T X 
 
 .13 
 

 Book .T& 
 
 'i'N • HSnOYUAS 
 
 SU3MVH 
 
 soua ouoiAvo 
 
i NUTS AND THEIR USES AS EOOl). 
 
 r.y 
 
 M. E. JAFFA. 
 
 Aaslxidnl /V(;^•.s^s■()(• (if Xulritioii, I'ldvirsili/ of ( 'alfoniiii. 
 
 [Reprint fkcim Ykakho<ik m- ]>i;i'aktment of Ai:kici'lti.'rk for lilOt!.] 
 
 4880—07 
 
 WASHINGTON : (iO»EHrn*E^T PRINTING OFFICE : 1907 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ,0^ 
 
 V' 
 
 Iiitro(Uii-ti(jn 295 
 
 De.si-rijitioii i)t' nut.-' 296 
 
 Th(' riavor of nuts 29S 
 
 Composition of nuts 298 
 
 Digestibility of nuts 301 
 
 Plate of nuts in the diet 1 303 
 
 Nut butters 304 
 
 Nut pastes anil luit jireserves 305 
 
 Nut Hours and meals 306 
 
 Xnt candies 307 
 
 Nut coffees 308 
 
 Green mits 308 
 
 Nut oils and oil-cake meals 309 
 
 Pecuniary ec momy of nuts 309 
 
 Handliuir and marketing; nuts 311 
 
 Suniuiarv 312 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 ri.ATK. 
 
 Tncp. 
 
 Plate XV. Fij:. 1. —California Indians imundin;; acorn iiu-al fur fodd. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Califnrnia Indian leaching acorns fur food 306 
 
 TEXT EIOIISE. 
 
 Fk;. 8. I'lrccntau'c ciiMipnsitiDn nl an oily nut ( walnut i and a starcliy mil 
 
 ( cliesi nut ) 300 
 
 SEP ^8 1907 
 
 •■'. : U. vt U. 
 
M IS AM) THEIR T SES AS FOOD. 
 
 ' Hy M. E. Jama, 
 
 As.iistant I'mfiasi'i- of XiilriHo)i. I'liinrxily of (iilifoniiii. 
 
 IN'I'KODUCTION. 
 
 Tlic constantly increusini; consumption of nuts tlirouijliout (lie 
 United States augurs well for a better appreciation of their food 
 value. The time when nuts were considered merely as a luxury, or 
 as sometiiing to be eaten out of iiand at odd times, is rapidly ])assini; 
 away. In earlier days the native hickories, l)utternuts, walnuts, chest- 
 nuts, and many other nuts found in the United States were to be liad 
 in country regions for the gathering and wer(> of no commercial inij)or- 
 tance. On the other hand, the English wahuits (to give tiiem their 
 most connnon name), almonds, cocoanuts, elc, l)rought from other 
 countries, were relatively expensive luxuries. Conditions have mate- 
 rially changed and our principal native nuts are now staple market 
 conunodities and bring good j)rices. At the same time, owing (o 
 changes in market conditions, the jirice of the imported nuts has 
 drop])ed so that they are well within the reach of the majority. 
 
 Some nuts, like the native hazelnut and beechnut, have i)ractically 
 no conmercial value and, though palatable, are almost never offered 
 for sale, doubtless because they are so small an<l (hfiicult to gather in 
 ((uantity. The chincpiapin, a small nut allied to the chestnut, finds 
 a limited sale in southern cities, but is .seldom seen in other markets. 
 
 From available statistics it appears that in 1905 the total ((uantit}' 
 of almonds, cocoanuts, Brazil nuts, tilberts, jwanuts, walnuts, and other 
 nuts, shelled and unshelled, imported into the United States was, in 
 round numliers, SO, 2:5s, ()()() poumls, with a value of .f(i,i;5S,()l)(). In 
 lOor) the total almond cro]) in California readied 4, 200, ()()() ])ounds 
 and the walnut crop 12, SOI), 000 jiounds. The richest yield of |)eanuts 
 was re]iorted from the Soutiiern States, ciiii'dy \'irginia, Cieorgia, and 
 Tennessee, and amount(>d to 22."i,000,()00 |)ounds. 
 
 The total (piantity of home-grown nuts, including both native an<l 
 cultivated varieties, nuist far exceed the ((uantities imported, but in 
 th(» natui'e of the case no estimates of the total (juantities gathered 
 and eaten are ])rocurable. When we consider tiie constantly increasing 
 demand for nuts and the large rjuantity wliicli we imjiort the ])ossi- 
 l)ilities of the industry for the American nut grower are obvious. 
 
 As the use of nuts has increa.sed, nniny persons have turned their 
 attention to the growing of native and foreign nuts on a commercial 
 
 295 
 
296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 scale. Tlii.s work has been furwartled by the Department of Aj^ri- 
 culture, through the Bureau of Plant Industry, and by the Califor- 
 nia, Florida, Michigan, and other agricultural experiment stations. 
 With nuts, as with other crops, it has been found that, by selection 
 and l)reeding, improved varieties are obtainable, of larger size, bet- 
 ter flavor, thinner shells, or other desirable characteristics. The 
 increased demand for nuts is due in the main to two causes, namely, 
 a better appreciation of their appetizing cpialities and the numerous 
 ways in which they forni a palatable addition to tiie diet of the 
 average family, and, secondly, to -their use by the vegetarians and 
 persons of similar belief — a group small in proportion to the total 
 ])opulation, but still fairly large numerically — who use nuts, and 
 more particularly the peanut, as a substitute for meat and other 
 nitrogenous and fatty foods. 
 
 Many sjiecial nut foods, such as inaltetl nuts, meat substitutes, etc., 
 have been devised and extensively advertised by the manufacturers 
 for general use in the diet and for the special needs of vegetarians and 
 fruitarians. It is said tiuit some of these American nut jiroducts con- 
 fain soy l)eans, l)ut a])])arently tiie peanut plays a very important part 
 in their composition. In either case, since the peanut, like the soy 
 Ijean, is a legume, these preparations might more properly be compared 
 with the bean chee.se and other soy-bean jmxlucts so much used in 
 China, Jajxm, and other eastern countries than with such nuts as 
 the walnut, almond, or cocoanut. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF XUT8. 
 
 The term ''nut" is not a defmite one Ijotanically speaking, but is 
 ap])lied indiscriminately to a variety of certain fruits or parts of 
 friuts and implies a more or less luu'd, woody covering surrounding a 
 meat or kernel. The most diverse plant grou]xs contribute to our nut 
 8U])ply, many of the nuts being the product of our beech, chestnut, 
 walnut, and other deciduous trees and bushes, some of pines and 
 tropical palms, and others, like tlie peanut ami pistache or pistachio, 
 being the fruit, respectively, of a vine-like plant and a small tree, 
 both Ijelonging to tlie family of legumes. Still another, the water 
 chestnut, is supplied l)y a water ])lant. 
 
 Most of the native and foreign nuts which we use are too familiar 
 to need description. Several, however, are not so generally known. 
 
 Pinenuts, which grow in the cones of a number of varieties of native 
 and foreign pines, are now fairly common in our markets. The 
 'Indians have always known and appreciated them and have passed 
 on their knowledge to the white race. Then, too, many immigrants 
 wlu) came to this country knew the pinenut, for it has long been much 
 eaten in Italy and t>ther parts of southern Europe, where there are a 
 luunber of nut-yielding jiines. The small, rather pointed white nuts 
 
NfTS AXD THEIll USES AS FOOD. 207 
 
 are usually marketod siielled, hut as (hoywnnv are cuA-ertMl willi a more 
 or less hard, wnody shell. The ])istaehe iiu( (now i^'ruwii in ('ahf(irnia) 
 has long l)een used and is ])rized hy eonfectioners for its delicate 
 flavor and attractive green color, yet it is by no means common. 
 The nuts are small, not imlike a liean in size and shape, tliougli more 
 pointed, and l)efore marketing are I'reed from the ptuls in which they 
 grow. The indiAidual nuts are covered with a gray or ]iur]dish skin, 
 and are blanched liefore they are useil. 
 
 The so-called lichi luit, which is really a dried fruit .surrounded l)y 
 a nut-like .sliell and not unlike a raisin in flavor, is a favorite in 
 China and lias ])econie (|uite common in this country. The ginkgo 
 nut, the fruit of an ornamental tree (|uile widely grown in the United 
 States and .sometimes called the uiaideidiair tree from the shape of 
 the leaves, and which fruits abundantly in some regions, is seldom 
 eaten except by the Chinese, who gather it whenever possible. The 
 small, roundish, oval, thin-shelled luit is siu-rounded l)y a very acrid, 
 l^ad-smelling pulp, the whole fruit being not unlike a gi'cen damson 
 plum in size and a]>i>earance. In Cliina, Korea, and other parts of 
 the Orient this mit is nuich used as a food, and, so far as can he 
 learned, is always cooked in some w.iy. ''' Roasted like a, ])e;inut. il is 
 palatable. The ginkgo nuts are on sale in the Chinese sho])s in San 
 Fi'ancisco and (h)ubtless in otiier cities, and were studied at the Cali- 
 fornia experiment station some years ago, togethiM' with other Chinese 
 toods. 
 
 'The water chestnut, or horn chestnut ( 7V(/y«; hisiiiiiosa), an aijuatic 
 ])lant, prinluces a seeil or "nut" which somewhat resembles two 
 curved horns united in one, the kei'ucd of which is largely used as a 
 food by the inhabitants of Asiatic countries. This so-c'alled mit 
 is also on sale in the United States, but chiefly in Chin(>se shops. 
 An<ither water ]>lant (Ehorliaris fiilMrasa) is also known as the 
 water chestnut , but in this case it is the corm or bulb that is eaten. It 
 is not unlike a chestnut in shape, and has a tough, brown skin. This 
 is grown in Asia, l)ut is im])orte(l by the Chinese in this coimtry. A 
 three-cornered pointed nut or seed, the ]»if of tlie Chinese olive 
 {(Aniarhiin sp.), is also on sal(> at Chinese sho]>s in the United States. 
 The kernels are oily but jialatable, and are used in Java for making 
 a nut milk much thoughl of for infant feeding. 
 
 The chufa, nut grass, or earth almond is a small tuberous root of a 
 .sinlgelike plant and ])erhaps should lie classed with the vegetables 
 rather than with nuts. It is not common, though sometimes eaten. 
 
 From time to time new luits make their ajiiiearaiice on the market 
 as some nut prizeil locally becomes known to the trade. A nut which 
 seems to be growing in ])opularity, though still uncommon, is the Pai- 
 adise nut of South America, which resembles a Brazil nut in ajipear- 
 ance anil flavor. Still less conmion is the South African cream nut, 
 
298 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGKK'ULTURE. 
 
 thouiili it is sometimes shipped to this country. The clioicest member 
 of tlie Brazil-nut group is the true "butternut" of the Tropics, which 
 is very seldom found outside that i-egion. Its flavor is verj' delicate 
 and delicious, but it does not keej) well; and even if it would bear ship- 
 ment successfully, the available supply is at present very small. The 
 cashew nut of tro])ical regions, wliich many consider one of the most 
 delicious nuts grown, has long been known, but has never become com- 
 mon. It is sold to some extent and brings high prices. Tliis nut is 
 roastetl before it is eaten, as the raw nut contains poisonous properties 
 which are readily ilestroyed by heat. 
 
 The oval, flat, and rather large seeds of a luimpkin-like fruit, tabe- 
 l)uia (Telfairia pedata), from Zanzibar, which lias been grown in a 
 limited way at the Porto Rico exjteriment station, are roastetl and 
 eaten like a nut. The flavor is oily ami fairly palatable. This sug- 
 gests the use in Russia of the raw sunflower seed, which is ricii in oil 
 and not unlike some of the common nuts in composition. Theseetls 
 arc eaten out of hand at all times and by all classes. 
 
 THE FLAVOR OF Nl'TS. 
 
 The flavor of nuts is very largely de]H>ndent iqx^n the oils wliich 
 the}' contain, though in some there are also specific llavorijig bodies. 
 The nut oils readily become rancid, the very tli.sagreeable flavor of 
 spoiled nuts being due to this property. Some nuts, for instance, the 
 chestnut, have a starchy flavor as well as a "nutty" taste. The 
 small native nut is much more highly flavored than the large Italian or 
 the Japanese chestnut. The almond posses.ses the cyanic-acid flavor, 
 which is characteristic of peach pits, plum pits, etc., and this might be 
 expected wheTi it is rememljered that the almond is the dried j)it of an 
 inedible fruit somewhat resembling the peach in appearance and 
 closely relatstl to it botanically. Most almonds are mild navt)i-ed, 
 though in the so-called liitter ajmonds the cyanic-aciil yiekling glucosid 
 is more abundant. In raw peanuts there is a tleciiled flavor resem- 
 bling that of the closely related beans and peas, and to some persons 
 this is not im|)alatal)le. In the roasted peanut, which most of us 
 prefer to the raw, the flavor is largely dependent uj^on the browned 
 oils and stai'ches or other carliohydrates. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF NUTS. 
 
 The composition of nuts and nut products has been studied at a 
 nundjer of the agricidtural experiment stations, notably California, 
 Maine, and Iowa, and the table on the following page summarizes the 
 residts of this work, the American data being su])])lemented in a 
 number of cases by the results of European analyses. For purposes 
 of comparis(jn several other common food materials are also included. 
 
NUTS AN'D THEIR USES AS FOOD. 
 
 299 
 
 Aucmiie composition of nats and mil prodii.rlx. 
 
 Kin.l of food. 
 
 /'( 
 
 34. 6B 
 
 ;a. 08 
 
 Nuts jind nut products; 
 
 Acorn , $resh 17. 80 
 
 Alinonil 47.00 
 
 Beechnut ; 311. MO 
 
 Brazil nut 49.3.5 
 
 Buttprnut Sfi. 40 
 
 Candle nut 
 
 Che.stnut, frostl l.i. 70 
 
 Chestnut, dry ' 23.40 
 
 1 Torn chestnut nr water chest- 
 nut , 
 
 Chufa (earth ahuond) 
 
 Cocoanut , 
 
 Filbert 
 
 Ginlcgo nut (seeds) 
 
 Hickory nut tj2. 20 
 
 Liclii nut 41. 00 
 
 Paradise nut 4.5. 70 
 
 Peanut 27.04 
 
 Pecan ; .50. 10 
 
 Pignolia (shelled) 
 
 Pistachio 
 
 Walnut 
 
 .Vhnond Initter 
 
 Almond paste 
 
 Peainit hutter 
 
 Malted nuts 
 
 Cocoanut candy 
 
 Peanut canily 
 
 Chestnuts, preserved (niarron 
 gla.c6), air dried 
 
 Walnuts preserved in sirup, 
 air dried 
 
 Cocoanut milk 
 
 Cocoanut. desiccated 
 
 Peanut coffee made from en- 
 tire kernel 
 
 Chestnut flour 
 
 Cocoanut flour 
 
 Hazelnut meal 
 
 Other foods for comparison: 
 
 Meat, round steak 
 
 Cheese, cluxldar 
 
 Eggs, boiled 
 
 Wheat flour, high gradi^ 
 
 White bread 
 
 Beans, dried 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Apples 
 
 Raisins 
 
 58.80 
 
 Edible portion. 
 
 20. 00 
 25.00 
 10.00 
 
 34.7 
 4.9 
 li. I) 
 4.7 
 4.5 
 .5.9 
 
 43.4 
 ti. 1 
 
 10. (1 
 2. 2 
 
 1.3.0 
 .5.4 
 
 47.3 
 ,3.7 
 
 10. 4 
 2.3 
 7.4 
 .3.4 
 0. 2 
 4.2 
 3-. 4 
 
 2. 2 
 24.2 
 
 2.1 
 2.0 
 3.9 
 ,3.0 
 
 IS. 2 
 
 10.9 
 92.7 
 
 3. .5 
 
 Pro- 
 tein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 4,4 
 21.4 
 21.8 
 17.4 
 27. 9 
 21.4 
 
 ti. 4 
 10.7 
 
 10.9 
 3. 5 
 fi. 6 
 10.5 
 5.9 
 1.5. 4 
 2.9 
 22.2 
 29.8 
 12.1 
 3.3.9 
 22.0 
 18.2 
 21.7 
 13.1 
 29. 3 
 23. r 
 2.4 
 10.3 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.3.6 
 .4 
 
 0.3 
 
 4.7 
 .54.4 
 49.9 
 05. 
 01.2 
 01.7 
 ti.O 
 7.8 
 
 5.1 
 
 27.9 
 
 7.8 
 
 4.6 
 
 14.4 
 
 20.6 
 
 2. 7 
 
 11.7 
 
 05. 5 
 
 19.8 
 
 27.4 
 
 27.7 ': 
 
 43.; 
 70.: 
 48.: 
 
 .54.; 
 00. ■ 
 61.; 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 57. 4 
 
 ,50. 1 
 3.4 
 2.1 
 
 lis. 
 
 13.0 
 30.8 
 10.7 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates.' 
 
 ^ugar, \ 
 
 starch, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Prr ,/. 
 50. 4 
 1.3.8 
 
 4. 
 
 9 
 
 41 
 
 3 
 
 70. 
 
 1 
 
 73 
 
 8 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 Crude 
 fiber. 
 
 Pent. 
 
 4.2 
 
 1.5 
 2.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 10. 5 
 8.9 
 
 ' I 
 11.4 
 
 78.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 14.' 
 
 8.. 
 
 2.4 
 3.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 17.1 
 43,9 
 
 48. 
 
 4.0 
 
 31.5 
 
 12. 3 I 2. 4 
 
 SO. 8 
 45. 9 I 10. 1 
 
 17. S 
 
 12. 
 
 11.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 74.8 
 
 35. 3 
 
 9.2 
 
 1.3 
 
 .52. 
 
 12. 
 
 22. 5 
 
 1.8 
 
 .55. 2 
 
 7S.3 
 
 2. 2 
 
 .1 
 
 IK.O 
 
 84.0 
 
 .4 
 
 .5 
 
 1.3.0 
 
 14.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 73.0 
 
 Pir el. 
 1.0 
 
 Fuel 
 
 value per 
 
 p»3und. 
 
 CalorU 
 1.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 2,895 
 
 3.7 
 
 2,740 
 
 3.3 
 
 3,120 
 
 3.0 
 
 3,370 
 
 3.3 
 
 3,020 
 
 1.4 
 
 1,140 
 
 2.4 
 
 1,S40 
 
 2,0 
 2.0 
 1.0 
 2.4 , 
 2.0 
 2.1 
 1.9 
 2 7 
 •> o 
 
 Mil 
 
 3.8 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.7 
 
 3. 
 
 1.0 
 
 .5.0 
 
 3.4 
 li. 9 
 
 1.1 
 4.0 
 
 1.1 
 3. 5 
 1.0 
 .3 
 3.4 
 
 1,.540 
 2,4:!5 
 2.805 
 3,100 
 941) 
 3,345 
 1,510 
 3,3,S(I 
 2,010 
 3,300 
 2,710 
 3,2,50 
 3,075 
 3,340 
 1,9IK) 
 2,825 
 2, UK) 
 2,0(H> 
 2.115 
 
 1,,530 
 
 2,780 
 
 155 
 
 3,125 
 
 2,805 
 1.7SII 
 1,4SII 
 3, 1,H5 
 
 9,50 
 2,145 
 
 CSfl 
 1,0.50 
 1,215 
 ),i;o5 
 
 3.S5 
 
 290 
 
300 
 
 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Refuse, mostly sh(>ll, constitutes a considerable pro])ortion of the 
 nuts as purchased, varyino; irreatly with the different kinds. With 
 fresh chestnuts the jjroportion is nearly 16 per cent, ])eanuts 27 per 
 • •cut, almonds 47 per cent, and butternuts 86 per cent. 
 
 The edilile ])()rtion of nuts, with few exceptions, is very concentrated 
 food, containing' little water and much fat. In general, nuts are also 
 rich in protein. These ranking highest in this nutrient, the pignolia, 
 )i variety of pinenut imported from .Spain, with 33.9 per cent, the pea- 
 luit witli 29. S ]3er cent, and the butternut with 27.9 per cent protein, 
 .surpass most or<linar}' animal or vegetable foods in this re.spcct. The 
 iilmond, beechnut, and pistachio, with 21.4 per cent, 21. S per cent, and 
 22.6 per cent, respectively, compare favorably with dried legumes. 
 The Brazil nut contains 17.4 per cent protein, the iilbert 16.5 per cent, 
 tire walnut IS. 2 per cent, the hickory nut 15.4 per cent, the pinenut 
 14.8 per cent, the pecan 12.1 per cent, and the dry chestnut but 10.7 
 per cent. The dry acorn, fresh chestnut, and cocoanut, with, respec- 
 lively, 6.4, 6.4, and 6.6 ])er cent, are not as rich in protein as ])read. 
 
 WATER 25'^'' 
 
 PROTE/N /66 •>-'' 
 
 FAT 6H% — 
 
 STARCHSUCAR.CTC I3,S°>C^ 
 CRUDE F/BER Z6 %- ^ 
 ASH l-ffo-^ 
 
 5 9 Jo WATER 
 ~ 107 % RROTEIN 
 - 7.O04 FAT 
 
 -TS % STARCH. SUCARETC 
 ^21% CRUDE FIBER 
 ^22% ASH 
 
 WALNUT. CHESTNUT. 
 
 Fir;, s.— PTcentag" mniposi tioii of -.m oily imt (walnut) and a stiirdiy nut (chostnul ). 
 
 Of the nuts here included I lie richest in fat is the pecan, with an 
 average of 70.7 per cent, but 7 other varieties — the Brazil nut, butter- 
 nut, candlenut, filbert, hickory nut, pinenut, and walnut — contain 
 upward of 60 per cent. The almond, cocoanut, and pistachio yield 
 between 50 and 60 per cent of this nutrient. The beechnut, peanut, 
 and pignolia contain about .'iO per cent. In other words, in 13 of the 
 varieties of nuts appearing in tlie foregoing table, half or more of the 
 edible portion is fat or oil. 
 
 Only a few of the conunonly used nuts yiekl any notable amounts of 
 total carbohydrate matter, t lie dry chestnut, with 73 per cent, rating 
 liighest. Beechnuts, ])inenuts, and peanuts have about 18 per cent. 
 The quantity of starch found is, with some exceptions, c[uite small, 
 ranging from 3 ]5er cent in the l)eechnut to 27 per cent in the chestnut. 
 
 Figure 8 shows in diagrammatic form the percentage composition 
 of an oily nut, the walnut, and a starchy nut, the chestnut. 
 
 Nuts are, comparatively speaking, well supplied with mineral mat- 
 ter, this constituent in the majority of nuts exceeding 2 per cent. 
 The ash of the walnut, almond, etc., is rich in phospluiric acid, and 
 
NUTS AND THEIR I^SES AS? FOOD. 301 
 
 in this rcpjard compares favorably with that <if cereals. It would 
 appear from the data on the digestibility of nuts that the mineral 
 matter is as well assimilated as that fron^ nthei' common foods. 
 
 DIGESTIBILITY OF NUTS. 
 
 With (he exception, perhaps, of dried beans an<l cheese, no food 
 material has the reputation for indigestibility that has been accorded 
 to nuts. Discomfort from them is largely duo to insufficient mastica- 
 tion and to the fact that nuts are often eaten when not needed, as after 
 a hearty meal or late at night, though it is undoubtedly true that nut 
 protein as ordinarity eaten is not so easily or so completely chgested as 
 meat protein. A^ery likely the concentration of nuts, with but 3 to 5 
 per cent water, as compared with meats containing from 50 to 70 per 
 cent water, is a contributing cause. If careful consideration were 
 given to this matter and if attention were paid to the proper use of 
 nuts and their correct ])lace in the diet, there would be less inifavor- 
 able comment on their digestibility. 
 
 The results of investigations carried on with fruit and nut diets at 
 tlie California Agricultural Experiment Station aiford tentative con- 
 clusions regarding thoroughness of digestion which should be of value 
 to those who wish to use nuts as a staple article of food rather than as 
 an occasional article of diet. This work has comprised 15 dietary 
 studies and about 100 digestion experiments with elderly men, j'oung 
 men, women, and cliildren, of whom some liad been vegetarians for 
 years, and some had even limited their diet almost exclusively to fruit 
 and nuts; others had previously lived on the usual mixed diet. The 
 average coefficients of digestibility reported for 28 experiments with 
 2 men and 1 woman were: Protein, 90 ])er cent; fat, S5 per cent; 
 sugar, starch, etc., 96 i^er cent; crude fiber, 54 per cent: and ash, 68 
 per cent, with S6 per cent of the energy available. The correspond- 
 ing figures for three experiments with the same sul;)jects in which no 
 fruit or nuts were used are: Protein, 94 per cent; fat, 92 per cent; 
 sugar, starch, etc., 96 j>cr cent; crude fiber, 49 per cent, with 8S ])er 
 cent of the energy available. The latter coefficients agree very closely 
 with those in the average of nearly 500 experiments \nth difl'erent 
 sorts of mixed tliet, namely: Protein, 92 jjercent; fat, 95 per cent; and 
 carbohydrates, 97 percent. In view of tliese facts regarding compo- 
 sition and digestibilitjr of their diet, it is evident that nuts must be 
 regarded as the main source of protein for the fruitarians. The studies 
 with fruitarians have all indicated that nut protein is fairly well assimi- 
 latetl ; and that this is true with the average healthy person is well illus- 
 trated by an experiment with a university student, who, though en- 
 tirely unaccustomed to such fare, gradually changed from an ordinary 
 mixed diet to one of fruit and nuts, which he followed for a time with- 
 out apparent loss of health or strength. 
 4S80— 07 2 
 
302 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICVLTURE. 
 
 It is somewhat difficult to arrive at definite conclusions regarding 
 the actual percentage of nut protein digested or assimilated. The 
 experimental data obtained at the California station show a range 
 of 75 to 82 per cent digestible protein when fruit and nuts were 
 eaten together, but the figure for nut protein is doubtless liigher. 
 These coefficients were in all probability influenced by the fruit pro- 
 tein, wliich has been found to be less digestible than the nut protein. 
 The digestibility of protein in 28 experiments with mixed diets, to 
 which were added fruit and nuts, averaged 90 per cent. 
 
 As fruits, with the exception of the avocado and olive, jieM only 
 a small amount of fat, the fat which is contained in a fruitarian diet 
 must be very largely obtained from the nuts. The average coefficients 
 of digestibility for this nutrient in 30 experiments with men on a diet 
 of fruit and nuts was 86 per cent, and in the 28 experiments just re- 
 ferred to it was 85 per cent. These figures are about 10 per cent 
 lower than the average coefficient for digestibility of fats in the ordi- 
 nary mixed diet. The digestibilitA^ of the carbohydrates in nuts, so 
 far as the available data show, is about ecjual to that of the same 
 ingredients in other foods. 
 
 So far as can be ascertained no experiments have been made on the 
 ease or rapidity of digestion of nuts. In the absence of such data it is 
 fair to assume that within reasonable limits the finer the state of 
 subdivision of the food material, the easier, the more rapid, and per- 
 haps the more nearlj^ complete will be the digestion or assimilation, 
 presupi^osing, of course, that the nuts are not eaten in addition to a 
 hearty meal. Too much stress can not be laid on the necessity of 
 thorough mastication of nuts. This is emphasized by the residts ob- 
 tained with one of the subjects at the California station, who ate 
 largely of nuts but did not properly masticate his food. The coeffi- 
 cients of digestibility of the food were far lower than for other sub- 
 jects who chewed their fooil thoroughly. The expeiiments with fruit 
 and nut diets in general indicate that nut protein is as easily, even if 
 not quite so completely, digested as protein from bread and milk. 
 
 The present discussion refers only to the nuts included in the 
 studies at the California station, viz, the almond, Brazil nut, cocoanut, 
 peanut, pecan, pignolia, and walnut. It is believed that these are 
 typical of the ordinary edible nuts, but further digestion experiments 
 are much needed for the purpose of testing some other nuts. 
 
 As regards the work of other investigators, both ^lemmo" and 
 Merrill '' report experiments with cooked chestnuts. Memmo's sub- 
 ject was a farm lal)orer, 53 years old, working eight hours a day. 
 The experiment lasted four days. During the first two the food con- 
 sisted exclusively of chestnut products. This was modified during 
 
 a Ann. Inst. Ig. Spcr. Vniv. Roma, n. s., 4 (1894), p. 263. 
 6 Maine Sta. Bui. 131, p. 14G. 
 
NUTS AXD THEIK USES AS FOOD. 303 
 
 the last two days by the addition of herrinii; and cheese. In this 
 experiment 75 per cent of the protein, 87 i)er cent of tiie fat, 97 per 
 cent of the total carbohytlrates, and S3 ])er cent of the ash were assim- 
 ilated. The last figure is high ; the others correspontl to those 
 reported for the California experiments with a fruit and nut diet. 
 
 The subjects of Merrill's experiments were two men aged 23 and 3-1 
 years, respectivel}-. A mixed diet was used. Each sidiject consum(>d 
 daily 300 grams of cooked chestnut flour, whicli furnislied about 20 
 per cent of the proteids, 50 per cent <if the fat, nearly 50 per cent of the 
 carbohydrates, and not far ft'om -10 per cent of the total fuel value of 
 the food. The average digestion coefficients obtained for chestnuts 
 with the two subjects were protein 56 per cent, fat 63 per cent, anil 
 total carbohydrates 98 per cent, while 89 per cent of the energy was 
 available. Memmo also studied a kind of acorn Ijread eaten in Italy, 
 and found it was fairly well assimilated, though not very palatable. 
 Saiki " found that starch of raw Italian chestnuts was relatively 
 indigestible. 
 
 It would appear, then, that, while it is not possible to state the exact 
 digestion coefficients for all nuts, enough has been done to indicate 
 their high nutritive value and digestibility. 
 
 PLACE OF NUTS IX THE DIET. 
 
 It has been shown liy numerous investigations that nuts are ricli in 
 protein and fat and that these nutrients can be fairly well assimilated. 
 Nuts being such a concentrated footl, their proper ]>lace in the diet is 
 a matter for more careful consideration than is the case with many of 
 our ordinary food materials. It must not be forgotten that a certain 
 bulkine.ss of the diet is conducive tt) its normal assimilation, anil that 
 too concentrated nutriment is often the cause of iligestive disturb- 
 ances. It might be expected, then, that nuts ct)uld be most advan- 
 tageously used in connection with more bulky foods, such as fruits, 
 vegetal)lcs, breads, crackers, etc. Most rationally used, they siiould 
 constitute an integral part of the menu rather than supplement an 
 already abundant meal. Since nuts are .so concentrated, eating a 
 considerable quantity out of hand at odd times will mean an over- 
 supply of fooil if a corresponding reduction is not maile in other foods. 
 The distress sometimes experienced when nuts are eaten is undoubt- 
 edly often tlue to improper mastication or to overindulgence. Tlie 
 investigations made at the California station indicate clearly that 
 considerable ciuantities of nuts properly eaten do not cause distress. 
 There is a popular belief that a little salt with nuts ]>revents the diges- 
 tive disturbance resulting from eating them. To most persons, salt 
 undoubtedly adds to the palatability of the nuts, but no investiga- 
 tions have been found on record which demonstrate any actual 
 improvement in tiie digestibility of nuts due to salt. 
 
 a Jour. Biol., 2 (l<K)6i, p. 2.51. 
 
304 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Nuts may he readily used as staple articles of diet, as an ingreilient 
 in salads and in soups, as a stuffing for poultrj', in the malving of des- 
 serts, and in many other ways. Wild turkey stuffed with pecan nuts 
 is a dish popular with old Yirgmia cooks, just as goose stuffed with 
 chestnuts is prized in Germany. Salted nuts and nuts crystallized 
 in sugar are very coimnon accompaniments of other foods. In general, 
 the nuts rich in protein and fat should be used in combination with 
 carbohj'drate foods, as bread, fruit, green vegetables, etc., while such 
 nuts as the chestnut, which do not contain much protein or fat, but are 
 rich in carbohj^drates, may be properly combined with meats, milk 
 and cream, eggs, and other foods containing protein and fat. 
 
 Smce nuts are relished by most persons, are nutritious, and maj^ be 
 readilj^ used by themselves and in various palatable combinations as 
 an integral part of the diet, they have a legitimate place in the menu. 
 Those who, for anj^ reason, wish to live on vegetable foods and dairy 
 products or any form of vegetarian or fruitarian diet will almost 
 inevitably look to nuts, particularly such as the peanut, for a con- 
 siderable proportion of their total nutritive material. A fruit and 
 nut diet may be arranged to furnish sufficient protein, mainlj^ from 
 nuts, to satisfy the requirements of the body, but the consensus of 
 opinion of well-informed physiologists seems to be that such a diet is 
 not generally advisable nor to be recommended for the majorit}" of 
 mankind in place of the more usual mixed diet. It should also be 
 remembered that numerous experiments have shown that the protein 
 from mixed diet has a higher coefficient of digestibility than nut pro- 
 tein, wliich indicates that the protein of nuts is the less economically 
 utilized by the body. The argument wliich is so often advanced that 
 j)rimitive man lived on nuts and fruits exclusively and hence his 
 descendants should do so, is not generally accepted. 
 
 The comparatively high price of many of the ecUble nuts, particu- 
 larly when shelled, and the difficulty of cracking some varieties — 
 like pecans, black walnuts, and hickory nuts — and extracting the 
 kernels at home, greatly militate against the freer use of nuts in the 
 household. The consimiption of peanuts and Enghsh walnuts is per- 
 haps increasing faster than that of some other nuts; but, whatever 
 sort is selected, they should, as already noted, form a part of the diet 
 and not supplement an already sufficient meal. 
 
 NUT BUTTERS. 
 
 Within the last few years so-called nut butters have been used in 
 increasingly large amounts, and at least one variety, namely, peanut 
 butter, is made and sold in ton lots. It has already been stated that 
 in order to insure the best physiological results from the dietetic use 
 of nuts they should be thoroughly ground up by the teeth and that, 
 other tilings being equal, the digestion coefficient will vary directly 
 
NUTS AND TITEtK USES AS FOOD. 305 
 
 with the fmeiipss of division. The nut buttei's, made as they arc 
 from the finely ground nuts with or without tiie aikUtion of some 
 water, oil, and salt, have a homogeneous consistency not unlike true 
 butter, and when properly made the material is so finely divided that 
 even if it is not thoroughly chewed it will presumably oll'cr much less 
 resistance to the digestive juices than nuts hastily eaten. Xuts, and 
 hence nut butters, are very rich in fat which readily becomes rancid 
 and unpalatable. This is doubtless one of the reasons why nut but- 
 ters are (luite commonly marketetl in jars, etc., containing small 
 amounts wliich may be utilized in a short time. Tiie nut butters 
 are recommended l\v vegetarians as a substitute for butter in culi- 
 nary processes anil for use at the table. With persons who are not 
 vegetarians they are commonly used for making sandwiches and in 
 otlier ways for their agreeable flavor and for the ])leasing variety 
 which they give the diet. 
 
 Nut butter may be easily made at home. The nuts may be 
 pounded in a mortar, but a mill for grinding them is much more con- 
 venient and may ])e readily procured, as there are a iiunil>er of sorts 
 on the market. The ])roeess of making nut butters has lieen fre- 
 quently described in journals and cookery books. Either the raw 
 or the roasted peanut may b(> used for making j^canut butter, but 
 the roasted nut is the more satisfactory. The kernels should be freed 
 from chalT and reduced to a paste in the grinding mill. Freshly 
 roasted nuts are necessary, as tlmsc which have stood for a ch^y or so 
 after roasting lo.se in crispness, do not grind well, and tend to chig 
 the mill. Any sort of nut may be used, but experience has shown 
 that it is more tliilicult to mak(> butters from the almond ur Brazil 
 nut tiian from the. peanut. Blanching these nuts rec[uires cDusid- 
 erabl}' more time and labor than is needed to free the peanut from 
 the skin which covers the kernel, and they are also more difllcult to 
 grind. N'ut butters will keep well if sealed in glass or earthernware 
 jars. Tin cans also may be used, Init are not (piite as desirable. As 
 might ])e exjiected, nut Ixitters do not dill'er materially in composi- 
 tion from the nuts from wliich they are ground. (See table, p. 299.) 
 
 Th(> nut butters just mentioned are entirely different from cocoanut 
 butter and from cocoa butter, which are expressed and purified fats. 
 These "butters" are of consideralde commercial imi)ortance and are 
 used for culinaiy purposes, though ]>erhaps they are more commonly 
 used in other ways. 
 
 NUT TASTES AXl> NUT PRESEUVES. 
 
 Pastes which are used by confectioners for candy making and in 
 other ways are made from nuts with the addition of sugar. Some- 
 times water and starch are added, but such admixtures are inferior 
 to the nut and sugar pastes. The most common material of tliis 
 
306 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 sort is the aliiioiul paste, which is manufactured in large quantities 
 in the United States and is also imported. It is used for making 
 cakes, candies, etc., the highly ornamented cakes called "marzipan," 
 so popular with the Germans, being one of tire very well-known 
 almond-paste confections. 
 
 Chestnuts preserved or candied in sirup and then dried, the niar- 
 ron glace of the confectioners, are esteemed a tlelicacy and are eaten 
 alone or are used in confectionery, etc. Thus prepared, they are a 
 common commercial article. Much less common are the English 
 walnut meats in sirup, which are manufactured in Europe and 
 exported to this country in limited ([uantities. In tlie Tropics a 
 thick, sweet preserve is made from cocoanut and sugar which is 
 much liked locally, though those who are not familiar with it con- 
 sider it very sweet and insipid. As the data in the table on page 299 
 show, these ]>roducts are ricli in carliohy(h-ates, owing to the added 
 sugar. 
 
 NUT FI.OLKS AND .MEALS. 
 
 Among nut |)rodiicts may be mentioned nut Ihiurs and meals. 
 Some of these are used in large (|uantities and are made on a com- 
 mercial scale, while otliers, perhaps owing to the trouble and expense 
 incidental to manufacture, iind only a limited use. In general, meals 
 are made from the ordinary edible nuts by blanching, thoroughly 
 drying, and grinding. By using a nut mill sucli meals may be ground 
 at home. .iVnalyses of some products of this character will be found 
 in the talile t)n page 299. Almond meal has been on the market for a 
 long time, being used as i'ooti for diabetics and for making cakes, 
 etc., as well as in a number of technical ways. 
 
 Special mention should lie made of cliestnut flour, which is on sale 
 in tiie United States and is u.sed for most of the culinary purposes for 
 which the fiesh nut is recommended. In Italy it constitutes a con- 
 siderable part (if the diet, in some regions being extensively used for 
 making a sort of bread or cake. One of the most complete studies of 
 the dietetic use of chestnuts has been reported by Memmo." Accord- 
 ing to the author, the chestnut often serves almost as the exclusive 
 food of the peasants of Tuscany for a considerable part of the year. 
 The whole nuts are eaten in a variety of ways; for instance, boiled in 
 water wTthout hulling, ladled and boiled, or roasted. From the flour 
 various cakes and other foods are made. Acorn meal made into a 
 sort of bread with I lie addition of about 7.5 per cent of flour is a 
 common article of diet in several regions, notably Und)ria and Tus- 
 cany, but tlie bread is l)lack and heavy and not very j)alatable. 
 
 The early travelers and explorers make mention of the extended 
 use of nuts by the American Indians, and the custom c^f using acorns 
 
 " Lw. cil.; .see also p. 302. 
 
Yearbc-..-'K U S D. p; of Aancul-u..-, 1906 
 
 Plate XV. 
 
 
 Fig. 1 .—California Indians Pounding Acorn Meal for Food. 
 
 Fig. 2.- California Indian Leaching Acorns for Food. 
 
NUTS AXD THEIR USES AS FOOD. 307 
 
 as a staple food is still kept iijx Tiie niPtliods tf iircparinji; acorns 
 followed by the Indians of northern California have been described by 
 P. E. Goddard" in a publication of the University of California, and 
 by V. K. Chesnnt,'' formerly of tlie Department of Af;riculture. 
 Briefly speakino;, the shelled luits are split, dried, and ground with a 
 mortar and pestle. The sifted floiu' is placed in a hollow in the sand 
 on a convenient river bank and leached to free it from the bitter prin- 
 ci])les present. From the leached meal a porrid<;;e or mush is made, wliich 
 to the ordinary palate is nnich imj)roYed by the addition of salt. Plate 
 XV shows the way in which the nuts are pounded into flour, and 
 also shows an Indian woman leaching the meal. These tyjncal Indian 
 foods, when well j)re|)ared, are relished by many persons who have 
 tried them, and it seems not improbal)le that improved methods of 
 removing the tannin and bitter ])iinciples present in most varieties of 
 acorns might result in the utilization of the ai'orn crop, which is 
 fairly large and is generally wasted. 
 
 According to Chesnut's'' investigations, th<» California l)uckey(> or 
 hor.se-chestnut is also used by the Indians as a food and is leached to 
 fr(>e it from p isonous or objeetional)le matters in much (he same way 
 as the acorn. Many attemjits have l)een made in Europe and else- 
 where to treat the fruit of theconnnon liorse-chestnut in some way so 
 that it might be made wholesome and ]>alatabl(>, for it undoubtedly 
 contains an abundance of nutritive material, ])articiilarly starch: but 
 none of these attempts has been really succes.sful. 
 
 The use of partly extracted peanuts and other nut meals with 
 wheat and rye flour for bread making shoidd be mentioned. Such 
 breads liave lieen used for patients with diabetes, but have never 
 come into general use, pei'ha])s because they arc not very palatable, 
 since the nuts become rancid so r(>adily. 
 
 Xl'T CAXDIES. 
 
 One of the most extensive u.ses of nuts is in the manufactui(> of 
 candy of various sorts, such as sugared almonds, liurnt almonds, mi( 
 chocolates, caramels, pinoche, nut brittle, etc. WHiile there are si)me 
 differences in the process of manufacture followed in these candies, 
 they all in the main consist of nuts and sugar in varying jimportions, 
 with flavoring extracts, and in some instances butter and flour. 
 
 The table on page 299 shows the composition of common soi'ts oi 
 nut candy. As may be seen, the water content is low and these can- 
 dies are highly concentrated foods. On account of the ailded sugar 
 the carbohydrate content is high. The proportion of nuts used in 
 candies varies. By assuming that the nuts furnish the bulk of the fat 
 
 aUniv. Cal. Pubs., Aiu.'r. .Vicli. and EthnoL. 1 (1903), Xo. 1, p. 27. 
 
 6 1'. S. Di-pt. Agr., Div. I'.i.l., Conlrib. Nat. Herlxariiun, 7 1 19021, p. :«.3. 
 
 choc. cit.. p. 3G(j. 
 
308 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 in tlie candy, it is estimated that nuts constituted about 50 per cent m 
 the specimens analyzed. It is perhaps well to sugp;est that nut can- 
 dies and other candies which sometimes cause digestive distin-bances 
 would be more satisfactory if eaten in a rational way and at tlie proper 
 time. Since they are concentrated foods, they should naturally 
 replace an equivalent amount of some other food material and not be 
 eaten in quantity simply for their palatable flavor in addition to an 
 otherwise adequate daily ration. 
 
 Xl'T COFFEES. 
 
 A number of colfee substitutes made from nuts have been devised 
 and placed on the market, peanut coffee and acorn coffee being by far 
 the most common. The nuts are parched and sometimes otherwise 
 treated. Sucii coffee substitutes lack the stimulating properties of 
 true coffee, and tlie infusion does not have the high nutritive value 
 which is sometimes claimed for it. 
 
 (iKEEN NUTS. 
 
 A number of kinds of nuts are used before thev are fidly ripe, and 
 are esteemed a delicacy. In California in spring the markets quite 
 commonly ofl'er green almonds — tliat is, the almond picked from the 
 tree while the husk is of a decided green color and easily separated 
 from the soft and immature shell. The kernel, after the skin is peeled 
 off, is eaten with or without salt, and is relished In' many persons. 
 The price of green almonds in California markets commonly varies 
 from about 20 to 35 cents per pound. Green almonds are foiuid to a 
 limited extent in fancy fruit shops in eastern cities and elsewhere, 
 and are perhaps purchased as much for their ornamental apj^earance 
 as for tiieir palat ability. They are much more commonly used in 
 Europe than in the United States. Green English walnuts and green 
 hazelnuts are also eaten to a considerable extent in Europe and are 
 great favorites. The nuts are gathered when the shells are fully 
 matured but not thoroughly "ripe. Sometimes these green nuts are 
 imported into the United States. Many who have growii uji in the 
 country will recall the delicate flavor of the immature butternut and 
 hickory nut and the stained fuigers which they caused. Such green 
 nuts have apparently never been marketed. 
 
 Whole green walnuts and some other nuts are also used in a quite 
 immature state for ])ickle making. They are picked when still 
 tender enough to be easily pierced by a large pin; then, after being 
 kept in brine for a number of days, they are exposed to the sun until 
 they turn black. Afterwards they are placed in jars and covered 
 with hot vinegar and spices. Sometimes they are treated with dry 
 
NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 3U9 
 
 salt instead of brine liefore picl^ling. It is claimed tiiat nuts thus 
 treated will blacken without l)einsj; exposed to sunliglit. Such pickled 
 nuts are considered by many as a very palatal)le dish for use with 
 meats and ]ioultry. Walnut catsuj) is also made from green walnuts. 
 
 NIT OILS AND 01L-CAKI-: MKALS. 
 
 In some parts of Europe almond oil, walnut oil, and beechnut oil 
 are manufactured and prized as salad oils, and in South America 
 Brazil-nut oil is used for table purposes. C'ocoanut oil is an important 
 oil in the Tropics. Peanut oil finds a large technical aj)])licalion and 
 is also used in large quantities as a salad oil and for culinary j^urposes. 
 Oils are also made from the kernel or mil of the ])each and ii])ricot, 
 but these, like uKist nut oils except those mentioned, arc asc<l for 
 medicinal or technical purj)oses. 
 
 The various nut oils, which are practically ])ure fats, have a very 
 high fuel value, and, like olive oil and other oils, may constitute an 
 important energy -yielding constituent of the diet. It is commonly 
 assumed that, like olive oil, these oils are readily assimilated when 
 properly condtined witli other food nmterials, as in salads, as '" shorten- 
 ing" for various dishes, and in similar ways. 
 
 The oil-cake meals, as the ground products I'ciiuiining after the 
 expression of the nut oils are called, are nuich used as food for live 
 stock and all kinds of poultry, and this is esjiecially true of th(^ ]H'anut 
 and cocoanut oil cakes. It has been suggestecl that such oil-cake 
 meals might be valuable dietary articles if ])ro])erly manipulated, as 
 they of course contain a higher jiercentage of protein than the original 
 nut. Some attempts have been nuule to thus utilize ])eanut-cake 
 meal, but the results have not been very satisfactory. 
 
 PECUNIARY ECONO.MV Ol'^ NUTS. 
 
 The composition and dig(>stibility of nuts have been discussed in the 
 foregoing i)ages, but little has been said regarding the cost of nutrients 
 and energ_\' which they su])ply as compared with other and more com- 
 mon food materials. The table oti page ;!1() shows the comparative 
 cost of a pound of protein and 1, ()()() calories of energy when furnished 
 by different nuts and nut jiroducts and some other staple foods, and 
 also the amounts of nutrients and energy which 10 cents' worth of 
 the.se foods would sup])ly, rating the foods at certain average |)rices 
 per pound. 
 
 The common nuts — though, with the exception of the peanut, they 
 are more ex]>ensive sources of pr<jtein and energy than meat and a 
 number of the common foods — may yet be considered reasonablj' 
 cheap sources of nutrients and energy, and hence may be regarded 
 as justifiable additions to the diet on the score of economy. For 
 
310 
 
 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the vegetarian or fTuitarian, who looks to nuts as the chief source of 
 protein in the diet, the peanut must be considered as mucli the most 
 economical. As may be seen by a reference to the table, 10 cents 
 will purchase more protein and energy when expended for the flours 
 and meals than for any of the other foods, but it must be rememl>ered 
 in this connection that these are the raw materials recjuirmg con- 
 siderable preparation before they are palatable. This is not neces- 
 sary witli fruits antl nuts, except in the case of tlie peanut and chest- 
 nut, which are usuallj' roasted before they are considered palatable 
 })y most persons, though there are those who prefer them raw. When 
 considering nuts, it is readily observed that 10 cents will buy about 
 the same amount of nut protein as of animal ]>rotein, except in the 
 case of cheese and skim milk. If spent for peanuts, it will purchase 
 more than twice the protein and six times the energy that could be 
 bought for tiie same expenditure fi)r ]>orterliouse steak. 
 
 r<riini{irij economy of nuts and n.iit pmihiiix. 
 
 Kind of food. 
 
 Price 
 
 ppr 
 
 pound. 
 
 1 
 Nuts and nut products : 1 Cents. 
 
 .\lmonds ' '20 
 
 Brazil nuts I 20 
 
 Chestnuts 8 
 
 Cocoanuts i .'i 
 
 Hicltory nuts I 
 
 Peanuts 7 
 
 Pecans ' la 
 
 Pignolias i 2.") 
 
 Pistachios ,.i 20 
 
 Walnuts 20 
 
 Almond paste 40 
 
 Peanut butter i 20 
 
 Peanut candy 2.'> 
 
 other foods for com- 
 parison; 
 
 Porterhouse steak 
 
 Whole milk 
 
 Cheddar cheese 
 
 Wheat flour 
 
 Beans, dried 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Amount for 10 cents. 
 
 Cost of 
 
 one 
 pound 
 protein. 
 
 Dollars. 
 1.76 
 2.26 
 1.48 
 1.16 
 1..55 
 
 .32 
 2.47 
 
 .74 
 
 .88 
 2. f.6 
 .117 
 
 .(iS 
 2.42 
 
 Cost of 
 
 1,000 
 calories 
 energy. 
 
 Cents. 
 13.0 
 12.6 
 8.3 
 2.7 
 7.1 
 3.6 
 9.1 
 8.4 
 6.1 
 Ki.O 
 21.0 
 7.1 
 U.8 
 
 25 
 
 1.31 
 
 22. .") 
 
 4 
 
 1.21 
 
 12.0 
 
 ir, 
 
 . .w 
 
 7. 5 
 
 3 
 
 .26 
 
 1.8 
 
 r, 
 
 .22 
 
 3.1 
 
 
 1. U 
 
 6.4 
 
 Total 
 
 weight 
 
 of food 
 
 material. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 1 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. ' 
 
 0..50 
 
 0.06 
 
 ..TO 
 
 .04 
 
 1.2.5 
 
 .07 
 
 2. 0(1 
 
 OS 
 
 1. 11 
 
 .00 
 
 1.43 
 
 .31 
 
 .67 
 
 .04 
 
 .40 
 
 .14 
 
 .50 
 
 .11 
 
 .m 
 
 .04 
 
 or. 
 
 .03 
 
 .56 
 
 .1.5 
 
 .40 
 
 .04 
 
 .40 
 
 .07 
 
 2.50 
 
 .OS 
 
 .62 
 
 .17 
 
 3.33 
 
 ..IS 
 
 2.00 
 
 . 45 
 
 5.00 
 
 .09 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carl 10- 
 
 hy- 
 dra'tes. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.14 
 
 .16 
 
 .02 
 
 .06 
 
 .44 
 
 .73 
 
 .29 
 
 .28 
 
 .04 
 
 .45 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 .04 
 
 .20 
 
 .03 
 
 .27 
 
 .08 
 
 .13 
 
 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 .10 
 
 .23 
 
 .09 
 
 .07 
 
 .28 
 
 Energy 
 
 .13 
 .03 
 2.50 
 1.19 
 .74 
 
 Calories. 
 
 767 
 
 789 
 
 1,196 
 
 3,062 
 
 1,404 
 
 2,767 
 
 1,003 
 
 1,182 
 
 1,124 
 
 633 
 
 475 
 
 1,412 
 
 845 
 
 444 
 815 
 1,330 
 5,495 
 3,210 
 1,550 
 
 It is of more than passing interest to note that 10 cents' worth of 
 peanuts will contain al)out 4 ounces (120 grams) of protein and 
 2,767 calories of energy, which is more protein and energy than is 
 furnished by many rations regarded as adetjuate for a day. Although 
 peanuts supi:)ly protein and energj' for a smaller sum than bread, they 
 are outranked by dried beans, which, at H cents a pound, will supply 
 
NUTS AND THEIR USKS AS FOOD. 311 
 
 for 10 cents over 200 grains of {)rotein and 3,200 calories of ener<jy. 
 If more jjeanuts and dried beans were used by fruitarians, their diet 
 would be enriched and the cost decreased. The ahnond, so much 
 in favor witli fruitarians, furnisiies for 10 cents about one-fourth 
 tiie protein and less than one-third the enero-y sup])lied b_v ]>eanuts. 
 
 IIAXDI.INC AND MAHKF.TINCi NTTS. 
 
 Within tiie last few years the trade in shelled nuts has \(>ry mark- 
 edly increased, and shelled walnuts, hickory nuts, iduionds, English 
 walnuts, pecans, etc., are now verj' commonly found in sho))s. The 
 bidk <if the nut crop is, however, marketeil luishelled. Some of the 
 unshelled nuts, notably pecans and peanuts, are very often pol- 
 islied before marketing by rotating them in ra])idly revolving drums 
 in such a way that the shells are worn down until they are more or 
 less smooth. This method of treatment also removes any dirt and 
 is supposed to make the niit more salable. It is worthy of note, 
 however, that the highly |)rized, large fancy pecans are marketeil 
 without such treatment. 
 
 For shelling nuts on a commercial scale a number of ingenious 
 machines have been devisetl. In order to meet the market demand 
 for clean and uniforndy colored luits, many nut growers have resorted 
 to the process of bleaching their ])roduct. The first attempts in this 
 direction were made by sulphuring; that is, by exposing the nuts 
 to sulijhiu' vapor. This treatment, though im])roving the color, 
 proved decidedly injurious to the flavor of the nuts and lessened the 
 keeping cpialities. At the California ex])criment station ex])eri- 
 ments with bleaching solutions have been carried on and very satis- 
 factory residts ha\e been obtained with a mixture of sal soila, chloriil 
 of lime, and water. According to n>ports of the im|)erial department 
 of agriculture of tiie West Indies," a similar jirocess has been success- 
 fully used for bleaching )>eanuts. The consumer should bear in 
 mind that tiie bleaching of nuts is entirely unnecessary and in no 
 way increases tlieii- food value. Tiie ])rocess is cai'ried on solely for 
 the purpose of impro\iiig the appearance of tht' nut and tluis com- 
 manding a higher price. It will doubtless be ci>ntinued as long as 
 the public is willing to be guided by appearance ratiier tlian food 
 value. The term "Ideaching," as ajiplietl to nuts, nuist not be con- 
 founded with tile hou.sehold term "blanching," which a])plies to the 
 process of removing tlie skins from nut meats, as almonds, by immers- 
 ing them for a short time in hot water. 
 
 Vegetables and fruits exposed for sale under ordinary conditions 
 may be readily contaminated with bacteria, dirt, and dust. Nuts 
 sold in their shells are ]>rotected in large measure from sucii contami- 
 nation, yet many careful housewives wash, m- at least wipe, the nuts 
 
 a Imp. Dept. Agr. West Indies Pamphlet No. 4;i, n. s. 
 
f; 
 
 312 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 which arc to be cracked and served in the shells, as anything which 
 adheres to the shell woukl readilj^ contaminate the nuts after crack- 
 ing, if all were mixed together in a dish. Shelled nuts, if exposed to 
 dust in shops and markets, shouhl be washed before they are used for 
 salads, etc. If exposed to damp conditions, nuts mold and decay, and 
 even under favorable conditions the nut oils and pits become rancid 
 on long-continued storing. In the main, however, the keeping (juali- 
 ties of most nuts are excellent. Nuts should be stored in sucli a way 
 that they may be free from attacks of insect enemies. When such 
 precautions are not taken , ' ' wormy ' ' nuts are by no means uncommon . 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Summarizing the foregoing data, it may be said that nuts are a • 
 very concentrated food, even more so than cheese, but when ration- j; 
 ally used they are well assimilated and may form a part of a well- y. 
 balanced diet. Nuts are a very valuable source of protein and fat, % 
 these two nutrients being the characteristic constituents of the more % 
 common nuts, of which the walnut and cocoanut may be t-aken as f: 
 types. In nuts like the chestnut, carbohydrates are a characteristic \- 
 ct)nstituent. For most families it is untloulitedly wiser to use nuts i; 
 as part of the regular diet than as a condiment or supplement to an V. 
 otherwise hearty meal. t 
 
 \'egetarians and others who use mits in place of meat should not ■;; 
 depend upon them as the main food supply, but should supplement J; 
 them with more bulky foods with a low content of protein and fat. k 
 As a whole, nuts may be classed among the staple foods and not :■ 
 simply as food accessories. At usual prices, nuts are reasonable ;.' 
 sources of protein and energy. Peanuts supply protein and energy ■ 
 very cheaply, even compared with such staple foods as bread and 
 beans. There are a number of nut foods on the market, but it may ; 
 be stated tluit tliere is little to be gained from the standpoint of food . 
 value or economy' in their use, especially b}' healthy persons who ' 
 are willing to masticate their food thoroughly and to use nuts m •, 
 reasonal)le combinations. Unless something has been added, the 
 nutritive materials in such special preparations can not be greater 
 than the nuts from which they are made, though in the mechanical . 
 condition or in some other way the foods may be better fitted for 
 ready assimilation. Furthermore, nut butters and similar foods 
 give a pleasant variety to the diet, and they are relished by many 
 wjio would not care for the unprejiared nuts. 
 
 Though less subject to contamination than many other footls, nuts 
 should be handled and stored under good conditions, and especially 
 should he protected from dampness and insect enemies. 
 
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