; chanpe in, by intro- duction of steam vessels, 4.34 ; increase in 1861, 511 ; revolution in naval con- struction, 532 ; great increase in 1862, 54S ; increase during Cleveland's ad- ministration. 680. Navy Department, the, 737. Nebraska, formed out of Louisiana terri- tory, 301. note ; admitted, 033. Negroes, plot by, 108; insurrection in Virginia, .389; enlistment of, 549; President Johnson's lack of interest in, 616 ; Southern States' treatment of emancipated, 621 ; suffrage, 624. 636, 640; opposition to suffrage in the South, 637 ; difficulty of settlfment of race question, 675. Nevada (ne-vah'd«X part of the Mexican territory, 444 ; discovery of silver in, 487 ; admitted, 593 ; silver production of, 663 New Amsterdam, the Dutch name for New York city, 100. 103. Newark, N. J., settlement, 111. New Brunswick, N, J., concentration of British troops at, V-i'i. New England, 27 ; Revolution in. 176 ; dissatisfaction with the Embargo. 311 ; opposed to War of 1812, 323. New England Union, 56. Newfoundland (nu'fuLd-land), early im- portance of fisheries. 10, 11 ; Sir Hum- phrey Gilbert's settlements in, 15. New France, 131. New Hampshire (Hamp'shur), formation of colony, 27 ; claims Vermont. 27, note ; royal colonv, 29,45 ; made sepa rate colony, 44, 45 ; part of Council of Plymouth's grant, 45 ; assigned to John Mason, 45 ; origin of the name, 45 ; militia at battle of Bennington, 199. New Haven (havn), Conn., settlement, 49. New Haven Colony, formation of. 27 ; colony united with that of Connecticut, 27. New Jersey, formation of colony, 28 ; 832 PRONOUNCING INDEX. The references are to Sections, not to pages. royal colony, 29, 110 : taken from tbe Dutch by the EngUsh, 110 : origin of the name, 110 ; settlement, 111 ; govern- ment, ll5i ; College of, ll--' : American retreat through, 1^9 ; occupied by British, 190 : coast harassed, 209 ; copper in. 42tH. New Madrid (mad'rid). Mo., 530. New Mexico. Spanish discoveries in. 7 ; part of toe Mexican territorv, 444 ; taken by Gen Kearny, 443 ; claim to, surrendered by Texas. 4(V..' ; formation of Territory, 462 ; discovery of gold in, 487. New Netherlands, settled by the Dutch. lOi) ; taken by the English. lOa ; name changed to New York. 103. New Orleans (or'le-anz'. La., settlement, 133 ; in Spanish possession, 14(! ; be- comes an American city, 3C1; battle of , 33G, ;i37: capture of, 53ii. 5''A ; exposi- tion at, 674. Newport, Christopher, founder of James- town. Va , "-.'4. Newport, R. I., settlement, .52 : held by British, 207 ; American attack on, 2iW ; abandoned by British, Mti. note ; ar- rival of French army at, 231. New South, resources of. 674, Newspapers in 1T90. 2110 ; increase in 1S37, 3S.i : improven:ents in printing and news-collecting. 433 ; increase in i860, 489 ; circulation of, 707 and note. New York city, eailv trading posts at site of. 21; settled "by the Dutch, 100; advatitagesof situation, 104; the negro plot, 108; growth. 109: action towards importetl tea, l,")9; British expedition against. 1S7; battles around. 188; held by British, 188; vacated by British, 237; p(i|iulatioii in 1790. 258; inaugura- ti"n of Washington 111.26,5; defence of, in War of 1812. :1-j6; gmwth of news- papers in, 3'<5; Crystal Palace exhibi- tion. 470; opening of Central ParK, 492; draft riot in. .")67. New York State, claims Vermont, 27. note; formation of colony, 28; roj-al colony. 29; settled by the Dtitcli as New Netherlands. 100; the patroon system. 101; conquered by the ICnglish, 102; origin of the name, 103; historv under the English, 10.3, 10.5. 106. 108, 109: size of tlie colony, 103; govern- ment, 10.5, lOil; growth of the colony, 109; northern, explored by Cliain- plain. 132; sends .lolin Ja.v, to Conti- nental Congress, 171; surrender of Western cK.itns, 2)5; military opera- tions in, 335; builds Erie Canal. 3.58; anti-rentdisturbancesin. 429; residtof Free-Soil vote in 1848. 456; electoral vote in 18S8. 693. NinU. Paper money, issue and depreciation of, 310; issue of screen backs, 0.5O; de- preciation in Confeierate States, 56J. Paris, peace of, lt6. Parks, 709: benefits of, 492. Parliament, rising power of English, 30. Parties, formation in 1787, 251; only one party left in 1780, «72: change of, 46G. Patents, powei' to grant. y.'iS ; increase in number, 280; value of, 488. Patroon system, introduced by 'the Dutch, 100. Peace, between England and United States, 23.'5, 2.3G: natural condition of American people. 7l3. Peace of Paris, 146. Peacock, the, captured by American navv. 333, note. Pea Ridge, battle of, 520, 548. Peekskill, N, Y., fortification of, 188; Washington's position at, 207. Peel, Sir Robert, introduces pohce sys- tem, 492, note. Pemberton, Gen. J. C., in command at VicksburfjTh, 557. Pendleton, George H.. nominated for Vice president. 592. Pendleton Civil Service Act. 672. Penguin, the, captured by American navy, 333. note. Peninsula, McClellan's campaign on the, 5:36, 537. Penn, William, transfer of Swedish colony to, 22: obtains grant of land for colony, 113: founds a colony as a refuge for Quakers, 113; treatment of Indians, 114: wise government of colony. 114: settles Philadelphia, 115; purchases Delaware, 117. Pennsylvania, formation of colony, 28; proprietary colony, 29; granted to WiUiam Penn, 113; a place of refuge for the Quakers, 113; origin of the name, 114: government: 114: treat- ment of Indians. 114: religious tolera- tion. Ill; growth, llfi: University of, 115; sends Morris and Franklin to Con- tinental Congress. 171: claim of Con- necticut to. 242 ; Whiskey Insurrection in, 276; iron in. 4JS; anthracite coal in. 428; discovery of petroleum, 487. Pensions, Cleveland's opposition to un- necessary. 687. Peoria (pe-o'ri-a), early French fort, 134. Pequots (pe'kwotz). a Connecticut tribe of Indians, 48: war with settlers, 48 Perry, Capt. Oliver H., victory on Lake Erie, 331, Perry, Commodore M. C , opens up Japan. 473. Perr.wille. battle of, 526 Perth Amboy, N J,, sottlement. 111. Peru (pe-roo"), Spanish conquests in, 7. Petersiiurgh. Va.. Cornwallis at. 230; siege of. .575, 570, 608: fall of, 600. Petition, right of, impeded by Congress, 415. Petroleum, discovery of, 487. Philadelphia. Pa., settlement, 115; ori- gin of the name, 115. note: growth, 116; action towards imported tea, 1-59; meeting of first Continental Con- gress. 162; meeting of second Conti- nental Congress. 171; Congress aban- dons. 100: Washington's defence of. 194: captured by Howe, 195; Clinton succeeds Howe at. 206; Washington and Rochambeau pass through, 233; population in 1790. 2.'>8; Bank of the United States at, 267: threatened by Lee, .545; business paralyzed by Lee's advance, .553: Exposition at, 6"i5. Philip, King, his struggle against the whites, .58. Pierce (peerse or purse), Franklin, elect- ed President, 468: administration of, 459-48.'. Pilgrim Covenant, the. 37. Pilgrims, hardships of, :i5. Pitt, WiUiam. policy of, 141. Pittsburgh, Pa., Indian fight on site of, 138; the Whiskey Insurreotion, 276 first steamboat on Ohio River, 305 railroad riots at, 662. Pittsburgh Landing (Shiloh). battle of. 5J3, .524, .548, 606. Plantations, in Southern colonies, 95. Plattsburgh, N. Y., hattl-" of, 334. Plymouth ( phm'uth), Mass., settlement, 34. Plymouth. Council of. succeeds Ply- mouth Company, 25; disbanded, 25. Plymouth Colony, formation of, 27, 34; united with Massachusetts Bay, 27, 44. Plymouth Company, establishment of, 19; failure, 24; broken up. 25. Pocahontas (po-k«-hon'tas), daughter of Powhatan. 68. Poe. E. A., literary work of. 386. Police system, introduction of, 492 and note. Polk vpoke"*, James K . elected President, 430; administration of, 432-4.56. Polygamy, legislatiiin against. 673. Poritiac (pon'ti ak). League of, 145; attack on Detroit, 145. Pope, Gen. John, campaign before 334 PRONOUNCING INDEX. J^^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. Washington, 536. 544 ; defeated at sec ond buttle of Bull Kiin, 544. Population, of colonies in 1748, 62; in Koiithein colonies, 94: of Soutbern colonies contrasted with that of New England, 'JS; at end ci colonization, 125; in 1763, 149; in 1810, 320; in 1820, 349; rapid increase in free States, a.^; in 1830, 380; in 1840, 413; in ia5u. 467; increase during Pierce's administra- tion, 469; in 1660, 486; in 18^0, 6,'')2; in 1880, 660; growth of, 701; probable increase of, 719. Port Hudson, La., strong Confederate position at, ."iSS; Banks assigned to attack. 5,56; movement against, 556, 5.58; surrender of. .558. Port Royal. N. S., a French stronghold, taken and kept by the English, 6f. Port Royal, S. C, French settlement at, 13; capture of, 51 1; United States secures harbor in, 520. Portsmouth, N. H.. settlement, 45. Portsmouth, R. I., settlement, .52. Portugal, discoveries of, 4; agreement with Spain. 9. Post-offlce. colonial, 119. Potomac, Army of. See Army of Poto- mac. Powhatan (pow-ha-tan'), an Indian chief of Virginia. 68. Prescott. W. H.. literary work of, 3S6. President, how elected. 738; duties of, 739; war powers of, 740; veto power of. 741. President, the, captured by the British, 333, note. Presidential succession, 661, 742. Prima Vista (pre'ma vees'tn), 10. Princeton, N. J., capture of British troops at, V.il. Pring, Martin, exploration of New Eng- land, IK. Printing, influence of, 3, 7; Hoe's inven- tion, 432. Printing-press, introduction of, 115. Prisoners, Confederate views on ex- change of, 5S)4. Prison-ships, cruelties on. 209. Prison system, reformation of, 3S8. Privateers, 149; services during Revolu- tion, 216; refusal to allow France to fit out, 275; in War of 1812,333; building of Confederate, ,551 : ravages of Con- federate, .569; destruction of the Ahi- hama, the Florida, and the Georgia, .590. Proprietary colonies, 29. , Protection, flrst, demand for, WO; defini- tion, and argument for, 359: adopted by Congress in 1824, 360; suiijioried by Clay and Adams, 362; opi)osition to, 36:5-165; Southern opposition to, 398; . tariff of 1842, 421 ; influence of war tariff on, 564; effects of. 6"; opposi- tion to. 690. See also Free Trade; Revenue; Tariff, Providence. R. I., settlement, origin of the name, 52. Providence Colony, formation of, 27: united with Rhode Island, 27. Public schools. See Education. Pidaski (pu-las'kl) Casiniir. joins Amer- ican army, 193; killed at Savatmah, 220. Puiitans, the, 31, 38. Quakers, persecution of, 42: why per- secuted in England, 113; Pennsylvania an asylum for, 113. Quebec (kwe-bekM, fouudt'd, 13; Charr.- plaln's settlement at, 14; expedition against, 142; siege and capture of. 142. 143. Queen Anne's war, 60. Railroads, introduction of, 368; effect of invention of locomotive on, 368, .372; first locomotive in America, 373; effect on American people, 374; increa.se and advantages of, in 1829, 374; increase in 1850,407; increase in 1860.491; extrav- agant building of, 6")6: strikes in 1877, 6(52; mileage in ]88ti, 705. Raleigh (raw'II), N. C, origin of name. 17, note. Raleigh, Sir Walter, character, 16; intro- duces tobacco into England, 16: influ- ence of, 16: colonies of, 16 and note. 17. Ran. Rio Grande (re'o grahn'da), demonstra- tion on, against French occupation of Mexico, 630. Riots, draft, 567. Ripley, Gen. E. W., reorganizes the army. 325. Rivers, the American System, 362. Roads, turnpikes. 280 ; in 1812. 321 ; the American System, 362 ; improvement during Pierce's administration, 469 Roanoke (ro-n-noke') Island, N. C, Ra- leigh's colony on, 17. 24: contemplated settlement on, 24 ; capture of. 533, .548. Rocharabeau, (roshanh(g)-b6'). Count de, lands with army at Newport. 231. Rocky Mountains, discovery of gold in, 487. Rome, N. Y., formerly Fort Schuyler, 199. Rosecrans (roze'krans). Gen. William S., supplants Buell, 527 ; position near Murfreesboro, 5.56; defeated at Chicka- mauga. 5.")9. " Rough and Ready,'' 464. Round neads. 31. Royal colonies, 29. Rubber, invention of vulcanized, 432. Rush, Richard, nominated for Vice- presidency, 367. Sacramento i^sak-rn-men'to) River, dis- Qovery of gold on, 457, St. Augustine (aw-gus-teen'), Fla., founded, 7, note ; French settlement at, 13 ; capture of, 533. St. Clair, Gen., expedition against Indians, 270. St. Lawrence, Gulf of, discovered. 11. St. Lawrence River, discovered, 11 ; French settlements on, 14. St. Louis (loa'Is), Mo., settlement, 146, note ; railroad riots at, 662. St. Mary's, settlement, 76. Salem (sa'lem), Mass., settlement, 38; witchcraft delusion, 43. Salt, produced at Syracuse, 428. Samoa, disputes with Germany about, 680. Sandusky (san-dus'kl), O., naval engage- ment off. 334. Sandy Hook, N. J., concentration of British tronps near, 192 ; embarkation of British troops from, 206. San Francisco, rapid growth of, 458. Sanitary Commissions, formation of, 566 San Jacinto (j(t-sin'to), battle of, 4:ii3. San Salvador (sahn sahl-vahdore'), named by Columbus, 5. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, fights battle of Buena Vista, 445 ; in battle of Cerro Gordo. 447 ; proposes terms of peace, 448 ; flight of, 450. Santa F6 (san'ta fe), founded, 7, note. Saratoga, N. Y., Burgoyne's surrender at, 201. Sassafras, influence on exploration, 18. Savage's Station, battle of, 5j3. Savannah. Ga., settlement 92 ; captured by British. 220 ; attempted recapture, 220 ; retained by British, 229 ; vacated by British, 237 ; Federal capture of. Savannah, the, crosses the Atlantic by steam, 417. Say brook. Conn., settlement, 47. Schenectady (sken-ek'trt-di), N. Y., a frontier settlement. li'3. Schools. !See Education Schuyler (skl'ler). Gen. Philip, invades Canada, 180 ; captures Montreal, 180 ; defence of Ticonderoga, 197. 198. Scott, Dred, case of. 495. Scott. Gen. Winfleld, reorganizes the army, 325 ; captures Vera Cruz. 446 ; in battle of Cerro Gordo, 447 ; nomi- nated for President. 408 ; in command of Union armies, 516. Screw propeller, introduction of, 376. Search, right of, asserted by Great Britain, 308; case of the Trent. 522. Secession, strong hold of principle in Southern States. 399; rise of feeUng for, 482; South Carolina passes ordi- nance ot secession, 501 ; Georgia, Flor- ida. Alabama. Mississippi. Louisiana, and Texas pass ordinance of, 501 ; of Virginia. North Carolina. Tennessee, and Arkansas, 512; repeal of ordinance of, 619. 386 PRONOUNCING INDEX. ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. Sections, the, sectional feeling, 460, 465; sectional feeling extended to religious bodies, 474 ; their positions as to Kan- sas-Nebraska Act. 476^DS1. Sedition law. 396. Self-government. SO. 37, 51 ; in Virginia, 71; British attempts to destroy. I6i); provision for. in Ordinance of 1787, 346; growth of system of, 246. Seminary Ridge. Confederate position at Gettysburgh, .')54. Seminole (sem'I-uol-O War, 383. Senate, action on admission of Missouri, 353; ratifies treaty of Mexico, 451; re- fuses to admit Kansas, 481; attack on Sumner in Senate chamber. 481; con- stitution and powers of, 733. Separatists. 34, 3S. Servants, indentured, 94, 606. Seven Days' battles, 543. Seven Pmes, Va.. battle of, 540. Sewing-machine invented. 433. Seymour (Se'mur), Horatio, nominated tor President. 638. Shan lion, the, captures the Chesapeake, 333. Sharpsburgh, ^\d.. 546. Shays's Rebellion, 349, 351. Shenandoah (shen-(in do'ah) Valley. StonewallJaekson in. 541; Lee's move- ments through. 553; defended by Sher- idan, .577. Sheridan, Gen. Philip H.. movement against Lee, 573 ; ride from Winchester, 577; movement on Richmond, 598; in battle of Five Forks, 59!l. Sherman. Gen. AVilliam T., friendship with Grant, .538; with Grant in opera- tions against Vicksburgh, 556; left in command of the West. .572; pursuit of Johnston, 578; difticuliv of supplying army, 578; pursuit of Hood, 581; state of his army, .5S3; burns Atlanta, .583; march to the sea, .583-58'i. 608; his northward march, .596. 609; action against Johnston, .597; receives John- ston's surrender, 603 Sbiloh. See Pittsbcrgh Landing Ship Island. Miss., seizure of. 51 1 ; United States secures harbor in, 530; expedi- tion to. ."^34. Ship^ling, increa-oeof, in 1763. 149; British attitude towards American. 154. 183; Navigation Acts. 149. 1.54; British seiz- ures of American. 378; prosperity in 179.5, 280; British and French injuries to American, 308-31ii. Silver, discovery of. 487; weakh of Ne- vada. 593; decrease in value. 663; de- monetiz ition. 664; remonetization. 665; production, 700. Sirnis, the, crosses the Atlantic by steam, 417. Six Nations. 6, note. Six years' struggle, the. 1.57. Slavery, in Virginia, 70; in South Caro- lina, 88; in Georgia, 93; first in Virginia, 124; effects of, 124; forbidden in North- west Territory. 346; influence of cotton- gin on, y^l, 351; rise of angry feelmgs about. 351 ; di.sa])pearauce in Northern States. 351; ti:e .\lissouri Compromise, 3.>4; effect on manufactures, 364; ef- fect of the Missouri Compromise, 369; proposal to abolish, WJ (see also Abo- litionists) : negro insurrection in Vir- ginia. 3S9; in the Mexican acquisition, 453; rise of the Fiee Soil Party, 455; difficulties of 1S,50. 461; compromise of 18.50, 463; in the District of Co- lumbia, 463; influence on public af- fairs, 474; hindrance to prosperity of the South, 493; the Dred Scoit case, 435; John Brown's raid in Virginia, 497; platform of Republican Party in 18tH), 499; platform of Southern Demo- crats in 18tio. 499; platform of North- ern Democrats in 1n60, 499; platform of American Party in 1860. 499; issue of first Emancipation Proclamation. .549; i«sue of final Emancipation Proclama- tion, .549; former ooligation to surren- der fugitive slaves, 745. Sliilell, .John, seizure, imprisonment, and liberation of, 533, Sioat, Commodore, seizes California, 443, Smith, Capt. John, explorations, 27; his career, 68, Smith, Joseph, founds Mormon Church, 484; his fate. 484. Smiihsonian Institution, founded, 435. Soto. Heniaiulo de. expedition, 8 ; dis- covers Mississippi River, 8; death, 8. South, the solid. OIK. South Ainnrira. discovered by Colum- bu.s, 6; Spanish jiossessioris in. 7. South and North, rise of division be- tween. 351. South Carolina, formation of colony, 26; a royal colony, 29; settlement. 86; products, 87; slavery, 88; religions toleration. 89; government, 90; viros- perity of, 90; British attack on Charles- ton repelled, 18.3; British conquest of. 233; reconquered, 339; surrender of Western claims, 245; opposition to protection, 398; adopts nullification, 4tK); repeals nullification, 403; passes ordinance of sncession. .501 ; move- ment against Fort Sumter, 505; read- mitted, 635. South Dakota, formed out of Louisiana territory. 301, note; admitted, 684, Southern States, British campaign against, 307, 219; backwardness in ]8i'i0. 493. South Mountain, battle of, 546. Spain, aids Columbus, 4; discoveries of, .5-8; possessions, 7; agreement with Portugal, 9: war with England, 15; al- lied with France. 146, 305. note; surren- ders .American territory to England, 146; regains Florida, 23(5; treaty with. PBONOUNCINQ INDEX. 337 ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 277; cession of United States, f laini to Texas to, 301. note, 355; sells Florida, 355; refuses to sell Cuba, 47"4. Spanish America, 7. Spartanburg:, battle near, 235. Specie circular, the, 407. Specie payment, resumption of, 666. Spottsylvania, Va., battle of, f)73. Springfield, 111., Lincoln's burial at, 613. Stamp Act, 132, 155; repeal of, 155. Stamp Act Congress, 155. Stamlish, Miles, 36. Stanton, removed by Jolinson, 626. Stark, Gen. John, at battle of Benning- ton, 199. Star of the West, the, fired on, 505. " Star-Spangled Banner," the, 328, note. State Depaitment, the, 737. State government, 1^5, 723, 728, 729. Stateu (stat'n) Island, seized by British, 187. States, restrictions of action under Con- stitution, 253; power to maintain order ill, vested in Congress. 253; Republi- cans inclined to favor, 273; sovereignty of, 728. 729, and note; government of, 730; poweis denied to, 735; interstate relations, 745; admission of, 746; dates of formation of. Appendix III ; growth of. Appendix IV. States and territories, number in 1890, 246, note. States' rights, 296, 729; effect of war with Great Britain upon the doctrine of, 296; logical deduction of right of secession, .399; strength of diueJ.) A Shorter History of the United States. With an Intro- ductory Account of the Discovery and English Colonization of North America; with Maps, Plans, and References to Supplementary Reading. By ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, late Professor in Princeton University. This little work is adapted to younger pupils and shorter courses than the author's " History of the United States" de- scribed above. It is not properly an abridgment of that work, but rather a re-writing of the subject in which the peculiar merits of the original have been preserved. History of American Politics. By Alexander JOHNSTON, LL.D., Late Professor in Princeton College. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged by Willlam M. Sloane, Ph.D., Pro- fessor of History and Political Science in Princeton College, xvi + 350 pp. i6mo. (Handbooks for Students and General Readers.) The book affords a plain, short, unbiassed account of the salient facts of the political history of the United States. In the course of an orderly narrative, which assumes almost the form of annals, important constitutional ;md administrative questions are explained, the arguments on both sides rehearsed, the origin and history of political parties sketched, and their attitude toward these questions indicated. Social and military history is touched upon only so far as it has a distinct bearing upon politics. Aside from indispensable accuracy and lucidity, the most no- table quality of the book is the author's acuteness in discerning the essential in every movement, and its relation to antecedent and consequent, and his almost unrivalled faculty of putting himself in each party in turn, and succinctly and fairly stating its views and principles. This quality manifests itself unob- trusively in the selection and ordering of facts, more than in any set philosophizing. CHAMPLIN'S (J. D., Jr.) WORKS. The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Common Things. By John D. Champlin, Jr., late Associate Editor of "The American Cyclopaedia." IVt'th Nujnerous Illustrations, vi + 690 pp. 8vo. $2.50. The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Persons and Places. By John D. Champlin, Jr., late Associate Editor of "The American Cyclopaedia." With Ntanerotts Illustrations. Fifth Edition, Revised, vi + 936 pp. 8vo. Uniform with the above. $2.50. The volumes are sold separately. The first volume treats in simple language, aided by pictorial illustrations, of things in nature, science, and the arts which are apt to awaken a child's curiosity, or to be referred to in his reading. Special attention has been given to phenomena which most immediately affect human happiness — such as air, light, heat, and electricity, — to those parts of the human body whose health is very obviously influenced by our habits, to manufactured articles in common use, and to familiar and curi- ous animals. The second volume, devoted to noted persons and places, both real and fabulous, supplements the first volume, and with it covers tiie usual range of cyclopaedic knowledge. In select- ing illustrations, care has been taken to avoid those common in the ordinary geographies and histories; and especial promi- nence has been given to some notable restorations of classic scenes and famous buildings. An attempt has been made to bring the pronunciation of proper names within the compre- hension of young folks by using the simple letters of the alphabet without diacritical marks. A novel feature is the comparative estimates of the areas and populations of countries and cities, to enable the young reader to form an idea of size of distant places by giving him some well-known standard at home. The arrangement of topics in both volumes is the same as in cyclopaedias Tor adults, to which these volumes are but stepping- stones, as it is deemed of importance to early accustom the child to the forms and methods which experience has shown to be the best. The works are upon the State Library Lists for public schools in Wisconsin and Minnesota. A Beport of the Hegents of the New York University . — ' ' The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia" will prove attractive and valuable to the younger class of pupils, who would be repelled by a larger cyclopaedia. A Report of the Connecticut State Board of Education :—" The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia" by John D. Champlin, Jr. , two volumes, should be in every Juvnile Li- brary. -^ CHAMPLIN'S (J. D.. Jr.) WORKS.— (Continued.) The Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports. By John D. Champlin, Jr., and Arthur E. Bostwick. iv + 830 pp. 8vo. $2.50. This book, forming a third volume of the well-known 'Young Folks' Cyclopaedia" series, is intended to be a com- pendium of all kinds of recreations, including indoor and out- door games, athletic sports, simple chem.ical and mechanical amusements, and every similar thing that can interest a wide- awake boy or girl. While the "padding" characteristic of too many such works has been rigorously excluded, the endeavor has been to make the explanations full enough for simplicity and clearness. Where standard rules are accessible, they have been given word for word, thus making the book val- uable as a work of reference for adults in case of dispute. Other features are the intrf)duction of a brief historical sketch at the end of each article, the description of some foreign varie- ties of many of the games, and the attempt at a thorough sys- tem of etymology and derivation of all technical terms, as in the preceding volumes of the series. The book therefore, besides its cycloptcdic style and arrange- ment, which is novel in a work of this kind, combines advan- tages never before united in a single volume, and will be of use to children and youth of all ages from the nursery to the base- ball field or the chess-board. Such articles as require it have been revised by competent experts, and it is believed that no fault can be found with the work on the score of accuracy. Many of the modern American publications on sports and games, especially those that aim at completeness, are merely reprints of English books, and in a measure unsuited for American use. This work, on the contrary, has been written from the American standpoint, even such a game as Cricket being treated as it is played in this country. While the illustration is very full, it is believed that no pic- ture has been inserted for its own sake, or otherwise than as an aid to the proper understanding of the text. The Young Folks' Catechism of Common Things. By John D. Champlin, Jr. Ne^v Edition, Rmised. iv -1- 289 pp. i6mo. 60 cents. The Young Folks' Astronomy By John D. Champlin, Jr. Illustrated, vi 4- 236 pp. i6mo. 60 cents. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 01 1 448 264 A