aass^L0j5 Book ^^Gl OUTLINES OF MODERN HISTORY, ON A NEW PLAN. /^S EMBRACING BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES op ILLUSTRIOUS PERSONS, .AND GEXERAIi VIEWS OP THE GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, POLITICS, RELIGION, MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS, ARTS, LITERATURE, MAJINERS, CUSTOMS, AND SOCIETY OF MODERN NATIONS. BY THE REV. ROYAIi ROBBITTS. - PUBLISHED BY EDWARD HOPKINS. 1830. DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, TO WIT : District Clerk's Office. RE IT REMEMBERED, that on the nineteenth day of January, A. D, IS^'j" ^^e Sd Naval Affai^ Arts, Literature, Manners, Customs, and Society ot Modern Nations and nronrietors of sucti copies, during the tunes therein mentioned." And also to an ACi, pmitFed "An Ac? supplementary to an Act, entitled, an Act for the encouragement of Learn- ?,i" bv securinc- the cE of Maps, Charts and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such cnpiS ?ur"ng Ihe tiinTs therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereol to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints. ^^^ ^ DAVIS, Clerk of the District of Massachusetts. 11lb-i PREFACE. Modern History presents so wide and varied a field, that a volume of the ordinary size is scarcely adequate to the purpose, of pointing out all even of the more striking objects, which such a field contains. Indeed, comparatively httle can be hoped to be achieved in a very condensed narrative of the events of modern ages, on the common plan. It would be apt to become a barren outHne, or dry abstract, with little to interest or instruct the mind of the reader, and this, almost from tlie necessity of the case. The conciseness which is studied would preclude aU minute relation, and with that the chief charm of history. The character of many publications of this class, otherwise very valuable, has suffered from such a cause. By the use of two sizes of type, this inconvenience is remedied in a degree, if there be sufficient skill in the exe- cution ; and a considerable space within a given compass, is thus allowed, for lively and entertaining matter not essen- tially cormected with the leading facts or fi:ame-work of history. The latter, necessarily dry in themselves, and having few attractions for common minds, but very important to every one tvho would obtain a correct idea of the course of events, may be all confined to the larger type : and thus, while a very brief epitome of history is presented in that part, the reader is at the same time, by means of the smaller type, made acquainted with details which will enUven the narrative, and the better impress the more material facts on his mind. This is one great advantage of reading history on the plan of the present work — a plan which has of late been adopted with much success ; — though the work possesses other peculiarities, which, whether they are happy or not, the PREFACE. reader, it is believed, will not fail to perceive. The author would only add, that in preparing this outline of history, he has consulted a large number of valuable authors, from whom he has taken whatever was suited to his purposes, in many instances with httle variation even in language, though he has generally endeavoured to maintain a homogeneous style and manner — that he has exercised much care in select- ing the materials and topics, and in connecting and arranging them — that he has aimed at scrupulous fidelity in the state- ment of facts, and impartiality in estimating their value — and that he has occasionally interwoven in the narrative such moral remarks, and attempted throughout to exhibit such a spirit, as to render history not merely an agreeable exercise to the understanding, but an impressive lesson to the heart. CONTENTS. General Remarks, Ten periods, Introduction General Division, Period L History of the Roman Empire, : Judea, Parthia, Persia, . : : China, Distinguished Characters, Period History of the Roman Empire, continued, Persia, continued, : : China, continued, Distinguished Characters, Period History of the Roman Empire, continued. Kingdom of Italy, Persia, continued, China, continued, Spain, France, England, Distinguished Characters, //, ///. History of the Arabs or Saracens, Eastern or Greek Empire, Kingdom of Italy, continued Spain, continued, Prance, continued, , Distinguished Characters, Period IV. History of the New Western Empire, France, continued, . Italy, contintaed, Spain, continued; Germany, England, continued. Eastern Empire, continued, China, continued, Saracens, continued. Distinguished Characters, Crusades, History of Prance, continued, . England, continued, Germany, continued. Eastern Empire, continued, Saracens, continued, China, continued. Distinguished Characters, Period Period VL 125 143 146 166 157 159 160 161 VI CONTENTS. Period Vn. History of the Turkish Empu-e, 164 Italian States, continued, ' . 165 France, continued,. . 167 England, continued, 171 Germany, continued, . 178 China, continued, 181 Distinguished Characters, 182 Period VUI. History of the Turkish Empire, continued, • • • • • 185 Italian States, continued, • • . . 187 France, continued, • • • « . 189 England, continued, . 195 Germany, continued. • . 207 Spain, continued, Holland, . : : . • • • 210 : : . : . 211 America, . . 213 Distinguished Characters, ! 218 Period 2X History of Prance, continued, . • . 224 Great Britain, continued,^ . . 230 Germany, continued, . . • • 246 Spain, continued, . . 248 Turkish Empire, continued, • . 250 British Colonies in North America > • • • 252 Russia, 259 Sweden, . . . , : 261 Distinguished Characters, 263 Period X. History of Sweden, continued, . 271 Prussia, 273 Germany, continued, 277 Poland, 283 Russia, continued, . 286 England, continued. 292 France, continued, . 299 Italian States, continued, 313 Spain, continued. 313 Netherlands, continued, 315 Turkish Empire, continued, 316 China, continued, 318 Persia, continued, . 318 India, 319 United States, 321 South America, 325 Distinguished Characters, 326 General Views. Feudal System, .... • . 342 Chivalry, .... . • 345 Romances, . • • • 358 Pilgrimages, . : : : : : 359 Manners and Character of the Gothic or Scandinavian nations, 360 Learning and Arts, . . 363 Discoveries and Inventions, . 370 Incidents and Curious Particulars, . 376 Present state of several Nations in Agricultur Education, Trade, Manufactures, &c. e, Roads, Conveyances, Interoouj rse, . . 380 Christian Church, . 388 MODERN HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. Sec. 1. Writers who have divided History into Ancient and Modern, are not agreed as to the most convenient sepa- rating hne between them. Some have taken the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans as the dividing period ; and others the establishment of the Neio Empire of the West, under Charlemagne. We however agree with a third, and probably a more numerous class, who adopt the commencement of the Christian Era as the line of separa- tion. In this there is an evident propriety. 2. It is the epoch from which civihzed nations reckon time, both backwards to the beginning of creation, and forwards to the end of the world. Add to this, the event (the birth of Christ) that forms this era, is the most important of events. It has had a commanding influence upon all subsequent his- tory. It has altered the aspect of all human affairs, and it will alter them more and more, as Christianity becomes ex- tended. The state of the civilized world was also singular. A change had taken place in the establishment of a mighty despotism, which was destined to oppress the nations, through many successive generations. § The period from which we commence Modern History, cannot be contemplated with too deep an interest. It was a remarkable era in Divine Providence. " The fullness of the time was come" — the ancient order of things was drawing to a close, and new scenes in the moral world, were henceforth to be presented to the view of mai>- kind. It is therefore associated with our most solemn thoughts of the dispensations of the Supreme Being towards his creatures. It is the period whence we date the commencement of the spiritual re- novation of the world. The state of the world, in a political point of view, also deserves consideration. The principal nations were reduced under one head. Wars and dissentions, of long continuance and infinite ferocity, ha- ving terminated in one most formidable power, the whole earth en- joyed an unheard of calm. Mankind, for a short time, tasted the sweets of peace, though in servitude. One man was master of 8 MODERN HISTORY. the lives and fortunes of all the rest, and therefore even the spirit of conquest could scarcely desire more. 3. The authenticity and the abundance of the materials of modern histoiy, will be hailed with peculiar satisfaction by tlie inquirer after tmth. A considerable portion of ancient history is plunged into darkness and uncertainty, from a va- riety of causes. And the scantiness, in some instances, of the materials from which it is drawn, is often perplexing. But both the ecclesiastical and civil records of modern histo- ry, illustrate, with desirable fullness, the state of the times. It must be owned, however, that the rage of the barbarians who subverted the Roman Empire, has deprived us of some means of information which we should otherwise have pos- sessed. But it is wonderful, after all, that so many monu- ments of the earlier periods of modern history, have come down to us. § The causes that have operated to render some portions of an- cient history obscure, are such as the lapse of numerous ages ; a se- ries of great revolutions, in consequence of which the memory of many events was lost ; the fury of barbarians, by which numerous monuments of early times have been destroyed ; and more than all ' the rest, the designed or accidental destruction of libraries. Some noble collections of books perished before the Christian era, particularly the celebrated library of Alexandria. This library was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 284 years B. C, and con- sisted of a vast collection of records, histories, poems, and other works. The number of volumes was reckoned at 400,000, and they might have been as many as were in all the world beside. Before the art of printing, books were comparatively scarce ; and of some, there might have been no other copies than those contained in this library. It perished in the flames of Alexandria, when Julius Caesar took that city. In later ages, large libraries have been destroyed, particularly the same library at Alexandria after it was revived, and collections had been made during several centuries. In the latter instance 700,000 volumes perished. But books by this time had been much more multiplied, and though numerous destructions took place, many have survived the wrecks of ages. GENERAL DIVISION. Modern History may be divided into ten periods. They have each their peculiar characteristic, by which they may be always re- membered, and by which distinct views of the subject are designed to be imparted to the mind. Period I, will extend from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, INTRODUCTION. ^ to the reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. 0. This is the period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians. Period II, will extend from the reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. C, to the Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C. This is the period of the Nov- fJiprti Inv cLSions t Period III, will extend from the Extinction of the Wes- tern Empire, 476 years A. C, to the Flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C. This is the period of the Justinian Code^ and the Wars of Belisarius. Period IV, wiU extend from the Flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C, to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 years A. C. This is the period of the Establishment of the Saraceil Dominion. Period Y, will extend from the Crowning of Charle- magne at Rome, 800 years A. C, to the First Crusade, 1095 years A. C. This is the period of the Neiu Western Em- f)ZTe> Period VI, mil extend from the First Cmsade, 1095 years A. C, to the Founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C. This is the period of the Crusades. Period VII, will extend from the Founding of the Tur- kish Empire, 1299 years A. C, to the Taking of Constanti- nople, 1453 years A. C. This is the period of the Papal Schism/. Period VIII, will extend from the Taking of Constan- tinople, 1453 years A. C, lo the Edict of Nantes, {Nantz- ) 1598 years A. C. This is the period of the Reformation. Period IX, will extend from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 years A. C, to the Death of Charles XII, of Sweden, 1718 years A. C. This is the period of the English Common- wealth. , ,,^11 VTT Period X, will extend from the Death of Charles Xli, df Sweden, 1718 years A. C, to the final Restoration of the Bourbons, 1815 years A. C. This is the period of the Ame- rican and French Revolutions. 10 MODERN HISTORI". — PERIOD I. PERIOD I. The period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians^ extend- ing from the Nativity of Jesus Christ, to the Reign of Constantine the Great, 306 A. C. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. The great event with which this period properly commences, is the Birth of Jesus Christ. It belongs to the Roman History, only from the fact that Judea, the coun- try of Our Saviour, was held in subjection to Rome. It is strictly an event of the Jewish History, and is hereafter to be more fully noticed under that head. Here it may be mentioned only, that the Birth of Jesus oc- curred, according to the common reckoning, in the 3 1st year of the reign of Augustus, 752 years after the building of Rome, and in the 195th Olympiad, under the consulship of Caius Ju- lius Ceesar. It is the general opinion of the learned, how- ever, that our Saviour was born four years earlier than this date, viz. in the 27th of Augustus, and that the common reckoning or era is a mistake. According to this opinion, Jesus, in the year 1, A. C, (the vulgar date) was really four years old. § It is a circumstance worthy of remark, that the temple of Janus, at Rome, which was always open in time of war, and shut only du- ring peace, was shut at the period of our Saviour's birth, and that, for the third instance only, during the space of more than 700 years. 2. Rome had been an empire in the more proper sense of the word, from the beginning of the reign of Augustus. At the time of the nativity of Christ, the empire was at the me- ridian of its splendour, or perhaps a little past it. Most of the nations had bowed to the Roman yoke ; and luxury and the arts poured in upon the queen of cities. It had been for some years the most powerful dominion of the ancient world, and continued thus to be for several suc- ceeding centuries. The times, however, were degenerate, and the real strength of the Roman empire, if it had not be- gun to diminish at this epoch, was certainly not greater than during the last days of the repubUc. A few nations after- wards were added to its sway, but these rather weakened than augmented the power of Rome. The wide extent of its do- ROMAN EMPIRE. 11 minions, we shall hereafter see, was one of the causes of its decline and downfall. But the pomp and glory of so great a monarchy, continu- ed hng after the seeds of weakness and decay were sown. Distant nations admired and dreaded the splendid spectacle. Ambassadors from every region daily arrived at Rome, to do ho- m£Lge to her gi*eatness, or to seek her friendship and assistance. 3. Augustus, who first established a despotism over the Roman people, died 14 yeai's after the birth of Christ. The e^'ents which took place between the birth of Christ and the death of Augustus, pertaining to the Romans, were neither many nor important. During this interval, Augustus adopted Tiberius, and fi- nally associated him in the empire. Archelaus, king of Ju- dea, was deposed, and that country became strictly a Roman province. Germanicus, grandson of Augustus, successfully commanded in Pannonia, and Q,. Varus was signally defeat- ed by the Germans, with the loss of three Roman legions. 4. Luxury and the arts having enervated the Roman peo- ple, and the former civil wars and the consequent calamities having paved the way for a different order of things, in the quiet establishment of despotism under Augustus, their fate from tliis time was fixed. He found no difficulty in riveting their chains, and for long ages, a series of despots, most of them monsters of vice and cruelty, ruled with a rod of iron, this once liberty-loving people, and mistress of nations. § Amidst the refinements and elegancies of modern times, con- nected with our ideas of the progressive improvement of society, \ve are perhaps inclined to overlook and undervalue the ages of antiqui- ty. Many seem to forget what scenes of brightness and grandeur have illumined the nations before us, and how mournfully those scenes ai'e departed. The pensive, contemplative mind, however, does justice to such a subject ; and no instance of human greatness of old, strikes such a mind more forcibly, than that of the proud empire of Rome, under her CoBsars. The memorial is both pleasant and mournful to the soul. The mixture of misery with its splendour, renders it, if any thing, more touching and impressive. 5. Tiberius, who had been named in the will of Augus- tus as his successor, immediately assumed the government, 14 years A. C. He was the son of Augustus's wife, Livia, by a former husband, and had distinguished himself in war. During the first eight or nine years of his reign, he put on 12 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. the appearance of justice and moderation, practising the most consummate dissimulation. His vicious and tyrannical disposi- tion was indulged during this time in a very covert manner; but afterwards it was openly manifested, and carried to a most ter- rible extreme. His cruelties and debaucheries were enormous. The first objects of his suspicions were Agrippa Posthu- mus, a grandson of Augustus, whom he ordered to be execu- ted in compliance with the pretended w^ill of that emperor ; and the accomplished Germanicus, his nephew and distin- guished general, whom he caused to be secretly poisoned. The Roman people indulged in unbounded sorrow, upon the death of Germanicus. Afterwards, when he gave a loose to his passions, the best blood in Rome flowed. By means of Sejanus, a Roman knight whom he took into his confidence, and who exceeded even Tiberius in dissimulation, he exercised the most shock- ing cruelties towards his subjects. Sejanus first fell a victim to his crimes, in attempting to assume the government him self ; and a few years after Tiberius was strangled or poison ed by one of his officers. § From the 12th year of his reign, Tiberius was persuaded by Se janus to abandon Rome, and to retire to the island of Caprea, as a more convenient place for the indulgence of his indolence and de- baucheries. His gloomy and cruel disposition also followed him there, and by means of this base minion, he perpetrated all manner of crimes. At this time he was 67 years old, and the unpleasantness of his person comported with the deformity of his mind. He was quite bald in front ; his face was disgustingly ulcerated, and covered over with plasters; his body was bent forward, while its unnatural tallness and leanness increased its ugliness. He now gave himself up to every excess. He spent whole nights in eating and drinking, and he ap- pointed two of his table companions to the first posts of the empire, for no other merit, than that of having sat up with him two days and two nights, without interruption. These he called his friends of all hours. His libidinous indulgences were still more detestable, and the most eminent women of Rome were obliged to sacrifice to him their virtue and honour. His jealousy, which fastened on persons of the highest distinction, induced him to condemn them to death on the slightest pretences. Indeed to such an extent were legalized murders carried, that he be- gan to grow weary of particular executions, and therefore gave or- d,ers that all the accused should be put to death together, without further examination. The whole city of Rome was filled with slaughter and mourning. The place of execution was a horrible scene j ROMAN EMPIRE. 13 dead bodies putrifying lay heaped on each other, while even the friends of the wretched convicts were denied the satisfaction of weeping. In putting to death sixteen out of twenty senators whom he had chosen for his council, he uttered a sentiment never to be forgot- ten in the records of human cruelty. " Let tliem hate me, so long as they obey me." This monster often satisfied his eyes, with the tortures of the wretches who were put to death before him ; and in the days of Suetonius, the rock was still shown from which he or- dered such as displeased him to be thrown headlong. He died in the seventy-eighth year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign. 37 A. C. 6. At this time the Romans were arrived at the highest pitch of effeminacy and vice. The wealth of almost every nation in the empire, having long circulated through the city, brought with it the hixuries peculiar to each country. Rome was one vast mass of pollution, and sensuality. It was thought a refinement upon pleasure to make it unnatu- ral. Abating their genius, there never was a more detesta- ble people, than the Romans at this epoch, and indeed, du- ring the continuance of the empire. Cruelty and hist were essential ingredients in the Roman character. § It was a burst of joy, says Chateaubriand, which Tiberius was imable to repress, on finding the Roman people and senate sunk below even the baseness of his own heart. Again, according to this writer, death formed an essential part of the festivities of the Romans. It was introduced as a contrast, and for the purpose of giving a zest to the pleasures of hfe. Gladiators, courtezans, and musicians, were procured to enliven entertainments. A Roman on quitting a haunt of infamous pleasure, went to enjoy the spectacle of a wild beast devouring human victims, and quaffing their blood. 7. Caligula had been adopted by Tiberius for his heir and successor in the empire. He was the son of Germanicus, and grand-nephew of Tiberius, and so called from Caliga, a short buskin which he wore, in imitation of the common sentinels. He commenced his reign immediately on the death of Tiberius, 37 years A. C. and at his accession, was popular from the virtues of his father. He commenced his reign with a show of clemency and moderation. He restored some of the forms of the republic which his predecessor had entirely disregarded, and he abol- ished arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But tyranni- cal by nature, in less than eight months he acted out his real disposition, in cruelties, extortions, and impieties, which surpassed even those of Tiberius. 2 14 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. Joining absurdity and extravagance to vice, he became supremely contemptible, as well as detestable. Indeed, his follies and absurdities were peculiar to himself, so that accord- ing to an idea of Seneca, he was one of those productions of nature, in which there was the greatest possible combination of vice and power. He died by assassination, in the fourth year of his reign and 29th of his age. A. C 41. § Among the cruelties of this imperial monster, were his murder of Gemellus his kinsman, of Silenus his father-in-law, of Grecinus a senator of noted integrity, who refused to witness falsely against Silenus ; afterwards, his killing many of the senate, and then citing them to appear as if they had killed themselves ; indeed, the sacri- fice of crowds of victims to his avarice, or suspicion. He condemned many persons of the highest quality to dig in the mines, and to repair the high-ways, for ridiculing his profusion. He cast great numbers of old and infirm men, and poor decrepid housekeepers, to wild beasts, in order to free the state from sucli un- serviceable citizens. He frequently had men racked before him while he sat at table, ironically pitying their misfortunes, and blam- ing their executioner. And as the height of insane cruelty, he once expressed the wish " that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might dispatch them at a single blow." His impieties, and the depravation of his appetites, made hhn still more a disgrace to human nature. He claimed divine honours, and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to be offered to him- self, as a God. He caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter and some other gods to be struck off, and his own to be put in their places. He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and would frequently defy Jupiter, crying out in a sentence of Homer, " Do you conquer me or I will conquer you." Scarcely any lady of quality in Rome escaped his depraved solicitations. He com- mitted incest with his three sisters, two of whom he prostituted to his vile companions, and then banished them, as adulteresses and conspirators against his person. His follies and prodigality completed the infamy of his charac- ter. The luxuries of the former emperors were trifling, compared to his. He invented dishes of immense value, and had even jewels dissolved among his sauces. He sometimes had services of pure gold, instead of meat, presented before his guests ; observing, "that a man should be an economist or an emperor." For his favorite horse Incitatus, he built a stable of marble, and a manger of ivory ; and appointed it a house, fwrniture, and a kitchen, in order to a respectful entertainment of its visitors. Some- times indeed, the emperor invited Incitatus to his own table ; and it is said that he would have appointed it to the consulship, had he not been prevented by death. These and a thousand other follies, particularly the building of a bridge three miles and a half across an arm of the sea in a ridicu- ROMAN EMPIRE. 15 loiis manner, and which the first storm annihilated, constituted such a drain upon the public resonrces, as became exceedingly oppressive. Of a fortune of £18,000,000 sterling left by Tiberius, none remained in a space little beyond one year. He of course put in practice all kinds of rapine and extortion. Professor Heeren remarks, that " he was more pernicious to the state by his insane prodigality, than by his savage cruelty." Against such a wretch,-we naturally look for treason and conspiracies. After several attempts, his death was at length accomplished by Cassius Cherea, tribune of the praetorian bands, who was an ardent lover of freedom. Leagued with a number of conspirators, he met the em- peror in a little vaulted gallery that led to one of his baths, and struck him to the ground, crying out, " tyrant, think upon this." He was immediately dispatched by the other conspirators, who rushed in and pierced him with thirty wounds. 8. A temporary confusion followed the death of Caligula, and in this crisis of affairs, the senate attempted to restore the repu'blic. But the spirit of Roman liberty had fled ; the populace, and in general the army, opposed the design. Claudius at this juncture, havmg been accidentally found m a lurking place, to which he had repaired through fear, some of the prtctorian guards proclaimed him emperor, at the moment he expected nothing but death ; 41 A. C. Claudius was the uncle of Caligula, and grand-son of Mark Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus. Claudius was a man below mediocrity in understanding and education ; and his capacity for business was even con- temptible. He became almost of course infamous for his vi- ces, and the dupe of his associates and even of his domestics. Many were the cruelties committed during his reign, though they seem to have been suggested principally by his wicked directors, among whom was the notorious Messalina, his wife. § The stupidity of Claudius was such, that he was alike indifferent, whatever was done, and often was he so operated upon by his fears, that he would consent to any act however unjust. His own family on one pretence or another was almost exterminated, and great num- bers of others fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of Messalina and her minions, who ruled him at will. The historian, Suetonius, assures us, that there were no less than thirty-five Senators and above three hundred knights, executed in his reign. One enterprise of importance marked his reign, and that was his expedition into Britain, 43 A. C. He undertook to reduce the island, and after visiting it in person, left his gene- rals, Plautius and Vespasian, to prosecute a war, which was carried on for several years with various success. The Silures 16 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. or inhabitants of South AVales, under their king, Caractacus, (Caradoc,) made a spirited resistance, though without avail in the end. Their king was led captive to Rome. Messalina advanced in boldness as in profligacy, but her excesses became the occasion of her destruction. The em- peror was persuaded to put her to death for her shameless in- fidelity to him. Afterwards he married Agrippina, the daugh- ter of his brother Germanicus, who had poisoned her former husband, and v/ho at length poisoned him. . Making every effort to secure the succession to the empire to her son Domitius Aenobarbus, (called Nero,) she prevail- ed on Claudius to adopt him, and then effecting the death of her husband, she opened the way to the throne for one, who was destined to exceed in wickedness, if that were possible, any that went before him. Claudius was put to death in the fifteenth year of his reign and sixty-third of his age. § Among the illustrious sufferers in the reign of Claudius, were Petus and his faithful Arria, whose story ought not to be passed over. Cecina Petus associated in the revolt of Camillus, had endeavoured to escape into Dalmatia. Being apprehended, he was conveyed in a ship to Rome. Arria, who had been long the partner of his affec- tions and misfortunes, entreated his keepers, to be taken in the same vessel. " It is usual," said she, " to grant a man of his quality a few slaves to dress, and undress, and attend him ; but I will perform all these ofRces, and save you the trouble of a more numerous retinue." Her fidelity, however, could not prevail. She therefore hired a fisher- man's bark, and thus kept company with the ship in which her hus- band was conveyed, through the voyage. They had an only son, equally beautiful and virtuous. This youth died at the time his father was confined to his bed, by a dangerous disorder. However, the affectionate Arria concealed her son's death, and in her visits to her husband, manifested her usual cheerfulness. Being asked how her son did, she replied that he was calm, and only left her husband's chamber to give vent to her tears. When Petus was condemned to die by his oAvn hands, Arria used every art to inspire him with resolution ; and at length finding him continue timid and wavering, she took the poinard, and stabbing herself in his presence, presented it to him saying, " it gives me no pain, my Petus." 9. Rome at this era contained nearly seven millions inhabi- tants, a number so prodigious that nothing but the best evi- dence could prevent our doubt of its accuracy. Corruption and luxury were excessive. The Roman military spirit, ROMAN EMPIRE. 17 though much relaxed, still continued to awe mankind, by the terror of its name. 10, Nero Claudius, (the name he assumed,) the son of Agrippina, succeeded to the empire (54 A. C.) under favora- ble circumstances, and like his predecessors, for a short time, promised to govern with moderation and justice. So well did he conceal his innate depravity, that scarcely any sus- pected that his virtues were feigned. The care of his education had been entrusted to Seneca, the famous philosopher, though he seemed not to have pro- fited under his inatructer any otherwise than to become af- fected and pedantic. While, however, he was controled by Seneca, and Burrhuss captain of the prcEtorian guards, a wor- thy and experienced officer, Nero appeared just and humane ; but he could not long restrain the feelings of his base nature. At the expiration of five years, he broke over all the bounds of decency and moderation, and pursued a course of conduct exceeding in puerility, levity, ferocity, and tyranny, what- ever had been done before him. He became one of the most odious characters recorded in history. His flagitiousness was manifested in the murder of his mother, his wife Octavia, his tutor Seneca, and Lucan the poet, and Burrhuss his bene- factor ; in extirpating many of the principal families of Rome on suspicion of treason ; in setting the city on fire, charging the crime on the christians, and then punishing them with unheard of tortures ; and in unnumbered other acts in which he outraged reason, and nature itself. His meanness and puerility almost surpass behef, and Rome contained not another so despicable a wretch in the character of an actor, musician or gladiator. At length hav- ing become an object of perfect hatred and contempt, a re- bellion of his subjects headed by Yindex, an illustrious Gaul, and Galba who commanded in Spain, crushed this imperial monster, in the thirtieth year of his age, after a reign of four- teen years, A. C. 69. Too cowardly to kill himself, he died by the hand of a slave, just as he was on the point of being taken, and dehvered up to public justice. § The burning of Rome by Nero was an act of mere wantonness. Some one happening to say in his presence, that the world might be burnt when he was dead, "Nay," replied Nero, "let it be burnt while I am living." Accordingly, as most historians report, he set it on fire, and standing upon a high tower, he indulged the pleasure of 2* 18 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. fancying it a representation of the burning of Troy. The confla- gration continued nine days, and a great part of the city was con- sumed. A conspiracy formed against him by Piso, but which was prema- turely discovered, opened a train of suspicions, that ahnost turned Rome into a field of blood. All who were implicated or suspected of being so, he executed without mercy. It was at this time that Seneca and Lucan suffered. No master was secure from the vengeance of his slaves, nor even parents from the baser attempts of their children. Not only throughout Rome, but the whole surrounding country, bodies of sol- diers were seen in pursuit of the suspected and the guilty ; whole crowds of wretches loaded with chains, were led every day to the gates of the palace, to wait their sentence from the tyrant's own lips, who always presided at tlie tortures in person, attended by Tigelli- nus, one of the most abandoned men in Rome, but now his principal minister. " The principal reason why the despotism of Nero and his pre- decessors was so quietly borne by the nation, lay in the fact, that a great part of them were fed by the emperors. From the monthly distributio-n of corn of the times of the republic, there now sprang up the extraordinary congiaria (gifts in corn or money) and vi- ceratwnes (distributions of raw flesh.) The times of tyranny were generally the golden days of the rabble." During the reign of Nero, the Britons, under their queen Boadicea revolted, and defeated the Romans with the loss of 70,000 men. The latter, lio\vever, avenged this loss-at length by the slaughter of 80,000 Britons, which completely broke the British spirit and power. A war was also carried on against the Parthians, under the conduct of Corbulo, who obtained many victories over them. About this time also, 67 A. C, the Jews, who had levolted under the tyranny of Florus the Roman governor, Vvere massacred in great numbers. 11. Galba, who was associated with Vindex, in the in- surrection which issued in the destruction of Nero, succeeded the latter in the empire 68 A. C. Vindex, at the commence- ment of his revolt, generously proclaimed Galba emperor, and after the death of Nero, both the senate and the legions under his command, sanctioned this measure. Before his elevation mankind thought well of Galba. His descent was illustrious. His reputation as a commander stood high, and no stain was cast on his courage or virtue. Compared with his predecessors, he was certainly a respecta- ble emperor. In seeking to accomplish two important ob- ROMAN EMPIRE. 19 jects, viz., the punishment of the enormous vices then preva- lent, and the replenishing of the treasury, he was unduly severe ; and as he was naturally parsimonious, he became an object of contempt and ridicule. § It was impolitic in Galba, to think of making the Roman people pass at Once from the extreme of luxury to that of sobriety and economy. The state was too much corrupted to admit of such an immediate and total change. The emperor's intentions, however, should have shielded him from reproach ; and had he not suffered his assistants to abuse his confidence, and had he been a little more equal, moderate, and conciliatory in his administration, he would have been as well thought of when an emperor, as he was when a private person. It is mentioned as an instance of his severity, that upon some dis- respectful treatment of him from a certain body of his subjects, he ordered a body of horse attending him to ride in among them, and thus killed 7000 of them, and afterwards decimated the survivors. His parsimony is indicated by the following circumstances. He once groaned upon having an expensive soup served up for him at his table. To a steward for his fidelity he presented a plate of beans. And a femous player upon the flute, named Canus, having greatly delighted him, he drew out his purse and gave him five- pence, telling him it was private and not public money. His popu- larity sunk by such ill-timed parsimony. Through his love of money, some notorious villains purchased their safet)^ Galba reigned only seven months. He perished in the seventy-third year of his age, in consequence of the attempt of Otho, one of his generals, to obtain the throne. Otho ex- pected to be adopted by Galba for his successor ; but the emperor, discarding all favouritism, sought the good of the empire by nominating the virtuous Piso. Otho consequent- ly had recourse to arms, and thus accomplished the death both of Galba and Piso. 12. Otho was now raised to the throne, having received from the senate the titles usually given to the emperors, 69 A. C. He began his reign with several signal acts of mercy and of justice. The character of this prince, an unusual oc- currence, was improved by advancement; in a private station he was all that was detestable ; but as an emperor he ap- peared courageous, benevolent, and humane. The good course, however, which he had marked out for himself, was soon terminated. He reigned only ninety-five days. Vitellius, who had been proclaimed emperor by his army in Germany, gave Otho battle at a place near Mantua, 20 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. where the army of the latter was defeated, and he in a fit of despair ended his Ufe by his own hand. 69 A. C. § Otho was descended from the ancient kings of Etruria. It has been observed that the last moments of Otho's hfe were those of a philosopher. He comforted his soldiers who lamented his fortune, and he expressed his concern for their safety, when they earnestly solicited to pay him the last friendly offices before he stab- bed himself; and he observed that it was better for one man to die, than that all should be involved in ruin for his obstinacy. No circumstance, however, can excuse the crime of suicide, a vice which was awfully prevalent among the Romans. 13. Vitellius, upon his success, assumed the government 69 A. C, but he retained it only eight months. This wretch was not more given to cruelty, than to the infamous indul- gence of his appetites. Like Nero, he abandoned himself to every species of flagitiousness and excess. He perished justly. Vespasian, who at this time com- manded the Roman army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor by his legions. Entering Italy, a great part of the country submittted to his arms, and even Vitellius meanly capitu- lated to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. This act of cowardice rousing the indignation of the people, he was compelled to oppose Vespasian by force, but without effect. One of the generals of the conqueror took possession of Rome ; and Vitellius, falling into the hands of a party of the enemy, was ignominiously put to death. § Instances of the cruel disposition of this emperor are the follow- ing. Going to visit one of his associates who was in a violent fever, he mingled poison with his water, and delivered it to him with his own hands, in order to obtain his possessions. He never pardoned money-lenders who presumed to demand payment of his former debts ; but taking awaj^ their lives he both cancelled their claims, and succeeded to their estate. A Roman knight being dragged away to execution, and crying out that he had made the emperor his heir, Vitellius demanded to see the will, where finding himself joint inheritor with another, he ordered both to be executed, that he might enjoy the legacy alone. Gluttony, however, was his predominant vice. In order to be able to renew his meals at pleasure, he brought himself to an habit of vomiting. His entertainments were prodigiously expensive ; but oftener to others, than to himself It has been remarked that had he reigned long, the whole empire would not have been sufficient to maintain his table. In one particular dish, did this imperial glutton out-do all the for- mer profusion of the most luxurious Romans. This was of such magnitude as to be called the shield of Minerva, and was filled with ROMAN EMPIRE. 21 a medley, made from the air-bladders of the fish called scarri, the brains of pheasants and woodcocks, the tongues of the most costly birds, and the spawn of lampreys brought from the Carpathian sea. 14. Vespasian, having been declared emperor, by the tinanimous consent of the senate and the army, 70 A. C. was received with the greatest joy on his arrival at Rome. Though of mean descent, he deserved the purple, and reign- ed during ten years, with great popularity. He was distin- guished by clemency, affability, and a simple, frugal mode of life. His frugality, however, bordered upon avarice, which was the piincipal defect of his character. In his administration of government, he acted under the forms of the republic, and even restored the senate to its de- liberative rights. The famous war against the Jews, was terminated during the reign of Vespasian, by the arms of his son Titus. After this, the empire was in profound peace, and the emperor, having associated Titus in the government, soon departed this hfe, to the universal regret of the Roman peo- ple, in the 70th year of his age, 79 A. C. § It was some time before Vespasian could give security and peace to the empire. When this object was effected, he began to correct the abuses which had grown up under the tyranny of his predecessors. He restrained the licentiousness of the army — degra- ded such senators as were unworthy of their station — abridged the tedious processes in the courts of justice — re-edified such parts of the city as had suffered in the late commotions — and extended his paternal care over all parts of the empire. Vespasian was liberal in the encouragement of learning and the arts. He was particularly kind to Josephus, the Jewish historian. Quintillian and Pliny, who flourished in his reign, were highly es- teemed by him ; and indeed the professors of every liberal art or science, were sure to experience his bounty. He died by disease, a death quite unusual with the masters of Rome. Taken with an indisposition at Campania, which from the begmning he declared would be fatal, he cried out in the spirit of pa- ganism, " Methinks I am gomg to be a god." When brought to the last extremity, and perceiving that he was about to expire, he decla- red that an emperor ought to die standing; and therefore raising him- self upon his feet, he breathed his last in the arms of his supporters. 15. Titus succeeded to the empire upon the death of his father. 79 A. 0. His character is celebrated as that of a highly humane, just and generous prince. He so devoted himself to acts of beneficence, that recollecting one evening that he had done none during the day, he exclaimed, "O, my friends, I have lost a day !" His reign was a short, but pros- 22 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. peroiis and happy one. He died in his 41st year, having reigned but little more than two years. His brother Domi- tian was suspected as being the author of his death. § Before he came to the throne, his character was thought not to be unexceptionable ; but whatever vices he had indulged in, he seems to have abandoned upon that event. It is related as an in- stance of the government of his passions, that he relinquished the hand of his beloved Berenice, sister to king Agrippa, a woman of the greatest beauty, and the most refined allurements. Knowing that the connection with her was disagreeable to the Roman people, he conquered his affections, and sent her away, notwithstanding their mutual affection, and all her arts. He was so tender of the lives of his subjects, that he took upon him the office of High Priest, in order to keep his hands undefiled with blood. He so little regarded such as censured or abused him, that he was heard to say, " Wlien I do nothing worthy of censure, why should I be displeased at it '?" During his reign, Rome was three days on fire, without intermis- sion ; and this was followed by a plague, in which 10,000 persons were buried in a day. Titus, from his own resources, repaired the devastations of the city, and in all respects acted as a father to his people in their calamities. About this time the towns of Campania were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. Upon this occasion Pliny, the naturalist, lost his life, by venturing too near the volcano. When Titus was taken ill, he retired into the country of the Sa- bines, to his father's house. There his indisposition was increased by a burning fever. Modestly lifting his eyes to heaven, though with a spirit which Christianity cannot approve, and without the hope it inspires, he complained of the severity of his fate, which, was about to remove him from the world, where he had been em- ployed in making a grateful people happy. Domitian has incurred the suspicion of hastening his brother's end, by ordering him to be placed, during his agony, in a tub full of snow, where he expired. 15. Domitian, upon the death of his brother, assumed the purple, 81 A. C. The beginning of his reign promised a con- tinuance of their happiness to the Roman people. But the scene soon changed, and Domitian became a most execrable villain and tyrant. He condemned to death many of the most illustrious Romans, and witnessed, -with the most fero- cious pleasure, the agonies of his victims. He caused him- self tO\be styled God and Lore/, in all the papers that were presented to him. Though not destitute of learning himself, he banished the philosophers from Rome. His reign w' as an era of prodigality and luxury, as well as of inhumanity and baseness. The people were loaded with ROMAN EMPIRE. 23 insupportable taxes, to furnish ..spectacles and games for their amusement. His leisure was spent in the most degradinff pursuits. One of the most constant occupations of his pri- vate hours, was the catching and killing of flies. In his reign occurred the second great persecution of the christians, (that under Nero being the first) in which 40,000 of that profession were destroyed. His general, Agricola, met with signal success in the ex- pedition against Britain, though Domitian derived no renown, but rather disgrace from it, in consequence of his ungrateful treatment of Agricola. After a reign of 1.5 years, he was assassinated at the instigation of liis wife. ^ To the senate and nobility, Domitian was particularly hostile frequently threatenuig to extirpate them all. He delighted to ex- pose them bot^h to terror and ridicule. He once assembled the au- gust body of the senate, to know in what vessel a turbot might be most conveniently dressed. , s ^t uc At another time, inviting them to a public entertainment, he received hem al very formally at the entrance of his palace, and introduced thenb mto a large gloomy hall, hung with black, and lighted with a few glimmering tapers. All around nothing was to be seen but cof- nfhiv f T .^^"T''^ ""^ ^^'^ ^^ ^^'^ '^"^^^^^ ^^'""en upon them, and ottier irightful objects, and instruments of execution ^^hile the company beheld all these preparations with silent f;? w^^'T' a sxidden, a number of men burst into the room, clothed n black, withdrawn swords and flaming torches, and afer they iiwhP ^'''' '"''" T'''^''^ '^'. ^"''^'' ^ ""'^''^Se from the emperor, gave the company leave to retire. f ^ ? His death had been predicted by the astrologers. This circum- stance gave him the most tormenting inquietude. His jealou ™s increasing with a sense of his guilt, he was afraid by day and by night ; and m proportion to his fears, he became more cruel His stern air and fiery visage, directed and added poignancy to the t.or- S i'^ ^"1 '"T^'f- ^^'' ^""'^y ^" ^^^^*^^ he was accustomed to walk, he ordered to be set round with a pellucid stone, which served behind""' Ri.nl''^'/ '^Ti f •''""' '^ '^ '"'^ '^ approached him from u^r r^,"^ j'^^P^^^" ""^^ h'^ precautions were unavailing. 1 he fall of Domitian," says Heeren, "confirms the result of uni- veisal experience, that a tyrant has little to fear from the people, bu so much the more from individuals, whose throats are in dan- ger. His wife Domitia, having accidently discovered that her name concTtPd ' ^''' '' *"'" "'^^^ ^'' '""''^^'^ ^« P^^t to death t om-e enlrnf ^""^"^'^^ ^o secure her safety by the destruction of the emperor. Engaging some of the officers of his household, and others hP JnTf'^f '^ '^'' P^T''^^^^ ^^^^' '^ '''''' i"^^ her plan, she had the good fortune soon to learn, that he was dispatched at rnidniaht, 24 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. in one of the most secret recesses of his palace, whither he had re- tired to rest. The twelve Caesars, as they have been denominated m history, ended with Domitian. In this number, however, Julius Cffisar is included, although Augustus was the first emperor strictly so called, and Nero was the last emperor of the Augustan family. 16. Nerva was elected emperor by the senate, upon the death of Domitian, 96 A. C. He was the first Roman emperor of foreign extraction, (being a native of Crete), and chosen on account of his virtues. His advanced age and the clemency of his disposition, with perhaps a w^ant of energy, unfitted him to stem the torrent of corruption, and to cure the disorders of the empire. He however, adopted the ex- cellent Trajan as his successor, and thus rendered a service to mankind which his administration otherwise could never have accompUshed. He died 98 A. C. in the seventy-se- cond year of his age. Having reigned sixteen months. § During his short reign, Nerva made several good laws and regu- lations, and in every respect conducted himself like an indulgent fa- ther to his people. No statues would he permit to be erected to his memory, and he converted into money, such of Domitian's ag had been spared by the seuEite. He sold many rich robes, and much of the splendid furniture of the palace, and retrenched seve- ral unreasonable expenses at court, yet he was not at all avaricious of money. The following is a striking instance of his lenity. He had so- lemnly sworn that no senator of Rome should be put to death by his command, during his reign, from any cause whatever. Tliis oath he observed witli such sanctity, that when two sena- tors had conspired his death, he sent for them, and carried them with him to the public theatre. There presenting each a dagger, he desired them to strike, as he was determined not to ward off the blow. 17. Trajan, now in the possession of the throne, 98 A. C. was a native of Seville in Spain. He proved to be one of Rome's best sovereigns, splendid, warlike, munificent, cour- teous, and modest. The few vices he possessed were scarcely noticed amidst the blaze of his virtues, and the fame of his exploits. This, perhaps, is an instance of human infirmity in the estimation of character, since no vice should pass un- condemned. It is a matter of deep regret, that his equity, so visible in other respects, should be implicated by his con- duct towards the Christians, whom he suffered to be mo- ROMAN EMPIRE. 25 iested . The third great persecution of them took place during his reign. The boundaries of the empire were greatly enlarged by the victories of Trajan, in Dacia and the East. They never were so extensive, either before or after his time. The em- pire, however, was not improved by these conquests ; it soon jost them, for the conquered countries immediately re-appeared in arms, and at lengtli effected their independence. Learning and learned men were signally encouraged by the emperor's liberality. His public Avorks are also much cele- brated. By his direction, the column still to be seen un- der the name of Trajan's column, was erected. It is one of the most remarkable monuments of ancient Rome. He died after a reign of nineteen years, at the age of sixty-three, 118 A. C. § It was a characteristic of Trajan, that he so little feared his enemies, that he could scarcely be induced to suppose he had any. Being once told that his favorite. Sura, was false to him ; Trajan, to show how much he relied upon his fidelity, went in his ordinary manner to sup with him. There he commanded Sura's surgeon to be brought, whom he ordered to take off the hair about his eye- brows. He then made the barber shave his beard, after which, he went unconcerned into the bath as usual. The next day, when Sura's accusers were renewing their complaints ; Trajan informed them how he had spent the night, remarking, that "if Sura, had any designs against his life, he had then the fairest opportunity." The first war in which the emperor was engaged, was with the Dacians, who, in the reign of Domitian, had committed numerous ravages upon the provinces. Trajan, suddenly appearing in arms on the frontiers of their country, awed them at once into a treaty of peace. As, however, this was soon after violated, he entered the hostile territory, and obtained a complete victory, though with a prodigious slaughter of his troops; and Dacia became a Roman province. At his return to Rome he entered the city in triumph ; and the rejoicings for his victories lasted for the space of one hundred and twenty days. Trajan aferwards turned his arms eastward and speedily reduced Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Assyria, and took Ctesiphon, the capi- tal of the Parthian empire. At length, sailing down the Persian gulph, he entered the Indian ocean, conquering even the Indies ; part of which he annexed to the Roman empire. This enterprise, which, at one time, he intended to pursue to the confines of the earth, he was obliged to relinquish on account of the inconveniences of increasing age. Preparing to return to his capital in a style of unparalleled mag- nificence, he was unable from infirmity to reach home ; and he died 3 26 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. in the city of Seleucia, having refused to nominate a successor, lest hf* should adopt a person that was unworthy. , , i • Itmay serve to show how highly Trajan was esteemed by his subjects, that it was the practice, during two hundred years in bSg his successors, to wish them " the fortune of Augustus, and the goodness of Trajan." ^, 18 Adrian succeeded Tiaian 118 years A. C. llie wife of Trajan forged a will in the emperor's name, declar- ing Adrian his successor. This designation was supported by the army, and Adrian ventured to assume the govern- ment This emperor was a nephew of Trajan, and m most respects worthy of being his successor. He chose to cultivate rather the arts of peace than war, and judging that the limits of the empire were too extensive, he abandoned all the con- quests of Trajan, and bounded the eastern provinces by the liver Euphrates. He was, however, remarkably expert in mihtary discipline. . • , • Durino- an expedition of thirteen years, he visited m per- son all the provinces of his empire, and dispensed wherever he went the blessings of peace, justice, and order. In Ins ca- pacity as a sovereign, he rendered important services to his subjects— in private life, however, it is said that his virtues were mino-led with an alloy of vices, arising chiefly from ir- resolution.'' He indulged in vanity, envy, and detraction, in a deo-ree which was too manifest to be palliated in a person ol his^'exahed station. His virtues, however, were predominant, and Rome had few better emperors. His general knowledge, and his taste in the arts, were highly honourable m a sovereign. He died in the seventy-second year of his age, A. C. 138. S Among his exploits, it is known that when he came to Britain he built a wall of wood and earth, between the modern towns of Carlisle and Newcastle, eighty miles in length, to protect the Britons from the incursions of the Caledonians. In a war with the Jews, he killed in battle five hundred and eighty thousand of that people who had become rebellious, and buiU a city on the rums of Jerusa- lem which he called Aelia Capitolina. In performing his long marches with his army, Adrian generally travelled on foot, and went without any covering on his head. His character was in many respects extraordinary, and none ol the Roman emperors excelled him in variety of endowments He was highly skilful in all the exercises both of body and mind. He was an author, orator, mathematician, musician and painter. His memory was so retentive, that he recollected every incident of his life, and Jie knew all the soldiers of his army by name. He was the first emperor who wore a long beard, a fashion which ROMAN EMPIRE. 27 he adopted to hide the warts on his face. His successor followed his example for the sake of ornament. Though Adrian aimed at universal reputation, he strictly attended to the duties of his station. Through his cares he began to fail in health and strength, and adopting for his successor Titus Antoninus, he sought the repose which he needed. His bodily infirmities how- ever, daily increased, and his pain becoming nearly insupportable, he vehemently desired death. Antoninus with difficulty persuaded liim to sustain life, though the emperor frequently cried out in his agonies, " How miserable a thing is it to seek death, and not to find it." Alas ! how pointed is the moral, that no station, however ex- alted, can exempt one from the infirmities of life and the sting of death. As he was expiring, the emperor repeated the following lines, as translated into English. O fleeting spirit, wand'ring fire, That long has warmed my tender breast, Wilt thou no more my frame inspire 1 No more a pleasing cheerful guest '? Whither, ah ! whither art thou Hying *? To what dark, undiscovered shore 1 Thou seemest all trembling, shivering, dying. And wit and humour are no more. His reign was a prosperous one of twenty-two years. He died 139 A. C. aged seventy-two. 19. Titus Aotoninus, suriiamed Pius, having been adopt- ed by Adrian, succeeded to the empire 138 A. C. His vir- tues were an ornament to human nature, and conferred innu- merable blessings on mankind. He preferred peace to con- quest, and yet whenever war became necessary, he carried it on with vigour and success. He was conspicuous for jus- tice and clemency, and his love of the religion of his country. His reign was marked by few events, as the reigns of peaceable monarchs usually are. The most remarkable for- eign occurrences were the enlargement of the province of Britain by the conquests of Urbicus, and the suppression of some forminable rebellions in Germany, Dacia, and the East. He died at the age of seventy-four, having reigned twenty- two years. A. C. 161. § Such was the munificence of Antoninus, that in cases of famine or inundation, he supplied with his own money the wants of the sufferers. Such were his humanity and love of peace, that when told of conquering heroes, he said with Scipio, that " he preferred the life and preservation of one subject to the death of an hundred enemies !" His regard of the christians was extraordinary for a heathen emperor. He declared that " if any should proceed to dis- turb them on account of their religion, such should undergo the same punishment which was intended against the accused." A de- 28 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. gree of persecution nevertheless took place, contrary to the princi- ples of the emperor. He was a distinguished rewarder of learned men, whom he invi- ted from all parts of the world, and raised to wealth and honour. Among the rest, he sent for Apollonius tiie famous stoic philosopher, to instruct his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius, whom he had previous- ly married to his daughter. Apollonius being arrived at Rome, the emperor desired his atten- dance : but the philosopher arrogantly answered that it was the scholar's duty to wait upon the master, and not the master's to wait upon the scholar. To this reply, Antoninus only returned with a smile, " that it was surprising how Apollonius, who made no ditficul- ty in coming from Greece to Rome, should think it so hard to M^alk from one part of Rome to the other," and immediately sent Marcus Aurelius to him. In the midst of his labours in rendering his subjects happy, he was seized with a lingering illness, which terminated in death in the seventy-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign. 20. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the adopted son of Pius, now came to the throne, 161 A. C. His name before was Annius Verus, and he, together with Lucius Yerus, his bro- ther, had been designated by Adrian to succeed to the govern- ment, whenever Antoninus Pius should decease. Pius con- iirmed the adoption of Marcus, without once naming Lucius Verus. Marcus, however, upon assuming the empire, admit- ted his brother as a partner in the administration. They were perfectly opposite in character ; Marcus Aurelius being as much distinguished for his energy and virtue, as Verus was for imbecihty, meanness, and vice. Aurelius was in every respect equal to his predecessor, and was even more conspicuous for his attachment to philosophy. This, as the stoics professed it, he has admirably taught and illustrated in his Meditations. In the wars which were carried on duruig this joint reign, the worthless Verus brought disgrace upon the Roman name, wherever he commanded. The Parthians, however, were repulsed by the legions of the empire, and a rebellion of the Germans was subdued. After the death of Verus, which happily soon took place, Aurelius directed all his energies for the improvement and happiness of his empire. For purposes of beneficence he visited the remotest corners of the Roman world. He died at length in Pannonia, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and nineteenth of his reign, A. C. 180. ROMAN EMPIRE. 29 It was an infelicity of the otherwise admirable reign of Aurehus, that the christians at one time were violently perse- cuted. The fanatical Pagan priests were, however, the im- mediate instruments in this persecution, inasmuch as they ascribed to the christians the various calamities which the empire endured, under the excesses of Verus, the attacks of the barbarians, and the devastations occasioned by earth- quakes, famines, pestilences, and inundations. § Aureliiis loved retirement and philosophical contemplation, and improved for mental cultivation and enjoyment, all the leisure he could command. That, however, was far less than his wishes dic- tated. The disturbances in the empire called him frequently into the field, and until the death of his colleague, he sutfered no small inquietude on his account. He was, however, successful in his mili- tary excursions. One deliverance which he and his army experienced on a certain occasion, borders on the miraculous. In a contest with the barba- rians beyond the Danube, the Roman legions unexpectedly, through the artifice of the enemy, found themselves inclosed in a place where they could neither fight, nor retreat. In this situation they became at length totally disheartened, from their long continued fatigue, the excessive heat of the place, and their violent thirst. In these suffering circumstances, while sorrow and despair were depicted on every brow, Aurelius ran through the ranks, and used every effort to rekindle their hopes and courage. But all was in vain. At this crisis, and just as the barbarians were ready to follow them, we are told that the solemn prayers of a christian legion^ then serving among them, produced such a shower of rain as instant- ly revived the fainting army. From the same clouds, was discharged such a terrible storm of hail with thunder against the enemy, as dis- mayed them, and made them an easy prey to the refreshed and in- spirited Romans. These circumstances are related by pagan as well as Christian writers, only with this difference, that the latter ascribe the victory to their own prayers, the former to the prayers of their emperor. Aurelius, however, it seems, was favourably impressed in regard to the christians, since he immediately relaxed the persecution against them. Some other particulars will be related respecting Aurelius, in our biographical sketches. Upon the death of Aurelius the empire evidently decHned. The emperors who succeeded were generally a weak or vicious race. The colossaJ size of the empire caused it to sink by its own weight. Enemies on its borders oppressed it from without, and tumults and factions paralized it within ; patriotism and genius were becoming rare, and corruption pervaded all orders of the community. 30 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD I. At the period of Trajan's death, the empire comprehend- ed the greater part of Britain, all Spain, France, the Ne- therlands, Italy, part of Germany, Egypt, Barbary, Bile- dulgerid, Turkey in Emope and in Asia, and Persia. At the demise of Aurelias, it was a little diminished in size, but still too large to be preserved entire, amidst the profligacy of the times. 21. Commodus, the son of AureUus, had been nominated by his father to succeed him, and he accordingly now mounted the tlii-one, 180 A. C. He had nothing but the merits of his father to commend him to the Roman people. He inherited the disposition of his infamous mother, Faustina, rather than of Aurelius. The change from the reign of the father to the son was indeed a most gloomy one. It is a singular fact, that the most detestable of all the emperors was the son of the best. Commodus was given to low vices and mean pursuits--- was fond of the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers and gla- diators. His administration of the government was entirely weak, contemptible, and tyrannical. He perished by assas- sination, in the thirty-second year of his age, and the thir- teenth year of his reign, 193 A. C. § It had been happy for himself and mankind, had Commodus cul- tivated his mind, as he did his body, (for he was wonderfully expert in all corporeal exercises :) but he was averse to every rational and hberal pursuit. He spent the day in feasting, and the night in the vilest debaucheries. His cruelty combined with avarice and levity, cannot be too strong- ly held up for the detestation of mankind. If any person desired to be revenged on an enemy, by bargaining with Commodus for a sum of money, he was permitted to destroy him in such a manner as he chose. He commanded a person to be thrown among wild beasts, for reading the life of Caligula in Suetonius. He would sometimes, in a frolic, cut off men's noses, under a pretence of shav- ing their beards ; yet he was himself so jealous of mankind, that he was obliged to be his own barber ; or as some have said, he used to burn his beard, after the example of Dionysius, the tyrant. In imitating Hercules with his club and lion's skin, he would fu- riously fall upon a company of beggars in the streets, and beat them to death ; having first dressed them up like giants and monsters, and giving them sponges to tlirow at him, instead of stones. In such a manner did this wretch spend his time, while the trou- bles of his empire were daily increasing, and its strength and terri- ROMAN EMPIRE. 31 tories were diminishing by frequent warfares on the frontiers. He narrowly escaped destruction several times, from his personal exas- perated foes. But he was destined at length justly to fall. His favourite concubine, Marcia, who accidentally discovered the em- peror's determination to put her to death, with other conspirators, found the means of destroying him, partly by poison and partly by strangling. 22. Pertinax, who had been fixed upon by the conspirators as the successor of Comniodus, was joyfully proclaimed by the prffitorian guards, 193 A. C. Originally he was the son of an enfranchised slave, but rose to esteem by his virtues and military talents. Applying himself to the correction of abuses with too unsparing and rash a hand, he alienated the affections of a corrupted people, and was deposed and mur- dered by the same guards that had placed him on the throne, after a reign of only three months, aged sixty-eight years. The loss W'bich the empire felt in the death of such a man is greater than can be well conceived. 23. Didius Julianus, next succeeded to the empire 193 A. C, having purchased it of the prastorian guards, who put it up to the highest bidder. At the same time, several com- manders in the distant provinces, were each proclaimed by their respective forces. These, how^ever. lost their lives ex- cept Septimius Severus, w^io marched to Rome and seized the government. Didius was hereupon deposed and put to death by the senate in the fifth month of his reign. § Didius presents a striking instance of the cupidity of the hu- man mind for power, and of the infelicities that attend it. He was a man of consular rank, and the richest citizen of Rome. Hearing the singular proclamation of the prsBtorian guards, and charmed with the prospect of unbounded dominion, he hastened to the camp, and bid the largest price for the empire. He gave to each soldier (10,000 in number) the sum of 6250 drachmas, which amounts to nearly 9,000,000 dollars, in the whole. From this period he was exposed to disappointment, mortifica- tion, insult, and danger. Indulging his ease and his avaricious dis- position, he soon offended those who made him emperor. He was contemptuously treated at home, while two or more generals in the provinces abroad, disclaimed his authority. Upon the approach of Severus, he could raise no forces to meet him. He was nearly dis- tracted by the multiplicity of counsels, and finally his perplexity and distress became extreme and overwhelming. The senate, at this crisis, perceiving his timidity and irresolution, resolved to abandon him, and to proclaim Severus. His death then was no longer problematical ; and though he persisted that he had 32 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. a right to enjoy his purchase for the natural period of his life, as he had been guilty of no crime, all did not avail. The executioners, obliging him to stretch his neck forward according to custom, im- mediately struck off his head. 24. Septimius Severus was now at the head of the Roman world, 193 A. C. He was an African by birth, and possessed a restless activity with an unbounded share of ambition. He was endowed with a hardihood and decision of character, which fitted him for any enterprise. His military talents were conspicuous, and the credit of the Roman arms was sustained during his reign. In his administration of govern- ment he was generally wise and equitable, though highly despotic. In his expedition into England, he built a stone wall ex- tending from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, nearly on a parallel with that of Adrian. Severus died at York in England, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, after a reign of eighteen years, 211 A. C. He left the empire to his two sons Caracalla and Geta, whose dispositions gave the em- peror the greatest inquietude. § The first act of Severus, even before he entered Rome, was to degrade the praetorian soldiers, whose irregularity had already be- come too conspicuous. These he stript of their title, and banished one hundred miles from the city. He soon after engaged in a terri- ble conflict with Niger, his competitor in the East, whom he finally conquered on the plains of Issus. Albinus also, his other competi- tor, who commanded in Britain, was soon after conquered in battle, in one of the severest engagements recorded in the Roman history. It was fought in Gaul, and lasted from morning till night, without any apparent advantage on either side. It was decided at length by a body of reserve, in favour of Severus. His activity and love of conquest led him into the East, where he signalised his arms, and whence he returned in triumph to Rome. Having escaped a conspiracy formed by Plautian, to whom he had committed his domestic policy, he spent a considerable time in visit- ing the cities of Italy ; and finally in affording protection to all parts of his empire, he made an expedition into Britain. The wall which he here built was eight feet broad and twelve feet high, planted with towers at a mile's distance from each other, and communicating by pipes of brass in the m all, which conveyed intelligence from one garrison to another with incredible dispatch. Having given peace to the island, and secured it against the irrup- tions of the Caledonians, he began to feel the effects of age and fatigue ; but he was more broken down by the irreclaimable life of Caracalla. Calling for the urn in which his ashes were to be en- closed, he moralized on his melancholy condition in the following ROMAN EMPIRE. 33 remark. " Little urn," said he, " thou shalt now contain what the world could not contain." It is recorded that he hastened his death by purposely loading his stomach with food, in his weak state. 25. Caracalla and Geta were now established on the throne, 211 A. C Their association in the empire created a mutual enmity, and indeed they were very unlike in native character. Caracalla was fierce and cruel to an extreme degree. Geta was mild and merciful. The former resolv- ing to reign alone, seized an opportunity to murder Geta m the arms of his mother. During his reign of six years, he committed a continued series of atrocities. He was taken off by assassination, 217 A. C. Within this short period the empire was every day declin- ing ; the soldiers were entirely masters of every election ; and both discipline in the army, and subordination in the State, were almost destroyed. § The worst qualities of the "worst emperors centered in this impe- rial wretch. He slew his friend Laetius, his own wife Plautina, and Papinian, the renowned civilian, for refusing to write in vindication of his cruelty — that upright man answering the emperor's request by observing, " that it was much easier to commit a parricide than to defend it." He commanded all the governors to be slain, whom his brother had appointed, and destroyed not less than 2000 of his adherents. Upon a certain occasion, he ordered his soldiers to fall upon a crowd- ed audience in the tlieatre, only for discountenancing a charioteer, whom he happened to favour. As might be expected, he was harrassed with awful terrors. He feared the day of his death, and that day was fast approaching. One Martial, a centurion of the guards, was prevailed upon by a higher officer, Macrinus, to give the emperor his death-wound, on a con- venient occasion, which was readily seized, and thus the world was freed from a monster, who was not only infinitely unfit to govern an empire, but was unworthy to live. 26. Macrinus, who instigated Caracalla's death, was pro- claimed emperor, 217 A. C. Little is recorded respecting him. He was a person of obscure birth, and was deemed severe by the soldiery, who had now become so licentious, that they could scarcely bear the gentlest corrections. His attempts at discipline, together with the artifices of the grand- mother of Heliogabalus, alienated from him the affections of the army, and he lost his life in the struggle to retain his power, after a reign of only fourteen months, 218 A. C. 37. Hehogabalus was, by the army, raised to the throne 34 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. when only fourteen years of age. The appointment of the army, as usual, influenced the decisions of the senate and citizens of Rome. This emperor proved to be another mon- ster of wickedness of the same rank with Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla. He lived to be only eighteen years of age, and yet lived long enough to hasten the fall of the empire, and to cover his name with eternal infamy. He was mur- dered in the fourth year of his reign, 222 A. C. § Heliogabaliis was a natural son of Caracalla, a beautiful youtli, and loved by the army. Surrounded by flatterers, he soon yielded himself to their directions. His short life was but a tissue of effe- minacy, lust, folly, and extravagance. Some parts of his conduct were too indecent here to be described. In four years he married six wives, and divorced them all. He even assumed the dress and circumstances of a woman, and marri- ed one of his otRcers. After that he took for husband, one Hierocles, a slave, whom he suffered to beat him severely when guilty of any excess, all which he endured with great patience, saying, that it was the duty of a wife to submit to her husband. His prodigality and epicurism were boundless. His supper generally cost six thousand crowns, and often sixty thousand. He always dressed in cloth of gold and purple, enriched with precious stones, and never twice put on the same habit. Whenever he took horse, all the way between his apartment and the place of mount- ing, was covered with gold and silver dust strewn at his approach. His cruelties were equal to his licentiousness. He often invited the most common of the people to share in his feasts, and made them sit down on large bellows full of wind, which by sudden ex- haustion, threw the guests on the ground, and left them a prey to wild beasts. It is even said he endeavored to foretel the secrets of futurity, by inspecting the entrails of young men sacrificed ; and that he chose for this horrid purpose, the most beautiful youths throughout Italy. These are a few of the thousand excesses, follies, and atrocities of a mad and vicious boy, who, with the possession of unlimited rule, could do as he pleased. Being persuaded by his grandmother Maesa, he adopted Alexan- der his cousin-german as his successor ; but indignant that the af- fections of his army were bestowed upon the latter, he meditated revenge. His soldiers, however, perceiving his intention, took an opportunity to secure his person, and having dispatched him, treated his body with the greatest indignity, and consigned it at length to the Tyber. 28. Alexander Severus was declared emperor 222 A. C. He was a prince of a kind, beneficent, and energetic charac- ter, and highly accomplished in learning and the arts. Every way calculated to make his subjects happy, he was greatly ROMAN EMPIRE. 35 honoured and esteemed by them. He was conspicuous also for his military talents, and for the defeat of the Persians and others during his reign. He thus restored the empire to its former limits : but this exertion of its remaining strength, rather hastened than delayed its decline. He was cut off by a mutiny among his own soldiers in the fourteenth year of his reign, and the twenty -ninth of his age, at the instigation of Maximinus, his successor, 235 A. C. § As a specimen of his virtuous character we may mention, that he ever loved good men, and severely reproved the lewd and infa- mous. His remark is in point, when he decided a contest between the christians and a company of cooks and vinters, about a piece of ground, which the one claimed as a place of public worship, and the other for exercising their respective trades. " It is better that God be worshiped there in any manner, than that the place should be put to the uses of drunkenness or debauchery." At the age of sixteen, when he ascended the throne, he had all the premature wisdom of age. His judgment was solid, and his talents were various. He was an excellent mathematician, geometri- cian, and musician. His taste in painting, sculpture and poetry was admirable. The first part of his reign was spent in a reformation of the abu- ses of his predecessors ; particularly in restoring tlie senators to their rank and influence. His first expedition, in the tenth year of his reign, was against the Parthians and Persians, whom he opposed with a powerful army. In one decisive engagement, he routed the Persians with great slaughter. About the same time, several of his generals obtained signal victories, over various nations then at war with the empire. His manner of living was like that of the meanest sentinel ; when- ever he dined or supped, he sat with his tent open, that all men might be witnesses of his abstemiousness. He was at one time instructed by the famous Origen in the principles of Christianity ; though it does not appear that he embraced that religion. 29. Maximinus, who was accessary to the murder of Severus, ascended the throne upon this event, 235 A. C. He was the son of a Thracian shepherd, and is represented by historians as a man of gigantic stature and Herculean strength. He was full eight feet in height, and perfectly symmetrical in form. He rose by degrees into power ; but though meritorious before his elevation, as a sovereign he was brutal and ferocious. He warred with the Germans, and wasted their country to the extent of four hundred and fifty miles, converting it al- most into a desert. His cruelties soon aroused the Roman people against him, and he was finally assassinated by his own soldiers in his tent, after a reign of three years, 238 A. C. 36 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD I. During the period of his power, the two Gordians, father and son were proclaimed emperors, but these soon perished. The senate then proclaimed Pupienus and Balbinus, w^ho survived Maximinus. These measures were dictated by the anxiety which the Romans felt, to free themselves from that tyrant. § Maximinus is said to have delighted in acts of the greatest bar- barity, and no less than four hundred persons lost their lives, on the false suspicion of a conspiracy against his hfe. He caused to be re- moved from his sight or assassinated, many noble Romans, who, as he suspected, despised him, on account of his mean origin. When he was apprised of the acts of the senate, appointing others to the supreme power, he raved and howled like a wqld beast, and almost destroyed himself by beating his head against the walls of his palace. His fury, however, at length gave way to a spirit of revenge ; but his bloody machinations Avere soon stopped. His guards having been corrupted, murdered him while sleeping in his tent, as he was too formidable an object to be attacked while awake. Owing to his size, his strength was prodigious. He alone could draw a full loaded wagon. With a blow of his fist he could break the teeth in a horse's mouth, and with a kick of his foot could break its thigh. His voracity was proportioned to his size and strength. He generally ate forty pounds of flesh every day, and drank six gallons of wine. The Praetorian soldiers who were enemies to Pupienus and Balbinus, soon embraced an opportimity of despatching them ix)th, and accidentally meeting Gordian, grandson to one of ihe former Gordians, they proclaimed him emperor. The senate and people had been too long controlled by the army, on the subject of nominating the emperors, to withhold their consent in the present instance. 30. Gordian accordingly assumed the empire 238 years A. C. He was no more than sixteen years old at this time, and was a prince of very considerable merit. The Goths. and also the Persians, who had invaded the confines of the empire on different sides, were repulsed by his arms. Towards the latter part of his reign, Philip, an Arabian. was chosen pratorian praefect, under Avhose administration the |:>eople began to be discontented. This state of things Phihp fostered, till the odium against the emperor so far increased, that the preefect ventured to order his execution, with a view to his own preferment, an object which he accomplish- ed. Gordian's reign was a period of nearly six years. § Gordian was a man so fond of learning, that he had collected 62,000 books in his private library. ROMAN EMPIRE. 37 31. Philip having acquired the empire 244 A. C, by the murder of his benefactor, reigned five years, and then was himseh' assassinated, while marching against Decius. § Philip was an Arabian by birth, and received, in the manner of his death, a righteous retribution, on account of his own nefarious conduct in gaining the sceptre. 32. Decius, whom Philip had appointed to command a revolted army, had been proclaimed before the emperor's death. Upon that event he began to assume the functions of government 249 A. C. His activity and wisdom would have stayed the progress of decay in the empire, if any human means cotdd effect that object. But the tendency to this state of things was irretrievable and fatal. The profligacy and luxury of the times, the disputes be- tween the Pagans and Christians, and the begin nmg irrup- tions of the barbarous nations from without, were enfeebhng the empire beyond remedy. Decius reigned but two years and six months, having been cut off, in a war with the Goths, by the treachery of Gallus, his general. 33. Gallus, raised to the throne 251 A. C, by that part of the army which survived a defeat he had himself occasioned, reigned but two years and four months. He was a vicious sovereign, and during his reign the empire suffered incalcula- ble misery. He perished in a civil war, in which Aemilianus, his general, opposed him, and was victorious. § It was in the time of Gallus, that a dreadful pestilence spread over the earth, threatening almost to depopulate it. 34. Valerian, a commander of one of the armies of the em- pire, succeeded to the throne 254 A. C, contrary to the ex- pectations of Aemilianus. In a war with the Persians, having been taken prisoner, he suffered unheard of hardships and in- sult, and at length was put to death in the most cruel manner. § Sapor, the Persian king, happened to secure the person of Vale- rian. We are told that he always used the emperor as a footstool for mounting his horse, and that he often observed, "such an attitude was the best statue that could be erected in honour of his victory." The manner of Valerian's death is almost too horrid to be men- tioned. His eyes were first plucked out, and afterwards he was flay- ed alive, when his skin was dyed red, and exposed in a temple. He was seven years a prisoner. 35. Gallienus. son of Valerian, was chosen emperor 260 4 38 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. A. C. He promised to avenge the insults and death of his father ; but after his elevation, he thought only of his own base pleasures, while the empire Avas attacked without, and distracted within. Thirty pretenders were at one time con- tending for the dominion of the state. Gallienus suffered a violent death. 36. Upon the death of Gallienus, Flavins Claudius was invested with the purple, 268 A. C, agreeably to the wishes of the army, and the whole Roman people. He was an ac- tive, wise, and good prince; but unhappily his reign was short, being less than two years. He died a natural death, which was more frequently the lot of the virtuous, than of the profligate emperors. § Claudius opposed with success the Goths, Heruli, &c. who had invaded the empire on the north, in one instance destroying an army of 300,000 men ; and he likewise overthrew the Germans, who had reared the standard of revolt. His energy stayed, for a short time, the decline of the empire. 37. The army made choice of Aurelian as emperor, 270 A. C. His parentage was obscure, but he was esteemed the most valiant commander of his age. After his elevation, his time was passed in repressing the irruptions of the barbarians, and particularly in carrying on a war with Zenobia, a prin- cess of Palmyra, commonly styled the Q,ueen of the East, whom he conquered, and brought captive to Rome. With great courage and military talents, he was cruel. He fell in a conspiracy which was raised against him by some of his subjects. § His strength was said to be so great, that in one single engage- ment, he killed 40 of the enemy with his own hand, and above 900 at ditTerent times. The degeneracy of his people seemed almost to justify his severities, in punishing offenders ; but it is said that when he was about to sign certain edicts against the christians, who were an inoffensive people, he was deterred from the act, by a thunder-bolt, which fell so near his person, that his escape was thought to be mi- raculous. 38. Several months elapsed before a new emperor was elected. At leugth Tacitus was prevailed upon to take the reins of government, 275 A. C. He was a man of great me- rit, but unfortunately to the empire, he died of a fever after a reign of only six months, at the age of 75. 39. His successor was Probus, though a minority in the ROMAN EMPIRE. 39 army chose Florian, a brother of Tacitus. Florian enjoyed this distinction but two months ; for upon the estabhshment of Probus in the empire, he sought a vokintary death. Probus possessed uncommon activity, courage, and integri- ty, and was constantly engaged in war with the barbarians, and in suppressing the numerous factions wdiich arose in his dominions. Offending his soldiers by obliging them to drain an extensive fen in Sirmium, his native place, he was slain in a conspiracy which they had formed against him, 282 A. C. § Probus was born of noble parentage, and was early distinguish- ed by his excellent qualities. He was frequently tlie first man that, in besieging towns, scaled the walls, or that burst into the enemy's camp. His energy and virtue, great as they were, could scarcely present a sufficient barrier to the tide of calamities that rushed upon the em- pire. In a war, however, with the Germans in Gaul, he slew 400,000 men ; and at various times repulsed many other enemies, particular- ly the Sarmatians, Gotlis and Blemii. Tbe last were a people who had left the forests of Ethiopia, and possessed themselves of Arabia and Jiidea. Among those of his subjects who had rebelled against him, was Bonosus, who was remarkable as given to intoxication. The rebel being overcome, hanged himself in despair. Probus seeing him im- mediately after this event, pointed to his body, and with great hu- mour observed, " There hangs, not a man, but a bottle." 40. Cams, praetorian prsefect to the deceased emperor, was chosen by the army to succeed him 282 A. C. He associated with him in command, his two sons, Carinus and Numerian. Carus, and his son Numerian, w^ere worthy of the empire, but Carinus was given to vice. Their reign, however, was only of two years' continuance. Carus was smitten by a flash of hghtning, in his tent, and his sons were killed soon after — Numerian by an act of treachery, Carinus in a con- test with Diocletian, who had been chosen emperor. § Numerian was so affected by the death of his father, that through excess of weeping, he brought on a disorder in his eyes, in conse- quence of which he was obliged to be carried in a close litter. In this situation he was murdered by his ambitious father-in-law, Aper, who was soon cut off by the hand of Diocletian. 41. Diocletian began his reign in 284 A. C, and two years afterwards, associated with himself in the empire his general Maximian. Under their united auspices, the enemies of Rome were frequently repulsed. At the expiration of about 40 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. eight years from tliat time, they took two colleagues, Galeriu? and ConslaiUius ; and bestowed ujDori each the title of Csesar, This state of things was novel. There was a four fold division of the government, with two emperors and two Cse- sars at its head, each having a nominal supremacy. Diocle- tian, however, was the master spirit that moved and controlled the whole. In this state, the government was administered a few years, when strange to relate the two emperors resigned their authority into the hands of the two Caesars, and retired into private life 304 A. C. Diocletian seems to have been sincere in his abdication, as he contentedly spent eight or nine years in rural privacy, and in cultivating his garden. Maximian soon began to be dis- contented, and made several attempts, but in vain, to lesume his former powers. His intrigues in Britain, where Constan- tine and his son Constantine resided, cost him his life. Di- ocletian died about 312 A. C. Maximian perished 310 A. C. § Diocletian's parentage was mean. According to some he was the son of a scrivener; and according to others, of a slave. When elected to the empire he was forty years old, and owed his exalta- tion entirely to his merit, having passed through the various grada- tions of office, Avith sagacity, courage, and success. He chose Ga- lerius for his associate, giving him the title of CaBsar, with a view to secure his aid in opposing Narses, the king of Persia and Parthia, who had invaded Mesopotamia. In this enterprise they met with sig- nal success. Other enemies they subdued, except the northern na- tions, who, though repulsed and slaughtered in incredible numbers, were ever ready to embrace fresh opportunities of renewing hostilities. Diocletian, after his abdication of the empire, retired to his native country, Dalmatia, where he built a magnificent palace for his ac- commodation, near the town of Salona. Here he led a secure and quiet life. When some of his friends attempted to persuade him to resume the empire, he replied, " that if they knew his present hap- piness, they would rather endeavour to imitate than disturb it." Maximian was a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, and "svas adopt- ed by Diocletian as emperor, on account of his courage and fidelity. He defeated many enemies of his country, though his arms in Britain were unsuccessful. He adopted Constantius as Caesar, with a view to oppose the claims of Carausius, a principal commander in Britain, who had proclaimed himself emperor. 42. When Diocletian and Maximian resigned their power, Constantius and Galerius were universally acknowledged 304 A. C. Constantius governed the western parts of the empire. Galerius the eastern. They took in with them two partners, so that the empire was again under the guidance ot JUDEA, 41 four persons, all invested with supreme authority; each having his distinct department. Se\eras and Maximian were the persons who were created Caesars. Constantius was a worthy character, Galerius was the re- verse. Constantius died at York, in Britain, 306 A. C, leav- ing his son Constantine as his successor. Galerius died four years afterw^ards of an extraordinary incurable disease. He had instigated Diocletian to persecute the christians. § The western parts of tlie empire, or the dominion of Constantiu.s, consisted of Italy, Sicily, the greatest part of Africa, together with Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Germany. I'he eastern parts, or the do- minion of Galerius, consisted of Ulyricum, Pannonia, Thrace, Ma- cedonia, all the provinces of Greece, and the lesser Asia, together with Egypt, Syria, Judea, and all other oriental countries. An anecdote of the following kind is related of Constantius : — when he was persuaded to displace all the christian ofiicers of his household ; though he would not suffer the christians to be injured, he sent away in disgrace the few that complied, alleging, "that those who were not true to their God, would never be faithful to their prince." 43. From the commencement to the close of the present period, persecutions of the christians more or less prevailed in the empire. At times, this unoffending class of the Ro- man subjects suffered in an extreme degree, from the edicts of the emperors. Historians ha\ e usually reckoned ten ge- neral persecutions of the christians. The names of the em- perors, under whom these persecutions were experienced, were the following : — Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Antoninus, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Yalerian, Aurelian, and Dio- cletian. Most of these emperors persecuted the christians from malignity, and for the gratification of their cruel dispositions. Others did it, (though their conduct was indefensible,) from ignorance or prejudice, aided by the spirit of the age, and the common corruption of our nature. § As this period is named from the persecutions which the pro- fessors of Christianity endured under the Roman emperors, it might seem proper here, to enter into some details on this subject. But a few of these will be included in an article on ecclesiastical history, to be embodied in the present volume. JUDEA. 44. Judea 5 already under the sway of Rome, became a province of the empire 6 A. C. upon the banishment of Ar- 4* 42 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. chelaus, eldest son of Herod the Great. It was at the com- mencement of this period, that the birth of om- blessed Saviour Jesus Christ, as before noticed in the Roman histor}^, took place. Herod, in addition to all his other crimes shed the blood of the children of Bethlehem, in the hope that the in- fant Jesus would fall among them. He died miserably, soon after this transaction. § In the reign of Herod, the sceptre, agreeably to ancient prophecy, having departed from Judah, by the control which the Romans had over the government, Jesus Christ Avas born in the year of the world 4000. This has already been explained. We use, however, the vulgar era (4004) and assign the subsequent events according to that calculation. The mistake supposed to be made by the ancient chro- nologers has been too far sanctioned by Time, to be now remedied. His birth, which was announced by angels to the shepherds of Bethlehem, and which brought the eastern magi to worship him, exceedingly troubled Herod and the principal Jews, who became apprehensive of new wars and commotions. After finding out the place of his nativity, (viz. Bethlehem,) Herod determined on his death, by destroying all the children of that place and of its vicinity, '• from two years old and under." The providence of God, however, had removed the holy child be- yond his reach, inasmuch as his parents had fled with him, in the mean time, into Egypt. Herod's death soon occurring, they return- ed from Egypt, and dwelt in Nazareth, a city of Galilee. It is not our design to detail events here, which more properly be- long to ecclesiastical history. We would only say, that after a labo- rious and useful life, in the third year of his ministry, and in the thirty-third of his age, Jesus Christ expiated human transgression, by his death on the cross. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, upon a false accusation brought against him by his own countrymen, the Jews. This glorious personage, who was " God manifest in the flesh," came into the world to save his people from their sins. In his hu- man nature he was lineally descended from David, though the fami- ly at the period of his birth, had become obscure and reduced to poverty. The effects of his appearance in the world were from the beginning, decisive. The holy system which he taught, considering the hostility of man to truth and piety, was diffused with great rapi- dity, under the ministry of the apostles. Reformation of moral character was its aim, object and result. Its effects have ever been great, and such they will be to the end of time. The civil affairs of the Jews, from the commencement of this era to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian, are too unimportant to be particularly described. A brief summary of them follows. § Archelaus, under whom Judea became in form a Roman pro- JUDEA. 43 vince, possessed only a tetrarchy, or the fourth part of the kingdom of Jewry. The rest of the country was divided into three more te- trarchies, which were those of Gahlee and Petraea possessed by Herod Antipatas ; that of Ituraea possessed by Philip, another son of Herod ; and that of Abilene possessed by Eysanias, who being afterwards banished into Gaul, had his province governed by Pontius Pilate. The successor of Archelaus was Herod H. nameql Antipas, who married his brother Philip's wife. This was the incestuous marriage on account of which John the Baptist reproved Herod, as mentioned m the New Testament. It was in the time of this Herod that our Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, occurred. Herod H. was succeeded by his son Herod the Great. Cahgula, the emperor of Rome, at that time invested him with the tetrarchy of his uncle Philip, and conferred on him the title of king. The other tetrarchies fell to his possession shortly afterwards. It was this Herod who caused the apostle James to be martyred, the apostle Peter to be imprisoned, and was himself smitten by an angel and devoured by worms. His son Agrippa Minor, succeeded, and was the last king of Jew- ry. It was before him, that the apostle Paul pleaded in defence of the gospel. 45. During the reign of Agrippa Minor, Jerusalem was attacked by Titus (Vespasian) 70 A. D. The cause of this attack originated in the commotions and insurrections of the Jews, which were frequent about this time. This miserable people had suffered greatly, from the injustice and extortion practised upon them by the agents of the Roman govern- ment, and they consequently rose in rebellion. A signal vengeance fell upon their heads. Jerusalem was beseiged, and one million of people are said to have perished on the occasion. To such distress were the Jews reduced by famine, that mothers murdered their children for food. The people suffered greatly in other parts of Judea ; and though numbers remained in their native land, vast multitudes were dispersed over the face of the earth, on which they have ever since been wanderers. The reader of the Bible will see in these events, a re- markable fulfilment of the predictions of the ancient prophets and of our Saviour ; and he will also learn the evil and dan- ger of despising divine admonitions, and abusing religious privileges. The Jews are to this day a witness of the truth of scripture. § Nero, who was emperor when the war with the Jews commenc- ed, entrusted the management of it to his general, Vespasian, who, accompanied by his son Titus, and a powerful army, arrived in Sy. 44 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. ria 67 A. C. Vespasian soon after being chosen emperor, left orders with his son Titus, to continue the war, while he himself set out for Titus prosecuted the enterprise with diligence, and besieging Jerusalem, he took it within a few months, after an obstmate resist- ance on the part of its inhabitants. Twice, during the siege, Titus offered them very favourable terms, but so infatuated were they, that they not only refused his offers, but insulted at length his messenger, Flavins Josephus, in the most wanton and virulent manner. After this conduct, there remained no more mercy for the Jews. Titus caused the hands of those who had voluntarily sought shelter in the Roman camp, to be cut off, and sent them back to the city, and others he crucified in the sight of their countrymen. Famine, in the mean time, was performing its dreadful work within the walls. When Titus entered the city he gave it up to be plundered by the soldiers, and most of its inhabitants were put to the sword. In pursuance of this general order, the city M^as destroyed to its foundations, and even the ruins of the temple were demolished. Josephus says that the number of prisoners taken during the whole time of the war was ninety-seven thousand ; and the number killed in the city during the same period, amounted, as before stated, to one million. The Jews, who remained in the country, now paid tribute to the Romans, and were entirely subject to their laws. 46. After this event Jerusalem was partially rebuilt, and in lis the inhabitants attempted again to rebel, but were speedily overcome. Adrian, the emperor, incensed at the conduct of this stubborn people, resolved to level their city with the earth, that is to say, those new buildings erected by the Jew^s, and to sow salt in the ground, on Avhich the place had stood. Thus was fulfilled a prophecy of our Saviour, who fore- told, that neither in the city nor in the temple, should one stone be left upon another. This therefore may be called the final destruction of Jerusalem, which took place 47 years after that of Titus. Adrian, however, soon built the city over anew, and called it Aelia Capitolina. It was a short hved change, for when the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, visited the city, she found it in a forlorn and ruinous state. PARTHIA, 47. ThePARTHiAN empire at the beginning of this period, continued under the sway of the first branch of the Arsaci- dee. Phraates TV. then possessed the throne. Three sove- reigns succeeded him, when after short reigns, the second branch of the Arsacidee commenced. PERSIA. 45 Verones I. was the last of the three sovereigns of the first blanch. He had been dispatched from Rome, where he was a host£ge, to reign over the Parthians, who had invited him to be their king ; but affecting the Roman dress and manners he incurred the dishke of his people, and was driven from the throne, to make room for Artabanus, of the royal family of Media. 48. The second branch of the Arsacidae commenced IS years A. C under Artabanus III. It lasted nearly two hundred years under thirteen sovereigns. The Romans oc- casionally defeated the Parthians and made them tributary, but could never keep them long under the yoke. To the his- tory of the Parthian kings, we attach very little importance. The empire was at length restored to the Persians after they had been subject to the princes of Parthia for the space of four hundred and seventy-five years. § Artabanus V, the last of this branch, having refused to give his daughter in marriage to the emperor Caracalla, the Romans entered Parthia and destroyed many cities ; but Macrinus, the successor of Caracalla, after a hard fought battle, concluded a peace with the Parthians. Artabanus was killed in battle by Artaxares, a Persian, who, revolting from the Parthians, restored the empire to Persia. The subsequent details belong to the Persian history. PERSIA. 49. After the Persians had been subject to the Parthians during four hundred and seventy-five years, from the time that they passed from under the Macedonian yoke, Artax- ares, an ignoble but courageous Persian, excited a revolt among his countrymen, which terminated in the restoration of the Persian empire. 223 A. C. Artaxares having accomplished his design, and ascended the throne, assumed the pompous title of king of kings, and asserted his right to all the provinces of the ancient empire, which were now under the authority of the Romans. War therefore ensued between these two powers, and the Per- sians were terribly defeated in a single battle by Alexander Severus. They soon however regained the ground they had lost. Artaxares was followed by a series of princes, the most conspicuous of whom during this period was Sapores I. who was his immediate successor. The dynasty which Artaxares founded, is known in history under the name of Sassanidee, from Sassan, his father. 46 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD I. § Of Sapores, it is recorded that he conquered several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia, from the Romans, which however were recov- ered by the youngest Gordian ; that in 258 he captured Antioch, penetrating into Cappadocia, and besieging Caesara, which being taken through treacher}^, almost all the inhabitants were slain, and the city reduced to ashes. The next year the emperor Valerian having advanced into the east, was taken prisoner, and treated with the greatest cruelty, as has already been described. Sapores, after considerable reverse of fortune, having becomeodioustohis subjects for his cruelties, was assassinated by the Satraps. •Ho:misdas II. was the last prince of this period. He enjoyed a peaceful reign. After his death, the lords of the country seized his son and confined him in a tower, because he threatened to cause them all to be flayed alive, for not rising in token of obedience to him at a royal banquet, on a day when he returned from hunting. The queen being pregnant, the magi, by placing the crown upon her own person, affected to crown the prince, who, they persuaded themselves, Avould be born of her. CHINA. 50. In the history of China, the fifth dynasty which com- menced about 200 years before the christian era, terminated during the present period, viz. in the year 221 A. C. It is called the dynasty of Han, and lasted four hundred and twenty-four years, under twenty-five emperors The head of this dynasty was Lien-pang, a soldier, who, overcoming the last emperor, and ascending the throne, took the name of Kao-Tsou. § Kao-Tsou reigned with clemency and moderation. In his reign, paper, ink, and hair pencils, still used in China instead of pens, were invented. He was one of the few emperors who governed for themselves. Under the rest, the eunuchs obtained great authority. Vuti, one of the princes of this family, was a great encourager of learning, and ordered the morality of Confucius to be taught in the public schools. He fell under the power of a strong delusion, in endeavouring to discover a liquor which would make him immor- tal. The sixth dynasty began 221 A. C; and ended 265 A. C. It is called the dynasty of Heou-Han, and lasted' forty- four years. China at this time was divided into three empires, under three branches of the dynasty of Han. The various parts terminated at different periods, although the whole be- came reunited at length under the seventh dynasty in 265. ISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 47 Distinguished Characters in Period L 1. Livy, the prince of Romau historians. 2. Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet. 3. Tibulhis, a famous elegiac poet of Rome. 4. Strabo, a celebrated geographer and historian. 5. Seneca, a Roman moralist and philosopher. 6. Lucan, a Roman epic poet. 7. Pliny, (the elder) the earliest writer on natural history whose works are extant. 8. duintilian, an eminent Roman advocate and rhetori- cian. 9. Tacitus, an eminent philosophic historian. 10. Plutarch, the principal biographer of antiquity. 11. Juvenal, an eminent satirical poet. 12. M.Antoninus, a Roman emperor and philosophical wri- ter. 13. TertuUian, ) , j rxi • . 14 Orio-en > ^^^"^""^^^ Christian writers, commonly cal- ls". Cyprian, ) ^''^ ^'''^''''' § 1. Livy was a native of Padua, but passed the greatest part of his life at Naples and Rome, particularly at the conrt of Augustus. Of his life not much is known, yet his fame was so universally spread, even in his life time, tliat an inhabitant of Gades, now Cadiz, travel- led all the way to Rome, merely to see the man whose writings had- given him so much pleasure. Livy died at Padua in his sixty-se- venth year, A. C. 17. This writer is principally known by his history of the Roman em- pire. It originally consisted of 140 books, of which only 35 are ex- tant. In this work he is always great— clear, spirited, bold, and masterly in description. The high rank which he holds among his- torians will probably never be disputed. He often copied from his contemporaries and predecessors, and especially from Polybins. 2. Ovid was born at Sulmo, on the 20^1 of March, about 43 years B. C. His father intended him for the bar; but though his' pro- gress in the study of eloquence was great, yet nothing could divert him from paying his court to the muses. Every thintr he wrote was expressed in poetical numbers. His name soon became known and the great geniuses of the age honoured him with tiieir notice and some of them with their correspondence. Augustus also patronized him witli the utmost liberality. The days of his prosperity were not many. For some cause, which IS not ascertained, the emperor banished him to a place named 1 omos on the Euxme Sea. Here he spent the remainder of his life, and he spent it m unmanly repining and impatience. He offered the most abject flattery to Augustus, but both he and his successor 48 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. Tiberius were inexorable. Ovid died in the 7th or 8th year of his banishment. The poems which he left behind him have, the most of them, sur- vived to the present time. They are characterized by sweetness and elegance, though often debased by indelicacy of expression. Ovid every where paints nature with the hand of a master. His Fasti, a part of which is lost, are thought to be the best written of all his poems. It is known that the poems of Ovid were favourites with the great English bard, John Milton. 3. Tibullus was a Roman Knight. He at first engaged in the toils of war ; but dissatisfied with such a life, he afterwards gave himself up to literary ease, and to the pleasures of an enervating Ita- lian climate. His favorite study was the writing of love verses. In these elegant trifles he shewed himself an accomplished poet. Four books of elegies are all that remain of his compositions. They are so beautiful in language, and so pure in sentiment, that Tibullus is de.servedly ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 4. Strabo was a native of Amasia, and died 25 years A.. C. His geographical work, divided into 17 books, is the only composition of his remaining. This is justly considered an elegant, classical, and learned work. It is written in Greek, and contains an account of the most celebrated places and countries of the world. Strabo tra- velled through most of the regions he has described, in quest of ac- curate information. Among his books which have been lost, are historical commentaries. 5. Seneca (Lucius Anna^us) was born at Cordova, in Spain. He became early distinguished for uncommon abilities, and acquired at the bar, the reputation of an eloquent pleader ; but he relinquished this road to fame, and became a candidate for public employments. He obtained the office of quaestor, but by a shameful indiscretion, having incurred the displeasure of Caligula, he was banished to the island of Corsica. In five years he was recalled by the empress Agrippina, to superintend the education of her son Nero, which of- fice he discharged with honor. Nero becoming impatient of the restraint, which his preceptor im- posed upon his vicious inclinations, pretended that Seneca had con- spired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to Seneca to acquaint him that he must die ; permitting him to choose the manner of his death. The philosopher received the mandate with cheerful- ness, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened. The blood however flowed slowly — poison and the warm bath were therefore resorted to: but being without effect, he was at last smoth- ered in the vapour of a stove. His death took place in his seventy- second year, 65 A. C. 6. Lucan was a native of Corduba, and nephew of Seneca. He early went to Rome, where his rising talents procured him the favour of Nero. He had the imprudence, however, to enter into a poetical contest with his imperial patron, and obtaining an easy victory, as might have been expected, he ever afterwards was an object of the emperor's hatred. The insults to which the poet was continually DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 49 exposed, provoked his resentment to such a degree, that he joined Piso in his conspiracy against that monster. The discovery of the plot, of course, consigned him to death. He died a young man, be- ing only in his 26th year. Of his works, his Pharfalia only remains. This poem celebrates the wars of Caesar and Pompey, and is unfinished. It has been va- riously estimated. The moral gi-andeur of its sentiments has been generally acknowledged, but some think him more of an orator than a poet. 7. Pliny (the elder) was born at Verona, of a noble family. He was distinguished in civil life, as well in scientific pursuits. To his public duties he attended through the day, but the night he devoted to study. He lost no time by idleness or dissipation. Every mo- ment that could be spared from business was occupied in the cultiva- tion of his mind. He turned his attention more particularly to Nature. His work on Natural History, comprised in 37 books, is full of erudition. It takes in a wide range of topics, and is written in an interesting and sprightly manner, although the style possesses not the graces of the Augustan age. He wrote one hundred and sixty volumes of remarks and annotations on the various authors whom he had read, but these have not reached us. His love of knowledge cost him his hfe. An eruption of Vesu- vius happening at the time when he lay at Misenum, where he com- manded a fleet, he was induced to approach the mountain, for the purpose of making his observations on the interesting phenomenon. While thus occupied, he was overtaken by the burning lava which poured from the volcano, and suffocated and scorched, he soon per- ished. This memorable event happened in the 79th year of the Chris- tian era. 8. Quintilian was a native of Spain. After twenty years labo- rious employment in teaching rhetoric, and in pleading at the bar at Rome, he retired to enjoy the fruits of his labours and industry. Here he dedicated his time to the study of literature, and to com- position. His success as an author, and the favours of the emperor Domitian, afforded him a high delight. But no situation is perfect- ly happy — the death of his wife and two sons, filled him with almost inconsolable grief. He died 95 A. C. His Institutions, in 12 books, is the most perfect system of ora- tory extant. In this work, he delineates that which goes to consti- tute a perfect orator, together with all the preparation necessary. This work remained undiscovered until the fifteenth century, 9. Tacitus was the son of a Roman knight, and born in the reign of Nero. His genius and talents procured him the favour of several emperors in succession, and he was raised at last to the consular dignity. He was not destitute of distinction as an orator, but he is chiefly known to mankind as an historian. A peculiar friendship existed between him and Pliny, though the one was sternly partial to a republican government, and the other was a great admirer of imperial power. The compositions of Tacitus were contained in thirty books, of 5 50 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. which there now remain only twenty-one. Of these, his Annals in- clude sixteen, and his History of the Roman Emperors five. Taci- tus has many excellencies of style. Its most striking characteristic, perhaps, is conciseness. He has great force and depth of thought, and is candid and impartial in his statements. In his biographical sketches, he displays an uncommon knowledge of human nature. The History of the Reign of Tiberius, is his masterpiece. Some have complained of him as being obscure. 10. Plutarch was a native of Chaeronea. He died at an advanced age, in his native place, about the 140lh year A. C. Having travel- led in quest of knowledge through Egypt and Greece, he retired to Rome, where he opened a school, with great reputation. Trajan, who admired his abilities, honoured him with the office of consul, and with the government of Illyricum. After the death of his imperial patron, he removed from Rome to Chaeronea; in which delightful retirement, he composed the great- est part of his works. His Lives of Illustrious Men, is the most esteemed of his productions. His precision and fidelity are remark- able. In his style, he is energetic and animated; though distin- guished neither for purity nor elegance. Sometimes he is too cir- cumstantial ; yet, on the whole, he has been pronounced to be the most entertaining and instructive of all the writers of ancient history. 11. Juvenal was born at Aquinum, in Italy, and died in the reign of Trajan, 128 A. C, at an advanced age. He came early to Rome, where he applied himself at first to declamation, and afterwards to the writing of satires. Sixteen of these pieces are extant. In them, he is an animated, severe, and bold reprover of vice, and displays also much humour. He, however, defeats his object, in a great measure, by the gross- ness and indecency of his manner. His correctness in delineation is the result of experience and age. He has been called, with some reason perhaps, the last of the Roman poets. 12. M. Antoninus, whose history has been given before, was born at Rome, in the 121st year of the christian era, and died on an ex- pedition against the Marcomanni, in the nineteenth year of his reign. He was a prince of great talents and virtue. His death was regret- ted by mankind as a public loss, and the greatest honour was paid to his memory. According to the superstition of the times, he was ranked among the gods, and in almost every house his statue was found. His book of Meditations has been much admired by scholars and philosophers. 13. Tertullian lived at Carthage, and flourished in the reigns of Severus and Caracalla. He was originally a pagan, but afterwards embraced Christianity, and became one of its ablest defenders. His writings evince that he possessed a lively imagination, fervid elo- quence, strength of reasoning, and a considerable acquaintance with style. His Apology for the Christians, and his Prescriptions, are the best esteemed of his numerous works. The historian Gibbon, calls him the " stem" Tertullian. ROMAN EMPIRE. 51 14 Origen was bom at Alexandria, about the year 185, and died m io4, having been presbyter of that city. He wrote in Greek He was much celebrated for his parts and learning. He was endowed wi h unaffected humility and modesty, and was extremely ri^id in loilowmg the christian rules. In the sixty-ninth year of his a^e he su^ered martyrdom. His works are many, and include a num'ber 01 homilies, commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, and different trea- tises, besides his Hexapla. This last work first gave the hint for the compilation of our polyglot Bibles. Mosheim calls him the lu- minary oi the christian world, during the age in which he lived • but observes, that he failed in justness of judgment, and was given to the Platonic philosophy. 15. Cyprian was a native and a bishop of Carthage. He was born about the beginning of the third century, of heathen parents but became a convert to Christianity, and was a principal father of the churcii To be more devoted to purity and study, he is said to have abandoned his wife; and, as a proof of his charity, he dis- tributed his goods to the poor. He wrote eighty-one letters besides several treatises, and rendered his works valuable, by the informa- tion he conveys respecting the discipline of the ancient church A n ^\T beheaded as a martyr, at Carthage, September 14, 258 A. C. Moshiem speaks of him as possessing the most eminent abili- ties and flowing eloquence, but rather too attentive to the ornaments of rhetoric. PERIOD II. The period of the Northern Livasions, extending, from the _ Reign of Constmitiiie the Great, 306 years A. C. to the Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C, THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. The empire of Rome, as has already appeared, had been for several years under the sway of a number of masters, on all of whom the burden of government equally devolved. At the time when Constantine was pro- clanned in Britain 306 A. C. upon the death of his father Constantius, the two Caesars, Severus and Maximin, had aheady been proclaimed 305 A. C— Maxentius, son ofMax- imian, had about the same time, 306 A. C, declared himself. The next year Licinius was created emperor by Galerius, who had never willingly owned Constantine. These were Constantine's competitors, and in the course of a few years he lived to see them either destroyed in various ways, or overcome in battle, and himself remaining the sole master of the Roman world. 52 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. Coiistantine has been styled the first christian emperor. Whatever may have been his real character, as far as reUgion is concerned, it is certain that he stopped the persecutions of the christians — that he pubhcly favoured Christianity— defend- ed it against its enemies, and tolerated the profession of it in the empire. Indeed, under his auspices it became the religion of the state, and that great change in the Roman govern- ment took place, which, from a persecuting, made it a protect- ing power. For the influence which Christianity exerted over the pubUc conduct of this emperor, a cause has been as- signed, possessing a miraculous character, viz. : his seeing a pillar of light in the heavens in the form of a cross, bearing the inscription — " By this conquer." Whether this were a real sight, or a mere imagination, it is asserted in the records of the times, as an undoubted fact ; and if it were such, we may readily account for the part which Constantine acted, even should we be forced to doubt the integrity of his religious principles. § The first exploits of Constantine were directed against the Franks, who had then overrun Gaul. It was in 311 or 312, when he was marching against Maxentius, and reflecting on the mutabihty of the world, and the opinions which then divided the attention of man- kind, that he saw the pillar of light mentioned above. This was in the latter part of the day, and on the following night, Jesus Christ is said to have appeared to him with the same sign. In consequence of these appearances, the emperor caused a royai standard to be made, bearing a figure similar to that he had seen, and commanded that it should be carried before him in his wars. Soon espousing the cause of Christianity, he entered Italy, and ad- vancing towards the gates of Rome, he attacked and defeated Max- entius, who, in attempting an escape, was drowned in the Tiber. The next day Constantine was received into the city as a deliverer. In 314, a war was kindled between Constantine and Licinius, but it soon ended in a peace. Nine years afterwards, hostilities broke out again, when Licinius after two defeats was obliged to abdicate, leaving the government to Constantine alone. 2. The administration of Constantine varied very much, in the different periods of his life. It was far more com- mendable at the beginning, than it at length became. His natural temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of his reign was marked by several acts of intolerant zeal, and sanguinary rigour. In protecting and countenancing the Christian religion he deserves our approbation, although it must be acknowledged that he brought it into too close an al- ROMAN EMPIRE. 53 liance with the civil power, to consist with its highest pros- perity. "^ ^ I The character of Conslantine has been the subject of extravaaant eulogy, or violent censure, according as friends or foes have been concerned in drawing it. We shall do well perhaps to strike the balance between the different representations— the prejudices of the cotemporary pagans against it we should little regard, nor should we think too much of the panegyric which was resorted to for its vindication, by the professed Christians of his day. It was a highly mixed character which he possessed. ° This emperor was the author of an essential change in the Roman aflfairs, in another respect besides that of religion. In transferring the seat of the empire from Rome to Constantino- ple, he atfected its condition during tlie remainder of its ex- istence. This step accelerated the destruction of the decay- ing fabric. His motives in this project cannot be accurately determmed— whether they had reference to ideas of poHcy and advantage, or purely to resentment on account of aifronts- received at Rome. Whatever they were, his own reputation and the public interests were injured. The eifect of this measure, though not immediately felt, was at length fatal. After the government was apportioned among the emperor's sons, there was such a division of the forces of the empire, that the northern barbarians, who fought with superior numbers, and had been hitherto re- pulsed, now began to prevail and to encroach on the pro- vinces. ^ In an' expedition against the Persians, Constantine died at Nicomedia, m the thirtieth year of his reign, and sixty-third of his age. J The new seat of empire is said to have been pointed out in the rhZ'"?^ manner :_Constantine had made choice of a situation at Chalcedon, m Asia Minor ; but it seems, in laying out the ground- piot an eagle caught up the line and flew'with it ofer to BSkrn a city which lay upon the opposite side of the Bosphorus ' Here, therefore, it was deemed expedient to fix the seat of emnire • and Constantine, after having built a capitol, an amphitSre' many churches and other public works, and many mag^Fficent ed^ fices, and after haying dedicated the city to the God of mS-s re- paired thither, with his whole court. "i^nyis, re From this period to the reigns of Honorius and Arcadius when tne empire was divided into two distinct sovereio-nties' Sender"^' ""^ ^""""^ ^""^ Constantinople are necessarily 5* 54 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD I. 3. The Roman world had long been composed of discord- ant parts, and the work of corruption and dissolution was at this time making a rapid progress. The immense mass was kept together for a period longer, only by the vigorous exer- tion of despotism. The fabric naturally tottered to its fall, when the Pagan principles of rehgion, wliich constituted an essential part of its foundation, were removed. The arm of power then supplied the props that upheld it, and this, more emphatically than was ever the case before. § The Roman armies at this era, were debased by the intermixture of Scythians, Goths, Germans, and other barbarous tribes ; and Con- stantine, from a timid policy of guarding against mutinies of the troops, reduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5000 and upwards, to 1000 or 1500. 4. Before his death, Constantino had settled the empire on five princes — his three sous and two nephews. His sons were Constantino II., Constans, and Constantius II. The nephews, who were Caesars, were named Dalmatius, and Annibahanus. Then- sovereignty commmenced 337 A. C. Immediately upon the accesssion of these princes, Con- stantius contrived to destroy the two Caesars, with five others of his cousins and two of his uncles. Soon after this, Con- stantine entered into a contention with Constans, and was killed ; and Constans in a few years perished in attempting to quell a revolt among his subjects. Constantius, therefore, remained in the possession of the whole empire. He reigned twenty-four years in misfortune and dishonour. § Domestic broils, and insurrections of the troops, had left the west- ern frontiers of the empire exposed to the barbarians. The Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians had devastated the fine countries on the Rhine, and the Persians had kept up a succession of wars in the eastern provinces. At first Constantius obliged the Persians to retire ; but he was afterwards overcome in nine signal battles. His cousin Julian, he created Caesar, but afterwards regarding him with jealousy, and hearing that he was proclaimed emperor, Con- stantius marched against him, but died on the road. He had reach- ed his 45th year. In person he was diminutive, but capable of exertion when occasion required ; he was temperate,but extremely uxorious ; and in a word, inherited the defects without the abilities of his father. He was much engaged in theological controversy, but his religious principles or character cannot inspire us with any great respect. 5. Julian, commonly called the apostate, on account of his relapsing kito paganism from a Christian education, was ROMAN EMPIRE. 55 acknowledged by the senate, 361 A. C. His army had pre* viously proclaimed him emperor, much against his will ; but the insult he received fiom Constantius, who exacted submis- sion to himself as the supreme head, determined him to assert his claims by force of arms. After due preparation and vigorous efforts, he was happily released from this necessity, by the death of Constantius. Julian had already restored the glory of the Roman arms by repressing the invasions of the barbarians. He was not without several noble traits, and was fitted by knowledge and energy to govern a great people. His enmity against the holy religion of Jesus, was deservedly his greatest defect. To this he added bigotry in favour of paganism, supersti- tion, and no small share of a foolish credulity. He was ad- dicted to the studies of magic and astrology. He immediately began the reformation of abuses of various kinds, but declared in favour of paganism, re-opened the tem- ples, and without directly persecuting, did much to injure Christians and their cause. In 363, he attempted to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem ; but certain miraculous appearances, it is said, prevented the execution of his design. During the same year, in a war with the Persians, while pursuing a vic- torious course, and in a successful engagement, he received a mortal wound. He had reigned but three years, and lived thirty-one. § The cunning and the malice of Julian, appeared, in treating the Christians with contempt. He removed them, as visionaries, from all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit of the laws to decide their differences, because their religion forbade a contentious spirit ; and they were debarred the studies of literature and philosophy, as this would subject them to the perusal of pagan authors. Julian, like many others opposed to Christianity, employed wit and ridicule against this religion ; for he was an author as well as a warrior. It is said in apology for him, that he used these weapons in self-defence — that he was first lampooned by the Christians. However that may be, religion is a subject too sacred to be treated in that manner. One of his works against the Christians, was Mi- sophogon, or beard hater. His Caesars is the most famous of his compositions, being a satire upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to Constantine. This philosophical fable, according to Gibbon, is " one of the most agreeable and instructive productions of ancient wit." His last moments were spent in conversation with a philosopher 66 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. on the immortality of the soul— he expressed his expectation of being united with heaven, and with the stars,* which was one of his astrological vagaries, and he breathed his last without indicating the least sorrow for his fate, or the suddenness of his death. His attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, was made with a view to furnish a specious argument against prophecy, and of course the truth of revelation. The prodigies on the occasion, which prevent- ed the completion of the work, are attested by contemporary writers, such as Ammianus Marcellinus, and Gregory Nazianzen. This article of history has been the subject of much dispute. But whether we allow or not that the prodigies, such as earthquakes and balls of fire, happened, to the annoyance of the workmen and to the destruc- tion of their commenced work, it is evident that something prevented the work, for the temple was never rebuilt, and thus our Saviour's prophecy remains as yet unsuspected. " Jerusalem is to be trodden down of the Gentiles till the time of the Gentiles is fulfilled." 6. On the death of Julian, the race of Constantius Clorus became extinct, and the Roman world was without a head, and without an heir. In this situation, the army finally fixed on Jovian, a Pannonian, and the emperor's first domestic, as his successor, 363 A. C. Jovian made peace with the Per- sians, by the cession of five provinces ; for on Julian's death the army was brought to the brink of destruction, and by such a sacrifice only could he save it and himself. This emperor appUed himself to restore tranquillity to the Church. He displayed the banner of the cross, and reversed the edicts of Juhan respecting Christianity. His reign, which continued only seven months, was mild and equitable. He died suddenly at the age of thirty-three years. § While Jovian was on his march to secure the palace of Constan- tinople, his wife with an imperial train hastened to meet him, car- rying with her their infant son. The moment of embracing her husband seemed to be at hand : but the distressing news of his death which was immediately communicated to her, most cruelly disap- pointed her hopes. He had died the night before, as some report, by suflbcation from the vapour of charcoal. 7. Valentinian I., after a delay of a few days was elected emperor by the army, 364 A. C. One month after, he asso- ciated his brother Yalens, in the empire, and gave him the eastern provinces. From this period, the division of the em- pire into Eastern and Western, became fixed and permanent. * This was in agreement with the doctrine of Pythagoras and Plato, which seems to exclude any personal or conscious immortality. ROMAN EMPIRE. 57 The empire, however, was still considered as one body. On the East, the Persians were making inroads. The West was continually invaded by the northern barbarians. The latter were repelled by the emperor in many successful bat- tles. He favoured the Christian religion, and his domestic administration was equitable and wise. His temper, howe- ver, was violent. He died on an expedition against the Ale- manni, 367 A. C. § It is said that the barbarians against whom he had last taken arms, had provoked him beyond all endurance, so that when their ambassadors came to sue for mercy, his anger was raised to such a height, and his tones and gestures were so violent, that he ruptured a blood vessel, and expired on the spot. In the East, Valens held a weak and inefficient sceptre. Engaged in the Arian heresy which he favoured, he threw the provinces into confusion and contention, and at the same time exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians, who came under the profession of friends and allies. He died in 378 A. C. These were the Goths who emigrated from Scandinavia, and who, together with several other barbarous nations, will soon be described in this account of the Roman empire, since they are so intimately connected with its destiny. § In 376, Valens permitted vast hordes of the Goths, who had been driven out of their country by the Huns, to settle in Thrace. Here, however, they soon plundered the very country conceded to them as an asylum. The emperor hastened to oppose them, but he was de- feated in the famous battle of Adrianople, two thirds of his army having been cut to pieces. Being himself wounded, he was carried into a cottage, where on the same day he was burnt alive by the barbarians, who set fire to the cottage, without knowing that it contained the emperor of the East. 8. Gratian, a son of Yalentinian, succeeded his father, 367 A. C. He soon became possessor of the whole empire, by the death of Valens. Upon this event, he took Theodosius as his associate, on whom he conferred the eastern provin- ces. He began to reign in his 17th year, and died at the age of 24 years. He was a well disposed prince, but defi- cient in energy of character. § Gratian undertook to destroy the remains of paganism ; but Rome, at the time, happening to be afflicted by a severe famine, the favourers of that superstition ascribed the calamity to the wrath of 68 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD 11. the gods. A general dissatisfaction ensued, and Maximus, who commanded in Britain, taking advantage of tliis state of things, cau- sed himself to be proclaimed emperor. Gratian marching into Gaul to oppose him, was deserted by his soldiers, and killed at Lyons, 371 A. C. 9. Valentinian II. was the successor of his brother Gra- tian. Being dispossessed by Maximus, he took refuge with Theodosius, who was then reigning in the East, and who restored him to the throne. From that time he ruled with justice. After wearing the crown for several years, he was strangled by a Gaul named Arbogastus, who had assumed an authority over his sovereign, 392 A. C. The tyrant Eu- genius, whom the Gaul caused to be proclaimed on this oc- casion, was defeated and put to death by Theodosius. 10. In the East, after the death of Valens, Theodosius succeeded to the throne, 379 A. C. He' was deservedly sur- named the Great. The barbarians he repelled with success, and he secured the prosperity of his people by wise and salu- tary laws. It was during his reign, that Christianity obtain- ed the entire ascendency over paganism, as the rehgion of the Roman people. After the death of Valentinian IT., the whole empire came into possession of Theodosius ; and he was the last who reign- ed over both the East and West. Previously to his decease, he divided the empire between his two sons, assigning the West to Honorius, and the East to Arcadius. From this era they became two distinct empires, and will be treated of separately. § Theodosius the Great, was the son of Count Theodosius, a very able general, who had been beheaded by the order of Gratian. To atone for his injustice, Gratian chose the Count's son as his colleague, and gave him the East for his portion. A few days after his eleo lion, he gained a signal victory over the Goths, who immediately sued for peace. In the year 390, Theodosius cruelly punished the inhabitants of Thessalonica, who had killed their governor on a certain occasion, by sending his soldiers against the place, and putting 7000 to the sword. Such, however, was the influence of St. Ambrose, that he obliged the emperor, by a public penance, to expiate his crime. In religion, Theodosius espoused the orthodox party. His faith is said to have been confirmed by an argument adapted to the mean- est capacity. He had conferred on Arcadius, his eldest son, the ti- tle of Augustus ; and the two princes were seated on a throne to re- ceive the homage of their subjects. Among others who oifered their ROMAN EMPIRE. 69 homage, was Amphilochius, bishop of Icenium. He, however, ap- proached Theodosms alone with reverence, the son he accosted with famiharity. The monarch, offended by the conduct of the bishop, gave orders that he should be thrust from his presence ; but while the guards were engaged m this act, the good bishop exclaimed, "Such is the treatment, O emperor ! which the king of heaven has prepared for those nnpious men who affect to worship the Father, but refuse to acknowledge the co-equal dignity of his divine Son." This declaration had the effect of propitiating the emperor, and fixing his mind more strongly than before, in the faith. 11. The Roman empire had now become excessively weakened by its unwieldly extent, and had aheady suffered much from the incursions of its barbarous neighbours. It was, however, destined to suffer far more in the end, from th^ last named source. Its separation into two empires, favoured the projects of the barbarians, who, from this period, poured in hke a torrent upon these cultivated regions. The Western empire in a few years was completely overwhelmed. A short account of the barbarous nations, who acted so con- spicuous a part in this tragedy, seems to be demanded in this place. The Huns were a fierce and savage nation, at first in- habitmg the vast deserts which border China on the north. A part of them, owing, it is said, to civil wars, retired to the westward, and settled to the north of the Caspian sea, near the source of the river Ural. § From thence, 376 A. C, advancing towards the Palus Maeotis (sea of Asof ) under Balamir, their chief, they subdued the Alains and forced such of them as were capable of bearing arms to join them 5 the remainder they put to death. With this accession of strength and numbers, they fell upon the Ostrogoths and Visogoths and having driven them away from their country, took possession of It themselves. This was a region extending from the Tanais to the Danube. Their subsequent history, we shall find identified with the Roman affairs. The Alains inhabited the north of Asiatic Sarmatia, and w^ere known to the Romans in the time of Pompey. Under the first emperors, they several times invaded the frontier provinces. § Those of them who escaped the arms of the Huns, pushed their way towards Pannonia, whence advancing still further to the west, they united with the Suevi and the Vandals, and continuing their migrations, they finally settled in Lusitania, now Portugal, where in 477, they were conquered by the Visogoths. 60 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. The Vandals issued from Scandinavia, now Sweden, and crossing the Baltic, first settled in a part of Germany. On account of increasing numbers, they again emigrated, and taking their course eastward, possessed themselves of the cotmtry towards the Tanais, whence they made several in- cursions upon the Roman provinces. § They at length formed a junction with the Suevi and Alains, and marched into Spain, a part of which they settled, and called after their name, Vandalusia or Andalusia. Their history downward, is pursued in that of the Romans. The Goths came originally from Scandinavia. They first settled in Pomerania, whence advancing towards the east, they took up their abode to the north of the lake Mseotis. Here they were divided into Yisogoths, or Goths of the West, and Ostrogoths, or Goths of the East. § Being overcome by the Huns, they were forced to abandon their last settlement, and a part of them took refuge in Pannonia, where they remained till they formed the new kingdom of Italy, hereafter to be mentioned. The Heruh also, originated in Scandinavia. They first emi- grated towards the East, and settled on the borders of the lake Maeotis. They afterward returned towards the West. § It is said that coming to the ocean, they embarked for Thule, one of the Shetland islands, or, as others suppose, what is now called Iceland, where they finally settled. As we shall soon learn, the first sovereign of the new kingdom of Italy was a chief of the Heruli. The Gepidae were another Scandinavian tribe. They first planted themselves on the Vistula, whence they advan- ced east towards the Tanais. § Here being subdued by Attila, the Hun, they served under him in his expedition to Gaul. Upon his death, they shook off the yoke. They were finally destroyed by the Lombards. The Suevi were a warlike nation of Germany, inhabiting that part of it in which Berlin is now situated. They were great wanderers, and often changed their habitations. § In 406, they entered Gaul with the Alains and Vandals, with whom they passed into Spain, in a part of which they established a monarchy. This was afterwards destroyed by the Visogoths. The Burgundians first inhabited what now constitutes the kingdom of Prussia. From this country they were afterwards expelled by the Gepidae. They frequently crossed the Rhuie, and invaded Gaul, and brought trouble on the empire. There were other minor tribes of barbarians, of which no particular account need be here given. They were such as ROMAN EMPIRE. 61 the Bulgari, Alemanni, Venedi, &c. Other rude nations also, who followed in the train of these conquerors, will be noticed at the proper time. 12. In the Western Empire, Honorius, who held the sceptre by the appointment of his father, Theodosius, proved him- self a degenerate son. Stilicho, a famous warrior, had been appointed guardian or minister to Honorius, during the mino- rity of the latter ; and it was owing to the vigour of the min- ister, and not at all to the merits of the emperor, that the barbarians of the north were repelled for such a length of time. Alaric, king of the Goths, had penetrated into Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho near Pollentia, 403 A. C. But this able general, having, through the baseness of the emperor, been afterwards beheaded, 408 A. C, Alaric again advanced and beseiged Rome. The promise of a large sum of gold delayed his purposes of vengeance. As, however, it was ne- ver fulfilled, Alaric took the city, and committed some part of it to the flames, 410 A. C. The pillage lasted six days, and multitudes of its inhabi- tants were massacred. Durmg the space of more than six hundred years, Rome had not been violated by the presence of a foreign enemy ; and even long before, as well as during that period, her power had been feared abroad. § The weakness of Honorius, among other causes, encouraged the attack of the barbarians upon the empire. From the wilds of Scan- dinavia, that northern hive, as it has been fitly called, as well as from the east, they issued in almost incredible numbers. Previously to their descent upon Italy, the Goths, under Alaric, had spread their devastations quite to the borders of the eastern capital, and through the classic fields of Greece. Stihcho made a stand against the invaders. While they beseiged Asta, where the forces of Honorius had taken refuge, Stilicho cut his way through the Gothic camp under the walls of that place, and thus rescued the emperor. The Goths afterwards pitching their camp in the vicinity of Pollentia, were suddenly attacked by Stilicho, and several thousands of them were slain. Among the captives was the wife of Alaric, who was compelled to implore the clemency of the victor. The Goths, however, were but partially checked in con- sequence of this victory. Stilicho might, perhaps, have delayed for some time the fall of the empire, but his plans were frustrated by the machinations of his ri- vals, and he fell a victim to the suspicions of the tmgrateful emperor. 408 A. C. Alaric had long stood in a menacing attitude, and now prepared to complete his designs upon Italy. About this time, vast numbers 6 62 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD II. of Goths pouring down upon Germany, forced the nations whom they dispossessed, to fall upon Italy. These joined their arms to those of Alaric, who made an attack on Rome. He met with success ; and this great city, which had so long been the terror of the world, was sacked, plundered and partially burnt, 410 A. C, by tlie savage tribes of Germany and Scythia. The popu- lation of Rome, at this time, might amount to 1,200,000 men ; but the nobles Avere wholly sunk in luxury and effeminacy, and the populace had become exceedingly debased, by the manumission of slaves or the influx of foreigners. They were nothing more than the shadow of their ancestors in bravery and spirit. Hence the suc- cess of the arms of the barbarian. The catastrophe which Rome experienced, was hastened also by famine. War had prevented the cultivation of the lands, and the ports being blocked up, the citizens were reduced to the greatest ex- tremities — human flesh was publicly sold. Treachery completed the Avork. The Salarian gate was opened at midnight, by some of the Romans themselves, and the enemy rushed in. The scene v^'as dreadful ; for although the conqueror, in his magnanimity had given orders that none except the armed should be killed, great numbers of citizens were put to death, and larger numbers still, were reduced from affluence to want and cap- tivity. Though the city was pillaged and set on fire, it is thought that few, comparatively, of its magnificent edifices were destroyed. Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, but death suddenly put an end to his ambitious projects. He died after a short illness. Honorius, instead of improving this opportunity to recover his lost provinces, entered into a treaty with Ataulfus, Alaric's successor, gave him in mar- riage his sister, Placidia, and ceded to him a portion of Spain. By these and other acts, Honorius suffered the empire^ jjy degrees, to pass from the dominion of the Romans. Ho- norius continued to reign till the year 422. 13. Valentinian III. was crowned two years after the death of Honorius, 424 A. C. He was the son of Constan- tius, a general of Honorius, and during seven months, an as- sociate w4th him in the government. In 439, the emperor lost his dominions in Africa, by the revolt of Count Boniface, who delivered that part of the empire to the Vandals. § Aetius, a general of Valentinian, being jealous of Boniface, by means of his artifices drew the latter into a revolt, and was em- ployed on the part of the empire to punish him on this account. Boniface defeated the first army that \vas sent against him ; but dis- trusting his strength to cope singly with his enemies, he was in- duced to call in the assistance of Genseric, king of the Vandals. The measure, however, was ruinous to his cause. ^ ROMAN EMPIRE. 63 The Vandal having thus obtained a footing in Africa, which he greatly desired, could not be prevailed on afterwards, by the offer of large sums of money, to retreat. Although tlie compact between the two generals was, that they should divide Africa between them, Genseric occupied the whole country, except three cities, and these he soon took. Shutting up Boniface in Carthage, he compelled him, at the ex- piration of a year, to surrender ; and the Roman general experienced the mortification of beholding all Africa, which he had once saved, ravaged in the most wanton manner, by the barbarians whose assist- ance he had invited. The kingdom which Genseric thus establish- ed, did not last quite a century. The other provinces of the empire were protected against the invasion of the barbarians, by Aetiiis. The Hunsj at this time, had begun to make their ravages in the empire. Under Attila, their leader, in 445, they first overran Illyricum, Thrace, Dacia, and Meesia, and laid the Romans mider tribute. Soon afterwards, with an army of 500,000 men, Attila in- vaded Gaul, and threatened the destruction of the em- pire. The forces of the Romans, under Aetius, met him in battle, on the plains of Chalons, and defeating him, with the loss of 160,000 men, checked his progress for a time. Not long after, however, he invaded Italy, and Valentin- ian bemg shut np in Rome, by the arms of the barliarian, was compelled to purchase a peace. Attila dying suddenly, in the midst of his successes, the empke of the West was saved from immediate destruction. § The march of the Huns was extremely desolating. To their leader, Attila, the victims of his ambition have given the expressive appellation of " The Scourge of God."- He first invaded the East, which he ravaged at pleasure; its emperor, Theodosius, being dis- posed rather to conciliate his favour by a tribute, than to attempt liis expulsion by force of arms. Disdaining so mean spirited an enemy, he turned to the West ; where his appearance has already been described. His body was secretly buried, enclosed in three coffins, the first of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. The men who dug his grave were put to death, lest they should re- veal the place of his burial. Aetius, whose military talents had been so serviceable to the empire, soon fell a victim to the jealousy of the eunuch Herachus, and Yalentinian stabbed him with his own hand. The next year the emperor himself was assassinated. 14. Maximus II. who had instigated the murder of Val- entinian, was proclaimed, 455 A. C. He married Eudoxia, 64 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. the widow of his predecessor, to whom he impmdently re- vealed his guilt in the assassination of the emperor. To re- venge this deed, she called in the assistance of Genseric, king of the Vandals. Upon his arrival, Maxmius fled, but he met the vengeance of his people, who stoned him to death, on account of his cowardice. § Maximus was a Roman senator of the Ancian family, and was in- cited to the destruction of Valentinian, by the dishonom' Avhich the latter had cast upon his wife. However respectable Maximus was in private hfe, his abihties were inadequate to stay the fall of the em- pire, had he been longer continued. Eudoxia had reason to repent of her imprudence. The call upon Genseric for aid, well comported with his private, sinister aims. After he had landed in Italy, with an army of Moors and Vandals, he took Rome, delivered it up to pil- lage during several days, destroyed many of the monuments of ancient genius, and conveyed the empress and her two daughters back with him in triumph to Carthage. 15. From the death of Maximus, 455 A. G. there was a succession of eight emperors, during twenty years ; at the expiration of which, as we shall soon learn, the empire ter- minated. Little more than their names can be mentioned below. § Avitus was acknowledged in Gaul by his troops. Having crea- ted Ricimer, a Roman senator, general of his armies, the latter soon entered into a conspiracy against his benefactor ; and Avitus, at first arrested and deposed, at last died while on the road to Italy, 457 A. C. Ricimer, though an able commander, was a savage aiid tur- bulent demagogue. Majorian was proclaimed after the deposition of Avitus. He made an unsuccessful attempt against the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. This emperor published several wise laws for the refor- mation of abuses, but the reputation which he acquired for wisdom and virtue, excited the jealousy of Ricimer, who deposed and slew him, 461 A. C. Severus HI. was created emperor by Ricimer, who governed un- der his name. Ricimer, after the expiration of four years, found it convenient to poison the nominal master of himself and the empire. Athemius was called to the empire by the united suffi-ages of the senate, the army, and the people, in 467. To attach Ricimer to his interest, who was become extremely formidable, he gave him, his daughter in marriage. Ricimer, however, soon having a dif- ference with his father-in-law, besieged and pillaged Rome. Du- ring this transaction the emperor was murdered. Olybrius, who was sent with an army by Leo, emperor of the ROMAN EMPIRE. 65 East, to protect Athemius against Ricimer, was seduced by the lat- ter and proclaimed emperor, but died three months after, 472. Glycerus, an obscure soldier, favoured by a Burgundian prince, assumed the title of emperor at Ravenna ; but Leo had conferred it on Juhus Nepos, who took Glycerus prisoner, and caused him to be consecrated bishop of Salona, 473. Julius Nepos was proclaimed at Rome 474. The next year, Ores- tes, a Pannonian, whom he sent into Gaul, revolted, and besieged the emperor in Ravenna. Nepos escaped into Dalmatia, where at the end of five years he was assassinated. Augustulus son of Orestes was made emperor by his father. After a reign of eleven months, he was taken prisoner by Odoacer king of the Heruli, and sent into Campania, where he lived in a private station. 16. In the Eastern Empire, after its final sepai'ation from the West, in the tmie of Theodosius, 395 A. C., there were transactions which deserve our notice. Theodosius, as we have seen, assigned the East to his son Arcadius. This prince was then eighteen years of age, and he proved to be both weak and'dissolute. He suflfered himself to be governed by favourites, and at length by Eudoxia, his empress, who made it her great object to plunder the revenues of the state. 17. Thedosius II. son of Arcadius, succeeded to the em- pire 408. He has the reputation of having been a prince of mild disposition, and piety of conduct, but otherwise desti- tute of those qualities that are essential to a sovereign. But his deficiencies were supplied by the genius and address of his sister, Pulcheria, who aided in the administration of the the government. The latter part of his life was greatly dis- turbed by the invasions of the Barbarians. § Pulcheria, wiiose talents for government were extraordinary, sought to strengthen her influence and power, by securing for her brother a companion in marriage, who, as she hoped, would ever be grateful to her benefactress. The person on whom her choice, as well as that of Theodosius, fell, was the beautiful and learned Athe- nais. Chance had made her known to Pulcheria. She was the daughter of an Athenian philosopher, who had taken the greatest care of her education. Such was his conviction of her entire accomplishment in every respect, that in the disposition of his property, he left his two sons the whole of it, except one hundred pieces of gold, with the declaration that " her own good fortune would be suflicient for her." With a view to obtain her just share of the inheritance from her brothers, after she had tried the forms of law in vain, the Athenian maiden came to claim the interference and protection of Pulcheria. 6* 66 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD II. at Constantinople. Her sense and merit highly pleased the princess, and in connection with her cliarms, won the heart of Theodosius. In 431 she embraced Christianity, and was baptised by the name of Eudocia, and the same year was united to the emperor in marriage. She treated her brothers with singular magnanimity, raising them to the rank of consuls and praefects, and though she at length lost the affections of Theodosius on an imputation of infidelity, and chose to retire to Jerusalem, she ever protested that she was wholly innocent. She died about 460, ten years after the death of her husband. 18. Marcian, a native of Thrace, was called to the throne by Pulcheria 450, whose hand also he received in marriage. After a reign of seven years, he departed this hfe, while pre- paring for a war against Genseric,* king of the Vandals. § Marcian possessed some eminent qualities, as is evinced by his reply to Altila when the latter claimed the annual tribute, consented to by Theodosius. " I have," said he, " gold for my friends, and iron for ray enemies." 19. Leo I., also a native of Thrace, was called to the em- pire on the death of Marcian 457 A. C. He reigned till nearly the period of the destruction of the Western empire. He had some domestic enemies, who gave him trouble ; though he finally crushed Asper, through whose influence he had been raised to the throne, and who at length revolted against his master. During the latter part of his reign, his domi- nions were much ravaged by the Goths. He died a natural death, at an advanced age, 474 A. C. § Leo 1st has been greatly praised by some historians, and cen- sured by others. An instance of his temperate firmness in resisting the oppression of his patron Asper, is recorded as follows : — Asper had presumed to reproach him with a breach of promise, in regard to a certain appointment. " It is not proper," said he, in- solently shaking the purple, " that the man who is invested with this garment, should be guilty of a falsehood." " Nor is it proper," retorted Leo, " that a prince should be compelled to resign his own. judgment and the public interest, to the pleasure of a subject." PERSIA. 20. Of Persia., during this period, we have only to say in general, that it was governed successively by eight princes, of whom Sapores II. was the most distinguished ; that at the beginning, and towards the conclusion of the period, the na- tion warred against the Romans ; but that through the inter- mediate space, the most profound peace subsisted between the CHINA. 67 two powers. A few particulars respecting some of the Per- sian sovereigns, will appear below. § Sapores, II., who was crowned before his birth, in the person of his mother, began to persecute the Christians of his dominions in 326. In a few years after, he endeavoured to recover the five provinces yielded by his grandfather, Narses, to the Romans, but was terribly defeated by Constantius. After this event, he gained a celebrated battle at Sirigate, in Mesopotamia, and'took several cities. In the war with Julian, in 363, he was pursued into the very heart of his dominions, but was delivered by the death of that em- peror. He died in 380, after a reign of seventy years. His charac- ter was a compound of pride and ferocity. He cruelly persecuted the Christians, during forty years. Sapores III., was a wise prince ; he lived at peace with the Ro- mans, and died lamented. Under Isdigartes I., a persecution of the Christians commenced, which continued fifty years, during his reign and that of some of his successors. CHINA. 21. During this period, the seventh dynasty of the empe- rors of China terminated; as also the eighth, a httle after the conclusion of the period. Under the first of tliese, the empire, which had been divi- ded into three, became united. It continued one hundred and fifty-five years, under fifteen emperors. It is called the di- nasty of Tcin-ou-ti. The eighth was the dynasty of Song. It began under a revolted general, 420 A. C, and lasted fifty- nine years, under eight emperors. § One of the sovereigns of the 8th dynasty, whose name was Venti, was killed by his own son, and the parricide fell by the hands of his brother. The latter made himself many enemies by the freedom of his speech, for which, in the end, he lost his life. One of his wives, whom he had offended by calling her old, stifled him in his bed. Distinguished Characters in Period II. 1. Lactantius, an elegant writer, and an able defender of Christianity : sometimes called the Christian Cicero. 2. Ossian, a Caledonian bard. 3. Eusebius, an eminent ecclesiastical historian. 4. Eutropius, a Latin historian and sophist. 5. Julian, a Roman emperor, an acute, but mahgnant in- fidel philosopher. 6. Basil, the Great, an eminent father in the church. 68 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IT. 7. Gregory Nazianzen, a theological and polemical writer. 8. Claudian, an elegant Latin poet. 9. St. Chrysostom, and ) Learned and eloquent ministers 10. St. Augustine, \ and writers. § 1. Lactantius proved the truth of the Christian rehgion, and ex- posed the absurdities of paganism. He was the most eloquent of the ecclesiastical Latin writers of his age. His principal works, are his treatises concerning the Divine Wrath, and the Works oi God, and his Divine Institutions. The last, in seven books, is written with uncommon elegance and purity. As a theologian, he had some errors. He died in 325. 2. Ossian was a rude Caledonian. He is supposed to hare flou- rished in the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal. He wrote in Gaelic ; and the poems that go by his name, translated by Macpherson, are marked by a simple and sublime wildness. If they are really Ossian's, he must be considered as the first of the poets of this period. There is, however, strong ground of doubt, in respect to the authenticity of these poems, as a whole. 3. Eusebius died in 338 A. C. He was bishop of Csesarea, and enjoyed the favour of Constantine. He opposed Arius, although he held to a certain disparity and subordination in the Godhead. He was a man of immense reading, and was greatly versed in ecclesi- astical history and sacred erudition. He distinguished himself by his writings, which consisted of an ecclesiastical history, the life of Constantine, evangelical preparations, and many other treatises, most of which are now lost. 4. Eutropius lived in the age of Julian, under whom he was a soldier in the war against Persia. He is supposed to have been a Roman Senator. He wrote several works ; but none of them re- main except his Roman History. This was an epitome of the trans- actions of Rome, from the age of Romulus to the reign of Valens. It is characterised by conciseness and precision, but not by elegance. 5. Julian, as has been already narrated, was elevated to the throne, 361 A. C. He then, although he had been educated according to the principles of the Gospel, publicly disavowed its truths, and offered solemn sacrifices to all the Gods of Ancient Rome. This change of religious opinion, was attributed to the austere manner with which he was instructed in Christianity ; though others ascribe it to his in- tercourse with the philosophers of Athens, and their influence over his mind. From this circumstance, the appellation of apostate, has been attached to him. Some of his writings have been preserved, in which he has shown great powers of ridicule in a bad cause. But we need not repeat the particulars that have already been given, res- pecting his character and writings. 6. Basil, surnamed the Great, was bishop of Caesarea. He was persecuted by Valens, for refusing to embrace Arianism. Accord- ing to Mosheim, " in point of genius, controversial skill, and a rich and flowing eloquence, he was surpassed by very few of his contem poraries." He died in 379. ROMAN EMPIRE. 69 7. Gregory Nazianzen, was surnamed the divine. He was patri- arch of Constantinople, but the right to that station being disputed, he abandoned it. His birth occurred in 324, and his death in 389. He held an honourable place among the theological and political wri- ters of the times. His writings compare well with those of the Gre- cian orators, in eloquence and variety. His sermons are better adapted to philosophers than common hearers, but are, nevertheless not wanting in seriousness and devotion. He most ably defended the orthodox faith concerning the Trinity. 8. Claudian was a native of Alexandria, in Egypt, and flourished in the age of Honorius and Arcadius. His style is not corrupted by the false taste of the age. But although he wrote elegant verses, he depicted no powerful passions, and exhibited no commanding genius. His matter was meagre, but his language was pure, his ex- pressions happy, and his numbers melodious. His best compositions are his poems on Rufinus and Eutropius. 9. St. Chrysostom, John, was so called on account of his extraor- dinary eloquence. He was born at Antioch, of a noble family, about 354, consecrated bishop of Constantinople in 398, and died in 40X His works are voluminous. He was an elegant preacher, and pos- sessed a noble genius. On account of his severity in opposing the corruption of the times, he procured himself many enemies. He was so great a disciplinarian, that he even recommended to private be- lievers, though very injudiciously, the use of outward violence, in re- sisting the wickedness of men. 10. St. Augustine was bishop of Hippo, in Africa. He led an aus* tere life, and died in his seventy-sixth year, 430 A. C. He distinguish- ed himself by his writings, and his reputation is great, even to this day. He was characterised by a sublime genius, an unintermitted pursuit of truth, an indefatigable application, an invincible patience, a sincere piety, and a subtle and Uvely wit. The solidity and ac- curacy of his judgment, were not, however, proportionable to his eminent talents in other respects. Augustine's book concerning the City of God, has been pronounced to be " a work extremely rich and ample in point of matter, and fill- ed with the most profound and diversified erudition." In all his writings, this father displayed an extensive acquaintance with Pla- to's philosophy. PERIOD III. The period of the Justinian Code, and of the Wars of Belisarius ; extending from the Extinction of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C, to the flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C. THE ROMAN EMPIRE. The dark ages, as they have been commonly called, commenced 70 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. with this period. The human intellect, and the state of society, had for some time previous, been retrograde. But upon the conquest of the Western Empire by the barbarians, the darkness became more especially obvious, and we shall find it prevailing over the nations, though with some intervals of light, nearly 1000 years. It is believ- ed, however, that mankind have been apt to overrate, in some res- pects, the infelicities of the dark ages, and to forget, that after all, strong proofs were at times afforded, of intellectual vigour, and of the high enjoyment of life. A few men of distinguished abilities ap- peared during the present period, though, in general, the age is not to be compared with several that preceded it. Sec. 1. We have now to recoixl the melancholy extinction of the Western Empire of the Romans — an empire, the most powerful that has ever existed. This event occurred, 476 A. C. upon the taking of Rome by Odoacer, prince of the HeruU. Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, was at that time on the throne. Odoacer, having subdued Italy, and taken its capital, spared the life of Augustulus, upon condition of his resigning the empire. § The empire having been long beset on every side by barbarians, great numbers of them were admitted into the Roman legions, to protect it against the rest. These, in the reign of Augustulus, having revolted, demanded a third part of the lands of Italy, as a settlement for themselves and families. This being refused, they advanced to Rome, under Odoacer, and as conquerors, held the country. Odoacer was an officer of the emperor's guards, at the head of the barbarians who had enlisted in the armies. When he had secured Rome, Augustulus, who was a feeble youth, was directed to express his resignation to the senate, while that body, in an epistle to Zeno, emperor of the East, disclaimed the necessity of continuing the im- perial succession in Italy, since, in the submissive language of adula- tion, they observed, "the majesty of the monarch of Constantinople, was sufficient to defend both the East and the West :" at the same time they begged the favour, that the emperor would invest Odoacer with the title of patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy. Their request was granted, and to Augustulus, was assigned a splendid income, to support him in a private station. Thus the Western Empire of Rome passed from the hands of its ancient masters, into the possession of the barbarians, who had so long harassed it by their invasions. As an em- pire, it had existed more than five hundred years, computing the time from the battle of Actium. The whole period of its duration, from the building of the city, was more than twelve hundred years. The ruin of the Roman empire, was the result of its great extent, connected with its moral corruption. The perfections ROMAN EMPIRE. 71 of God are concerned in accomplishing, by natural causes, the extinction of enormously guilty natfons. Rome, having become a mass of luxury, weakness, and profligacy, fell, at last, an easy prey to the barbarous tribes that poured in upon its dominions. § The Northern invaders did not originate the catastrophe which Rome experienced ; they scarcely hastened it. As much of crime and barbarism as they brought with them, they became, upon their settlement in the south of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the na- tive citizens themselves. Without the agency of these invaders, darkness and barbarism would have visited the Roman world, from the operation of causes within its own bosom ; especially ft-om the extreme profligacy and irreligion which prevailed among all classes. While the Roman empire in the West, thus fell into ruins, the sis- ter empire in the East, which appeared to be in a similar situation, not only continued to stand, but even existed for the space of nearly one thousand years more, though in comparative imbecility and de- pression. It existed, notwithstanding it suffered all the internal evils which produce the ruin of a state, and was shaken by all the storms, which burst upon the nations, during the middle ages. This phenomenon, which has not a parallel in the history of 'the world, may, in some measure, be explained from the almost^impreg- nable site of its capital alone, in connexion with the despotism, which sometimes remains the last support of fallen nations. We shall continue the portion of its history belonging to this period, before we bring into view the new state of things, consequent on the occupation of Italy and the West by the barbarians. The recent kingdom which they founded, deserves a separate account. 2. The Eastern Empire of the Romans, sometimes called the Greek Empire, and the Empire of Constantinople, was at this time, (474 A. C.) under the sway of Zeno, son-in-law to Leo. He was odious, on account of his debauchery ; and after having once fled from his throne, and been restored to it, and engaged in the suppression of several conspiracies, he met with a miserable end, being buried alive. He reigned about seventeen years. § Leo II., son of Zeno, and grandson to Leo I., was designed for tlie empire ; but being of tender age when his grandfather died, Zeno was made regent. But the death of the child, the same vear, left Zeno in the possession of the throne. The intrigues of the empress Venna, his mother-in-law, embittered his life, and distracted his reign. She aided one or two of the conspiracies that were carried on against him. He came to his end by an awful act of Ariadne, his wife. She loved him not, and profiting by an epileptic fit, to which the emperor was subject, caused him to be precipitately interred. When the 72 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. sepulchre was opened, a few days after, it was found that Zeno had devoured the flesh off his own arms. 3. Anastasius, an officer of the palace, marrying the widow of Zeno, was raised to the throne, 491 A. C. He was old at this time, but reigned about twenty-seven years. The beginning of his reign was auspicious, but it was otherwise in the end. He died a natural death, in his eightieth year. 4. Justin T., the Thracian, ascended the throne after the death of Anastasius. He governed with great prudence. In 526, he sent the celebrated Belisarius against the Persians, who had broken the truce subsisting between the two em- pires. The emperor, however, died before the conclusion of the war, having reigned about nine years. § Justin was the son of a ploughman, and rose by his talents to the fii-st military dignities, before he was chosen emperor. He was so illiterate, however, as to be unable to write his own name, and secured respect, only by the good sense which he manifested in the choice of his counsellors. 5. Justinian I., nephew of Justin, assumed the reins of government, 527 A. C. His personal character was far from inspiring respect ; but his reign was successful, and he was extremely fortunate in his generals and counsellors. The exploits of his generals, and the production of the code of laws that goes by his name, of which the learned Trebonian was the author, form an era in history. Towards the brave and noble Belisarius, the warrior who at first fought his battles, the emperor was ungrateful in the extreme. This great general, by his arms and policy, pre- served his master on his throne, when his expulsion from it was likely to be effected, by the civil factions which raged at Constantinople. He also defeated the Persians in three san- guinary battles, in different years ; destroyed the kingdom q{ the Vandals in Africa, and recovered that province to the em- pire; and wrested Italy from its Gothic sovereign, restoring it for a short space of time, to the authority of its ancient masters. Italy, however, was once more subdued by the Goths. From this time the fortunes of Belisarius began to changa He was compelled to evacuate Italy, having been more tlian once recalled, through the emperor's meanness and jealousy. On his final return to Constantinople, his long services were rejiaid with disgrace, and he was superseded in the command of the armies, by the eunuch Narses. ROMAN EMPIRE. 73 § Belisarius, more than any other general during the later periods of the empire, revived the fainting glory of Rome. On the plains of Dara, he defeated the Persians, with great slaughter; and his con- duct, in the sedition of Constantinople, secured the esteem of the emperor. When Justinian, by favouring a certain faction,* had near- ly involved himself in destruction, and was about to seek his safety in flight, Belisarius, amidst the uproar and confusion which pre- vailed, came to the aid of his master. A corps of three thousand veteran troops he led against the populace of Constantinople, and it is computed that no less than thirty thousand persons perished in the carnage. So signal a chastisement had the effect of overawing the infuriated and divided citizens ; and the games of the circus, out of which the contention arose, were, during several years, interdicted. The war which Belisarius carried on against the Vandals, in Africa, was marked by signal success ; but no particulars need to be related, except that Belisarius was recalled by the jealousy of Justinian, and that his victories and prompt obedience, secured him the honours of a triumph. In the war against the Gothic power in Italy, 537 A, C. Justinian v/as equally fortunate through the exploits of his illustrious lieutenant, and equally mean in his conduct towards this hero. The Gothic forces were obliged to retire before the Roman army, upon its land- ing in Sicily and Italy. Resistance was made, but in vain. The fame of Belisarius, had inspired even the degenerate Romans with courage. Long before this general reached Rome, the Gothic king had abandoned it ; and though the policy was singular, the latter did it with a view to wrest the city from the hands of Belisarius, at some future time. In the course of a few months, Vitiges, the Gothic king, advanced towards Rome, at the head of one hundred thousand warriors. The inconsiderable army of Belisarius, however, per- formed prodigies of valour, and not only defended Rome, during a long siege, but, with the aid of some reinforcements from the East, obliged the Gothic king to retire, first to Ravenna, and at last to sur- render all the towns and villages of Italy. This was no sooner effected, than the jealousy of Justinian re- manded his lieutenant to Constantinople ; nor was the latter allowed the honour of a second triumph. But though the conduct of the emperor towards him was utterly despicable, the admiration of the people was an ample indemnity. The valour of Belisarius, at this era, saved the East ; but there is no time to recount his achievements. Suffice it to say, that the necessity of the emperor, induced him again to appoint Belisarius to the command of Italy, inasmuch as it had been nearly overrun, * There were two factions in Constantinople, which were distinguished by a diversity of colour. The support of one or other of these, became necessary, to every candidate for civil or ecclesiastical honors. The greens were attached to the family or sect of Anastasius : the blues were devoted to orthodoxy, and Justinian. The latter, the emperor favoured during five years, though their tumults endangered equally his own safety, and the peace of the city. 7 74 MODERN HISTORY. — ^PERIOD III. during this interval, by the arms of the brave and virtuous Totila. No sooner, however, had he a prospect of driving the Gothic king from Italy, than he was called off to some less important warfare, which was intended as a disgrace to him. The declining years of the life of this hero, were passed in Con- stantinople ; but even at that late period, they were crowned by a victory, in which he saved the ungrateful Justinian and his capital from the ravages of the Bulgarians. The unnatural suspicions of the emperor followed him to the grave ; for even in extreme old age, he suffered in his property and comforts, for a time, from the false imputation of conspiracy. Narses, who was able in council, was also successful in war. He had the honour of completing the conquest of Ita- ly, by defeating Totila, in a decisive engagement, in which tiie Gothic king was slain. Under the title of duke, Narses. gaming some other victories, governed Italy with ability for thirteen years. Justinian died in his eighty-third year. He would be but little thought of by mankind, were it not for those illustrious men who foiight his battles, and presided in his councils. He had the sagacity to perceive their merits, and happy would it have been, had he possessed the magnanimity to reward them. His vices were meanness, vanity, caprice, and tyranny : his virtues were chastity, temperance, vigilance, and studiousness. We pretend not to determine which preponderated. Imposing as was his reign, he lived in a miserable age. His subjects were continually afflicted by war, pestilence, and famine. The empire shone out with a degree of brilliancy under his auspices, but after his death it shone no more. Its history, so far as it is necessary to notice it, is henceforth made up, more than ever, of disasters, miseries, and crimes. 6. Upon the death of Justinian, his nephew, Justin II. ascended the throne, 565 A. C. He was a man of weak in- tellect, and was governed by his consort, Sophia, though his intentions appear to have been good. The troubles and cala- mities which befel his family and empire, threw him into an incurable frenzy. In consequence of this event, Tiberius, his son-in-law, was associated in the empire. It was soon after his elevation, that the Lombards established themselves in Italy. In his reign, not only was Italy lost again to the empire, but Africa desolated, and the East ravaged by the Persians. § The advice which Justin gave to Tiberius, upon the introduction of the latter to the empire, was worthy of any prince. " Love,' ROMAN EMPIRE. 75 said he, " the people as yourself; cultivate the affections, and main- tain the discipline of the army ; protect the fortunes of the rich, and relieve the necessities of the poor." The last four years of his life were passed in tranquillity. He reigned nine years alone, and four in connexion with Tiberius. 7. Tiberius, who assumed the name of Constantine, was sole possessor of the throne in 578. His reign was short, but it was rendered glorious by his defeat of the Persians. He was accounted a just, humane, temperate, and brave prince. § On his death-bed, Tiberius bestowed his diadem on his son-in-law, Maurice, who had proved himself an excellent general. S. Maurice, a native of Cappadocia, ascended the throne 582 A. C. He reigned twenty years, m almost continual turbulence. He chose his predecessors for his model, nor was he destitute of sense and courage, in whatever he under- took for the Avelfare of his subjects. Avarice is said to have been his great failing ; but it is more probal^le, that his rigid virtue and economy were not duly appreciated in those cor- rupt times. ,| In 602, he obliged his army to take up their winter quar- ters beyond the Danube, upon which a revolt ensued, and Phocas, being proclaimed emperor, advanced to Constantino- ple. Maurice and his children were cruelly slain. § After Maurice fell into the hands of Phocas, the jealous and cruel rebel caused the emperor to be dragged from his sanctuary at Chal- cedon, and his five sons to be murdered, one after the other, before Ills eyes.^ Maurice bore this agonizing sight with such firmness and resignation, that he repeated, with streaming tears, at every wound, the words of David, "Thou art just, O Lord ! in all thy judgments." v\ hen a nurse generously concealed a royal infant, and offered her own to the executioner, Maurice was too rigidly honest not to reveal the deception. The tragic scene was closed with the execution of the emperor himself, who fell on the dead bodies of his children, wnat sufferings have not princes and their families been often called to sustam— sufferings far surpassing the common lot of men ! 9. Phocas seated himself on the throne 602 A. C. His diaracter was despicable. His empire was ravaged by the Persians, and numerous seditions arose to disturb his peace. I At last, Herachus, governor of Africa, sent his son against J him with a fleet, which quickly arrived at Constantinople. 1 1 he emperor, forsaken by his people, on whom he had inflict- 1 ed all manner of cruelties, was soon beheaded, and his body was treated with the greatest indignity. 76 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. § The cruelty of Phocas towards the family of his predecessor knew no bounds. He finally caused the innocent empress, Constan- tina, and her three daughters, to be executed on the same spot where her husband and sons had suffered, three years before. 10. Heraclius I., was crowned 610 A. C. His reign ex- tended several years into the next succeeding period. Tlie Persians ravaged his empire ; but terribly defeating them in six successive campaigns, he brought them to a peace. He reigned more than thirty years. During the last part of his reign, the foundation was laid of the caliphate of the Saracens, under the impostor Mahomet, whose his- tory will claim our attention at the beginning of the next period. KINGDOM OF ITALY. 11. The kingdom which was established on the ruins of the Western Empire of the Romans, is sometimes called the KINGDOM OF ITALY. That countiy was held and governed, for the most part, by its northern conquerors, through the space of nearly three hundred years. During this time, however, there were several transfers of the sovereignty, fi-om one of the barbarous tribes to another. The Heruli, who conquered the country in 476, held it till 493. It then passed from their hands into the possession of the Goths, or Ostro- goths, who held it till the year 568, when the Lombards seiz- ed and concjuered the country. They were masters of the greatest portion of it, a little more than two centuries. The period of which we treat, will carry the history of Italy only through a part of the above named space of time. 12. The kingdom of the Heruli in Italy, was of short con- tinuance. Odoacer, their king, reigned thirteen years without opposition ; but at the conclusion of that period, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, and after a struggle of four years, defeated and slew Odoacer, usurping his dominions, 493 A. C. § In the year 489, Theodoric twice overcame Odoacer in battle ; but being betrayed by one of his general officers, he retired to Pavia, where he was besieged by Odoacer. In his distress, Theodoric called in the assistance of the Visogoths, and gained a third victory in 490. Odoacer, shutting himself up in Ravenna, vigorously defended the place for three years. He was at last forced to enter into a treaty with Theodoric, and obtained a stipulation that his life should be spared. The Gothic monarch, however, perfidiously caused him ta be assassinated. KINGDOM OP ITALY. 77 12. The kingdom of the Ostrogoths (eastern Goths) began, 493. Theodoric, (commonly siirnamed the great,) their king, was now acknowledged the sovereign of the coun- try, and fixed his residence at Ravenna. He was an Arian in principle, but protected the Catholics. He reigned about thirty-three years. His administration of government showed him to be an able prince. The people were probably bene- fitted by a change of masters. § Theodoric, at the age of six years, was given as a hostage to Leo 1. and remained thirteen years at Constantinople. He succeeded his lather ni Pannonia in 475. His success in his invasion of Italy, has already been mentioned. After a few years, his dominions consisted not only of Italy, and Sicily, but also of Dalmatia, JNoricum, the two Rhoetias, Pannonia, and Provence. The latter part of his reign was tarnished by cruelty and suspicion. In the indulgence of these propensities, he put to death the celebrated Boethms. 13. The successors of Theodoric, in the Gothic kingdom of Italy, were seven in number. It was during the reign of several of these monarchs, that the events already related re- spectmg the invasion and conquest of Italy by Belisarius and Narses, occurred. The best known of the Gothic kings of this country are Theodotus, Vitiges, and Totila. After the death of Theias, the last of them, the Goths endeavoured, under several leaders, to re-estabhsh their dominions, but were subdued by the eunuch, Narses, who administered the government as duke, till 567 A. C. 14. The kingdom of the Lombards followed, in 56S A. C. Alboin, king of this people, was invited into Italy by Narses, to avenge the insult he received from the emperor, Justin n., in his recall. Alboin penetrated into Italy, and was proclaimed its king at the date above mentioned'! He reigned but a short tune. § His end was tragical, as it perhaps deserved to be. Having killed Cummund, king of the Gepida?, in a single combat, he married Ro- semond, that king's beautiful daughter, and made a drinking cup of her father's^ skull, out of which he obliged his queen to drink. She dissembled ner indignant feelings, but applied to two officers for re- venge. One of them had been affronted by the king, and the other she knew was enamoured of her person. These she admitted into the chamber where the king slept, who was immediately murdered, while she contrived to effect her escape to Ravenna. 15. During the remainder of the present period, there were four kings, the successors of Alboin, but none of them 7* 78 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD III. were distinguished. An anarchy, of ten year's continuance took place after the death of one of the kings, during which Italy was governed by thirty dukes. § Autharis, one of the kings, after his accession, in 584, confirmed the dukes in their authority, on condition of their paying him half of their revenues, and serving under his command in times of war, with troops levied within their respective jurisdictions. This is con- sidered by some, as the origin of the feudal system. PERSIA. 16. Seven kings in succession, swayed the sceptre of Persia during this period. Of these, Chosroes II., the great, was the most conspicuous. During much of the time, the Persians were at war with the Romans. Sanguinary battles were fought, and provinces were taken and retaken. The Romans at last penetrated into Persia. § Chosroes II. was a warrior. He repeatedly overcame the Roman generals, and was as often, perhaps, overcome. In one instance, however, he cut to pieces an army of 50,000. The Greek histo- rians, who probably exaggerate the matter, represent him as a fe- rocious monster. He doubtless had tlie vices of his predecessors, but surpassed them in great qualities. He reigned nearly fifty years. Chosroes III., son of Hormisdas, possessed the hateful character of a parricide. He caused his father to be beaten to death. He re- ceived, however, a terrible retribution, in the treatment he expe- rienced from his own son. Siroes, the eldest of his sons, having re- volted, and secured the kingdom, slew all his brothers in his father's presence, cast the latter into a prison, where he caused him to expire in insufferable torture, by being incessantly pricked with the points of arrows. Soon after the expiration of the present period, Persia was iiivaded by the Saracens, and it was not long before it be- came a part of the empire of the Cahphs. CHINA. 17. In the histoiy of China during this period, we find four dynasties of its emperors, from the 9th to the 12th in- clusive. They were of short continuance, and included the reigns of seventeen sovereigns. Several of these appear to ^ave been wise and virtuous men. In the reign of Yang-ti, in 605, many canals were cut through the empire, by which several rivers were united, and great facility given to com- merce. § One of the sovereigns of the twelfth dynasty, is said to have had a very solid, penetrating mind. He loved his people, and did every SPAIN. /9 thing in his power to promote their happiness. He built public granaries, which were every year filled with rice and corn, by the opulent, to be distributed among the poor in times of scarcity. He improved their music and eloquence. Against corrupt judges, he was always inexorable ; and excluded from all public employments, those whose rank in life did not render them respectable. SPAIN. Before the Empire of the West was finally subverted by the Northern Barbarians, some of the nations which once constituted it, had been lost to the empire. This was the case, particularly, with Spain and Britain. Italy, the seat of the empire, and according to the best accounts, France, may date their separate existence, only from the annihilation of the Roman power. After that event, these several nations, and indeed ail the rest of western Europe, were de- tached from one another, and held by the native inhabitants, or go- verned by different tribes of the barbarians of the north. We must therefore consider them in their separate sovereignties, according to the eras in which they began to exist independently. We begin with Spain. 18. Spain, while constituting a portion of the Roman empire, was invaded by the Suevi, the Alains, and the Van- dals, b.bout 406 years A. C, and mostly subdued by these bar- barous tribes. ExpeUing the Romans, they divided the country, a part of which, viz. Vandalasia, or Andalusia, still bears the name of one of these tribes, (the Vandals.) The Alains, in 418, were mostly exterminated by the Os- trogoths. The Suevi remained in the possession of the coun- try, under a succession of their kings, till the year 585. The Vandals had early, viz. in 427, passed into Africa, and settled there, upon the invitation of Count Boniface. The Visogoths, ^who entered Spain in 531, conquered the greatest part of the country by the year 585, and erected a monarchy, which existed till 712, when they were subdued by the Saracens, or Moors. § Spain was anciently called Hesperia or Western, on account of its situation, as being the extreme west known to the ancients. It was called also Iberia, from the river Iber, now the Ebro. The name Hispania, or Spain, is said to be derived from a Phoenician word, Sphavisa, which means, abounding with rabbits ; these animals, ac- cording to Strabo, being very numerous in Spain. Its original inhabitants were Celtes, of the same race with those of France, and who passed over from that country into Spain. The fertility of the soil, induced the Phcenicians, who were the earliest navigators, to open a trade with Spain, and they built the city of Gades, now Cadiz. This was about 900 years B. C. 80 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. This country has been often conquered, both in ancient and more modern times. About 500 years B. C, it was in part subjugated by the Carthaginians, who held their conquest three centuries. The Romans then succeeded as masters, in whose power it remained six hundred years. From the Romans, as we have already learned, it was wrested by the northern barbarians. These, as we shall see, in the next Period, are destined to be displaced by the followers of Mahomet. It is deemed unnecessary to detail any events under the kings of the barbarous tribes who governed Spain, as they possess scarcely any interest. Euric may be considered as the founder of the Gothic monarchy of this country. FRANCE. 19. France, anciently called Gaul, immediately previous to the dissolution of the Roman Empire of the West, was di- vided between the Romans, Visogoths, Franks, and Burgun- dians. A few years after that event, viz. 581 A. C, Clovis, king of the Franks, obtained, by degrees, possession of the country. He is therefore considered the true founder of the French monarchy, as before him, the Franks held only a few provinces on the right bank of the Rhine. From this people, ancient Gaul, obtained the name of France. The kings who have reigned in France, seem to be divided mto four dynas- ties, viz. the Merovingian, the Carlovingian, the Capetian, and the Bourbon. The race of which we are now speaking, the first in order, derived its name from Merovoeus, the grand- father of Clovis, who reigned over that portion of the Franks, who had obtained, in some former age, a settlement in the country. The Merovingian dynasty continued till 75'Z. § The Franks were supposed to have been of. German origin, aad to have inhabited the country between the Rhine and the Weser, which now forms part of Holland and Westphalia. Some believe them to have consisted of a mixed multitude of various tribes, living ' beyond the Rhine, who, when Germany was invaded by the Romans, united i>:i defence of their common liberty, and styled themselves Franks, i. e. free men. Of the clans into which they were divided, the Salii, and Ansuarii, were the most considerable. Between the years 234 and 254, they made an irruption into Gaul, but were sig- nally overthrown by the Romans under Aurelian, then a military tribune. They finally obtained a footing in that country, about the year 264 A. C. Succeeding this event, they had many contentions with the Romans, in which they often conquered, and were, oftener, perhaps, defeated. By the time, however, in which the emperor Constans reigned, they were generally at peace with the Romans, and several of them en- ENGLAND. 81 joyed places of distinction in the armies and at court. The petty sovereigns who preceded Clovis, were Pharamond, who made the last settlement of the Franks in Gaul, Clodio, Merovceus, and Childeric I. Clovis made many conquests : first over the Romans in the battlte of Soissons ; then over tlie king of Thuringia, who had invaded his dominions ; afterwards over the Germans in the battle of Tolbiac ; and finally over the Visogoths under Alaric, when he subdued all the south of Gaul. In his contest with the Germans, 496 A. C, he in^ voked the God of Clotilda, a Christian princess, whom he had mar- ried three years before. In consequence of his victory, he became professedly a believer, and together with three thousand of his sub- jects, was baptised on Christmas-day, the same year. About thirteen years afterwards, he cruelly murdered most of his relatives, which shewed how little influence Christianity had over him. Clovis made Paris the seat of his kingdom. He died, 511. Clovis was followed by a series of obscure kings, through the remainder of this period. They need not, therefore, be mentioned particularly. They were, in general, weak and \vicked, and plunged the nation into deeper barbarism than it was under during the Roman dominion. ENGLAND. 20. England, whose ancient name was Britain, had been abandoned by the Romans fifty years, when the Empire of the West was subverted. In the mean time, the inhabitants, who were left defenceless, suffered from the encroachments of their northern neighbours, the Picts and Scots, and in their distress, sohcited several of the warlike tribes of the continent, for assist- ance. The Jutes first arrived for that purpose. These were soon followed by the Angles and Saxons, in 451, from the shores of the Baltic. The object was soon accomplished, for which the Britons had invited them into their country. Their enemy was repulsed ; but they found a more formidable ene- my in their protectors themselves. The Saxons, procuring large reinforcements from Germany, turned their arms against the Britons, and took possession of the country. It was not, however, without a long and severe struggle, of nearly one hundred and fifty years, that this con- quest was achieved. The result Avas, the establishment of seven distinct states, or sovereignties, which were governed, more than two hundred years, by their respective kings. These states are usually called the Heptarchy. § The island of Britain, before it was known to the Romans, was inhabited by a very rude and uncivilized people. They were either % 82 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD III. naked, or clothed only with the sldns of beasts, having their bodies pauited with various colours. Hence is supposed to be the origin of the name, Britain, which is derived from a British word, brit, sig- nifying painted The name England was given to the country, from !u a}T^^\^ ^"^^ ^^ ^^^^^ continental nations, who conquered it in the fifth and sixth centuries. The island was originally settled, in all probability, by a colony from Gaul, who were called Celtes or Gaels, the remains of whom are chiefly in Wales, in the highlands of Scotland, and in the north ot Ireland. The period of their settlement is quite uncertain. The Phoenicians, indeed, traded very early with the inhabitants of Corn- wall, for copper and tin, but they were unacquainted with the inte- rior of the country. The Romans have given us the earliest authen- tic information respecting it. This commences with the first inva- sion by Julius Caesar, 55 B. C. Ccesar began the dominion of the Romans in Britain: but the island was subdued, only by degrees, under the Roman leaders who succeeded him. Forty-three years A. C, it was again invaded by the emperor Claudius, whose general, Ostorius, defeated Caractacus, king of the Britons, took him prisoner, and sent him to Rome, in 51. In the reign of Nero, 61 A. C, Suetonius defeated Boadicea, queen of the Icem, (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk,) slaying 80,000 men m a single battle. Boadicea, however, had previously obtained several victories over the Romans, by her gallant conduct. She com- mitted suicide, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror. Agricola, who governed Britain in the reigns of Titus, Vespasian and Domitian, formed a regular plan for subduing the whole island and rendering the acquisition advantageous to the conquerors. For this purpose he penetrated into Caledonia, (Scotland,) defeated the natives in various encounters, and established a chain of forts be- tween the Friths of Clyde and Forth. Subduing most of the island, he soon diffused among the Britons a knowledge of the arts of peace. He introduced among them, laws and government; taught them to value the conveniences of life and reconciled them to the language and manners of their masters. ' io7l^^'^^^^^ ^^^^ southern inhabitants against the Scots, Adrian in 121, built a wall in the north part of Britain, between the river lyne, and the Frith of Solway. This was afterwards strengthened with new fortifications, by Severus, in 208. From this period, till the abandonment of Britain by the Romans, in 426, the inhabitants enjoyed uninterrupted tranquillity. As has been already mentioned, the Romanized Britons, when left by their masters, were thrown into a defenceless state. Their long peace had somewhat enervated them, and they were unable to resist the attacks of their barbarous neighbours on the north. It was Vorti- gern, one of their kings, who invited the German tribes to his pro- tection. The latter gladly availed themselves of the opportunity to visit a country long known to them in their piratical voyages to its coasts. Hengist and Horsa, two brothers, were their leaders on this DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. S3 occasion, and with only 1600 warriors, in conjunction with the South Britons, they compelled the Scots to retire to their mountains. After the Saxons, from being the protectors, had become the con- querors of Britain, and founded the Heptarchy, history records nothing that is very interesting respecting them, until the time of Egbert the Great, who became sole king of England, in 827. We may therefore pass over the English history, until that period, only remarking that the Saxons, who were partially acquainted with Christianity before, were more fully converted to the faith, by the labours of the monk Augustin, in 597. Distinguished Characters in Period IIL 1. Proclus, a learned Platonist and unbeliever. 2. Boelhius, a Roman poet, and Platonic philospher. 3. Procopius, a Roman historian — sometimes denominated the last of the classic writers. 4. Cassiodorus, the historian of Ravenna, and tutor to Theodoric, the Gothic king. 5. BeUsarius, an heroic and successful general of Jus- tinian. 6. Gildas, the most ancient British writer extant. 1. Proclus was born at Constantinople, in 410, and died in 485 A. C. He was a philospher among the later Platonists. In the chair of the academy, he taught philosophy with great reputation. Such was his industry, that frequently, in the same day, he pro- nounced five lessons, and composed seven hundred lines. " His sa- gacious mind," says Gibbon, " explored the deepest questions of morals and metaphysics, and he ventured to urge eighteen argu- ments against the Christian doctrine of the creation of the world.** This, as might have been expected, proved to be labour in vain. The foundations of truth can be overturned by no human sagacity, however great. 2. Boethius, who was distinguished both as a poetic and prose writer, was descended from one of the noblest families of Rome. In consequence of having remonstrated, with great spirit, against the tyranny of Theodoric, he was beheaded in prison, by the command of that king, in 524. Boethius wrote many philosophical workss the greater part according to the manner of the logicians ; but his ethic composition, concerning the " Consolation of Philosophy,** is his chief performance, and has always been justly admired, both in respect to the matter and the style. Mr. Harris, in his " Hermes," observes, that, " with Boethius, the last remains of Ro- man dignity may be said to have sunk in the western world :" and Mosheim testifies, that he " shone with the brightest lustre, as a philosopher, an orator, a poet, and a divine ; and, both in elegance and subtilty of genius, had no equal in the sixth century." 3. Procopius belonged to Caesarea, in Palestine, and flourished m 534. He was secretary to Belisarius, whom he greatly celebrated 84 MODtmN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. in his History of the Reign of Justinian. This history is dividefl into eight books ; two of which give an account of the Persian war, two of the Vandals, and four of the Goths, to the year 553 ; which was afterwards continued in five books, by AgaUhias, till 559. 1 he historian is thought to be too severe upon the emperor, though his performance, in other respects, has a high character. Some con- sider him as the last of the Roman classic authors. 4 Cassiodorus was a man of eminence, in many respects, and called by way of distinction, " the senator." He united the states- man and author in his character. He was born in Italy, about 463, and died at near one hundred years of age. His writings relate chiefly to history, theology, and criticism. He was inferior m abili- ties to Boethius, but still was very respectable. 5. Belisarius was truly a Roman in spirit, and the greatest gene- ral of his age. His life and exploits have been already told as, as particularly as this work will admit. In a degenerate and effemi- nate acre, he put forth an energy, and acquired a fame in war, which would°bear a comparison with the first leaders of the most favoured days of the republic. He was, however, as distinguished by his misfortunes as he was by his victories, owing to the ingratitude of Justinian; and he spent his last days, it is said, under the frown of his master, and, as some report, in actual want. 6. Gildas was a native of Wales. He was surnamed. The Wise. As the most ancient of the British writers, he deserves a notrce here. His famous " Epistle," was written A. C. 560, and is a most severe censure of the depravity of the Britons at that time. He has some things well calculated to invite the attention of the learned. PERIOD IV. The Pei'iod of the establishment of the Saracen Donii- nimi; extending from the flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C. to the crotming of Charlemagne, at Rome, SOO yeai^s A. C. ARABS OR SARACENS. DurintT this period, the darkness in Europe very much increased, and the times exhibited a melancholy contrast to the former splendid eras of Grecian and Roman refinement and literature. But while the human mind sunk in Europe, it rose in the East, under the auspices of the Saracens, where it was for a short time displayed, not only in the energies of a warlike superstition, but, at length, m the cultivation of the arts and learning. The history of this people is connected with a remarkable change in the aspect of human affairs. Sec. 1. The Arabs, in all ages, have Uved as wander> ers, in a stale of independence, and have never been sub- dued by any of the great conquerors of the world, though al- most always at war with their neighbours. They derive ARABS OR SARACENS. 85 their origin from Ishmael, and, before the time of Mahomet, they professed a religion which was a mixture of idolatry and Judaism. The name Saracen, which w^as at lengtli applied to most of the Arabian nations, is derived from a tribe that occupied the north-western part of the country. This people, before the time already referred to, had forsaken their deserts, and made themselves useful or formidable (according as their ser- vices were purchased or neglected) to the respective empires of Rome and Persia. Mecca, on the Red Sea, in 569, gave birth to Mahomet, (or Mohommed,) their pretended prophet. In 609, when lie was about 40 years old, he began to concert a system of mea- sures, the issue of which, was the establishment of a new re- ligion in the world, and of an empire, which, spreading over many countries, lasted more than six centuries. The reli- gion still remains. His impostures were not, at first, well received. The citi- zens of Mecca, even, opposed them. Forsaking his native city, where his hfe was in jeopardy, he fled to Medina, at the epoch called by the Mahometans, the hegira, or llight, which was in the year 622, and the 54th year of Mahomet's age. By the aid of his disciples at Medina, he returned to Mecca as a conqueror, and makhig numerous proselytes, he soon became master of Arabia and Syria, was saluted king in 627, and, in the midst of his successes, died suddenly in 632. He left two branches of his family, who became powerful caliphs of Persia and Egypt. § As Mahomet will be spoken of again, as one of the distinguished characters of this period, it will be unnecessary to add many par- ticulars here, respecting either his life, or the religion of which he was the founder. Some historians are of the opinion, that he at- tempted only an inconsiderable change in the creed of his coun- trymen, and" that the mighty revolution which followed his eiforts, was, in respect to Arabia, almost wholly political. In his flight, this bold leader gained Medina with much difficulty, but being well received, he made it the place of his future residence. Besides those who fled with him, and shared his fate, he was soon followed and joined by many of the principal citizens of Mecca. Amongst his followers were Amrou, the future conqueror of Egypt ; Saad, who afterwards overran Persia ; Obeidah, whose fortune it was to subdue Syria and Palestine ; and the very celebrated Kaled Eben al Walid. 8 86 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IV. Though Mahomet met with some reverses at first, he was no sooner aided by such men as Amrou and Kaled, than he overthrew whatever opposed him. After the submission of Arabia to his arms, the Arabs and Greeks were brought into contact ; and the former were prepared to encroach on the remnant of the Roman empire. Mahomet owed his success, in part, to several moral causes, origi- nating in the state of society ; such as the corruption of the true re- ligion, the ignorance of mankind, and the prevailing hcentiousness of the times — also to the nature of his doctrines, which, among other things, promising a sensual heaven, were suited to the depravity of the heart, and the taste of the voluptuous Asiatics ; and, not least of all, to powerful political revolutions. It happened the same year in which Mahomet left Mecca, that a destructive war, as already men- tioned, took place between the Eastern empire and Persia. Hera- clius, the emperor, in six campaigns, penetrated to the heart of the Persian dominions, almost destroying that power, and greatly weak- ening his own. Neither of them, therefore, were in a condition to resist the torrent of Arabian fanaticism. Such was the prospect of Mahometanism, when its author met his fate. The followers of this impostor, term their religion Islam, and themselves Musslemen, or Moslems, i. e. true believers. The book containing their creed, which was produced by Mahomet, in successive portions, and which he pretended to derive from the angel Gabriel, is called the Koran. Their priests are called moolahs or imans. Mahomet propagated his religion by the sword, and taught, that to profess any other religion, was a just cause of hatred, and even of murder. 2. The successors of Mahomet, in the dominion which he established, are called Caliphs, a word which means suc- cessors, or vicars. The first cahph was Abu-beker, the fa- ther of one of the wives of Mahomet. It is said that the im- postor, on his death-bed, appointed Ah, his son-in-law, as his successor, but the influence of Abu-beker with the army was such, that he, by this means, secured the caliphate. Thus the fomidation was laid for a mighty contention, and over the body of Mahomet arose that schism, which, at this distant period, weakens the power of Mahometanism, and may eventually terminate its very existence. The sects are two, and the ground of dispute is the right of succession to Mahomet. Their names are Sheas or Shiites, and the Son- nites. The Sheas, who believe in Ali, as the true successor, are chiefly Persians. The Sonnites, who believe in Abu- beker, consist of the inhabitants of East Persia, Arabia, Tur- ARABS OR SARACENS. 87 key, &c. The Sonnites receive the Koran only, whereas the Sheas adopt the traditions also. In respect to conquest, Abu-beker pursued the course of Mahomet, and, with the aid of his general, Kaled, obtained an important victory over the emperor HeracUus, and en- larged the Saracen dominion. He died in the third year of his reign, having bequeathed the sceptre to Omar. § When the sceptre was offered to Omar, he modestly observed, " that he had no occasion for the place." " But the place has occa- sion for you," replied Abu-beker. He died, praying that the God of Mahomet would ratify his choice. It was so far regarded by Ali, his rival, that the latter treated him with the respect due to a consti- tuted superior. Omar commenced his reign in 633. In one campaign he wrested from the Greek empire, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopo- tamia, and Chaldea. In the next campaign, the whole em- pire of Persia was brought under the Mahometan yoke. Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia, were at the same time con- quered by the generals of Omar. § Amrou, one of his generals, by the order of Omar, destroyed the famous hbrary at Alexandria, consisting of 700,000 volumes. The order of Omar betrayed the ignorance of a savage, and the illibera- lity of a fanatic. " If," said he to Amrou, " these writings agree with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved ; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Omar was finally assassinated. Othman succeeded Omar, in 645. He added Bactriana, and a part of Tartary, to the Saracen empire. Upon the death of Othman, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was elect- ed to the caliphate. His name is still revered in the east, and by none of the caliphs Avas he excelled, either in virtue or courage. After a short but glorious reign of five years, he was assassinated by a Mahometan enthusiast, or reformer. He had removed the seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Cuja, on the Euphrates. §Ali married Fatema, the daughter of Mahomet, but Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, and daughter of Abu-beker, bore an immortal hatred against the husband and posterity of Fatema. In a battle which Ali fought with a superior number of rebels, who were ani- mated by the counsels of Ayesha, he was entirely victorious. Ayesha, it is said, had seventy men, who held the bridle of her camel, successively killed or wounded ; and the cage or litter in which she sat, was stuck throughout with javehns and darts. 3. Within less than half a century, the Saracens reared a S8 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV, powerful empire, and were formidable to all the nations around them. In 100 years, their dominion extended from India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, and other regions in the east, as also Egypt, North Africa, and Spain. Of the race of Omar, already mentioned, there were nine- teen caliphs who reigned in succession : after which, began the dynasty of the Abassidse, descended from Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet. Almansor, second caliph of this race, built Bagdad, and made it the seat of the Saracen dominion, in 762 A. C. He introduced the culture of the arts and sci- ences among the Saracens. § It was during the reign of Alrnansor, that Abu Hanifa, the founder of the first of the four sects of the Sonnites, died in prison at Bagdad. He had -been confined there for refusing to be made a judge, declaring that he had ratlier be punished by men than by God. Being asked why lie declined the office, he replied, " If I speak the truth., I am mifit ; but if I tell a lie, a liar is not fit to be a judge." It is said that he read over the Koran 7000 times, while he was in prison. Haroun al Raschid, a caliph who ascended the throne in 785 A. C, and was contemporary Avith Charlemagne, was a famous prince, and celebrated patron of letters. His reign is regarded as the Augustan age of Saracen hterature. Many of our proverbs and romances are to be referred to this period. Al Raschid was also a brave and victorious sovereign, and distinguished by equity and benevolence. He died in about 809 A. C. The sciences to which the Arabians chiefly devoted their attention, were medicme, geometry, and astronom)^ Poetry, and works of fiction, especially the One Thousand and One isig]its,were the products of that period. Literature was cul- tivated also in Africa and Spain, under the auspices of the Saracens. § Soon after Al Raschid's accession to the Caliphate, he invaded and ravaged a part of the Greek empire, with an army of 135,000 men. Having taken the city of Heraclea, he reduced it to ashes ; after which conquest he made himself master of several other places. He then attacked the Island of Cyprus, whose inhabitants suffered extremely from the invasion. The Greek emperor was so intimi- dated by this success, that he immediately made peace with the caliph, accompanied witli a tribute. Several interesting anecdotes are related of this caliph, two of wliich follow. Being once in Egypt, he said to his courtiers, EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 89 " The king of this country formerly boasted himself to be God ; in consequence, therefore, of such pride, I will confer the government of it on the meanest of my slaves." As he was marching one day at the head of his troops, a woman came to him to complain that some of the soldiers had pillaged her house. He said, " woman, hast thou not read in the Koran, that princes, when they passed with their armies through places, de- stroyed them ?" " True," replied she, " but then it is also written in the same book, that the houses of those princes shall be desolate on account of their acts of injustice." This fearless repartee, was so well liked by the caliph, that he forthwith ordered that restitution should be made. EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. 4. The Eastern Empire, which had alone survived the ruin of the Roman world, retained a portion of its ancient splendour. It was destined, however, soon to lose several valuable provinces, as has already appeared, in relating the victorious career of the Saracens. The conquests which Heraclius I. made in Persia, were wrested from him by that enthusiastic and warring people. They next deprived the empire of its Syrian and African dependencies. During these events, several emperors successively filled the throne of Constantinople, after Heraclius. But very little need be said concerning any of them. It was in the reign of Constantine III., Pagonatus, that the Saracens, 672 A. C. besieged Constantinople for five months, but were obliged to retire. They returned for seven years in succes- sion, but were every time defeated by Callinicus, who in- vented an inextinguishable fire, by which he destroyed their ships. § The Greek, or hquidfire, was made principally of naptha, or liquid bitumen, mixed with some sulphur and pitch, extracted from green firs. Water, instead of extinguishing, quickened this powerful agent of destruction. It could be damped only by sand, wine, or vinegar. It was a period of four hundred years, before the secret of its composition was obtained from the Greeks. The Mahometans at length discovered and stole it. It continued to be used in war, down to the middle of the fom'teenth century, when gunpowder was in- troduced. Justinian II., who succeeded Constantine in 685, was a second Nero, or Cahgula. He ordered, at one tune, a general slaughter of the inhabitants of Constantinople, but he was de- throned the same day, and sent into exile with mutilated 8* 90 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IV. features. He recovered his throne by the assistance of the Bulgarians, and exacted a dreadful vengeance on his ene- mies. He was at last beheaded. Some of the emperors who followed during the remainder of this period, were, Leo HI., Constantine IV., Leo IV., and Constantine V. The first three of these were strongly opposed to images, as used in churches. § The mother of the last Constantine, was regent during her son's minority. Her name was Irene, and she proved herself a monster of wickedness. She obliged the sons of Constantine IV. to receive the priesthood, and afterwards ordered them to be murdered. She was singularly cruel towards her own son, who, for attempting to govern by himself when of age, was, by her orders, scourged and confined in the interior of the palace. In 790, he was restored to liberty by the people, when he, in his turn, imprisoned his mother. Two years after, she was apparently reconciled to Constantine. and by encouraging him in his vices, obtained an unhappy ascend- ency over him. Being rendered odious to his subjects, especially in consequence of repudiating his queen and marrying one of her women, by the advice of Irene, an insurrection took place. This was as she expected ; and afforded a pretext for her cruel machina- tions. Being left with the army in By thinia, she despatched several officers to depose her son. Arriving at Constantinople without being suspected of such a design, they put out the emperor's eyes in so barbarous a manner, that he died, three days afterwards, in the most excruciating pain. Irene then remained in possession of the empire for five years ; and in order to confirm her authority, she made overtures of marriage to Charlemagne, king of France. Her design, however, being di- vulged, a revolt ensued, in which Nicephorus, great treasurer of the empire, being leader, was proclaimed, and Irene deposed. Having thus obtained the purple, and secured the riches of Irene, Nicephorus banished her to the isle of Lesbos, where the want of a decent provision obliged her to earn a scanty subsistence by the la- bours of the distaff. Here this miserable woman died of vexation, having enjoyed her ill-gotten power but six years after the murder of her son. KINGDOM OF ITALY. 5. The Kingdom of Italy, which was formed as already related, continued until nearly the close of the pre- sent period, viz. 774 A. C. It had been fifty years under the sway of the Lombard kings. During the remainder of its existence, (viz. 150 years,) seventeen kings reigned over the country. The principal of these were Cunibert, Luit- prand, Rachisius, Astolphus, and Desiderius or Didier, Luitprand possessed the greatest talents of all the Lombard KINGDOM OF ITALY. 91 kings. Under Didier the kingdom of Italy came to an end. He was defeated by Charlemagne, his father-in-law, and Italy was afterwards incorporated into the new empire of the West. § A few particulars concerning these kings, are as follows. Under Cunibert, Italy was invaded by the duke of Brescia, and they met in battle on the banks of the Adda. Before the battle, a deacon of Pa- via, named Zeno, who bore a great likeness to Cunibert, offered to take his armour and supply his place at the head of the army. Zeno was consequently killed, and Cunibert obtained a signal vic- tory, and afterwards enjoyed a peaceable and happy reign. Luitprand availed himself of an opportunity, soon after the com- mencement of his reign, to add to his dominions by conquest. His first efforts were directed against Ravenna, which was betrayed into his hands. He afterwards took several other cities. The next year, however, Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, reconquered a great pari of his dominions, with the help of the Venetians, whom Pope Gre- gory n. excited against Luitprand. The king, resolving to avenge himself on the Pope, became re- conciled to Eutycliius, and they both advanced towards Rome. The Pope, however, met the king, and appeased him by his eloquence. In two successive instances, in his attempts upon the Pope and Rome, he was diverted from his design. Rachisius, in 749, five years after the commencement of his reign, under the pretence of some infractions of a treaty with the people of Rome, besieged a city which belonged to the Pope. But the Pope had such influence with him when they met, that the king was persuaded to renounce the world, and retire to the abbey of Monte Cassino. His queen and daughter, at the same time, founded a monastery of nuns, near that abbey, whither they retired and took the veil. Astolphus took Ravenna, and seized upon all the dependencies of that principality, not far from the year 750, but soon lost them, by the intervention of Pepin, king of France, who made war upon him. He died in 756, of a fall from his horse. Didier, meditating the conquest of Ravenna, sought the protec- tion of the French King, by marrying one of his daughters to Charlemagne, and the other to his brother Carloman. A difference, however, having arisen between Charlemagne and his father-in-law, the French monarch divorced his wife. Didier highly resented this act. Applying to the Pope to favour his projects, and failing in the at- tempt, he attacked the papal territory, and endeavoured to seize on the person of the Roman pontiff. Charlemagne, however, coming seasonably to his assistance, met the Lombard king in battle, and taking possession of his sovereignty, sent the royal family to be con- fined in monasteries in France.' The French king thus put an end to the Lombard dominion in Italy, and was himself declared, by the Pope, king of Italy, and patrician of Rome. ;92 MODERN HISTOPwY. — PERIOD IV. SPAIN. 6. Spain continued under the dominion of the Visogoths till the year 712. It was then conquered by the Saracens, wlio invaded the country from Mauritania, in Africa, whence they were called Moors. A small part of the north of Spain, never fell under the dominion of that people. Pelagius, the successor of the Gothic sovereigns, founded there the little kingdom of Asturias, in 718 ; and Garcias Ximenes, that of Navarre, in 758. § The Saracens, in their descent upon Spain, easily overran the country. They had lately founded, in Africa, the empire of Mo- rocco, which was governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Waled Almansor. Muza sent his general. Tariff, into Spain, who attack- ing Don Rodrigo, or Roderic, the Gothic king, in a decisive battle, overcame and slew him. The conquerors succeeded to the sove- reignty. Abdallah, son of Muza, married the widow of Roderic, and thus tlie two nations formed a perfect union. 7. Spain, in this manner conquered by the Saracens, was allotted to governors dependent on the viceroy of Africa, till A])da]rahman, the last heir of the family of the Omiades, formed it into an independent kingdom, and fixed his resi- dence at Cordova. This was about the year 756 A. C. It may be remarked here, that all that part of the kingdom of Spain which was under the dominion of the Moors, em- braced the religion of their conquerors ; but the two northern provinces above named, remained true to the Christian faith. Abdalrahman, at Cordova, laid the foundation of a flour- ishing empire, which lasted for a considerable period. He greatly encouraged learning, and thus vied with Haroun Al Raschid at Bagdad, as a patron of letters. Cordova became renowned as one of the most enlightened spots in Europe, under several succeeding reigns. § The part of Spain which remained independent of the Moorish yoke, presents little that is important in its history. We may there- fore pass it over with the remark, that its Christian sovereigns be- came rather strengthened than weakened in their power from time to time. FRANCE. 8. In France, the weak race of the Merovingian kings continued to hold the sovereignty, till the year 751 A. C. On the death of one of them, viz, Dagobert II., (638) who left two infant sons, the government, during their minority, was assumed by their chief ofiicers, termed Mayors of the FRANCE. 93 Palace. Under the management of these ambitious men, the kings of France enjoyed Kttie more than the name. In the time of Thierry, grandson of Dagobert II., the ce- lebrated Pepin d'Heristel was mayor of the palace. He re- stricted Thierry, nominally the sovereign of the two great divisions of the Frank monarchy, (Austrasia and Neustria) to a small domain, and ruled France during thirty years with great wisdom. The son of Pepin, whose name was Charles Martel, was still more celebrated than his father. Under three kings, he governed France with signal ability, having succeeded to tlie office of mayor of the Palace. § After his father Pepin's death, Charles was confined by his mo- ther-in-law, in prison. But escaping thence, he was proclaimed duke of Austrasia, and took possession of the sovereign authority over all the kingdom. He made war several times on Childeric, his first nominal sovereign, and finally secured him as a prisoner. 9. Charles was victorious over all his domestic foes, and liis arms kept in awe the neighbouring nations, whom he fre- quently defeated. But the most signal service which he ren- dered to France, to Europe, and to mankind at large, was his victory over the Saracens, in 732 A. C. These destroying fanatics threatened all Europe with subjugation to the Maho- metan dominion and reUgion ; and, but for their providential defeat by Charles Martel, might have been, to this day, the masters of the civilized world. § The Saracens penetrated into France from Spain. They were led by Abderame, a consummate general, who commanded in the name of the caliph, and who soon defeated the duke of Aquitain. After this victory, his desperate bands were about to overrun the king- dom. Here, however, the genius and bravery of Charles rescued the nation from destruction. He brought them to a general action between Poictiers and Tours, and notwithstanding their bravery and numbers, he succeeded in defeating them with immense slaugh- ter. They afterwards rallied in the vicinity of Narbonne, but w^ere again defeated, and at last driven out of the French territory. By this event, the terror with which the Saracens had inspired Europe was greatly diminished, and Charles obtained for himself the surname of Martel, or the Hammer. After the death of Thierry IV., Charles, without placing another king on the throne, continued to govern as before, with the title of duke of France. After several more victo- ries over his enemies, Charles dying, bequeathed the govern- ment of France, as an undisputed inheritance, to his two sons 94 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. Pepin le Bref, and Carloman. As mayors of the palace, the one governed Austrasia, and the other Neustria and Burgun- dy. The nominal sovereign, at this time, was Childeric III., a weak and insignificant prince. The sole administration devolved at length on Pepin, as Carloman renounced the world and became a monk. Pepin, whose talents were powerful, and whose turn of mind was warhke, governed with great efficiency, and conquered several of the neighbouring tribes. In the year 751, he assembled a parliament at Soissons, where he was proclaimed king of France, having first obtain- ed the sanction of Pope Zachary. Childeric was confined in a convent, and thus ended the Merovingian race of kings. The Carlovingian now succeeded. § Pepin was called Le Bref, or the short, on account of the lowness of his stature, his height being only four and a half feet. Soon after he was crowned, he marched against the revolted Saxons, whom he defeated j and pursuing his brother Grippo into Aquitain, he united Septimia, now Languedoc, to the crown. His brother, who was a turbulent spirit, and gave him disquiet, at length perished. Pepin was thus left to pursue without molestation his useful designs. 10. Having been crowned the second time, by Pope Ste- phen II., in return for this service, Pepin marched agaicstthe Lombards, who had invaded the principality of Ravenna, and thre-u^g two years afterwards, Charles came into possession of the wliole kinsfdom. The exploits and policy of tliis prince, pi^njred for hun the title of Great, which was incon^rated with US name, Charlemagne,* as he is known in histon". He exceUed all the sovereigns of his asre. both as a warriir and statesman, although he is said to have been extremely illite- rate. ^\ ith a great reputation for talent, he has. however, descended to us as being deficient in several moral qualities, particularly in humanity. His cruelty was exercised chiefly upon the Saxons, with whom he was engaged in war durino- thirty vears. Their bravery and love of freedom g-ave him infinite trouble Thev revolted no less than six times, and were as often reduced bv force of aims. As a means of subduing theii- bold and fero- cious character, he attempted to convert them to Christianity • but their obstmacy induced him to resort to compijlsory pro- cesses for tins end. Several thousands of them were but- chered on their refusal to receive Christian baptism Besides his success against the Saxons, Charlema-ne put an end to the kmgdom of the Lombards in Italv- a ^^has al- ready been nan-ated : he successfuUv encountered the arm. ot the^.^aracens ; defeated numerous barbarous tribes, and ex- tended his empire bevond the Danube JA^^n'yJll^T''^^^'^'^ f'""'' ''^^""'^ ^f his father. Charlemagne is H^w^ no 1 ' n/'^r ".^T ^^ ^''^^'^ ^^^^ °^ ^ ^^^"^^ constitution. H. "^ It «i?nahzed for activity and viaour of mmd. His sn- pen ision of his dominions was most strict and viailant. He heard and saw every thmg for himself He discountenanced luxurv. en- chaSS^ ^I^^:"^^' '^ ^^^^-^ ^^^ -^^ -^^ --^^-tnal ^;^ hen he saw any of his courtiers sumptuously dressed he world Imo^he' w"Jlds Lfr% P";?' 1 '''' ^^'^^^^ of'which he led them hem toThlna^i^^'^'^'- ^'' '^''J. ^^t"rn. he would not permit sWina tw^t^^'^' garments which the thorns had torn. After Lttered%en^.nf ^^^^^^^^^ sheepskin cloak, as a contrast to their "LeavP 'i?lf.n?'/^ ""'^'^^^ '^y^ by way of advice or reproach, no^ for show." ^'^ '"^ ''^'"'" ^ '^' ^'^ ^^ ^ °^^^ ^^ '^' ^^^' ron^ii'iL^^' ^h^^^^/na?ne met with scarcely a disaster. The only ^o .nafvl r'''^ '^^'i^' "''"" experienced, was when he was re- Zon^^t Si w^'' ^^''' ^««q«ering Navarre, and a part of A^ SthP.W Ifl^^^'' army was then cut to pieces by the Gascons, mthe plains of Roncevaux. On this occasion, his nephew, the cele- * Charlemagne—Charles the Great. 96 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. brated champion Roland, lost his life— an event which laid the {own dalion of the " Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto. As the reign of Chaiieraagiie extends several years into the following period, we shall resume it, at the commence- ment of that period, with a sketch, in the biographical de- partment, of his more private history and character. Distinguished Characters in Pei^iod IV. 1. Mahomet, an Arabian impostor, and fomicler of the re- ligion which is called by his name. 2. Adheime, a British theological writer. 3. Bede, a venerable English historian. 4. Charles Martel, the father of a race of kings, and con- queror of the Saracens. 5. John Damascenus, a Christian writer, strongly tinctured with the Aristotleian philosophy. § From the paucity of great men during this period, genius and learning must have been at a low ebb indeed, and the human mind greatly debased and neglected. 1. Mahomet, as has already been stated, was born at Mecca, in 569 A. C. The tribe from which he descended, was that of the Koras- hites, the most noble in Arabia. His immediate ancestors seem, however, to have been undistinguished ; and though his natural ta- lents were great, it is certain that his education was inconsiderable. He acquired knowledge, but not from books. Intercourse with man- kind had sharpened his faculties, and given him an insight into the human heart The steps he look in propagating his religion have already been detailed in part. It may be added, that the main arguments which Mahomet employed to persuade men to embrace this imposture, were promises and threats, which he knew would work easiest on the minds of the multitude. His promises related chiefly to paradise, and to the sensual delights to be enjoyed in that region of pure wa- ters, shady groves, and exquisite fruits. Such a heaven was very taking with the Arabians, whose bodily temperament, habits, and burning climate, led them to contemplate images of this sort with ex- cessive pleasure. On the other hand, his threats were peculiarly terrific to this peo- ple. The punishment attending a rejection of his religion, he made to consist of evils, that seemed most insuiferable to their feelings. The reprobates would be permitted to drink nothing but putrid and boiling water, nor breathe any, save exceedingly hot winds ; they would dwell forever in continual fire, intensely burning, and be sup- rounded with a black, hot, salt smoke, as with a coverlid, &c. ; and, to fill the measure of their fears, by joining the present with the fu- ture life, he threatened most grievous pimishments in this world. As it was one of the impostor's dogmas, that his religion might be DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 97 defended and propagated by the sword, he invented the doctrine of a rigid fate, to reconcile the minds of the timid, and add ardour to the brave, under the exigencies of war. He taught that those who were slain in battle, though they had tarried at home in their houses, must, nevertheless, have died at that very moment,— the time of every man's life being before appointed by God, in that unqualified sense ; that is, without reference to means. Mahomet was distinguished for the beauty of his person. He had a commanding presence, a majestic aspect, piercing eyes, a flowintr beard, and his whole countenance depicted the strong emotions m his mind. His memory was retentive, his wit easy, and his judg- ment clear and decisive. In his intercourse with society, he observed the forms of that grave and ceremonious politeness, so common to Jiis country. His natural temper may not have been worse than that of many others ; but the imposture which he forced upon mankind, was an instance of most daring impiety and wickedness. Mahomet persisted in his religious fraud, or fanaticism, to the last. On his death bed he had asserted, that the angel of death was not allowed to take his soul, till he had respectfullv^asked the permission of the prophet. The request being granted, Mahomet fell into the agony of dissolution ; he fainted with the violence of pain, but re- covering his spirits in a degree, he raised his eyes upwards, and look- ing steadfastly, uttered with a faltering voice, the last broken, though articulate words, " O God !— pardon my sins.— Yes,— I come— among my fellow-citizens on high ;" and in this manner expired. 2. Adhelme was the first bishop of Sherbourne, (England.) He is said to have been nephew to Ina, king of the West Saxons. The period of his death was 709. He composed several poems concern- ing the Christian life, but his fancy was quite indifferent. He wrote in Latin, and is reported to be the earliest Englishman who wrote in that tongue. A translator of his writings, speaks of him as pro- foundly versed in Greek, Latin, and Saxon. 3. Bede, who was surnamed'the Venerable, was an English monk. His birth-place was Wearmouth, in the bishopric of Durham, where he was born in 672 or 673. He is celebrated as a writer on Eccle- siastical history. In his youth he studied with great diligence, and soon became eminent for learning. Such was his fame, that he was frequently consulted on various subjects, by scholars from different parts of the country. He published his excellent Ecclesiastical history of England, in 731, when he was about fifty-nine years of age. He wrote other works, particularly an epistle to the bishop of York, which exhibits a more curious picture of the state of the church at that time, than is elsewhere to be found. That epistle was the last of Bede's wri- tings. His last sickness, was a consumption, ending in an asthma, which he supported with great firmness. During his weakness, he never remitted the duties of his place, being employed the whole of the time in instructing the monks. He appears to have been a person of genuine piety. His death was in 735. 4. Charles Martel was the son of Pepin d'Heristel, and duke of y 98 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IV. Austrasia. He succeeded his father as Mayor of the Palace, as has before been stated. That he was a man of great capacity, appears from the record of his exploits. As the progenitor of the Carlo- vingian race of kings, and conqueror of the Saracens, when they were upon the point of overrunning all Europe, he is entitled to a very respectful notice in the page of history. Divine Providence seems to have raised him up for a great purpose, in checking the conquering career of the followers of the false prophet. The pro- digious number of 375,000 Saracens, he is said to have defeated and Slain. He died in 741. 5. John Damascenus flourished in the eighth century, dying about the year 750. His birth-place was Damascus. He was liberally educated, and early made great progress in literature. He succeed- ed his father, as counsellor of state to the Saracen Caliph of Damas- cus. Becoming zealous for the forms of religion, and warmly es- pousing the cause of images, he greatly offended Leo Isauricus, the Eastern emperor. There is a wild legend of the times, that the emperor caused the hand of Damascenus to be cut off, and that it was miraculously re- placed by the kind interposition of the Virgin Mary. After a while, he is said to have retired from public affairs, and spent the remain- der of his life in solitude. In this situation he wrote books of divini- ty, of which he left many behind him. He is not generally thought to have been an evangelical writer. Mosheim says that he surpassed all his contemporaries among the Greeks and Orientals, but was su- perstitious, and absorbed in a vain philosophy. PERIOD V. The Period of the Neio Western Empire; extending fro7n the Croicning of Charlemagne^ 800 A. C, to the First Crusade^ 1095 years A. C. NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. The New Western Empire, so called, included the dominions of Charlemagne, or the countries of which he was acknowledged as the sovereign, in 800 A. C. It was at this period that the title of Emperor of the West, was conferred upon him. He was established in that august sovereignty, by being crowned at Rome, by Pope Leo III. It is thought by some, that had he chosen Rome as the seat of his government, and at death transmitted an undivi- ded dominion to his successor, the fallen empire of the Ro- NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. ' 99 mans might have once more been restored to prosperity and greatness. But Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and divi- ded, even in his life-time, his dominions among his children. The countries, included under the title of the New Western Empire, were principally France, Burgundy, Germany, Ita- ly, and a part of Spain. The Empire, as such, continued but a short time. One country after another separated from it under the successors of Charlemagne, and Germany, at last, became the sole seat or representative of the Empire. Be- fore the expiration of the present Period, the structure reared by the French monarch, was dissolved. After pursuing the few details of the empire as a body, we shall resume our narrative of the individual countries, in theii- separate or in- dependent state. § The occasion and the manner of the crowning of Charlemagne, were as follows : He was wont to pass annually, from the Pyrenees into Germany, and thence into Italy. In approaching Rome for the last time, the Pope despatched a messenger to meet him with the keys of the Con- fession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city of Rome. From this union of religious and military attributes, it was evident diat Charlemagne was on the eve of becoming emperor. Accordingly, on Christmas day, which was then the day of the new year, being present at the service of the mass, and on his knees before the altar, the Pope cyme suddenly behind him, and placed jDn his head the Crown of the Caesars. This act was followed by loud acclamations among the populace. An august title, which had lain dormant for several centuries, was thus revived, but it did not restore Rome to its ancient splendour, for reasons which were given above. Charlemagne lived nearly 14 years after he became Emperor of the West. He died at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the 72d year of his age, and the 46th of his reign. 2. Charlemagne was succeeded, 814 A. C, by his son, Louis the Debonaire, or the Mild. Of the lawful children of Charle- magne, Louis alone survived his father, and all the imperiol dominions came of course into his hands, except Italy, which the emperor had settled on Bernard, one of his grandsons. The reign of Louis was highly calamitous. In 817, he associated his eldest son, Lothaire, in the empire, and gave Acjuitain to Pepin, his second son, and Bavaria to Louis, his third. A disagreement occurring between Louis and Bernard, king of Italy, the latter was subdued, and had his eyes put out, in consequence of which he died three days after. The 100 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. murder of his nephew affected Louis with such a degree of remorse, that he performed pubUc penance on account of the crime. The children of Louis greatly embittered, and even short- ened his life. First quarrelhng among themselves, they then attacked their father ; and as he was alternately subdued and restored, his spirits were at length broken, and he died after an inglorious and turbulent reign, 840 A. C. § Louis had a son by a second wife, named Charles, who, as will soon appear, became king of France upon the death of his father.— As a second partition of the empire was made, in order to give a share to this younger son, the otlier brothers were highly disaffect- ed. This was one occasion of their contention. When Louis found his end approaching, he set aside for Lothaire, a sword and a golden sceptre, the emblems of the empire he intend- ed for him, on condition, however, that he should abide by the parti- tion in favour of Charles. As he did not make any mention of his son, Louis of Bavaria, (Pepin had already deceased,) it was intimated to the old king, tliat as a christian, he ought not to leave the world^ without bestowing upon Louis his pardon. The dying monarch shook his hoary locks, and pointing to them with emotion, replied, "I pardon him, but you max^ tell him, that it was he who has brought down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." 3. Charles, surnamed the Bald, succeeded Louis the mild, in a part of his original dominions, 840 A. C. Soon after his accession, followed the terrible battle of Fontenay, between the three brothers now left, viz. Lothaire, Louis and Charles, in which Charles and Louis were victorious. Lothaire, as the appointed emperor, had wished to obtain the possession of all his father's territories, and refused to allow the partition in favour of Charles. But being overcome in the battle of Fon- tenay, he was obliged to relinquish his pretensions, and to accede to such a division of the empire, as his brothers now made among themselves. Lothaire, who preserved the title of emperor, had, assigned to him, Italy, and several of the southern provinces of France. Louis had the whole of Germany. France, including Neus- tria and Aquitain, fell to the lot of Charles. Thus the fine Empire of the West, founded by Charlemagne, was lost to the house of France, by the separation of Germany from that house. Instead of remaining hereditary, the crown be- came elective, after it had passed, as it did finally, into the hands of the Germans. § The battle of Fontenay was fought with the greatest obstinacy. NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. 101 Historians agree in stating that 100,000 men perished on that occa- sion. Lothaire fled to the Saxons, yet laid his plans in such a man- ner as to obtain from his brothers a portion of the empire. In the reign of Charles, France was plundered by the Normans, who had begun their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne. But their progress was then inconsiderable. In 843, however, they sailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another fleet en- tered the Loire, and laid waste the country in its vicinity ; the ma- rauders not only securing great quantities of spoil, but carrying men, women and children into captivity. In 845, they entered the Seine again with a fleet, and advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled, and the city was burnt. With another fleet they approached to Bor- deaux, and pillaged it. Charles, instead of repressing the incursions of these barbarians with his arms, purchased their forbearance with money. 1. Lothaire, the emperor, died in 8.5-5. Before his death, he divided his dominions among his three sons. Louis II. was the son who succeeded him with the title of emperor. He was a brave and virtuous sovereign, and died 875. 2. Louis, to whom Germany was assigned, was a power- ful monarch, and rendered himself formidable to his neigh- bours. He died 876. Upon this event, Charles marched with a large army to seize his dominions, but he w^as soon defeated by his nephew Carloman, the son of Louis IL, ha- ving been first crowned emperor hy the Pope. 3. Charles, on the death of Louis IL, son of Lothaire, (875) assumed the empire, oi', as is said, purchased it from pope John YIIL, on condition of holding it as a vassal to the Holy See. This prince, after contending for the space of tw^o years, with the possessors of the other portions of the empire, with various success, died of poison, 877 A. C. His reign must be pronounced, on the whole, to have been a weak and inglorious one. He was the first of the French monarchs, who made dig- nities and titles hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the Carlovingian kings, the grandees obtained great power, and commanded a formidable vassalage. They chose to reside on their territorial possessions, and refused to take any inter- est in the general concerns of the country. Intrenched in their castles and fortresses, they defied the powder of the go- vernment, while the country was disturbed and desolated by their feuds. The Empire of the West being now effectually dismem- 9* 102 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. beredj though there were afterwards temporary junctions of its different parts, we may properly resume our narrative of the several countries in their separate state. As the power w^hich formed this empire emanated from France, it is natural to speak of this first. Indeed, we have been under the neces sity of noticing it already more than the rest. Germany, not having had a pohtical existence before the era of Charlemagne, will be new on the list of nations. FRANCE. 4. Louis II., the Stammerer, succeeded Charles, as king of France, 877 A. C. Nothing of importance occurred during his reign, which was a short one, of only nineteen months. His two sons, Louis III., and Carloman, became joint possessors of the throne upon his death. Their reign was short, but it was characterized by union, vigour, and a degree of success against their enemies, the Normans. They died, the one in 882, and the other in 884. § Their deaths were each accidental. Louis, in pursuing a young female who fled from him, struck his head against the door, and was killed by the blow. Carloman, who survived him but a short time, in hunting a wild boar, was wounded by a spear which one of his attendants launched against the anirtial. To save the attendant from the blame that might be attached to the act, Carloman report- ed that he had been wounded by the wild boar. Though he lived several days, he persevered in keeping the cause of his death a secret. 5. Charles, surnamed the Fat, was chosen by the peers of France to fill the vacant throne, 885. He was brother and successor to Louis II., the German, and son of the Louis, to whom Germany was originally assigned. For a short time, France and Germany were again under the same sway. At the expiration of two years, however, Charles was deposed on account of his cowardice, and the imperial dignity was transferred to Germany. The nobility then elected Eudes, count of Paris, to fill the throne, 887, till Charles, a younger brother of Louis III., and Carloman, should attain to the age of manhood. Upon the death of Eudes, Charles, who was surnamed the Simple, WcLs introduced to the sovereignty, 898, but he was deposed by Robert, the brother of Eudes, in 922. Robert was suc- ceeded by Ralpho, or Rodolph, duke of Burgundy, the year after. FRANCE. 103 § Charles the Simple, died in prison, 929. He was a weak mo- narch, and despised by his nobles. It is said, however, that in bat- tle, he killed the valiant Robert with his own hand. Upon the death of Charles, Rodolph was in quiet possession of the throne. It was during the reign of Charles that the Normans invaded Neustria, which was ceded to them in 911. To Rollo, their chie]^ the king gave his daughter, Giselle, in marriage. From this people the comitry was called Normandy, and it is from this race of war- riors, that we shall trace the future conquerors of England. 6. Louis IV., the son of Charles the Simple, was called to the throne of France, in 930. He was surnamed Outremer, or Transmarine, on account of having been brought up in England. During his reign, and that of his successor, Lo- thaire, Hugh the Great, the most powerful lord of France, directed, for the most part, the government. The same situ- ation was held by his son, Hugh Capet, under Louis V., the successor of Lothaire. When Louis died, Hugh, hke another Pepin, placed himself on the throne of France. § The corruption of these times, and the peculiar uncertainty and infelicity attending the condition of kings, are manifest, from the fact, that both Lothaire and Louis were poisoned by their queens. 7. Hugh Capet, the head of the thiid dynasty of kings in France, called the Capetian, began to reign in 987 A. C. He was crowned at Rheims, on the third of July. His administration was marked with abiUty. He enacted several salutary laws and ordinances, and established his residence in Paris, ^^ hich had been deserted by his predecessors during more than two hundred years. He delegated a portion of the supreme authority to his son Robert, near the beginning of his reign. § The true heir to the crown, was Charles of Lorrain, uncle to Louis V. Attempting to secure his rights by force, he was at last betrayed and confined in prison, where he soon died. Hugh, either through modesty, or the fear of exciting the jea- lousy of his nobles, never assumed the insignia of royalty. He al- ways, even on great and solemn occasions, appeared in a plain dress and simple style. 8. Robert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded his father in 996. Marrying a cousin in the fourth degree, Bertha, who was the daughter of the king of Burgundy, his marriage was annulled, himself excommunicated, and his kingdom put under an interdict by the pope. This was the first instance of such an exercise of the papal authority in France. The distress and confusion that ensued, obliged Robert, much 104 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. against his inclinations, to dismiss Bertha, and to expiate his offence by a solemn penance. He soon after married Constantia of Toulouse, who proved to be a vexatious partner, and cruel queen. § The superstition of the times was seen in the affair of the Pope's interdict. The mass was no longer celebrated ; the sacrament re- fused to the sick ; and the dead left without burial. There were no longer any regulations of police ; and. as all dreaded to approach an excommunicated person, the king was abandoned. He commanded, however, the services of two faithful domestics, who passed through the fire whatever he had touched, and threw to the dogs the refuse of the table. The king, in his second marriage, was extremely unhappy. Con- stantia continually tormented him. She caused the king's favourite, grand master of the palace, to be assassinated. She sowed discord between the sons of Robert. And her intolerance in religion was such, that she ordered thousands of a certain sect of heretics to be burned at the stake. It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that in the province of Lan- guedoc, where these cruelties were particularly exercised, the pro- testant faith has since constantly predominated over Catholicism. Robert is said to have been the first of the French kings who, accord- ing to the superstitions of the vulgar, received the supernatural gift of curing scrofulous affections, thence denominated the king's evil, by touching the sick, and pronouncing these words, " The king touches thee, and may God cure thee." 9. On the death of the king, his two sons, Henry and Ro- bert, both aspired to the throne. It belonged to Henry, but the infamous Constantia had contrived to create an interest in favour of Robert. After some bloodshed, Henry was invested with the sovereign authority, 1031 A. C. He was an ac- tive sovereign, who knew how to maintain, and even extend his dominion, but he was not always judicious in his en- terprises. § He subdued several of his rebellious nobles, defeated an army ot a younger brother who had claimed an inheritance in the monarchy, and espoused, for a time, the cause of William of Normandy, against the Norman grandees. He, however, soon attacked the latter — a rash step, which laid the foundation of long and disastrous wars. About the commencement of Henry's reign, a dreadful famine desolated not only France, but the rest of Europe. The dead were disinterred to serve as food for the living. The passengers were intercepted on the high ways, and carried into the woods to be devoured by the famishing peasantry. In one place, human flesh was publicly exposed for sale ; and in another, an innkeeper massa- cred the poor during the night, so as to furnish his table for guests ITALY. 105 on the following day. The season was such that corn could not be raised, and the want of pasture occasioned the death of cattle. 10. Henry left the crown to his son Philip I., then seven years old, 1060 A. C, under the regency of Baldwin, count of Flanders. Philip was rather a spectator than an actor in the political events of his reign. He lived beyond the com- mencement of the first crusade, having swayed the sceptre during forty-eight years. His principal war was with Wil- liam of Normandy, now become king of England. From this date commenced a long hostility between the English and French monarchies. ITALY. 11. In the division of the Western Empire among the sons of Louis the Debonaire, Ital)", as we have seen, was assign- ed to Lothaire, with the title of emperor. His successor, as we have also seen, was Louis II., his son, who died in 875. The succeeding year, Charles the Bald, king of France, was proclaimed king of Italy by a diet at Pavia. But he retain- ed this sovereignty only two years, his death occurring in 877. Italy was afterwards ravaged by contending tyrants : but in 964, Otho, the Great, reunited it to the dominions of the German empire. A series of wars, however, continued dur- ing at least two centuries, occasioned by the invasions of the Normans, and the claims of the emperors, till Italy was di- vided into several independent states. These wars are too unimportant and uninteresting to be noticed in this, or the follow^ing period. Italy, therefore, once the mistress of the world, must, for a time, be left out of the records of nations, except as her affairs shall be incidentally noticed in the his- tory of Germany. Her independent sovereignties, formed at different times, as Naples, the estates of the Church, Tusca- ny, Parma, Lombard y, the Genoese, and the Venetian territo- ries, may, in some subsequent period, be duly noticed. § A transaction, in which Otho II., the second German emperor after Italy was re-united to the empire, was engaged, may be ?iere re- lated. Several cities of Italy took occasion to throw off their alle- giance to the emperor. Otho, hearing of it, soon entered Italy with an army, and adopted the following most cruel method to punish the authors of the tumults. He invited the nobles of Rome to a grand entertainment in the Vatican palace and when the guests had placed themselves at the 106 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. table, he forbade them, under pain of death, to speak or move at what they should hear or see. Instantly they were surrounded by armed men, and while they sat trembling, the emperor composedly ordered the names of those concerned in the late disturbances to be read over, and the guilty to be put to death in the midst of the hall. After the bloody mandate was executed, he was all smiles and com- plaisance to the other guests, during the entertainment. It may be recorded here, that it was during the present period, the foundation of the temporal power of the popes was laid. In 1080, Matilda, countess of Tuscany, bequeath- ed a large portion of her dominions to pope Gregory tlie VII. From that time the popes possessed great power in tlie states of Europe. Although the emperors (German) asserted their sovereignty over Italy and the popedom, and claimed the absolute right of electing the pope ; yet it was with a con- stant resistance on the part of the Romans, and a general repugnance of the popes, wdien once estabUshed. SPAIN. 12. The empire of Charlemagne, in Spain, comprised but a small part of that country. Indeed, all that the Christians, (including the native Spaniards and the French,) possessed, constituted only about a fourth of the kingdom, viz., Asturia, part of Castile and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Cata- lonia and Navarre were subdued by Charlemagne, but his successors seem to have taken no interest in the conquest ; it probably soon reverted back to the Christians of Spain. All the remainder of the Peninsula, including Portugal, was oc- cupied by the Moors. Cordova, a luxurious and magnificent city, Avas the Moorish capital. It was a great school for the sciences, and the resort of the learned from all parts of the world. In the tenth century, their dominions were divided among a num- ber of petty sovereigns, w4io were constantly at war w'ith one another. Had the Christians availed themselves of this state of things, they might perhaps have then regained the whole kingdom ; but they were unhappily contending among themselves, and it was sometimes the case, that the Christian princes formed aUiances with the Moors against one ano- ther. § Taste and the sciences flourished in Cordova, and the south of Spain, when the rest of Europe had become involved in barbarism GERMANY. 107 and ignorance. Cordova, as the seat of government, enjoyed a splendid period of two hundred years, reckoning from the middle of the eighth, to the middle of the tenth century. During that period, the Moorish portion of Spain boasted of a series of able princes, who gained the palm over all the nations of the West, both in arts and arjns. It was only after the Moorish princes became luxurious and effe- minate, that the nation was divided into a number of petty states, the principal of which, were Toledo, Cordova, Valentia, and Seville. To add to the divided state of Spain, both among the Moors and Christians, the country- abounded with independent lords, who were warriors and champions by profession, making it their business to decide the quarrels of princes, or to volunteer their service and that of their vassals and attendants, on such occasions. Of this descrip- tion of persons, termed knights-errant, the most distinguished was Rodrigo the Cid, who undertook to conquer the kingdom of New Castile, for his sovereign, Alphonso, king of Old Castile. Of the passion for knight errantry, however, it is proposed to speak in some other place. The contentions araongtbe petty kingdoms of Spain need not detain us here, nor will it be expedient to dwell on the subsequent history of Spain, until the expulsion of the Moors, and the union of the whole country under one head, towards the conclusion of the fifteenth century. GERMANY. 13. Germany was known in ancient times, but it possess- ed no political importance till the era of Charlemagne. Pre- viously, it was a rude and uncivilized country, and fluctuating in its government. Charlemagne may therefore be consider- ed the reviver, if not the founder of the German empire. As a component part of his sovereignty, it has been already noticed so fiir down as the termination of the short reign, or rather usurpation, of Charles the Bald, of France, in 877. At that period, or perhaps a few years subsequent, it may be con- sidered as having been effectually separated from France; and of all the dominions of Charlemagne, it has alone descended as an empire, and the representative of the sway which he once held over the nations of the West. The emperor of Germany is to this day, nominally at least, regarded as suc- cessor to the Emperors of Rome. § Germany, is said to be compounded of the Celtic word ger^ brare, and man^ signifying a warlike people. In ancient times, it comprehended ail the country from the Baltic to Helvetia, and from 108 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. the Rhine to the Vistula. The primitive inhabitants were most pro- bably the Celts. But our information respecting Germany is scanty, till the period of the Roman conquests in that country. Some ages before that time, the Goths, or Teutones, had migrated from the eastern part of Europe, along the Euxine, and established them- selves on the shores of the Baltic, in Belgica, in the north of France, and the south of England ; driving the original inhabitants into the northern and western regions.* When Rome was in the zenith of its power, Germany seems to have been divided into a number of independent principaHties ; but the inhabitants frequently united in the defence of their common li- berty, and many bloody battles established their reputation for bra- very, before they sunk under the power and policy of their in- vaders. At length, however, their country was reduced to a state of provincial subjection to the masters of the world ; and upon the decline of the Western Empire of Rome, Germany became a prey to the Franks, and a considerable part of it remained under the do- minion of earls and marquisses, till Charlemagne extended his power, both military and civil, over the whole empire. 14. The successor of Charles the Bald, was Charles III, called the Fat, after an interregnum of three years, 881 A. C. France was also under his sway at the same time, but he w^as soon afterwards deposed, and reduced to the greatest ex- tremities. 15. In 887, Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, and nephew of Charles III., was proclaimed emperor of Germany. In the course of his reign, he defeated the Normans, took Rome, and was crowned there by the pope. His son Louis III., became his successor in 899, when only seven years of age. He was the last emperor descended in the male line from Charlemagne. § The reign of Louis is said to have been so much agitated by di- visions between the lords and the bishops, that the young emperor died of grief. From the death of Louis, the empire became strictly elect- ive, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and grandees had always been asked. 16. Conrad, duke of Franconia, was elected to fill the vacant throne in 912. He reigned seven years, during which time he quelled several revolts, and purchased peace of the barbarous Hungarians. § The German grandees, who assembled at W^orms, first offered the imperial diadem to Otho, duke of Saxony ; but he declining it * Webster's Elements, &c. GERMANY. 109 on account of his advanced age, persuaded them to apply the invi- tation to Conrad. TJie latter was of imperial descent by his mother, who was a daughter of Arnold. During his reign, the aflfairs ol Germany were conducted with great prudence. 17. Upon tlie death of Conrad, the imperial dignity was bestowed on Henry I., surnamed the Fowler. This prince possessed great abilities, and introduced order and good go- vernment among his people. He built and embellished cities, reduced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, and con- quered several tribes, as the Hungarians, Danes, Sclavoniaiir^. Bohemians, c^c. He added Lorrain to his dominions. § Great as Henry was as a statesman, he manifested considerable zeal in propagating the Christian faith. A portion of the Vandals whom, lie subdued, were, under his auspices, converted to thisreligion. He maintained no correspondence with the See of Rome, inasmuch as he had been consecrated by his own bishops. 18. His son Otho I., the great, was elected emperor, 936. He carried on the system of his father, in repressing the usur- pations, of the lords. The conquest of Bohemia he began in 938, and finished in 950. In 961 he expelled Berenger II. and his son, Adalbert, from Italy, and caused himself to be crowned at Milan. The next year he was crowned by Pope John XII, and from that time he may be justly styled the emperor of the Romans. John afterwards revolted against him, but was soon deposed. Otho was the greatest prince of his time. After an active and commendable reign of thirty years, he died of an apo- plectic disorder, in 972. His remains were interred in the cathedral church of Magdebourg, w^here his tomb may be still distinguished by a Latin inscription. § Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders and crimes of the Papacy. Being invited into that' country by the Pope and the Italian states, while they were contending with Berenger, he defeat- ed the latter, and in return for the honours which the Pope conferred upon him, he confirmed the donations made to the Holy See by Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis the Debonaire. § The treachery of the Pope, (John XIl.) obliged the emperor, in two or three successive instances, to visit Italy to compose the dis- orders that took place. The last time, he executed exemplary ven- geance on his enemies, by hanging one half of the senate. Calling together the Lateran Council, he created a new Pope, and obtained from the assembled bishops, a solemn acknowledgment of the abso- lute right of the emperor to elect to the papacy, to give the investi- ture of the crown of Italy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics. The power of parental affection is strikingly exhibited in the fol- 10 110 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. lowing incident of Otho's life. Liidolphus, his son, had engaged in an unnatural revolt, which produced some serious hostilities, and occasioned the destruction of the city of Ratisbon ; but after some time, the prince was made sensible of his error, and seized an op- portunity while the emperor was hunting, to throw himself at his feet, and implore his clemency. " Have pity," said he, " upon your misguided child, who returns, like the prodigal son, to his father. If you permit him to live after having deserved death, he will as- suredly repent of his folly and ingratitude, and the residue of his life shall be spent in the ftnthful discharge of fihal duty." To this af- fecting appeal, Otho could reply only by a flood of tears and a pa- ternal embrace ; but when his agitation subsided, he assured the penitent of his warmest favour, and generously pardoned all his adherents. 19. Otho XL, surnamed the Sanguinary, succeeded his father in 973, during whose reign, and that of several others, nothing of importance occurred. The names of the sovereigns who followed, down to Henry IV., are Otho III., St. Henry, Conrad II., and Henry III. They occupied a period of about eighty-three yea.rs. 20. Henry lY., the Great, succeeded his father at the a^e of six years, in 1056. He maintained a perpetual struggle with the popes, who insisted, that only the cardinals should elect the bishop of Rome. It was the lot of this emperor to experience a large share of papal insolence and tyranny. After a spirited contest with Pope Gregory VII., during which, the pope was twice his prisoner, and the emperor as often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fell, at last, the victim of ecclesiastical vengeance. At the instigation of Pope Urban IL, the two sons of the emperor, Conrad and Henry, rebelled against their father, and to such an extremity was he reduced, through their barbarity and the pope's act of excommunication, that he could scarcely obtain the means of subsistence. His sufferings were terminated by death soon after the ex- piration of the present period, viz. in 1106, he having lived sixty-four years, and reigned forty-eight. Henry, in his youth, was vicious to an uncommon extent, and gave up himself freely to the indulgence of his passions. Misfortune, afterwards, abated his sensual excesses, if it did not thorough- ly reform his character. He lived to acknowledge, that " the hand of the Lord had touched him." On the whole, he was ENGLAND. Ill endowed with many excellent qualities — courage, clemency, liberality, and, finally, with contrition and resignation. § The insolent treatment he received from the Pope, appears from the following. On one occasion, he set out for Italy, with his wife and infont, in order to humble himself at the foot of his holiness. On his arrival at the place where the Pope was, he was admitted within the outer gate, and informed that he must expect no favour until he should have fasted three days, standing from morning to evening, barefooted amid the snow, and then implored forgiveness for his offences. This penance was literally performed, notwith- standing the fatigue of the journey, and on the fourth day he re- ceived an absolution. The liberality of Henry's disposition was such, that he is said to have entertained the sick, the lame, and the blind, at his own table, and even to have lodged them in his own apartment, that he might be at hand to minister to their necessities. ENGLAND. Saxon Kings. — Norman Family. 21. England, which had been divided into seven distinct sovereignties during more than two centuries, became one entire kingdom, in 827 A. C. This change was effected by the prudence and valour of Egbert, prince of the West Sax- ons, who inhabited that part of the heptarchy, which was called Wessex and Sussex. The occasion which offered for the conquest and union of the heptarchy, arose from the fact, that Egbert alone remain- ed of the descendants of the Saxon conquerors of Britain ; he, therefore, naturally looked to the dominion of the several states, as a sort of right ; nor did he hesitate to claim it, also, with his sword. Success attended his undertaking, and four hundred years after the arrival of the Saxons in Britain, w^ere they united into one powerful kmgdom. 22 The English, who Avere so happily united under Eg- bert, enjoyed their prosperity but a short period. The piratic (lal Danes, or Normans, who had molested the EngHsh coasts for fifty years, now became still more troubligsome. During the life of Egbert, they twice attempted an invasion, but were repulsed with much slaughter. The death of Egbert, and the character of his successor, Ethelwolf, a prince of a very yielding disposition, encq^raged the Danes to multiply theii* depredations. They were often 112 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD V. defeated, but could not be expelled. By his will, Ethelwolf divided England between his two eldest sons — Ethelbald and Ethel belt. Alfred, afterwards so illustrious, was a young- er son. § It was Ethelwolf who, through facihty of disposition, not only granted to the priesthood a perpetual right to tithes, but exempted it from all services and imposts. The reign of Ethelbald and Ethelbert was short, — com- mencing in 857. and ending in 866. To Ethelred, a thii'd brother, the sceptre was bequeathed. ' He died bravely, in battle against the Danes, and then the immortal Alfred suc- ceeded, in 872. 23. This prince, who was only twenty-two years of age, when he ascended the tlnone, found his kingdom in a most miserable condition. It was scourged and afflicted by an- archy, domestic barbarism, and foreign aggression. By his efforts, however, he succeeded in raising it to an eminence and happiness, surpassing what might have been expected at that period. His talents, virtues, and character, were of the highest order, and have justly endeared his name and memory to the bosom of every Enghshman. The institu- tions which he founded are, to this day, the glory of the Bri- tish realm. . He patronised learning and the arts — encouraged manu- factures and commerce — appropriated a seventh of his reve- nue to restore the ruined cities, castles, palaces, monasteries — founded or revived the vmiversity of Oxford — divided Eng- land into counties and hundreds — took a survey of the coun- try, and formed a code of laws, which, though now lost, is generally deemed the origin of the common law. § The wisdom of his civil institutions may be seen in his division of the country. This plan was resorted to with a view to restore the order which the violence and rapacity of the Danes had sub- verted. Besides a division into counties and hundreds, there were the smaller divisions of tithings. Ten housoholders formed a tith- ing, who were answerable for each other's conduct, and over whom a headborough was appointed to preside. Every man was registered in some tithing, and none could change his habitation, without a certificate from the headborough. In the decision of differences, the headborough, also called tith- ing-man, summoned his tithing to assist him. In affairs of great moment, or in controversies between the members of different tith- ings, the cause was brought before the court of the hundred, which ENGLAND. 113 was assembled every four weeks. Here we may trace the origin of juries. Twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial justice, tried the cause in this court. The county court, which met twice a year, and consisted of the freeholders of the county, was superior to that of the hundred, from which it received appeals. Here disputes be- tween the inhabitants of different hundreds were settled. The ulti- mate appeal from these several courts, lay to the king in council. The reign of Alfied was signalized by his contest with the Danes. Within the space of one year, he defeated them in eight battles ; but a new irruption of their countrymen, forced him to solicit a peace, which these pirates frequently inter- rupted by fresh hostilities. At this juncture, Alfred was com- pelled to secure his person by retreating into an obscure part of the country. Here he continued, disguised in the habit of a peasant, for many months, until the disorders in the Da- nish army offered a fair opportunity for attacking them. This he embraced with great effect. Instead of cutting them off en- tirely, as he might have done, he incorporated many of them with his English subjects. It was after these exploits, that he turned his attention, as already mentioned, to the internal improvements of his kingdom. He died in the full vigour of his age and faculties, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine years, and was justly surnamed the Great. § Alfred having perceived the remissness of the enemy, from whose pursuit he had secreted himself, ventured at length to quit his retire- ment. With a few of his retainers, he had made some sudden and par- tial attacks on the Danes ; but before he attempted to assemble his subjects generally in arms, he was determined to explore the state of the enemy. His skill as a harper procured him admission into their camp. Having been introduced to Guthrum, their prince, he played before him in his tent. Here he witnessed their supineness. Encouraged by what he had seen, he sent private emissaries to the most considerable of his friends, and summoned them to meet him with their retainers, at a certain place. The English crowded around the standard of a monarch whom they so fondly loved, and before their ardour could cool, he led them victoriously against the enemies of their country. 24. Edward, surnamed the Elder, succeeded his father Al- fred, in 901. He lived in a stormy period, being continually molested by the Northumbrian Danes ; yet he was generally successful in his wars, and his administration of government was honourable to his character. He reigned twenty-four years. § Ethelwald, a younger son of Alfred, inherited his father's passion 10* 114 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD V. for letters, and lived a private life — a happy turn and destiny for the son of a prince. 25. Atheistan, a natural son of Edward, succeeded him, 925. He was an able and popular sovereign, and opposed with success the Northumbrian Danes, Welsh, Scots, ^^^^^.^ j^^^.^^^ 2. Petrarch, ) 3. Boccace, an Italian, one of the restorers of learning. 4. Wickliffe, an English theologian and reformer. 5. Froissart, an entertaining French chronicler. 6. Gower, and ) ^^^j^^^^ of English poetry. / . Onaucei , ^ § 1. Dante, (Alighieri,) who died at the age of fifty-seven years, early displayed poetical talents ; but the ambition of being elevated among the ruling men of his native city, engaged him in continual discord and faction. He and his party were at length defeated, and with them he sought safety in banishment. While he was in this situation, he vented the bitterest reproaches against his enemies. The occasion of his death was, an affront whicli he received from the Venetians. The prince of Ravenna, (in which place he was in exile,) sent him to negociate with the Venetians, in order to avert a threatened war ; but the magistrates of Venice treated the embassa- dor with contempt, and refused to receive him within their walls. The irritable heart of Dante was so affected by this affront, that he could not survive it, and he died on his return to Ravenna. His literary works owe their origin to his misfortunes and re- vengeful spirit. His great object seems to have been to pierce his enemies with the shafts of satire. The rancour of his feeling, min- gled itself with the sweetness and graces of poetry. His poems are characterized by spirit, fire, and sublimity. His triple poem, of Paradise, Purgatory, and Hell, displays wonderful powers of genius. 2. Petrarch (Francis) is deservedly celebrated as one of the re- storers of classical learning, and more, perhaps, than any other per- son, as the father of modern poetry. He displayed all the powers of genius and poetical inspiration, not only in his own native lan- guage, but in Latin. His sonnets are esteemed the sweetest, most elegant, and most highly finished verses, ever written in Italian ; and his songs possess uncommon beauty and grace. Petrarch had a most charming fancy. Some of the events of his life are rather singular ; particularly his inextinguishable passion for his mistress Laura. He first saw this beautiful female in 1627, after he had fixed his residence at Vaucluse, near Avignon, and he was smitten with all the pangs of love. But though the soft passion was expressed in the softest lan- guage of poetry, the heart of the fair one was by no means moved. To divert the melancholy which ensued, he travelled through va- rious countries, and was at last persuaded to enter into the service of Pope John XXH. But, " amor vincit omnia," and Petrarch, abandon- ing the pleasures of curiosity and of greatness, fled to the shades of Vaucluse, to converse with his beloved Laura. He again devo- te his hours to studious pursuits, and to the amatory effusions of DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 183 his muse. But though the idolized fair one heeded not his poetry, the world did ; and Rome, Paris, and Naples, at the same moment, invited him to come and receive the poetical crown. Rome pre- vailed, and in that famed seat of empire and of genius, the poet's brow was entwined with the resplendent honour. He was occasion- ally drawn from his favourite residence, on public business ; and it was during an absence in 1348, that he was informed of Laura's death, which aifected him with the deepest gloom. The poet's purity in this affair, has been maintained by some, and denied by others ; and some parts of his character certainly afford too much ground for the opinion of the latter. Petrarch was an ecclesiastic, though he never took priest's orders. He died at the age of seventy, 1374. 3. Boccace, (John,) born at Certaldo, in Tuscany, 1313, studied under Petrarch, who was his friend and patron. He lived abroad for a time, but afterwards returned to his native village, where he spent the remainder of his days, in literary pursuits. His constitu- tion was weakened by his great application, and he died of a sick- ness in the stomach, 1375. His works are both Latin and Italian. He possessed uncommon learning, and he sliares with a few others the honour of contribut- ing to the revival of learning in Europe. " Decameron," a licen- tious, though witty, satirical, and elegantly written romance, is his most celebrated composition. His poetry is not equal to that of Petrarch, but his prose is unrivalled, for its simplicity, grace, and varied elegance. 4. Wickliffe, (John de) was professor of divinity, in the Universi- ty of Oxford, and deservedly considered as the forerunner of Lu- ther, in the reformation. His elevation to the professorship of Ox- ford, exposed him to the jealousy of the monks, and he was soon dis- placed. He felt the indignity keenly, and it was not long before he boldly came out against the errors and encroachments of Rome. The Romish clergy, with the pope at their head, took the alarm, and employed every effort to suppress the doctrines of Wickliffe. Most of his doctrines were pronounced as heretical, by the several coun- cils that were called. He was seized as a heretic, by the emissaries of the Pope, and tried; but the judges, although they enjoined him silence, permitted him to depart in safety, as they feared the nobility and people. These, in general, favoured Wickliffe. Not at all in- timidated, the reformer continued to preach his peculiar sentiments, and they became still more widely known. But the penal statutes were severe, and some who embraced the new heresy, were deliver- ed over to punishment. Wickliffe, in the mysterious providence of God, died at a time when nothing was wanting to emancipate the English nation from the tyranny of Rome, but the boldness, perseverance, and eloquence of a popular leader. Wickliffe's noble struggle proved almost abor- tive, and little was thought of it, till Luther arose to establish the same doctrines on an imperishable basis. 184 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VII. Trialogiis, is almost the only work of Wickliffe's that was printed. 5. Froissart, (John,) as an historian, excelled all the writers of his time. His narrative of the events which took place in England^ France, and Spahi, from 1326 to 1400, is exceedingly lively and en- tertaining. He personally witnessed many transactions Avhich he has described. He was a chronicler both of political events and of chivalric manners. He was bred to the church, but he was a great- er reader of romances, than of his breviar)'-. Of gayety, he was fond to an excessive degree. " Well loved I," as he said of his youth, in one of his poems, (for he wrote poetry as well as history,) " to see dances and carolling, and to hear the songs of minstrels, and tales of glee. It pleased me to attach myself to those who took delight in hounds and hawks." " My ears quickened at the sound of opening the wine flask ; for I took great pleasure in drinking, and in fair array, and in fresh and delicate viands." He began his chronicle at the age of twenty, and continued it many years, travel- ling through England, Scotland, France, and other places. He was born at Valenciennes, in the year 1337, and died in 1397. 6. Gower (Sir John) was born in Yorkshire, 1320. He was emi- nent, both in law and poetry. He is, by some, associated with Chau- cer, as a father of English poetry. He lived a little longer than Chaucer, though born eight years sooner, and was the successor of the latter in the laurel. His principal production in poetry, was " Confessio Amantis ;" though he left behind, other poems of con- siderable spirit and energy. Though gentle in manner, he inveighed boldly against the debaucheries of the times, the immorahty of the clergy, the wickedness of corrupt judges, and the vices of an aban- doned court. He died at the age of eighty-two. 7. Chaucer (Geoffrey) was born in London, 1328. Compared with Chaucer, all who preceded him, not excepting Gower, were merely pioneers in English poetry : they were scarcely poets. He is, there- fore, more commonly considered the father of English song. Though in the idiom of the fourteenth century, his poetry is not devoid ol great smoothness and delicacy ; the sentiments are bold, the charac- ters are well supported, and the genius of the poet is every where brilliant, sprightly, and sublime. The Canterbury Tales, are his best production. Chaucer enjoyed a signal share in the favours of royalty, and his honours and emoluments exceeded far the ordinary lot of poets. This circumstance may, perhaps, be partly owing to the fact, that he had a princely brother-in-law, John Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, At one period of his life, he suffered persecution, in consequence ot embracing the tenets of Wickliffe. The latter part of his days was spent at a distance from the bustle and intrigues of public hfe, and in his retirement at Woodstock, and afterwards at Donnington, he devoted himself to the cultivation of his muse. He died 25th Oc- tober, 1400. TURKISH EMPIRE. PERIOD VIII. 185 The period of the Reformation ; extending from the Ta- king of Constantinople^ 1453 years A. C., to the Edict of Nantes^ 1598 years A. C. TURKISH EMPIRE. Sect. 1. The history of the Turkish Empire, at this era, is signaUzed by the taking of Constantinople, and the con- sequent extinction of the Eastern Empire of the Romans, 1453. The Turks effected the object under Mahomet the Great, the Turkish Sultan. Constantine was the name of the last emperor of the East, as it was also the name of the first. His dominions had become exceedingly circumscribed. The Turks had gradually encroached upon its borders, and Constantinople would soon have become the seat of the Ottoman power, had they not been obhged to defend themselves against the Tartars. Mahomet II., after some delay, commenced the project which had long engaged the attention of the Turks. The indolent inhabitants of Constantinople, made but a feeble preparation for defence, and all Europe was supine and in- different. The city was assailed both by sea and land — the walls were battered down with cannon, and all who opposed were massacred. The emperor was slain, and the city soon surrendered. The Turks forbore to destroy the imperial edifices, and the churches were converted into mosques. The exercise of their religion, however, was allowed to all the christians, and they have, till lately, chosen their own patri- arch. The Eastern empire, from the building of its capital, had subsisted 1123 years. After the fall of Constantinople, Greece and Epirus were subdued ; and Italy might probably have shared a similar . fate, but for the fleet of the Venetians, who opposed the arms of Mahomet with considerable success : but peace was soon concluded between the hostile powers. The death of Ma- homet the Great, occurred 1481. 16* 186 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. § Mahomet was a youth of only about twenty-one years, when he undertook the project of extinguishing the empire of the East. The force with which he invested Constantinople, was fully adequate to the object, being nearly three hundred thousand men ; while the whole population of that city, did not amount to more than one hundred thousand. The Greeks, notwithstanding their degeneracy, displayed con- siderable bravery. Their all was at stake, and a small but faithful band adhered to Constantine, till they were nearly annihilated. Seeing his dearest friends fall by his side, and himself at last re- maining, surrounded only by enemies, he exclaimed in the bitterness of grief, " Has death then made such havoc, that not one Christian is left to take my life?" As he spoke, a Turk to whom his person was unknown, for he had prudently laid aside the purple, struck Iiim in the face ; a second blow succeeded from another hand ; and he fell, in the forty-ninth year of his age, a glorious example of lionourable resolution, in expiring with his defenders, rather than surviving them. Mahomet liberally patronized the arts and sciences ; and to compensate for the migration of those learned Greeks, who, on the fall of the empire, spread themselves over the countries of Europe, invited both artists and men of letters to his capital from other kingdoms. The successors of this sovereign during the remainder of the present period, were Bajazet II., Sehm I., Solyman I., Selim II., Amurath III., and Mahomet III. § Bajazet II., prosecuted various wars against the Hungarians, Venetians, Persians, and Saracens, but having resigned the govern- ment to his son, who had revolted and was supported by the Janizaries, he was soon after poisoned by the order of the latter. . His son and successor, Selim I., was a prosperous, but tyrannical prince ; who, in 1517, conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, and Gaza. Solyman I., surnamed the Magnificent, succeeded Sehm in 1520 ; and was one of the most accomplished, enterprising, successful, and warlike of the Turkish princes. He took Buda, and besieged Vien- na. From the latter place, however, he was obliged to retire with' the loss of eighty thousand men. Selim II., his son, besieged and took Cyprus and Tunis ; but his fleet was defeated at Lepanto, with the capture or destruction of almost all his ships. Amurath III. strangled his five brothers immediately upon his ac- cession. This prince extended his dominions by the addition of Kaab in Hungary, and of Tibris in Persia. In this reign, the Jani- zaries having lost their submission, and in great part, their discipline, began to kill their commanders, whenever they were dissatisfied with them. His son, Mahomet III. was a monster of barbarity, having begun ITALIAN STATES. 187 his reign by strangling his nineteen brothers, and drowning ten of his father's wives. He finally put to death his eldest son, a prince of estimable qualities, on an unfounded suspicion of ambitious views. ITALIAN STATES. 2. We shall pursue the history of Italy, by giving an ac- count of only two or three of the States of which it was composed. The events in the Italian history are not politi- cally important at this era. It is chiefly in reference to the influence of Florence on the literature of the times, and the ecclesiastical influence of the Papal dominions, that these portions of Italy will be brought more particularly into view. Florence, under the Medici, enjoyed a high degree of splendour, during this period. It was an era, in the cultiva- tion of the sciences and elegant arts. The family of the Medici held sway in this country from the year 1428 to 1569, Avhen Cosmo de Medici the Great was entitled Grand Duke of Tuscany. Under the title of the RepubHc of Florence, which they governed, were included not only Tus- cany, of which Florence is the capital, but Modena, Mantua, and one or two other states. § Cosmo de Medici died in 1464, who, though the private subject of a republic, had more riches than any king in Europe, and laid out more money in works of taste, learning, and charity, than all the kings, princes, and states, of that or the subsequent age, the indi- viduals of his own ftimily excepted. His religious foundations were unrivalled. His private buildings were equally sumptuous. No palace in Europe at that time exceeded his in Florence. He had be- sides many others. With all this public magnificence and expendi- ture, he was in his private conversation, humble and unassuming ; and in his person plain and modest. He was not celebrated for learning, though he was the greatest patron of learned men of his age. Cosmo was succeeded in the government by his son Peter, and he by his sons Lorenzo and Giuliano. The latter was soon murdered, and Lorenzo died aged no more than fifty-four years, illustrious like his predecessors, in every public and private virtue. The tranquillity of the republic was much disturbed by wars with the Venetians and Genoese, for many years. In the course of these commotions, Florence assumed the popular government, but it was quickly reversed by the emperor Charles V., who, laying siege to the city, forced it to capitulate, and restored the family of the Medici. Cosmo, the second of that name, now (1537) succeeded to the ducal 3rown, which he wore with honour, during thirty-eight years. The encouragement he gave to the practice and study of all the fine arts, 188 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. proves him to have been one of the greatest patrons of human geni- us, since the days of Augustus. The names of his sons were John and Garcia. The latter was of a furious, vindictive disposition, and quarrelUng one day with his brother, stabbed him to the heart with a dagger. The father charged him with the murder, but the youth denying it, was introduced into the room where the body lay, which is said to have bled, (doubtless by chance,) at his approach. He then threw himself at his father's feet, and confessed his guilt. The father, who had resolved on the part he was to act, solemnly desired his son to prepare for death, adding, that he ought to think himself happy in losing a life he was unworthy to enjoy, by the hands of him who gave it. He then unsheathed the dagger with which the cardinal had been murdered, and plunged it into the bosom of his son. 3. That part of Italy which constitutes the dominions of his holiness, became the scene of much crime and conten- tion during this period. Both the temporal and spiritual pow- er of the popes, was now at its height. In 1498, the papacy was enjoyed by Alexander YL, a monster of wickedness. Charles YIIL, of France, had resolved on an expedition into Italy. The pope and the duke of Milan, who encouraged him in it, immediately betrayed him, and joined the interest of the king of Naples, who was the object of attack on the part of Charles. The latter, however, now first besieged the pope in Rome, and forced him to submission, but at length devoutly kissed his feet. He then marched against Naples, while its timid prince, Alphonso, fled to Sicily, after absolving his subjects from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples in triumph, but lost his new kingdom almost as soon as he had gained it. A league was formed against Charles, be- tween the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Arra- gon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians ; and on his re- turn to France, the troops he had left to guard his conquests, were all driven from Italy. § It has been remarked, that from the decisive effect of this con- federacy, the sovereigns of Europe derived a useful lesson of policy, and first adopted the idea of preserving a balance of power, by that tacit league, which is understood to be always subsisting, for the prevention of the co-ordinate aggrandizement of any particular state. History relates with horror, the crimes of Alexander VI., and his son Csesar Borgia : their murders, robberies, profanations, and in- cests. They compassed their ends in attaining every object of their ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind. Their death seems to have been a sort of retribution for their crimes, so far as retribution is known on earth. FRANCE. 189 If an author, Guicciardini, who was a mortal enemy to Alexan- der, may be believed, Borgia had sent a present of some flasks of poisoned wine to the cardinal of Corneto, in whose garden they pro- posed to sup, but ordered the servant to give none of it to any per- son. Alexander soon after coming into the garden, and calling for wine before supper, the servant gave him some from the poisoned flasks, thinking the prohibition could not extend to the Pope, how- ever rare and valuable the wine might be ; and Borgia, in the mean time appearing, unconsciously drank of the same wine with his father. They both immediately felt the symptoms of the poison, and Alexander died the next day ; but Borgia, having drank his wine much diluted, survived with the loss of his skin and hair. He was afterwards stripped of all his possessions by Pope Julius II., and at last perished in miserable obscurity in Spain. FRANCE. Branch of Valois. — Branch of Orleans. 4. Louis XI., began to reign in 1461. He immediately removed all his late father's ministers, proceeded to humble the nobles, and in almost every respect acted the tyrant towards his subjects. Indeed, his character is that of a most deceitful, profligate and cruel prince ; he followed too nearly the odious Tiberius in his measures. He left, however, some good regu- lations for the encouragement of commerce, and for the ef- fectual administration of justice. Notwithstanding the odious- ness of his character, he was the first of the French kings, on whom the title of His most Christian Majesty was conferred. § His severity occasioned a revolt of several of the first lords of the kingdom. The war which thence arose, they entitled " the war of the public good." His sanguinary disposition is evidenced by the following fact. When he pronounced sentence of death on a certain nobleman, he ordered that his infant children should be placed beneath the scaffold, to be sprinkled by the blood which gushed from the body of their parent. This was an almost incredible instance of refined cruelty, and cold barbarity. Louis died a victim of superstitious terror and remorse of conscience. 5. Charles VIII., surnamed the Afl^able, at the age of thirteen years, succeeded his father, under the regency of Anne of France, his sister, 1483. His marriage with Anne of Brittany, who was promised to Maximilian of Austria, occasioned a short war with the Germans. His expedition into Italy, and his conquest and subsequent loss of Naples, have already been noticed in the Italian history. He reign- ed about fifteen years. 190 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. § His surname is indicative of his disposition and manners, but he led a life of intemperance, and was early cut off by this vice, in his twenty-eighth year. The direct line of Philip of Valois terminated with this monarch, as he left no issue. 6. Louis XII., who was duke of Orleans, and great grand- son of Charles V., ascended the throne as the nearest heir, 1498. He was idoUzed by the French, and obtained and deserved the title of " The Father of his People," by his frugal policy, which eased them from taxes. Yet he was am- bitious and imprudent in his military enterprises. He conquered the Milanese and Genoa, but in prosecuting his claim to Naples, though he obtained some advantage at first, he was unsuccessful in the end. He was duped by his associates, Ferdinand of Spain, and pope Alexander VI. The whole of Naples finally fell into the treacherous hands of Ferdinand ; nor did the French king long retain his other conquests in Italy, since they revolted from him on the first opportunity. Louis died suddenly, while preparing to recover, by arms, his lost Italian possessions. § In justifying himself for the pardon of his enemies, Louis made an observation worthy of royalty. " The king of France does not revenge the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." What this prince also said in vindication of his economy, will always be praised. " I had rather see my courtiers laugh at my avarice, than my people weep on account of my expenses." It was an unhappiness, how- ever, that he procured, in part, his supplies of money by the sale of offices, which was a very dangerous example. 7. Francis I., count of Angouleme, was called to the throne, 1515, Louis having died without male issue. He was a ne- phew of the late king, and began his reign at the age of twenty-one. His real power, and the high opinion which he entertained of his own greatness, led him, in 1519, into competition with the celebrated Charles V., who had just ascended the throne of Spain. Charles, as grandson of the emperor Maximilian, upon the death of the latter, preferred his claim to the empire, but was opposed by Francis. Charles obtained the election, and these princes now became sworn enemies. Their mu- tual claims on each other's dominions, caused seas of blood to flowj in wars that lasted more than thirty -eight years. § Francis began hostilities by attacking Navarre. He first won and then lost that kingdom. The emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops at the same time wrested Milan out of the hands of the French. FRANCE. 191 Henry VIII., of England, whose friendship had been assiduously courted by both parties, was brought over for a time to the side of Charles. Just at this juncture, Francis, unfortunately, quarrelled with his nest general, the constable of Bourbon, who revenged himself by deserting to the emperor. The constable was invested with com- mand in the army of Charles, and thus greatly added to the supe- riority which was already apparent in the generals of the latter. The consequences were such as might have been expected. The French were defeated in the battle of Biagrassa. In this engagement, Bay- ard, the model of knights, perished. At his death, he replied to the marks of pity shown by the duke of Bourbon, with these words ; " It is you who ought to be pitied, for fighting against your king, your country, and your oaths." A temporary success attended the French arms in the capture of the capital of the Milanese ; but a sad reverse soon followed in the battle of Pavia. That battle was fought on the 24th of Febniary, 1525, and resembled in its catastrophe, those won by the English at Poictiers and Agincourt. Twenty-five thousand French were slain, and Francis himself made prisoner. He had the mortification to find himself the captive of that very man, the constable, whom he had treated with the greatest hauteur. Europe being alarmed by the aggrandizement of Charles, a league of several states was formed against him, in favour of the captive mo- narch. In this league, England was included. The emperor was thus in a manner forced to liberate his prisoner, and he derived little benefit from his good fortune. The severity of the terms respecting his ransom was such, that the states general refused to fulfil them. On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France, but the powerful Charles was not intimidated. Resolving on an in- vasion of his enemy's country, he inundated Provence with fifty thousand men. But the defensive operations of the French were very successful, and Charles returned sorrowfully into Italy, having lost the one half of his army, cut off by diseases and famine. In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for ten years, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and on the part of Francis, was treated with the utmost courtesy and hospitality. He had previously stipulated to grant the French king the investi- ture of Milan. But though he was every where received with the utmost pomp, and staid seven days in Paris, where he was loaded with every mark of friendship and confidence, he left no authentic testimony of his promise. The seeds of a renewed contest were thus sown, but though the French were victorious in the battle of Cerizoles, they derived from it little or no advantage. The Imperialists, on the whole, had a de- cided superiority, and France must have been ruined had not tte disorders of Germany forced the emperor to conclude the treaty of Crepi, with Francis, 1544. The latter purchased a peace with Henry VIII., who had once more changed sides, and favoured Charles. 192 MODERN HISTORY.^ PERIOD VIII. 8, Francis died in 1547. He has the reputation of a great prince, and would have appeared greater, but for the manifest superiority of his illustrious rival. Notwithstanding the wars in which France was engaged during the reign of this mo- narch, he left his kingdom in a flourishing and prosperous state. Literature and the arts made great progress in France under his auspices, and the French court acquired that polish and refinement in taste and manners, for which it has since beeu so conspicuous throughout the world. § " The fine qualities of this prince," says Millot, " his open temper, beneficence, lionour, generosity, and courage, have not been able to cover his faults, rashness in his enterprises, neghgence in his affairs, fickleness in his conduct, prodigality in his expenses, and excess in his pleasures. Whatever merit he was possessed of, he would have met with fewer encomiums, had he not caressed and favoured men of letters, by whose suffrages the reputation of sovereigns is fixed. He founded the royal college and printing house. At the same time that he encouraged the culture of the learned languages, he had the prudence to command that the public acts should be written in French. In the same manner, he gave life to the fine arts, buill Fontainbleau, and began the Louvre. In order to polish the man- ners of the court, he drew to it the most respectable women and distinguished prelates." 9. Henry II. succeeded his father in 1547. This prince, though brave and polite, was the slave of pleasure, and the dupe of favourites. He continued the war in which his father had been engaged with Charles Y., and that emperor's son Philip II., of Spain. He obtained considerable advantage ovei Charles at the siege of Metz, but was terribly defeated by Phi- lip, at St. Q,uentin. The event most glorious to his reign, was the recovery of Calais from the English, in 1557. The duke of Guise captured the place in eight days, to the sur- prise of all Europe. The origin of those civil wars which distracted France during the three succeeding reigns, may be dated from this reign, or rather from that of Francis L, when the Huguenots, who were Calvinists, or Protestants, began to be persecuted. The spirit of persecution greatly increased during the reign of Henry. § The death of this monarch was owing to an accident which befel him at a tournament. Wishing to amuse the ladies with a tilt be tween himself and the count of Montgomery, who was esteemed the most dexterous justler of his time, he gaily entered the lists. In their rencounter both their lances were broken, and the count FRANCE. 193 thrown from his horse. In his fall, the broken trunk of the spear, still remaining in his hand, struck the king's right eye, and produced so violent a contusion as to terminate his life. 10. His son, Francis 11., was raised to the throne in 1559. He was the husband of Mary, queen of Scots, and died the next year, having reigned about seventeen months. The only important event in this reign, was tlie conspiracy of the Protestants against the king, and the Guises, wlio were five brothers, at the iiead of tlic Catholics. Two of these, the duke of Guise and the cardinal of Lorraine, were conspicu- ous in the government. This conspiracy was detected, and 1200 of those engaged in it, were put to death. § The Protestants were wearied with the persecutions they had so long endured, and came to a resolution to devote their lives to the defence of tlieir liberties. They were secretly abetted by the prince of Conde, brother to the king of Navarre. The prince, however, escaped punishment, having pleaded his cause before the king, in person. 11. Charles IX., a boy only ten 5^ears old, succeeded his brother, 1560, under the regency of Catharine de Medicis, who had been the wife of Henry, and was notorious for her profligacy and ambition. Tlie difficulties between the Catho- lics and Protestants had arisen to a great height. Some of the first men of tlie French court, were included among the latter, particularly the prince of Conde and Admiral Cohgny. Their influence was too great to be resisted ; and after the conference held at Poissy, lijjerty was granted to the Protes- tants to exercise their worship without the walls of the towns. The violation, soon after, of the edict granting this liberty, oc- casioned the sanguinary civil war, which lor a long time filled France Avith misery and jjiood. § Tlie Protestant religion had spread greatly at court, as well as in the capital and the provinces, even under Francis I. The perse- cution of the Protestants under Henry II., only increased their num- ber, and produced that exasperation of feeling, which ended in the conspiracy, already meutioned, under Francis IJ. The celebrated conference at Poissy, was attended by the young king, the queen mother, and the whole court. Theodore IJeza, an illus- trious reformer, defended the Protestants, while the cardinal of Lor- raine, undertook the cause of the Catholics. Both parties, as is usual on such occasions, claimed the victory. It was, however, difficult any longer to refuse certain concessions to the Protestants. Indeed, the queen mother found it politic to grant them liberty of worship, and to favour the prince of Conde, in order to counterbalance the power of the Guises. 17 194 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. The Protestants, in the war which ensued, were headed by Admi- ral Coligny, who was assisted by 10,000 Germans from the Palati- nate. The command of the Catholics was assumed by Guise and Montmorency, who were aided by Philip of Spain. The latter were always victorious, though the Protestants were too powerful to be despised ; and in the conditions of peace which they obtained, was included the toleration of their religion. Murders and assassina- tions aggravated the horrors of civil war. The duke of Guise fell by the hand of a religious enthusiast. And even the peace which was secured, was only a prelude to more awful scenes of atrocity and blood. It became now the policy of tlie government to caress the Protes- tants, in order to destroy them. They received extraordinary marks of favour; even the prudence of Coligny v/as lulled asleep ; and on the occasion of the marriage of the king of Navarre with the sister of Charles, these persecuted people were allured to court. By the order of the government, a dreadful massacre of the Protestants then took place, the horrid plan having been all previously arranged. On the night of the twenty-third of August, it being St. Bartholo- mew's, there perished in Paris and France, 60,000, some reckon. 100,000 Protestants. The duke of Guise (Henry, son of Francis) went in person to Coligny's gate, and caused that great man to be murdered. The streets and liouses in Paris floated in blood. The king barbarously fired upon his unhappy subjects, and afterwards beheld with pleasure Coligny's body insulted by the populace. To crown this horrid act, the king declared that every thing was done by his command ; the parliament ordered an annual procession to celebrate the deliverance of the kingdom ; a medal was struck with this legend, jiiety put the sword into the hands of justice ; and at Rome and in Spain, the massacre was made a subject of public rejoicings. Calvinism was not at all crushed by this infernal plot, infernally executed. It only became more formidable through despair, and now both of the Bourbons, — the king of Navarre as well as the prince of Conde, were enlisted in the Protestant cause. It was found ne- cessary again to grant them liberty of conscience. Charles died soon after the massacre of St. Bartholomew, at the age of twenty- four years. 12. The successor of Charles IX., was Henry III., duke of Anjou, who had just been elected king of Poland, 1574 He was a weak and worthless prince, joining to the utmost depravity of manners, the external observances of the lowest guperstition. He became the scorn of his subjects, and the dupe of the contending factions. It was in his reign, that the Catholics, incensed on account of the privileges conferred on the Huguenots, formed the famous league for the purpose of extirpatmg them, having the duke of Guise at its head. § This league was nominally for the defence of the state and its ENGLAND. 195 religion, but in reality, besides the extirpation of the Protestant faith, it had ill view the usurpation of all the powers of government. The king, with the weakest policy, united himself to this league, and thus became the avowed enemy of a large portion of his subjects. But in carrying on his military operations against the Protestants, he found himself thwarted at every step, by the duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine. To dispel the fears which he entertained from these men, he put them to death, by the hands of assassins. Af- ter a reign of fifteen years, the king himself was assassinated, 1589, by a fanatic monk. 13. On the death of Henry III., who died without children, tile sceptre of France passed to the house of Bourbon, repre- sented at this time by Henry III., of Navarre. As king of France, he is known by the name of Henry IV., afterwards surnamed the Great. As his reign extends into the next period, the following particulars only, will be mentioned at present. He had been educated in the reformed religion by his mother, who avowed herself its protector. At the age of sixteen, he had been de- clared head of the party of the Huguenots. When invited to Paris at the peace of 1572, to marry the sister of Charles IX., he narrowly escaped from the massacre of St. Bartho- lomew, but remained three years a prisoner. Although his first military enterprises were unsuccessful, yet, when on the death of Charles, he again took the field against the army of the league, he defeated it in the battle of Coutras, 1587, and still more signally in that of Argues, 1589. After the death of Henry III., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry, against the army of the League, then commanded by the duke of Mayenne, who had proclaimed the cardinal of Bourbon, king, under the title of Charles X. As a protestant, however, he was environed with difficulties ; a large portion of the people refused to submit to him ; and influenced by the earnest entreaties of the duke of Sully, as well as by views of policy, he re- nounced protestantism, and became a catholic, 1594. In 1598, the duke of Mayenne submitted to Henry, and the whole kuigdom acknowledged him as its sovereign. ENGLAND. Branch of York. House of Tudor. 14. Henry VI., had been on the throne of England since the year 1 422 ; but the wars which now commenced between 196 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. his house and that of York, rendered his situation most in- secure, and, at length, hurled him from his throne. Justice was on the side of Richard, duke of York, as he was a de- scendant from the second son of Edward III., while Henry was a descendant from Edward's third son. The whole nation took the side of one or the other, and each party was distin- guished by a particular symbol. That of the Lancastrians was the red rose, and that of the Yorkites the white rose. Hence, this contention was known by the name of the "quarrel of the two roses." Hostilities commenced in 1455. § The principal battles which were fought, previous to the acces- sion of Edward IV., were, that of St. Albans, in which Henry was defeated and taken prisoner, and Richard assumed the title of Pro- tector — that which was fought on Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, and which terminated in favour of Richard — that of Northampton, in which Henry was defeated and again taken prisoner, by the Earl oC, Warwick — and that of Wakefield, in whicU Henry's queen, Marga- ret of Anjou, gained a complete victory over Richard, who, together with his second son, was slain. Upon the death of the duke of York, the earl of Warwick, known by the name of King Maker, from the conspicuous part he bore in the contentions of the times, took command of the forces belonging to that party. 15. Upon the death of Richard, the young duke of York, his son and successor, entered London at the head of a nu- merous army, amidst the greetings of the citizens, and as- sumed the powers of government. He did not, however, fully consider himself as king, until he had obtained, (1461,) at Towton, a signal victory over the adherents of Henry, of whom 36,000 were killed. His title was that of Edward IV. After various turns of foitune, in which he was once deposed, and Henry re-instated on the throne, he finally triumphed over the Lancastrians, in the desperate battle of Tewkes- bury, in which Margaret, and her son, the Prince of Wales, were taken prisoners. The latter was assassinated, and king Henry, Avho had been confined in the tower, was found »lead a few days afterwards. Margaret, whose ambition had kindled the desolating war, was punished only with imprison- ment. She was afterwards ransomed by the king of France, ind died in that country. § It is said that the young prince, when brought before the king, and asked in an insulting tone, by the latter, how he dared to invade nis dominion, replied, with a spirit congenial to his high birih, that he came thither to claim his just inheritance. The ungenerous Ed- ENGLAND. 197 ward, indignant at his answer, and insensible to pity, struck him on the face with his gauntlet ; and the dukes of Clarence and Glouces- ter, with others, taking the blow as a signal for further violence, hurried the prince into the next apartment, and there dispatched him with their daggers. It is said also, and generally believed, that Richard, duke of Gloucester, killed king Henry with his own hands. When Edward was secured on the throne, his spirit sunk in indolence and pleasure. The energies of his reign seem to have terminated with the civil wars, unless we except his acts of detestable tyranny. He put to death, on the most frivolous pretence, his brother Clarence ; and preparing to gratify his subjects, by a war wnth France, he died sud- denly, in the forty-second year of his age, poisoned, as was suspected, by his brother Richard, duke of Gloucester. § The only favour which the king granted his brother, Clarence, after his condemnation, was, to leave him the choice of his death. The duke chose to be drowned in a butt of Malmsey — a whimsical choice, which implies that he had an extraordinary predilection for that liquor. 16. Edward V., a minor, succeeded his father, 1483, under the protection of his uncle, the duke of Gloucester. A few days afterwards, the duke of Gloucester caused himself to be proclaimed, under the title of Richard III. The young king and his brother having been removed to the tower by Rich- ard's order, under pretence of guarding them, disappeared about that time. The diabohcal Richard, had inhumanly deprived them of Ufe. § Richard possessed a fierce and savage nature, and in making his way to the throne, had recourse to the most perfidious and cruel acts. Endeavouring to gain the assistance of lord Hastings, and finding that nobleman inflexibly favourable to the children of Ed- ward, he accused him of treason, and ordered him to be decapita- ted, without even the appearance of legal forms. The murder of the two young princes, was as deep a tragedy as any recorded in English history. Richard gave orders to Sir Ro- bert Brakenbury, constable of the tower, to put his nephews to death ; but this gentleman, who had sentiments of honour, refused to stain his hands with the infamous deed. The tyrant then en- gaged Sir James Tyrrel, who, choosing three associates, like him- self, came in the night time to the door of the chamber, where the princes were lodged, and sending in the assassins, he bade them ex- ecute their commission, while he himself staid without. They found the unoffending young princes in bed, and fallen into a sweet and profound sleep. After suffocating them with the bolster and pillows, they showed their naked bodies to Tyrrel, who ordered 17* 198 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. them to be biiried at the foot of the stairs, deep in the ground, under a heap of stones. These circumstances were all confessed by the bloody actors, in the following reign. In the reign of Charles 11^ the bones of two persons were found in the place indicated, which exactly corresponded, by their sizes, to Edward V., and his brother ; and being judged the undoubted remains of these unhappy prmces, were deposited in Westminster Abbey. 17. The earl of Riclimond, the only survivmg heir of the liouse of Lancaster, became tlie instrument, under divine Providence, of avenging the awful crimes of Richard. As- sisted by the French ku]"-, lie lauded in England, and revived the spirits of a party almost extinguished in the kingdom. He gave battle to Richard, 1485, in the field of Bos worth, and entirely defeated the army of the usurper, who was slain while fighting with the most desperate courage. This battle terminated the terrible contest between the houses of York and Lancaster — a contest which lasted thirt}^ years, and in which twelve sanguinary pitclied battles were fought, and 100,000 brave men, including eiglity princes of the blood, perished on the field, or by the hand of the executioner. § The person of Ricliard was as deformed as his character was de- testable. He was small of stature, hump-backed, ugly in Ids fea- tures, and had his left arm withered. This in(irmity, wliich luul attended him from his birth, he pretended, on a certain occasion when he wished to confound lord Hastings, was the effect of .Jane Shore's incantations, knowing that this nobleman had engaged in an intrigue with that lady. 18. The crown which Richard wore in the engagement that proved fatal to liis hfe, was innnediately placed on the head of the concpieror. The earl of Richmond assumed the title of Henry YIL, Aug. 22, 1485. By marrying a daugh- ter of Edward TV., he united the rights of the two houses of York and Lancaster. He was a descendant from Edmund Tudor, and first king of the house of Tudor. Henry was a prudent and politic prince, but unhappily prejudiced against the adherents of the house of York. A degree of discontent was thus engendered, which tended to jeopardise his government. The general tranqiiilhty of his reign w^as, on this account, occasionally disturbed by plots and conspiracies — two of which ^\'ere rather singular, con- sisting in attempts to counterfeit the persons of the heirs of York, and to enforce their claims to tlie crown. § The name of one of these impostors was Lambert Simnel, the ENGLAND. 199 son of a baker, who counterfeited the person of the earl of War- wick, son of the late duke of Clarence. The name of the other was Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, who personated the duke of York, who had been smothered in the tower. They were supported by men of distinction in the nation, and gave Henry great trouble, but were finally subdued and taken. Simnel was spared and made a scullion in the king's kitchen. Warbeck expia- ted his crime on the scaftbld. The aversion of Henry to the house of York, shewed itself even in his treatment of his wife. Though in the highest degree virtu- ous, amiable, and obsequious, she never met with a proper return of aifection, or even of complaisance, from her husband ; and the malignant ideas of faction, in his sullen mind, prevailed over all the sentiments of conjugal endearment. Henry was by nature a despot ; and indeed the principles of despotism were congenial to all the sovereigns of the Tudor race. Yet his sagacity led him generally to pacific coun.sels. Though he was by no means a popular prince, he Avas useful to the nation, having enacted many wise laws, promoted industry, encouraged commerce, patronized the arts of civilized life, and curbed and softened the spirit of a proud and rude aristocracy. His policy gave a death blow to the Feudal system. The greatest stain in this prince's character was his avarice, which, in the latter part of his reign, prompt- ed to the most oppressive exactions. § He is said to have left at his death, in ready money, a sum equal to £ 10,000,000 at present. 19. Henry YHI. succeeded his father in the eighteenth year of his age, 1509. He came to the throne with flatter- ing prospects, considered whether in respect to the improved and trant|uil state of the kingdom, the affection and high expectation of his people, or his own supposed good qualities. § Tlie succession was well established, the contending titles of York and Lancaster were fnlly united in him, the treasury was well filled, and peace and prosperity were universally enjoyed. The young prince's person was beautiful, his manners elegant, his dis- position frank, his mind highly cultivated for the times, and his native talents commanding. The nation, however, was greatly disappointed in its young prince. He soon shewed himself an unprincipled tyrant ; and ' both friends and foes felt, at times, the effects of his caprice and cruelty. His ministers w^ere talented men, but he took pleasure in abusing them. Only archbishop Cran- mer continued to be an object of favour to the last. Cardinal 200 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. Wolsey, in whom he placed unbounded confidence for a time, was finally discarded. Wolsey, more than any one else, by ministering to the pleasures and ambition of the king, shaped his destiny and the fortunes of the people. § This celebrated man was the son of a butcher at Ipswich ; but having received a learned education, and being endowed with an ex- cellent capacity, he was taken into the service of the king, and by degrees rose into distinction, till he became the prime minister of his sovereign. Clergyman as he was, he countenanced the king in all his light sports, gaiety, and sensual indulgences, a quality in the companion, which contributed to the influence and elevation of the courtier. 20. In the early part of his reign, the counsels of Wolsey agreeing with the natural temper of Henry, prompted him to make war against Louis XII. of France. He invaded the country, and met with success so far as he went, having gained the Battle of the Spurs ; (because the French on the occasion made more use of their spurs than their svrords ;) but he failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking Tournay, returned to England. About tlie same time the Scots, who had made an incur- sion into England, were defeated by Henry's general, the earl of Surrey, at Flodden Field, where James IV., and a great part of his nobility, were slain. Henry, hovrever, did not follow up his advantage, but generously granted a peace to Scotland. Henry also took a part in the long and obstinate wars which were waged between Francis I. and Charles V.^ ag before detailed. His foreign alliances cost him the expendi- ture of immense treasures to no purpose, as he was, by turns, the dupe of both parties. The niost important events in Henry's reign, are connected with his matrimonial alliances. Out of these, as a conse- quence, arose the ever-memorable Reformation in England. Henry was opposed by the pope in an affair so interesting to his passions, and therefore the pope was opposed hy him^ and at length lost his influence in the kingdom. In this great religious change, it is evident Henry had no good in- tentions, but sought tlie gratification of his own unhallowed appetites. He had previously declared himself the champion of the Romish church, and even w^ritten a book agaiiis*. ENGLAND. 201 Luther. >Hence was conferred on him, by the pope, the title of " Defender of the Faith." § Henry was married to Catharine of Arragon, his brother's widow, but having fahen in love with the beantiful Anne Boleyn, he apphed to the pope for a divorce. This, hoAvever, was denied liim. But Henry was not to be frustrated in his intentions. The opinion of the universities was favourable to him, and Anne was soon crown- ed queen. The pope now was forced to pay the price of his conscientious- ness or obstinacy. His authority, from tliat time, was abolished in England ; the annual tribute was no longer paid to him ; the dissolu- tion of the monasteries was ordered ; and the clergy, as well as all others, were obliged to acknowledge the king as head of t!ie clun'ch ; and the want of obedience, was punishable with banishment or death. On this account, Sir Thomas More, and the bishop of Ro- chester, among others, perished by the hand of the executioner. Cardinal A^^olsey also, was conceived to be in the way of the king's wishes on the subject of his marriage, and after being deprived of his immense power and possessions, was arrested for high treason. He, however, died of a broken heart soon afterwards, uttering in the anguish of his soul, the never to be forgotten words, " Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have forsaken me in my gray hairs." Anne Boleyn, in less than three years, was condemned and be- headed. After her, he married four wives in succession ; the first dying in child-birth ; the next ha^'iug been divorced, because he found her not so beautiful as had been represented ; and the third having been executed for adultery. The fourth survived him. The tyrant died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, bequeathing his ci'own, first to Edward, then to Mary, and lastly to Elizabeth. 20. Edward VI., Henry's son, by Jane Seymour, ascended the throne in 1547, in his tenth year. At first, the earl of Hertford was regent ; afterwards, the duke of Somerset, who was decidedly friendly to the reformation. Edward was a prince of great promise and many virtues; but, to the deep regret of the English nation, he died in the sixteenth year of his age. During his reign, the reformation made great progress, through the zeal of Cranmer ; yet a large body of the people adhered to popery. The triumphs of the new religion were not, however, effected without public disturbances, and some sanguinary executions took place on account of religion. A project Avas undertaken of uniting Ens^land and Scot- land, by a marriage between Edward and IMary Stuart, the young queen of the Scots. It, however, failed, and a battle 202 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. ensued, near Musselburgh, in which 10,000 of the Scots were slain. § So different in disposition was Edward from his father, that it is said he always wept, when he signed an order for an execution against any of his subjects. Edward's benevolent turn of mind is evidenced by his charitable endowments, as Bridewell, St. Thomas's Hospital, and several schools, which still exist and flourish. 21. Mary, Edward's sister, next ascended the throne, in 1553. History has assigned to her the unenviable title of " bloody," from the persecutions and martyrdoms suffered by the protestants, in her reign. Her disposition was morose, tyrannical, and cruel, in tiie highest degree. Bent upon the restoration of the catholic religion, she hesitated at no mea- sures, however unjust, which were calculated to effect the object. § To force and violence, she naturally resorted. Some of the most eminent reformers, as Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, Ferrer, and Rogers, she consigned to the flames. In consequence, however, of these cruelties, a powerful prejudice was excited against the catholics. Their cause sunk, and that of the protestants rose ; and the reformation was, in reality, extended, by the means employed for its extinction. The beginning of Mary's reign, was stained with the blood of the celebrated Lady Jane Grey, grand daughter to a sister of Henry VIII. She more happily suppressed, soon after, an insurrection under Wyat. Her husband was Philip IL, of Spain; but, by the articles of marriage, she, or rather her parliament, has the merit of making provision for the independence and glory of the Eng- hsh crown. It was agreed that the administration should be solely in the queen, and, on certain conditions, her issue should inherit the dominions of Philip. The loss of Calais, which the English possessed 210 years, together with the knowledge that she w^as hated, both by her husband and her subjects, caused her to die of grief and vexation of heart, in the forty-third year of her age. § Jane Grey, whose fate was so tragical, was designed by Ed- ward to be his successor. Her title, however, was quite defective ; and the law, assigning the crown to her, which Edward caused to be passed, was unconstitutional. Lord Guilford Dudley, son of the duke of Northumberland, had lately married her; and both the fa- ther and son strongly solicited her to accept of the perilous bequest of Edward. She reluctantly consented, and, by their intrigues, was proclaimed queen. Her youth and innocence might have excused ENGLAND. 203 her ; but she was soon arrested, and, together with her husband, was condemned and executed. On the day of her execution, her husband desired permission to see her ; but she refused her consent, informing him by message, that the tenderness of tiieir parting would overcome the fortitude of both, and too much unbend their minds from a greater concern. She adverted also to other topics of a consolatory kind. Her hus- band was first brought to the block, before her eyes ; but. undaun- ted at such a sight, she addressed the spectators, in a most affecting speech, and, vv^ith a serene countenance, immediately submitted her own neck to the fatal axe. Lady Jane Grey was an accomplished scholar, a devout christian, and the fairest ornament of her sex. Aschem tells us, that she wrote in Latin, with great strength of sentiment ; and we are informed by her contemporary. Sir Thomas Chaloner, that she was well versed in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian. Fuller adds, that she had "the innocency of childhood, the beauty of youth, the so- lidity of middle, the gravity of old age, and all at eighteen ; the birth of a princess, the learning of a clerk, the life of a saint, yet the death of a malefactor, for her parent's offences." 22. Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, on the death of her sister Mary, 1558. This was a joyful event to the Eng- lish people. The prudence which, as a subject, she had dis- played during the sanguinary reign of her sister, gave pro- mise of excellence in the sovereign. § It required all the sagacity and caution of Elizabeth, to elude the effects of the violent jealousy which the queen, her sister, enter- tained against her. When questioned respecting the real presence, the net for catching protestants, she replied : " Christ was the word that spake it, He took the bread and brake it, And what the word did make it, That I believe and take it." That which was thus promised, was, in a great measure, fulfilled. By her wise counsels, the protestant religion was fostered; the church of England received its present form; and agriculture, commerce, arts, and Uterature, attained to an elevation unknown in England before. Her intrepid mind, and the measures of the government, so sagaciously and firmly pursued, rendered her the most respected and power- ful sovereign in Europe. She colonized a large portion of North America, supported the infant republic of Holland against its tyrannical enemy, humbled the pride of Spain, in the defeat of its boasted armada, and assisted Henry IV. in the recovery of his Idngdom. She sought the true interests 204 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. and o-loiy of her subjects, so far as concerned their temporal prosperity, or their external religious observances. Yet it must be acknowledged, that she compassed her objects, often, by very questionable means. She was stern, unyield- ing, luirelenting, despotic, in her maxims of government, and was guilty, at times, of the basest acts of cruelty and liypocrisy. Her treatment of her cousin, Mary, queen of Scots, whom she caused to he beheaded, on the Ijare suspi- cion of a conspiracy, has loaded her memory with a degree of reproach, wliich the splendour of her reign, in other re- spects, can never obliterate. And her conduct towards her favourites, particularly tlte earl of Essex, is marked with sin- gular caprice, if not injustice. § Tl te invincible Armada, so called, was a fleet which Spain fitted out for the invasion of England, on account of the interference of the latter power in the affairs of the Nctherhnids. It consisted of 150 ships of war, carrying 27,000 men, and 3000 cannon— the largest naval armament whicli Europe had ever seen. The Enghsh fleet of 108 ships, commanded by Howard, Drake, and others, met tlie ar- mada as it entered tiie Enghsh channel, attacked it in the night, and burnt and destroyed a great part of tlie squadron. A storm which drove the remainder of the Spanish ships on the coast of Zealand, completed their discomfiture, and only fifty shattered vessels, witli 6000 men, retm-ned to Spain. The story of the beautiful and unfortunate Mary, will be briefly told in what follows. She was a daugliter of James V., kijig of Scot- land, and great-grand-daughter of Henry VII. of England, and next heir to the English crown. She succeeded her father, eight days af- ter her birth. Slie was educated in France, as a catholic, and, in early life, married the Dauphin, afterwards Francis II. Influenced by her maternal uncles, the Guises, she consented to take the title ot queen of England — an injudicious measure, equally calculated to wound her own peace, and excite Elizabeth's resentment. After her return to Scotland, on tlie death of Francis, she gave • her hand to her cousin Henry Stuart, (lord Darnley.) But the king, her husband, being excluded from any share in the government, by the advice (as he suspected) of Rizzio, an Italian musician, her secretary and favourite, he, by the assistance of some of the princi- pal nobility, suddenly surprised them when at supper together, and eflfected the death of Rizzio, in tlie queen's presence. The next year, the king was blown up with gunpowder, in a pri- vate house, to which he had retired with a few friends. The earl of Boihwell, the new favourite of Mary, is, not without reason, sup- posed to have been the contriver of this murder. He was, however, acquitted by the nobles of his and Mary's party ; and, in about two months after, the imprudent princess condescended to marry liim. This shameful conduct, occasioned the revolt of the chief nobility; ENGLAND. 205 and her best subjects, by whom she was taken prisoner, compelled ner to resign the crown, and her son, James VI., was called to the sovereignty. The queen, soon after, escaped from prison, and raised an army to oppose the regent, Murray, who was determined on her destruction, and whom she had frequently condemned, and as fre- quently pardoned. She was, however, defeated, and fled to Eng- land, in 1568, where she expected, from the repeated declarations of Elizabeth, protection and security. Elizabeth, secretly delighted to find a hated rival in her power proved unfaithful to her professions, and detained the unhappy fugitive a prisoner, for eighteen years. She first, however, under pretence of doing justice to Mary, had the cause of the latter en quired into, at a conference at York. But though nothing was proved against her, Elizabeth saw fit to detain her in close con- finement. The Scottish queen, during her tedious and merciless confinement, naturally desired, and her friends for her, a release. For a plot to eflfect this object, devised by her friends, and detected, she was held responsible ; and though an independent sovereign, was tried by a foreign power. Presumed, only, to be guilty, she was condemned, and soon after barbarously beheaded, in Fotheringay castle, in the forty-fifth year of her age, and in the nineteenth of her captivity. Historians tell us, that when Mary was informed of the order for her execution, she was surprised, but betrayed no symptoms of fear. The night before her execution, she called in all her servants, and bade them a solemn farewell. Next morning she dressed herself in a rich habit of silk and velvet, and declared her resolution to die in the faith in which she had been educated. It was on the 8th of Feb. 1587, when she was brought to the block, and in tliat awful conjuncture, displayed a fortitude and decency, which would have honoured a matron of Rome ; and to the moment of her death, united the majesty of a queen with the meekness of a martyr. The bishop of Lincoln, in a prayer on the occasion of her burial, used the following words— "It is a charitable saying of father Luther, ' Many one liveth a Papi&t and dielh a Protestant:' only this I have been informed, that she took her death patiently, and recom- mended herself wholly to Jesus Christ.-' Mary, besides her eminent beauty, which was celebrated through- out Europe, possessed the highest mental accomplishments. She read and understood several languages, wrote poetry, and cultivated a knowledge of music. Her misfortunes were great; and though many of them were brought upon her by her indiscretions, if not crimes, the severity of her lot has called forth general commisera- tion. In the early part of Elizabeth's reign, the earl of Leicester was her prmcipal favourite ; but after his death, she became attached to the earl of Essex, as her minister; and indeed there was, on the part of the queen, though quite advanced in life, much of the appearance of a more tender passion. She seems, however, unalterably to have kept her resolution " to live and die a maiden queen." She ^at 18 206 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. pleased with courtship, but kept aloof from matrimony. Essex was a young nobleman of singular accomplishments, talents, and spirit. The queen and Essex had many quarrels and reconciliations. In one instance, in consequence of some affront which he offered hen, she angrily gave him a box on the ear ; upon which Essex clapped his hand on his sword, swearing he would not bear such usage, were it from Henry VIII. ; and immediately withdrew from court. His indiscretion, however, was soon pardoned. He was at length teased by her capricious humour into a crime, which she could not pardon. He had severely reflected on her person, (for though nearly in her seventieth year, she wished to be thought a beauty.) and connected this with some suspicious movements of a treasonable nature. He was soon arraigned, convicted, and brought to the block. From this period her mind began to be depressed. Tlie cau^ doubtless was, the revival of her tenderness for Essex. While under sentence of death, he sent by the countess of Nottingham, to Eliza- beth, a ring which she had given him as a pledge of her affection, and of the confidence he might feel, in whatever disgrace he miglit be, that the sight of it would secure her favourable interposition. The countess, at the instigation of her husband, the mortal enemy of Essex, neglected to deliver it ; and Wjien on her beath-bed, sent for the queen, to inform her of the fact. Elizabeth, bursting into a frantic passion, shook the dyiu'^; countess in her bed, and exclaimed, " God may pardon you, but I never can." From that moment the queen fell into the profoundest melancholy ; refused both food and medicine, and throwing herself on the floor, remained in that state several days and nights, till life became extinct. Essex, it appears, was much thought of in his day. We find in an ancient account of him, the following quaint and hyperbolic epitaph : " Here sleeps great Essex, dearling of manldnde, Faire honour's lampe, foule envie's prey, Arte'sfame Nature's pride, Virtue's buhvarke, lure of minde, Wisdome's flower. Valour's tower, Fortune's shame, England's sunne, Belgia's light, France's star, Spaine's thunder, Lysbone's lightning, Ireland's clowde, the whole world's wonder." 23. Little needs be added respecting the character of EUzabeth. In her private Hfe, she was less commendable than in her public conduct. She possessed few qualities of tlie heart wdiich we love to see in all, especially in woman. The rivalship of beauty, the desire of admiration, the jea- lousy of love, the meanness of insincerity, and the saUies of anger, sullied her character, and showed that she was still a woman, but without the amiability of her sex. The attrir butes of her intellect, however, merit the highest encomium, and her pubUc conduct was that of a queen. We give her GERMANY. 207 full credit for vigour, firmness, penetration, and address — ^for heroism without rashness, for frugality without avarice, for activity without the turbulence of ambition. Her proficiency in learning was great, and she possessed extraordinary talents for government. The security and defence of the English people, were never placed in abler hands. GERMANY. 24. At the commencement of the present period, Germany was under the sway of Frederick IV. He erected Austria into an Archduchy, and rendered liis family the most power- ful in Germany, by marrying his son Maximilian, to Mary, heiress of Burgundy and the Netherlands. He reigned fifty-three years. 25. Maximilian I., his son, succeeded him, 1493. He possessed most of the qualities that signalize a great prince. He freed Germany from the disorders of the feudal system, and estabhshed peace among its separate sovereignties. § He was wanting in decision of mind, which seemed lo be his only failing as a prince ; in consequence of which, some of his im- portant projects miscarried. His memory was so tenacious, that he never forgot the names of persons he had once seen, or heard men- tioned. 26. His grandson, Charles V., succeeded him in the empire, 1519, having carried the election in preference to Francis I., of France. Some particulars respecting this distinguished prince, were given in the history of that country. A few others will be added. § Charles was the eldest son of Philip, son of Maximilian, and of Jane, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. He succeeded to thfi throne of Spain, in 1516. The first act of his administration, was to appoint an im- perial diet, with a view to check the progress of Luther's opinions, which were represented as inimical to the peace of Germany. About this time, also, Germany was divided into ten circles. In 1521, commenced the celebrated w^ar between Charles and Francis, in which Charles obtained manifest ad- vantage. In 1527, he took Rome, which was plundered by the Germans during nine months. A few years afterwards, Charles captured Tunis, and liberated twenty-two thousand Christian slaves. 208 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. But the most extraordinary event pertaining to this sove- reign, was the voluntary rehnquishment of his kingly and imperial authority. He resigned, first the Netherlands and the kingdom of Spain, to his son Philip, in 1556, and after- wards the empire, in favour of his brother Ferdinand. The remainder of his life he spent in a monastery. An occur- rence of this kind, is rare in the history of princes, who are generally more fond of authority, the longer they have en- joyed it. § Charles was the most powerful sovereign of Europe, his sway extending over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and a part of Italy. He was generally successful in war, though (if such was his aim) universal empire was beyond his reach. He never could bring his dominions into a well connected body. His enemies were nume- rous and powerful, and gave him perpetual annoyance. His cares and difficulties increased as he advanced in life, and finding his health also decline, he determined torehnquish the burdens of government. Accordingly, he recalled his son Philip, on whom, at his recent marriage with Mary, queen of England, he had bestowed the king- doms of Naples and Sicily, and also the duchy of Milan. Having assembled the states of the Low-Countries, at Brussels, he explained the reasons of his resignation, recapitulated the most important ac- tions of his life, and transferred the sovereign authority to Philip, with such unaffected magnanimity and paternal affection, that the whole audience melted into tears. A few weeks after this solemni- ty, Charles conferred all his royalties and signiories, both in Europe and America, upon his son ; reserving nothing to himself, but a pen- sion of 100,000 crowns, to be deducted from the revenue of Spain. After making some ineffectual attempts to secure the German princes in the interests of Philip, Charles made a formal resignation of the empire to his brother Ferdinand, and immediately set out for Spain, with a chosen retinue. Previously to his arrival in that coun- try, a small building had been annexed to the monastery of St. Just, consisting of six rooms, four of them in the form of friar's cells, with naked walls, and the other two hung with brown cloth, and furnish- ed in the most simple manner. Thither Charles retired, with only twelve domestics ; and there, after a peaceful solitude of about two years, he resigned his breath, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. 27. The successors of Charles in the empire, during the remainder of this period, were, after Ferdinand I., his son Maximilian II., and Rhodolph II. These princes generally made use of pacifiic expedients, in the disputes carried on be- tween the Protestants and the Catholics. § Ferdinand and Maximilian, are said to have been most excellent princes. From the latter, no one ever heard a harsh expression. So economical were his arrangements, that to every act of his life its appropriate hour was allotted. The empire flourished in a pecu- GERMANY. 209 liar manner under his administration. Rhodolph, though at war with the Turks, almost the whole of his reign, was more occupied with tournaments, and the study of mechanics, chemistry, and as- tronomy, than with the affairs of state. He frequently spent whole days at the shops of clockmakers, turners, &c., so eager was his de- sire for that species of knowledge. 28. The reformation in religion, by which the present pe- riod is so peculiarly distinguished, is the most important event in the history of Germany. It commenced in that country, whence it spread rapidly through several other European na- tions. It was connected with a new era in the religious his- tory of the world. By it, Papacy received a wound, from which it can never recover. The date of this event, is 1517. Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, was the first instrument employed by an overruhng Providence, in accomplishing this great moral revolution. His attention was excited to the corruption and abuses of the Catholic religion, by the sale ot indulgencies, at that time instituted throughout all the Chris- tian kingdoms of Europe. Leo X., in order to raise money for the completion of his magnificent buildings at Rome, had published general indulgences ; that is, remittances from the pains of purgatory : and the elector of Mentz, authorised the Dominicans to receive the money, and preach up the merits of such a contribution. But the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all sins, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, gave great offence to many rehgious persons, and induced Luther, who was then a professor of divinity at Wittemberg, to expose the absurdity of such odious traffic. His indignation was aroused ; and indeed, the enormity of these doings, opened his eyes to tlie iniquity of the whole system. His anathemas found many willing hearers, particularly in the electorate of Saxony, though Tetzel, the papal agent, vigorously combatted him. Luther, however, by degrees ac- quired great popularity, and his influence brought other di- vines into the controversy. Persecution was now resorted to by the pope and his emissaries, but this only increased his zeal and indignation as a preacher. Luther was soon cited by the pope, to appear at Rome, within sixty days. Prince Frederick, elector of Saxony, however, requested that the re- former might plead his cause in Germany ; and Luther re- paired, under the protection of a safe conduct, to the imperial 18* 210 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. diet, convoked by Charles at Augsburg, before cardinal Caje- tan ; but instead of making any recantation, he boldly avow- ed his resolution of defending his doctrines, though all the terrors of the church should be denounced against him. As the pope's legate, however, proceeded to menaces, Luther re- tired privately from Augsburg, having first complained, by letter, to the pope, of the harsh treatment he had received from Cajetan. Having arrived safely into Saxony, he found the mass there universally abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents shut up. The spirit which had been thus kindled, spread next into Switzerland, where it produced the most important changes. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, soon embraced the Lutheran tenets ; and the protestants, as they were all called who embraced the reformed rehgion, multiplied in the Netherlands, France, and England, as well as in Germany. The quarrel which Henry VIII., who was no protestant him self, had with the pope, was the means of advancing the re- formation in England, and of subverting the ancient faith. The cruel persecutions of which the papists were guilty, greatly aided the good cause, in the end. SPAIN. 29. Spain had, for several ages, been held by the Moors, or Mahometans. This people, hov/ever, had lost one province after another, till towards the close of the fifteenth century, only Granada remained subject to their authority. Upon the acces- sion of Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1479, the crowns of Cas- tile and Arragon were happily united, and thus all the Chris- tian principaUties in Spain, found themselves under ons sceptre ; and, with the conquest of Granada, which the king and queen effected in 1492, Spain became one entire monar- chy. Ferdinand and Isabella were, in effect, two sovereign princes, though professedly united in marriage. The Moors suffered terribly in the siege of Granada, an4 with the loss of their dominions, were, for the most part, obliged to retire into Africa. § To Ferdinand and Isabella, the establishment of the terrible In- quisition, in Spain, is owing. Two thousand persons are said to have suffered death under Torquemada, the first inquisitor general. This iastance of intemperate and ferocious zeal, in the king and queen. SPAIN. 211 may well be set off against the several good qualities, which it is al- lowed, they possessed. Their reign was signalized by the discove- ries made by the great Columbus. 30. Jane, who became deranged, succeeded her mother Isabella, in Castile, with her husband, Philip of Austria. On the death of her father, Jane being unfit to reign, her son Charles I., afterwards Charles Y., w^as acknowledged sovereign of all Spain, 1516. His history has already been related. § During Charles's reign, Mexico was conquered by Fernando Cortez, in 1519, and Peru by Pizarro in 1525. The Spanish do- minions were thus greatly extended. 31. Philip XL, succeeded his father upon the abdication of tlie latter, in 1556. In his time, the balance of power in Europe, was sustained by Spain, France, England and Ger- many, all, at this time, highly flourishing and respectable, either from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. Philip was an acute and able politician, though his policy partook somewhat of selfish cunning. He was sovereign of Spain, the two Sicilies, Milan, and the Netherlands. He had likewise, for a few years, the resources of England at command, by his marriage with Mary, the English queen. His power Avas great, but his ambition was greater ; and though he met with occasional success, at the close of along and busy reign, he had accomplished but few of his nume- rous projects. § Pope Paul IV., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alfi- ance with the king of France, to deprive the Spaniards of Milan and the Sicilies. Philip, with the aid of the English, defeated the French at St. Quintin, and hoped, from tliis signal victory, to force the allies into a peace. Another signal victory, however, was necessary, which Philip gained near Gravelines, the result of which was, that the French surrendered to Spain, no less than eighty-nine fortified towns, in the low countries, and in Italy. Phihp was an intolerant bigot in religion, and it was owing to his cruel attempts to enforce a uniformity of religious opinion in the Netherlands, tliat the latter broke away from his authority, as will be detailed below. HOLLAND. 32. Holland became a repubUc by the union of Utrecht, in 1579. The states combined to defend their common Uberties, on account of the tyranny of their sovereign, Philip II. Seven of the seventeen provinces, constituting the Neth- 212 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. erlands, came into the measure. The remaining ten pro- vinces had their charter renewed by Phihp, and did not be- come independent until in the beginning of the eighteenth century. § Holland, is another appellation for the Seven United Provinces^ so called, from its chief province being of that name. The remain- ing ten are known by the name of Flanders. The duchy of Bur- gundy, composed of some of these provinces, was originally equal to any power in Europe. The whole of the Netherlands, except three states, were annexed to the German empire, by marriage, 1477. They were afterwards resigned to the king of Spain. In the early periods of their history, the Hollanders became sub- ject to the Franks, under whom, they were divided into small gov^ ernments, the heads of which were despotic, in their own dominions. Holland and the Netherlands, were united to Germany, under one of the grandsons of Charlemagne, but became independent in tliB tenth century. At length, in 1443, they were subject to the dukes of Burgundy. The next transfer of these states, was to Germany, Charles V. being heir to the house of Burgundy. They endured the rule of Charles, but the tyranny of his son Philip II., was not to be borne. The Reformation had made a con- siderable progress in the Netherlands. Philip, with a view to repress it, established the Inquisition, projected certain innovations, which created alarm and tumult, and sent an army under the duke of Alva, to enforce implicit submission. The consequence of these measures was, that many thousands of persons, and some of the highest dis- tinction, perished by the hands of the executioner. It is computed that 18,000 were the victims of the five years' administration ol Alva. William, the prince of Orange, on whom the government of seve- ral of the provinces had been conferred, and who was now, himself^ under the sentence of the Inquisition, raised an army on this occa^ sion, and undertook the deliverance of the states. Having reduced some of the most important garrisons, he was proclaimed Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand, in 1570. The whole seventeen provinces had equally suffered from the tyranny of Philip ; but only seven of them could agree to form a confederated republic. The influence of jealousy and competition, prevented the union of the whole. By the treaty which was formed, it was agreed that they should defend their liberties, as one united republic ; that they should jointly decide in the concerns of peace and war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain re^ ligious freedom. William was elected Stadtholder of the whole seven, a title which included the duties of a general, admiral, and magistrate. The effusion of blood, which had been great prior to this union, was not hereby much diminished. The crown of Spain, strained every nerve to recover those provinces. Philip, venting his indig- nation, by a proscription of the prince of Orange, and offering 25,000 AMERICA. ' 213 crowns for his head, compassed his reveng-e ; for this ilkistrious man was cut off by an assassin, 1584. By persevering courage, however, and assisted by queen Elizabeth of England, and Henry IV. of France, the Hollanders, at length, completely established their inde- pendence, and brought the Spanish monarch to acknowledge them as a free people. Maurice, the son of William, was elected Stadtholder, in the room of his father, and displayed the most consummate talents, as a states- man and warrior, having conducted the struggle to the issue alreadj related. AMERICA. 33. The immense portion of the earth called America, was UDknown to Europe, Asia, and Africa, till the year 1492, when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, in a voyage which he made from Spain, saihng- west, for the purpose of Tending a new continent, or at least , of arriving at India, in tins direction. He first met, not with the continent, but the islands in its vicinity. § The discovery of the new world, was one of the greatest and hap- piest results of genius, that mankind have ever witnessed. The im- portance of the discovery cannot be easily overrated. An event so unlooked for, so unthought of, expanded the views, and waked up tlie energy of the human mind. It excited a spirit of enterprise, un- felt before. Its influence on commerce, and consequently wealth, was, from the beginning, great and decisive, by immensely increas- ing the articles of traffic. The mines of America furnished, also, a great abundance of the precious metals ; thus multiplying the amount of the circulating medium throughout the world. Colonization, and the arts of civilized life, have been advanced and extended, by means of this discovery ; the sphere of human enjoyment enlarged, and especially the blessings of the true religion, communicated to greater numbers of mankind. America has also given to the w^orld a new find bright example, both of civil and religious freedom ; the effects of which, are destined to be felt through all time, and, perhaps, among all nations. Some evils have, indeed, been incident to the discovery, but they are exceedingly outweighed by its propitious results, and will continue to be so, judging from the known principles of human nature, and from the dealings of divine providence. It has been believed by some, that America was not unknovni to the ancients. The theory has gained advocates, from a few pas- sages in the works of some of the writers of antiquity, and also from coincidences in the languages and customs of some of the nations of the old and new continent. But the theory has little ground for its support. Certainly, at the revival of letters in Europe, no traces of the knowledge of another continent existed ; and it was generally suppo- sed, that the Canaries formed the western boundaries of the world. To Columbus, an account of whom will appear in a biographical 214 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. sketch, about to follow, mankind are indebted for the correction of this error, and the discovery of a new continent. From a long and close application to the study of geography, this great man had ob- tained a knowledge of the true figure of the earth, far beyond whal was common to the age in which he lived. Another continent, he conceived necessarily existed, to complete the balance of this terra- queous globe; but he erroneously supposed it to be connected with that of India. The truth of his speculations, he now ardently de- sired to prove, by experiment. In this, however, he met with great difficulty, and it was not until the expiration of several years, that his project was patronized by any prince or court in Europe. Queen Isabella, of Spain, has immortalized her name, by rendering the first effectual assistance to Columbus. One great motive which influenced Columbus and his patroness, aside from the hope of ascertaining the existence of anew continent, was to find a passage to China and the East Indies, by sea : or rather, the latter, may have been the sole motive, connecting the supposed new regions with the east of Asia. It had been long an object of study, to find such a passage, and thus avoid the inconvenience and expense of transporting the merchandise of India, across the land, from the Red Sea, to Alexandria, in Egypt. The passage round the Cape of Good Hope, was not then known, and the shortest route was supposed, by Columbus, to be by the west. It is to be remem- bered, that the maps of that period, represented the oriental countries of Asia, as stretching vastly farther to the east, than has since been proved to be the fact. Columbus was fitted, in every point of view, for his mighty and perilous undertaking. Never was success more complete, or a great idea more happily realized. With inconsiderable means, and an ill-appointed flotilla of three small vessels, victualled for twelve months, and having on board ninety men, he commenced his unpromising adventure. Leav- ing Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, he sailed directly for the Canaries, whence, having refitted his crazy ships, he kept a due western course, over an unknown ocean, not without a compass, but without a chart. His compass, however, occasioned perplexity. The variation of the magnetic needle from due north, was first ob- served, when he had sailed about 200 leagues from the Canaries, and so terrified his men, that they were scarcely restrained from mutiny. All his address and talents were now put in requisition. The phenomenon of the needle seemed portentous to himself, but his ingenuity devised a solution of it, which silenced the complaints of his crew. After this, he pursued his voyage, yet not without the frequent manifestation of anxiety and impatience, on the part of his crew. Thirty days had transpired since they had left the Canaries, and no land appearing, both officers and men joined in a revolt. Columbus ■was forced partially to give way to their remonstrances, and pro- posed to return, after the expiration of three days, if they should find no land. Some indications of it had already begun to appear, AMERICA. 215 and, on the 11th of October, the joyful sight was descried, first by Columbus himself. God was immediately praised, and the sailors were now as ardent in their expressions of repentance and admirar tion, as they had been, before, insolent and ungovernable. 34. St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, was the island first discovered. Columbus afterwards touched at Cuba, and Hispaniola, (St. Domingo,) now Hayti. On the latter he left Bome of his men, to form a colony. His theory led him to call the regions he had discovered, by the name of West In- dies ; since he had reached India, or a portion of the globe which he supposed to be near it, by a western passage. Columbus returned to Spain in the following May, and soon set out, Vv^ith a much larger expedition, on a second voyage. In this he was so happy as to add many other islands to those already found. In a third voyage, he discovered Trini- dad, and the continent at the mOuth of the Oronoke, 1498. 35. The fame of his discoveries, drew adventurers from all parts of Europe ; and, among others, Americus Vesputius, a Florentine, a man of science and genius, who, a few years afterwards, following the footsteps of Columbus, acquired tlie undeserved honour of giving his name to the new world. 36. In 1497, one year before the main land of South America had been discovered by Columbus, John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but at that time an inhabitant of England, proceeded on a voyage of discovery, under a commission from the British king, and found the continent of North America, Touching at various parts of the coast, he took possession of the country, in behalf of the crown of England. 37. The Spaniards, after an interval of a few years, made settlements in the new world, and, impelled by a thirst of gold, committed horrible butcheries in several of the islands, and especially in Mexico and Peru, under Cortez, Pizarro, and Almagro. These brave adventurers, though base men, established the authority of Spain over countries which they depopulated by their avarice and cruelty. In the year J 500, the coast of Brazil was accidentally discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, in consequence of having been driven too far to the west, on a voyage round the Cape of Good Hope. Hence, the settlement and possession of that part of America, by the people of Portugal. § Columbus, as we have seen, entertained the idea that the re- gion he had discovered, was India, or a part of the continent of 216 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. Asia. This notion was generally received, until 1513, when the Pa- cific Ocean being descried from the mountains of the isthmus of Darien, the illusion began to be dispelled. Fernando Cortez, was a successful, but execrable adventurer. R was on the occasion of being sent, in 1519, by the governor of Cuba, upon an expedition to the main, that he first heard of the ex- istence of the rich and flourishing empire of Mexico. Stimulated by the love of power and gain, he resolved to make the conquest ©f that country. He had at his command only 617 men, and a very few fire-arms, (thirteen muskets and ten small field pieces,) these having not yet come into general use. His other instruments of death, were cross-bows, swords, and spears. But it was the former description of weapons, few as they were, that gained for this handful of Spaniards, a conquest over a numerous people. They looked upon fire-arms as the weapons of the gods. Landing at Vera Cruz, Cortez advanced, though with a brave op- position from the natives, into the heart of the country. On the ap- proach of the Spaniards to the capital, the terror of their name had paved the way for an easy conquest. The Mexican sovereign, Mon- tezuma, received the invaders with great hospitality and kindness. Indeed, he regarded them with the reverence due to superior beings. An occasion, however, was not long wanting, on the part of Cortez, for putting his bold and hazardous project into execution. Some difficulty between his soldiers and the natives, became the pretext for his seizure of Montezuma. Marching to the palace, with fifty men, he put the emperor in irons, and carried him off prisoner to his camp. This flagrant abuse of their hospitality, aroused the Mexicans, who fleeing to arms, expelled the Spaniards from the capital. Montezuma having, during the affray, offered to mediate between the Mexicans and their enemies, was indignantly put to death by one of his own subjects. Gautimozin, son of Montezuma, immediately succeeded him, and armed the whole empire against tlie perfidious Spaniards. Cortez, by a fortunate concurrence of events, having induced a nation of the Indians to revolt, and having obtained a reinforcement of Spaniards, commenced the siege of the city, and soon took it, to- gether with Gautimozin, and became master of the empire, in 1521. The emperor was treated by the Spaniards in a manner shocking to humanity. Refusing to discover the place where his treasures were hid, the miserable man was stretched naked, for some time, on burning coals. Soon after, on the discovery of a conspiracy against the Spaniards, he was executed on a gibbet, with all the princes of his blood. This was the last blow to the power of the Mexicans. The nefarious Cortez, and his few associates, enjoy the honour or the in- famy, in the way now narrated, of having brought this simple and unsuspecting people, under the yoke of Spain. While Cortez was employed in the reduction of Mexico, the Span iards were informed of a still more rich and extensive empire, in the south. This was Peru, at that time governed by the inca, or king, Ata- balipa. Francis Pizarro, in 1525, had sailed to and visited the coun AMERICA. 217 ry. He afterwards undertook the conquest of it. in connection with Diego Almagro, and Ferdinand Liicques, two unprincipled ad- venturers hke himself; and for this purpose, sailed in 1531, from l*anama, with three small vessels and 300 men. With this inconsiderable force, he invaded the country, and marching to the residence of the inca, he seized his person by stra- tagem, having employed friendship and religion as the cover of his viUany. In this defenceless condition, the king was obliged to sub- mit to the slaughter of his attendants, and to the exaction of an enormous quantity of gold and silver, as the price of his ransom. When, however, the treasure was committed into the hands of the Spaniard, with perfidious cruelty, he still retained the wretched monarch a prisoner, and finally, by a mock trial, condemned and executed him, as a usurper and idolater. The vast booty which fell into the possession of the victors, be- came soon an occasion of dispute among themselves. War only could settle it ; in the course of which, both Pizarro and Almagro perished. This contention lasted seventeen years, and Peru became the theatre of the most licentious rapine and cruelty. In the year 1548, the celebrated Las Casas, was sent from Spain? as viceroy. Under his administration, the country obtained repose, as a province of Spain; and, notwithstanding the temporary success of their new inca, Iluanca Capac, who rose against the Spaniards, the whole Peruvian people were effectually broken down and subdued. The inhabitants of the American continent and its islands, were a race of men quite new to the Europeans. They were of a cop- per colour, and had no beard. In some parts of the continent, as Mexico and Peru, they had made considerable progress towards civilization. They were not wanting, in a degree, as to polish, and even luxury. Architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the precious metals, were understood. Their persons were clothed, their lands cultivated, and their state governed by fixed laws and regulations. In Peru there were some magnificent palaces and tem- ples. In other parts of tlie new world, man was a naked savage, the member of a wandering tribe, whose sole occupation was hunt- ing or war. The savages of the continent were characterized alike by their cruelty to their enemies, their contempt of death, and their generosity towards their friends. The islanders were a milder race, of gentle manners, and less robust constitutions. The inhumanity with which the Spaniards treated these simple and unoffending people, is shocking to every reader of sensibility. To convert them to the holy and benevolent religion of the Saviour, the most violent means were emploj^^ed, by men who were strangers to the spirit of that religion. The rack, the scourge, and the faggot, were the principal engines used for their conversion. They were hunted down like wild beasts, or burnt alive in their thickets and fastnesses. Some of the islands were nearly depopulated. The conversion of the Indians, however, was less an object, than the desire of obtaining the precious metals which they possessed. So 19 218 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. powerful was the passion for gold, that the first adventurers endii- red every fatigue, and encountered every danger, in search of it^ and, by compelling the natives to dig in the mines, prematurely de- stroyed the lives of vast multitudes of this hapless race. It being the practice of the Europeans to take possession of the regions in America which they visited, by the pretended right of discovery, they seem to have made no account of the aboriginals, depriving them of liberty, or life, whenever occasion or passion demanded. The Spanish acquisitions in America, before the late revolution among them, belonged to the crown, and not to the state : they were the absolute property of the sovereign, and regulated solely by his will. The pope, agreeably to principles which governed men in a dark and superstitious age, granted to the monarchs of Spain, the countries discovered by their subjects, in America. They were go- verned by viceroys, who exercised supreme civil and military ai> thority over their provinces. Distinguished Characters in Period VIII. 1. Columbus, an eminent navigator, and discoverer of America. ^ M A cr'l ( masters of painting among the modems. 4. Erasmus, a Dutchman, eminent in philology and gene- ral literature. 5. Copernicus, a Prussian astronomer, and discoverer of the true system of the universe. rr' r^ ^ ' ' I eminent theolosrians and reformers. 7. Calvm, ) ^ 8. Camoens, a distinguished Portuguese poet. 9. Buchanan, a Scotch historian and poet. 10. Montaigne, a celebrated French essayist. 11. Tasso, prince of Italian poets. 12. Spenser, one of the greatest of the English poets. § Columbus (Christopher) was born 1442, at Genoa, son of a woolcomber. He was early inured to the labours of the sea, and acquired great experience in navigation. With the sciences imme- diately connected with his profession, he was acquainted, beyond- most men of his age. Indeed, this great man was far in advance of the rest of the world, and anticipated the ilhimination of a distanl futurity. For the splendid discovery which he was destined to make, his temperament and his previous course of life, eminently fitted him. Tliere was an enthusiasm in his character, a lofty ex- pectation, and a religious fervour of soul, which spurned ordinary difficulties, and raised him immensely above ordinary men. By his knowledge of maritime affairs, as well as by reasoning, he became DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 219 persuaded that a continent must exist in the western ocean. To ascertain the truth of his theory, was an object which soon engross- ed all his time and faculties. And, after much effort and many trials and disappointments, in regard to assistance, he was permitted to realize the grand idea he had so happily conceived. He made application to several courts, before he could obtain the requisite means and patronage, and it was only after much delay, that he was finally enabled to prosecute his discoveries under the auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. He sailed on the third of August, 1492, in three small ships, and returned to Spain in May tlie following year. In the mean time he had discovered a new world, and had taken possession of a portion of it, in the name of his sovereign. This event filled Spain, and all Europe, with amaze- ment, and the greatest honours were accorded to him in the coun- try, whose annals he has so signally adorned. He made three sub- sequent voyages to the new world, in the second of which he reach- ed the continent ; but powerful enemies had now risen up, jealous of his ascendency, who impugned his motives or decried his services, and so much influence had they with the Spanish court, that Columbus, in his third voyage was sent back to Spain in irons. Though he suffered much in the latter part of life, he finally trium^ phed over his enemies, and peacefully left the world, on the twentieth of May, 1506. The memory of Columbus will be cherished while the world stands ; though in consequence of one of those untoward events that sometimes occur, he has been deprived of the honour of giving his name to the hemisphere which his genius brought to light. Signal must have been the satisfaction of his mind, notwithstand* ing the disasters through which he passed, in view of the transcen- dent benefits which Providence had made him the instrument of conferring on mankind. 2. Raphael (Sanzio) was born at Urbino, 1483. By studying th» best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and merited the appellation of the divine Raphael. He also excelled as an architect, and was employed in the building of St. Peter's, at Rome. He came to an untimely grave, in consequence of his addiction to licentious pleasures, dying at the age of thirty-seven years. By the general consent of mankind, he is acknowledged to have been the prince of painters. He excelled in beauty and grace. 3. Angelo Buonaroti (Michael) was not only a great painter, but sculptor, and architect. He was even an elegant poet. In architec- ture he surpassed all the moderns, and he was the greatest designer that ever lived. He is said to have sucked sculpture with his very milk, inasmuch as he was nursed by a woman whose husband was eminent in that art. The early displays of his genius, raised so great a jealousy among his youthful rivals, that one of them struck him with such violence on the nose, that he carried the mark to his grave. The most celebrated of his paintings, is the Last Judgment His architectural abilities are best displayed on the church of SL 220 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD VIII. Peter's, at Rome, the building of which he completed. His style is that of grandeur and sublimity, united with the utriost simplicity and beauty. Sir Joshua Reynolds declared, that the last word which he wished to utter from the academic chair, was the name of Michael Angelo. Description can convey but a very imperfect image of "Buonaroti's car Midst epic glories flaming from afar." Only the sight can give one an idea of his peculiar excellence. He lived ninety years. 4. Erasmus (Desiderius) was the most learned man of the age in which he lived, and contributed by his example and writings, to the restoration of learning in Europe. He was somewhat of a wander- er, having occasionally resided in Italy, Switzerland, Holland, France, and England. With the last of these countries he was best pleased, and there he met with the greatest encouragement from Henry VH., Sir Thomas More, and all the learned Englishmen of those days. jHe was the most correct and elegant Latin writer among the mo- derns. Rotterdam, is to this day proud of having given birth to Erasmus. The house in which he was born is still marked out to the admiration of the traveller by a suitable inscription, and a beau- tiful copper statue was long since erected to his memory in an open part of the city. In the great question of Protestantism and Popery, he was claim- ed on both sides, though neither party was pleased with him. Here is a dark spot on his character. He was evidently temporising, timid, and undecided. He lashed the vices and follies of the Pa- pists, while he seemed to be indifferent to the success, or jealous of the labours of the reformers. He died at Basil, July 12, 1536, aged sixty-nine. 5. Copernicus (Nicholas) was a native of Thome in Prussia. In his twenty-third year he went to Italy in search of knowledge. After some years' absence, and having in the mean time acted as professor of mathematics at Rome, he returned home. Here he began to apply his vast knowledge, to an examination of the different theories respecting the universe. The simplicity of the Pj" thagorean system pleased him best ; and after twenty years of profound inves- tigation, he removed from the machine of the universe, the cycles and epicycles of former astronomers, and placed the sun in the cen- tre to illuminate and control the whole. This great discovery he kept concealed for more than thirty years, for fear of exciting against himself the persecuting spirit of bigotry. When at last he consent- ed, through the importunities of his friends, to have his work pub- lished, and a copy of it was brought to him, he was a few hours afterwards seized with a violent effusion of blood, which terminated his life, 24th May, 1543, in his seventieth year. 6. Luther (Martin) was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. His parents designed him for a civihan, but by the following awful inci- dent, his views were directed to the church. As he was walking in the fields with a fellow-student, they were struck by lightning, DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 22 Luther to the ground, and his companion dead by his side. His mind was so much affected by the event, that without consulting his friends, he formed and executed the resolution of retiring from the world. He entered into the order of Augustine hermits, at Erfurth. From this place he removed to Wittemberg, being ap- pointed by the elector of Saxony, professor of theology and philo- sophy in the university just founded there by that prince. It was in his retirement at Erfurth, that he providentially found a Latin Bible, the first he ever saw, and in perusing it he was astonished at the little knowledge of Scripture and Christianity, which the clergy then imparted to the people. After he had been at Wittemberg three years, he was sent to Rome to plead the cause of some converts of his order, who had quarrel- led with their vicar-general. While he was at the seat of the papal power, he became more than ever convinced of the ignorance and debauched lives of the dignitaries of the church. This probably gave him the first decided disgust to the Romish ecclesiastical go- vernment, especially as he had engaged in the monastic life, from motives of genuine piety. Upon his return to Wittemberg, he was created D. D. at the request of the elector of Saxony, and continued to act as professer of divinity in the university. Here he explained, with clearness and ease, the Psalms and the Epistle to the Romans, and supported his reputation by the most rigid morality, and the most exemplary conduct. The minds of his auditors being thus prepared, a favourable occa- sion soon offered for carrying into execution his glorious plan of re- formation. The completion of St. Peter's church, at Rome, at this time, required extraordinary sums, and pope Leo X. published, in 1517, general indulgences for the forgiveness of sin, to such as would contribute to the pious work. The Dominicans were intrust- ed with the selling of these indulgences in Germany; and in paying their money, the friar Tetzel informed the superstitious people, that they might release themselves, not only from past, but also future sins. Luther's holy indignation was roused by these vile practices, and he preached against them, with wonderful success. Persecution soon followed, and the reformer became the object of the papal ven- geance. Luther, however, was undismayed, and, in an astonishing Hcnes of efforts, in which he was opposed by all the power and policy of the papal world, he achieved the object of his long che- rished wishes. In 1524, Luther threw aside the monastic habit, and the next year married a nun, who had escaped from a convent, and, though he was ridiculed and censured by his enemies, he confounded them all by his appeal to the Scriptures. By her, he had three sons, whose descendants are still respected in Germany. Luther died in the place of his nativity, 18th February, 1546. Luther was singularly qualified for the service he performed. He was a man of high endowments of mind, and great uprightness— a /riend of true religion, liberty, and human happiness. His under- 19* 222 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD VIII. standing was vast, and his knowledge unequalled, almost, in the age in which he lived. Especially had he an admirable acquaintance with the Scriptures, which he expounded with equal eloquence and clearness. In courage, resolution, and decision, he was an example to all reformers. 7. Calvin, (John,) a coadjutor of Luther in the reformation, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. His early piety mark- ed him out for the church; but though he assumed the functions of the ministry, he was too much disgusted with the superstitions of the Romish church, to remain in her communion. His knowledge of the Bible had opened his eyes to the abominations of the " man of sin." He now applied himself to the study of the laws, in which he made great progress ; at the same time, he extended his ac- quaintance with divinity. He soon entered most cordially into the reformation ; and his zeal and labour as a writer and disputant, very essentially aided the work. With difficulty, however, he escaped from the vengeance of the catholics; but his confidence in God was not to be shaken, and having taken his position, he felt that it was to be maintained. He spent most of his active life at Geneva, where he undertook the ministry, and filled the chair of the professor of divinity. He was, however, once expelled the place, on account of refusing to administer the sacrament indiscriminately, and again experienced trouble in the affair of Servetus. Calvin, by his vast abilities, and by his clear views of religion, at- tracted the attention of the world, and it might almost be said, that " the care of all the churches" rested on him. Many of tlie reformed churches of Germany, France, England, and Poland, looked to him as their head, and he was in the habit of directing tliem by his let- ters. He died, 1564. Calvin was a man of pre-eminent piety and talents, and, though not foultless, he has rendered such a service to the cause of evangeli- cal truth, and of the reformation, as to deserve tlie gratitude of posterity. Scaliger says, that no commentator has better hit the sense of the prophets than he. 8. Camoens (Lewis) is known principally as the author of the Lusiad, an epic poem, which has been translated into the most im- portant languages of Europe. Camoens is deservedly called the Virgil of his country, and in his work has displayed great powers of description, extensive learning, aiid a sublime imagination. Misfortune marked his course in life. In the service of his coun- try'-, he lost an eye. On his return from the Indies, whither he had gone to better his fortune, he was shipwrecked, and saved his life with difficulty, by swimming with his right arm, and holding up his poem, with his left. After he had published his poem, and dedicated it to the king, he was cruelly disappointed, as to patronage ; and feeling all the mise- ries of indigence and neglect, he expired in the midst of his ungrate- ful countrymen. He lived fifty-two years. 9. Buchanan (George) was born in the shire of Lenox, in Scot- DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 223 ' land, in 1506. He early embraced, from conviction, the tenets of Lu- ther, and, as the consequence, suffered persecution from the catho- lics. He became tutor to James I. of England, and employed the last twelve or thirteen years of his life, in writing the history of his country. He occasionally resided in England and France, but died in his native country, at Edinburgh, 1582. His history is written in a nervous, elegant, and perspicuous style, but is occasionally de- ficient in fidelity and accuracy. He has the reputation of an able scholar, whose mind was stored with all the fire, the elegance, and the graces of ancient literature, and who, in a barbarous age, revi- ved in his poetry, the beauty and grandeur of the Roman muses. 10. IMontaigne was born of an ancient family at Perigord, in France, 1533. He was instructed to speak Latin first, as his mother tongue. Disdaining the drudgeries of law, for which he was intend- ed, he travelled, with a view to make observations on men and man- ners. In the latter part of his life, he enjoyed learned ease and phi- losophical society. His essays have been repeatedly pubhshed. They are able and amusing productions, though unsafe to be put in- to the hands of youth, on account of their scepticism. Some per- sons have extravagantly praised them. 11. Tasso (Torquato) was born at Sorrento, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1544, and derives his celebrity from his " Jerusalem De- livered," an epic poem of great merit. Like the works of Homer and Virgil, it has gained the palm of immortality. Tasso passed a life of varied and great suffering. Among other calamities, he was confined by the duke of Ferrara, who had been his patron, in an hospital, for a long time, under the pretence that he was insane. Tas- so had been guilty only of an imprudence. Unfortunately, he had fallen in love with the princess Eleonora, the duke's sister, and, on a certain occasion, he made bold to embrace her, in the midst of a crowded assembly. For this offence, the unfortunate lover was obliged to mourn his disappointment in a tedious solitude, rendered more tedious by a lingering disease, and occasional lunacy. He was at last released, and his merits as a poet began to be more knoAvn ; but just as he was on the point of receiving tlie laurel crown from the pope, he suddenly expired, and that which was to have been, on the next day, his coronation, proved to be the melancholy proces- sion of his funeral. He was fifty-one years of age. 12. Spenser (Edmund) is deservedly regarded as little inferior, either in inveiUion or in judgment, and true fire of the muse, to any author, ancient or modern. But with all his beauties, he was fanciful and chimerical, and without uniformity, so that his poem is truly fairy land. His sublimity, variety, and fertile imagination, are unfortunately to be set off against his obsolete language, and heavy stanza. His Fairy Queen, is his most celebrated poem. He was poet laureat to queen Elizabeth, and was employed some- what in public life. At one period, he was possessed of wealth ; but Desmond's revolt in Ireland, where his property lay, proved his ruin. He was plundered and robbed of his estate, one of his children was 224 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. burned in the conflagration of his house, and broken in heart and fortune, he came to London, where he died, in 1598. PERIOD IX. The period of the English Commonwealth ; extending from the Edict of Nantes^ 1598 years A. C, to the death of Charles XII. of JSweden, 1718 years A. C. FRANCE. House of Bourbon. Sect. 1 . Henry IV., had now occupied the throne of France several years. He had changed his religion from poHtical considerations, but did an act of justice to the Calvinists, by whose aid he liad secured the sceptre, in granting the famous Edict of Nantes, by \vhich he tolerated them, as well as all his subjects, in the unfettered exercise of their religion. Henry's own great abilities and love of his subjects, aided by the talents and industry of his minister, the duke of Sully, enabled him to repair the desolations of a thirty years' civil war, and to place his kingdom in a state of financial pros- perity and general happiness. France never had a more popular sovereign. His talents^ as a general and statesman, commanded respect, his person was prepossessing, his manners a model of good breeding, and his love of his subjects inspired a most enthusiastic at- tachment to him in return. His private and domestic hfe, was however very exceptionable, and infected, by the force of example, the manners of the court with no little disso- luteness. § A mistress of Henry, an artful, intriguing, ambitious woman, had, by consummate management, obtained from him a promise ol marriage. This promise, the king showed to Sully, ready signed, and the minister, transported with indignation, tore it in pieces. " I believe you are mad," cried Henry in a rage. " It is true I am mad,'* replied Sully, " and I wish I was the only mad man in France." When, after so keen an altercation, Sully thought himself irreco^ verably disgraced, he received the brevet of grand master of the ordnance. Heniy, who had Uved through fifty conspiracies, fell by th© PRANCE. 225 ' hand of an assassin, named Ravillac, after a short reign of twenty years, too short for the glory of France, just as he was entering upon a splendid, but visionary project, of form- ing Europe into a Christian republic. § Ravillac was a desperate Catholic bigot, who had long formed a design to murder his sovereign. Henry was ready to join his army in prosecuting his singular scheme, but was detained against his will, on account of the coronation of the queen. In the midst of his impatience to depart, his mind was harrassed with sinister fore- bodings, and they were too truly realized by the event. Passing along a street in Paris, his coach became entangled, and his footmen quitting it for a moment, Ravillac, who had followed liim secretly for a long time, took advantage of the opportunity, and stabbed him in the midst of seven courtiers. The crime of Ravillac was expiated by the most horrid tortures. Henry's project was to divide Europe into fifteen settled powers, none of which should be suffered to make any new acquisitions, and should altogether form, an association for the maintenance of a mutual balance, and the preservation of peace. There is little evi- dence, however, that he thought it practicable. He meant to effect it, if at all, by force, and it is certain that he strongly wished to set bounds to the house of Austria, both in Germany and Italy. The latter, therefore, may have been his only real design. 2. Louis XIII., in his ninth year, succeeded his father, 1610, under the regency of Mary of Medicis, his mother. During the early part of this prince's reign, France, wdrich had arisen to splendour and prosperity, under Henry, evidently retro- graded. Mary's partiality for her Itahan courtiers, disgusted the nobility, and weakness, faction, and disorder, began to be experienced. But when cardinal Richelieu succeeded to the ministry, after the duke of Luynes, affairs wore a much more favourable aspect. He had vast abilities, and propor- tionable influence, which he successfully exerted in subduing the turbulence of the nobility, diminishing the power of the Protestants, and restraining the encroachments of Austria. The principal events of the reign of Louis, were, the ar- rest of the prince of Conde, on account of his intrigues against the regent, and the subsequent temporary exile of the regent herself ; the revolt of the Protestants at Rochelle, ; and the siege of that place, which lasted a year, and was at- tended with the loss of 15,000 lives ; the junction of Louis with the Protestant princes of Germany, against the empe- ror Ferdinand II., and the revolt of the duke of Orleans, supported by the duke of Montmorency. 226 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. § The Protestants were accused of a design to form France into an independent republic, to be divided into eight circles, on the model of those in Germany. Certain it is, that alienated by per- secution, they attempted to throw off their allegiance, and Rochelle^ was the bulwark and head quarters of their party. Richelieu, having become master of the court, the armies, and the fleets, car- ried into execution, the plan he had long meditated, that of waging war against the Protestants, whom he was resolved to exterminate. He accordingly laid siege to Rochelle. On this occasion he acted as commander in chief ; but chose to be accompanied by the king, for fear his enemies should take advantage of his absence. The Protestants implored the aid of England, but were disappoint- ed by the tardy measures of the duke of Buckingham. The garri- son and inhabitants of Rochelle were resolved, however, to hold out until the last extremity. For twelve months they endured the miseries of a siege, but were at length obliged to yield to the active genius of the cardinal. He triumphed over the Calvinists, and de- prived them of their most significant privileges. They never re- covered from this blow. The union of Louis with the Protestant princes of Germany, 1626, OAved its origin to the influence of Richelieu, in his anxiety to hum- ble the Austrian greatness. He forgot his hatred of Protestantism, for a time, and embarked most eagerly in the cause of the Protes- tant princes, who were alarmed at Ferdinand's avowed design of suppressing their religion, together with the liberties of the Ger- man empire. Richelieu's plans were attended with complete success. The Protestants and Catholics, laying aside their theological disputes, conspired for the diminution of Ferdinand's power ; the court of England embarked in the same cause ; the Danes also took up arms, and Gustavus, king of Sweden, rushed like a torrent upon Germa^ ny. In the course of events, the emperor was effectually humbled, and a solid foundation was laid for the prosperity of the empire. The haughty minister of Louis, amidst all the pohtical intrigues and wars in which he was engaged, found leisure to patronize lite- rature and science, and thus to extend the glory of the French na- tion, beyond the honour acquired by feats of arms. The French Academy owes its institution to the genius of Richelieu. Louis died at the age of forty-three years. After he had been married twenty- three years, he had two sons, Louis XIV., and PhiHp, duke of Orleans. During his reign, the king was a less prominenJ object of attention, than his minister, and is not known to have been characterised by any particular talents or virtues. 3. Louis XIV., in the fifth year of his age, ascended the tlirone, in 1643, under the regency of Anne of Austria, his mother. The talents of this monarch, the vigour of his ad- ministration, the splendid events of his reign, his conquests and reverses, and the flourishing state of hterature and the arts FRANCE. 227 under his patronage, have been themes of deep interest with historians. He is often styled the Great. The most conspicuous events of his reign, were his war with the Spaniards, which commenced a few days after his accession, under the duke of Enghein ; the civil commotions called la-1^ ronde, which grew out of Mazarine's ministry - the contention with Holland, in 1672, in which he was oV posed by the German emperor and Spain, and in which h ranche Comte was conquered and united to France ; the revocation of the edict of Nantes ; the league of Augsburg against France, by which war was waged against that coun- try, by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland, and, in con- sequence of which, Louis acquired peculiar glory ; and the war of the succession, in which he met with woful reverses from the allied powers, mider the duke of Maiiboroudi, and prince Eugene. id k".!^ ^¥J '''^' "^'^ ^^^ Spaniards, the duke of Enghein gained the battle of Rocroi ; that of Fribourg in 1644; that of Nordlingen in 1645 ; and that of Dunkirk in 1646. The Spaniards were the aggressors, havmg taken an advantage of the king's minority, and the popular discontents. Ji "^ These discontents arose from the ministry of Cardinal Mazarine, the lavourite of the regent, who was an Italian, and whose avarice was excessive. The burdens which he imposed on the people, and the consequent detestation in which he was held, termina>*ed in the commotions of the fronde. Cardinal de Retz, had a principal agency in exciting this civil war. The parliament of Paris, and the chief nobihty, took part with the rebels. The celebrated general, Turenne also aided the rebels. A short pacification ensued, but the impru- Oent violence of Mazarine, soon renewed the disorders. At length the parhament of Paris assumed the right of banishing this unpopu- lar minister. When, however, the king became of age. Mazarine re- sumed his station as minister, while de Retz and Orleans, the chief promoters of the rebellion were banished in their turn On the death of Mazarine, in 1661, when Louis was twenty-two years of age, he took upon himself the entire control of affairs, and .by the splendour of his projects, and the success with which liiany lof them were crowned, established throughout the world, his reputi ition as an able monarch. His war with Holland soon commenced. In which Turenne, and Conde, another great general, gave signal proofs of the sagacity of Louis, in the leaders whom he had chosen to conduct his military operations. Although Spain and the empe- ror jomed the Hollanders, yet Turenne defeated the Imperialists iij the pitched battles of Ensheim, Mulhausen, and Turkheim. Some- time before, Conde had signalized his arms against Franche Comte, which he subjugated m the space of seventeen days. 228 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. Several powers now became jealous of the ascendency of France, and the prince of Orange, whose dominions had been so wanton- ly attacked by the French king, had sufficient influence with England, to obtahi its alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Louis, however, still continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at Nimeguen, in 1678, was much to the honour of France. Franche Comte was assured, as a part of the dominions of Louis, and Spain allowed his right by conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. In the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1680, the French king manifested a complete dereliction both of wisdom and justice. The toleration which was granted to the Protestants by Henry IV., was taken away, their worship suppressed, their churches demolished, their ministers exiled, and an absolute renunciation of their religion, was made the condition with all who chose to continue in their na- tive country. If they failed to comply with this requirement, death was the consequence, whenever ' they could be found. By this measure, the kingdom lost, according to some, 800,000 of her most in- dustrious and useful citizens, who either perished, or driven into exile, carried the arts and manufactures of France, into various countries. The League of Augsburg, in 1686, was brought about by William, prince of Orange, the sworn enemy of Louis. His attack on Hol- land had betrayed his ambition, and the splendour of his designs could not but excite the envy or jealousy of his neighbours. Victory, however, attended his standard against all the forces of the leaguers. Though the valiant Turenne had perished in battle, the able Conde had retired, and Colbert, one of the greatest statesmen of any age, was no more, and their places could not be well supplied, yet the name of Louis was a host, and the successors of those renowned men, were by no means contemptible. Luxemburg defeated the prince of Orange, in the battles of Steenkirk and Norwinden ; Noailles was victorious in Spain ; and an army of one hundred thousand French, ravaged the Palatinate, and took many of the most important towns on the Rliine. This was the brightest period of his reign. Disasters were soon to follow him. The extensive military enterprises of Louis, had been attended with enormous expenses. The pride of the monarch had been flattered by his victories, but no solid advantage had accrued to the nation. The finances had fallen into disorder, and the persevering efforts of his enemies, obliged him to conclude the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The war, however, was soon renewed. That was the war of the succession. The nations engaged in it were England, Hol- land, and the empire, against France and Spain. The avowed object on the part of the former, was to put the house of Austria in pos- session of the throne of Spain, on the expected death of Charles II.j without issue. Louis had passed his prime, and lost his greatest generals and ministers ; while the armies of his enemies were commanded by the ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treasures of the united powers. The war was carried on with manifest advantage FRANCE. 229 on the part of the allies. The battle of Blenheim, in which the English Marlborough began his victorious career, cost the French twenty thousand men. He gained, besides, the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. One or two victories on the part of the French and Spanish, prevented Philip, king of Spain, from aban- doning his possessions in Europe. Louis sued for peace, and even proposed very humiliating terms ; but as they were rejected, and the hard condition of dethroning his grandson Philip, was insisted on, lie made one more desperate effort in battle, in which he was so far successful as to preserve Philip on the throne. The change in queen Anne's cabinet, gave facility to propositions for peace, in which the English and Dutch secured many valuable acquisitions. 4. Louis died, aged seventy-seven years, having reigned more than seventy-two, one of the longest reigns on the page of history, and illustrated by many splendid achieve- ments. His patronage of literature and the arts, constitutes, more than any other which he possessed, his claim to the admiration of posterity. No species of merit was suffered to go unrewarded, and the finest models of composition in the French language, were produced in his reign. All kinds of public works were extended and improved — the capital was enlarged and beautified, the splendid palace of Versailles erected, commerce and manufactures encouraged, and the fine canal of Languedoc constructed. Louis was remarkable for his able administration of in- ternal affairs. His sagacity was peculiarly displayed in the selection of his generals and ministers. Besides those that have been already mentioned, was the famous Yauban, whose great genius was successfully employed in fortifying towns. Colbert has been named. His skill in finances, has acquired him an immortal reputation. The latter was also a zealous patron of learning, thus seconding the designs of his royal master. At his suggestion, the celebrated astronomer, Cassini, quitted Italy, and placed himself under the protection of the king of France, who bestowed on him, and also on Huy- gens, a Dutch mathematician of equal celebrity, a very large pension. Louis was reckoned the handsomest man in his dominions, and was celebrated for his pohteness and urbanity. His in- tellect was vigorous, but indifferently cultivated. It was the great fault of Mazarine, to whom the childhood of Louis was entrusted, that he neglected his education. He sought for the young monarch, no other accomplishments than those 20 230 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. of dancing, fencing, and riding, so that when the latter was drawings on towards manhood, he scarcely knew how to pen an epistle. The love of glory, was perhaps his ruling passion, though he was influenced unduly by other passions, to the indelible infamy of his private life. How often is it, that an admired public pageant, lamentably fails in that which constitutes real worth of character. GREAT BRITAIN. House of Stuart. Commoyiicealth. Restoration of Monarchy. 5. The throne of England, (called towards the close of the present period, Great Britain,) was ascended by James I., 1603, who was the sixth king of Scotland of that name, and son of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots. Thus the Bceptre passed with entire tranquillity from the house of Tudor, to that of the Stuarts — an event winch was in exact accordance with the law of succession, and with the express- ed wishes of Elizabeth, and which united the two crowns, and eventually made the two kingdoms one. § James I., was a great grandson of Henry VII. When Elizabeth was dying, upon being requested to make known her pleasure in regard to a successor, she replied " that she had held a royal scep- tre, and required no other than a royal successor" — which she ex- plained to be one who was then actually a king, viz. " her nearest kinsman, the king of Scots." The history of Scotland, from the time of Wallace and Robert Bruce, to Mary, the mother of James, and rival of Elizabeth, is very summarily as follows : The son of Robert, was David Bruce, who began to reign in 1329. During his minority, on account of the invasion of the kingdom by Edward Baliol, he was conveyed to France for security. He was a weak, but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverses of for- tune. He was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, by Ed- ward III., and remained eleven years in captivity. He was ran- somed by his subjects, and ended a turbulent reign, in 1370. He was succeeded by Robert II., his nephew, and the grandson of the great Robert Bruce, whose reign of twenty years' continuance, was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and the Enghsh- Robert III., then ascended the Scottish throne ; but his infirmities and weakness, obliged him to resign the government into the hands of his brother, the duke of Albany. GREAT BRITAIN. 231 James I., a son of Robert, whom Albany had sought to murder, and whom the Enghsh had taken prisoner in his attempts to escape to France, next ascended the throne, 1424. He was a prince of great natural endowments, and profited by a captivity of eighteen years in England, adorning his mind with every valuable accomphsh- ment. The kingdom had fallen into great disorders, during the regency of Albany ; but James, on his return, soon placed affairs on a favourable footing. He bent all his attention to the improvement and civilization of his people. In restraining the power of the nobles, however, as necessary to this end, he incurred their enmity, and was accordingly assassinated. James H., succeeded his father, 1437. He inherited a portion of his father's talents, but possessing an impetuous temper, he pursued the plan of humbling the nobles, with excessive rigour. Ruling with absolute authority, he was uncommonly successful in attaining the objects he had in view, and greatly improved his kingdom. His son, James III., without the talents of his predecessors, affected to tread in the same steps. But he was impolitic in attaching him- self to mean favourites ; and quarreling with the barons, he was killed in an insurrection, 1488. James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, succeeded to the throne. He was respected by his nobles, and beloved by his people. Invading England with a powerful army, he fell, with al- most the whole of his nobility, in the rash and unfortunate battle of Flodden-Field, 1513. James V., his son and successor, was a great, but uncultivated prince. His reign was long and turbulent, the aristocracy attempt- ing to resume their power, and he being employed in defeating their projects. He died of a broken heart, in consequence of the infideli- ty of his troops, in a war with the English, 10,000 of the Scots having deliberately surrendered themselves to the enemy. He was succeeded by Mary, whose eventful life and tragical death, have been already narrated. 6. Though the succession of James 1. was tranquil, a few events soon occurretl, which tended to disturb his reign. One event was, a conspiracy planned to subvert the government, by seating on the throne Arabella Stuart, the king's near re- lative, descended, hke himself, from Henry VII. § Sir Walter Raleigh, was taken as one of the principals in this plot ; and though he was convicted on incompetent evidence, he was only reprieved, not pardoned, and lay many years a prisoner in the tower. A project of a much fouler kind followed. This was the gunpowder plot, which was ascribed to the catholics, who, disappointed in their expectations from James, were enraged beyond measure, and meditated the destruction of the royal family, lords and commons, at a meeting of parliament. 232 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. § The plot was discovered, just as it was on the eve of execution. It was intended, on the part of the conspirators, to blow up the house in which the parliament should assemble, by means of gun- powder, which had been secreted in the cellar of the building. Twenty conspirators had sacredly kept this dreadful secret, nearly a year and a half; but the same bigotry which had given rise to the plot, was directed as an engine by Providence, to reveal it. A few days before the meeting of parliament, a catholic member of it, re- ceived, from an unknown hand, a letter, advising him not to attend the meeting, and intimating to him, obscurely, what was about to take place. This, on the part of the member, was considered merely as a foolish attempt to frighten him. He, however, showing it to the king, the superior sagacity of the latter, led him to conceive, that al- lusion was made to danger from gunpowder. The following sen- tence in the letter, seems to have suggested the idea to the king. " Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet, I say, they will receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them." Search was now determined to be made in the vaults under the house of parliament. With the view, however, that they might de- tect not only the conspiracy, but the conspirators, they were quiet till the night before the commencement of the session. The plan oi the king succeeded. A man by the name of Guy Fawkes, was found at the door, who was immediately seized, the faggots, and powder, to the amount of thirty-six barrels, discovered, and the very matches to set fire to the train, were detected in his pocket. He gave up the names of his accomplices, eighty in number, who, with himself, were all put to death. 7. The puritans, who had already become conspicuous, having first appeared in the reign of Mary, indulged the ex- pectation at the accession of James, of meeting with special favour from the new monarch, because he had been educated a presbyterian. Their disappointment, but especially the re- straints and persecutions which they endured, forced num- bers of them to the new Avorld, where they laid the founda- tions of a great nation. Domestic events, such as have been recorded, chiefly dis- tinguished the reign of James. He exerted, and wished to exert, no influence abroad. His dispositiou was altogether pacific. When, in the early part of his reign, he was solicited to join in a league with Henry lY., the United Provinces, and the northern crowns, to repress the exorbitant power oi the house of Austria, he would have nothing to do with the scheme. The Stuarts, as well as Tudors, were strenuous advocates GREAT BRITAIN. 233 for the royal prerogative, in the widest exercise. This was especially the case with James. He was prejudiced against the Puritans, on account of their notions of liberty, and took part with the established church. It was a favourite maxim with him — " No bishop, no king." But the minds of English- men were undergoing a change. Light had increased, and juster notions of the people's rights began to obtain. The opposition of parliament to the royal prerogative, was carried to a great height, and laid the foundation of those fatal strug- gles which, in the next reign, subverted the monarchy. James died after a reign of twenty-two years over Eng- land, and of nearly his whole life over Scotland. The pri- vate character of this prince, is not free from reproach. His disposition, however, was mild ; and his reign, though not glorious, in the usual sense of that word, was yet, in many respects, happy and prosperous to his people. On them he bestowed the care of a parent. § James was ingenious and learned, and yet pedantic withal. Of flattery, he was excessively fond, and there were parasites to deal it out to him without measure. On a certain occasion, he publicly proposed the question, whether he might not take his subjects' mo- ney, when he wanted it, without the formality of parliaments. " God forbid," replied the obsequious Neile, bishop of Durham, " but tliat you should, for you are the very breath of our nostrils." James is said to have been pusillanimous in life, but he shewed himself courageous in death, being so composed as to close his own eyes in his last struggle. Perhaps, a people vv^ho delighted in war, and valued blood and treasure less than the splendour of battles and conquests, were incapable of doing justice to the principles that guided the public conduct of this prince. Hence the contempt, which has sometimes been expressed against his benign and gentle policy. Saving his high notions of prerogative, and his attempt to sustain them, there was nothing, during this reign, to mar the happiness of a great people. Two of the greatest names in the records of genius, Shakspeare and Bacon, besides others, adorned the times of James, and the lat- ter part of the period of Elizabeth. 8. Charles I., ascended the throne in 1625. The king- dom, at this time, was in a prosperous condition ; but the principles of liberty had expanded the minds of many of his subjects, and they demanded a more Uberal system in the administration of the government, than was observed by his immediate predecessors. This demand, however, Charles 20* 234 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. repelled, and he shewed that he possessed the same arbitrary- principles with his father, without the prudence of the latter. The refusal of the parliament, to grant adequate supplies, for enabling the king to carry on a war, first in support of his brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, and afterwards with France and Spain, led Charles to adopt the resolution ol ruhng without theii* aid, and of levying money in the most illegal forms. § The manifestation of a tyrannical disposition, on the part of Charles, first soured the minds of his parhament against him. Be- ing engaged to his alhes, the king could not brook the denial of sup- phes, and accordingly dissolved the parliament, and issued warrants for borrowing money of the subject. A new parliament was found equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy of the king, by the impeachment of his minister, Buckingliam. Charles, however, avenged the insult, by imprisoning two members of the house of commons. A quarrel thus began, received continued additions from new causes of offence. The king, in his wars with France, sent troops to assist the French calvinists ; but, after an unsuccessful expedition under Buckingham, they were obliged to return to England. Rochelle was, in conse- quence, reduced to extremity, by which the protestant interest re- ceived an irrevocable blow in France. The blame of every public miscarriage was thrown upon Buckingham, who sheltered himself under the royal protection, till he was assassinated by one Felton, just as he was ready to embark for the relief of Rochelle. The death of this worthless favourite, however, did not deter Cliarles from his arbitrary proceedings, which the English patriots, in that enlightened age, justly considered as so many acts of tynm- ny. His impositions upon trade, without the voice of parliament, many of the merchants, and some members of the house of com- mons, refused to pay. A new parliament, which was now convoked, exhibited a spirit of determined reformation. A petition of right was passed by both houses, which declared the illegality of raising money without their sanction, or enforcing loans from the subject ; annulled all taxes im- posed without consent of parliirment, and abolished the exercise of martial law; and CliHiles was obliged, with much reluctance, to give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives. The tjaxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been continued from one reign to another. On this ground, the king conceived he was warranted to levy them without a new grant ; and a member of the house of commons refusing to pay them, was imprisoned. A com- motion being excited, parliament was dissolved. 9. About this time, a great number of Puritans, weary of the restraint they experienced in England, under the domineering spirit of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, embarked for Ameri- GREAT BRITAIN. 235 ca, where they spread the hberty of which they were deprived at home. But at length the enemies of that sect prevailed on the king to forbid these emigrations. This providentially proved a very unhappy affair for Charles, inasmuch as John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, were prevented from going. § Hampden rendered himself illiistrions, by his talents and virtue, and particularly by the firm stand he made against the illegal impo- sition called ship money. He refused to pay a small sum, that had been levied against him, and ventured to assert the liberty of En- glishmen, by risking a legal prosecution. All England was deeply interested in the trial, and tliis was the favourable result which he realized, though the venal judge decided the cause against him. The people began to see their danger. At a time when the public feeling was running strongly in favour of Puritanism, and a simpler form of worship, Laud, with a most intemperate and insulting zeal, was engaged in loading the church with new ceremonies. Things might have gone on in this train for some time ; but attempting likewise to introduce the liturgy of the church of England among the Scots, the most violent commotions were produced. A bond, termed the National Covenant, containing an oath of resistance to all religious innovations, was subscribed in Scotland, by all ranks and conditions. To maintain this proceeding, the Scotcli reformers took up arms, and soon marched into the heart of England. At the same time, a catholic rebellion arose in Ireland, which the people imputed to the arts of the royalists; and to complete the misfor- tune of the king, the parliament, which had been necessarily convoked, proceeded to such extremities in its acts, that they were considered tantamount to a declaration of war against the king and his party. 10. Things had arrived at such a pass, that the sword was now to decide the contest. The two houses of parliament took into their hands the force constituted by the mibtia of tiie country, and at the same time the king erected his stand- ard at Nottingliam, 1642. Several battles were fought, du- ring three or four consecutive years, with various success; but at length the royalists were overcome, and the king was thrown into the hands of his enemies. The cause of Charles was supported by a large proportion of the landed in- terest, all the friends of the established cluu'ch, and all the adherents of the papacy ; that of the parliament, by the city of London, and most of the great towns, and all the dissen- ters from the establishment. Cavaliers was the term appUed to the supporters oY the king — Round Heads to those of the parhament. 236 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. § The parliament, in order to carry on hostilities with the greater prospect of success, had entered into a strict confederacy with the Scots, who were already in a menacing attitude. The new bond which they formed, was more specific in its objects than the former, and more determined in its spirit. It was called the " Solemn League and Covenant," and it brought an accession of 20,000 men to the forces of the parliament. Oliver Cromwell, an officer under Fairfax, general of the parlia- ment, in reality, directed all the measures of the army. This extra- ordinary man, as will presently appear, was destined to perform an extraordinary part in the transactions of this period. The two first battles, viz. those of Edgehill and Newbury, were favourable to the royalists ; but those of Marston Moor and Naseby, terminated in their overthrow. Never were the morals and religion of an army more carefully watched, than those of the soldiers of CromwelL Previously to each battle, it was customary with them, individually, to spend some time in prayer. When the king was taken by a party of Cromwell's soldiers, af- ter having been delivered up by the Scots, among wliom he had sought protection, he was conveyed first to Hurst castle, and then to Windsor, and at last to London. The parliament at this time, influenced by Cromwell, having declared it treason in a king to levy war against his parliament, a court, consisting of 133 men, were ap- pointed to try him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. Charles de- clined the jurisdiction of the court, and refused to plead. He was nevertheless condemned to suffer death, and was beheaded the third day afterwards, in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty- fourth of his reign. On tlie morning of the fatal day, 'which was the 30th of January, 1649, Charles rose earlier than usual, and calling one of his attend- ants, bade him employ more than usual care in adjusting his dress. As lie was preparing for the block, he observed, in reply to some exhortations addressed to him by the bishop of London, "I go from a corruptible to an an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can have place." He submitted to the stroke with entire resigna- tion. Charles had many virtues, and, in private life, was estimable and engaging, beyond most princes. As a sovereign, he had unfortu- nately imbibed, in his education, the arbitrary principles which dis- tinguished his ancestors ; but with the disadvantage of living in an age and country, in which a king could not be a tyrant with impu- nity. He deceived the parliament too often for them to trust him, and suffered himself to be guided by counsellors much inferior to him in knowledge and judgment, while he paid an unwise deference to the advice of his queen, who was a bigoted papist. Granger says, " He would have made a much better figure in private life, than he did upon a throne." We may lament the fate of Charles, as severe, and perhaps unne- cessary ; and must condemn several of the acts of the republicans, as passionate and oppressive ; yet Providence seems to have overruled GREAT BRITAIN. 237 the events of the times, for the advancement of civil liberty, and for the general good of mankind. Had Charles lived, England might have been still governed by despots, instead of limited monarchs. Charles was an anthor, both in prose and verse. The Icon Basi- like, a work which appeared soon after the king's death, and excited much commiseration for his fate, has often been attributed to him. The authorship of that work, however, remains a matter of dispute. If Charles wrote it, his talents, in composition, must have been much superior to those of most contemporary scholars. Hume considers it the best prose composition which, at the time of its publication, was to be found in the English language : and D'Israeh remarks, that the political reflections it contains, will be found not unworthy of Tacitus. In a poem of his, entitled " Majesty in Misery," the following stan- zas will show his manner in poetry. " With my own power my majesty they wound, In the king's name, the king himself 's uncrown'ti ; So doth the dust destroy the diamond. Felons attain more privilege than I, They are allow'd to answer ere they die ; 'Tis death to me to ask the reason why." 11. On the death of Charles I., monarchy in England was dissolved, and the house of lords was abolished as useless, by the commons. The forms of all public business were chang- ed from the king's name, to that of the keepers of the liber- ties of England. Religion shared in the revolutions of the times. § Presbyterianism, which had succeeded episcopacy, now began to yield to the independent interest. Cromwell so managed, as to transfer to the army, the power whicli the parliament had not long before taken into their ov/n hands. Presbyterians had been mostly excluded from parliament, and that part of the house which re- mained, termed, in derision, the Rump, was composed of Indepen- dents, under Cromwell's influence. As is often the case, the milita- ry power proved fatal to those Presbyterians who had employed it to effect their own purposes. 12. The confusions which overspread England, upon the dissolution of monarchy, could be settled only by the great influence, both civil and military, acquired by Ohver Crom- well, who was peculiarly fitted for the age in which he lived, and for the part which he was destined to act. § The situation of Ireland and Scotland, gave some inquietude to the new republic. The duke of Ormond, at the head of 16,000 men, had recovered many places in the former country, from the parliament; while in Scotland, Charles II., had been proclaimed king, on the condition of his strict observance of the covenant. Crom- well, with his usual cunning, procured for himself the appointment 238 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD IX. of commander-in-chief in Ireland. He accordingly passed over to that country, and soon put an end to the successes and authority of Ormond. He next marched into Scotland, at the head of 16,000 men, and defeated the royalist covenanters, in the battle of Dunbar. Upon the retreat of their army into England, Cromwell pursued it thither, and overtaking it at Worcester, the whole was annihilated by him in one desperate battle. The king was obliged to flee. It was with great difficulty, and after many adventures, that the latter eflected his escai.e. He first retired to Boscobel, a lone house on the borders of Stciffordshire, inhabited by one Penderell, a far- mer, who, in conjunction with his four brothers, served him with unshaken fidelity. They clothed him in a garb like their own, and employed him, like themselves, in cutting faggots, and he partook of their homely fare. On one occasion, when his enemies were in search of him, he ascended an oak, where he was effectually con- cealed a whole day, among the leaves. In this situation, he saw seve- ral of his pursuers pass by, wliom he overheard expressing their wish to be able to find him. This tree was afterwards known, and venerated, under the name of the royal oak. He succeeded, eventu- ally, in reaching France. The republic, at this era, acted with uncommon vigour. Admiral Blake, and other naval officers, now carried the terror of the English name, by sea, to all quarters of the globe. Under his command, a war with Holland was ably maintained against the celebrated Dutch commanders. Van Tromp and De Euyter ; but the advantage was greatly in favour of the English, who took IGOO of the Dutch ships. The famous Navigation act, which the parliament passed at this time, had a most favourable eflfect on the commerce and naval superiority of Great Britain. An attempt being made to reduce the land army, at this time, Cromwell remonstrated against it, and demanded a new parliament. But this meeting with no regard, he entered, in great rage, into the house, attended by 300 soldiers, and, loading the parliament with reproaches, bade them be gone, and give place to honester men. The republic of England, which had subsisted four years and three months, was thus, in a moment, annihilated, April 20th, 1653. Cromwell, however, though he had seized the reins, could not well deny his subjects a parliament. He therefore summoned 144 persons in England, Scotland, and Ireland, to assemble as the repre- sentatives of the nation. They were his creatures ; and though some of them possessed the quality and degree of gentlemen, they were generally, as Clarendon says, " a pack of Aveak, senseless fellows, fit only to bring the name and reputation of parliaments lower than it was yet." This body was called Praise God Barebones' parlia- ment, from the name of a certain member, a leather seller, who dis- tinguished himself by speaking. Incompetent to their duties, they re-delivered to Cromwell, at the expiration of five months, the instrument they had received from him, calling them together, and besought him to take care of the commonwealth. GREAT BRITAIN. 239 13. The supreme power of the nation, now passing into the hands of Cromwell and his Council of officers, he was declared, by the latter. Protector of the Commonwealth of England, wnth the title of Highness, 1654. In this capaci- ty, he exercised greater power, than had ever been annexed to the regal dignity. He gave the command of all the forces in Scotland, to General Monk, and sent his own son, Henry, to govern Ireland. Administering the government with en- ergy and ability, and granting religious toleration, the repub- lic greatly flourished. Its rights ^vere respected abroad Success attended the usurper, both in negociation and battle. In an engagement which was fought with the Spaniards in Flanders, the latter were defeated ; and Dunkirk being soon after surrendered, was by agreement, dehvered to CromwelL Notwithstanding the general correctness of his administra- tion, he was never popular, either with the royalists or repub- licans. He had subverted the freedom of his country, and his professions passed for nothing. He had reached a fearful elevation, and was consequently kept in perpetual inquietude. Neither society nor solitude could soothe his agitated mind. Fearing assassination, he was constantly attended by his guards, and changed the place of his sleeping, every few nights. Seized at length, with a slow fever, he died, A. C. 1658, in the sixtieth year of his age. § In regard to the character of Oliver Cromwell, what was said of Cinna, has been applied to him. " He attempted those things which no good man durst have ventured on ; and achieved those in which none but a valiant and great man could have succeeded." This, however, is the judgment rather of an enemy than friend. Respecting his capacity, there can be but one opinion ; but mankind have viewed his moral qualities in very different lights. He has in this respect been oftener condemned than approved. Indeed, he is no favourite of history, as no man of equal merit or fewer faults, has been so often held up to suspicion, derision, or hatred. There are, however, those who, while they promptly condemn his dissimu- lation and ambition, can see much to admire in the strict morality and devotions of a man, who, in private life, apparently reverenced the institutions of religion. 14. Richard Cromwell, by the father's dying request, suc- ceeded the latter in the protectorate. He was acknowledged in all parts of the empire ; but as he wanted resolution, and •possessed none of those arts which take with the soldiery, he floon signed his own abdication. He retued to private life, 240 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. and his virtues secured to him, rare enjoyment to extreme old age. 15, After the abdication of Richard Cromwell, Charles II. was restored to the throne of his ancestors, 1660. The short interval that occurred, was a season of anarchy. § The restoration was effected by the wishes of the people, who seem to have thought, that neither peace nor protection could be obtained, unless the ancient order of things should be re-estaolished. Monk, a man of military abilities, had the sagacity to observe this change in the sentiments of the people ; and after temporizing in various shapes, rendered himself master of the parliament, through which Charles was duly acknowledged. 16. Charles, who was thirty years of age when he began his reign, made a favourable impression on his subjects, by means of his personal appearance and accomplishments, and of the superior character of his intellect. He was easy in manners, unaffectedly polite, gay in his temper, lively, witty, and a great observer of men and tilings. It must be added, also, that he was base and unprincipled, and became at length immersed in pleasure and indolence. He was personally a favourite with his subjects, and continued so to be ; although the government became unpopular, after the king was so immersed in private gratification, as to neglect the true in- terests of his realm. Still, in this case, he escaped the re- proaches which he merited, and most of the odium of ex- travagance and unsuccessful public measures, fell on his ad- visers. The whole royal party were so elated at the return of their sovereign, that they were dissolved in thoughtless jollity, and many of the republicans, especially the younger part and the women, were glad to be released from the gloomy austerity of the commonwealth. During this reign^ dissipation and infidelity became greatly prevalent. Charles was distinguished by the same arbitraiy notions which had prevailed with his ancestois ; and though there were many struggles like those in the preceding reigns, a surprising change had taken place in the feeling of the peo- ple in general, in consequence of which, he escaped the fate of his father. The slavish doctrines of passive obedience and non-resistance, now came into repute, opposed indeed by the enemies of the crown. This was the origin of the dis- tinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory — the former oppos- ing the crown, the latter advocating it. This is a distinction GREAT BRITAIN. 241 of parties still existing. The Whigs have always favoured the rights of the people, the Tories, those of the monarch. In consequence of high church, or tory principles, an act of uniformity in religion was passed, by which two thousand Presbyterian ministers, were deprived of their livings. § We may enumerate among the other events of this reign, the following— an act of indemnity, by which ten only, out of twenty- eight who were tried and condemned for the murder of the king, were devoted to death — the sale of Dunkirk for £400,000, required by the prodigality of Charles, and which he soon squandered upon his pleasures — the war with the Dutch, which, afior an immense ex- penditure, v/as attended with no material beneiit — and finally, the measures excited by the influence of the duke of York, (afterwards James II.) consisting of numerous attacks upon the lives, liberties, and properties of the people, mingled with party intrigues, plots, and conspiracies. Before the reign of Charles expired, the Whigs became predomi- nant in parliament, and raging furiously against the Catholics, in- sisted on the king's assent to the bill for the exclusion of his brother, the duke of York. This affair induced the king to dissolve two parliaments in succession. The consequence was, that England was thrown into a flame. But the king took measures to crush or in- timidate the opponents of the court. Lord Russel, who had been remarkable for liis opposition to the popish succession, Algernon Sydney, and several other distinguished protestants, were tried, con- demned, and executed. The ground of proceeding against them, was a pretended conspiracy in favour of reform, called the Rye- House Plot. A pretended Popish Plot had, previously to this, been disclosed by the unprincipled Titus Gates, by means of which Lord Stafford and some other Catholics were condemned and executed. 17. It was thought that Charles, having been guilty of arbitrary conduct, intended to take some measures for the future quiet of his reign, when he was seized with a sudden fit of illness, and after languishing a few days, expired, 1685, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty-fifth of his reign. § In addition to what has already been said of the character of Charles, it may be observed, that though he was a genius, he acted in direct opposition to every principle of sound policy. He chose rather to be a pensioner of France, from whose king he received £200,000 a year, for the concealed purposes of establishing popery and despotic power, than the arbiter of Europe. Rochester's epi- grammatic jest, that Charles " never said a foolish thing, and never did a wise one," forms a tolerable motto for his " picture in little." Charles, it is said, had a constant maxim, which was, never to fall out with any, let the provocation be ever so great ; by which he observed, he had found great benefit all his life j and the reason he 21 242 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. gave for it was, that he did not know how soon it might be necessary for him to have them again for his best friends. It has hkewise been said of this king, that had he loved business as well as he un- derstood it, he would have been the greatest prince in Europe. Dryden did not scruple to laud this prince, in a fulsome manner, as in the lines, "Truly good and truly great : For glorious as he rose, benignly so he set." 18. On the death of Charles, the duke of York was im- mediately proclaimed king under the title of James IT., 1685. The history of this reign consists of little more than the weak and irresohite efforts of a bigotted and tyrannical prince, to introduce popery ; an attempt so absurd, that it did not meet with the least encouragement from the pope himself. § The capacity of James was by no means equal to the subversion of those deep and solid foundations, which supported the civil and re- ligious liberties of his people. The share which he had in his father's sufferings had not sufficiently taught him, that the jealousy of the royal prerogative, was too strong in the hearts of his subjects, to be easily allayed. He was so violent and precipitate in his conduct, that he never failed to counteract his own purposes; and he established the protestant religion, on a firmer basis than ever, by his wild attempts to introduce those of the church of Rome. Though lie ascended the throne with many advantages, he could never sit easy in it; and having taught even the advocates of non-resistance, to resist, he was forced to relinquish a crown, which he was absolutely unfit to wear. 19. One of the principal events of his reign, was the re- beihon of the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., who undertook to seize the crown. He was defeated at Bridgewater, by the king's forces, taken prisoner, and be- headed. Had this victory been managed with prudence by James, it would have tended much to increase his authority ; but the cruelty with which the revolt Avas punished, and the rash confidence with which this success inspired the king, led to his ruin. That most profligate of all the judges that ever sat on the Enghsh bench, Jeffries, aided the king in the work of murder, to an extent that has called down on him the execrations of mankind. He was wont to boast of the numbers whom he had adjudged to the gallows. The spirit of the nation was roused, by the offensive and tyi-annical measures which James took to estabhsh popery ; and many great men in England and Scotland, applied for relief to WiUiam, prince of Orange, who had married Mary the eldest daughter of James. William accordingly embark- * GREAT BRITAIN. 243 ed for England, with an army, and determined, agreeably to request, to assume the government. § Upon the arrival of the prince, he was joined, not only by the Whigs, but by many whom the king had considered his best friends. Even his daughter Anne, inspired with protestant zeal, deserted him, and, with her husband, prince George of Denmark, joined the invader. Upon this, James, reasonably filled with distrust of his people, fled to France, where the palace of St. Germain was assigned him; but as one remarks, "the convent of La Trappe would have been a much more suitable retreat." Li France, he spent the remainder of his hfe. A convention-paiiiament declared the king's flight an ab- dication, and settled the crown upon William and Mary. § The duke of Buckingham gave this character of the two royal brothers, Charles and James ; that " the elder could see things if he would, and the younger would see things if he could." On the access of James, an address of the quakers to him, is high- ly characteristic of that shrewd sect. " We come to condole the death of our friend Charles ; and we are glad that thou art come to be our ruler. We hear that thou art a dissenter from the church of England, and so are we. We beg that thou wouldst grant the same liberty that thou takest thyself, and so we wish thee well. Fare- well." 20. WilHam and Mary now ascended the throne. This event constitutes what the British writers are pleased to call the glorious revolution of 1688. In the settlement which was then made of the crown, the sole administration remain- ed in the prince. The protestant succession was secured ; rehgious toleration granted, and presbyterianism re-establish- ed in Scotland. A declaration of rights was also made, in which the chief subjects of dispute between the king and people, were finally determined. The powers of the royal prerogative were more narrowly circumscribed, and more ex- actly defined, than in any former period of the English go- vernment. § A revolution became indispensable, inasmuch as the principles of religious liberty were now generally established in Britain, and the princes of the house of Stuart, from their arbitrary notions, entertained a strong aversion to a large portion of their subjects. There was, however, a class, chiefly among the clergy, who held the doctrines of passive obedience, and the divine right of kings and bishops. Numbers of these, looking upon James as their Mwful king, and refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William, were 244 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. deprived of their stations. Hence, they were styled " non-jurorSy high-churchmen, and Jacobites." 21. William experienced a degree of trouble from Ireland, as that country still adhered to James. The latter, being assisted by Louis XIV., landed with some French forces in Ireland, where he was joined by a large army of Irishmen. William, however, defeated them, in the memorable battle of Boyne, and the country submitted to the new king. During most of the reign of this prince, the nation was involved in many active wars. Their principal cause was the ambition of Louis XIV. These wars were carried on with vigour and success, though without any distinguished actions, unless it be the sea-fight of La Hogue. The peace of Ryswick, in 1697, terminated hostilities, and it was ap- parent that the power of France Avas weakened. The prin- ciple on which William acted in his foreign w^ars, w^as, the balance of power, of which he was an ardent advocate. § Louis, who used James to prom ate his own intercet, was deter- mined, if possible, to restore him to the throne. With this object, he furnished him with a powerful fleet, and the exiled prince re- paired to La Hogue, whence he was ready to embark for England. The English admiral, Russel, pat to sea with all possible expedition, and being reinforced by the Dutch squadron, he sailed for the coast of France, with ninety ships of the line, besides frigates and fire-ships. Oh the 19th of May, 1692, the hostile fleets met off La Hogue ; and, after a bloody contest of ten hours, victory declared in favour of the English. The French, who had fifty-three ships of the line, lost a great part of their fleet, and could not be made to hazard another battle by sea. James returned in despair to St. Germains, where he died, in 1701, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, having, some time before his death, laid aside all thoughts of worldly grandeur, and subjected himself to uncommon penance and mortification. His body, brains, and heart, like those of Richard I., were deposited in different cemeteries. 22. After the death of James, notwithstanding the succes- sion of the crown had been settled in the house of Hanover, his son was proclaimed king of England, at St. Germains, and treated as such at the court of Versailles. This act so exasperated the British nation, that both houses of parliament assured his majesty, that they would assist him to the ut- most of their power, against all his enemies, and the whole kingdom joined in a cry for war with France. While Wil- liam was making preparations for the approaching conflict, he was suddenly removed by death, in the fifty-second yeai GREAT BRITAIN. 245 of his age, and fourteenth of his reign. His excellent consort, and partner in the throne, died seven years before him, of the small pox. § In person, William was small and slender. His complexion was brown, his nose Roman, and his eye piercing. His genius was pene- trating, and his judgment sound ; but in his manners he was distant, and better qualified to gain respect than love. During this reign, the system of borrowing money on remote funds commenced, which laid the foundation of the present national debt. A standing army, too, was first sanctioned by parliament, in the time of this prince, a measure only to be defended by the rela- tive situation of Europe. 23. The crown now, (1702,) devolved on Anne, the second daughter of James IT., who was married to George, prince of Denmark. Her reign is one of the most illustrious in British history. The arms of England were every where triumphant, nor were the acliievements of its scholars less conspicuous. The great names of Newton, Locke, Addison, Swift, and others, have immortalized tlie times of the " Good Q,ueen Anne," as she has been familiarly called. Though not endowed with superior talents, she was respected for her virtues. The mihtary and literary distinction of her reign, could not, in any great degree, be attributed to her personal conduct or councils. The principal events of her reign were, her war against France, carried on by the duke of Marlborough, the greatest general of the age, who gained the splendid victories of Blen- heim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, the constitution- al union between England and Scotland, in 1706, and the confusions occasioned by the high party spirit which prevail- ed in the latter part of the queen's reign. § The war against France, continued from the commencement to the last year but one of her reign. Germany and Holland were in alliance with England. The commander, on the part of the empire, who was associated with Marlborough, was prince Eugene. In the famous battle of Blenheim, the Frencli lost twenty thousand men. The duke, during the engagement, rode through the hottest of the fire, but neither in this, nor in any other conflict, did he receive a wound. This victory saved the house of Austria from ruin. In the battle of Ramilies, six thousand of the enemy lost their lives, and seven thousand were captured ; and this success was soon followed by the general conquest of the Netherlands. In the course of a most successful war on the part of the allies, Louis was humbled to a de- gree, that obliged him to demand peace, which, though at first refu- 21* 246 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. sed, took place in 1713, when the change in Anne's ministry, gave a facility to negociations for that object. In the treaty of peace which was signed at Utrecht, Spain yielded to England all right to Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca, while France resigned her pretensions to Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, St. Christopher's, and Newfoundland. Of Marlborough, it may be said, that he never laid siege to a town which he did not take, or fought a battle which he did not win. His understanding was as injurious to France as his arms. At St. James', he was a perfect courtier, the head of a party in parliament, and in foreign countries, one of the ablest negociators that any age has pro- duced. In the constitutional union of England and Scotland, it was stipu- lated, that the united kingdoms of Great Britian, should be represent ed by one and the same parliament, that Scotland should be repre sented by sixteen peers and forty-five commoners, and that al] peers of Scotland should be peers of Great Britain, and rank next after English peers, of the like orders and degrees. The confusions occasioned by high party spirit, were aggravated after the occurrence of peace. The strife between the Whigs and Tories, was never higher than at this time. After the peace, the mi- nisters, as leaders of the nation, no longer restrained by the tie of common danger, gave loose to their mutual animosity. The great duke of Marlborough was sacrificed, in consequence of these dissentions ; though every honour had been accorded to him, and the most munificent benefactions bestowed upon him, (£500,000 having been voted at one time, to build the castle of Blenheim,) when his enemies came into the ministry, the queen was induced to dis- miss him from all his employments. The tories liad now supplant- ed the whigs in her favour, an event brought about by the preaching of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the tory principles of passive obedience, and who, on account of his trial, before the house of com- mons, excited a sympathy which he did not deserve. 24. Anne died in her fiftieth year, after a short reign of twelve years, in 1714. She became a victim to an apojjlec- tic disorder, which was brought on, or hastened, by fatigue, and the agitation of her mind, in attending a prolonged ca- binet council, in which, her ministers fell into violent alterca- tions with one another. § Anne was of the middle size, majestic, and well proportioned ; her face was round, her features regular, her complexion ruddy, and her hair a dark brown. GERMANY. 25. Soon after the commencement of this period, 1612, Matthias was at the head of the German empire. lie GERMANY. 247 attempted to reconcile the protestants to the catholics, but without success. The revolt of the Bohemians brought on a civil war, which lasted thirty years, in the course of which, Ferdinand, cousin to the emperor, was invested with the kingdom of Bohemia ; and Hungary, also, was soon afterwards conceded. Matthias, overwhelmed with grief, died before the conclusion of the war. § An excellent rule of conduct for a prince, which the emperor de- livered to his successor, was the following : " If you wish your sub- jects to be happy under your government, do not let them feel the full force of your authority." 26. Ferdinand 11. became emperor in 1619. During his reign, the ambition of Austria appeared, in her attempts to extinguish the protestant religion, to abridge the liberties of the empire, and to render the imperial diadem hereditary in her own house. But these attempts, especially in regard to the first two objects, were frustrated by the agency of Gusta- vus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who, at the head of the Evangelical Union, made rapid progress in Germany, till death stopped his career, in 1632. Austria, however, has usually held the imperial sceptre, and has long had an as- cendancy in the empire. § Ferdinand has been styled by the papists, the Apostolical Empe- ror, on account of his hatred to the protestants. He was an unfeel- ing bigot, and scourge of the empire. 27. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding, was elected king of the Romans, (so is the head of the Germanic body often called,) in 1637. The protestants in the empire, found the most active support during the former part of this reign, both from the SAvedes and the French ; and the emperor being forced to conclude the peace of Westphalia, 1648, these pow- ers dictated its terms. By this celebrated treaty, all disputes were settled between the contending princes of the empire, and the contending rehgions. § The Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and acquired Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar, &c., and their sovereign, the dignity of prince of the empire ; the Palatine family was restored to its chief possessions ; the king of France made landgrave of Alsace, and an equal establishment of the three religions, viz. the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinistic. Ferdinand was a devoted Catholic. He experienced many cala- mities, but bore them with magnanimity. 28. Leopold I., king of Hungary and Bohemia, was elect- 248 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. ed emperor in 1657. His was a long reign, of nearly fifty years. Joseph I. succeeded him, 1705, and reigned till 1711. Both of these emperors were engaged in the war of the Span- ish succession, which commenced in 1700, on account of the claim advanced by Leopold, to the crown of Spain. The house of Bourbon was his competitor. The war was car- ried on by Austria, (England and Holland being her allies,) with success. Joseph, after having conquered Naples and Sar- dinia, forced the pope to acknowledge the Archduke Charles, as king of Spain. But, at length, the Austrian claimant being elected eniperoi*, the Spanish crown was rehnquished to the house of Bourbon, in the peace of 1713. In 1683, Yienna was besieged by an immense army of the Turks, but the place was reUeved by John Sobieski, king of Poland. Charles TI. was elected in 1711. His reign extends many years into the next period, but before the conclusion of the present, occurred his memorable war with the sultan Achmet III., in which he obtained many victories over the Turks, by his general, the renowned prince Eugene. SPAIN. 29. The successor of Philip 11., on the throne of Spain, was his son, Philip III., 1598. From the commencement of this reign, Spain dechned in power, and notwithstanding her great sources of wealth, the national finances were exceeding- ly embarrassed. He had lost the seven United Provinces, whose independence was solemnly acknowledged, 1609. A most ill judged measure of his reign, was the expulsion of all the Moors, from his kingdom, who were its most industri- ous inhabitants. This, added to the depopulation occasioned by her American colonies, rendered Spain a mass of weak- ness. 30. Under Phihp IV., who succeeded his father, in 1621, the national weakness and disorders increased, rather than diminished. Philip was implicitly ruled by his minister, Olivarez, a man of an indiscreet and insolent turn, who, while he encouraged the licentiousness of his sovereign, him- self wore the specious appearance of extraordinary piety. The reign of Philip was indeed one continued series of miscarriages and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil ; the SPAIN. 249 French invaded Artois ; Catalonia revolted to France ; and Portugal, shaking off the yoke, recovered its independence. 31. The revolution of Portugal, was effected with unwont- ed ease and celerity. It took place, 1640, and Portugal, af- ter having been an appendage of the kingdom of Spain for sixty years, asserted the rights of self government. The people, disgusted with the administration of OHvarez, were , prepared for a change. The duke of Bragan^a, descended from the ancient kings of Portugal, having command of the army at this time, and instigated by the ambition of hm dutchess, caused himself to be proclaimed king, at Lisbon. The Spanish guards were attacked and overcome, and the principal adherents of the government, were put to death by the populace. The whole was accomplished in two or three hours. The example of the capital was followed by all the considerable towns, and soon after, by all the foreign settle- ments. The duke of Braganza took the title of John IV. § The events which occurred in the history of Portugal, previous- ly to the above revolution, are summarily as follows : Portugal was the ancient Lusitania, and was successively subject to the Siievi, the Goths, and the Moors. In the early part of the twelfth century, Henry of Burgundy, grandson to Robert I., of France, rendered assistance to Alphonso, ia his wars against the Moors, and having distinguished himself by great bravery, Alphonso bestowed on him his natural daughter Theresa, in marriage, and also created him count of that part of Portugal, where Oporto was situated, from which place, formerly called Portus Calle, the whole country took its name. By the valour of Henry, the country regained its liberty, and he governed it with the title of count. His son, Alphonso Henriquez, having obtained a decisive victory over five Moorish kings, was proclaimed king, by the soldiers. Seve- ral princes succeeded him, whose reigns deserve no particular notice. On the death of Ferdinand I., in 1383, the states gave the crown to his natural brother, John I., surnamed the Bastard, who was equally politic and enterprising, and in whose reign, the Portuguese first projected discoveries in the western ocean. In the reign of his great grandson, John II., who was a prince of profound sagacity and extensive views, the Portuguese made con- quests in the interior of Africa, and discovered, under Diaz, the Cape of Good Hope. That cape was doubled in 1497, for the first time, by Vasco de Gama, who thence sailed for the East Indies. Emanuel, cousin of John, ascending the Portuguese throne, in 1495, adopted the plan of his predecessors, and sent out a fleet. It was with this fleet, that Gama doubled the cape as above mentioned; others of the king's vessels discovered Brazil, in 1501. 250 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. These princes had the merit of exciting that spirit of discovery which led to many subsequent improvements of navigation and commerce. Their discoveries on the coast of Africa, led to the voy- age of Columbus, and the discovery of America. They also estab- lished valuable colonies in Africa and America, and an extensive empire in India. The reign of Emanuel, was the most glorious in the annals of Portugal. He was a great and wise prince, and ban- ished poverty and distress from his dominions. John III., the son of Emanuel, admitted the new founded order of the Jesuits, which has since been a powerful engine of despotism and superstition. He encouraged, if he did not establish, the Inqui- sition in Portugal. Sebastian, his grandson, fanatically led an army against the Moors, in Africa, where he and most of his army perished in battle. Sebas- tian, leaving no issue, was succeeded by his uncle, cardinal Henry, in 1578, who, also dying without children, Philip II., king of Spain, obtained the crown, in right of his mother, 1580. After sixty years of subjection to Spain, the Portuguese, as already related, threw off the Spanish yoke, and became independent, under the duke of Bra- ganza, the legal heir of the throne. 32. Cliarles II., succeeded his father, Philip lY., on the throne of Spain, in 1665. In order to frustrate the schemes of the kings of England and France, and of the states of Holland, he left his dominions to Philip, duke of Anjou, second son of Louis, dauphin of France. § This prince is said to have been debilitated, both in body and in mind, by certain drugs which his mother administered to him in his chocolate. To so unnatural an act, she was led, in consequence of his refusal to accept of her assistance as regent. Certain it is, that active before, he lost, in the course of a few weeks, his wonted spirits ; and his future imbecility, proved highly detrimental to the interests of his kingdom. 33. The duke of Anjou, uuder the title of Philip V., the first Spanish monarch of the house of Bourbon, ascended the throne in 1700. In 1701, nearly all Europe united against France and Spain, and a useless and bloody war was carried on till the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Gibraltar was lost to Spain, in the course of this war. TURKISH EMPIRE. 34. The most splendid period in the history of Turkey, was that which immediately preceded the present. The spirit of mihtary enterprise was now considerably abated ; though the power of the empire continued undiminished, except in TURKISH EMPIRE. 251 its naval force. The latter never wholly recovered from the effects of the fatal battle of Lepanto. The present period embraces the reigns of nine sultans, and a part of the reign of another. They were generally at war with the neighbouring powers ; Persia on the one side, Venice, Hungary, and Austria, on the other. § During the former period, the wars of the Turks with the Vene- tians, had been extremely frequent and bloody. That small, but enterprising and martial republic, had, during one hundred and fifty years, restrained the Ottoman power, and prevented it, most proba- bly, from overspreading a great part of Europe. The spirit of hos- tility continued through the present period, and broke out occasion- ally into fierce fightings. The Turks were for a long time superior to the Christian powers of JEurope in military tactics, on account of having an order of men exclusively devoted to the profession of arms, and also on account of their frequent use of artillery. Achmet I., made war with Persia and Hungary, but with little success. During his reign, in 1611, Constantinople was afl^icted with a dreadful plague, of which more than 200,000 persons died. Othman II., invaded Poland, but was forced to make peace after having lost 80,000 men. In 1622, he was strangled by the Janizaries, whom he intended to disband. Amurath IV., tarnished a victory which he had obtained in the capture of Bagdad, by the barbarous slaughter of 30,000 Persians, who had laid down their arms, as well as of all the inhabitants. Mahomet IV. made a conspicuous figure in the annals of Europe, from the middle, till towards the close of the seventeenth century. Under him, the Turks again became formidable to Europe, and took Candia from the Venetians, and besieged the capital of Austria. The siege of Candia is one of the most remarkable of modern times. Candia was the ancient Crete, and an emporium for commerce. The Turks had long desired to take possession of it, and at length, in 1645, effected a landing on it, with 60,000 men. After several towns had surrendered, Candia, the capital, was invested. This siege continued twenty-five years. For the last two years, the Turks put forth every effort, inasmuch as the delay was mortifying to their pride, and disappointed their ambitious hopes. After the loss of 30,000 lives, on the part of the Venetians and their allies, and 118,000 on the part of the besiegers, in the space of two years and four months, the city surrendered on honourable terms, in 1670. It is said the besiegers made against it, fifty-six assaults and ninety-six sallies ; and that the Venetians discharged 276,743 cannon balls, 48,119 bombs, and consumed 50,317 barrels of powder. The Turks have ever since held possession of the island. In the siege of the capital of Austria, in 1683, John Sobieski, king of Poland, particularly distinguished himself. His assistance was requested by the emperor of Germany, and readily bestowed. Through his efforts, Austria seems to have been saved from destruc- 252 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. tion, and the Ottoman power prevented from effecting an establish- ment in the heart of Europe — a service which Austria has since ill requited. Sobieski, whose army, when joined by the Austrians, did not exceed 50,000 men, advanced to the environs of Vienna, and fought one of the most memorable battles of the age. An army of nearly 200,000 Turks, brave and well disciplined, was entirely de- feated by the Pole, who lost only 600 men. The victors secured the great Ottoman standard, 180 pieces of cannon, and the immense treasures found in the camp of the enemy. The war continued after that defeat, in which the Turks were the greatest sufferers. The imperialists, however, v/ere weary of it ; but neither party could be speedily brought to an accommodation, on account of the intrigues of the French king, who wished to exhaust the resources of the house of Austria. Under Solyman 11., the Turks were almost constantly defeated by the imperialists. Mustapha II., was severely beaten in the famous battle of Zenta, in Hungary, by prince Eugene, in 1697; and, in 1699, concluded a peace at Carlowitz, by which he was forced to cede Transylvania, Kaminiek, the Morea, and Azof. Under Achmet III., in 1715, the Ottoman court declared war against the Venetians, and recovered the Morea. At the same time, war was waged against Austria, but the most disastrous effects to the Turks, took place from this renewal of the contention. Prince Eugene defeated a powerful army, in the battle of Peterwaradin, and took Temeswar, in 1716. The next year, the strong town of Belgrade surrendered to his again victorious arms. The disadvan- tageous peace of Passarowitz, in 1718, followed these defeats. And the Ottoman, formerly so terrible in arms, was obUged to yield the palm of military skill, if not valour, to the disciphned legions of Christendom. BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 35. Our own country, is intended by the British Colo- nies in America. During the present period, and part of the following, the people inhabiting, chiefly, the south-eastern portion of North America, were known by the above appella- tion. These colonies were settlements made principally by the English, though some of them derived their origin from ad- ventures set on foot by ot.lier European nations. They were all, however, included within the EngHsh patent, and claimed by the English crown. 36. It was more than a century, from the discovery of the northern portion of the American continent, by Cabot, before the Enghsh made any effectual attempts to colonize the BRITISH COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA. 253 country. The first grant from the crown, under which set- dements were actually made in North America, was dated April 10, 1606. James I., by his letters patent, granted an exclusive right or privilege to two companies, called the Lon- don and Plymouth companies, by which they were autho- rized to possess the lands in America, lying between the thirty- fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude ; the southern part, called South Virginia, to the London, and the northern, called North Virginia, to the Plymouth company. Before the present patents, however, a project to sefetle the country was undertaken by Sir Walter Raleigh, who, under a com- mission from Elizabeth, in 1584, had arrived in this portion of Nortb America, which, upon his flattering account of it, was called Virginia, in compliment to the queen's virgin majesty. But this project, as well as two that followed it, wholly failed. Under the king's patent, the London company sent Cap- tain Christopher Newpo'1 to Virginia, December 20th, 1606, with a colony of one hundred and five persons, to commence a settlement on the island Roanoke, now in North Carolina. By stress of weather, however, they were driven north of their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake Bay. Here, up a river which Jiey called James river, on a beautiful peninsula, they commenced, in May, 1607, the settlement of Jamestown. This was the first permanent settlement in the United States. 37. Seven years afterwards, 1614, a colony of Dutch com- menced a settlement on the present island of New- York, which had been discovered in the year 1609, by Henry Hud- son,' an Englishman in the service of Holland. The Eng- lish government claimed a prior right to the country, by vir- tue of Cabot's discovery; but the first settlers retained pos- session, until 1664, when it was surrendered to an armament fitted out by Charles II., and received its name from his bro- ther, the duke of York. It had been previously called New- Amsterdam. The Dutch had built a fort here, and one also at Albany. 38. The same year in wb^ch the Dutch settled on the Hudson, Captain John Smith, ranged the coast, from Penobs- cot to Cape Cod. King Charles, to whom a map of the country v/as presented, named it New-England, instead of 22 254 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. North Yirginia. Sixteen years from this, December 22, 1620, a colony of puritans landed at Plymouth, in Massa> chusetts, and began the first permanent settlement in New- England. These colonists were originally from England, but had resided several years in Holland, on account of the religious intolerance which prevailed in their native country. The colony of Plymouth was afterwards connected with another colony in New-England, called Massachusetts Bay, which was founded in 1628. 39. In 1623,, a number of persons from England, arrived in the river Piscataqua, and began two settlements ; one at the mouth, at a place called Little Harbour, the other at a place now called Dover. These were the first settlements in New-Hampshire. 40. The next settlement in the order of time, seems to be that which was made by some bodies of the Dutch and Danes, about the year 1625, in New- Jersey. This was fol- lowed by the colonization of Delaware, in 1627, by the Swedes. 41. In 1637, Charles I. granted a patent to Lord Balti- more, conveying to him a tract of country, on the Chesapeak Bay, which, in honour of Henrietta Maria, daughter of the French king, he named Maryland. The next year, Balti- more appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the province, who, with about two hundred planters, chiefl}^ Ro- man catholics, began a settlement, in 1634, near the mouth of the Potomac, on the northern side. 42. In 1633, the first house was erected in Connecticut. This was a trading house built by some Plymouth adven- turers, who transported the materials up Connecticut river. Two years from this, 1635, about sixty men, women and children, from Newtown and Watertown, in Massachusetts, commenced their journey through the wilderness to Connec- ticut river. By these people, Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hart- ford, were settled. 43. The settlement of Rhode Island, is dated from the rear 1636, an event occasioned by the banishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts, on account of his religious opinions. He removed with his family to Mooshawic, and began a plantation, which, on account of the Divine kind- 3, he called Providence. BRITISH COLONIES. 255 44. The colony of New-Haven, was formed in 1638, in consequence of the English having occasion to visit the ter- ritory, in an expedition against the Pequots. This colony eventually united with that of Connecticut. 45. In 1663, some of the Virginia settlers laid the foun- dation of North Carolina, which was followed by the settle- ment of South Carolina, in 1670. The Carolinas were so called in lionour of Charles IX., king of France, under whose, patronage the coast had been discovered, in 1563. 46. In Pennsylvania, a small body of Swedes had plant ted themselves, at an early period. Their settlement in creased slowly, until the arrival of William Penn, in 1681; with a numerous company of (Quakers, whom religious per- secution drove across the Atlantic. Penn had acquired a grant of the territory now constituting the state, in conside- ration of the debts due from the crown, for services perform- ed by his father, admiral Penn. 47. The last settled of the original thirteen states, was Georgia, founded in 1732, by General Oglethorpe. This comes within our next succeeding period. At first, Georgia, and even the Floiidas, were covered by the Charter, as it was afterwards confirmed and enlarged, which conveyed Carolina to its proprietors. 48. The tlu-ee eldest of the American states, it will be per- ceived above, are Virginia, New-York, and Massachusetts. These have hitherto been the most important and inlluential in the confederacy. Others, however, from their numbers, are beginning to acquire their just consideration. 49. The causes of the settlement of the American states, were various. Some were made on mercenary views, the usual principle of colonization, for the particular benefits of the proprietors. This was the case with Virginia. The im- mediate purpose of the settlement of New-York, was com- merce. The Dutch were then particularly distinguished for their commercial and enterprising spirit. Massachusetts, and New-England generally, were planted principally to enjoy, in an unrestricted manner, the institutions of religion. 50. In the original foundation of three of the states, viz., Rhode Island, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the free tolera- tion of religion was recognized, and tliese were the first civil communities which acted on a principle that now seems to 256 MOrERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX, be fafi gainiD^ the popular consent. In the other colonies, there was a f^ ^ree ol intolerance on the subject of religion^ the fault of the age ; and yet they laid the foundations of a civil community, the freest and l)est which the world had hitherto seen. In New-England, particularly, they wished to enjoy their reiif^ion in peace ; and in shutting out others, whose religious opinions differed from their own, they seera to have justified themselves on the principle of self defence, with a view to be delivered, ever afterwards, from evils simi- lar to those from which they had recently escaped. As, how- ever, it must be impossible to prevent differences of opiniop. on the subject of religion, a civil community would be wise in providing for such a state of things, by suitable and tole- rant regulations. 51. Many of the fiist settlers of the country, were men of talents and liberal caltiue ; and a wilderness has never been planted by a body of people, who were more soHcitous for the interests of learning, and general education. Next, after the establishment of the Gospel, their greatest object was to multiply schools and higher seminaries of learning. Indeed, the colonists possessed excellent traits. Their mo- rahty and piety, their spirit of enteiprise and habits of indus- try, their love of liberty, and attention to education, were un- paralleled in the history of similar efforts. They were not perfect men, but they were the best and the noblest that ever founded an empire. These remarks are intended particular- ly for New-England, though they have a degree of applica- tion to all the American states. 52. The colonists purchased their lands of the Indians ; and notwithstanding what has been often asserted, respecting the frauds that were practised, there is httle reason to question the purity of motive, and the good faith of those who were engaged in these transactions. 53. The settlers in some of the colonies, experienced at first but little trouble from the Indians, for many years. This was the case particularly with Massachusetts and Pennsylva- nia. In others, they were molested from this quarter, at a very early period. Connecticut, and particularly Virginia, were obliged, soon after their settlement, to make war against the savages, in self-defence. And all the colonies, sooner or later, suffered in various ways, and especially by contentions BRITISH COLONIES. 257 with the natives. It is not to be denied, that in the end, wrong was sometimes done to these miserable tribes. Their ferocity and faithlessness were, occasionally, met with the sternest inflictions of vengeance on the part of the whites. Respecting the colonists as a body, during the present pe- riod, it may be remarked, in a very general way, that they struggled long with all the hardships, difficulties, and priva- tions incident to new establishments among savages ; that they displayed a heroism and constancy, such as have rarely been witnessed among men, and though tempted to believe, in some instances, that their undertaking would never suc- ceed, yet that their virtues finally overcame every obstacle, and they found themselves before the conclusion of this pe- riod, increasing in wealth and population. It may be added, that the colonists were often involved in the wars of the mother country, with other powers ; that a few of their wars with the Indians, affected several of the states at a time, and that a consideration of their common exposure, led to a general intercourse with one another, and particularly to the union which was formed between the New- England colonies, in 1 643 ; a union which lasted more than forty years, or until their charters were revoked, and which furnished the example of that nobler confederacy which has since taken place, of all the American states. In general, however, it is with the individual colonies that we are mostly concerned in the history of this period, but the hmits of our work will admit only of a very few details, in regard to one or two of the states. § Two years after the settlement of Connecticut, occiuTed the war with the Peqnots, a tribe of Indians, whose principal residence was on a hill in the present town of Groton. These savages had pre- viously made depredations on the infant settlement, and killed seve- ral individuals, and carried others away captive. In this perilous state of affairs, a court, convened at Hartford, determined on war. Ninety men, nearly half the fencible men of the colony, were or- dered to be raised. Forty-two from Hartford, thirty from Windsor, and eigliteen from Wethersfield. These troops, together with seventy River and JMohegan Indians, were commanded by Captain Mason, who, saihng down th.e river, surprised Mystic, one of the principal forts of the enemy, in the present town of Stonington. Before the savages could get themselves in readiness, the troops* instantly pressed forward and fired. The destruction soon became; terrible." but the Indians rallied at length, and made a desperate re- 22* 258 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. sistance. All, however, was in vain. Upon an order to burn thenij the work of destruction was completed. Seventy wigwams were in ruins, and between 500 and 600 Indians, lay bleeding on the ground, or smouldering in ashes. With the assistance of a detachment of nearly two hundred men from Massachusetts and Plymouth, the whites pursued the rest of the tribe, who fled towards the Hudson, and, defeating them in another terrible battle, in a great swamp, in Fairfield, the power of the Pequot nation, was entirely prostrated. In Virginia, the colonists were soon involved in contests with the Indians. In addition, they suffered severely by the scarcity ajid badness of provisions — the consequence of which was, that diseases swept off one half of their number, in a few months. In the latter part of the year 1609, Captain Smith, whose romantic story has been so often told, and whose name was a defence of the settlers, and a tei ror to the Indians, returned to England. Soon after his departure the colonists were reduced to the greatest extremities, having had a company of thirty men slain by the Indians, and their provisions wasted on the occasion. A most distressing famine ensued, the ef- fect of which was the reduction, in six months, of the colonists, from nearly five hundred to sixty. The remainder embarked for their native home ; but being met by a new company of adventurers, with a large supply of provisions, they were induced to return, and try the fortunes of a wilderness once more. For a number of years, it was only by the arrival of new comers, that the colony was pre- served from extinction. At last it began to prosper, from the date of Sir William Berkeley's administration, 1638, which lasted nearly forty years. Eefore the conclusion of this period, however, the colony experienced the evils of a terrible insurrection, known by the name of Bacon's rebellion, which terminated only with the death of its mover. 54. The principal events which relate to the colonies, as a body, or to the greater part of them, during the present pe- riod, were Philip's war, in 1675 and 1676, which was the most general and destructive war with the Indians, in which the colonics were ever involved — the oppressive measures re- lating to the colonies under the Stuart family, who attempted the destruction of their charters and liberties — and the wars occasioned by the hostihties into which tlie mother country entered with other European powers, usually called king William's war, and queen Anne's war; the former com- mencing in 1690, and continuing to 1697, and the latter com- mencing in 1702, and ending in 1713. § Philip's war was carried on by a king or sachem of that name, who was at the head of the Wampanoags, and whose re- sidence was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. This distinguished warrior, designing to exterminate the whites, formed a most exten- sive combination of the Indians. The greatest battle during this RUSSIA. 259 contest, is known by the name of the Swamp Fight, December, 1675, in the Narraganset country, at the Indian fortress, situated in a large swamp. The English, who were commanded by Josiah Winslow, governor of Plymouth, obtained a great victory, but dearly bought, with the loss of two hundred and thirty men, killed and wounded. The Indians lost more than four times this number, besides many women and children. Though their power was greatly broken by this defeat, they continued their depredations and massacres, until the death of their great warrior, in 1676, and in some parts of New- England, two years later. This was a melancholy period in the an- nals of the country, during which, six hundred men, the flower of its strength, had fallen ; twelve or thirteen towns had been destroyed, and six hundred dwelling houses consumed— a terrible destruction, out of a population not exceeding 60,000, I'he oppressive measures, under the Stuart family, were owing, in part, to the tyrannical disposition of the princes of that family, and, in part, to the sinister attempts of certain men, who, having visited the colonies, became hostile to them, and infused their preju- dices into the king and his ministry. Under this baleful influence, the colonies were required to surrender their charters — a demand which was complied with, except in the case of Connecticut. The duration of this state of things, however, was short ; the revolution occurring in England, in 1688, when William and Mary were placed on the throne. From this time, the colonies, though unmolested by the mother country, in regard to their liberties, si-^ffered by means of her wars with the French, who employed the savages as their auxiliaries. This was a long period of woe and desolation, lasting from 1688 to 1713, with an intermission of only four or five years. RUSSIA. 55. The history of Russia i both obscure and nnimpor- tant, until the time of Peter I., surnamed the Great, who as- cended the throne in 1G89. Russia, then raised from bar- barism and ignorance, was brought into notice with the civil- ized world ; and, by successiv^e advancements, has attained to a rank, in power and influence, second to no other state in Europe. To Peter, that country owes all its greatness. § In regard to the early history of Russia, it is only ascertained, that in the fourth century, the country was possessed by several different tribes. In the tenth century, it is said to have received the light of Christianity. In the fifteenth century, John Basilowitz re- deemed the empire from its subjection to the Tartars, and united the greater part of the country under one monarchy. The sovereigns of Russia, until Ivan Basilowitz IV., in the sixteenth century, bore the title Wenike Knez, " Great Prince," but he added that of czar, which, in the Sclavonican language, signifies king. Peter the Great, 260 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. assumed the title of emperor. It was not till the end of the six- teenth century, that Siberia was added to the empire, which, to that time, was bounded by the limits of Europe. The predecessors of Peter, maintained considerable splendour, as sovereigns; but their dominions were uncultivated, and their sub- jects barbarians. Alexis Michaelowitz, father of Peter, was the first who published a code of laws. Peter became master of the empire, by setting aside a weak elder brother, and banishing a factious sister, who had seized the govern- ment. His youth was spent in ignorance and debauchery ; but his new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. 56. The principal events of his reign, were, his war with the Turks, and taking of Azof, in 1696 — his sending an embassy into Holland, which he accompanied in disguise, in order to learn the art of ship building — his destruction of the Strelitzes, a body of troops, much resembhng the Janiza- ries of Turkey — his abolition of tiie patriarchate of Moscow, which rivalled the authority of the czars — the several de- feats he experienced in a war with Charles XII. of Sweden — his signal victory over that monarch, in the battle of Pul- towa — his building of Petersburgh — and, finally, his institu- tion of a numerous infantry, and powerful army. § Having gained the little knowledge he possessed from foreigners, he resolved to travel in search of more. Appointing De Fort, an able Genevese, his ambap:?ador, he travelled as a private person in his suite, through Germany to Holland, and v/hen he arrived at Amsterdam, engaged himself as a workman in the dock yard, under the name of Peter Michaelof. Here was exhibited the astonishing spectacle of a mighty prince, at the age of twenty-five, quitting the luxury of a court, labouring with his own hands, at a toilsome me- chanic art, fed and clad like the rest of his fellow-workmen, and obeying the orders of his temporary master I His occupation did not prevent him from attending the lectures on anatomy, surgery, mechanics, and other branches of practical philosophy, cultivated in Holland. From Holland he passed to England, where he was simi- larly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement. At the end of sixteen months, he returned to Moscow, laden with knowledge, and the fruits of experience, which he employed for the benefit of his own subjects. Charles the XII. was, at this time, sweeping all before him. He had beaten the czar, in a number of engagements; and, suddenly breaking off a negociation, he entered Ptussia with 45,000 men, with the design of dictating peace at Moscow. He would probably have accomplished his object, had he not been induced, by a treacherous promise of aid from the Cossacs, to march through the Ukraine, in tile midst of winter. Here Peter seized his opportunity, when the SWEDEN. 261 enemy's army was wasted by fatigue and famine, and meeting Charles, at Pultowa, he gave him battle, killing 9000 of the Swedes, and taking 14,000 prisoners. Peter died in 1725. His usefulness, as a sovereigUj is un- questioned ; yet, as a man, he is justly obnoxious to the charge of being ferocious, impatient, passionate, and prodigal of the lives of his subjects. SWEDEN. 57. The history of Sweden is unimportant, until the re- volution of 1523, which placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne, who was followed by eight sovereigns to the time of Charles XII., in 1697. The crown was elective till 1544, when Gustavus persuaded the states to render it hereditary in his family. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, had been united into one kingdom, from the time of Margaret of Denmark, in 1389, to the time of Gustavus. The last king (Christian II.) of the united countries, was so tyrannical, that Gustavus was induced to take up arms against him, and deliver his subjugated countrymen. He introduced Lutheranism into his states, administered the government with great firmness and wisdom ; and, considering the age in which he lived, was one of tlie most extraordinary of men. Two at least of his successors to the period of Charles XII., were eminent sovereigns, viz. Gustavus Adolphus, sur- named the Great, and Christiana. Gustavus was illustrious as a hero, and Christiana was enthusiastically devoted to hterature, and distinguished for her patronage of learned men. § Sweden was the eastern part of the ancient Scandinavia, and, together with Denmark, was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a colony of the Gomerians. From thisconntry came the Goths, the Gepidce, the Hernli, and the Lombards. The Swedish monarchy is very an- cient ; but the history of its earlier sovereigns is too uncertain, to satisfy the sober enquirer. Eric IX., in the twelfth century, is the first monarch whose reign approximates to chronological truth. There appear to have been nine sovereigns between him and Gustavus Vasa. During the oppressive reign of Christian II., Gustavus Vasa was sent as an hostage into Denmark, in 1518, whence he made his escape on hearing of the massacre at Stockhold of ninety-four senators, among whom his father perished. For a while he con- cealed himself in Dalecarlia ; at length he entered into a small town, 262 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. on a day when a fair was held, harangued the country people, snd with their assistance took possession of the fortress, and put the Danish commander to death. From this moment his life became a scene of triumphs. Follow- ed by his brave Dalecarlians, he besieged Stockholm ; and it hap- pening, when the Danes came to relieve that city, that a sudden frost detained their ships at a great distance from the port, Gusta- vus's soldiers advanced on the ice and set fire to them. This victory opened the gates of Stockholm, and he was proclaimed king. Gustavus Adolphus began to reign in 1611. He became a hero in early li^, having in his twelfth year been encircled M'ith the laurels of victory. At the age of eighteen he was successfully prosecuting a war with Denmark, which he concluded in 1613 with an advantageous peace. He was equally successful in his wars with the Poles and Russians, from whom he took many towns. In his war with the [mperialists, he defeated their forces in the battle of Leipsic, in 1631, and afterwards in that of Lutzen; but in the latter he lost his life. Christiana, in 1632, succeeded her father Adolphus when only seven years of age, and during her reign, Sweden preserved its ascendency in the affairs of Germany. She ruled the kingdom with great wisdom and prudence, till 1654, when she resigned her crown to her cousin, Charles Gustavus. She was so eager to quit Sweden, and to reach a land more congenial to the cultivation of science, that when she arrived at a small brook, which separates that country from Denmark, she alighted from her carriage, and leaped over the stream: "At length," said she, "lam free, and out of Sweden, whither I hope never to return." She visited Paris, where unbound- ed homage was paid to her genius, but where her manners gave of- fence to the court for want of decency and conformity to rules. Rome, however, became the place of her residence, where she eiiv- braced the Catholic religion, and where she died. 58. Charles XII. succeeded, in 1697, at the age of fifteen years. He was a competitor of Peter the Great, and divided with him the admiration of Europe. He has been ranked with the greatest conquerors of antiquity, on account of his heroism of cliaracter and, extraordinary achievements. But Charles was rather a singular, than a great man. His suc- cess as a warrior, for a time, alarmed and agitated Europe, Soon after his accession, his dominions were attacked on three sides, by Russia, Poland, and Denmark, and he, al- though then only a boy of seventeen years, successively took the field against these powers, and signally defeated theiiL Poland he humbled in the dust. A negociation having been begun by the czar, Charles abruptly terminated it, and de- clared that he would negociate only at Moscow. The rigour DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 263 of a Russian winter, prepared his army for the defeat, which it so signally expeiienced at Pultowa. After this battle, he fled into Turkey, where his conduct seemed to be that of a maniac, rather than of a man in his senses. § The war with Denmark he despatched in six weeks. The Danish king purchased the safety of his capital and kingdom, by making full indemnity to the duke of Holstein, whose terdtorv he bad attempted to wrest from him. The Swedish monarch then hastened into Ingria, which the czar had altacKed, and at the battle of Narva, with eight thousand men he defeated an army of eighty thousand Russians, of whom he took thirty thousand prisoners. In his chastisement of Poland, he satisfied the dictates of the amplest revenge He reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated mto the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw and Cracow. He then, by means of the assembled states, declared the Polish Augustus deposed, and procured Stanislaus, his own de- pendent, to be elected sovereign of Poland When Charles fled into Turkey, he had only eighteen hundred men. He still hoped to dethrone the czar, by engaaing the Otto- man power against him. After many efforts the Sultan was induced to send two hundred thousand soldiers against the Russians But upon the capitulation of Peter's army, peace having been made Charles was disappointed, and vented his rage against the Turk' He had been hospitably entertained more than three years but his arrogance becoming insufferable, he was ordered to quit the Turkish dominions. This order he refused to obey, and proceeded immedi- ately to fortify his camp. With only three hundred men, he de- fended himself for some time, against an army of twenty thousand Turks, and only yielded, when he was taken by the legs and arms and dragged to the tent of the bashaw. ' Distinguished Characters in Period IX. 1. Tycho Brahe, a Dane, celebrated as an astronomer. 2. Cervantes, a Spaniard, the celebrated author of Don Quixote. 3. Shakspeare, the greatest of dramatic poets. 4. Galileo, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. 6. Raleigh, an eminent navigator and man of letters. 6. Bacon, an English philosopher and universal genius. 7. Kepler, a German astronomer. 8. Grotius, a Dutch writer, of various and profound leam- 9. Des Cartes, a famous French philosopher. 264 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 10. Gassendi, a Frenchman, distinguished as an astrono- mer. 1 1. Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and theologian. 12. Milton, the greatest of epic poets among the moderns. 13. Corneilie, the prince of the French dramatic poets. 14. Boyle, an Enghshman, distinguished in natural philo- sophy, 15. Dryden, an eminent English poet. 16. Locke, the greatest among the English metaphysi- cians. 17. Leibnitz, an acute German philosopher and mathemn- tician. § 1. TychoBrahe, descended from an illiistrions Swedish family, was born in Denmark, 1546. He was sent by his father to Copenhagen, for the purpose of studying rhetoric and philosophy ; but the great eclipse of the sun on the 2ist of Augnst, 1562, engaged him to study astronomy. With this science he was excessively delighted. He often spent whole nights with a small celestial globe in his hands, in learning the names of the stars, and in the acquisition of a science, which he called divine. He was honoured by the noble and learned of his age, and patronized by his sovereign, for a time; but the ma- lice of his enemies drove him from his country, and he found an asylum in Prague, where he died, in 1601. I-t is said, that his learning made him superstitious, and his philo- sophy irritable, to such a degree, that in a philosophical dispute with some person, the argument rose to such a pitch of personal violence, that he lost his nose. This he supplied by a gold and silver one, admirably constructed. The best of his works are, the Rodolphine Tables, and the Histo- ria Ccelestis. He opposed the Copernican system, which is a suffi- cient proof of the unsoundness of his judgment. 2. Cervantes, who is better known by this name than by his sur- name, Saavedra, was born at Madrid, 1549. He led a life of hard- ship and poverty. Before he became an author, he engaged in the military profession, and five years and an half he endured all the horrors of an Algerine captivity. After his release and return to Spain, he began to write plays for his maintenance, but though his pieces were acted with universal applause, he pined in poverty, and at last, found himself in a prison. In his confinement, he began his immortal work Don Quixote, which was not finished till the ex- piration of several years. This work is read and admired in every known language ; but though popular from the beginning, it pro- duced him neither notice nor bread. He was, however, serene amidst his wretchedness. In Don Quixote, Cervantes appears the purest of all humourists, gentle, genial, and kind. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 265 3, Shakspeare, (William) was born of a respectable family, at-"^' Stratford-on-Avon, April, 1546. Few events of his life have been recorded, while scores of volumes have been written on his poetry, and on the character of his genius. He was designed to carry on the trade of his father, which was that of a wool dealer, and with that view, he was early taken from school. He married at the age of seventeen, and soon became the father of a family. An un- fortunate and criminal act, (deer stealing,) which he committed, in connexion with some thoughtless companions, was the means of driving him to London. Here, a new scene opened upon him, and he soon laid the foun- dation of a fame, which is unequalled in the history of human genius. He first enlisted among the players, and became an actor on the stage. It is not known that he excelled in the profession of an actor ; the coiiirary is rather inferred. But from acting, he passed to the wri- ting of plays, which, at first, he adapted to the lower classes ; but when his performances had gained the favour of the queen and her court, he aimed at more elaborate compositions. Having by the productions of his pen, and by the management of the play-house, acquired a competent fortune, he retired to his native town, where he lived respected and beloved by his neighbours. Shakspeare died 23d April, 1516, in the fifty-third year of his age. Several relics of the immortal bard, are still preserved in the house where he was born, the front of which is now occupied as a meat- shop. Among the articles are, his sitting-chair, a table on which he wrote, a Spanish card and dice-box, presented to the poet by the prince of Castile, part of a Spanish match-lock, the remains of the piece with which he shot the deer in Charlicote Park, a table-co- ver, a present from good Queen Bess, &c. &c. This is a place, which is visited by thousands, of all ranks, conditions, and countries, in homage to the genius which was there first brought to light. Of Shakspeare, it has been said, almost in the language of adora^, lion, " that he is the greatest of poets and of men— that he went be- yond all men, and stands in the array of human intellect, like the sun in the system, single and unapproachable." But eulogy has been exhausted on him. After all, it is melancholy to reflect, that amidst his great and incomparable beauties, there are many moral blemishes_and defects. 4. GaUleo made discoveries in astronomy, that were too astonish- ing, and too oppose to the doctrines of Aristotle, to escape thecen- ■ sure of the philosophers of the age ; and no sooner was it known, that he had embraced the Copernican system, than he was sum- moned before the Inquisition. Into its terrible dungeons was this illustrious man twice thrown, where, in the whole, he spent three or four miserable years, and this for embracing opinions then deemed so false in philosophy, and so heretical and contrary to the word of God. Among the discoveries that have rendered the name of Galileo immortal, are his observation of the inequalities on the surface of the moon, and his knowledge of her vibration, his calculation of the 23 266 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD IX. longitude by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, which he first noti- ced, his invention of the cycloid, and his perception of the increas- ing celerity in the descent of bodies. He lived seventy-eight years. Towards the close of his long life, ne became blind. Milton has finely alluded to him in the lines *' Like the moon, whose orb Through optic glass, the Tuscan artist views At evening, from the top of Fesole, Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands, Rivers, or mountains, on her spotty globe." 5. Raleigh (Sir Walter) was one of the most brilliant and useful cha- racters of the times in which he lived. His perseverance in making discoveries, first inspired the British nation with that ardour after maritime distinction, which has given both wealth and glory to the empire. He was also a valiant leader, an able negociator, and a man of letters. His works, composed in the obscurity of a dungeon, on history, politics, geography, and philosophy, as well as some good poetical pieces, will make him known to future time. It must be owned, nevertheless, that his genius was cramped by the fashions of the age. His life, not indeed free from stain, was clouded by misfortune — he became the victim of royal persecution, — and his head was finally brought to the block. On the most frivolous and arbitrary charges, king James confined him in the tower thirteen years ; and though he was afterwards released, it M^as not long before he fell again under the king's suspicion, the consequence of which was his tragical end, on the 29th Oct. 1618. That at one time Sir Walter aspired to the hand of Elizabeth, would seem to be inferred from the following incident. On a win- dow where the queen could see it, he wrote this line — " Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall." Attracting Elizabeth's eye, she replied to it with her usual good sense. " If thy heart fail thee, climb not at all." 6. Bacon (Sir Francis) was born 22d January, 1561, in West- minster. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and when only a child he was iavourably noticed by Queen Elizabeth, who used to call him her " young lord keeper," alluding to the office held by his father. On the accession of James I., he rose into power — lie was knighted, and successively made attorney-general and keeper of the seals, lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage. His eleva- tion excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery and corruption in the office of lord chancellor. The consequence was, that he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to be imprisoned in the tower. But his fine was remitted by the king, he was restored to the public opinion, and sat in the first parliament called by Charles. It is a matter of some doubt whether Bacon was guilty of DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 267 the crime alledged against him. Tlie blame is wit^^ much reason supposed to attacli to his servants, so that the eulogy of the poet, is more clearly due to him than the poet's censure — " The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." Bacon was indeed one of the greatest and most universal geniuses, that any age or country has produced. As an author, his " No- vum Organum Scientiarum," has, among his other performances, immortalized his name. He was the tirst who taught the proper method of studying the sciences : that is, he pointed out the way in which we should begin and carry on our pursuit of knowledge, in order to arrive at truth. In this view he has been very properly denominated "the miner and sapper of philosophy," "the pioneer of nature," " the priest of nature's mysteries." The great princi- ples of the Baconian philosophy, are now universally established. » 7. Kepler, (John,) though the contemporary of Bacon, and the worthy precursor of Newton, was by no means freed from the illu- sions of the old philosophy. The old or Aristotelian philosophy was the method of anticipating nature, or dictating to her as to what her operations are to be, instead of observing what they ac- tually are, and inferring general truths from particular facts. Thus, Tycho Brahe anticipated nature, in taking it as a certain truth, that the earth must be at rest, though he admitted the reality of the planetary motions. Thus the great Kepler, imagined that the planets must be six in number, because of certain properties of numbers, and he maintained other puerile absurdities. He was, however, a man of high celebrity as an astronomer, and deservedly commended by most of the great astronomers who succeeded him. He first proved that the planets do not move in circles, but in ellipses ; and that in their motions, they describe equal areas in equal times, &c. His earliest years were not improved by education. When, how- ever, he began to study, the turn of his intellect was abundantly manifest. He was born in 1571, and died in 1630. 8. Grotius (Hugo) was born at Delft, in 1583, and died, in 1645. A singular event of his life, showing the sufferings and dangers of literary men in those times, was the following. In consequence of the persecution of the Arminians, of whom Grotius was one, and an able defender, in 1618, he was doomed to perpetual imprisonment. His confinement was alleviated by his literary occupations, and the assiduities of his wife. The fond care of this worthy woman at last procured his deliverance, after a captivity of nearly two years. On pretence of removing books, which she declared proved injurious to her husband's health, she was permitted to send away a small chest of drawers, of the length of three feet and a half, in which he was confined. Thus, carried by two soldiers from the prison, the chest was then removed to a distance on horseback, and at the house of a friend the illustrious prisoner was set at liberty, pursuing his flight afterw^ards in the guise of a mason with a rule and a trowel. His particular profession was the law, and he pleaded his first cause at the age of seventeen with great eclat. But polite literature 268 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. engaged much of his attention, and he wrote many works on moral and religious subjects, together with histories, poetry, critical notes, epistles, &c. His learning was very various and profound, 9. Des Cartes, (Renedes,) though a man of genius and extensive attainments, was too much of a theorist. He, however, advanced far beyond his predecessors in many respects, and if he had done nothing besides introducing a spirit of inquiry, and a wish of ex- amining the mysterious operations of nature, he would have effected much for mankind. He was well acquainted with mathematics and philosophy, and possessed a mind capable of profound meditation and patient inquiry, though highly imaginative. He wrote ingeni- ously on the laws of the universe, but his theory of vortices, ac- counting for the movements of the planetary worlds, is sufficiently visionary. He was courted by the learned and the noble, and princes almost vied with one another in paying him their attentions. He died at the age of fifty-four, at Stockholm, but after he had been interred seventeen years, his body was removed to Paris, as his countrymen chose to claim it. 10. Gassendi, (Peter,) also a native of France, was born in Pro- vence, 1592. He contributed somewhat to weaken the dominion of Aristotle over the human mind, though he was not himself altoge- ther based on the true philosophy. He was nevertheless a great man and a great scholar ; and to his genius and labours, the intel- lectual improvements of subsequent ages are not a httle owing. His studious habits proved injurious to his constitution^ but he was in some degree relieved by phlebotomy. He, however, at length sunk under his chronic complaint, and placing the hand of his faithful amanuensis on his heart, after perceiving that the motion of that spring of life was faint and fluttering, he exclaimed in these last words, " You see what is man's life," and immediately expired, 22d Oct., 1655. 11. Pascal, (Blaise) whose early extraordinary powers and at- tainments astonished the world, was born at Clermont in Auvergne, 19th June, 1623. From a child, he inquired into the reasons of every thing, and he could be satisfied with nothing but with such proof as the subject examined would admit. He alwa}'S sought for demonstration ar ' truth, if they could be attained. The following circumstance evinces his wonderful aptitude for mathematical studies, and the superiority of his intellect. His father, an eminent mathematician, had carefully secured him, as was sup- posed, from learning the mathematics, by denying the child the requisite books. The father's object was first to perfect Blaise in the languages ; but the latter extorting from his father by entreaty, a definition of geometry, which was very vague and general, imme- diately entered on the study, without any other help. He was then but twelve years of age. He pursued his inquiries clandestinely, till his father happened to enter the room, where he was busy with his bars and rings, (used in place of geometrical lines and circles,) and to his infinite astonishment, found that the child was endeavour- DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 269 ing to demonstrate what makes the thirty-second proposition of Euclid's first book. He had proceeded thus far in geometry, from axioms and principles which he had laid down, and which he had applied in a connected series, through the intervening propositions. At the age of sixteen, he composed the ablest treatise on conic sec- tions, that had appeared since the time of the ancients. At the age of nineteen, he contrived a mathematical machine, by which calcu- lations of every kind could be made, w^ithout the help of a pen. And at the age of twenty-three, he demonstrated the phenomena of the gravity of the air, and soon after solved a problem, proposed by Mersennus, which had hitherto perplexed the ablest mathema- ticians of Europe. All these mighty powers and attainments, he consecrated to re- ligion, and Christianity never received a more splendid offering than she did from the genius of Pascal. His religious views and feelings are embodied in his Provincial Letters, and his Thoughts on Re- ligion, &c. works, whose celebrity has not surpassed their merits. Voltaire, with his characteristic scorn of piety, calls Pascal, "a sublime madman, born a century too early." 12. Milton, (John,) was born in London, 1608. His political and controversial writings are justly celebrated, and contain many ad- mirable passages. He was a strenuous asserter and defender of liberty, and, in many of his views on this and kindred subjects, was far in advance of his own age. But as a poet, he is still more justly celebrated, and is, at least, a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His Paradise Lost, is the greatest poem which modern ages have pro- duced. In his life time, the poet never received the meed of praise which was his due; but ample justice has since been accorded to him, and all posterity will render homage to his transcendent genius. The incidents of his life are interesting, but they are so well known, that we shall pass them over, except to say that he was thrice married ; was subjected to much domestic infelicity, in his first marriage; became blind in writing his Defence of the English People, against the Attack of Salmasius ; suffered not a little from personal and political enemies ; and, finally, died comparatively poor, and forsaken by the world. It may be added, that he was uncommonly handsome, when young ; was economical in his living, and rigidly abstemious; and, in religion, was a puritan, with some diversity, however, in his re- ligious views, at the different periods of his life. He died of the gout, in 1674. 13. Corneille, (Peter,) whose poetical works are among the sub- limest effusions of the French muse, was born at Rouen, 1606. He was brought to the bar, but he soon abandoned it for poetry, which was far more congenial to his taste. He wrote plays, the most cele- brated of which was, the Cid, a tragedy, which drew against him the persecution and obloquy of rival wits and unsuccessful poets. He is said to have been a very meritorious man, in private life ; liberal, humane, and devout, and rather inclined to melancholy. He died at the age of seventy-nine years. 23* 270 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD IX. 14. Boyle, (Robert,) was the seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard, earl of Cork, and born in 1626. After having visited foreign countries, he retired, in 1646, to his estate at Stalbridge, and, amidst the confusion and tumults of the time, enjo3^ed there a peaceful soli- tude. He, however, laboured assiduously for the promotion of learning and religion, to both of which he was devoted in a most exem.plary manner. He was eminent in natural philosophy and chemistry, in which, from adopting the Baconian method, he made many discoveries. '^ To him," says Boerhaave, " we owe the secrets of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, fossils; so that, from his works may be deduced the whole system of natural knowledge." He invented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. His re- gard for religion, he showed in the purity of his life, the genera] tendency of his writings, his aversion to temporal honours, which were abundantly offered him, and his liberal benefactions in aid of benevolent and pious undertakings. His regular charities amounted to £1000 annually. He founded a public lecture for the defence of divine revelation against unbelievers, and particularly interested himself in the propagation of the Gospel among the nations, send- ing many hundred copies of parts of the New Testaments into the east. He died in his sixty-fifth year. 15. Dryden, (John,) early gave proof of his superior poetical abili- ties. He continued to Vv'rite to old age, and improved to the very last, not only in judgment, but in fire, of which, his Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, and his Fables, are a proof. He wrote much, both in poetry and prose, and doubtless too much ; for the rapidity v/ith which he composed, prevented correctness. He produced no less than twen- ty-seven plays, besides a very large number of other works. He excelled less in dramatic composition, than in any other species of poetry. In his .prose, he Vv^as equalled by few of his age, for judg- ment, criticism, and erudition. He professes himself to have derived, in regard to prose writing, more essential aid from Tillotson, than from any other writer. Dr. Johnson's critique on Dryden, is very just and discriminating. The Edinburgh reviewers place him at the head of his line; they think him great as a satirist, but, in respect to genuine poetic power, a step lower than the poets of Elizabeth and James. His writings are too much tinctured with the licentiousness of the age, and, in his religious views, the poet was too flexible and accommodating. The year of his birth was 1631 -that of his death 1701. 16. Locke, (John.) so celebrated as a philosopher, and an orna- ment of English literature, was born in 1632. In the field of men- tal and political philosophy, he has won laurels that can never fade. He has been called, " the glory of theorists." By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situa- tion under government, and wrote, at that time, several political tracts. The danger of prosecution for high treason, compelled his lordship, at length, to fly to Holland. Thither Mr. Locke followed him. After a time, the English demanded him of the States Gene- ral, on suspicion of being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion. SWEDEN. 271 Thus persecuted, Locke concealed himself twelve months, devoting his time to literary labours; and, two years after, when he returned to England, in consequence of the revolution, he published his cele- brated Essay on the Human Understanding, in the composition of which, he had been engaged nine years. The latter portion of his life was passed in religious retirement, and in the composition of theological treatises. He died at the seat of lady Masham, his friend, in 1 704, gi^ing emphatic testimony, in what he said, to the vanity of human life. 17. Leibnitz (William Godfrey) was not undistinguished as a statesman, lawyer, and poet, though he is most celebrated as a mathematician and philosopher. On the principle of the Baconian philosophy, he must be pronounced wanting, in some respects, yet he enjoyed the singular felicity of being esteemed the greatest and most learned man in Europe. In civil life, he had considerable employment, and attained to some distinction. He spent thirteen years in studying the plan of an universal language, but he died before he had completed the extra- ordinary design. Leibnitz proposed characters which, like those in algebra, might not only be simple, but expressive, and enable men of all nations to converse familiarly together. He died in 1716, of those complicated disorders, the gout and the stone, aged seventy. In temper, he was passionate ; in character, a"\'aricious. At his death, such a quantity of money was found in his house, hoarded in sacks, that the wife of his nephew, who possessed his property, died with excess of joy at the sight. PERIOD X. The period of the American and French Revolutions ; ex- tending' from the death of CJiarles XII., of iSwedeUj 1718 A. C, to the final restoration of the Bourbons^ 1815 A. a SWEDEN. Sect. 1. In pursuing tlie history of Sweden, a country which at this time excited much attention, on account of the character of its sovereign, we have to record an event, which secured for Sweden a reformation of her government, and saved Europe from the ravages of a fatal ambition. This was the death of Charles XIL, who, while besieging a Nor- wegian fortress, was killed by a cannon ball, on the 11th of 1718. 272 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. § While Charles remained in Turkey, the czar and the king of Denmark ravaged Sweden on every side. At the same time, through the influence of the czar, Stanislaus had been driven from the throne of Poland, on which Augustus was replaced. This state of aifairs made Charles desirous of returning to his own country, especially as he despaired of engaging the sultan in a war with Russia. Re- turning in disguise, he immediately conceived the design of wresting Norway from Denmark. This project, however, he soon abandoned, in consequence of failing in the outset. Sweden w^as too much exhausted and distracted, and surrounded by too many powerful enemies, to sustain him at that time, in a war of conquest. His able minister, Goertz, advised him to a different course, which was, to make peace with the czar, and with him, unite in the attempt to dethrone George I., and reinstate James, on the throne of Great Britain. These measures were agreed upon ; but in the interval oi preparation, Charles, still wishing to wrest Norway from the Danes, made an attack on that country. It was in this expedition that he lost his life. A half pound ball, discharged from a cannon loaded with grape shot, struck his head, while he was exposing himself, with per- fect temerity, to unnecessary danger. Though he expired without a groan, the moment he had received the blow, he instinctively grasped the hilt of his sword, and was found in that position, so characteristic of his temper. No conqueror, either of ancient or modern times, ever had a more enthusiastic passion for glory, than Charles XII. This is the clue to all those eccentricities and acts of daring, which have justly entitled him to the epithet of " mad-man." His preceptor asked him, when a pupil, what he thought of Alexander. " I think," said he, " that I should choose to be like him." " Aye, but," said the tutor, " he lived only thirty-two years." "Oh," answered the prince, " that is long enough, when a man has conquered kingdoms." After the death of Charles, Sweden, exhausted and impoverished, demanded repose and enjoyed it. She engaged in the pursuits of com- merce, and cultivated the attendant arts. Her islands in the West Indies, were of great consequence to her foreign trade. The states took the opportunity to reform the government, and wisely restricted tlie prerogatives of the crown. 2. Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ulrica Eleonora, by the election of the states, who permitted her husband, the prince of Hesse, to be associated with her in tlie government ; but they greatly limited the power of the sovereign. Ulrica soon resigned the throne to her husband. On his death, in 1751, the states elected Adolphus Frederick, a prince of mild and pacific virtues, but whose reign was rendered most uneasy, by the factions of the senate. After his decease, the sceptre was given to his son, Gustavus III., in 1771, who, notwithstanding his coronation oath, deprive^* PRUSSIA. 273 the senate of its privileges, and rendered himself absolute. The despotism, however, which he w-rongfiiUy procured, he moderately exercised, and the succeeding part of his reign w^as marked v/ith peace and prosperity. In 1792, he was assas- sinated, at a masked ball. § Gustavus effected the change in the government, in the following manner. Having assembled the officers of his army, without making any communication of his design, he repaired to the senate house, where he read a decree, already prepared, for making the crown ab- solute, caused it to be signed by all the members of the senate, and then dismissed the assembly. 3. Gustavus IV., son of the former, now succeeded to the throne, under the regency of the duke of Sudermania. In 1800, he joined the Northern Confederacy against England, but made peace with that power the next }'ear. In 1805, he united with Austria and Russia, in the war against France. He soon after, lost Pomerania and Rugen, and in 1808, Fin- land, which was conquered by Russia. He wa^ dethroned in 1809, and the crown given to the duke of Sudermania. § The conduct of Gustavus, in the latter part of the period of these wars, was marked by so much extravagance, that he was considered mentally deranged ; and to prevent the total ruin of the kingdom, it was determined to dethrone him. This plan was carried into ef- fect, without difficulty or blood-shed. 4. The duke of Sudermania, under the title of Charles XIII., made peace with France ; but the king having no children, Bernadotte, a favourite general of Napoleon, was, through his influence, declared crowai prince and successor to the throne, 1810. Bernadotte, however, has been faithful to the country which adopted him, and he never afforded any aid to his former master. § Upon the death of Charles, in 1818, the crown prince quietly succeeded to the throne. He rendered efficient aid in the wars which terminated in the overthrow of the French emperor. He proves to be a wise prince, and promotes the welfare of his subjects, by salu- tary improvements and reforms. A few years before the accession of Bernadotte, (1814,) Norway was taken from Denmark, and an- nexed to Sweden, in opposition to the wishes and efforts of the Nor- wegians. PRUSSIA. 5. Prussia was very httle noticed, till some time within the present period, when Frederick II., the Great, raised the kingdom to a high degree of splendour. It had existed as a 274 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. kingdom, from the year 1700, when all the German states acknowledged it as such. It was before styled the Electorate of Brandenburgh. § This country was inhabited by the Borussi, who denominated it Borussia, which has been corrupted to Prussia. They were conquered by the knights of the Teutonic order, whom Cassimer IV., king of Poland, compelled to acknowledge themselves his vassals, and to al- low Polish Prussia to continue under the protection of Poland. Modern Prussia, is a kingdom formed of several states, united by alliances and conquests. The house of Brandenburgh, which now occupies the throne, is descended, in a direct line, from the ancient family of Hohenzollern, mentioned in history from the year 800. The more distinguished predecessors of the great Frederick, were Frederick William, surnamed the Great Elector, and Frederick Wil- liam I., the father of the Great Frederick. Frederick William, the Elector, was a prudent and valiant prince. At the commencement of his reign, his electorate resembled a desert ; the villages were burnt, the cities presented nothing but ruins, and a part of his inheri- tance was in the hands of the Swedes. He began by regulating the finances, and discharging his father's unworthy ministers, and by skilful negotiations, regained all the provinces guaranteed to him by the peace of Westphalia. Frederick William I., would have been deemed an extraordinary man, had he not been eclipsed by his greater son. As the case is, his talents and management excite a degree of wonder. His father was profuse, and lavished treasures without an object. Frederick William was economical in the extreme, and expended nothing ex- cept on the soldiery. In his dress and diet, he was remarkably sim- ple and plain. He even denied himself the common comforts of life, being wont to say, that a prince ought to spare not only the blood, but the property of his subjects. Voltaire describes this monarch thus. " He used to walk from his palace, clothed in an old blue coat with copper buttons, half way down his thighs ; and when he bought a new one, these buttons were made to serve again. It was in this dress that his majesty, armed with a huge Serjeant's cane, marched forth every day to review his regiment of giants. These giants were his greatest delight, and the things for which he went to the heaviest expense. The men who stood in the first rank of this re- giment, were none of them less than seven feet high ; and he sent to purchase them from the farthest parts of Europe, to the borders of Asia." FrederickWilliam was a man of vulgar habits, and coarse manners, and often treated his children w'lih a rudeness and asperity, that would have disgraced a savage. According to an account given by his daughter, W^ilhelmina, princess of Prussia, it would be difficult to count the canings and the fisticuffs with which he gratified his son, the great Frederick, who could never appear before the king with- out being beaten, or, at least, insulted. The princess, too, had her full share of the brutal liberality of her father, who often struck her. PRUSSIA. 275 She tells us, one day, " he seized her by the hand, gave her several blows on the face with his fist, one of which knocked her over." What added to their misfortunes was, the severe diet to which they were condemned, for they were almost hterally famishing. There was often nothing at their father's table but garden-stuff, so badly- cooked, that it disgusted them. Frequently, indeed, it was impossi- ble to touch it, for, after serving the other guests, Frederic William would spit in the dish, that his children might not break their fast. What a specimen of a prince's court. 6. Frederick II., the Great, ascended the throne, 1740. His father had left him an efficient and well disciplined army, amounting to sixty-six thousand men. His views were bent on conquest, and on the enlargement of his small territory. With the best army in Europe, he was by no means backward in putting his ambitious projects into execution. The next year after his accession, he revived some obsolete claim to Silesia, and accordingly marched against the Austrians, whom he de- feated at the battle of Molwitz. He effected the conquest of Silesia, in 1742. He next invaded Saxony, but the part he had already acted, was sufficient to alarm the neighbouring states. Accordingly, Russia, Austria, and France, concluded a treaty of defensive alliance against him. This confedera- cy took place in 1756, and constituted what is called, " the seven years' war," which proved to be an extremely sangui- nary contest. § The success of this war was various. Frederick maintained his ground against his powerful enemies, sometimes conquering, and sometimes conquered. He lost, perhaps, as many battles as he gain- ed ; but so equal a contest was wonderful, considering the vast su- periority of numbers on the side of his opponents. At last, howe- ver, his affairs became so critical, from his diminishing resources, and the increase of his enemies, that he began to act solely on the de- fensive. But the death of the Russian empress, at this time, afford- ed him the most essential relief. Her successor made peace with the Prussian king, and being joined by the Russian troops, with whose aid, Frederick obtained an important victory, he was enabled to secure an honourable peace with aU the hostile powers. In 1772, Frederick added New Prussia to his dominions, which, in conjunction with Russia and Austria, he dismem- bered from Poland. In 1786, he died, at the age of seventy- four years, with the reputation of being the greatest warrior of the time, and one of the most distinguished princes of whom history has preserved any memorial. This distinc- 276 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. tion, howeverj lies not in his moral, but in his intellectual endowments. § Frederick possessed- a discernment, energy, activity, decision, and constancy of purpose, which fitted him to act the part of a hero; and, together with these qualities, as much moral perverseness as is required to make a consummate hero. He was not so distinguished for the conduct of a battle, or a campaign, as for resources in adver- sity, for celerity of operation, and, especially, for the discipline of his troops. An instance of his decision of character, and the seve- nty of his discipline, appears in the following relation : Intending to m;ike, in the night, an important movement in his camp, which was in sight of the enemy, he gave orders, that by eight o'clock, all the lights in the camp should be put out, on pain of death. The moment that the time was past, he walked out himself to see whe- ther all were dark. He found a light in the tent of a captain Zietern, which he entered, just as the officer was folding up a letter. Zietern knew him, and instantly fell on his knees, to intreat his mercy. The king asked, to whom he had been writing ; he said it was a let- ter to his wife, which he had retained the candle these few minutes beyond the time, in order to finisli. The king coolly ordered him to write one line more, which he should dictate. This line was to in- form his wife, without any explanation, that by such an hour the next day, he sliould be a dead man. The letter was then sent as had been intended, and the next day the captain was executed. Frederick was remarkably attentive to business, and ever)^ depart- ment of administration was under his own immediate inspection. The most minute particulars of national and domestic policy, did not escape his observation. He extended the limit'^ of his kingdom, and much increased its industry, population, and wealth. His intellectual powers were great, and when we consider his situation, and the little care that had been taken of his education, we must acknowledge, that his literary acquisitions were considera- ble. He had much general knowledge of the sciences, and was well conversant with French writers on polite literature. He aimed at the reputation both of philosopher and poet, and was a voluminous author in prose and verse. Nothing favourable can be said of his moral and religious charac- ter. He was sceptical, undevout, and addicted to various species of vice. Atheists and libertines were his bosom companions, particu- larly the corrupting and flagitious Voltaire. 7. He was succeeded, 1786, by Frederick William II., his nephew, an impolitic, pleasure-loving prince, who joined in the league against the French republic, and then deserted his allies. Dying in 1797, he was succeeded by his son Frede- rick William III., who unhappily revived some obsolete pre- tensions to Hanover, in 1805, and on Napoleon's proposhigto restore that electorate to the king of England, in 1806, Fre- GERMANY. 277 derick took the field against him, and experienced an utter overthrow at the great battle of Jena, which was fought Oc- tober 14, 1806. § A hereditary animosity against Austria, prevented a co-operation of strength, when their national existence was threatened. The whole of Germany, well imited and organized, would, probably, at any time, have resisted the power of Napoleon. But being di- vided, both Prussia and Austria, as well as the lesser states, were overrun and subjected by the fortunate conqueror. Prussia, after neglecting several opportunities of humbling the common enemy, with a strange inconsideration, risked her national existence on the issue of a single battle. She trusted too implicitly in her ancient mi- litary fame, and the beauty of her army, (for there was not a proud- er army in Europe,) and, therefore, fell before her more sagacious and calculating enemy. Frederick was shorn of nearly half of his dominions. 8. In 1812, the Prussian monarch assisted the French in their Russian campaign ; but on the failure of that enter- prise, joined his forces with those of the emperor Alexander, and contributed to the subsequent overthrow of Napoleon. At the battle of Waterloo, his army, vmder the valiant Blucher, turned the fortune of the day, and thus essentially contributed to the restoration of the Bourbons. Prussia lionourably acquit- ted herself in this great contention, and regained hej^;^ former territory. Of late years, the Prussian king has been effectu- ally engaged in promoting the intellectual improvement of his people. Perhaps, no monarch in Europe, has done more than he, to advance the true happiness and glory of his kingdom. He has declared, that a Bible shall be put into the hands of every peasant's family in his realm. § It has been conjectured by politicians, that Prussia cannot long preserve the rank that she has now attained, situated as her territory is, running out in different parcels of lands, of singular shape, and intersected by half of the secondary states of Germany. It is, there- fore, further supposed, that Frederick only waits a favourable oppor- tunity, to consolidate his territory ; and they are Ihtle acquainted with the intelligence, energy, and ambition of the Prussian people, who imagine they will be backward in attempting any thing which promises to promote their national honour and security. GERMANY. 9. In the history of Germany, during this period, we are principally conceined with Austria, its more important mem- ber, in which the imperial crown usuaUy resides. From the 24 278 MODRRN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. commencement of this period, there was no war of any con- sequence, till that of the Pragmatic Sanction, which was an engagement of several powers, to secure the Austrian domi- nions to the female children of the emperor Charles VL, in case of the failure of male issue. § Charles VI. died without male issue, 1740. The house of Austria, in the male line, thus became extinct, after it had governed Austria for several centuries, and the whole of the Austrian dominions now belonged to Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the emperor. She was accordingly raised to the Austrian throne ; but the neighbour- ing powers, regardless of their engagements, supported the duke of Bavaria, in his claim to the crown. After much opposition, the lat- ter was invested with the imperial dignity, in 1742, under the name of Charles Vil. ; but this prince, worn out by a complication of bodily complaints, and by a long train of misfortunes, died two years afterwards. In the mean time, the queen, though nearly overwhelm- ed by her numerous adversaries, finally triumphed over them, and at the peace of 1748, was confirmed in the possession of her domi- nions, and her husband, duke of Lorrain, under the title of Francis I., was raised to the imperial throne. 10. Francis I., was crowned at Frankfort, in 1745. He continued the war till 1748, when the peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle w^as concluded, and Maria Theresa obtained the succjs- sion of her father. She had all the time been sustained by the affection of her subjects, and had received important aid from Great Britain. During the reign of Francis, the " seven years' war," the fiercest that had hitherto been waged in Germany, took place ; but of this, an account has been given in tlie history of Prussia. § Maria Theresa, as heiress to the Austrian dominions, was queen of Hungary and Bohemia; and as the wife of Francis, was empress of Germany. She was a woman distinguished for her heroism, in- telligence, felicity of temper, and captivating condescension. As a wife and parent, she was unrivalled ; she was blessed with a nume- rous and amiable progeny, and left her possessions to a son, who was worthy of the empire. She built hospitals, encouraged com- merce and science, and did every thing which humanity and muni- ficence could devise to render her infirm soldiers comfortable. 11. Joseph II., the son of Francis and Maria, succeeded to the empire, in 1765. He seized Bavaria, on the death of Maximilian XL, the elector, 1777 ; made war two years with Prussia ; reformed the church of Germany, indulging the protestants with the imperial protection, and curtailing the authority of the court of Rome ; dismantled the fortified towns in Brabant ; restrained the excesses of the clergy in GERMANY. 279 that country, nd carried on a disastrous war against the Turks. During that war, he died. He maintained the cha- racter of a most eijci table and tolerant prince. § Joseph promulgated a decree in favour of the liberty of the press, which had L.-en, hitherto, much circumscribed in the Austrian dominions. He even permitted, that all strictures upon the throne itself might be published, with full security, provided they did not descend to the charactci of libels and pasquinades. " If they be founded in justice," said he, " we shall profit by them ; if not, we shall disregard them ;" a remark well worthy of his character and dignity. It was during the reign of Joseph, that a series of unfavourable seasons had occasioned a general dearth of corn, which was more or less felt in all the countries of Europe ; but in parts of Germany, the scarcity was so great, that vast numbers of people actually pe- rished, and the peasants, in m^.ny places, were compelled to unthatch their cottages, to supply the want of provender for their cattle. They themselves, in some instances, subsisted on the bark of beech and alder, mixed with a quantity of spice. A part of this time, terrible inundations overspread the country ; several districts were totally ruined by a flood of the Elbe ; Hamburgh was in a most critical situation ; and the great suburb lying towards the Elbe, was so com- pletely covered with water, that only the tops of the trees were dis- cernible. 12. Leopold 11. , brother of Joseph, was invested with the empire, in 1790. Though powerfully solicited to arm against the revolutionists of France, his moderation and prudence kept him aloof from the vortex ; but a speedy death cut short the promise of much excellence. At the time of his death, however, he was preparing to take the field against France. § After the " seven years' war," the Germanic body remained in comparative quiet, till the French Revolution. During that period, up to the time of the restoration of the Bourbons, Germany suffer- ed more than most other nations. Its territory was the theatre of most of the wars that were waged during the great struggle. This country, however, had been eminently prepared to experience the evils which such an event was calculated to produce. The Germans embraced the fashionable prevailing system of anarchy and irreli- gion, with almost the same ardour which characterized the French tiiemselves ; and their country was early inundated with the deadly publications which proceeded from the school of atheistical disor- ganizers. In nearly all the wars of the revolution, and of the subsequent period, Austria has had a share. She has generally been arrayed against France, and often been beaten. In the production of such a result, some have been disposed to ascribe more to French intrigue, than to the superiority of the French soldiers, or generals, over those of Austria. The archduke Charles, brother of the present emperor, 280 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X, Francis II., has often shown himself not inferior to any of the com - manders of his time. 13. Francis II., son of Leopold, was crowned in 179;^. He has proved to be a prince of mild virtues, and is much re- spected. He prosecuted the contemplated war wdth the French republic ; but it proving unsuccessful, he concluded the treaty of Campo Formio, in 1797, by w^iich, the Nether- lands were ceded to France. This was the first in that series of hostilities, which distinguished that period of convulsion. 14. Hostilities weij^ renewed in 1799, in Italy, on the part of Austria, assisted hf Russia ; for it was evident to the Ai!&- trian sovereign, that France was bent on aggrandizement. The Russian forces were commanded by Marshal Suwarrow. The war was carried on with great success, on the part of the Austrians and Russians, and the French were in a few months driven out of Italy. Much now might have been accom- plished for the salvation of Europe, had it not been for the jealousy which the Austrian court felt towards their ally. § This jealousy was, without doubt, excited by the intrigues of France ; and the consequence was, that Paul, the Russian emperor^ recalled his victorious troops. Austria, left single-handed to sustain the contest, and meetr ing the enemy with scattered forces, suffeied most severely in the great battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden. Peace was concluded at Luneville, in 1801. This w^as the second war, and more humiliating to Austria than the former. § During the peace, Francis formed a numerous army, and fore- seeing the ruin of the German constitution, caused himself to be proclaimed hereditary emperor of Austria, in 1804. 15. The Austrian sovereign had been mortified too severe- ly, to remain contented at peace. A third warlike coahtion was formed between Austria and Russia, against France, in 1805. But the destruction of an Austrian army, under Ge- neral Mack, and the fatal battle of Austerlitz, speedily ter- minated this war. The same year, the peace of Presburgb followed, in which the Austrian monarchy was far more hum- bled than ever, by the loss of some of its most knportant pos sessions. § A part only of the emperor of Russia's forces, had joined those of Francis, when the battle of Austerlitz took place. To this im- prudence, was added the greater one, of risking an engagement without the assistance of the archduke Charles, who, at the distance GERMANY. 281 of only a few days' march, was hastening with a victorious army, of nearly one hundred thousand men. In 1806, several of the states of Germany were united under the name of the " Confederacy of the Rhine," of which Napoleon was acknowledged the head ; and in the course of the same year, Francis was compelled formally to resign the title of emperor of Germany, and to absolve the German states from their reciprocal duties towards the empire. § According to the terms of this confederacy, all those states of the ancient German empire, that did not accede to the act of federa- tion, were excluded from common protection. By this means, the French emperor united Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, Burg, Darm- stadt, Nassau, Hohenzollern, &c., to thepoUlical interests of France, and, virtually, raised himself to the head of the German empire. 16. In 1809, Austria, for the fourth time, took the field against France. In this war, was fought the sanguinary battle of Essling, in which the French emperor, almost for the first time, was beaten in a regular field fight ; but re- ceiving a large reinforcement, he crossed the Danube, from which he had been driven back, and fought the long and ob- stinate battle of Wagram. This battle, lost by Austria, ter- minated the war, and the conditions of peace were soon after settled by the treaty of Vienna, according to which, Francis was obliged to relinquish a further portion of territory, and consented to bestow his eldest daughter and child, Maria Louisa, on the emperor of France. § In this war, the Austrians had taken wiser measures than before. Their best commanders were in the field ; the archduke Charles, as- sisted by the archduke John, the prince of Lichtenstein, and the prince of Schwartzenburg. The whole strength and resources of the empire were held in requisition ; but Austria had become essentially weakened, and really less a match for France than ever : and, be- sides, the French emperor was in advance of the Austrian. Antici- pating the event of a declaration of war, he was soon prepared for action, and joining his army, marched at once into the heart of Ger- many. So expeditious was the French emperor, that forty-five days after the declaration of war by Austria, the battle of Essling was fought below Vienna. 17. In 1813, Austria engaged in a fifth war with France, having united its forces with those of Russia, Prussia, Great Britain, and almost all Europe, in the invasion of France, in obtaining possession of Paris, and in dethroning Napoleon. On this occasion, the emperor accompanied the army, which was commanded by the prince of Schwartzenburg. Then 24* 282 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. was gained the celebrated battle of Leipsic, which produced the overthrow of Napoleon. The whole allied forces were, in this battle, principally commanded by Schwartzenburg. § When this junction of the greatest part of Europe was formedy Napoleon had just returned from Russia, having lost his great army, composed in part of troops of many European nations, then his tri- butaries. Austria, at first seemed reluctant to take the field, proba- bly on account of its family alliance. A remembrance of former sufferings may also have had its effect. But, though late, the assis- tance of Austria was very eflicient. It was on hearing of the issue of the battle of Leipsic, which was announced by Schwartzenburg himself, to the emperors of Austria and Russia, and to the king of Prussia, that these three sovereigns, who were viewing the battle from a distant hill, on horseback, hn- mediately dismounted, and, on their bended knees, offered a tribute of thanks to the God who had crowned their arms with victory. 18. On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, in 1815, Au- stria, for the last time, combined with the other powers of Europe, to dethrone him, and succeeded. At this time, a new union was formed by the states of Germany, designed to secure its future tranquillity, under the title of the Ger- manic Confederation. This was signed at Vienna, by its sovereigns and free cities ; and it is to be hoped that, as it has done hitherto, so it will continue to prove, a powerful preservative against the renewal of those wars, domestic and foreign, of which Germany has so often been the cause and the victim. § In the new order of things, which succeeded the downfal of the French emperor, Austria manifested a due regard to the rights of the Germanic body, as appears from the nature of the confederation above noticed. The several states have been reinstated, as far as possible, in their former possessions, and Francis is nov/ acknow- ledged, as formerly, the emperor of Germany. Shortly after, another union, of a more doubtful character, was formed between the emperors of Austria and Russia, and the king of Prussia, to which they gave the name of the Holy Alliance. The object, in a great measure, seems to have been to confirm their own power, and to suppress any effort, on the part of their subjects, to obtain liberal constitutions. The improper views of this confederacy, were openly displayed on the occasion of the Neapolitan revolution. A congress of the three sovereigns, in 1821, issued a manifesto against Naples, in which they plainly avow their hostility to every form of improve* ment. To enforce their views, an Austrian army marched towards the territories of Naples. This alliance may, at the present mo^ ment, be considered as virtually dissolved. POLAND. 283 POLAND. 19. Poland, which existed in independence, during a part of the present period, was a nation of some importance, for several ages ; but we feel little interest in its history, tDl nearly the memorable era when it was blotted out from the list of nations. Its fine situation, and rich natural resources, are strikingly contrasted with its wretched government and institutions; nor can we, perhaps, find a spot on the globe, where, with so many physical means of securing felicity, a civilized people are found, that have been involved in greater miseries. Its former government, which partook of all the diflferent kinds, with a pecuUarly strong infusion of aristocracy, and with a weak executive power, was wholly inadequate to the administration of justice, or the maintenance of peace. Weakness, anarchy and crime within, and injustice, trea- chery, and oppression on the part of others, without, consti- tute a great portion of the history of Poland. Yet its in- habitants were not without some striking and noble charac- teristics. They were a brave and martial people. Amidst their degradation, they cherished the love of liberty in an eminent degree. Till the first division and plunder of Poland, in 1772, we find a long list of kings up to the year 842, A. C. But we can record the names of a very few only. § Poland is denominated by the natives, Poloka; which is aScla- vonian word, signifying a level or champain country. Such is the surface of Poland. In the history of its sovereigns, we notice the name of Lech V., who is here introduced for the sake of a singular maxim, which he used to utter, and which must be very convenient to a king. "A sorereign is not bound to observe his oath, except when nehher his safety nor his advantage requires that he should violate it." His reign, it is said, was the most inauspicious in the annals of the na- tion. Cassimer III., the Great, formed a new code of laws, which he committed to writing ; for, before his time, the Poles had only oral traditions. This was in the middle of the fourteenth century. Cas- simer is said to have been a model of integrity, wisdom and pri>- dence. Sigismund I., whose reign began in 1506, was one of the most ^complished monarchs that ever sat on the throne of Poland. In his epitaph, which was not composed in the language of exaggeration. 284 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. he was styled the '• conqueror of the Russians, Wallachians, and Prussians," and obtained the still more honourable appellation of the " father of his country." He applied himself to the improvement of the manners of his subjects, by inspiring them with a taste for the arts and sciences, and fortified and embellished the cities. No Polish monarch was more distinguished, on the whole, than John Sobieski, who ascended the throne in 1674. Many of the rulers of Poland were foreigners, but Sobieski was a native, elected on account of his eminent virtues, and military talents. He was particularly distinguished by his wars with the Turks, and his vic- tories over them. The assistance which he rendered to the house of Austria, when Vienna was besieged by an army of 200,000 men, has been mentioned in another place. He died in 1696, leaving hifl country in prosperity and peace. Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen as the succes- sor of Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. The fao- tious nobles, who had been kept in awe under Sobieski, were un- willing to place any one of his family on the throne, and thus showed themselves unworthy of such a sovereign. Augustus made war against Charles XH. of Sweden, mistaking utterly the character of his ene- my. Being defeated and overcome, he was dethroned, and Stanislaus, through the influence of Charles in the diet of Warsaw, was elect- ed to fill his place, in 1704. After the ruin of Charles, at Pultowa, Augustus was restored to the throne, and in 1773, was succeeded by his son Frederick Augustus H,, after an interregnum of eight months* The reign of the latter was generally tranquil and peaceable, though both before and afterwards, the kingdom was in a very unquiet state, owing to political and religious controversies, as well as foreign wars. Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, elected in 1763, was the last king of Poland. He was the creature of Catharine of Russia, placed on the throne, more by the infiuence of her armies and treasures, than by the free consent of the Polish nobles ; and in the subsequent difficulties of his reign, was unable to manifest the independence of a sovereign. He was finally kept as an honourable prisoner, at Pe- tersburgh, where he died, in 1798. 20. In 1772, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which had, for some time, been secret- ly meditated, took place, to the utter astonishment of all Europe. This has been stigmatized as one of the most un- principled acts recorded in history. The pretexts of the plunderers, as set forth in their manifestoes, were various ; but they were doubtless encouraged to this act of violence, in consequence of the perpetual divisions in the Pohsh counsels, and the mutual animosities of the nobility. Indeed, they purposely increased the factions and difficulties in which the nation was involved. § Prussia laid the train of events, by flattering the Russians with POLAND. 285 the idea of giving a king to Poland ; but not designing that Poland should sink into a Russian province, it was contrived on the part of Prussia, to make the Poles dissatisfied with their king. This was easily effected, and in the course of two or three years, nothing could exceed the disorder, dissensions, and weakness of the kingdom. In this situation of affairs, when the Pole^ were prevented from vindi- cating their sacred rights, the unholy deed of partition was perpe- trated. Each party had previously agreed on its portion, the whole including nearly half of the Polish territory. The Diet was assem- bled, and surrounded by the partitioning powers, it could do no other- wise than sanction, by a legislative act, the crime which these powers had committed. In the division which was made, Frederick seized Polish Prussia, and a part of Great Poland ; the emperor of Austria, the kingdoms of Gahcia and Ludomiria ; and Catharine, Pohsh Livonia, wdth a part of Lithuania. 21. In 1791, a revolution took place in Poland; a new constitution was proclaimed, which opened to the middUng classes, the avenue to every employment ; and the crown, hitherto elective, was declared to be hereditary. This was done in an assembly of the people, with entire concord. But Poland, despoiled of half her territories, was weak ; and though the change was approved by all Europe, except Russia, the Poles were suffered to become the victims of the Russian empress, and eventually again of the Prussian and Austrian sovereigns. A new division w^as agreed on, in 1793, which included a considerable portion of the remainder of Poland. § Catharine first resented the act of the Poles in framing a new constitution, as it was wl oily opposed to her ambitious views in re- gard to the remainder of Poland. Frederick William, though he at first expressed his approbation of the measure, yet finally, with un- blushing effrontery, consented, with the others, to act the royal plunderer. 22. Before, however, this second nefarious project could be executed, it became necessary to encounter the hazards of war. The spirit of the Poles was raised, and under the brave and patriotic Kosciusko, they resisted, for a time, the united force of their powerful enemies. But on the part of enfeebled Poland, numbers were wanting, which could not long be suppUed by love of country and a desire of vengeance ; and Kosciusko, after making every effort that man could be ex- pected to make, was defeated and taken prisoner. Under the barbarous Suwarrow, Warsaw was captured and sacked. 286 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. In attempting to defend it, nine thousand gallant Poles perished. § But the carnage which succeeded the victory, was greater, and has forever tarnished the laurels of the Russian general. The houses were pillaged, women violated, children murdered, and thirty thou- sand victims fell a prey to a ferocity bordering on that of savages. Kosciusko, who originated from a noble family, had been a dis- tinguished officer in the United States of America, during the war of the Revolution. The Poles elected him their general, and he proved worthy of their choice. Under more propitious circumstan- ces, he would have been hailed as the deliverer of his country. After his defeat, he was held as a prisoner at Petersburgh, till the death of the empress, in 1797. Upon the accession of Paul, he obtained his freedom, and was favoured with a pension — an act on the part of the Russian monarch, which received the applause of the civilized world. Kosciusko has since been in America. 23. A third and final dismemberment of Poland, took place in 1795, when the three powers appropriated it entirely to themselves. Both Stanislaus and Kosciusko, were secured; the spirit of the Poles was crushed, and the robbers had only quietly to divide all that remained of their bloody prey. At the congress held at Vienna, in 1815, part of Poland was united to the Russian Empire, with the preservation of its own constitution ; and on this event, Alexander, emperor of Russia, assumed the title of king of Poland. RUSSIA. 24. In the history of Russia, we find Catharine I., the wife of Peter the Great, on the throne, near the commencement of this period. By his appointment, she succeeded him, in 1725. Slie reigned only two years, but with great ability, and pursued the plan begun by her husband, in civilizing her people. § Catharine was originally the wife of a Swedish soldier, but fall- ing into the power of the Russians, she was employed in the gene- ral's kitchen, where Menzicoflf, one of Peter's favourites, saw and obtained her. Peter having met her at Menzicoff' s house, and being delighted with her understanding, at first made her his mistress, but afterwards married her. She obtained a complete control over the emperor, by her singularly gay and cheerful temper, as well as by her respectful and kind attentions. 25. Peter IL, grandson of Peter the Great, succeeded her, in 1727. He reigned only three years, but his reign was a RUSSIA. 287 scene of peace and prosperity. He Avas extremely beloved by his people. § The succession, during several reigns after Peter the Great, seems not to have been regular, or fixed by any certain rules ; yet the prin- ces came to their thrones with little difficulty, and pursued the gene- ral features of that wise policy which Peter adopted. The great object constantly kept in view, was the advancement of civihzation and knowledge among the people. 26. Anne, duchess of Courland, next ascended the throne, in 1730, the male line of the house of Romanow, to which Peter the Great belonged, having become extinct. She was a niece of that monarch. Her reign was glorious and happy, and comprised the war against Turkey, in 1736 ; the con- quest of the principal towns in Crim Tartary ; and the vic- tor)^ of Choczim over the Turks, in 1739. 27. On the death of Anne, Ivan, or John, only about two month's old, was elected emperor, 1740 ; but the next year a sudden revolution took place, by which the young prince was deposed, and Ehzabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. There were strong points of resemblance between her and her father, and like him, she seemed to possess an inherent capacity for reigning. She united benevolence w^ith great pohtical talents, and to her, Russia is indebted for much of Its influence in the affairs of Europe and Asia. In 1757, her troops, in conjunction with those of Austria, entered upon " the seven years' war" against the great Frederick, and her part was so well acted, that had she lived, the Prussian mo- narchy would probably have been in jeopardy, as to its very existence. § Elizabeth founded the universities of Petersburgh and Moscow, and decreed a new code of laws, called Elizabeth's code. It is re- ported that a few years preceding her death, this princess indulged in the most unbounded intemperance and sensuality. 28. She was succeeded, in 1762, by her nephew, Peter III., son of her elder sister Anne, and consequently grandson of the great Peter. He was at first somewhat popular with his subjects, but they soon became disaffected towards him. He was found to be deficient in talents and strength of charac- ter ; and his wife, Catharine, becoming disgusted w4th him, and inspiied with ambitious views, is supposed to have been 288 MODERN HISTORY.— PERIOD X. the mover of the conspiracy by which he was dethroned and murdered, in the first year of his reign. § Catharine of Anhalt, a princess of Germany, had been married to Peter several years before his accession ; and as she began her political life with crime, she seems never afterwards to have been scrupulous as to the means with which she executed her plans. It was by the help of her paramour Orloff, that she arrested the em- peror, and procured his deposition and death. Orloff first gave him poisoned brandy to drink, and then strangled him. 29. Catharine II., who was immediately proclaimed, com- bined with her singular depravation of principle, a powerful intellect. As a woman, she was a disgrace to her sex and to human nature, but as an empress she was great, and justly denominated " the Semiramis of the North." Her reign was brilliant and long, and at once the admiration and terror of all Europe. Notwithstanding the great extent of her empire, she sought continually to enlarge its boundaries. In her wars with Turkey, Persia, and Poland, she secured immense acquisitions of territory. Her transactions in regard to the dismemberment of Poland, have already been related. In regard to Turkey, her object appears to have been nothing less than the possession of the Ottoman throne in Europe — an object which Russia has ever since had at heart. § One of the victorious wars which Catharine carried on with Turkey, cost her two hundred thousand men, and 200,000,000 rubles ; while it cost the latter three hundred and thirty thousand men, and 200,000,000 piastres — a war scarcely less ruinous than triumphant. In this war, Ismail was the last town that surrendered. Twice were the Russians under Suwarrow repulsed ; but at the third at- tack, they scaled the ramparts, forced their way into the place, and put to the sword all who opposed them. Fifteen thousand Russians purchased with their lives the bloody laurels of their leader, who wrote to the empress with his usual brevity, " The haughty Ismail is at your feet." 30. Catharine was succeeded by her son, Paul Petrowitz, 1796, whose reign Wits the reverse of that of his mother, and who occupied himself with trifles. In 1799, he declared war against revolutionary France, and sent Suwarrow into Italy, who met with great success till he passed into Switzerland, whence he was recalled by his sovereign. In 1801, Paul declared war against England, and obliged Sweden and Denmark to join; but soon afterwards this unhappy monarch was strangled, by some conspirators, who were ofi[icers in his court. RUSSIA. 289 31. Alexander I., the eldest son of Paul, was proclaimed in 1801, at the age of twenty-two. His name will descend with renown to after ages, as the deliverer of enthralled nations. His reign was at first pacific, nor did he make those eflforts against France, which seemed desirable at that junc- ture. He, however, became alarmed at length by the am- bition of Bonaparte, and in 1805, formed a coalition with Austria, against the conqueror. He was able to effect a junction with only a remnant of the Austrian forces, which had previously been deserted, and being attacked unexpectedly at Austerlitz, he experienced a signal overthrow. He then withdrew his army into Russia, but designing to assist Prussia, the next year he hastened to the scene of war ; but before his army could reach it, the battle of Jena had been fought, and the power of Prussia half annihilated. Russia left alone en the field, maintained the contest with the French emperor for a few months, during which several sanguinary battles were fought, without any decisive advantage on either side. At length the fatal battle of Friedland, obliged Alexander to sign the treaty of Tilsit In 1808, he engaged in a war with Sweden, in which Fin- land was conquered, and in 1811, he commenced hostilities against Turkey. At this critical time, a mighty contest was about to ensue, which was to decide the fate of a great part of the globe. The refusal of Alexander, in 1812, to concur in Bonaparte's scheme, of excluding British commerce from the whole European continent, highly displeased the latter. This circumstance, concurring with the French emperor's de- sire to establish an universal monarchy, induced him to march against Russia, with all the force of the territories under his dominion, and of every state rendered subservient to his views. *^In that way," says Prof Heeren, "a storm of na- tions arose, (about twenty were united under the standard of the conqueror,) unparalleled in history, since the expeditions of Xerxes and Attila." The Russians retreated steadily before the French, not without engaging in several bloody battles, in which the French were victorious, but by means of which they were continually weakened. At Borodino, a few miles in advance of Moscow, the Rus- sians made a stand, and here was fought one of the most terrible battles ever recorded. The loss on both sides wad 25 290 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. nearly equal ; the Russians, however, retired, and the French entered Moscow. But they entered it to witness its confla- gration ; the Russians had set it on fire, and thus deprived the French army of its expected winter quarters. It was obliged to retreat ; and the animosity of the Russians, aided by the terrible severity of the weather, contributed almost to annihilate the most efficient military force that ever invaded a nation. § Upon the invasion of his dominions, Alexander soon made peace with the Turks, and this on advantageous terms, as has always been the case in the wars between Russia and Turkey. Alexander might have met his foe with an equal number of nations, if he had had time to summon them from the mountains and deserts of Asia. All his troops, divided into three armies, by no means equalled, in num- ber, those of the enemy, which amounted to more than half a mil- lion. But although the collection of the Russian force was only partially effected, yet there was a high moral preparation in the spirit, both of the prince and his people. After one conspiracy in the be- ginning of the contest was detected, and its authors summarily pun- ished, all orders of the people manifested the most determined pur- pose to resist the enemy, submitting to sacrifices, which nothing but devoted patriotism and the deadliest hatred of the invader, could in- spire. Alexander, in his manifesto, declared that he would never make peace, so long as the enemy remained within his empire. And to engage God and religion on the side of Russia, one entire conse- cration of the empire and of the church, was made to the God of armies. The constant retiring of the Russians, without risking a great bat- tle, greatly weakened the expectation indulged by Bonaparte, of speedily terminating the war, by penetrating into the heart of the empire. Fire and rapine, by friends and foes, marked the course of the invading army, and seemed to render return impossible. Wilna was occupied the 28th of June. The French advanced with many skirmishes by way of Witepsk to Smolensk, where two of the Rus- sian armies formed a junction, August 6th, while the Prussian aux- iliaries besieged Riga, and the Austrians were manoeuvering in Vol- hynia. Smolenk was stormed and destroyed, August 18th ; after which, Koutousoff was vested with the chief command. After the battle of Borodino, the solitary capital was entered, September 14th and 15th. In the Kremlin, the ancient residence of the Czars, the conqueror took up his head quarters, the limit of his expedition, and the grave of his greatness. Moscow, fired by its own citizens, fell a victim for the empire ; for Rich a drama demanded such a catastrophe ; but in its pillars of fire, the first dawn of freedom shone over shackled Europe in the farthest East. Instead of a Capua, the army suddenly stood in a waste. " The campaign may now end," was the proposal of Napoleon ; " the campaign is now beginning," was the reply of Koutousoff. A spee- RUSSIA. 291 ^y retreat, before the beginning of the winter's cold, might, perhaps, have saved the army ; but the pride of the conqueror disdained this measure, till it was too late. When three-fourths of Moscow were consumed to the ground, just as the fatigued and debilitated army of the French entered it, needing repose and refreshment, and an un- conquerable Russian army was before it, it was impossible for Na- poleon to stay there. Never was a disappointment more sudden and more bitter. The retreat which he had declined, he was obliged to undertake, and such a retreat, so disastrous and terrific, history never before recorded. 32. Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the boundaries of his einpire, and thus gave the signal for the emancipation of Europe. He first exhorted Prussia to war. She obeyed the call, and others, the late vassals of France, sooner or later, joined his standard. "From this tijne the storm of nations, which had gathered in the west, against the east, was to be turned from the east against the west." An immediate erup- tion w^as prevented, by the fortresses and countries which were occupied by the relations of the rulers, and the certainty that Napoleon had himself escaped. But in the nature of the case, it could not be long ere the subjugated nations should turn upon their filling master. Austria was the last to join the alliance ; her weight in the scale w^as decisive. The campaign of 1813, which thus began, is one of the most memorable in history. Never were more battles fought within a given space of time, and never were greater than some of them. In regard to the battle of Leipsic, which fin- ished the campaign, Heeren says, " If the mass of combat- ants, almost half a million, met on the field, makes it the first battle of modern times, its consequences do so no less." The way was now opened to France itself, in the signal defeat of the French emperor. Accordingly, in the beginning of the year 1814, the respective sovereigns entered Paris, dethroned Napoleon, and replaced on the throne the house of Bourbon. The renown of Alexander w^as now complete, as the provi- dential deliverer of Europe. § This prince deceased 1st December, 1825, and was succeeded by Nicholas 1. The character of Alexander, will appear with advantage on the page of history, and his success in saving Russia and Europe, from the grasp of military ambition, will consecrate his name as the most fortunate of sovereigns. The circumstances under which he enter- ed upon his reign, were, indeed, calculated fully to bring into action all his faculties. Though inferior to his great antagonist in native 292 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. intellectual power, he was, perhaps, of all the European sovereigns^ the most fit, by his indefatigable spirit, to contend with him^ He appears to have been guided mainly by a principle of honesty ; and if several private accounts are to be credited, there are pleasing in- dications, that he was one of the very few princes who can be called truly religious. The most inexplicable part of his character, in a moral view, was his suppression of the Russian Bible Society, which had, a few years before, commenced under his own auspices. Since the event, which we have mentioned as the termination of the tenth period, the affairs of the Russians have been generally pros- perous. Besides a successful conflict which they have maintained with Persia, they have rushed into war recently, with their old ene- mies, the Turks ; and although the present is the second campaign, they have been met with so vigorous a spirit, on the part of the lat- ter, under their warlike sultan, Mahmoud II., that the issue of the contest seems somewhat doubtful. Russia puts forth her whole power, and Turkey fights for her existence. Russian successes have, of late, been reported ; but it is altogether probable, that other cam- paigns* will be necessary, in order to drive the Ottomans into Asia, should the other great powers of Europe suffer the contest to con- tinue. ENGLAND. House of Brunswick, 33. George I., Elector of Hanover, had been proclaimed king, by the regency, on the death of Anne, 1714. At the commencement of the present period, he had, therefore, been on the throne about four years. Notwithstanding the divided state of the kingdom, the accession of George took place without the least opposition, tumult, or sign of popular dis- content. It was protestantism that gave the house of Brunswick the throne, and it was protestantism that was to preserve it to them. No new maxims, no new continental policy, could therefore become prevalent ; it was the ancient policy of Wil- liam III., modified according to the circumstances of the times. Thus harmony was established between the nation and the government ; and fortunately for the new house, there was for a long time yet, a pretender, who did not permit these maxims to be forgotten. * Since the above was penned, a series of splendid victories has attended the Russian arms, in consequence of which, a peace has been concluded be- tween the contending powers, on terms exceedingly humiliating to the Turks, ENGLAND. 293 The natural consequence of this policy was, the fall of the tory ministry, which had made itself more than suspected by its conduct towards the pretender, and the restoration of the superiority of the whigs. § George I., was the son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., and was in the 55th year of his age, when he ascended the throne. The Pretender, who was styled the Chevalier St. George, was the son of James II. His exclusion from the throne affected the public tranquillity, for a time. He had his partisans chiefly among the to- ries, and in Scotland ; but the several attempts which they made in his behalf, were ineffectual ; his intrigues were detected ; his forces were overpowered in battle ; many of the leaders among the rebels were captured and executed ; but the chevalier had the good fortune to escape to France. 34. In 1720, the king having recommended to the com- mons the consideration of proper means for lessening the na- tional debt, this proved a prelude to the famous South Sea act, which became so ruinous in its consequences. In this scheme, it was beheved possible speedily to perform by art, what can be the result only of continued exertion — the hqui- dation of tlie public debt ; but the projects of the South Sea company foundered, and thousands were involved in ruin. As the English government, however, allowed itself no des- potic steps, its credit was preserved entire ; and it found itself able, by a diminution of interest, to establish a sinking fund, which only needed a better administration, to effect its object. § The character of George I. was that of a wise and good mo- narch, but he was less popular than he might have been, had he staid more at home, and manifested less partiality for his German domi- nions. He died suddenly, of a paralytic disorder, on the continent, in the 68th year of his age. 34. George IT., succeeded his father, 1727, and, like him> favoured the whigs, and was strongly attached to his German possessions. His character was that of an active, intelhgent prince, possessing a violent temper, and a love of war. His administration of affairs was generally equitable, and satisfac- tory to the people. A period of peace, during ten years, in the former part of his reign, happily occurred through want of a plausible pretence for embarking in a war. At length, occasion was found for colhsion with Spain, and war was declared in 1739. It produced no important results. In 1744, England declared war against France, and assisted Maria 25* 294 • MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Theresa, of Austria, in the war of succession. In this pubKc contest, the principal states of Europe were involved ; and among others, the battles of Dettingen and Fontenoy were fought ; the former terminating in favour of the allies, the latter in favour of the French. The British king command- ed, in person, his army on the continent. §The minister who guided the destinies of England, during this part of the reign of George IL, as also during the principal part of the former, was Sir Robert Walpole. Concerning him, the his- toric professor of Gottingen says, "that without the restless ac- tivity which is often called greatness, he was a statesman most wor- thy of respect. He introduced uprightness into politics, at a time, when they were disgraced by the profligate Dubois, and the false Alberoni. But his maxim, to be on good terms with all, entangled him in a web of negociations and relations ; from which, only an island state, like England, could have disengaged itself." Others, however, speak of him as distinguished for tlie system of corruption and venality which he practised in his administration. 35. During the absence of the king on the continent, the rebellion in Scotland, 1745, took place, in consequence of an effort made by the son of the old pretender, for the British throne. The young Charles was assisted by Louis XV., and having landed in Scotland, led an army against the royal forces, which he defeated in the battles of Preston Pans, and Falkirk ; but in the subsequent battle of Culloden, be met with a decisive overthrow. The Stuart family made no more attempts to take possession of the sceptre v>inch they had losL In 1755, war was renewed between France and England, on account of encroachments made on the British territories in North America. The war was not at first very fortunate to the British ; but, at length, they met witli signal success, and the result of it was, the surrender of all Canada, on the part of the French. It was in this war, that the brave Wolfe perished, having distinguished himself by the capture ol the city of Quebec. § In the expedition against Quebec, the courage and perseverance of General Wolfe, surmounted incredible difficulties. It was on the Heights of Abraham, which he succeeded in gaining, that he fought and defeated the French army. As he occupied a conspicuous station in the front of the line, he had been aimed at by the enemy's marksmen, and received a shot in the wrist. Wrapping a handker- chief round his hand, he gave his orders, as usual, without betraying the least emotion ; and while he was advancing, at the head of the grenadiers, another ball, unfortunately, pierced the breast of thi« ENGLAND. 296 young hero, who thus fell at the moment when victory was annouiir ced. His death was mourned as a national loss. 36. At this period, the arms of Great Britain were trium- phant in every quarter of the globe ; but in the midst of his successes, the old king suddenly expired, in the 77th year of his age, and in the 34th of his reign. 37. George III., grandson of the deceased, succeeded him in 1760. He was then in his eighteenth year, and swayed the sceptre during the long period of sixty years ; the longest reign in the annals of Great Britain. It is distinguished as a period of important events, and of the nation's advance- ment in power, w^ealth, commerce, and the arts. The re- sources of the British, in their great contests, during this reign, appear to have been almost inexhaustible. George 111. commenced his reign at a favourable period, when the arms of the nation were triumphant, and when Chatham, the ablest and most popular of the British minis- ters, administered the government. His ministry, which be- gan under the former reign, continued from the 20th of Octo- ber, 1756, to the 5th of October, 1761. § " What five years !" says Heeren. " By the greatness of his own character, he elevated the spirit of his nation, for he was the first to breathe into it a confidence in itself." Upon the resignation of Mr. Pitt, violent political dissensions arose, which were afterwards increased, upon the retirement of the duke of Newcastle. 38. An ill-judged course of policy, pursued by the ministry towards the American colonies, gave rise to those animosities, which ended in tlie separation of the colonies from the mother country. H^his colonial war commenced in 1775. The elo- quence of Chatham was arrayed against the unjust and op- pressive measures of the British parliament. But his coun- sels were overruled, and after a long and distressing conten- tion with tlie American states, Great Britain acknow^ledged their independence in 1783. Thus was laid the foundation of a great and rising empire in the new w^orld, which bids fair, in time, to rival the most renowned nations of Europe, and of antiquity. Antecedently to this contention, party spirit had becom.e general and violent in Great Britain, and produced frequent changes in public men and measures. § In the colonial war, France and Holland, after a time, formed an alliance with the American government, and took part in the con- tention. Though England thus lost important foreign possessions, S^S MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. and increased her public debt, (from 146,000,000, to 257,000,000^ sterling,) yet she lost nothing in her contest with other powers; her commerce and resources were constantly extending, and her spirit was equal to every effort. 39. Another important feature of this reign, was the ex- tension of the British possessions in India. The British East India Company, before the year 1766, conquered, and took possession of the kingdom of Bengal, together with Bahar and part of Orissa, a large and flourishing country, contain- ing above 10,000,000 of people, and producing an immense revenue. These territories, afterwards, received a very great addition, as the fruits of several wars, which the Company had with the natives. Hyder Ally, and afterwards Tippoo, his son, distinguished themselves by their opposition to the British encroachments, but they were obliged to submit to superior prowess. § Tippoo was vanquished by Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, and de- prived of one half of his dominions. In 1799, Seringapatam, the capital of Mysore, was taken by Gen. Harris, and Tippoo was slain. 40. The Irish rebellion, in 1798, and the subsequent union, in 1800, of Ireland and Great Britain, were also important events during this reign. The rebels in Ireland were princi- pally Romanists, the most numerous and least favoured part of the Irish population, whom the spirit of the French revolution had at this time affected. The Act of Union was the favour- ite object of Mr. Pitt, and made Ireland an integral part of the British empire. From the danger of the separation of Ireland from the British sovereignty, the ministry and the par- liament, both had been urged to this project of a legislative incorporation ; and in the anxiety which was felt, were less scrupulous as to the means of securing a majority in both houses, than became the dignity of the empire. For this object, the arts of corruption were employed. The effects of the wnion, however, have been mutually advantageous. § A spirit of discontent and revolution, had been working for a long time, in the minds of the Irish people. This was inflamed, by the countenance which the government of France had given to cer- tain insurrectionary projects. With a view to effect a separation from England, and form a close connexion with France, several at- tempts were made on the part of the French, to land troops in Ire- land ; but these attempts proved abortive. The French fleets wero either dispersed by storms, or defeated by the valour of the British admirals, Duncan and Warren. In the summer of 1798, the spirit of revolution had arisen to such ENGLAND. 297 a height, that several counties were in a state of insurrection. Lord Cornwallis was now appointed lord lieutenant, and took command of the government's forces. He engaged the rebels, on several oc- casions, and many lives were lost. Pursued by the vigilance of the government, and despairing of foreign succour, they at last submit- ted. Some of them suffered punishment, others emigrated to America. 41. The reign of George III., was particularly distinguish- ed, by the wars which grew out of the French revolution. This great event, which will be more particularly noticed in the history of France, commenced in 1789. It threatened in its consequences, the overthrow of all established govern- ments, and deeply convulsed the whole civihzed world. From the commencement of the revolution, to the restoration of the Bourbons, in 1815, Europe endured more, in the loss of lives and property, and suffered more misery, than in any other equal portion of time, since it has been known in history. § The government of Great Britain, early conceiving a just alarm for its own safety, zealously embarked in the European war, with a view to check the dissemination of disorganizing principles, both at home and abroad. All the Christian states in Europe, opposed in their turn, the tyranny and ambitions views of France ; but Great Britain only pursued the object with undeviating constancy, and with a just conception of tlie character of the common enemy. Wil- liam Pitt, one of the ablest ministers which it ever had, was then al its head. Under his auspices, after various vicissitudes of disap- pointment and success, victory crowned the efforts and sacrifices of the British nation ; efforts and sacrifices, of which history does not, perhaps, record a second example. All Europe was arrayed against her at times ; yet, so far was she from being intimidated, or dis- heartened, that she met the enemy, whether on the sea or land, wherever he was to be found. Her greatest efforts, particularly in the former part of the war, were made on the sea. Here Nelson, the first of naval captains, gained the battles of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Trafalgar, and almost annihilated the maritime power of the continent. In the latter part of the contention, Wellington conquer- ed the armies of France, at Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo. An interval of peace occurred between the years 1801 and 1803L But this short suspension of arms, was felt to be too long for the safety of the British government, while the emperor of France seemed to set no bounds to his ambition. The war was accordingly renewed ; and though, on the part of the French, the invasion of England was threatened, and her commerce was designed to be ex- cluded from the whole continent, yet one of the projects was abaiv- doned, and the other proved fruitless. In the battle of the Nile, which happened August 1, 1798, the ina» 298 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. ritime fame of Great Britain was established beyond all competition. The French fleet ha^ every advantage of situation, but Nelson cap- tured nine ships of the line, and destroyed several others. In the battle of Trafalgar, which was fought on the 21st of October, 1805, the great English hero defeated a powerful fleet of the enemy, con- sisting of thirty-three ships of the line. His own force amounted to twenty-seven ships of the line. Nineteen of the French and Span- ish ships were captured, though four of them only reached port, the rest having been purposely destroyed, as it was impossible to take care of them on account of tempestuous weather. Subsequently, the greater part of the enemy's ships which escaped, were either wrecked or captured. The day of this great triumph to the Eng- lish admiral, was the day of his death. His person was much ex- posed in the battle, and being observed by the enemy, he was point- edly assailed by the musketry, and received a mortal wound. 42. While the resources of Great Britain were called forth in the great European contest, she found, or made an enemy in the United States of America. The long depending dis- putes between the two nations, respecting commercial rights, terminated in hostilities, which were commenced on the part •of the United States, in the summer of 1812, by an attack on Canada. This war, though not very vigorously prosecu- ted, inasmuch as the affairs of Europe engrossed the attention of the British ministers, was, nevertheless, marked by uncom- mon acrimony. It continued until the last of the year 1814. 43. During the last ten years of the reign of George III., he. was reduced to helplessness, by an inveterate insanity. In the meantime, his son, the prince of Wales, acted as re- gent. In regard to the great contest, the latter pursued the course which had been adopted by his royal father. § The old king died on the 29th of January, 1820. The subver- sion of his intellect, is supposed to have been brought on, by the sickness and death of his youngest daughter, Amelia, aided by the advance of age, and the toils and anxieties of state. Amelia, when sensible of her approaching dissolution, presented to him a ring, re- questing him to wear it in remembrance of her affection. This ten- der incident, created a sympathy which soon mastered his faculties, and he gave way to an incurable despondency. He was a good monarch, seemed to be guided by religious principle, and was ho- noured and beloved, as the father of his people. His natural endow- ments were not great, though he possessed good sense, and a culti- vated mind. His successor, the present king, is George IV., who has, hitherto^ generally reigned in peace and prosperity. The only war of any consequence which has occurred during his reign, is that which was carried on a few years since in the East. By this, the British pes- FRANCE. 299 sessions have been immensely enlarged, particularly by a reduction of a considerable part of the Burman empire. To the above we may add, the single battle of Navarino, against the Turkish fleet, in connexion with the naval forces of France and Russia. FRANCE. House of Bourbon. — Revolution. — Napoleon. — Bourho7is restored. 43. The successor of Louis XIY. was a great grandson, who ascended the throne under the title of Louis XV., at the age of five years, 1715 A. C. Contrary to the will of the old king, his nephew, PhiHp of Orleans, obtained the regency. § Without morals, and without sense of shame, the duke of Orleans was regarded as more profligate tlian he actually was,' and the long continued anxiety respecting the life of the young king, who was sickly, had a strong influence on the politics of the times. Cor- ruption of manners was a natural consequence of such a regency, and the French court was never more dissolute than at this time. It was during this regency, that France made an abortive attempt to pay off" its debts by means of the paper bank law, and the Missis- sippi scheme, connected with it. These were of no small conse- Ciuence for its future fate, and its whole influence in the European political system. The ruin of thousands of families might be re- paired in time, but it was the arbitrary money operations of the go- vernment, that reduced its credit to irrevocable ruin. From this time, no paper money could be issued in France, under the old con- stitution. The French financial system was ever after in an unset- tled state. 44. The minister whom Louis chose soon after he came of age, was cardinal Fleury, whose seventeen years' admi- nistration, if it was not free from faults in the interior, secu- red tranquillity to France, and was beneficial to Europe. The reign of Louis, which was fifty-nine years, was too long for his reputation as a sovereign, and for the happiness of his people. He was at first styled well-beloved by them, but they had occasion eventually to lay aside that flattering epithet. § Louis pursued a long course of rapacity, profusion, and tyran- ny, and in the latter part of his reign, he became infamously licen- tious and debauched. He was the slave of his mistresses, and his government was a government of mistresses. The last epoch of his reign, may be compared to what has been mythologically de- nominated the iron age. He became insensible, not only to the disgrace and ruin of his state, but to the loss of his nearest and 800 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. dearest relatives, many of whom deceased during the latter part of his life. It is said, that the profusion of this monarch, led him, in the first Instance, to undertake the scandalous traffic of a monopoly of corn, which, while it starved his subjects, enabled him to support the ex- travagant claims of his minions and mistresses. It is at least certain, that at his demise, 200,000,000 of livres, in specie, were found in his private treasury, and that their acquisition could be traced to no other source. It is no matter of surprise, that the vices and errors of Louis, particularly his extortions, should have produced difficulties between him and his people. These were manifested in the disputes which he carried on with his parliaments, and in the opposition which they expressed against his rapacious acts. He conducted the controversy, on his part, in so ill-judged and unjust a manner, that affairs grew worse and worse, and fast ripened for that dreadful state of things which followed under his unfortunate successor. The aggregate of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., is one hundred and thirty-one years, which is unparalleled in history. Du- ring so long a period, what treasures were drawn from the French people, in consequence of the ambitious wars of the one, and the profusion and fiscal mismanagement of the other ! And is it to be wondered at, that they felt their burdens to be insupportable ? 45. Louis XVL, who was grandson of the late king, as- cended the throne in 1774, at the age of twenty years. His situation, from the first, was critical and dangerous, beyond tlie common lot of kings. With a temper fitted to make a people happy in ordinary circumstances, he was ill calculated for the evil days on w4iich he was fallen, when his subjects were almost maddened by the oppression of their former mas- ter, and now unreasonably jealous of his successor. § Louis seemed to aim at a prudent and conciliatory course. He eiarly made some removals from office, that were designed to be po- pular, and sought integrity and talents in his ministers. Turgot, Keeker, and Calonne, were successively placed at the head of the finances. After the efforts made by France in favour of American indepen- dence, and the consequent great increase of her debt, her financial situation became alarming, and demanded attention. The disclo- mires and discussions on this subject, led directly to the great con- vulsion which followed. There were other concurrent causes, such «s the corruption of religion, and the abuses which existed in the church ; the despotism and profligacy of the government ; the ine- quality, and the enormous burden of taxation ; the hauteur and odious privileges of the nobility and clergy ; the notions respecting liberty and equal rights, generated by the revolution in America, and especially the progress of philosophy, freethinking, and atheism, which the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and others, so effectually ftided. These^ and perhaps other causes combined, threw a great FRANCE. 301 nation into madness, and created a revolution which rocked the world. A state of things arose not only in France, but among all civilized nations, very different from any which ever existed before. " The contemporary world, which lived in this period," says professor Heeren, " calls it the revolutionary ; it is as yet, too early to decide with what name it shall be denoted by posterity, after the lapse of a century ; probably, the conslhutionai ; for the struggle after regular, but free constitutions, is the thread that guides through the whole confusion." 46. Our limits preclude a minute account of the revolution which was now about to buist forth. Suffice it to say, that the operations of government being nearly suspended for want of supplies, the king was induced to convoke, first an assem- bly of the notables, next the parliament, and afterwards, the parliament and notables together ; but nothing was effected bv their measures. At last, the convocation of the stateG-o^ene- ral. May 5th, L7S9, w^as resorted to ; but difficidties arising between tlie branches of which it w as composed, the popular branch soon declared themselves the representatives of the people, and constituted the National Assembly. Concihatory as the language of the king hod been, the measures of this body were dictated by a spirit of opposition to his prerogatives. The revolution, properly speaking, began W'ith the destruc- tion of the ancient prison of the state, tlie Bastile, 14th July, 1789. This was followed by other excesses on the part of the populace, till Paris became a field of blood. § The Stales General consisted of three orders — nobility, clergy, and the " tiers etat" or commons. With the commons, a small portion of the nobility and clergy united in calling themselves a national assembly. When this measure was adopted, there actually remain- ed of the monarchy only the name. The king and the royal family were obliged to yield to tlie popular feeling, which demanded their removal from Versailles to Paris. Here, however, the king was with difficulty preserved from violence, wliich the mob seemed inclined to offer to his person. He attempted to flee at one time, but his flight was intercepted. The progress made by the National Assembly at its earlier sit- tings, in the work of reform, was manifested by several important acts, such as the abolition of titles of nobility, and feudal rights — the exclusion of the clergy from all judicial functions— the suppres- sion of religious houses and vows — and the division of France into eighty-three departments. In the year 1790, those political societies began to appear, parti- cularly the Jacobin club, which controlled the measures of the As- sembly in so remarkable a degree. 26 302 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 47. Although Louis accepted the new constitution of 1791, which established the equality of all ranks, and was other- wise obsequious to the Assembly, yet the Jacobins were clamorous for the aboUtion of royalty ; and accordingly, the regal government was abolished, and France declared to be a republic, on the 21st of September, 1 792. This was done by a new body, called the National Convention, on the first day of its meeting. The views of the enemies of royalty, were not as yet, fully answered. For the king, nothing further was to remain, than in the language of Manuel the re- porter of the commune, " the right of justifying himself before the sovereign people." He and the royal family were immediately imprisoned in the temple. Soon after, he was brought to the bar of the Convention, and being condemned on several charges brought against him, he was sentenced to suffer death, by the axe of the guillotine, which took place on the 21st January, 1793. The fate of Louis has been widely commiserated. His character was that of an intelligent and inoffensive man, but he wanted firmness, to stem the torrent of faction. In death^ he displayed a manly dignity and fortitude. § Among the charges alledged against the king, were, his having gupplied the enemies of France with money ; his being the author of the war waged on the French territory ; his having conspired against the liberty of the country, &c. &c. He answered the accusatious against him, in a self-possessed and dignified manner. The man who was the most influential in procuring the destru(v Cion of the king, was the Duke of Orleans, one of the princes of the blood, and a monster of wickedness. It was a sublime remark, made by the king's confessor to him, aj» he mounted the scaffold, on which he was executed, " Offspring of St. Louis," he said, " ascend to heaven." 48. After the death of the king, the " reign of terror," a» it has been denominated, commenced in France, under the revolutionary tribunal erected by Robespierre and his associ- ates. Factions soon arose in the Convention, and their mu- tual jealousy led to the most fearful consequences. The san- gxiinary excesses of monsters in human form, which France for a long time was doomed to suffer, are too shocking to be described. Besides the countless massacres of the rich and noble, and generally of those who opposed the revolutionary fury, the parties in the Convention sought the destruction of FRANCE. 30^ one another. Each successive faction, as it triumphed, wasr at length put down, and made to answer with blood, the cruel- ties wliicli it had committed. Thus these execrable wretches became the instruments of inflicting merited vengeance on one another. The Convention, in its acts, outraged decency, and rendered its infamy immortal, by renouncing the Chris- tian religion. The queen of France, Maria Antoinette, perished by the axe, 16th October, 1 793. Madame Elizabeth, sister of the late king, was beheaded 4th February, 1794. § The human monster who exercised the longest and most terrific sway, was Robespierre, with his villanous acconipHces, at first Dan- ton and Marat, and afterwards Collot d'Herbois, Billand-Varennes, Conlthon, and St. Just. The party which was opposed to Robes- pierre in the Convention, called the Girondin, fell under his ruth- less domination. Among thorn was the infamous Orleans. He smiled at his condemnation, and made but one request, which was,, that his punishment should not be delayed until the following day. On his way to execution, he braved the insults of the multitude, whose contemptible idol he had so long been j and perished with- out the smallest remorse of conscience. Robespierre and his party, were at length put down, and of all the actors and victims of the revolution, he suffered the most in the circumstances of his death, and was the least pitied. In attempting to destroy himself with a pistol, he dreadfully mangled his jaw, and while overwhelmed with indescribable agony from the wound, he was conveyed to the place of execution, surrounded by a populace intoxicated with joy. With him perished eighty-three of his as- sociates. 49. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin clubs were suppressed, and in the course of the succeeding year, 1795, Oct. 26th, the Convention closed its sittings, having been the means, in all probability, of more human suffering tlian any other deliberative body that ever met. Two days after, the executive power was vested in a Directory of five, and the legislative power in two Councils. 50. While these transactions, which belong to the internal history of the revolution, were taking place, the external re- lations of France were seriously affected. The republic had waged a desperate war with the adjoining states, from nearly the commencement of the revolution. These states, particu- larly Austria and Prussia, took the part of Louis and his government, from natural sympathy, from a sense of danger, from resentment at the disorganizing principles which the revolutionists disseminated, and from the desire to restore 301 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. tranquillity, and reinstate the king on his throne. The nu- merous emigrants also, consisting of the nobility, clergy, and rich citizens, who had been enabled to escape from the scene of blood, offered encouragement and aid. Accordingly, seve- ral armies marched to the borders of France, but the repub- lic, up to the time of the Directory, not only sustained itself against the efforts of its enemies, but made the conquest of the Netherlands, changed Holland, then perhaps the richest country in Europe, into a dependency of Fiance, and inva- ded Germany. Such was the energy of the republic, that alone, without allies, it had at command, one milUon of fight- ing men, in the year 1 794. 51. The government of the Directory, continued till 1799^ when the executive power was vested in three consuls, of whom the first was Bonaparte, the second Cambaceres, and the third Le Brun. The Directory had been in several instances unfortunate in the field, and the consulate was de- signed to restore, and, as we shall soon see, did effectually re- store, the energy of the government. The series of hostile efforts, which the different states op- posed to France directed against that country, are termed coalitions. Including both republican and imperial France^ there were six of these coahtions with which she contended ; two under the former character, and four under the latter. In these combined efforts, all the nations of Europe Avere, at one time or another, engaged. The first of these coalitions, includes the wars already ad- verted to, and beginning in 1793, it continued till nearly the time of the consulate. In this coalition, England, Spain, and the Stadtholder, were included. France had declared war against these powers ; and indeed Portugal, Naples, Tuscany, and the Pope, were involved. § William Pitt, was the founder and head of these combinations. " He was more correct than others in his estimate of the danger, and no less great in character than in talents, he never capitulated with political maxims. Whatever could be accomplished by gold and perseverance, he accomplished." This war was not merely a conflict of arms, but of clashing elements. An express decree of the Convention, announced the introduction of the sovereignty of the people, in every country which its armies should subdue. The nature of the warfare carried on by the combined powers, aroused in France a resistance of despair. This called forth, as has already appeared, a reign of terror, with all its cruelties, and all its FRANCE. 305 vigour, and sanctioned, at the same time, a maxim more momentous and fearful than a series of victories — that every citizen is a soldier. The success of France in this war, was signal. At length, some of the powers, as Prussia, Spain, and the grand duke of Tuscany, withdrew from the coalition, and made peace with the republic. The coalition, however, was not entirely dissolved. It was held together by British goM. A foreign commerce, embracing every quarter of the globe, and aided by an oppressive maritime law, oppressive to neutrals, supplied Great Britain, at this critical time, with wealth, which no other nation, ancient or modern, possessed in an equal de- gree. The war of the continent was carried on with the most vigour against Austria ; but the fate of Austria was not to be decided in (^rmany ; there, the archduke Charles repelled the armies of the republic. It was to be reached through Italy. This country, there- fore, became the principal theatre of the war, in 1796, 1797. Here, Napoleon Bonaparte, in his 27th year, first entered on the splendid and bloody career he was destined to run. To him the command of the army of Italy was intrusted, February 23d, 1796. One cam- paign gave him Italy ; the second, peace. This was the peace of Campo Formio. Out of the Austrian and Papal provinces in Italy, a new republic was formed, under the name of the Cisalpine Re- public. After the peace of Campo Formio, there was no suitable theatre in Europe, for the hero of the day. Egypt, the land of ancient won- ders, was invaded and seized by the conqueror of Italy, 1798. Pre- pared under the mask of an expedition against England, the execu- tion was yet more wonderful than the preparation. No undertaking ever created such immeasurable anxiety in England. Even the great naval victory at Aboukir, could not allay it, though that victo- ry produced important results. England, therefore, was determined not to rest, till Egypt should be torn from France. 52. The second coalition was formed in 1799, by means of England and Russia. This was a consequence of the victo- ry of Aboukir. Austria, and some other powers, soon enga- ged in it, making it a more extensive combination than the preceding. Prussia, however, maintained its neutrality. Un- der the mismanagement of the directorial government of France, one campaign gave the victorious allies, Italy, Swit- zerland, and Germany ; but they were headed by the able archduke Chaiies, and the dreaded Suwarrow. § A brief account of the situation of Switzerland will now be given, as here a convenient place is found. That country, in the heart of Europe, had succeeded for three hundred years in avoiding all parti- cipation in those great disputes in which the world had been involv- ed ; but it was destined to come within the vortex of the French re- volution. This country became agitated, and the revolution began in the Pays de Vaud, December, 1797. The evils of the federal consti* 26* 306 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. tution were disclosed ; there was a want of unity, and the burden at last fell almost exclusively on Berne. The French advanced on two sides, with bloody fights ; Berne was overpowered, March, 1798, and the other cantons were conquered, except the three smaller. These made an obstinate resistance, and an honourable capitulation. The consequence of the French military operations against Switzer- land was, that the Helvetian Republic was proclaimed, April, 1798. Then followed five unhappy years of war and faction, till the French act of mediation, 1803, restored to the Swiss, their federal, but alter- ed constitution. It was at the critical period, when the success of the alHes, and their approach towards the l^orders of France, excited such alarm for the fate of the republic, that Bonaparte i-eturned from Egypt and Syria, to Paris, and overthrew the directorial constitution. The directory abdicated ; the deputies of the people were driven asunder with clubs, and Bonaparte was appointed regent, as first consul. The most important results ensued. Factions were quelled ; internal enemies were over- awed ; tranquillity was restored; and new energy and life were infused into every department of the government. From this time, the popular sovereignty was at an end. The military force of the nation w^as put in a better train, and a series of victories and conquests commenced, which have no parallel in modern history. Before Bonuparte put himself at the head of the French armies, Russia had seceded from the coalition, and it was necessary to conquer only Austria, on the continent, feebly aided by Naples, and the south of Germany. The great battles of Marengo and llobenlinden, besides many smaller ones, brought Austria to terms, and led the way to the general peace of Amiens, 1802. This peace raised Bona- parte to the zenith of his renown. He was soon after elected first consul for hfe. x\t this epoch, he might have ruled Eu- rope, without further contests, had he been able to rule himself. Al3solute sovereignty only could suffice, and he was according- ly proclaimed empejor of France, in 1S04, to which, the next year, he added the title of king of Italy. This elevation w^as brought about in consequence of a now war, which had com- menced the preceding year, and wlich is soon to be spoken of. § The peace of Amiens was enjoyed throughout Europe; but it was enjoyed only for a short time, riiis was to have been expected^ when the object for which the war had been waged by the coalition- ists, viz. the freedom of Europe, was farther than ever from being secured. Even England desired peace, inasmuch as she had effected the deliverance of Egypt. This was with her, after the failure of FRANCE. 307 the general object, the turning point. She never could consent to see Egypt a colony of France. Egypt was restored to the Porte, in 1800, by means of the successes of Abercrombie, and others. From the conflict which has been related, France had retired with its interior well ordered and tranquillized, with an increase of territory, and with the restoration of all its colonies. This seemed to be the work of Napoleon, together with the rebuilding of the al- tars, and the establishment of religious liberty. The project of an universal monarchy, was now in a fair way of being realized. Such a project. Napoleon doubtless had formed, but it was defeated by a concurrence of providential circumstances. No potentate in Europe ever had such resources at command. His sovereignty in the interior, was absolute. Abroad, France extended to the Rhine, and beyond the Alps, and the kingdom of Italy fell under Bonaparte's sceptre ; the rest of Italy, Spain, Holland, Switzerland, and the Ger- man states on the Rhine, were kept in dependence by alliances, or by fear, and Hanover was occupied by a French army, in the heart of the Prussian monarchy. 53. The third coalition against France, vvas formed in 1805, by England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. England was its centre. A general rising of Europe was, according to Pitt's plan, to reduce France to its ancient bounds, and the in- dependence of the states was to be secured by judicious regu- lations and divisions. England liad been at war with France nearly two years before this combination, the peace of Amiens having continued between tliese nations scarcely a year. The coahtion was most unfortunate. The power of Austria was broken at Ulm, and at Austeihtz, and the peace of Presburg followed, 2()th December, 181)5. The expeditious movements of the French emperor, overthrew the whole plan of the allies. § The war between England ond France alone, which commenced in 1803, was brought on by the refusal of England to give up the island of Malta, which is the bulwark of Egypt, and with that ivsland, the dominion of the Mediterranean. France would not concede these points. Though these nations were professedly at war, there were found few points of contact, as the one, at that time, had no power, except on the sea, and the other none except on land. Great Britain swept from the ocean, all the enemy's forces that could be found on that element, and recovered the colonies that had been re- stored to France. Before the conclusion of this war, it was, that the famous naval battle of Trafalgar was fought. The first instance of a royal family being dethroned, by a bare proclamation, occurred at Naples ; and Bonaparte, by placing his el- der brother, Joseph, on that throne, laid the foundation of the do- minion of his family in Europe. 308 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. In this war, Prussia obstinately insisting on neutrality, was not to be gained. And yet, without the accession of this power, it was im- possible to make an efficient attack on France ; the northern half of which, was protected by Prussia's neutrality. The consequences, however, of the peace of Presburgh, revealed to Prussia, as well as to the rest of Europe, what was to be expected from the gigantic ambition of Napoleon. It was ascertained that neutrality could not be preserved, towards one who wished for none. Prussia stood di- rectly in the conqueror's way, and its neutrality was violated with- out hesitation, by the march of French troops through one of its provinces. That power began to make preparations after the war had been actually decided at Ulm and Austerlitz. When, however, the Prussian monarch found that according to the treaty of peace, the quiet of northern Germany was to be purchased, on the condi- tion that he was to cede to France several provinces, and occupy Hanover in return, thereby exposing himself to a war with England and Sweden, his embarrassment was extreme. But the scales turn- ed in favour of a war with France, and thus arose a new combi- nation, though the old one could hardly be said to have ceased, since Russia had not wholly retired from the field. 54. A fourth coaliLion, as it may perhaps be numbered, was soon miitiired, 1806, which included Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden and England. Prussia, which began the war, was utterly overthrown by one battle, that at Jena and Auerstadt. Its capital was entered, and here Bonaparte is- sued the Berlin Decree, announcing the blockade of the British islands. The conqiieior's army passed into Poland, and the war was thus transferred from the banks of the Soal, to those of the Vistula, where Russia was under the necessity of de- fending its frontiers. In the course of this war, were fought the obstinate and bloody battles of Pultusk, Eylau, and Fri'edland, with the Russians. The last only was decisive, and led to a peace, which was concluded at Tilsit, 7th July, 1807. Peace was concluded two days after with Prussia, by which about one half of the monarchy was returned, as a gift of charity, and this once potent nation, was reduced to a state of second rank. Russia gained a small accession of territory, but both nations agreed to close their harbours and countries against British navigation and trade. All was now French law or influence throughout continental Europe, and all was made to bear against Britain. § By the peace of Tilsit, Russia had been made beforehand, not merely a spectator, but an active participator in the project of crush- ing Britain, by excluding it from all trade and communication with the continent. This was done by the secret articles of the peace. FRANCE. 309 England, however, anticipated the enemy's dependance on the fleet of Denmark, and effected its surrender, by the bombardment of Copen- hagen. One consequence of this act was, a declaration of war by Russia against England, and another was an alliance of Denmark with France, which was to open to this latter power the road to Sweden. The Berlin Decree was met by the British Orders in Council, which prohibited every ship from entering any French port, or any port under French influence, under pain of confiscation. This was followed by the Decree of Warsaw, declaring that all British com- modities, in the Hanseatic cities, were confiscated, without respect of owners. This decree was retaliated by a strict blockade of the Elbe and the Weser, and by the Order in Council, declaring in blockade, all ports from which the British flag was excluded, and that all ships proceeding thither, should be captured, unless they had touched at a British port, and paid a duty. This was answered by the Decree of Milan, by which every ship which should submit to these conditions, was declared denationalized, and a lawful prize. Thus, neutral pow- ers could have no navigation. Afterwards, the mad Decree of Fon- tainebleau, consigned to the flames, all British manufactures from Naples to Holland, and from Spain to Germany. But Europe could not subsist under the operation of such measures. Industry was fatally paralized. 55. Napoleon, triumphant and powerful, now wished to enlarge the donniiion of his family, hy appropriating to his remaining brothers, tlie thrones of Portugal and Spain. Spain was destined to receive his brother Joseph, whom Mu- ral, the emperor's brother-in-law, was to succeed in the king- dom of Naples. Louis Bonaparte had before been made king of Holland, and Jerome, king of WestphaUa. His de- sign on Portugal failed, though its throne was prostrated. A new and greater throne arose, on the other side of the ocean. Under a British convoy, the royal house of Portugal emi- grated to Brazil. His design on Spain succeeded for a time, by his having artfully secured the person of the Spanish mon- arch, and compelling him to resign his crown, in favour of Joseph Bonaparte, 20th June, 1808. This act, to say nothing of its moral character, was a political fault on the part of Napoleon ; the first fatal step which he took, towards his subsequent downfal. He had already the con- trol of Spain, by his influence. " It was done without a knowledge of the country and nation : an universal insur- rection having ensued, it opened the abyss which devoured alike, the French armies, and the French finances ; and it gave England a theatre for war. But it taught Europe that ^10 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. the people are more powerful than mercenary armies, and it was destined to give frerdom to another quarter of the globe.* The British, who \x^ere called to the aid of Spain, in connex- ion with the Spanish forces, carried on the war from 1808, to 1813. Many battles were fought, in which the English- Spanish troops w^ere generally victorious. Here " the Marl- borough of the nineteenth century," began his brilliant career. The French were eventually driven out of the country. 55. While the war in Spain, employed the best forces of the French empire, the insatiable conqueror meditated a new, greater, and more formidable w^ar. That was the war with Russia, in 1812 ; a war w4iich decided the destiny of Europe, It is unnecessary to repeat what has ah'eady been said con- cerning this terrible conflict, in the history of Russia. 57. After Napoleon's defeat, he fled to Paris, and raising another army, he hoped to regain the dominion which he had lost in the east. To oppose him, the Fifth Coalition was formed, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, a part of the Confederation of the Rhine, and Sweden. Of this con- flict also, no particular mention need be made here, since the details have been given elsewhere. It may only be said, that the allies carried the war into the heart of France — that after much and strenuous fighting, they entered Paris, which capitulated, 30th March, 1814 — and that with the capital, France was conquered, because in France, the capital is every thing. 58. The results of these successes of the allied powders, were important, and great changes took place. The situa- tion of Napoleon becoming extremely critical, he abdicated the throne of France, and was removed to the island of Elba. His mighty empire, reared by a military despotism, fell into ruins. And Louis XVIII. , after an absence of twen- ty-three years from his kingdom, returned and took possession of his rightful throne. § Bonaparte had it in his power, while the allies held a congress at Chatillon, to preserve the throne and empire, had he been satis- fied with ancient France. But it was fortunate that he demanded too much, and even this, as an intercepted letter of his minister, Maret, afterwards showed, was only a deception. After his defeats in defending France, the senate, lately his slave, openly proposed the deposition of Bonaparte, and he himself, not without many useless attempts in favour of his son, descended from the falling throne. FRANCE. 311 having executed an unconditional abdication on the part of himself and his heirs, 1st April, 1814. He was soon after escorted to Elba, which he received with full sovereignty, with a pension of two and a half millions from the revenues of France, and with a body guard of four hundred men, Louis XVIII. had spent his time in Italy, Germany, Russia, and finally England. The same month that restored to France her king, beheld three other princes, who had been driven from their thrones, ascend them again. — Pius VII., returned to Rome, Ferdinand VII. to Madrid, and Victor Emanuel to Turin. 59. To restore the political system of Europe, which had been so completely subverted, a General Congress \va^ as- sembled at Vienna, 1st November, 1814. Six of the crowned heads of Europe were present, imited in peace as in war, with a long and splendid list of princes, ambassadors, and ministers. While they were engaged in their difficult and important deliberations, an event occinred which was the cause of the sixth and last coalition of the European powers. " The man of destiny" again made his appearance on the bloody arena where he had lately acted so conspicuous a part, but whence, it was hoped, he had been excluded forever. Having escaped from Elba, Bonaparte, after an unparralleled adventure, reached Paris, and re-seated himself on the im- perial throne. A temporary confusion ensued, but the result proved that the army, and not the nation, was the support of that throne. The great day of Waterloo, the 18th June, 1815, buried the hopes of Napoleon Bonaparte in the dust. § The French king, upon Bonaparte's return to Paris, withdrew to Lille, and afterwards to Ghent. He came back to his capital after an absence of one hundred days, and was the second time seated on his throne. In the whole career of Bonaparte, nothing was more extraordina- ry than his progress through France, and re-occupancy of the throne. He landed at Cannes, March 1st, 1815, and in twenty days from that time, accompanied with about fifteen hundred men, he reached, though without opposition, the scene of his former triumphs. No blood was spilt. The previous conspiracy seems not to have been very extensive, because the emperor could, and of course did, rely on the assistance of the troops. They received him with en- thusiastic shouts. The nation was held in mute astonishment for a time ; but it soon became evident that he had lost in a measure his influence over it. Instead of ruling the parties as formerly, he •eems to have been swayed by them. So much the more energetic were his warlike preparations — he could now indulge no hope of peace. It was a happy circumstance that the news of Napoleon's return, 312 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. reached the congress of Vienna, while still in session. The most prompt and decisive measures were adopted. By a special act, he was declared the enemy of the nations, and to have forfeited the protection of the laws. Almost every nation in Europe, small and great, combined against the usurper. The sum of all the contin- gents to be furnished, amounted to 1,057,400 fighting men. A Bri- tish-German and a Prussian army were assembled with the utmost speed, under Wellington and Blucher. Napoleon was equally active, and pressed forward across the boundaries with 170,000 men, 15th June, 1815. He first met "the gray hero" (Blucher,) at Ligny, who, after a bold resistance was forced back to Wavre. Meanwhile the army of Wellington was drawn up at Waterloo. Napoleon commenced the attack at noon, of the 18th .Tune, with a great su- periority. After an awful conflict, the victory was fluctuating at evening, when Blucher appeared with his auxiliaries, at the right crisis, and decided the battle. Bonaparte fled to Paris, abdicated anew in favour of his son, and after fruitless attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself to a British ship of the line; but instead of being permitted to land in England, as he wished, he was transported to the island of St. Helena, Oct. 16th, and was detained as a prisoner of war till his death, vvliich happened 5th May, 1821. Thus " on an island rock in the midst of the ocean, died, almost unnoticed, the man, whose name but a short space before, had filled the world. His plans were wrecked ; from the thraldom, which he was preparing for the nations, there sprang liberty in more than one quarter of the globe. Unknown to himself, he was but the in- strument of a higher power; for his objects were not its objects. W^hatever judgement posterity may pass on him, universal his tory can view him only from this point." He was the author of several valuable institutions, and effected some propitious changes, not only in France, but in the rest of Europe ; yet they were pur- chased at too dear a price— infinitely dearer tlian if he had taken W^ashington, and not Ca3sar, as his model. Like other great con- querors, he sacrificed the repose, liberty, and happiness of millions, to his insatiable ambition. France, having been conquered the second time, by the second taking of its capital, was required to indemnify the allies for their expenses and sacrifices. She was left a great and a powerful nation, little less diminished in territory than after the first pacification, which fixed her limits nearly as they were in 1789. The indemnity which the allies received, consisted chiefly in money, and in the occupancy of eighteen fortresses, by a portion of their troops, to be supported at the cost of France. These troops, hoAvever, were all withdrawn long before the term agreed on, which was five years. Louis XVIII., whose reign was that of a prudent, though ineffi- cient monarch, died in 1824, and was succeeded by his brother, the Count d' Artois, under the appellation of Charles X. The princi- pal event of the reign of Louis, was the invasion of Spain, in 1823, SPATN. 313 by a French army under the Duke d' Angouleme, but without a .declaration of war, in consequence of the decisions of the congress of Verona, in 1823. This unjustifiable act resulted in the overthrow of the Cortes ; and the despotism of absolute royalty was immedi- ately re-established. ITALIAN STATES. 60. In the history of Italy, during modern ages, nothing important occurred till the late convulsions, occasioned by the French revokition. The Itahan states shared deeply in them, as has already appeared. It may be cnly added, that the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, decreed the subdivision of Ita- ly, between the house of Austria, the king of Sardinia, the Pope, and the king of Naples. The free republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca, have, in consequence, been amalgamated with arbitrary sovereignties ; and Austria is become the pre- ponderating power of Italy. SPAIN. 61. Phihp v., the monarch of Spain, at the commence- ment of this period, reigned till the year 1746. During his long rule, the nation degenerated as before, from the opera- tion of a despotic government, a superstitious and cruel reh- gion, aided by the natural indolence of the people. § In 1717, the Spaniards took Sardinia; but the next year invaded Sicily, without success. 62. Philip was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VI., 1746, who was a mild and pacific prince, but whose reign is barren of those events which usually furnish matter for history. The indolent and effeminate Charles III., brother of Ferdi- nand, succeeded him, in 1759, who reigned till the year 1788. The principal events of his reign were, the formation of the family compact, between France and Spain ; the union of these nations against England, in the American war; and their unsuccessful siege of Gibraltar. § In the siege of Gibraltar, twelve thousand pieces of heavy ordi- nance were accumulated before the place, for the numerous intended attacks by sea and land ; there were, also, in proportion, gun-boats, bomb-vessels, battering ships, military stores, and ammunition. In- deed, nearly all the frigates and smaller armed vessels of the king- dom, were assembled to afford requisite assistance, and the combined fleets of France and Spain, amounting to about fifty ships of the line, 27 314 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. were to cover and support the attack. But all this formidable force was employed in vain, from the almost impregnable situation of the fort, and the valour of its defenders. It seemed as if so many can- non and other means of destruction, playing upon the rock, would have annihilated it — all looked like a mass of fire in and around it, but the loss sustained by the besieged was much less than might have been expected, while that of the Spanish and French was im- mense. The mortification which the Spaniards always have felt, ever since this fortress fell into the hands of the English, was greatly in- creased by the unsuccessful issue of this celebrated siege. 63. Charles IV. possessed the crown upon the death of his father, 1788. He was an inefficient and unfortunate mo- narch. In 1792, he entered into a league against the French republic, but being defeated, he united witli France against Great Britain. After the rupture of the treaty of Amiens, Spain professed to be neutral, till the capture of several of her treasure ships, by a British squadron, after which, the weakness of the government led to an insurrection, and Fer- dinand VII. dethroned his father. The father and son, under the influence of French intrigue, afterwards appealed to Napoleon, to whom the father formal- ly surrendered his kingdom, at Bayonne, for the puipose of defeating the claims of his son ; who, after being also obliged to sign a renunciation of the throne, was then treacherously detained a state prisoner, at Compeigne, in France. From this period, the situation of Spain, appears in the account al- ready given concerning France. § Since the restoration of the general peace, Spain has been more unfortunate than any other of the European communities. Abroad, she has lost her colonies in South America ; at home, the horrors of anarchy and internal war, and, at length, of despotism and the In- quisition, she has been doomed to bear. Portugal has experienced scarcely a milder fate than Spain. Its situation since the emigration of the royal family to Brazil, has been singular, and at the present time, is deplorable. A monarch residing in a colony, and governing the parent state, is altogether a novelty in the history of the world ; yet such has been the fact in regard to the emperor of Brazil. At this moment, the despotism of the usurp- er, Don Miguel, is producing consternation and distress among the adherents of the regular government. The history of Portugal, from the time of its independence under John, duke of Braganza, in 1664, to the time of the French revolu- tion, is of so little consequence, that it has been omitted altogether. Since the latter period, the incidental notices which have been given of its affairs, must suffice. It may be remarked, that the Portuguese THE NETHERLANDS. 315 are still rich in colonial possessions, notwithstanding they have lost most of what they used to hold in Asia. THE NETHERLANDS. 64. The history of the Netherlands, under the name of Holland, was briefly sketched in the period preceding the last. Holland, as including seven united provinces, and as constituting an independent nation, was the most important portion of the Low Countries. The character of its inhabi- tants, as an eminently enterprising and industrious people, also placed them at the head of these countries. In the ages preceding the French revolution, their commerce was exceed- ed by that of no nation, and wealth from this source poured in upon them apace. Their maritime force was consequently extensive, and they had numerous collisions with their great rivals, the British, who were destined, at last, far to surpass tliem in riches and naval power. Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century, it wag apparent, that the Dutch were falling from their high eleva- tion. Indolence, luxury, and avarice, the consequence of wealth, had, in a degree, affected this excellent people ; and their spirit, which would otherwise have been invincible, yielded to French intrigue and military enthusiasm, at the era of the revolution. The ten provinces, called Belgium, or Flanders, since they were freed from the Spanish yoke, have been usually divided into Austrian, French, and Dutch Netherlands. Prussia, also, has shared in them ; and, indeed, they have often changed masters. They were swallowed up eventually in the great political vortex, to which reference has been so frequently made. § No space remains for an account of the stadtholders of Holland, since the time of Maurice, who was mentioned in the eighth period. Nor is their history very important, as the stadtholdership was seve- ral times abolished. During the separate times of its existence, it has been held by the princes of the house of Orange. 65. After the United Netherlands were overrun by the French, in 1795, and the stadtholder and his family were obliged to flee to England, the whole country was oppressed and plundered by the French, and the melancholy spectacle was presented, of ruined commerce and civil discord, with aa 516 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. incredible mass of public and individual suffering. Besides misery at home, there was loss abroad ; and Holland, rich in colonies, was stripped of most of them, by means of the re- volutionary wars, in which she was involved. In 1814, the prince of Orange was recalled, and Flanders being annexed to Holland, and forming one kingdom, he as- sumed the title of king of the Netherlands. § The restoration of the state of the Netherlands, was one of the principal points in the restoration of the political system of Europe, effected by the congress at Vienna. That its fate was connected with the fate of the Belgic, no less than the Batavian provinces, ap- peared from the fact, that Belgium, in the hands of France, first opened the avenue to universal dominion. It was felt to be necessa- ry, to found there a powerful state, which, at least in alliance with Prussia, should be strong enough for its own defence ; and the union of all the Netherlands into one kingdom, was resolved on by the Congress. The sovereign of the house of Orange adopted the royal title, and gave them a free constitution. TURKISH EMPIRE. 66. In the history of Turkey, we perceive the evidences of a rapid decHne, from about the commencement of the present period. The people have been extremely depressed, and the nature of their institutions is such as to preclude, in a great measure, the improvements common to the rest of Europe. Some changes have very recently been effected. 1'he discipline of the army has been improved, and the an- cient body of the Janizaries, so formidable to the government and its master, has been broken up by the present energetic Sultan. Yet the empire, as it respects European dominions, is now on the brink of destruction,* from the victorious ca- reer of the Russians. From its conflicts with that people, it has generally retired, shorn of some portion of its territories, and with diminished strength and resources. With Persia, also, it has often fought, but on more equal terms. At the commencement of thi? period, Achmet III. was the reigning Sultan. He was deposed in 1730, since which time, ♦ By the late treaty of peace, which the Sultan ratified, on the 20th Septem- ber, 18*29, European Turkey is nominally preserved in independence ; but the terms of pacification were so favourable to Russia, that the latter enjoys almost every advantage which would accrue from the actual possession of the country. TURKISH EMPIRE. 317 there have been seven sultans, viz. Mahomet Y., Osman III., Mustapha 111., Achmet IV., Selim 111., Mustapha IV., and Mahmoud II., the present sultan. 5 Under Mustapha III., Turkey and Russia engaged in a furious and bloody war, which lasted from 1769, to 1774. By means of a fleet which sailed to the Archipelago, the Russians seized a part of the Morea, whose inhabitants soon rose in a general revolt, and de- clared in favour of Russia. But the sultan sent an army to the Peninsula, and quelled the revolt, inflicting the severest punishment on many of the unhappy Greeks. This war was disastrous to the Turks. The war was renewed by Achmet IV., in 1787, and concluded not until 1792, under Selim III. Important concessions were made to Russia. Koutousoff greatly distinguished himself in this war, as did also Suwarrow. It was during the reign of Selim, that Bona- parte invaded Egypt, and the transactions took place in regard to that country, which have been related in the history of France. Achmet, and also his successor, Mustapha IV., were deposed and murdered by the Janizaries. The Porte had kept itself remote from the convulsions connected with the French revolution, \7ith the exception of the war with Rus- sia, from 1809 to 1812, which cost it Bessarabia, and a part of Mol- davia. Assisted by the powerful Bashaw of Egypt, the Porte was more active in Arabia, against the Vv'echabites, than in Europe, the tranquillity of which it is not for its interest to disturb, if it be itself left in quiet. This, however, has not been sutfered to be the case, since the year 1821. Since that time, it has had an almost inces- sant struggle with the Greeks, and lately it has been involved in a ruinous war with Russia. The inhabitants of Greece, oppressed beyond endurance by the barbarous Turk, and recalling to remembrance their ancient freedom, and their ancient renown, have asserted their rights by arms. An insurrection broke out simuhaneously, in almost every section of the territory, and has been pursued on both sides, on the mainland, and on the sea, with a furious rancour. After eight years of unprecedent- ed suffering, Greece has become effectively free, by its own heroism, and the interference of Russia, France and England. The insurrection, which has thus terminated in securing the liber- ties of Greece, broke out in the month of April, 1821, in Moldavia, and almost at the same time, in the Morea, as well as on most of the islands of the Archipelago. Of these islands, the naval force was generally superior to the Turkish. At the end of the year 1821, the Turks were driven from the Morea and the islands, with the ex- ception of the garrisons of several strong fortresses. But these por- tions of Greece, have since been repeatedly harrassed by the vindic- tive Turks, till lately, their contest with Russia, for their own exis- Lence, has absorbed every other interest. 27* 318 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD CHINA. 67. At the commencement of this period, Yong-Tching, of the twenty -second dynasty, occupied the throne of China. Two emperors of this dynasty, which is that of the Tartars, had preceded him, viz. Chun-tsi, and Kang-hi. A revolution in China, which commenced in 1641, brought the Tartars a second time into power ; but they were not considered as set- tled, till 1649, which is properly the date of the twenty- second, or the present dynasty. The successors of Yong- Tching, have been Kien-Long, and Kia-Khing. The name of the present emperor is not known to the author of this work. § In the reign of Yong-Tching, the Jesuits, who first penetra- ted into the empire, in 1683, were banished, and the christians were persecuted, not excepting those of the imperial family. In the reign of the same prince, also, an earthquake took place, at Pekin and its environs, such as had never before been felt in China. The first shocks were so sudden and violent, that in less than a minute, above 100,000 inhabitants were buried in the ruins of houses, ana a still greater number in the surrounding country, where whole villages and towns were destroyed. Kien-Long died in 1795, in the ninetieth year of his age, and in the sixty-second year of his reign, it is said to have been a peaceful and happy, as well as long reign. In 1793, the celebrated British embassy, under Lord Macartney, arrived in China, with a view to the establishment of a connuercial intercourse between the two countries. An account of this embassy, has been written by Sir George Staunton. In the estimation of Europe, Kien-Long stood at the head of the sovereigns of half civilized nations. Kia-Khing died in 1819, at the time when the famous Russian mission, under Timkowski, was approaching the celestial empire. He was the seventeenth son of Kien-Long, and reigned happily. The Russian mission, took notice that the buttons, which are so con- spicuous in the Chinese official costume, disappeared from all the caps of the loyal Chinese and Mongul officers, and that they, as well as their countrymen, adopted a white dress. This, among them, is the mourning colour, for as good a reason, doubtless, as black among the Europeans, blue among the Persians, and violet among the Turks. PERSIA. 68. Soon after the beginning of the present period, Persia, which was governed for a time by the posterity of Tamer- lancj and afterwards by the Sophis, had the famous Kouli PERSIA. 319 Khan, or Nadir Shah, for its sovereign. He had been the general of Abbas III., his predecessor, whom it is supposed he poisoned, and thus supplanted the Sophia family. In 1739, he invaded India, and conquered the Mogul empire, taking Delhi, acquiring immense wealth, and committing the most horrible massacres. This monster then took the title of Emperor of the Indies, and returning into Persia, attempt- ed to change the religion, and strangled all the priests, after which, in self defence, he was murdered in his tent, by his own officer. After his death, Persia was desolated by civil wars, be- tween various rivals for the throne ; but the countiy, after being exhausted by these events, settled itself under Kerim Khan, an able prince, of obscure birth, who died in 1779. On his death, Persia again fell into confusion, till the last of his family was overthrown, and the sovereignty regained by Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1794. He delegated the govern- ment to his sons. § The origin of the Sophis, is connected with a revolution on ac- count of religion, in the end of the fifteenth century. Hadar, or Sophi, a religious enthusiast, restored or established the sect of Ali in Persia, whom he considered to be the successor of Mahomet, rather than Omar. The Persians liking a doctrine that distinguished them from their enemies, the Turks, and being at the same time exempted from the obligation of performing pilgrimages to Mecca, embraced it in great numbers; and Ishraael, the son of Sophi, following the example of Mahomet, enforced his opinions by the sword. All Per- sia and Armenia submitted to his arms. His descendants ruled till the time of Kouli Khan. Persia has been often conquered, yet the form of its government, and the state of society, have continued nearly the same through almost two thousand years. In a late war with Russia, it has lost considerable territory. INDIA. 69. The vast and populous country under the name of India, makes but an inconsiderable figure in history. Doubt- less, many subjects of an interesting nature might be found, could the modern historian have afair opportunity of research ; but few have, as yet, appeared, and these in so detached a manner, that a regular account cannot easily be given of the events in Indian history. The mention of tliis country, sepa- rately from others, has accordingly been omitted till the pre- 320 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. sent period. Indeed, it has little claim on our attention, in an outline of general history, till very modern times. The few details that can be afforded, both of its earlier and later histo- ry, will appear below. Like most other Asiatic countries, it has been often and easily conquered, but without materially affecting the form of its government, or its manners and cus- toms. Successive dynasties have ruled over most of the ori- ental nations, but they have left the latter where they found them. So far back as authentic records carry us, we find among the people, little or no advances made in civihzation, refinement, or knowledge. They are the same in indolence, effeminacy, and luxury, that they were two thousand years ago ; not ignorant, yet Avithout a spirit of enterprise ; accom- plished in certain arts, yet incapable of learning others. § India was but little known to the ancients. Alexander the Great, first invaded, though he did not conquer it, except in part. The country was afterwards visited by Seleucus, to whose share it fell in the partition of Alexander's empire; and Antiochus the Great, two hundred years subsequently, made a short expedition thither. The Arabians penetrated into Hindoostan, about 710, and founded an empire extending to the Ganges, which, in 1155, was usurped by the Persians. After this, followed the march of Genghis Khan, who is said to have given the name of Mogul, to India ; and subse- quently, the conquering career of Tamerlane, both of which have been elsewhere mentioned. The descendants of Tamerlane enjoy- ed no more than the northern parts, till after 1498, when sultan Ba- ber subdued almost all the country, except the Deccan, Grezerat, and Bengal. Aureng Zeeb, who reigned between 1660 and 1707, conquered Bengal, and the greater part of the Deccan. At his death, he left an empire of great extent, and producing a revenue of more than £35,000,000 sterling. But a succession of weak princes and wicked ninisters reduced this vast empire, in the course of fifty years, to in- significance. In 1739, Hindoostan was invaded by Kouli-Khan, who annihilated the Mogul empire. It was, however, afterwards reviv- ed, for a time, but soon fell into decay, and can now be scarcely said to exist. The British are now the principal possessors of India. Their do- minions in India have been created, first, by the establishment of factories for trade ; 2d, by wars made upon the natives by the resi- dents of those factories ; and lastly, by the capture of the Portuguese, Dutch, and French colonies in India. The British Indian dominions, which were extensive before, and which began as early as 1757, have been greatly increased within tlie last thirty or thirty-five years. A statement, somewhat recent, makes the number of square miles of territory, under British juris- diction or influence, 776,000, and the population not less than eighty- V UNITED STATES. 321 six millions. To the above it must be added, that their Indian do- minions have been lately increased by a portion of the Burman em- pire, in consequence of a vi^ar with the latter. The government of this immense country, is vested in a Governor General, and a council of four, appointed by the British crown, who reside at Calcutta. THE UNITED STATES. % 70. The United States, which, at the beginning of this period, were in a colonial condition, assumed, before the con- clusion of it, their separate and equal station among the na- tions of the earth. It was with them an era of great events, and the change from colonies to a state of independence, though it lay in the natural course of things, was equally unexpected and instructive to the world. The colonies enjoyed a degree of tranquillity, from the peace of Utrecht, to the year 1744. In that year, a war breaking out between Great Britain and France, America was involved in it, the result of which was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, a place of great strength. This con- quest was effected principally by the troops of Massachusetts^ The place, however, was restored to France, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. In 1746, a powerful French armament was sent against America, but by means of shipwrecks, sickness, and other disasters, it providentially failed of its object. For several years, poweiful efforts were made on the part of the Ameri- cans and British, against the places and forts occupied by the French, particularly Louisburg, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Fort du Gluesne, (Pittsburg,) and Niagara. Success eventu- ally attended the Americans and British, and by the peace of Paris, in 1763, all the Canadas, together with Nova Scotia, and the island of Cape Breton, were confirmed to Great Bri- tain. George Washington, the future deliverer of America, first came into public notice during these contests. § In America, the long cherished democratic principles, realized by the constitutions of most of the provinces, a consequent weaker political connection with the mother country, and the feeling of growing strength, already tried in the seven years' war, were among the causes of the struggle after mdependence. Nothing was want- ing then but an occasion for a breach, and that could not long be wanting. 322 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. 71. The origin of the dispute was not so much in any- sensible oppression, as in a question of right. Had the Bri- tish parhament a right to tax the colonies ? Parhament main- tained the affirmative ; the colonies denied it, on the ground, that they were not represented. Representation and taxation, accoiding to their views, were inseparable. If their property- could be taken without their consent, they had no safety. § The dispute arose as early as 1764, occasioned by the stamp act, passed March 22d, 1765. The immediate consequence, was a great commotion in all the colonies, especially in Massachusetts and Vir- ginia, and a congress was convened at New- York, in October, which published a declaration of the people's rights. The stamp act was repealed March 19th, 1766; but the principle was at the same time confirmed, by the bill, declaring the supremacy of the parliament in all cases whatever. In agreement with the British doctrine, the ministry soon after attempted to effect its object by means of indirect duties. These were laid on tea, paper, glass, and colours, by the revenue act, June, 1767. The proceeds of these duties were to form a civil list for America, which should be wholly at the disposition of the ministers, for conferring remunerations, pensions, &c. The opposition to this form of taxation, and to every form, being renewed, especially in Boston, which was the centre of resistance. Lord North abro- gated these duties, except the one on tea, in 1770. By this reser- vation, the right of taxation was explicitly asserted ; but as the Americans, by voluntary agreement, would make use of no British commodities, the tea which was brought to this country could not be sold. The East India Company consequently became em- barrassed ; and after the repeal of the export tax in England, at- tempted to gain the Americans by a cheaper price. But, neverthe- theless, measures were adopted to prevent the importation of tea, and a cargo of it was forcibly seized, and thrown into the harbour, in Boston, December 26th, 1773. 72. The measures adopted by the Americans, impelled En- gland to resort to severer acts. These consisted not only in shutting the harbour of Boston, but in regulations by which the charter of Massachusetts was annihilated. It was these regulations which created the general insurrection, since each colony now saw no security for its former constitution. The Boston port bill was passed March 25th, 1774. The town was soon occupied by the British troops. § Great harmony prevailed among the provinces, and a Congress was opened at Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 1774, which resolved to sus- pend all commercial intercourse with England, expressing at the same time all dutifulness to the crown. England was thus brought io the alternative of making concessions, or a civil war. It chose the UNITED STATES. 323 latter, and notwithstanding the eloquence even of Chatham and Burke, parliament proclaimed the provincials, rebels. Hostilities began by the battle of Lexington, 19th April, 1775. New troops ar- rived from England in May. It was hoped that a few regiments would be sufficient to put down opposition — so profoundly ignorant was the British ministry of the spirit which had been aroused in America ! The war, which rapidly commenced on the part of the colonies, by the fruitless expedition led by Arnold and Montgomery against Canada, in October, 1775, necessarily became, from its nature, a defen- sive war ; and who but the modern Fabius was capable of waging it ! " The greatness of Washington was not founded on splendid talents, but on laborious years ; not on quick success, but on enduring per- severance." 73. It was not long before the idea of an entire separation from England, suggested by the vindictive measures which that country had employed, found every where a hearty re- ception in America. In that event only, was aid to be hoped for in Europe. Accordingly, the thirteen United States were declared independent, 4th July, 1776. After this decisive step, but one happy blow was wanting to give the colonies alhes in Europe. This was done by the capture of Bur- goyne and his troops, on the 16th October, 1777. This joyful event had been preceded by a period of gloom and disaster in the middle states, while Washington, with the shadow of an army, enfeebled, dispirited, and destitute almost of cloth- ing and necessaries, was closely pursued by a powerful Bri- tish force through the Jerseys — while the enemy had come in possession of the city of New-York, Long Island, Staten Island, and Rhode Island — and while the inauspicious opera- tions at Brandywine and Germantown, filled every American with terror. This sad picture, however, was relieved by the firmness of congress, by the uniform cautious valour and steady perseverance of the commander-in-chief, — and by his successes at Trenton and Princeton. § Upon the capture of Burgoyne, the FrencJi court acknowledged the independence of the United States, and declared war against England. France had Spain and Holland for its allies, and the war on their part became at first a contest for the dominion of the ocearu On this element the French contended with more glory tlian usuaL But the fate of America, as the event has proved, was to be decided on the continent. 74. The countenance and aid which France offered to the cause of liberty, filled America with rejoicing : but Wash- 324 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. ington, however much assisted by the French auxiliaries under Rochambeau and La Fayette's generous enthusiasm, hats the glory of having struck the decisive blow. He sur- rounded Cornwallis at Yorktown, who was forced to capitu- late, Oct. 19th, 1781 . After his capture, England could en- tertain no more hope of reducing America, and it required only a change of ministers to produce a peace, which was accordingly done. The independence of the United States was acknowledged by Great Britain, and prehminaries of peace were signed, 30th November, 1782, which were changed into a definitive peace, 3d September, 1783. The country adopt- ed its present constitution of government in 1789, which has been the source of unexampled prosperity. § The new republic at first languished under its liberty. The first constitution, which was formed during the war, created a federal government, without strength and without credit. But the constitu- tion of 1789, gave it a very desirable degree of solidity, and based the public credit on a system of finances for the union. Under this constitution, Washington was chosen the first president, in which character he was no less essential to the welfare of the country. than in that of a general. " The Union can, perhaps, be preserved only by having great men in the first offices." This is the judge- ment of the liberal and learned Heeren. 75. Commerce felt the first great influence of the new re- public, and almost all the maritime nations hastened to form treaties with it. The consequence was, that wealth and pros- perity poured in upon us apace. Seldom can a nation so increase, because it is seldom so favoured by circumstances. America, preserving its neutrality during most of the European maritime war, had such a vast carrying trade, especially be- tween the West Indies and Europe, that its commercial navigation was hardly surpassed by that of the British. But it was perhaps impossible for the United States always to continue on terms of amity with the belligerent powers. Disputes arose both with France and England, especially with the latter, who saw in America a formidable rival These disputes finally impelled the States to have recourse to the unexampled resolution of a voluntary suspension of their own commerce. This measure failing, a war ensued with England, which was declared, 18th June, 1812. In this contest, the young American navy gained a glorioua distinction, the army did less ; the capital itself became the SOUTH AMERICA. 325 Spoils of the English, but New-Orleans was defended with courage and success. The negociations at Ghent led, in a happy hour, to a much needed peace, 14th December, 1814. After Washington, 1789, John Adams was chosen presi- dent, 1797, his successor was Thomas Jefferson, 1801, James Madison succeeded him, 1809, James Monroe followed, 1817, then John Q.. Adams, 1825, (son of John Adams,) and the present incumbent of the high office is Andrew Jack- son, 1829. § Amidst unexampled prosperity, party spirit has raged at times, not without danger to the republic : but love of country has in the end prevailed. The war with England failed of its immediate ob- jects, but it shewed us our strength and our weakness, perhaps tend- ed to consolidate our union. It caused us to feel the necessity of a navy, and connected with the previous prohibitions of commerce, gave an impulse to our manufacturing industry. With the return of peace, our trade was diffused over every sea. By the purchase of Louisiana, the extent of our country from east to west, is the breadth of a continent. " Meanwhile internal improvement advan- ces; and the times are coming, when a man may travel with the mail from one ocean to the other." SOUTH AMERICA, 76, The provinces of South America, which were colo- nized by Europeans, continued, with little variations in their circumstances, from the time of their settlement, to the con- vulsions attending the French revolution. Those convul- sions, inasmuch as they affected the parent countries, also reached them. Within the present century they have be- come independent sovereign states, generally with republican governments, resembling that of North America. Brazil, belonging to the Portuguese, having ceased to be a colony, is «tyled by its ruler, an empire. The Spanish provinces had a long straggle for liberty and independence, which they have attained, so far as concerns the interference of the mo- ther country. If our information be correct, all of them have not yet agreed on permanent forms of government. Seven states are already enumerated among the free govern- ments of the South, viz., 1. Colombia ; 2. La Plata ; 3. Chili : 4. Mexico ; 5. Peru ; 6. The capitania of Guatimala ; 7. Bolivia, formed out of the provinces of Upper Peru. § The struggle for freedom in the Spanish provinces, did not origi- 28 326 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. nate in the intention of an entire separation from the Spanish throne, but from resistance to the usurpation of Napoleon and his brother. The insurgents were, therefore, no more rebels, than the Spaniards themselves. But they were as unwilling to be ruled by Spanish Juntas, as by their viceroys, in whom they could not confide. Like the Spanish, they established Juntas of their own, during the im- prisonment of their lawful king. Meanwhile, after the erection of the regency in the mother country, and after its refusal to comply with their just demands, they would not recognize its authority, nor that of the Cortez assembled by it ; upon this they were declared rebels. After the accession of Ferdinand VII., they had gone too far to retreat. His violence and insincerity finished the rest. Distinguished Characters in Period X. 1. Addison, an elegant Englisli essayist and poet. 2. Newton, a most profound mathematician and philosopher. 3. Boerhaave, a skilful and learned Dutch physician. 4. Pope, an eminent English poet. 5. Swift, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer. 6. Montesquieu, a Frenchman, a great political philosopher. 7. Edwards, an illustrious American metaphysician and divine. 8. Hume, a Scotchman, an able historian, and an acute and skeptical wiiter. 9. Voltaire, a French poet and writer of great celebrity. 10. Linna?us, a Swede, the father of botany. 11. Rousseau, a renowned Swiss philosopher, and fine writer. 12. Pitt, a distinguished statesman and orator. 13. Metastasio, the most illustiious poet of modern Italy. 14. Euler, a renowned Swiss mathematician. 15. Johnson, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essayist. 16. Frankhn, an American, a distinguished philosopher, and discoverer of electricity. 17. Gibbon, an eminent English historian. 18. Burns, a Scotch poet, a great untaught genius. 19. Burke, an Irishman, distinguished for eloquence and political knowledge. 20. Washington, an eminent statesman and Wcirrior, and father of the American republic. 21. Cowper, a celebrated English poet. 22. Klopstock, a German poet of great repute. 23. Heyne, an eminent German critic and scholar. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 327 24. M. de Stael, a learned and accomplished French female writer. 25. D wight, a celebrated American divine and belles-lettres scholar, 26. Buonaparte, a renowned warrior, conqueror, and states- man. 1. Addison, (Joseph,) "so great in prose, so little in poetry,"* was the son of a clergyman, and born in 1672. He was educated at Ox- ford, where he so cultivated and improved his mind, by the compo- sition of Latin verses, that he acquired an uncommon correctness of style, and elegance of diction. His merits, as a writer, procured for him. public employment, and he even became, in 1717, secretary of state ; a place, however, to which he was unequal, as he possessed neither boldness nor eloquence. He was unable to defend the measures of government in the House of Commons, and only wasted av/ay his time in his office, in quest of fine expressions. Late in life, he married the countess dowager of Warwick and Holland ; but if this event added to his elevation, it diminished his happiness, for she ever remembered her rank, and treated him with very little ceremony; an emphatic warning against ambitious lova He died at the age of fifty-seven. The Spectator, of which the most admired pieces came from the pen of Addison, has immortalized his name. In that work, and in most of his other prose productions, he is remarkable for a delicate and gentle humour, and an entertaining seriousness. His style is admirable, for purity and ease ; and the idiomatic excehence of the English language, is seen in his pages, to the greatest advantage. Some have thought well of his poetry ; and his tragedy of Cato, ac- cording to the French notions, would be pronounced one of the best ill the English drama. But others have a very different opinion of Addison's poetry, and at the present day, it certainly does not stand very high in public esteem. 2. Newton, (Sir Isaac,) the most iilastrious philosopher and ma- thematician that ever lived, was born in 1642, and died in 1727. \ The place of his nativity, was Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire. Particu- lar care was bestowed on his education by his mother, for he early lost his father. At the age of eighteen, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and there he began to show the astonishing strength of his mind in the mathematics. At the age of twenty-two, he discov- ered the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. His next pursuit was the grinding of optical glasses, for the improve- ment of telescopes, and soon after, connected with his investigation of the prism, followed his new theory of light and colours. His great- est discovery, and the greatest that the world ever saw, viz., the prin- ciple of gravitation, next succeeded. His immortal work, the Prin- cipia, was published in 1687. The friendship of the earl of Halifax, ♦ Edin. Review. 328 MODERN HISTORY PERIOD X. now procured for him a very lucrative employment, in being made master of the mint. His reputation extended with every effort of his genius, and he enjoyed numerous honours, and the favour of princes. He began to be affected with disease, about the age of eighty. Ah incontinence of urine, and the excruciating pains of a stone in the bladder, were the melancholy presages of approaching dissolution. He, however, lived about five years from this time. For a few weeks before his death, the agonies which he suffered were very great yet he bore them with exemplary patience, and though, from the severe paroxysms which he endured, large drops of sweat ran down his cheeks, he preserved his usual smile of cheerfulness and serenity. The character of Newton, is represented as being amiable, and adorned with the virtues of a christian. Irreverence towards the Deity, or the holy scriptures, always drew from him the severest censure. The bible he made his favourite study. His person was of a middle stature, and his countenance, though venerable and pleasant, did not indicate that transcendant sagacity, which he is known to have possessed. It is superfluous to comment on his intellectual superiority. A celebrated writer has observed, that if the literati of all ages and na- tions could meet in one assembly, they would choose Sir Isaac New- ton for their president. In his researches, he proceeded on the method laid down by Bacon, but with a clearness and strength of comprehension in abstruse studies, even exceeding the father of ex- perimental philosophy. 3. Boerhaave, (Herman,) was bom near Leyden, in 1668. He was intended for the ministry by his father, but the circumstance, that in his twelfth year only, he cured a distressing complaint with which he was afflicted, and which baffled all the powers of his sur- geon, turned his thoughts to the medical profession. Still, however, he studied theology in connection with it. He stood at the head of his profession, and as a lecturer on physic and botany, he became renowned, not only in his own country, but throughout Europe, so that students resorted to him from all quarters. His powers of mind were vast, and his learning extended to almost every subject of hu- man investigation. He was a great and good man. His valuable works are in Latin, and all on medical, botanical, and chemical sub- jects. His death occurred in 1738. 4. Pope, (Alexander,) Avho died in 1774, aged fifty-six years, was a native of London. After having been at school a few years, he went, at the age of twelve, to live with his parents at Binfield, in Windsor forest, and first discovered, or rather improved his taste for poetry, by reading the translated w^orks of Virgil and Ovid ; but es- pecially the poems of Spenser, Waller and Dryden. He early be- gan to try his strength in poetry, and so early, that to use his own expression, he " lisped in numbers." His first regular composition seems, however, to have been his Ode on Solitude, written when he was about twelve years old. Four years after this, when he began his pastorals, his merit introduced him into the society of the wits of the DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 329 age ; and he became the wonder of the hterary world, when, at less than the age of twenty, he pubhshed his Essay on Criticism. I'his is, perhaps, as faultless a piece of composition, as the history of youth- ful genius has ever recorded. It evinces all the mature reflection, and developed capacities of age. But the fame of the Essay was soon surpassed b)^ the Rape of the Lock, which he produced at the age of twenty-four. The Temple of Fame, next engaged the pub- he attention. His next great effort, was the translation of Homer's Iliad, from which he realized a fortune, receiving £6000, from his subscribers, and £12,000, from his bookseller. After this, he wrote several other works, particularly the Dunciad, a work of the keen- est satire, and the Essay on Man, which, though beautiful in language, and elaborate in disquisition, shews the writer to have been skeptical, as to religion. Pope was bred a Roman catholic, but, in the latter part of his hfe, he attended the service of the English church. In his person, he was diminutive, and somewhat crooked — when tauntingly reminded of it, he would say, " God mend me." In disposition, he was fretful and easily displeased, and, to his no small reproach, it must be said, tliat he was capricious in his friendships. His manners were easy, and his wit fascinating. Many of the great and noble were his ad- mirers, but he made them feel, that he did not servilely adore supe- riority of rank. Puny and delicate as the constitution of this poet was, his life was prolonged to his fifty-sixth year, by means of peculiar care and tem- perance. 5. Swift, (Jonathan,) was born in Ireland, in 1667. He was de- scended, however, from an ancient English family. In early life, he was poor, but his relatives furnished him with the means of pro- curing his education. So indifferent a scholar was he at the univer- sity, that he obtained his first degree only by special favour. This mortification of his feelings, had a most propitious effect on his lite- rary progress, for it stimulated him to a methodical and diligent ap- plication to his books, during several succeeding years. Swift, un- der the auspices of Sir William Temple, with whom he had formed an intimacy, might have risen in civil or military life, as the king, in one instance, offered to make him captain of horse; but his thoughts were directed to the church. A little after the year 1694, he took orders, and engaged in the duties of a parish priest. His hopes of preferment were, from time to time, disappointed. He had expected some fat benefice in the English church, and even looked to a bishoprick ; but he attained only the deanery of St. Patrick, Dub- lin. After the accession of queen Anne, he became deeply engaged in political controversy, and wrote some able pohtical works. He died in a state of alienation and weakness, in 1745. The works of Swift are numerous, and highly respectable for the ability they display. He wrote in a pure and plain style, and had, as Johnson says, " an equable tenor of easy language, which rather trickles than flows." The effects of his writings were very decisive, at the time, and some of them are still read with great pleasure. His 28* 330 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. Gulliver's Travels, and his Tale of a Tub, have lost nothing of their popularity. Swift was an eccentric being, and little better than a madman. He delighted to differ from all oth'^r men, on those subjects, or in re- gard to those interests, in which all other men are agreed. Though married, he was never known to be in company with his wife, ex- cept in the presence of a third person. He was strongly attached to her, and yet his strange cruelty broke her heart. Like some men, however, he was avaricious. " He made a rule to himself, to give but one piece at a time, and therefore always stored his pocket with coins of different value." But what he did give, was graced neither with tenderness nor civility. "When his friends, of either sex, came to him, in expectation of a dinner, his custom Avas to give every one a shilling, that they might please themselves with pro- vision. At last, his avarice grew too powerful for his kindness ; he would refuse a bottle of wine ; and, in Ireland, no man visits where he cannot drink." Whether he really believed in the truth of Chris- tianity, is, to say the least, doubtful. His professed dread of hypo- crisy, might rather be termed the fear of man, or indifference to re- ligion, when it induced him to read prayers to his servant, every morning, with such dexterous secresy, that Dr. Delany was six months in his house before he knew it. 6. Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat) was born at Brede, near Bordeaux, 1689, of a noble family. He devoted himself early to literature, and first displayed strong powers of mind in his Per- sian Letters. His great work, that which has conferred on him an immortal name, is, his Spirit of Laws. In this production, he dis- plays astonishing depth of thought, vigour of imagination, and so- lidity of judgment, and deserves the honourable appellation of the Legislator of the Human Race. While he was engaged in that work, he visited several countries for information, as Germany, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England. In the last he resided two years, where he was greatly honoured. It was an ob- servation of his, " that England was the country where to think, and France where to live." 7. Edwards, (Jonathan,) so advantageously known at home and abroad, for the power of his intellect, and the usefulness of his wri- tings, was a native of Windsor, Connecticut. He was born in 1703, graduated at Yale College, in 1720, where he spent two years, as a tutor; settled in the ministry at Northampton, 1727, whence he was removed ; appointed missionary to the Indians, at Stockbridge, in 1751 ; and called to the presidency of Nassau Hall, in 1758. He had scarcely entered on the duties of that station, when he fell a victim to the small pox, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. President Edwards was one of the greatest and best men of mo- dern times. He possessed an acute metaphysical turn of mind, which he most usefully employed in the investigation of divine truth. His treatise on the Will, is deservedly ranked as one of the ablest productions of the human mind. This work did that for the moral nature of man, which Locke's Essay on the Understandmg DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 331 (did for man's intellectual nature. It settled several controverted subjects, which had perplexed the divines and philosophers, who went before him. Edwards, as a metaphysician, stands by the side of Locke, Bacon, and Aristotle ; while, as a christian, he was pre- eminent in conscientiousness, humility, fear of God, and faithfulness to the spiritual interests of men. There is an awful power in his sermons. His Treatise on the Affections, is an invaluable book, which no christian, probably, ever read without profit. 8. Hume (David) was designed, by his family, for the law, but the turn of his mind led him to literary pursuits. For this purpose, he retired to France, and, though he possessed slender means, he was able, by the most rigid economy, to pursue his studies in that country. Here he wrote his treatise of Human Nature. In 1742, the first part of his Essays appeared. His Political Discourses, and his Inquiries concerning the Principles of Morals, followed, in 1752. At diflferent periods afterwards, the several portions of his English History were given to the public. These works were little noticed at first, unless his History be excepted, but some of them gradually grew into reputation, and he realized, from the latter works particu- larly, a handsome reward. This, together with the avails of other employments, made him, in his own view, very opulent, as he pos- sessed a revenue of £1000 a year. He was born at Edinburgh, 171 1, and died at the same place, 1776. Hume, doubtless, is an able writer, ingenious, subtile, and acute; but the sophistry of his arguments, on the subject of morals and re- ligion, is unwortliy of a man of his penetration. He knew better than to use the fallacious language with which he has often clothed his thoughts, and by means of which he has confounded truth with error, and right with wrong. 9. Voltaire (Marie Francis Arouet de) was a Parisian by birth. He died in 1778, at the age of eighty-four. For a long period, he was a sort of dictator in the republic of letters on the continent. By his free remarks on government and religion, he contributed, perhaps more than any other man, to lay the foundation of that state of things which afterwards existed in France, known under the name of the Revolution. In early life, he evinced superior powers of mind, and especially a sprightly imagination. He wrote verses, he says, before he left his cradle. His fondness for sp.tire, directed against the government, procured his imprisonment in the bastile, till he was liberated by the interference of the duke of Orleans. After this event, he devoted himself more entirely to the composition of poetry. His principal efforts were directed towards the drama ; and his Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope, placed him at the head of the dramatic poets of France. His Henriade, an epic poem, he had previously published in Eng- land. Encouraged by the Prussian monarch, he spent some time at the court of Berlin ; but he at last fixed his residence in a village on the borders of France, named Ferney. The boldness and effrontery of his muse, had r(mdered a residence in the French capital vexa- tious, and even dangerous to him, and hence he willingly left his 332 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. country at different times, and at last retired to a remote corner of it, so that he might pursue his studies in quiet. Here he con- tinued long to direct the taste and literature of the age. He died at Paris, while visiting that city ; and according to some accounts, he departed in great horror, from reflections on the irreligious tenden- cy of his writings. The blasphemous atheist often, indeed, ap- peared in his works. The following particulars respecting Voltaire, are given from a contemporaneous account. Many others might be added. "The most piercing eyes I ever beheld," says Dr. Moore, " are those of Voltaire, now in his eightieth year. His whole countenance is ex- pressive of genius, observation, and extreme sensibility. In the morning, he has a look of anxiety and discontent, which gradually wears off, and after dinner, he seems cheerful ; yet, an air of irony never entirely forsakes his face, but may always be observed lurking in his features, whether he frowns or smiles. By far the greater part of his time is spent in his study, and whether he reads himself, or listens to another, he always has a pen in his hands to take notes, or make remarks." 10. Linnaeus (Charles Von) was the son of a Swedish clergyman, born in the province of Smaland, 1707. He practised physic with such popularity and success, that at the age of thirty-four, he was nominated professor of physic and botany in the university of Up- sal, where he had been educated. His sovereign duly noticed his services, and besides other favours, conferred on him the honour of nobility. With an unparalleled ardour after knowledge, Linnceus undertook to explore the inhospitable deserts of Lapland, and through ten degrees of latitude, he exposed himself, generally on foot, lo every sort of fatigue. He afterwards visited other countries. He died iia 1778, having been seized with an apoplexy two years before. To his sagacity and discernment, science is indebted for the useful and familiar division of plants, of animals, &c. into classes. To the most extensive knowledge, he united the most indefatigable industry, and before liis publication of his Genera Plantarum, he most minute- ly examined the characters of more than eight hundred plants. • 11. Rousseau (John James) was born in Geneva, in 1712. He was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active, and the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus expanded his ideas, and inspired him with courage. His life was somewhat eventful, though we cannot dwell on the particulars. The strangeness and inconstancy of his character, subjected him to no inconsiderable ca- lamities; and, while by nature he was formed to enjoy the pleasures of the world in perfection, he endured self-inflicted tortures to such an extent, as to leave the balance of pleasure very little, if at all, ia his favour. He had a perpetual hankering after some unattainable state of voluptuous virtue. Though equally skeptical with Hume and Voltaire, he quarrelled with the one, who was his protector in England, and he incurred the persecution of the other, for maintain- ing the immoral tendency of the stage. (Strange to tell, he had written for the stage himself j but he was a creature of inconsistency.) DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 333 Some of his opinions were so obnoxious, that the popular indigna- tion was aroused against him, and he was obhged to flee from place to place on the continent, and, in fact, he found no asylum till he reached England. At length, however, he returned to Geneva, and spent the last years of his life in the company of a few friends, and resigned himself to peaceful studies. He died of an apoplexy, in 1778, aged sixty-six years. His works show him to have been a man of transcendent genius, but convict him of the utmost eccentricity, joined with licentious- ness and skepticism. He may be called the Diogenes of modern times. His literary career commenced at the age of thirty-eight, by a prize essay, in which he maintained the superiority of savage nature to the comforts of domestic and social life. This opinion he defended, for a long time, against all Europe. His New Heloise, and his Emilius, moral romances, attained to a great celebrity. His Con- fessions, a work published after his death, is one of the most singu- lar productions of the human mind. 12. Pitt (William) was earl of Chatham, and is commonly known oy that name. He was born in 1708. At the age of twenty-seven, tie was elected a member of parliament, and soon began to distin- guish himself as an eloquent and well-informed speaker. He enlist- ed early in the ranks of opposition, and in his speeches displayed such acuteness, vehemence, and depth of argumentation, as asto- nished the house, and marked him as worthy of the highest offices of the state. Wealth now poured in upon him, from private bene- factions, and from his public employments. In 1756, he received the seals of secretary of state for the southern department ; but his continuance in office was of short duration. His popularity, howe- ver, with the mass of the nation, recalled him to the secretaryship, in 1757. This restoration was the beginning of a new era of splen- did conquests, and of national glory. At the accession of George HI., his resignation took place, accompanied not only by a nation's regrets, but by the most substantial testimonials of his worth, on the part of the government. He deprecated, with all his eloquence, the measures relating to the American war, in the house of lords. His constitution, however, was, at this time, so enfeebled, that on one of these occasions, as he arose to speak, he fell into a fit, and died in a few days. As a statesman and orator, he stands, perhaps, at the head of the men of his profession, in modern times. It is said, that Walpole, the minister, surromided with power, and the unshaken support of a decided majority, never heard his voice, in the house of commons, without being alarmed and thunder-struck. 13. Metastasio (Pietro Bonaventura) early began the exercise of the poetic art. At the age of ten, he often collected little audiences, who listened with attention and admiration to the sweetness of his extemporary verses. He found a patron in the celebrated Gravina; and without neglecting the muses, he first studied the law ; but at last assumed the clerical habit. Gravina, at his death, left the poet his whole fortune, worth 15,000 crowns, which the latter dissipated 334 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. in two years by his convivial and hospitable habits. He now wrote for the stage, at the sohcitation of Bulgarella, the celebrated singer, and soon found himself the object of general admiration. A very large portion of his life, he spent at Vienna, enjoying the patronage of the sovereigns of Austria. He died at the age of eighty-four. Rome was the place of his birth, Vienna of his death. His works consist of twenty-six operas, eight sacred dramas, be- sides masques, sonnets, and other poetical miscellanies. They have been translated into various languages, and possess a high reputa- tion. The sweetest pictures of virtue and morality are delineated in his writings ; nor is he wanting in flights of sublimity. It is said, that Metastasio believed in no poetic inspiration, or propitious sea- sons for the composition of poetry, and that he trusted to no such thing in himself, but always set himself down calmly to his prescrib- ed task, and completed it as he would any other piece of business. 14. Euler (Leonard) was born at Basil, 1707. His father intend- ed him for the ministry, but the genius of his son was bent to philo- sophical pursuits. In 1727, he went with the Bernouillis to Peters- burg. Here his publications ranked him among the greatest of phi- losophers. In 1740, he gained, with Maclaurin and D. Bernouilli, the prize of the academy of Paris, on the nature of tides. In 1741, he removed to Berlin, at the invitation of the king of Prussia, and assisted that monarch in the establishment of an academy of scien- ces. Here he produced his theory of the motions of the planets and comets, that of magnetism, &c. He died suddenly, while convers- ing with a friend, on the new planet, and as he was playing with one of his grand- children, at tea time. He was attacked by a fit of apoplexy. " I am dying," were his last words, and in a few hours after, he expired, aged 76 years. His mental powers were astonishing. While his fellow academi- cians asked four months to complete an important calculation, he finished it in three days, but so intense had been his application that it produced a fever, by which he lost the sight of one of his eyes. In one night, he calculated in his head, the six first powers of all the numbers above twenty, which he repeated the next day most correct- ly to his astonished friends. His erudition was immense. He read all the Latin classics, and had the history of all ages and nations, even to the minutest facts, ever present to his mind. Indeed, so re- tentive was his memory, that he could repeat the whole of the ^neid. In society he was never absent like Newton or Adam Smith ; but like Hutton and Hume, he was thoughtless and playful in his hours of relaxation, and entered into all the trifles and frivolous anecdotes with which many choose to kill time while in company. 15. Johnson, (Samuel,) surpassed by no one in literature, was bom at Litchfield, 1709. He was educated at Oxford in part, the insol- vency of his father obliging him to leave the university premature- ly. Involved in poverty, and with unpromising prospects before DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 335 him, he tried various expedients to obtain a hvehhood,but abandon- ed them successively, till in company with his pupil Garrick, he went to London in quest of employment, in 1737. From this period till 1763, he was engaged in literary labours, under the pressure of poverty and disappointment. A part of the fruit of these labours were his immortal works, the English Dictionary and the Rambler. He completed his Dictionary, in the space of seven years, and re- ceived for it £1575; but owing to the urgency of his wants, the money had been advanced during the composition of the work. During this period he was once arrested for a debt of five guineas, from which he was relieved by the kindness of Richardson. His services to literature were not, however, to pass unrewarded ; for, in 1762, he was presented by the king with a pension of £300 per annum, as the grant expresses it, for the moral tendency of his writings. The Lives of the Poets, he began in 1777, and complet- ed in 1781. This is a noble model of that description of writing, and embodies some of the choicest criticism in the English language. The inflictions of disease now began to be felt, and Johnson con- templated, not v/ithout gloomy apprehensions, the end of his earthly being. His fear of this event was excessive, for his temperament was deeply melancholic, and he did not at first perceive the true ground of confidence for sinful men. At least, his mind was not satisfied on this subject. But as he approached the tomb, darkness fled from his soul. He was soothed and cheered, he saAV the proper ground of confidence, and departed with the faith and consolation of a christian. Johnson's works are numerous ; none are indifferent, and some are of the highest order of literary excellence. His powers of conversa- tion were admirable. The particulars of his life, character, opinions, connexions, &c. have been minutely recorded by Strahan, Mrs. Piozzi, Boswell, and others. 16. Franklin (Benjamin) was born at Boston, Mass., 1706. In his youth he was apprenticed to an uncle in the business of print- ing; and eager after knowledge, he read attentively, in the night, the works which he had printed in the day. In this way he early amassed a valuable stock of information, and as he possessed a re- flecting and philosophizing, and withal a practical sort of mind, he turned his knowledge to the best account. After he commenced business for himself in Philadelphia, he soon rose in public esteem, 80 that he was called to offices of trust in the commonwealth, and finally, in the contention of the colonies with the mother country, he acted a most conspicuous and useful part. He was a member of the American congress during that eventful period. Several times in the course of his life, he went to Europe, where he was received with the distinction due to his pre-eminent worth as a statesman and philosopher. As a public negociator, he effectually secured the honour and the interests of his country. He died governor of Penn- sylvania, full of years and glory, 1790, aged eighty-four years. His discoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton, 336 MODERN HISTORY. — PERIOD X. He is the father of that branch of philosophy which explains the laws of the electric fluid ; and the utility of the lightning rod, will forever point him out as a temporal benefactor of the human race. His political reflections have placed him by the side of the greatest legislators of antiquity. 17. Gibbon (Edward) was born at Putney, 1737, of a respectable and ancient family. He acquitted himself poorly at the university, and it would seem, from his own account, that he was not much in the fault. " The fellows," he says, " were easy decent men, who supinely enjoyed the gifts of their founder ; their days were filled by a series of uniform employments ; the chapel and the hall, the coffee-house, and the common room, till they retired weary and well satisfied, to a long slumber. From the toil of reading, or thinking, or writing, they had absolved their consciences." The student with such examples before him, might well be excused for indolence. Gibbon afterwards, when at Lausanne, paid much attention to classi- cal literature, and acquired such a perfect knowledge of the French language, that he could both speak and write it with as much facility as his own, A portion of bis printed works is in French. The great work which has immortalized Gibbon, is his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. It was in the midst of the ruins of Rome, that he conceived the idea of this magnificent topic. This history cost him twenty years of labour. His resources for it he derived, in a considerable degree, from his own library, which con- sisted of ten thousand volumes. It is an elaborate and splendid production, and generally accurate. But his account of the causes of the progress of Christianity, is highly exceptionable, and he ap- pears throughout the work, a thoroughgoing skeptic and unbeliever. His sneers at the lioly religion of the Saviour, very much detract from the value of the work. He received from his booksellers, eight thousand pounds for his history. Among his miscellaneous works, are a volume or two of letters, highly spirited and entertaining, and rich with the stores of an elegant, cultivated, and playful mind. These, however, are also tinctured with infidelity. He wrote memoirs of himself. He ac- knowledges that from the Provincial Letters of Pascal, he " learned to manage the weapon of grave and temperate irony, even on sub- jects of ecclesiastical solemnity." In describing the characteristics of his intellect, he says, "Wit I have none; my imagination is rather strong than pleasing ; my memory both capacious and re- tentive. The shining qualities of my understanding are extensive- ness and penetration, but I want both quickness and exactness." He died of a dropsy, in 1794. 18. Burns (Robert) was born, 1759, at Ayr, in Scotland. Though a ploughman originally, he rose to high poetical fame. He has been called the greatest untaught poet since Shakspeare. His poems, which are in the Scotch dialect, possess uncommon beauty, and an elegant simplicity. He no sooner appeared in print, than he was noticed and drawn from the plough, to associate with men of letters and opulence. By the exertions of his friends, a handsome sub- DISTINGUISI1I5D CHARACTERS. 337 scription of nearly one thousand one hundred pounds was raised for him, and a place in the excise was obtained, and a farm rented, where he might exercise his genius, and live in comfortable affluence. But the change ruined him. He became a sot, and indulged in licentious pleasures, till his constitution gave M'-ay, and the tomb re- ceived him. His age was thirty-nine. 19. Burke (Edmund) was the son of a respectable attorney, at Carlow, in Ireland, where he was born, 1730. He took his bache- lor's degree at Trinity College, Dublin, where, it is said, he was not much distinguished. In 1753, he came to London, and entered at the Middle Temple. With all his powers of elocution, he paid no serious attention to the law, but devoted his time principally to literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer, soon attracted notice, and his Essay on the Sublime, procured for him distinction. He therefore became a public man, and in 1765, was introduced into parliament. He then joined to the character of a most elegant writer, that of a most eloquent speaker. The American war, he denounced with great vehemence and justice, and was so happy at length as to witness its termination. When the French revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licen- tious principles, and with a view to counteract them in England, he published his celebrated Reflections. His Anti-Gallican zeal brought on a rupture between him and his former associates— Mr. Fox and others. From this time, though he affected to be as fond of liberty as ever, he favoured the administration of Mr. Pitt, and the court rewarded him with a large pension for his able services. By many, in his high- wrought enthusiasm in favour of the war against France, he was considered as the oracle and bulwark of the country. Some time before his death, Mr. Burke retired from public life, but though loaded with honours, he sunk, three years after, a melancholy victim to the recent loss of his only and dearly beloved son. His deatli occured in 1797. As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged. He was copious, elegant, and forcible. His pieces are numerous. His Re- flections were so interesting in the public opinion, that 18,000 copies were sold in a few weeks. 20. Washington, (George,) who has filled the world with his own, and his country's glory, was born 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in Virginia, where his father was possessed of large landed property. Washington was educated under the care of a private tutor, and after making rapid progress in mathematics and engineering, he ein- l)raced the military profession. Here he displayed his great talents, particularly his wisdom and caution, and showed himself master of the knowledge of military stratagems. Eminent also was his per- sonal valour, and he proved he could fight, whenever he calculated upon the prospect of decisive advantage, or certain victory. He had greatly distinguished himself in several expeditions in his native state, before he was called to the command of the American army, in the war of the Revolution. How ably he sustained his country's cause, and to what a successful termination he brought the great 29 S38 MODERN HISTORY. PERIOD X. struggle, our readers need not be informed. As a military captain, he ranks among the greatest, whether of ancient or modern times. But in some respects, he is beyond a comparison with the most ce- lebrated heroes. He had no stain of an unhallowed ambition. At the close of the war, America was in his power, but instead of a dictator, he became one of her most obedient sons. Military com- mand he assumed as a duty, and whenever an opportunity offered, he hastened to resign it, that he might retire to the shades and peace of private life. Washington was the first president of the United States, and was inaugurated into that high office, in 1789. Having served during two presidential terms, he declined the honour which his country- men would doubtless have again conferred upon him, an(i sought the gratifications of his farm at Mount Vernon. The All-wise Dis- poser did not suffer him to enjoy many years in his peaceful retire- ment. He was called away from life, rather unexpectedly, after a few days illness, 14th December, 1799. " He was buried with due national honours. America, in a public mourning, deplored in him the loss of her father, and of her friend, and a new city was erected on the borders of the Potomac, which, in becoming the capital of the United States, records to distant times, in bearing his name, the services, the patriotism, and the glories of her great and illustrious founder." Besides the qualities which distinguish the warrior and statesman, Washington was endowed with every virtue of humanity. His pas- sions were naturally strong, but he attained to a v/onderful command of them. He was modest, condescending, and affable, and excellent in all the relations of private and domestic life. His punctuality and method in managing his multifarious concerns, are a model to every one. And his exemplary conduct, as a Christian, and his calmness in death inspire the belief that his memorial is on high. 21. Cowper, (William,) who died in 1800, was son of Dr. Cow- per, chaplain to George II., and rector of Berkhampstead, Herts. He was in his eighteenth year, when he left Westminster school, and as he was destined for the law, he entered at the Inner Temple, and at the age of thirty-one, was apprenticed clerk in the house of lords. But weakness of nerves, and the most distressing diffidence, unfitted him for public employment of any kind. He soon fell into a re- ligious melancholy, which arose to such a height, that in a fit of des- peration, he attempted his own life, but was providentially saved from so awful an end. He, however, attained at length the cheering and serene hope of religion. He became an author, not until he was fifty years of age. His first volume of poems, appeared in 1782, and in 1785, his second volume, which raised towards him the gene- ral voice of approbation. He afterwards executed a valuable trans- lation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in blank verse. About this time, (1787,) a similarity of literary underttikings, brought Cowper and Hayley the poet, into an intercourse of friend- ship, which continued to the last period of life. Hayley has com- memorated the genius and virtues of his friend, in an interesting and DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 339 elegant account of his life and poetic labours. In this account, many of Cowper's letters are embodied, which, together with a volume or two, since published, place him at the head of English epistolary writing. In 1794, the king, as became the sovereign of an enlight- ened nation, honourably bestowed upon the poet a pension of three hundred pounds per annum. But the bounty came too late to be much enjoyed. Cowper was again sunk into dejection and religious melancholy, which continued, with few intervals of reason and hope, till he ceased to be an inhabitant of this world. He died at the age of seventy. The Task, is Cowper's most celebrated work, and abounds in beauties of every kind. It exhibits religion, particularly, in a most engaging form. 22. Klopstock (Frederick Theophilus) was born at Quedlinburg, in 1724. He studied theology at Jena, where he wrote a great part of his Messiah, which he published in 1747. His name is immor- talized cliiefly by this poem. Though at the time of its publication, it was censured by some, it was admired by more, and Bodmer, and the Swiss in general, were loud iu its praises. Klopstock was in- vited into their country, whence he was called to Copenhagen, by the most tlattering promises, which were amply fulfilled. He died in 1803. His funeral was conducted with extraordinary pomp. It was attended by the senate of Hamburgh, where, at the time of his decease, he was residing as Danish legate. The diplomatic body, also the clergy, men of letters, and merchants, honoured his remains by their presence. The whole constituted a procession of seventy- six coaches. At Altona, it was joined by fifty more carriages, to the village of Ottensen, where he was buried, with every ceremony expressive of profound regard. As a writer, he is characterized by a fervid imagination ; but though rich in imagery, and lofty in sentiment, he is frquently obscure and turgid. Besides the Messiah, he was the author of three tragedies, called the Death of Adam, Solomon, and David. 23. Heyne (Christian Gottlieb) was born in Silesia, 1729. He succeeded Gesner, in 1763, in the professorship of Rhetoric, at Got- tingen, where also he became secretary to the society of Sciences. He drew up a catalogue of the library at Gottingen, which made 150 folio volumes. King George III. placed his three younger sons un- der his care, and they all treated him with the greatest respect. He died suddenly, in 1812. As an editor of the classics, he is just- ly celebrated, and his critical skill has been the admiration of the learned world. He is the first of his class. From poverty and ob- scurity, he afose to comfort and fame, and he is an encouraging in- stance of the rewards which often attend diligent and well-directed mental eiforts. 24. Stael, (Anne Louisa Germaine Necker,) a baroness, was the daughter of the celebrated M. Necker, and born at Paris, 1766. She received a liberal education, and early displayed extraordinary ta- lents. Her understanding was of a masculine character. Perhaps no female of ancient or modern times, has equalled her in native strength 340 MODERN HISTORY.-^PERIOD X. of intellect, especially as manifested in an elegant and profound phi- losophy. In 1786, she married baron de Stael, a Swede, by whom she had four children, two of whom only survived her. She began her literary career, 1789, in Letters on the Writings and Character of Rousseau, and soon afterwards took an active part in the French Revolution. At Paris, she engaged in political intrigues, to which she had a great propensity. The consequence was, that she offend- ed Buonaparte, who banished her from the capital. From this, she went to Germany, next to Italy, and twice visited England. She died in 1817. Her works are highly finished productions, among which may be particularly noticed, her Corinne, or Italy, a novel, and her book on The Influence of Literature upon Society. She seems to have been a votary of the new philosophy, so called. 25. Dwight (Timothy) was born at Northampton^ Mass., on the 14th of May, 1752. He was a grandson, on the mother's side, of the illustrious Edwards. His great capacity was early displayed, and to his excellent mother he was peculiarly indebted, by her pre- cepts and example, for the moral and intellectual qualities with which he was so richly gifted. At the age of seventeen he took the bachelor's degree at Yale College, and two years afterwards, he was elected a tutor of that institution. In the tutorship he continu- ed six years, after which he was variously employed for several years, residing for the most part of the time in his native place. In 1783, he was settled in the Christian ministry, over the parish of Greenfield, in the town of Fairfield, Con. Here he continued twelve years, and acquired a high reputation as an eloquent preacher, and faithful pastor. His fame also, as a teacher of youth, (for he had previously been much engaged in that business,) was greatly ex- tended, by the academy which he established and superintended in that place. During this period he published his Conquest of Canaan, and his Greenfield Hill ; the one an epic, in eleven books, which was completed in his twenty-fourth year, the other a descriptive and didactic poem, in seven books. In 1795, he was elected to the presidency of Yale College, which station he retained till his death, in 1817. Under his auspices, that institution flourished in a most remarkable degree; every department was improved ; the standard of literary attainments was greatly raised; extensive religious reformations took place; and the num- ber of students, by the time of his death, had increased nearly three-fold. His death, which, under the visitation of a protracted and most severe disease, took place before he had reached the ordinary bounds of human life, gave a shock alike to the republic of letters and to the church of God. It was lamented as the fall of one of the great- est, best, and most useful men that have adorned the annals of this country. Since his death, his theological lectures, under the title of Theology, have been published in five octavo volumes, and have passed through several large editions, both in the United States and Great Britain. No American work, it is believed, has ever been more popular in the DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS. 341 latter country, than this. His Travels also, have been extensively circulated at home and abroad. 26. Buonaparte (Napoleon) was a native of Corsica, where he was born, in 1769. His education was chiefly military, though the wonderful powers of his mind, enabled him to appear with advan- tage on almost every subject which engages human attention. The times in which he entered on the stage of action, were big with events, and afforded him rare occasions for the display of his talents, and for the' gratification of that inordinate ambition which was so natural to him. The revolution in France was beginning to bear down all the land marks of former ages, and Buonaparte embraced the opportunity of playing his part on that imposing theatre. By a masterly management, and by a series of successes, he rose in the military profession, till he was placed at the head of it, and till he eventually placed himself at the head, not only of France, but of almost all the nations of continental Europe. From the time he was appointed to the command of the army of Italy, in 1796, to near the termination of the campaign against Russia, he met with an almost uninterrupted series of brilliant successes and victories, dictating peace to one nation after another, till the idea of an uni- versal empire seemed likely to be realized. From that period, though he gained two or three important victories, he met in gene- ral with sad reverses; but it was not until nearly the whole of Europe was allied against him, that he was crushed. Twice he abdicated the throne : in the former instance, retaining the sove- reignty of the island of Elba, whither he retired for a time, only again to seize on his dominion : in the latter instance, after his de- feat in the battle of Waterloo, fleeing to a British fleet with a view to protection. He was, however, exiled to St. Helena, and continued there, guarded by a body of British troops, till his death, which oc- curred on the 6th May, 1821 ; having been kept in confinement be- tween five and six years. Buonaparte has received, and will continue to receive the applauses or execrations of mankind, according as they view his mighty achievements, connected with the good which has incidently grown out of them, or with the evil which they directly produced, and which the author did not care to avert from the world. 29* GENERAL VIEWS: OR A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE PECULIAR INSTITUTIONS OF THE MIDDLE AGES, AS THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, CHI- VALRY, &c. ; ALSO OF THE MANNERS AND CHARAC- TER OF THE GOTHIC NATIONS ; LEARNING AND THE ARTS; DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS; INCIDENTS AND CURIOUS PARTICULARS; AND THE PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS IN RESPECT TO AG- RICULTURE, ROADS, CONVEYANCES, INTERCOURSE, EDUCATION, MANUFACTURES, &c. ; AND FINALLY, OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. The Feudal System. Sect. 1. A peculiar system of policy prevailed among all the nations of Europe, at an early period. Singular as it seems, and different from the establishments of the present times, it was the general state of society, among the ancestors of modern Europe. This was the Feudal System. The Feudal System, means that tenure on which the owners of land held their possessions, viz., an obligation to perform military service, whenever required by the chief to whom they owed allegiance. Such is its nature ; its origin and history, its principle and its effects will be soon pointed out. § It was on the following plan, that the feudal policy was ar- ranged : — every freeman or soldier, upon receiving an allotment of conquered lands, bound himself to appear in arms against the com- mon enemy, whenever his leader should call upon him for this pur- pose. This military service was the condition upon which every one received, and the tenure by which he continued to hold his lands. It was not at first considered either a degradation or hardship. The same service which a vassal owed to his lord, was due from the lord to his king. The king required those among whom the conquered lands were distributed, to repair to his standard, with a number of followers, in proportion to the extent of their respective estates, and to assist him in his expeditions. This service was due to the king ; but when obedience was refused, it could be enforced, not by civil regulations, but only by war. Under such a system, the nobles or FEUDAL SYSTEM. 343 barons, enjoyed a subordinate sovereignty, in their own dominions ; while their vassals or dependants, were in complete subjection to their will. 2. TJie origin of this institution lies in a remote antiquity Some writers have attributed it to the kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest of Gaul, are supposed to have divi- ded their lands among their followers, on the condition of military service. But w^e must look for it to a remoter source. It is consonant with the usages of all warlike, barbarous na- tions, among whom we remark a strict subordination of the members of a tribe, to their chief or leader. This subordi- nation affords tlie clue to the general policy, and so far as the history of it can be traced, it is a fact, that Julius Caesar noticed it among the Gaulish nations, before the Christian era. § With the Gauls, this subordination was peculiarly strong, and subsisted not only between the soldiers and their commander, but between the inferior towns or villages, and the canton or province to which they belonged. When in peace, every man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, and subject to no other burden, than that of military service, requi- red by his chief. When the province was at war, each village, though taxed to furnish only a certain number of soldiers, was bound to send, on the day appointed for a general muster, all the males capable of bearing arms, from whom the rated number was selected by the chief of the province. This relation between soldiers and their commander, sub- sisted among the Franks, as well as among the Gauls. It subsisted among the Romans also, who, to check the inroads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant conquests, were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. To each officer in those garrison's, it w^as customary to as- sign a portion of land, as the pledge and pay of his service. These gifts were named benficia or fiefs. § When the Franks overran Gaul, a great part of the land was found in the hands of the Romans, held by this tenure, as the rest was found so held by the Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to the same policy, would naturally adopt it, in the partition of their new conquests, each man being bound to service, on receiving his share of the land. The fiefs were at first revocable by the sovereign, and reverted to him on the death of the vassal. But the possession of fiefs, under the imbecile Merovingian kings, at length obtained independency and security of property. It was a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary, that it should be capable of being given out in portions, and that the vassal him- 344 GENERAL VIEWS. self, holding his lands of the sovereign, by the tenure of military service, should be able to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving to them parts of his estate, to be held on the same condition, of fol- lowing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their lord, and paying, as a symbol of their subjection, a small annual present. 3. The principle of policy upon which this singular estab- lishment was founded, was self-protection. The new settlers in a country, wished to secure themselves, not only against the attacks of the inhabitants whom they had expelled from their possessions, but especially against the inroads of fresh invaders. But unfortunately for the peace of society, it was attended with many evils, especially after the land had be- come unalienable property. The effects, therefore, of the feudal system, demand some notice in this place. It was natural, in those disorderly times, when the authority of government, and the obligation of general laws, were extremely weak, that the superior or over- lord should acquire both a civil and criminal jurisdiction over his vassals. Such power, in their hands, must have been an en- gine of oppression. They moreover exercised the privilege of coining money, and carried on wars against their private enemies. So situated, they disdained to consider themselves as subjects ; and the consequence was, that a kingdom was broken into as many separate principaHties, as it contained powerful nobles ; and the occasions of war thus became innu- merable. § Every country in Europe was wasted, or kept in continual alarm, by the feuds of the barons, and in every country, vast multitudes of castles and places of strength, were erected for the security of des- potic chieftains, against domestic invasions. In the reign of Stephen of England, when the feudal system was at its height, not less than one thousand castles, with their depen- dencies, had been erected in the southern part of the Island. Pri- vate retaliation and revenge were the only law in the minds of proud and ferocious chieftains. The edicts of kings and magistrates were trampled on. A baron who was provoked by injury, met his adver- sary at the head of his vassals, in hostile array, and sought redress only by his sword. The most numerous and useful part of the com- munity, the common people, were no better than slaves, and though not chained by the leg, as was the fact with slaves among the Ro- mans, yet they were transferred from one lord to another, like cat- tle, and the implements of husbandry. They were styled serfs or villeins, a name implying their servitude and degradation. In this state of things, neither the innocent could be protected, nor the guilty punished, by the regal authority. A general anarchy pre- CHIVALRY. 345 vailed ; the feelings of the people became familiarized to violence and blood, to despotism and injustice ; intellectual and moral im- provement was suspended, the arts and sciences were banished, the light of Christianity was obscured, and only the stern and rough virtues were nourished. Never was there a period in the annals of Europe so filled with atrocious actions, as that which intervened from the seventh to the eleventh century, the era of the prevalence of the feudal system. At the commencement of the twelfth century, this unhappy state of things began to abate, and government, laws and manners, exert- ed a degree of influence on the minds of men. Chivalry produced a propitious effect, and a variety of other causes, operated to check the licentiousness of the barons, and to soften their ferocity. Per- haps no one cause was more efficacious, than the establishment of standing armies, in the fifteenth century. This engine, wielded by kings, crushed the power of the nobles, and reduced them to order and obedience. The first monarch who adopted this measure, was Charles VII. of France, in the year 1445 ; but so opposed was it to the genius of feudal- ism, that it required the greatest boldness to carry it into execution. Charles, however, did not shrink from the attempt. He retained a large body of forces in his service, and appointed funds for their regular payment. The principal nobility soon repaired to his stan- dard ; and as the feudal militia were only occasionally called out, they were in time regarded with contempt by regular soldiers. This example was followed by the politic Henry VII., of England. Chivalry, Sect. 1. Nature^ Origin, and First Appearance. — Chivalry, or knighthood, was an institution common to Eu- rope, during the middle ages, having principally for its ob- ject, the correction of those evils that were peeuUar to the state of society which then existed. The feudal system at that time prevailed, the disorders flowing from which, con- nected with the ignorance and barbarism of the people, ren- dered some such institution as chivalry, necessary, provided a better could not be found. Considered in this aspect, chival- ry was co-existent with feudalism. It was designed as a cor- rective of feudal despotism, injustice, and licentiousness. It sought to support the weak, to protect the oppressed, to re- strain the lawless, to refine the rude, to avenge wrongs, and, especially, to maintain the rights, and defend the purity of the female sex. In its elements, it combined bravery, honour, courtesy, love, and religion. 346 GENERAL VIEWS. § In the origin of the term chivalry, or knighthood, reference was had to the nature of its duties, which were performed on horseback. Hence, the languages which were formed on a Latin basis, derived tlieir phrases descriptive of military duties on horseback, from cabal- lus, a -horse ; cabillarius, a horseman ; and cabillare, to ride — the letter b, being pronounced like v, in the south of Europe. In all languages of Teutonic origin, the same circumstance was expressed by words literally signifying service. The German knight, the Sax- .011 cniht, are synonymous with the French cavalier, the Italian ca- valiere, &c. The word, rider, also designated the same person. Chivalry was, in many respects, a beautiful and beneficial form of manners, though in others, it was highly objectionable, as will ap- pear in the sequel. We must not, however, confound the extrava- gant knight-errantry of the old romances, or even the natural chi- valry common to most nations, with the gallant and Christian chi- valry of Europe, which constituted a military barrier against oppres- sion. That was, in some degree, a moral institution, which sought to make travelling safe, and the intercourse of society refined and liberal, though it would have been more moral, had it not itself em- ployed violence. Chivalry had its origin in that state of society in which the feudal system arose ; and regarded particularly in a mi- htary light, we find it a part of the earliest condition of most of the European world. Its foundation, in fact, was the an- cient chaiacter of Europe, and it grew into the form and con- sistency which it at length assumed, from the following prac- tices common among the early Europeans, particularly the Germans, viz. from receiving their weapons in an assembly of the nations associating in clans, protecting and revering women, and performing acts of service when affection and duty commanded them. The exact time when these elements were framed into that system of thought and action, which we call chivalry, it is impossible to tell. Knighthood was certainly a distinc- tion of society before the days of Charlemagne. But it want- ed religion. When it began to be marked by religious rites, it formed a regular institution. Its union with religion, took place somewhere between the ninth and eleventh centuries. Its character was raised and perfected by the crusades. § Religious rites were not used in the days of Charlemagne, for he girt the military sword on his son, Louis the Good, according to the rude principles of ancient Germanic chivalry ; and a century after- wards, Ave read of the English Edward the Elder, clothing Athel- stan, in a soldier's dress of scarlet, and fastening around him a gir- dle, ornamented with precious stones, in which a Saxon sword, iu a CHIVALRY. 347 sheath of gold, was inserted. In the century following, however, during the reign of Edward the Confessor, we meet with the story of Hereward, a very noble Anglo-Saxon youth, being knighted by the abbot of Peterborough. He made confession of his sins, and after he had received absolution, he earnestly prayed to be made a legitimate knight. Knighthood was always, and essentially, a personal distinction, and in this respect, different from nobility. The nobility of Europe were the lords of particular districts of a country, and although ori- ginally they held their dignities only for life, yet their title soon be- came hereditary. Every person of noble birth, was required, when twelve years old, to take a solemn oath, before the bishop of his diocese, to defend the oppressed, &c. This was ordained at the Council of Clermont, in the eleventh century ; thus giving a public and sacred sanction to the humanities of chivalry. But besides the nobility, others might be promoted into the order, by meritorious valour. Almost the whole of Europe was affected wdth the chival- ric spirit. It flourished most, however, in France, Spain, and Germany, and more early developed itself as a fixed princi- ple of action, in these countries than in others. England, at length, was not undistinguished for its chivalry. 2. Degrees of Chivalry. — There were three degrees in the cliivalry of Europe : — knights bannarets, knights, and esquires. A soldier must have passed through the ranks of esquire, and knight, before he could be classed with the knights ban- narets. That high dignity could be possessed only by a knight, wlio had served for a length of years in the wars, and with distinction, and who had a considerable retinue of men- at-arms, and other soldiers. § The privileges of a knight bannaret, were considerable. He did not fight under the standard of any baron ; but he formed his sol- diers under his own. The baron and bannaret, as soldiers, were of equal authority. The second and most numerous class of chivalric heroes, consisted of knights. A general quahfication for knighthood, was noble or gentle birth, which, hi its widest signification, expressed a state of independence. § There was no fixed amount of estate necessary for knighthood. It was, however, a costly dignity, and many were obliged to forego it, on account of its expenses. Though it was often bestowed as an ornament of custom on the nobility and gentry of a state, it never altogether lost its character of being a reward of merit. Men-at-arms, and other soldiers, were often exalted to the class of knights. 348 GENERAL VIEWS. The last class of chivalry, the squirehood, was composed of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knight, and superior to the men-at-arms. Many of them, on various axjcounts, remained in this station, during all their military career. § It was a maxim in chivalry, that a man had better be a good esquire, than a bad knight. Military honours could be reached by the squirehood, as well as by the knighthood of a country. 3. Education of a Knight. The education of a knight in the family of a feudal lord, generally commenced at the age of seven or eight years. The place of education was sometimes a school appointed by the nobles of the country, but most frequently the nobleman's own castle, or that of some brother nobleman, served. § The duties of the boy, for the first seven years of his service, were chiefly personal. He learned the dignitv and beauty of obedi- ence, being made to feel it a privilege to aUend the lord and his lady in the hall, and follow them in their exercises of war and pas- time. The intellectual and moral education of the boy was given by the ladies of the court. From the lips of the ladies, the gentle youth learned both his catechism and the art of love. He was directed to regard some one lady of the court as the type of the future mistress of his heart ; she was the object of all his hopes and wishes ; to her he was duti- ful, faithful, and courteous. , The ingredients of religion, love, and war, were strangely com- bined in chivalry. Surrounded by noble females and valorous cavaliers, the first impressions of the future knight were on these subjects ; and he was taught to regard chivalry and its honours, as tlie most noble object of ambition. The military exercises of the youth were not many ; and they were important only as they were the earhest ideas of his life. During the first seven years, he was called a valet, damoiseau, or a page — in the old English ballads a child. § During this period, he was taught to leap over trenches, to launch or cast spears and darts, to sustain the shield, in his walk to imitate the measured tread of the soldier, and in mock battle to fight against stakes or liis youthful companions. At the age of fourteen, he received the title of armiger, or esquire ; and though he was then authorized to carry arms, yet his personal domestic service continued for some time. His education was not completed, till the age of twenty-one. §The esquire prepared the refection in the morning; and at dinner, he, as well as the pages, attended at the table, and presented to the lord and his guests the water used for washing. The knight CHIVALRY. 34^ and the squire never sat before the same table, not even in the case of father and son— so strict was the principle of chivalric subordina- tion. The squires often made the beds of their lords. Each one had his respective duties — one was the squire of tlie chamber, or the chamberlain, and another the carrying squire. But their many duties cannot here be described. Spenser, in the following stanza, beautifully paints the domestic squire discharging some of his duties. " There fairly them receives a gentle squire, Of mild demeanor and rare courtesy Right cleanly clad in comely sad attire ; In word and deed that show'd great modesty, And knew his good to all of each degree, Hight reverence. He them with speeches meet Does faire entreat, no courting nicety. But simple, true, and eke untliined sweet, As might become a squire so great persons to greet." In the life of a squire, the anxieties of love, and military exercises, were commingled. Chaucer delightfully paints the softer employ- ment. " Singing he was or floyting all the day, He was as fresh as is the month of May, He could songs make, and well endite, Just and eke dance, and well pourtraie and write ; So hote he loved, that by nighterdale* He slept no more than doth the nightingale." He practised every mode by which strength and activity could be given to the body. He learned to endure hunger and thirst, heat and cold, in their extremes, and to plunge all covered with dust into the running stream. He accustomed himself to wield the sword, to thrust the lance, to strike with the axe, and to wear armour. But no exercise was more important than that of horsemanship. Of the true knight, it could be said, •' Wei could he sit on horse and fair ride." 4. Inauguration of a Knight. The full dignity of knighthood, was seldom conferred on a squire before the age of twenty-one. The ceremonies of inauguration were so- lemn. The preparation consisted in prayer, confession, and fasting — was accompanied by clothing him with a white dress, which was considered symbolical of the purity of his new character ; and by throwing over him a red garment, which was to mark his resolution to shed his blood in the cause of heaven. These and other rites were a necessary preliminary. * Niffht-time. 30 350 GENERAL VIEAVS, A chui'ch, or hall of a castle, was generally the place of inaiiguratioD. The candidate first offered his sword to the priest, who blessed it. Before it was returned to him, he took his oaths of chivalry. § He solemnly swore to defend the church, to attack the wicked, 1o respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to pre- .serve tlie country in tranquilhty, and to shed his blood, even to the last drop, in behalf of his brethren. The young warrior having kneeled with clasped hands before the supreme lord in the assembly, (a purely feudal ceremony,) and having declared that his only object is to maintain religion and chivalry, was now invested with all the exterior marks of the order. The knights and ladies of the court attended on him, and delivered to him the various pieces of his harness. § The armour varied at different periods and in different countries, but some matters were of permanent usage. The spurs were al- ways put on first, and the sword was belted on last. The concluding sign of being dubbed or adopted into the order of knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord to the cavalier, and called the accolade, from the part of the body, the neclv, whereon it was struck. The lord then pro- claimed him a knight, in the name of God and the saints § The ceremonies of inauguration, which have been concisely des- cribed, v/ere gone through when knighthood was conferred on great and public occasions of festivity, but they often gave place to the power of rank, and the necessity of circumstances. Princes were exempted from the laborious offices of page and squire. Men who were distinguished soldiers were often adopted into chivalr)^ on the eve of a battle, as it was considered that a sense of their new honours would inspire their highest gallantry. 5. Equipment of a knight. The horse of the cavalier was his peculiar pride, and skill in the managejnent of the animal was a distinction deemed worthy of every effort. The knight bore about with him a variety of the instruments of death. His chief offensive weapon was the lance. His other offensive weapons were a sword, (a favourite weapon,) dag- ger, battle-axe, and maces. His defensive armour was also various. He had his shield, helmet with its visor and beaver, and body harness made of plates of steel, to which different names were given according to the different parts of the body which it covered. A long flowing robe, reaching down to the heels, constituted the dress of the knight. CHIVALRY. 351 Some of the defensive armour was so constructed, that it could be rolled up, and carried by the squire on horseback. It was too rigid, heavy, and cumbersome to be worn for a long time together, tliough the knights were often subjected to that inconvenience. When they were completely armed, no weapon could reach the bo- dy. It was not often that a knight could be killed, except by being unhorsed. In that event, a thin dagger, which was worn by each assailant, was employed. This could be thrust into the body between the plates. It is only in romance, that we read of swords ciltting through that solid front' of iron, by which a knight was protected. The only way in which death could be inflicted, when he was mounted, was, by thrusting a lance through the small hole in the visor. Such a mode of death was not very common, for the cavalier always bent his face almost to the saddle-bow, when he charged. He might, however, be unhorsed, in the shock of meeting. In that case, he was at the mercy of the foe, who was in the better condition. The horse of the knight was defended by mail, or plate, agreeably to the fashion of the age. His head, chest, and flanks, were either wholly or partially protected, and sometimes, on occasions of pomp, he was clad in complete steel. 6. The Chivalric Character. — In the character of a true knight, were combined many virtues and noble endowments. It necessarily included, also, some prominent defects. Com- panionship tJi A?yns, was a sacred principle, and a knight would fly to the relief of his companion in arms, even were his services demanded by a female, at the time. His valour was connected with modesty, and both were, in the highest de- s^ree, conspicuous. In chivalric war, much humanity was displayed, though in contentions of a different kind, it was unhappily suppressed. As a knight fought for the church, he was intolerant, and towards infidels and heretics he ceased to exhibit his wonted forbearance. His sense of honour was keen, and his independence was consistent with discipline and submission. His whole course was dictated by a regard- to religion. His devotions were frequent. Religion entered into all the observances of chivalry, but it was only the religion of the times — a form rather than spirit — too corrupt to be a safe guide. The knight, finally, was characterized iDy a very re- markable fidelity to obhgations, by generosity, and by courtesy. § Companionship in arms, was the strongest tie in chivalry : " From this day forward ever mo, Neither fail, either for weal or wo, To help other at need. Brother, be now true to me, And I shall be as true to thee. 352 GENERAL VIEWS. Such a thirst for renown hi arms, for the display of vahancy, had a knight, that he would sometimes attempt the very height of he- roism, and engage in the execution of impossibilities. It was this passion, which dictated many of his vows. Certain young knights of England, during the French wars of Edward III., each bound up one of his eyes with a silk ribbon, and swore before the ladies and the peacock, that he would not see with both eyes, until he had ac- complished certain deeds of anus in France. The valiancy of chivalry was finely chastened by humility : " And of his port, as meek as is a maid.' Every hero, as well as Chaucer's knight, demeaned himself in all things, as if God solely had controlled ; and in the divine name, used his arms, without vaunting or praising himself; for praise was regard- ed as blame, in the mouth of him who commended his own actions. The clemency of chivalry was often shown, especially in sparing inferior people. As a knight could gain no honour in slaying an un- armed peasantry, so he seldojii attacked one of this class ; and even an enemy of his own order, if prostrate and supplicating, was not often despatched. Stih, he was ruthless towards the infidel and heretic. He knew no other argument than the sword, to gainsay the infidel, and he was ready, at all times, to " thrust it into the belly of a heretic as far as it would go." Of his moral virtues, perfect fidelity to a promise was very con- spicuous ; for his nobleness disdained any compromise with conve- nience or circumstances. However absurd the vow, still he was compelled to perform it, in all the strictness of the letter. Knights were renowned for tlieir courtesy; and this principle, like every other blessing of modern times, had its origin in the Christian religion. The world thought, that courtesy and chivalry accorded together, and that villanous and foul words, were contrary to an order which was founded on piety. A knight was always spoken ot as gentle. The following anecdote curiously marks this quality of chivalric manners. The wife and sister of Du Gueselin, were once living in a castle, which was attacked by a force of Normans and Englishmen. The success was great and important; but public in- dignation was excited against the invaders, because they had trans- gressed the license of war, in being guilty of the uncourteous action of surprising and disturbing ladies while they were asleep. 7. Every day life of the Knight. — The military and mo- ral qualities of knighthood, were fostered by all the circum- stances of chivalric life, even those of a peaceful nature. Their common life was one of amusement and revelry, in which the miages of their fiivouiite pursuits were easily re- called to their minds. They passed most of their hours of peace, in the diversions of falconiy and chess-playing, in lis tening to the minstrels, who sung the feats of chivalry, in read CHIVALRY. 353 ing romances, and in conversation, which turned ahnost wholly on love and war. Entertainments, also, at each other's castles, were frequent ; in these, the utmost merriment prevailed. § The minstrel's lay, the poetry of the troubadour, the romance of the learned clerk — all spoke of arms and amours — of the duties and sports of chivalry. Every baronial knight had his gay troop of min- strels, that accompanied him to the tlefd, and afterwards chanted in his hall the martial deeds which had renowned his family. At their entertainments, the knights were wont to repose on couches, or sit on benches. The guests were placed two by two, and only one plate was allotted to each pair ; for to eat on the same trencher or plate with any one, was considered the strongest mark of friendship or love. Peacocks and pheasants were the peculiar food of knights, on great and festival occasions. 8. The Chivalric lady-love. The females of chivalry, possessed a distinct and peculiar character. The lady, like the knight, was regularly trained up to become, at length, the mistress of his affections. She was commonly educated in the castle of some knight or baron, her father's friend. One of the first duties or accomplishments which she learned, was that, of courtesy, and condescension to her inferiors. In those days, her mental education was not of a high polish. Some knowledge of medicine was deemed desirable, as chivalry re- cjuired her to take care of her wounded knight. Her dress was required to be plain, except on festive occasions. § The only tasks on her intellect, were to repeat the prayers of the church, to sing a brief piece of poetry, or the longer romaunt. She could also play on the harp. Sometimes the graver sciences were introduced into female education. There were solitary instances, in which might be applied what was sung of Felice, the daughter of the earl of Warwick. " Busy they (her masters) were that maiden to leer, And they lered her of astronomy Of arrasmetrick, and of geometry ; Of sophistry she was also witty, Of rhetorick and of other clergy ; Learned she was in musick, Of clergy was her none like." In that singular system of manners which we call chivalric, love, next to religion, was the most intiuential principle. In many instan- ces, it was doubtless the most influential. The true knight was a more perfect personification of love, than poets and romancers ever dreamed. The fair object of his passion, reigned in his heart, with absolute dominion. Every gallant spirit of " gentle" Gower's days, the reign of Ed ward III., said of his mistress, 30* 354 GENERAL VIEWS. " What thing she bid me do, I do, And where she bid me go, I go," Chivalric love, had both its absurdities and impieties. Kniglits were not satisfied to fight in defence of the ladies, and to joust in their honour, but from the extravagance of their love, each knight maintained at the point of his lance, that his mistress surpassed all other ladies in beauty. Chivalric love, became a foe to the distictions of wealth and rank, and many a knight, whose whole fortune lay in his prowess, gained ihe hand of high born beauty. In chivalry there was always a generous consideration for \'\'^oman. Hence proceeded the honorable maxim, that it was not just or courteous to take ladies in war. § in the wars of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the emperor Conrad, as an ofifended sovereign, had refused all terms of capituln lion to the garrison of Winnisberg ; but as a courteous knight, he permitted the women to depart with such of their precious effects as they tjiemselves could transport. The gates of the town were ilirown open, and a long procession of matrons, each bearing a hus- band or a father, or brother, on her shoulders, passed in safety through the applauding camp. 9. Tournaments and Jousts. Tournaments and jousts, were both the offspring and the cherisher of chivalry. , No amusement or exercise was so delighted in by gallant knights c?nd beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobihty, and the gentry, as these images of war. They were often splendid beyond description, especially at coronations, the marriage of princes, and important victories. Tournaments were military exercises, performed by two parties of cavaliers, with hurtless weapons. § If the occasion was high and solemn, it was announced at the courts of different sovereigns, by heralds, sent by the king who pro- f>osed to hold the martial exercise ; and all those who valued their knighthood, together with respected dames and maidens, were invi- t*^d to repair to the appointed city, and prove their chivalry. Not ktiights alone, but kings and princes, pricked over the plain in gal- latit and graceful array ; for though they were not expected to stoop to many knightly observances, they were eager to prove their chi- valric cliaracter, by deeds of valour. For this they overlooked the pride of station Not every knight might tourney. He must have been guilty ol no uncliivalric deportment. He must never have blasphemed God, or offended the ladies ; must never have been false, ungrateful, or deserted a brother-in-arms in battle. The rules of tourneying, how- ever, were sometimes evaded. Young knights, particularly, often concealed their names, and came in disguise. The place of combat was, the lists, a large space, surround- CHIVALRY. 355^ ed by ropes or railing, in single or double rows. Sometimes there was a wooden division in the lists or area, to prevent the horses of the adverse knights from careering against one another. The ladies were the supreme judges of tournaments ; but they generally deputed their power to a knight, who was cal- led on this account, the Knight of Honour. They some- times proposed the rewards, such as a diamond, ruby, i did not hesitate to absent themselves from their churches, on the same account. The places most visited, were Jerusalem, Rome, Tours, and Compostella. § Jerusalem, as the resort of pilgrims, was far the most famous, 360 GENERAL VIEWS. and all the wars of the crusades were occasioned on account of that place. As to Compostella, we find that in 1428, abundances of h- censes were granted by the crown of England, to captains of Eng- lish ships, for carrying numbers of devout persons thither, to the shrine of St. James, provided, however, that those pilgrims should first bind themselves by an oath, not to take any thing prejudicial to England, nor to reveal any of its secrets, nor to carry out with them any more gold or silver, than what would be sufficient for their reasonable expenses. In almost every country where popery has been established, pil- grimages have been common. In England, the shrine of St. Tho- mas-a-Becket, was the chief resort of the pious, and in Scotland, St. Andrew's, where, as tradition informs us, was deposited a leg of the holy apostle ! In Ireland, pilgrimages have been continued, even down to modern times. Manners and Character of the Gothic, or Scandinavian Nations. The brevity of the plan of this work, will not admit a separate ac- count of the manners and character of the various nations, whose history it narrates. The genius and national character of the Ro- mans, during the long period in which they were masters of the world, have been exhibited to some extent in the political history of that people. The manners and character of the present nations of Europe, and of nations decended from them, in other parts of the globe, except the particulars included in the account of chivalry, the feudal system, &c. already given, must be learned from more ex- tended works. But in regard to those barbarous nations of the north, who conquered the Roman empire, and from whom many of the present European communities are descended, it is proper that some- thing should be said in these General Views. The manners and in- stitutions of these tribes, are curious objects of inquiry, from their influence on the constitutions and national character of most of the modern kingdoms of Europe. The inhabitants of these kingdoms are a mixed race, compounded of the Goths and of the nations whom they subdued, and consequently the manners, laws, and insstitutions of the conquerors and tlie conquered, would naturally affect and modify those of one another. The Gothic, or Scandinavian nations, were the Goths, properly so called, the Gepidae, the Lombards, the Heruli, and the Vandals. Other barbarous tribes from the north of Asia or Furope, were the Huns, Alains, Bulgari, Suevi, Burgundians, Franks, Alemani, Normans, Saxons, &c. The parts which these various nations acted, in the political histo- ry of the world, have been described in the proper place. Their manners, character, &c. particulaily those of the Scan- GOTHIC NATIONS. 361 dinavian tribes, may be learned, in part, from the following brief account. (1.) Some characteristics were common to them all. What- ever difference of manners and customs there may have been among the various tribes of Scandinavian origin, the promi- nent features of their character, appear to have been the same. They were formed by all their habits and education for a brave and conquering race. The corrupted Roman world could not but fall before a people, whose bodily frame was invigorated by the climate which they inhabited, and inured to danger and fatigue, whose habitual occupation w^as war, and whose religion taught tliem that the loss of life in battle, w^as a certain passport to tlie halls of Odin. § The Scandinavian and Scythian nations, prohably had the same origin, inasmuch as they agreed in manners and institutions. The characteristics of the Scythians, as given by Herodotus, may be ap- plied to the Scandinavians. Their hfe was spent in hunting, pastu- rage, and predatory war. They entertained a high respect for their women, despised learning, and for many ages had no other records than the songs of their bards. The theology of the Scandinavians, was a proper index of their manners. One of their leading articles in religion, was to be intre- pid in fight. As, moreover, they believed the world to be the work of some superior intelligences, so they held that it was regulated and tixed by an unalterable destiny. These notions had a won- derful effect on the national manners, and on the conduct of in- dividuals. The Scandinavian had no other delight, than what war afforded ; he entertained an absolute contempt of danger and of death : and the larger the number of his enemies slain in battle, the more highly was he esteemed by others, and himself The solace of his departing spirit, was a recital of his acts of carnage. His God was Odin, a God clothed with every terror, and delighting in war, revenge and slaughter. From him and Frea, the heavenly mother, sprung various lesser divinities ; as Thor, who perpetually wars against Loke and his evil giants ; and the virgins of the Val- halla, whose office it is to minister to the departed heroes. The joys of paradise are fighting, perpetual carnage, and drinking beer out of the skulls of their enemies. Of these joys, the cowardly are never suffered to partake. There was a great similarity between the manners of the Scandi- navians, and those of the ancient Germans. The latter, however, seem to have sprung from a different origin. The Germans as well as the Gauls, were branches of the Celtae, a great original nation, who inhabited most of the countries of Europe, south of the Baltic, before they were invaded by the Scandinavian tribes. The religion of the Celtae, differed in some respects from that of their northern neighbours, though it was founded on the same principles. It was 31 362 GENERAL VIEWS. the Druidical system. They usually performed their devotions in sacred groves, woods or forests. Of their sacrifices, horses were ac- counted the most acceptable, but their altars, like those of most bar- barous nations, were sometimes sprinkled with human blood. The warriors of Scandinavia, upon their settlement in the provin- ces of the Roman empire, soon lost much of their native ferocity and barbarism. Sometime previously to this change in their condition, they had nominally embraced christianit}^, and their morality had become respectable. The Gothic conquerors of Rome, generally spared the noble works of art; and Theodoric the Great, at the head of the Gothic monarchy in Italy, was an excellent sovereign, mild, indulgent, prudent, and enlightened. Under this monarch, and even under Alaric, Amalasonte, and Totila, the Romans were treated with an indulgence which they could scarcely have expected. Their • government was monarchical ; at first elective, afterwards heredita- ry, in the sense that the sovereign on his death bed appointed his successor. (2.) A few things may be noticed as applicable to particu- lar tribes. There were some diversities of character and in- stitutions, that throw additional light on the genius and man- ners of modern civilized nations. § The Goths, properly so called, appear to have been famed, even in the earliest ages, for their hospitality and kindness to strangers. They encouraged the study of philosophy, above all other barbarous nations: and Horace has bestowed some warm encomiums on the virtue of their women. Poligamy, however, was universally coun- tenanced among them ; and their martial disposition, induced them to commit many unwarrantable depredations on the territories of their neighbours. Their principal weapons consisted of bearded lances, and missile hatchets. Their government was monarchical. After the Goths, upon their conquest of the Roman empire, be- came divided into Ostrogoths and Visogoths, their policy somewliat varied. The former enforced, in their new dominions, the obser- vance of the Roman laws. The latter adhered to a code compiled by their own sovereigns, and founded on their ancient manners and usages. From this code may be gathered much information respect- ing their national character and genius. The following are a few particulars, imparting this information. " It is enacted by laws of the Visogoths, that no judge shall decide in any law suit, unless he finds in that book, a law applicable to the case. All causes that fall not under this description, are reserved for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but tempered with equity. No punishment can affect the heirs of the criminal. Death was the punishment of the murder of a freeman, and perpetual infamy of the murder of a slave. Pecuniary fines were enacted for various subordinate offences, according to their measures of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in bondage to the injured husband ; and the free woman who had committed adul- tery with a married man, became the slave of his wife. No physi- LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 363 cian was allowed to visit a female patient, but in the presence of her nearest kindred. The lex taliationis was in great observance for such injuries as admitted of it." The Heruli appear to have had some laws peculiar to themselves; for among them, when persons had attained to a certain age, they were placed on a pile of wood, put to death, and their bodies re- duced to ashes. When a man died, his wife was obliged either to strangle herself on his tomb, or become an object of universal con- tempt ; and human sacrifices were frequently offered to appease the gods of tlie country. The generality of the people were distin- guished for courage, swiftness, and activity; but their manners were greatly corrupt, and every kind of impurity was practised without shame or control. Their government is said to liave been monar- chical ; but it appears that their kings possessed a very small share of authority, and differed but little, in any respect, from their subjects. The Huns, though not of Scandinavian origin, but from the vast deserts bordering on the north of China, were a hardy, warlike, and ferocious people, who at first subsisted entirely on roots or raw meat ; lived constantly exposed to the air in the woods, or among the excavations of the mountains; were accustomed even to eat and sleep on horseback; and professed the utmost contempt for raiment, houses, and other conveniences of life. They were desti- tute equally of religious and civil institutions, and abandoned them- selves without restraint to the gratification of their unruly passions. Hence we find them making frequent incursions into the Roman empire, in defiance of the most solemn oaths, and even occasionally turning their arms against their own countrymen fur a pecuniary reward. Their distinctive character and institutions were lost, after they were subdued by Charlemagne, and dispersed among other nations. Learning and the Arts. Sect. 1. The interesting topics embraced in this article may be treated synchronically, or according to certain eras. Including literature, science, philosophy, and the fine arts, such as painting, sculpture, and architecture, tliey are too numerous and extensive to be treated particularly according to the different states or nations, in so compendious a work as the present. The mere sketch here to be presented, will in- clude three eras. 1. From the close of the Augustan age to the destruction of the Western Roman empire, or the com- mencement of the dark ages. 2. From the commencement of the dark ages to the revival of learning in the 15th cen- tury. 3. From the revival of learning to the present time. 364 * GENERAL VIEWS. § The Augustan age of literature may be considered as extending a few years into the period assigned as the commencement of mo- dern history ; for Livy, Ovid, and Phaedrus lived and wrote till after the Christian era. 2. In the First Era, we have to notice the gradual and very perceptible decay of literature, and polite learning. Im- mediately succeeding the Augustan age, there were many persons of superior erudition and intellectual powers, but whatever pertains to taste and elegant hterature, began visibly to decline. A pompous, affected, and false style of writing, soon prevailed in the room of the classic beau- ties of the age of Cicero, Yirgil, Horace, and TibuUus. No works so finished as those of these masters, were pro- duced after the Augustan age ; and though there w^ere writers whose endowments and genius Avere quite equal to those of the above named, yet their deficiency in taste, is too certainly indicated by luxuriance of ornament, and by continual efforts after brilliancy of thought and expression. In science and philosophy, the dechne is not so perceptible at first, as it was towards the middle or conclusion of the era. Perhaps at first, if there was any difference, science and philosophy were more indebted to some of the writers succeeding the Augustan age. than to any who flourished during that age. § In poetry, Lucan, Juvenal, andeven Martial, have a native power, but little, if at all inferior to that of Virgil, Horace, or Ovid, how- ever they may fail as to purity of style compared with the latter. Yet in general, it must be allowed that the writers who figured in polite literature, during this era, were deficient both in art and genius, as is evident from the works of Statins, Siiius Italicus, and Valerius Flaccus. Affected obscurity, bombast, and new-coined words, are too heavy a tax for the few occasional felicities of repre- sentation found in these authors. In physical science, Pliny the Elder, was a great name ; in moral philosophy, Seneca and Marcus Antoninus, shine with a superior lustre. These writers, with Plutarch the biographer, and Tacitus the historian, and a few others, were men of great power, though the faults of their style are to be regretted. The Natural History of Pliny, is a most valuable repository of the knowledge at that time possessed, in physics, ceconomics, and the arts and sciences. 3. The princes who succeeded Augustus, were no enemies to literature, and some of them were not only patrons of learning, but were learned themselves. They were, however, despots, and despots of a different stamp from Augustus. LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 365 Generally, they favored a literature which harmonized with despotism ; and genius being indulged at the risk of life, was cramped within narrow bounds. Eloquence was abandoned to pedants. Sophists at length occupied the chair of phi- losophy. § Towards the conclusion of this era, learning, taste, and genius, greatly declined. Very few of the later writers ol3served, or seemed to comprehend, the perfect models of the Augustan age. A small number of poets, as Ausonius, Prudentius, and Claudian, wrote elegant and harmonious verses, but they exhibited no commanding genius, and depicted no powerful passions. We look in vain in them for the happy invention and artificial conduct of an interest- ing fable, or a just and lively representation of the characters and situations of real life. Seldom do they contain any thing sublime or pathetic. A few philosophers, philologists, and historians, ap- peared between the age of Constantine and the destruction of the empire, but no names are peculiarly distinguished. We read of some great names as connected with the defence of Christianity, though the style of Avriting prevalent at that time, and especially among that class of authors, was very faulty. There were hardly any vestiges of the ancient classic taste, towards the close of the empire. 4. Seminaries of learning, at Rome and in Italy, were first endowed from the public treasury by Yespasian. The prin- cipal school next to that of Rome, was at Milan. In Greece, the schools of Athens continued to flourish for a considerable time, and when the seat of the Roman empire was transfer- red to Constantinople, that city included, for more than a thousand years, most of the literature and books that existed. Previously to that time, and during the decline of the empire, the destruction of books was extended and increased, in the midst of the turbulence and rapine of the civil contests for the imperial throne. Until the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews had schools in Judea, particularly at Bethhoron Jerunia, and Ti- berias. In the schools of Egypt, the chief of which was Alexandria, were taught the Greek philosophy, mathematics, jurisprudence, medicine, magic, and astrology. § The despotism, disorders, civil commotions, and unparalleled suf- ferings of the Roman people in the latter stages of their political ex- istence, together with the destruction of libraries and books, could not but prepare the way for the melancholy era which followed in regard to the debasement of the human intellect. It may be remarked, that the arts declined with literature and science — the cultivation of them being neglected amidst the troubles 31* 366 GENERAL VIEWS. of the times. The Romans, as they were never eminent in any of the arts dependant on design, employed Greek artists, for the most part. But httle encouragement was given to architecture, or to the labours of the chisel and pencil, in the latter periods of the empire. All things were tending towards a state of ignorance and barbarism among the nations. 5. In the Second Era, which begins and ends with the dark ages, as they have been commonly called, we have to remark an extraordinary depression of the human mind during a long period. The time that intervened between the fall of the Western empire of Rome, and the era of the re- vival of learning, was nearly one thousand years, during which, the world presented a sad scene of ignorance, barbn rism, and misrule. There were, however, some intervals of light, as in the times of Al Raschid, when Arabian literature flourished, and of Henry II., when in England, Henry of Huntingdon, and some others, studied and wrote. At Con- stantinople, there was throughout the whole period, a degree of refinement and knowledge. The central portion of the era was the darkest, including the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries. The classic authors ended with the former part of the era, as also the spoken Latin tongue. The civihzed nations bound up together in one mighty and unwieldy community, had been prepared by a variety of causes, for the catastrophe which awaited them. The nor- thern invaders did not originate ; at most, they only hastened tills catastrophe. As much of ignorance and ferocity as they }>rought with them, they became, upon their settlement in the south of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the native citizens themselves. Considering their previous habits and temper, tSiey did more than could have been expected, to preserve learning and the arts for a time, in the dominions which they conquered. Without the agency of the northern invaders, darkness and barbarism would have covered the world, so Jong as such abuses of human rights, and especially of the divine system of the Gospel, were suffered to exist. Still the conflict of arms, and the overturning of the empire, could not but have given a shock to learning and the arts. § " In the revolution of ten centuries," says Gibbon, " not a single discovery was made to exalt the dignity, or promote the happiness of mankind. Not a single idea has been added to the speculative systems of antiquity. Not a single composition of history, philoso- LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 367 phy or literature, has been saved from oblivion by the intrinsic beauties of style or sentiment, of original fancy, or even of suc- cessful imitation." " Of the writings of antiquity," says the same author, " many that existed in the twelfth century are now lost : the literature of the Greeks had almost centered in the metropolis ; and without computing the extent of our loss, we may drop a tear over the libraries that have perished in the triple fires of Constantinople." The ignorance and infelicities of the dark ages, cannot perhaps be easily overrated. Those times, compared with our own, enjoying as we do the meridian light of knowledge and religion, must have been indeed undesirable. But there is a side to the picture, which is not altogether cheerless. There were some bright and joyous scenes ; and the relish of life in certain portions of the community, must have been strong, if we may judge from the noble works of gothic archi- tecture which were then erected — from the convivialities of baronial halls — from the gayeties of chivalry — and from the inspiring strains of the troubadours. The love of a sort of intellectual display, was indeed mingled with grosser propensities. But this is the most favourable aspect of the dark ages. Christianity, properly understood, and exercising its due influence on the understanding and character, must be a warm friend of know- ledge and literature ; but the spurious Christianity believed and acted upon in the dark ages, was hostile to some of the noblest produc- tions of the human mind. The temples of the heathens, with the public libraries they contained, were the objects of vengeance and destruction. The classics were regarded as sinful books. In addition to these causes, the devastations of the northern conquerors, notAvith- standing the commendable moderation which characterized them generally — and the plunder of Milan, which, next to Rome, was the chief repository for books in Ital}^ — necessarily reduced the number of manuscripts, and so far injured the interests of learning. After the commencement of the sixth century, scarcely any writers or men of genius worthy of notice appeared. The scien- ces suffered great decay. Taste was fast extinguishing. A sort ot attention was paid to learning during these times, but with little or no effect. The common course of studies in all the schools was grammar, logic, rhetoric, music, aritlimetic, geometry, and astrono- my. The first three were called Trivium, or trifling studies : the last four Quadrivium or high studies. A vain and ideal philosophy had begun universally to infect the minds of men. When we come to the more palpable darkness of the present era, we find that literature, science, and taste, were words but little known and used. Many of the clergy, whose profession should have se- cured to them a competent degree of knowledge, did not under- stand the breviary, which they were obliged daily to recite ; some of them could scarcely read it. The human mind, in general, neglected, uncultivated, and depressed, sank in the most profound ignorance. Charlemagne, and after him Alfred the Great, by their superior genius, endeavoured to dispel this darkness, and to give 368 GENERAL VIEWS. their subjects a short glimpse of light. But the ignorance of their respective times was too powerful for their efforts and institutions. The darkness returned and prevailed throughout Europe more or less, till about the middle of the fifteenth century. The scarcity of books in those times, and the nature of their subjects, as legends, lives of the saints, &c. evince the singular dearth of learning. What of learning was cultivated, was confined to a few ecclesiastics. The monks of those religious houses whose rules did not prohibit the reading of the classics, turned their atten- tion to procuring and copying manuscripts. Most of these indeed were worthless ; but truth obliges the historian to add, that some of the abbots, and even the monks, employed themselves in procuring or copying the choicest works of Greece and Rome. Cassiodorus, to use the words of Gibbon, " after passing thirty years in the honours of the world, was blessed witii an equal term of repose in the devout and studious solitude of Squillace." To this place, the monastery of Monte Cassio, in Calabria, he carried his own extensive library, which he greatly enlarged by manuscripts bought in various parts of Italy. His fondness for literature spread among the monks ; and he encouraged them to copy manuscripts. What he did there seems to have been imitated in the other monasteries of that part of Italy ; for fifty religious houses there are mentioned, which after- wards principally supplied the libraries of Rome, Venice, Florence, and Milan, with books. The only national exception to the profound ignorance of the middle portion of the dark ages, were the Arabians. That part of Europe which they held, viz. Spain, was much more enlightened than any of the other states. The caliph Al Raschid rendered Bagdad illustrious, by the successful cultivation of the arts and sciences. At the same time the Moors of Cordova emulated their brethren of the East in pursuing a similar course. The sciences to which the Arabians were devoted, were principally medicine, geo- metry, and astronomy. In the end of the 10th century, they intro- duced into Europe the use of figures instead of letters. The arts, like literature and science, were low in this era of igno- rance. This was the case even with the mechanic arts during much of the time. The fine arts, particularly sculpture and paint- ing, were preserved from absolute extinction, only by the existing remains of ancient art. Charlemagne, in his time, seems to have been solicitous for the improvement of music, and the Italians are said to have instructed his French performers in the art of playing on the organ. The musical gamut was invented in the 1 1th centu- ry. Architecture was cultivated in a style termed the Gothic, which, notwithstanding its barbarous proportions, possesses a beauty pecu- liar to itself. In the r2th century there was the dawn of literature in England under William of Malmsbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Henry of Huntingdon, Giraldus Cambrensis and others. It was, however, a transient dawn, and darkness again succeeded. The barbarism and subtleties of the schools triumphed over the better principles and LEARNING AND THE ARTS. 369 the more correct taste which had begun to prevail. The great teachers and patterns of logic and scholastic divinity, were charac- terized by the high-sounding epithets of divine, angelical, irrefraga- ble, &c. The most eminent among these teachers, otherwise called schoolmen, were Lanfranc, Abelard, Petrus Lombardus, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. Their great business seems to have been to make innumerable nice and metaphysical distinctions, founded neither in nature nor good sense, and to draw conclusions which had no moral end whatever. Their speculations were found- ed on the philosophy of Aristotle, and the folly lasted long after the light had shone on other departments of human investigation. 6. In passing to the Third Era, which commences with the revival of learning during the 15th century, we notice a favourable change, though not at first strongly marked. It is difficult to fix upon the exact point where the darkness ended, and the light began. The transition was too gradual to admit of nice discrimination. Occasionally, a distinguished individual appeared towards the conclusion of the era of darkness, and some nations were in advance of others as to the cultivation of learning. In the middle of the 13tli century, Roger Bacon arose ; and as Wicklifie at the distance of a century and a half from the Reformation has been called its "morning star," so may Bacon, preceding the revival of learning by nearly tlie same distance, be entitled to a similar distinction. He was the morning star of the restoration of letters in Europe. To his original genius and vast scholarship, the advancement of science in subsequent times is singularly indebted. His own age was too unen- lightened to appreciate his merits or to profit by his discove- ries. In the 14th century also, men of genius arose in Italy, who were devoted to classical learning and the cultivation of their native tongue. The works of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccacio have fixed the standard of the Italian language. In the same age also, flourished the Enghsh Chaucer and Gower,and the accomplished James I.of Scotland, all of whom, by tlieir learning, genius, and taste, were fitted to give a cha- racter to the time in which they lived. Spain also at this period began to emerge from ignorance and barbarism. Although on some accounts we might be tempted to fix on the 14th century as the era of the revival of learning, we are on other accounts led rather to fix on the period com- monly assigned, viz. the 15th century. A few nations only felt at this time the spirit which has 370 GENERAL VIEWS. been described, and that to a very small extent. It wag, moreover, poetry only that then attamed a degree of splen- dour. There was but little advancement in general hterature and science. Miracles and fables were woven too much into the texture of history, though we find much curious inform- ation in the writings of Walsingham, Everard, Duysburg, and particularly Froissart. France and England, though they contained a few learned men, were in general extremely barbarous. Few books, and scarcely any classics, were found in either of these countries. During nearly a hundred years from the time of Petrarch, little advance was made ; but a concurrence of circumstances favorable to the developement of the human intellect, took place, which eventually altered the whole aspect of affairs. Every subsequent age has felt the effects which in the middle of the 15th century proceeded from a taste for classical learning, from the dispersion of the Greeks on the fall of Constantinople, and especially from the noble invention of the art of printing. These were the principal causes which renovated the intellect of Europe. General literature and the fine arts first felt their influence ; and after the dominion of Aristotle was broken by the great Sir Francis Bacon in the beginning of the 17th of century, discovery succeeded discovery, and the most astonishing eflfoits of genius were put forth in science and philosophy. Improvements in knowledge have been making ever since, till, at the present time, both Europe and America enjoy the clear and full light of an intellectual sun. Discoveries and Inventions. 1. A passing notice only can be taken of the discoveries and inventions which have characterized modern ages, as a full and ade- quate account of them, would require volumes. Many of them are altogether new and original ; others are essential improvements of the works of antiquity. Those of a mechanical character, will claim principal attention in this place, since some that pertain to science and philosophy, are naturally included in the consideration of those subjects. Somewhat of a chronological order will be observed. The following are a few of the many inventions and discoveries that are presented in modern history. 2. Corn Mills. In remote antiquity, corn was rather pounded than ground ; and the hand-mills of which we read in scripture, were probably not unlike the pestle and mortar still in use. Im- DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 371 provemeiits were made in these machines, till, in process of time, shafts were added to them, and they were driven by cattle. The first mention of public water-mills which occurs in the Roman laws, dates in the year 398, A. C, when some enactments were made, which shew they were then considered as a new establishment. These mills were situated on the aqueducts which supplied Rome with water and as these were cut off when the city was besieged by the Goths, 536, Belisarius, who commanded the garrison, caused boats to be moored in the Tyber, on which he erected mills, which were driven by the current. Hence the origin of tide mills. Wind-mills, which for a long time were so constructed, that they could work only when the wind was in one quarter, are not spoken of till the time of the first crusade. 3. Clocks and Watches. — The art of constructing mechanical clocks was unknown to the ancients. It was not until late in the fifth century of the Roman era (293 B. C.) that the first sun-dial was introduced into Rome. At a later period, a machine was invented at Alexandria, termed a water-clock, which was simply a conical glass, with the scale marked on the sides ; and which, being per- forated at the base, denoted the hour, as the liquid, with which it was filled, subsided. To this may be traced the origin of the hour glass, still in use. The inventor of clocks moved by machinery, is not certainly known. Several names of the ninth century have been mentioned, but there is reason to believe that the origin of the present invention is not older than the eleventh century. About that time, clocks moved by weights and wheels, certainly began to be used in the monasteries of Europe. The writers of the thirteenth century, speak of them as being well known ; still they were for a long time confined to mo- nasteries. It was not till towards the close of the fifteenth century, that they began to be used in private houses ; and about the same time, mention is first made of watches. These were originally formed in the shape of an egg, or at least of an oval, and catgut supplied the place of a metal chain. The first watch is said to have been made in Germany. In England, watches appear not to have been in general use, until about the time of Queen Elizabeth. The invention of pendulum clocks, is due to the ingenuity of the seventeenth century, and the honour of the discovery is disputed between Galileo and Huygens. The most ancient, now existing in England, is that of Hampton Court palace, the date of which is 1540. 4. Linen used as clothing'. — Although linen was known in an- cient times in the East, and was introduced into Rome in the second century, it was not used in Europe, in the form of a garment, till sometime in the third century. It was earlier adopted for the table than for the person. The emperor Alexander Severus, is said to have been the first European, who wore a linen shirt. But inasmuch as the web was usually interwoven with threads of gold, it was too rough to be much of a luxury. The manufacture of this article made but little progress in Europe, during the middle ages. It was confined both then, and for a long period afterwards, to private families, 372 GENERAL VIEWS. among whom it was made for domestic use ; and its scarcity as an article of apparel, has been considered as one chief cause of that cutaneous disorder, formerly called leprosy. About the middle of the twelfth century, linen was so little known, that woollen shirts were generally worn in Milan ; and flannel, or rather linseywolsey, formed the usual underclothing of ladies. Linen was first imported into England from Flanders. 5. Glass Windows. — The venerable Bede tells us, that artificers, skilled in making glass for windows, were first brought into England from the continent, in 674, and were employed in glazing the church of the monastery at Wearmouth. But the art was not generally practiced, and the luxury of such windows was slowly adopted, for it was not until a century after the Norman conquest (1160, or 1170) that they began to be used in private houses, and even then, few could support such a style of magnificence. The manufacture of glass was not commenced in England, until the middle of the six- teenth century. 6. Glass Mirrors. — There is no positive evidence that glass mir- rors were known before the year 1279. At that time, an English Franciscan monk speaks of them, in a work on optics, but also men- tions that they were covered on the back with lead. It may be in- ferred that this invention cannot be much older, from the circum- stance that glass mirrors were scarce in France, even in the four- teenth century. Various methods were adopted to perfect the art, before that which is now in use. 7. Mariner^s Compass. — The date of the invention of the mari- ner's compass, is near the commencement of the fourteenth century. Gioia, of Amalfi, in Naples, a celebrated mathematician, from his knowledge of the magnetic powers, was the author or improver ol this important contrivance. The polarity of the magnet had been known in Europe, as early as the thirteenth century, but the com- pass was not used in sailing, till the time of Gioia. It is said that the Chinese, as in several other inventions or discoveries, lay claim to a knowledge of the compass long before ; but we may well be in- credulous in regard to most of their pretensions of this sort, since they are so much in accordance with that vanity, which derives their national existence from ages long preceding the scriptural ac- count of the creation. By this discovery, the dominion of the sea lias been opened to man, and he is also put in full possession of the terrestrial globe, by being enabled to visit every part of it. The art of steering by this instrument, was gradually acquired. Sailors un- accustomed to quit sight of land, durst not launch out and commit^ themselves to unknown seas. The first appearance of a bolder spi-" ' rit may be dated from the voyages of the Spaniards to the Canary I^ands. 8. Gunpowder. — It is said that the Chinese claim acquaintance with gunpowder from the remotest era of their history; but however that may be, it is certain, that several centuries of the Christian era had passed away before it was known in Europe. Some have thought that the knowledge of it was obtained in Europe through DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 373 the Saracens, as early as tlie latter part of the seventh century ; but it has more generally been supposed, that Friar Bacon was the first European who possessed the secret of the composition of gunpow- der, and that he was the inventor. He certainly so far alludes to it lis to say, that from saltpetre and other ingredients, a fire may be made that shall burn at any distance. Bacon died in 1294. 9. Fire-arms. — It is generally admitted that artillery was used by Edward III., at the battle of Crecy, 1346 ; and though Froissart does not mention the circumstance, we have the decisive testimony of Petrarch, that these guns were common before the year 134^. The invention of portable fire-arms would appear to have originated in Germany, from the old names by which the different kinds were distinguished. These names were either German, or immediately derived from that language. They were, however, too long and heavy at first to be conveniently fired from the hand alone. When used, they were placed on a prop, with a fork at the upper part, be- tween which the piece was fixed, by means of a hoop projecting from the stock. They were first used at the siege of Parma, in 1521 . The first muskets were discharged by means of a match applied with the hand ; but this was afterwards adjusted to acock for greater security and precision in shooting. There were other improve- ments, but flint locks do not seem to have entirely superseded the match-lock in the continental armies, until towards the close of the seventeenth century. The first gun-lock was invented in 1517. Tlie term fire-lock, was given to the invention, which is still in use, and it was applied to the gun itself, in order to distinguish it from that which was fired by a match-lock. 10. Paper made of cotton or linen rags. — Letters were wi^itten, or ideas transmitted, on a variety of substances, previously to the time when the art of making paper from cotton or linen rags was discovered. Sometimes a hard and solid substance was used, as stone, metal, or wood. Of these, wood was the most generally used, in various forms and modes, which cannot be here described. The leaves of trees also were employed ; hence the meaning of leaf, as applied to a book. This mode of writing was superseded by the use of the bark of trees, liber, hence the Latin name for a book. Linen cloth also was employed by the Egyptians and Romans. Leather, or skins prepared in the present manner, seems to have been often used by the Jews, on which to write portions of the Bible. Skins of animals rudely prepared, was another material, which originated with the lonians. A more common material was parch- ment, which was a certain preparation of the skins of animals. Most of the ancient manuscripts now extant, are written on parch- ment. Papyrus was also celebrated as a substance for writing up- on ; hence the word paper is derived. This was a species of rush which the ancients procured exclusively on the banks of the Nile. The paper manufactured from the papyrus, was of an inferior quality, until the time of the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. The time when the manufacture of this paper was lost or super- seded, is not known. It is generally supposed that few, if any, 32 374 GENERAL VIEWS manuscripts on papyrus are of a later date than the 8th or 9th cen- tury. About this period cotton paper was first made : according to some in Bucharia, according to others it had been known long before m China and Persia. There is no doubt, however, that the Arabs, having gained a knowledge of the process, established a manufactory in Ceuta, and afterwards in Spain, and thus introduced it into Europe about the 12th century. At first it was made of raw cotton ; then of old worn out cotton cloth. The use of cotton paper be- came general only in the 13th century; and about the middle of the 14th it was almost entirely superseded by paper from linen, such as is at present made. 11. The Art of Printing. — No evidence exists that moveable wooden types were ever used, except in the capital letters of some early printed books. It has indeed been contended that Lewis Cos- ter of Haarlem, invented and used them ; that he therefore was the original inventor of the art of printing. But it is now proved that this opinion is without foundation ; that wooden types were never used; and that the art of printing as at present practised, with moveable metal types, was discovered by John Guthenberg of Mayence, about the year 1438. Three years before this, Guthenberg entered into a partnership with three citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose a secret which would enrich them all. One of the partners dying, and some of the most important implements having been stolen from the work-shop, a lawsuit took place. In the course of this lawsuit, five witnesses, among whom was Guthenberg's confidential servant, proved that Guthenberg was the first who practised the art of print- ing with moveable types. The result was a dissolution of partner- ship. The whole proceedings on this trial are in existence, and have been published in the original German. Misfortune and pecuniary loss attended his efforts for a time. In 1450 he entered into partnership at Mayence, with John Fust: this also was a failure. The art was so little perfected that in their early efforts, neither the printing was fair, nor the expense sup- portable. It is not certain whether during their partnership, they found out the art of casting characters in metal, which they had previously been obliged to cut with a knife ; or whether this great improvement was made by Schceffer, who assisted them at this time. The general opinion is, that Schoeffer is entitled to this honour. Guthenberg and Fust at length separated ; and in consequence of a lawsuit, the former was obliged to give up his apparatus to Fust. Guthenburg, however, was not discouraged, but established a new printing offiice, until 1465, when he obtained a situation, with a good salary, under the Elector Adolphus. In the mean time Fust, in conjunction with Schceffer, continued printing. Upon the taking of Mayence in 1457, the partners suffered much ; and their work- men dispersing themselves, this most wonderful art was thus spread over Europe. In regard to stereotype printing, Holland has a far more substan- tial claim to the merit of inventing that, than to the glory, through DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 375 Coster, of originating the art of typography. Besides a quarto Bible, pubHshed in 1711, there exists a Dutch Bible stereotpyed in folio at the commencement of the 18th century. These are satisfactory proofs that stereotype printing was employed in Holland long before it was even known in France. In a note to No. 1316 of Barbier's catalogue, it is also recorded, that Johann Mueller, pastor of the German church at Leyden, had devised in 1701, a novel method of printing, which much resembles the process of stereotyping as now practised. This method consisted in composing the page in the usual manner, correcting it accurately, securing the type with iron ties, turning it over on its face, and then cementing it into a solid mass by means of a metallic composition, or preferably, of mastic. 12. ^team Engine. — This grand machine, which has done so much for the human race, and is destined to do much more, was unknown to the ancients. Its powerful effects are the result of the scientific combinations by which the immense expansive force exerted by water, when converted into steam, is rendered available to the most important purposes. The original projector of the Steam Engine is generally believed to have been the marquis of Worcester in 1655 ; but his apparatus was intended to raise water by the expansive force of steam only. His project was neglected in his own age, nor does the subject ap- pear to have excited the attention of scientific persons, till the year 1698, when Captain Savary obtained a patent for a new invention for raising water, and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill-work, by the impellent force of fire. Other improvements were attempted on the steam engine by Amonton, Papin, Blakey, Newcomen, and others ; but nothing essential was achieved except by the philoso- phical genius of Mr. Watt. Being accidentally employed to repair a model of the then imperfect steam engine, Mr. Watt observed that a great quantity of heat was lost by the unnecessary and improper mode of condensing the steam : he completely obviated the defect, and by the introduction of a condenser apart from the cylinder, and an alternate action of the steam against each side of the piston, he effected the most essential improvement in the above particular. Under his hands, however, the machine received other improve- ments, particularly in the mechanical arrangement throughout. Since the expiration of Watt's patent, a variety of other improve- ments have been made by several mechanical gentlemen, but details must be omitted. Steam engines are now common all over the world. Their ap- plication to the purposes of navigation forms an era in their history. The Americans first made this application, as the genius of Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania, was successfully employed on this subject, as early as the commencement of the present century. He first made the experiment of propelling boats by steam at Paris in 1803; after which he returned to America, and exhibited a boat in successful operation, on the waters of New-York. Vessels propelled by his machinery are now in common use, throughout the United States and in Europe. They are known also in India, and their num- 376 GENERAL VIEWS. ber is continually on the increase. In 1827, American steamboat tonnage alone amounted to 40,197 tons. It is now much greater. Incidents and Curious Particulars. 1. Miscellaneous matter which cannot be conveniently arranged under any other head, is here designed to be presented. A few only of the vast mass of facts appropriate to this article, will be selected from the annals of different nations. From the present sample may be learned, among other things, the state of the useful arts, the modes of living, and the progress of society and improve- ment, at different periods. 3. The most extensive and splendid of the libraries at Rome was the Ulpian, founded by Trajan. It is believed that at the suggestion of Pliny the younger, this emperor commanded all the books that were found in the conquered cities to be placed in this library. Most of the principal cities throughout the empire, at this time, had public libraries. The desolation of the western empire destroyed or dispersed most of the books in them, so that in this part of the world, after this period, and during the dark ages, monasteries almost exclusively possessed libraries. In the eastern empire it was different : both Constantinople and Alexandria preserved theirs, till the Turks obtained possession of these cities. 3. From the origin of monasteries till the close of the 10th cen- tury, it is said there were no schools in Europe, except those belong- ing to monasteries, or episcopal churches. At the beginning of the 11th century, they were opened in most of the cities of Italy and France, by qualified persons among both the laity and clergy. But though their general introduction and establishment, must be assigned to this period, yet it is certain that Charlemagne founded several in his dominion. Afterwards, or in the middle ages, there were distinct schools for clerks, for laymen, and for girls. But the education of the highest ranks seldom went beyond reading, wri- ting, and a little arithmetic. 4. We learn from Seneca three curious circumstances relating to the journeys of the Romans. 1. They were preceded by a troop of Numidian light horse, who announced by a cloud of dust, the approach of a great man. 2. Their baggage-mules transported not only their precious vases, but even the fragile vessels of crystal and murra, which last has been almost proved by the learned, to mean the porcelain of China and Japan. 3. The beautiful faces of the young slaves were covered by a medicate crust or ointment, which secured them against the effect of the sun and frost. 5. The use of braccte, breeches or trowsers, was considered in Italy in the 3d century as a Gallic and barbarian fashion. The Romans, however, had made great advances towards it. To encir- cle the legs and thighs with fasci^e or bands, was understood in the time of Pompey and Horace to be a proof of ill health and effemi- nacy. In the time of Trajan the custom was confined to the rich DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 377 and luxurious* It was gradually adopted by the meanest of the people. 6. After the age of Tiberius, the decay of agriculture was felt in Italy, and it was a just subject of complaint that the life of the Roman people depended on the accidents of the winds and waves. 7. In regard to habitations, our English ancestors in early times had few luxuries or even conveniences. Down to the reign of Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns had no chimneys : the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the windows. The houses were mostly built of watling, plastered over with clay ; the floors were of earth, strewed, in families of distinc- tion, with rushes; and the beds were only straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better than his subjects, for in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions, " to examine every night the straw of the king's bed, that no dag- gers might be concealed therein." A writer in 1577, speaking of the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were " marvellously altered for the worse in England ;" the multitude of chimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange of treene platters into pewter, and wooden spoons into silver and tin, and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow was em- ployed for the building of houses. In the middle ages the fires in the houses were made in a cavity in the centre of the floor, over which there generally was an open- ing in the roof for the escape of the smoke ; and when the fire was out, or the family retired to rest, the place in which it was made was closed by a cover. In those days a law was almost universallj^ established on the continent, that fires should be extinguished, and the family be all at home, at a certain hour in the evening, which was notified by the ringing of a bell ; that, in England, was called the corfeu, curfew. 8. In 1100, an inundation of the sea happened which overflowed the lands of Godwin, earl of Kent, called Godwin's Sands, to this day. Of these shoals the following account was given not many years since. " Upon our journey to Ramsgate," says Mr. Smeaton, civil engineer, " having visited the Godwin Sands, in order to ex- amine their nature, we found that though, like quicksand, they were clean and unconnected, yet they lay so close that it was diflScult to work a pointed iron bar into them more than to the depth of six or seven feet. 9. The spirit of the middle ages is shown in the following instan- ces of wild magnificence or barbarity. On a certain occasion, when the nobility of Languedoc met in 1174, the countess of Urgel sent to the meeting a diadem, worth 2000Z., to be placed on the head of a wretched buflbon. The count of Thoulouse sent a diadem also of twice that value, to a favourite knight, who distributed the same amount in money among the poorer knights. Other acts of mad prodigality were performed, particularly the sowing of a piece of plowed ground with small coin to the amount of 1500 English 32* 378 GENERAL VIEWS. guineas, by count Bertrand Rimbault. But the barbarous wasteful- ness of lord Raymond was the most remarkable feat on the occasion. Having ordered thirty of his most beautiful and valuable horses to be tied to stakes, and surrounded with dry wood, he wantonly set it on fire, and suffered his favourites to perish in the flames. 10. Among the Romans the interest of money was not fixed by law. It is on this account that we find in the Roman satirists so many loud complaints of extortion, and of the severity with which pecuniary claims were enforced. Horace describes a rich old miser, who " Dooms the wretches, on the appointed day, His interest or principal to pay." Many of the bankers acquired large fortunes, and arrived at the highest dignities of the state. Their establishments were of a pri- vate nature, and such banking houses are known to have existed in the chief cities of Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries ; and about the some period the first public banks appear to have been establish- ed by some of the Italian states, for the purposes of contracting loans and managing the collection of the revenue. The most an- cient general bank for the deposit of cash and the issue of its own paper in return, appears to have been formed in the city of Barce- lona, in 1401. 11. The specious miracles of Arabian magic were introduced into Europe, by means of pilgrimages and the holy wars. Fairies and giants, flying dragons and enchanted palaces, were blended with the more simple fictions of the West ; and the fate of Britain depended on the art or predictions of Merlin. 12. The magnificent castle of Windsor, was built by Edward III., in the fourteenth century, and his method of conducting the work, may serve as a specimen of the condition of the people in that age. No contracts were made with workmen as in the present times, but every county in England was assessed to send the king a certain number of masons, tilers, and carpenters, who were to perform their quota of labour. 13. In the year 1414, the citizens of London were ordered to hang out lanterns to light the streets, and one of its mayors, in 1417, re- newing the order, " ordained lanthornes with lights to be hanged out on the winter evenings between hallontide and candlemasse." In this particular, London must have set the example to the other cities of Europe. During three centuries afterwards, the citizens were occasionally reminded of this regulation, under pains and penalties for its non-observance ; but the frequency of the repetition only proves, how ill it was obeyed. In 1716, it was directed that each liouse should have a lamp hung out on every night between the 2d after full-moon until the 7th after new moon, from the hour of six in the evening until eleven. In 1736 and 1739, the present mode of lighting was partially adopted, but it was not till 1744, that an act of parliament was passed for completely lighting the cities of London and Westminster. DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 379 14. During the periods of feudal strife, when neighbouring chief- tains often made sudden inroads on each other, every baronial castle was provided with its warders, i. e. men that were posted on the tops of towers to watch the approach of an enemy. In Wales, these persons were furnished with horns to sound an alarm ; and those in the castles of the German princes, in the sixteenth century, blew a horn every morning and evening, on the reUeving and setting of the guard. 15. Between the years, 1312 and 1315, Germany groaned under all the miseries of plague and famine, by which whole towns were depopulated, and provinces brought to desolation. The rich sought an asylum in other countries, while the poor, unpitied and unassist- ed, miserably perished. Hunger so preyed upon wolves and other ravenous beasts, that overcoming their fear of man, they rushed into the villages, and gorged themselves with human blood. Trees and houses were swept away by cataracts bursting from the mountains ; and the earth was dreadfully convulsed by earthquakes. 16. It was not until towards the close of the sixteenth century, that potatoes made their appearance in Europe. They were first brought by Sir WaUer Raleigh, from America to Ireland. From thence they passed by slow degrees over to Scotland, and the nor- thern counties of England, and have since become general through- out Great Britain. The lapse, however, of two centuries has not sufficed to introduce so important a vegetable into common con- sumption, in the south of Europe. 17. In the year 1500, there happened so great a plague in Eng- land, that it obliged the king and court to remove to Calais, and carried oflf upwards of 30,000 people in London. 18. The progress of improvement has been slow in many res- pects. Many centuries of the christian era had passed away, before any thing better than splinters of wood, was used by our English ancestors for lighting their houses by night. It was not until towards the close of the thirteenth century, that tallow candles were employed for this purpose. It was not until this period that cups and saucers were used, and then they were considered as luxuries. A few centuries only have gone by since knives and forks were used in eating ; since hats were worn in lieu of cloth hoods and knit caps; since the ladies were accommodated with pins instead of skewers ; and since knit stockings were introduced in the room of cloth hose. 19. In 1546, a law was made in England for fixing the interest of money at 10 per cent. This was the first legal interest known in that country. Strange as it may seem to us, all acts of that nature were formerly considered as usurious. 20. Between the years 1660 and 1670, two awful calamities befel London— a plague which carried off 68,000 persons— and a fire, which, breaking out near London bridge, and continuing several days, destroyed eighty-nine churches and thu-teen thousand two hundred dwelling houses. ^0 GENERAL VIEWS* 21. A few years before the landing of the puritans at Plymouth, a remarkable pestilence destroyed most of the Indians from Nara- ganset to Penobscot, which seems to have been a providential oc- currence to facilitate the settlement of New-England. 22. The waste lands in the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, amount even at this time to 15,301,994 acres. 23. In the year 1828, American shipping in foreign trade amount- ed to 824,781 tons, and foreign shipping employed in American trade was 149,435 tons— the whole being 974,216 tons. The en- rolled coasting tonnage of the country is nearly or quite equal to that in foreign trade. 24. In the year 1829, the public libraries in Europe were com- puted to contain 19,847,100 volumes. 25. The expenses of Great Britain in war, since 1688 amount, as appears from a statement lately made, to £2,023,500,000, viz. — Years. Expense. The war of the Revolution, 9 £36,000,000 Spanish Sucxiession, 11 62,500,000 Spanish war, 1739, and > 1 " Austrian Succession, ^ 9 The " Seven years war" with ^ the French, Spanish, Austri- \ 7 ans and Russians, of 1756, } The American war, of 1775, 8 136,000,000 French Revolution war, 9 464,000,000 The war against Bonaparte, ) the three last years of which \ 12 1159,000,000 with the United States, ) There were about sixty-five years of war, and seventy-five of peace, in a period of one hundred and forty years. Present state of several Nations in respect to Agriculture, Roads, Co7iveyances, IntercoursCj Education, Trade, Manufactures, ^c. \: The history of culture, in respect to many characteristics, were they to be traced from their origin, and described as they have ex- isted in past ages, would be interesting and instructive. Some sub- iects of this kind have been thus traced and described. It may an- swer the purpose of so succinct an outline, to present others to the reader, as we now find them, with little reference to the past. The articles above enumerated, may therefore come under review, in res- pect chiefly to the present times. They are properly characteris- tics of the age, or the history of it, so far as such particulars are concerned. PRESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. 381 2. Agriculture. — Agriculture, as the foundation of the means of living, and as connected with the state of society, and with the civil and intellectual character of a people, deserves a high degree of at- tention. Accordingly, it has been a commanding object of pursuit, with all civilized communities, from the beginning-. I3ut it is only to be remarked here, that in modern times it has received more conside- ration than formerly. The ancient Romans, perhaps, were as much devoted to it as any modern nation ; and their agricultural wealth, as individuals, when, in some instances, several thousand yokes of oxen were the property of a single farmer, exceeds probably any thing known at present. But with the exception of the Romans, if they were on the whole an exception, modern nations manifestly ex- cel antiquity. Especially do they excel the middle ages, for then this great interest suffered, with every thing else, a lamentable decay. In very recent times, peculiar attention has been bestowed on the subject, both in Europe and America, by means of numerous agri- cultural societies. Indeed, science has been of late most successfully applied to the purposes of advancing the agricultural art. The bu- siness in the hands of scientific practical farmers, has assumed a sys- tematic arrangement, unknown in former days. 3. Roads. — In Europe, as tlie Roman empire declined, the roads gradually fell into neglect ; and during the dark ages, their ruinous condition, rendered communication difficult, beyond what we can now find it easy to conceive. It is not readily ascertained what the state of the roads was, but they must have improved as trade in- creased. We know that the amelioration of them was slow ; that the arts of constructing and directing them, were for a long time un- derstood very imperfectly ; and that the first kingdom in which the condition of the great roads, at all approached the present standard of excellence, was Sweden, where from its want of wealth, and its remote situation, no such occurrence could reasonably have been looked for. In England, the change in regard to the arrival and departure of the mails, which took place in 1793, greatly forwarded that improve- ment of the principal roads, which had been going on through the eighteenth century ; and from 1793 to the present moment, the high- ways, cross-roads, bridges, and ferries, throughout the whole extent of that country, are decidedly superior to those which are to be seen any where else. A remarkable improvement, however, has recently taken place in roads and bridges, all over Europe. Materials for road making have been found where formerly they were not believed to exist, and the skill with which they are employed is surprising. Neither clay, sand, morasses, torrents, precipices, nor any other obstacles, are deem- ed insurmountable. A terrace has been conducted along the whole face of the Appennines, from Nice, to the gulf of Spezzia. The finest carriage roads cross the Alps, over mount Cenis, St. Bernard, the Simplon, St. Gothard, the Splugen, from the lake of Como to the source of the Inn, from Trent to Brixen, and where the road from Vienna to Venice crosses them at Ponteba. An entirely new road 382 GENERAL VIEWS. has been formed in the kingdom of Netherlands, from Namur to Lux- embourg ; another runs along the banks of the Rhine from Mentz to Nimeguen 5 another from Hamburg to Hanover, and from Hanover to Deventer. Others have been formed, and particularly the vv'hole way between Berlin and Petersburgh, probably presents by this time an admirable hue of communication between these two capitals. Other roads are said to be under consideration, and particularly one from Berlin to Hamburg, through sands which appear almost impas- sable. Indeed, the traveller in Europe, since the cessation of wars, every where witnesses the utmost zeal in building bridges, in open- ing, widening, levelling, and repairing roads. Nor has less been done, or is less doing in the United States. Pro- bably no people in the same time, ever made so many improvements in roads and bridges. Where two hundred years ago, all was a wide wilderness, traversed only by the foot-paths of the Indians, there are now thousands of good roads. The extent only of post-roads in this country, now considerably exceeds 100,000 miles. In some parts of Europe and of the United States, rail-roads have been made, or are in progress, which promise the greatest advantages to commerce and inland transportation. The recent construction of carriages moved by steam, which are designed to pass over roads of this des- cription, will form an era in the history of travelling. Moving with the velocity of thirty miles or more by the hour, these vehicles will seem to annihilate space. 4. Water Conveyance.— ^he progress lately made in water con- veyance, is also very remarkable. The first canals known in Europe, were those which were formed in Italy and the Low Countries, and served in several cases both to drain the ground, and for the convey- ance of merchandize. France followed their example, and by means of the canal of Languedoc, joined the channel and the Mediterra- nean. Several others have since been completed, and others are begun; but that country is never likely to place much dependence on its ca- nal communications. About the middle of the last century, the commercial prosperity of Great Britain, induced it to turn its attei^ tion to canals, and from its abundance of water, and the moderate elevation of its surface, it has now pushed canal navigation, beyond every other country. The total length of canals in Great Britain at the present time, is 2,600 miles. Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, now possess canals ; and Russia, both within her old limits and in Po- land, is zealously encouraging canals, to connect her rivers, and trans- port the produce of her soil. Next to Great Britain, the United States have displayed the most enterprise in the business of canals. In the several states, twenty-two canals are finished, in progress, or in immediate contemplation, whose aggregate length is about 2,500 miles. The greater part of them are either finished or in progress. Two of them, viz. the Hudson and Erie, and the Chesapeake and Ohio canals, are each 360 miles, the Ohio state canal is 306, and the Pennsylvania canal is 296 miles. The Hudson and Erie canal, which is in operation, is the boast of the new world. The application of steam to shipping, which deserves to be ranked PRESENT STATE OF SEVERAL NATIONS. 383 among the greatest discoveries, theoretical or practical, that were ever made, has done more within the last twenty years, to facilitate the communication between diiferent places, by water, than all the contrivances that went before it. Steam vessels are now found per- manently or occasionally plying from the bottom of the Mediterra- nean, all round to the top of the Baltic. No place in the eastern part of the world has derived so great advantage from the discovery of steam vessels, as England. Its situation, coal, and commerce, en- ables it to shoot forth these vessels in every direction, and by means of the certainty and celerity of their passage, they have diminished its distance, and multiplied its means of access to every part of the European continent. In the United States, where the application of steam to the purposes of navigation was first made, these vessels are most extensively employed. They abound, with all their facility of conveyance, on our coasts, and in our rivers ; hundreds of them are owned on the Mississippi alone. The combination of the above dis- coveries and improved arrangements, has produced an ease, certain- ty, and rapidity of intercourse, exceeding all past experience or ima- gination. 5. Travelling. The increase of the number of travellers which these facilities have caused, is a characteristic of the times worth no- ticing. Travelling for improvement or gratification, has increased fifty or an hundred fold, and it is continually augmenting. In peace, Europe is now one great family, and certainly many advantages at- tend this state of things. Such a degree of travelling and inter- course tends very much to bind nations together, and to promote liberal views, and a charitable feeling, one towards another. Some good things, however, are sacrificed to it. Simplicity of heart, and the earnestness of kindness in domestic life, are diminishing. The love of home, the warm gush of affection, is'checked. The bonds of society now set loosely on a man. Attachment to country ceases to operate as it once did. 6. Increase of Education. Another characteristic of the present times, is the extraordinary increase of education. A much larger portion of the people of civilized countries read than formerly. Pro- testants have always been more devoted to reading than the Catho- lics. Except in Spain and Portugal, reading has increased every where. Both the means and the habits of reading are increased. The multiplication of newspapers and periodical publications— the number of booksellers' shops— the profusion of literary institutions and circulating libraries, are infallible indications of the extraordi- nary spread of education and reading. There is evidently, there- fore, the more need of moral discipline. The Bible should by all means be made a study, and its heavenly truths should be more than ever enforced upon the heart. The cheapness of books, the number of teachers, the spare time created by the extension of machinery, and the fashion for reading, have operated very considerably on the common people in Europe. In the United States, the same causes have operated on the same portion of the community, though here 384 GENERAL VIEWS. the common people have always been distinguished, above those of other nations, for a love of reading and a competent education. Among the higher orders of European society, there are so many books, and so much to learn, that few are profound. The stream ol knowledge flows wider, but has not become deeper. To master all the branches of science and knowledge, is impossible. Daily and periodical publications abound, but perhaps too much so for a sound and permanent literature. They include the principal stock of read- ing, except novels, books of travels, and memoirs. The mind of the public cannot be more effectually abused and unsettled, than by the systematic conversion of history, private life, religion and morality, into themes for works of fiction ; and the full extent of the miscliief will be seen only when it is too late. A similar change to that which has taken place among readers, has affected authors. Most of this class are so impatient to reap the rewards of their labours, or so ap- prehensive of being supplanted by competitors for the public favour, that few are willing to bestow the time and trouble which are ne- cessary for the composition of a standard work. 7. Improvement in external condition. — In the present state of most civilized nations, a surprising improvement has taken place in the outward condition of all ranks of society. Many shocking and painful disorders have almost wholly disappeared, and others, which flesh must still be heir to, have by superior treatment, been rendered less violent and dangerous. The small pox, the ravages of which were once so terrible, has now ceased to alarm the communi- ty. The discovery of vaccination, in 1798, by Dr. Jenner, was the instrumental cause of so propitious a change. This is one of the diseases referred to ; others might be named. The plague, except in Turkey, and some other countries borderi'ng on the Mediterra- nean, is almost unknown. Famines, arising either from cold or heat, are now of much less frequent occurrence than they formerly were, and the cruelties and calamities of war, have been mitigated. WTiile these scourges of mankind have been removed or diminished, the length of human life has been extended, as a consequence. A greater proportion live to old age than was the fact a century ago. Other causes, however, may have operated here, as greater temperance, better food and clothing, less exposure, &c. Connected with the above, inventions of every sort, conducing to personal enjoyment, have been multiplied or brought to perfection. In houses, furniture, horses, conveyances, and every thing which can minister to the ease and gratification of mind or body ; in the number and refinement of the sources of amusement, and in all articles of domestic luxury and convenience, the progress that has lately been made, is unprecedent- ed either for extent or rapidity. There is not a district to be foimd in any European state, in which the traveller is not struck with the taste and magnificence displayed in the architecture of public and private buildings, the multiplication and commodiousness of bathing and watering places, hotels, coffee houses, and reading rooms, the ex- quisite arrangement of gardens, grounds and villas, and the neatness of cottages, shops and manufactories. t>RESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. 385 This alteration is very conspicuous in England. The comforts of life appear in great profusion ; no native or foreigner can travel fifty or sixty miles, along a public road, without being lost in wonder and astonishment. Towns, villages, hamlets, mansions, farm houses, and cottages, are every where scattered about in the most pleasing and romantic situations. It were to be desired that the reality in every respect, corresponded with the appearances, but it is not to be con- cealed that the present stagnation in business, has thrown many of the English operatives into- distress. In the United States, however, these improvements not only abound, but the favourable appearan- ces are generally connected with a more deliglitful reality. 8. Increase of population. — In consequence of the improvement in the physical circumstances of the people in christian countries, tlie population has increased in an unexampled manner. Some pla- ces, owing to political revolutions, or change of trade, may have de- creased in population, as Rome, Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Verona, Seville, Barcelona, Cadiz, Lubec, Bremen, Ghent, Bruges, Cologne, Strasburg, Nuremburg, and Augsburg. These, however, are excep- tions to the general rule. Petersburg, Berlin, Vienna, Brussels, Paris, Hamburgh, Frankfort, Milan, Munich, Stuttgard, Stockholm, and the territories to which they belong, are swelling in extent and population. England has outstripped the continent within these last thirty or forty years. London, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and many other cities and towns in Great Britain, have experienced a great increase. According to statistics, which have lately appeared,* it is found that the inhabitants of Europe have, within the period that has elapsed since the general peace, in 1815, been augmented by the number of 28 or 29,000,000. Every coun- try has had a share in this increase. Europe, however, can hardly be compared with the United States, in this particular. Within the time above mentioned, the population of this country has increased to the amount of at least one third of the whole number. History probably does not furnish another instance of tlie rapid rise of cities, equal to that of New- York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New-Orleans, and several others. 9. The approximation of the lower classes to the higher. — This Is a characteristic of the age more particularly observable in the old world. In America, owing to its institutions, and the abundance of the means of living, the difference in the classes of the people has never been so wide as it is in Europe. The approximation spoken of is very perceptible in European society. It is obvious in dress, manners, and acquirements. It is encouraged by the improvement which has taken place in manufactures, and by the substitution of machinery for manual labour. Dress is scarcely a test of rank. In language and address, the middling classes have advanced. There are few above the lowest rank, if possessed of good sense, who do not speak and act, in these days, with ease and propriety. Much taste and elegance, are in many instances displayed. In mental ac- * The American Almanac for 1830, a most valuable production. 33 386 GENERAL VIEWS. quirements, particularly, the assimilation is visible. Children of the nobility, from the greater pains taken with them, excel at first, but are outstripped afterwards, by those who feel the necessity of excel- ling. The procession in society, has extended to attainments of every kind, especially in matters of legislation. The numerous papers and documents which are published, and which are accessible to most readers, have contributed to this result. In regard to Great Britain, an American gentleman long resident m that country, at this moment writes, " A spirit is silently at work, which is gradu- ally undermining the power of the Aristocracy, and will one day (and that not far distant) show itself in a form too powerful to be resisted." 10. Trades and Manvfadures.— The spring of late years given to trade and manufactures, is quite characteristic of the times. Our remarks have reference more especially to the continental portion of Europe, wiiere, since the general peace, the products of manufactu- ring industry have been wonderfully multiplied. Sugar refineries have w^itliin a recent period been established to a great extent, at Trieste, Petersburg, Hamburg, and Gothenburg. At Motala, near Orebro, in Sweden, there is perhaps the largest esta- blishment in existence for all sorts of implements in steel and iron. The manufacture of muskets and fowling-pieces has lately been greatly improved in Germany, and particularly at Herschfeld, in Hanover. Admirable travelling carriages of all sorts, both in point of elegance and durability, are built at Brussels, Berlin, and Vien- na. The glass manufactories in France, at St. Quentin, St. Gabin, Comenty, and Premontre, in the department of Aisne, are all in the most flourishing condition, and glass is made at Munich, of a most superior quality, so that the Bavarians have deprived even the- Bri- tish of the manufacture of telescopes. The elegant iron and steel ornaments, made at Berlin, have now become a valuable and extend- ing branch of commerce. The utmost attention is paid to the im- provement of wool throughout France, Austria, Saxony, Holstein, and some other parts of Denmark. The woollen manufactures es- tablished in Moravia, Saxony, and Silesia, and in the Low Coun- tries, are increasing, and in addition to those which have been long seated at Sedan, Elboeuf, and Louviers, in France, they have now been introduced at Carcassone, Castres, and Lodeve, in the south, and at Bourges, and Chatevuroux, in the centre. A determined and successful degree of anxiety to improve the breed of horses, has manifested itself in Prussia, Russia, and France. England no long- er supplies nearly the whole of Europe with lead ; a great quantity is now raised near Almeria, in Spain. The manufactories of iron, and steel, which are flourishing in France, are prospering still more at Liege, which has become the Birmingham of the Low Countries, as Ghent is their Manchester and Glasgow. The cotton manufac tures of France and Belgium, have increased tenfold in ten years. They are now firmly fixed at Elberfeld, near J)usseldorf, and rapid- ly extending themselves in the Prussian Rhenish provinces. The silk trade of France, which used to be confined to Lyons, has now PRESENT STATE OP SEVERAL NATIONS. 387 spread its ramifications to Avignon, Nismes, and Tours, and its an- nual value amounts to £6,000,000. The silk trade is carried on in Switzerland, a fact which is little known abroad. There is in Zu- rich and its neighbourhood alone between 12 and 13,000 looms. It is also established at Aran, Basle, and several other places. In the Prussian Rhenish provinces, it is spreading from Mentz through all the towns and villages along the Rhine, and is carried on to a great extent at Dusseldorf and Elberfelt, but particularly at Creveld, where it is conducted with great capital and great spirit. All sorts of house- hold furniture are now made extremely beautiful in most large towns throughout the continent. Exhibitions of works of genius and in- dustry are every where encouraged, especially at Petersburg, Berlin, Brussels, Paris, Munich, Stuttgard, and Vienna. The manufacturing industry and talent of Great Britain, and the trade therewith connected, have been long celebrated, and have grown with her growth, till she has filled the world with the choicest works of mechanic art. But particulars will not be needed in re- gard to a country so well known. In the United States, also, trade and manufactures have of late risen in a remarkable degree, consi- dering the comparative newness of the country. Many new branches have been established, and many old ones enlarged, so that although we are essentially an agricultural people, and must remain so for a long time to come, we already produce a great variety of important articles of mechanical skill. The ingenuity and enterprise of our citizens are here, as in every other department of human effort, alike conspicuous and successful. 11. Reform in Government. — A desire among many nations to free themselves from their oppressions, or to new model their go- vernments, is a prominent characteristic of the age. It has been ob- served in the course of this work, that the present period, though by the contemporary world which lived in it called the revolutionary, will probably be denominated the constitutional period by posterity. The nations for some time have been struggling to obtain free and regular constitutions. The spirit began with the United States, more than fifty years ago. France afterwards made a misguided, abortive attempt, and some other despotisms have been considerably agita- ted. The strict despotic principles have hitherto prevailed, except in the colonial establishments ; yet even in countries governed on those principles, such has been the influence of popular feeling, there has been a degree of amelioration. The attempts of the Spaniards, Por- tuguese, and Neapolitans, to change their forms of government, have been frustrated chiefly by the despotic sword from abroad ; but it is evident, that knowledge is increasing, and that the minds of men are turning with fond desire towards their long lost rights and liberties, and that a spirit is at work, which promises eventually the destruc- tion of all despotic thrones. The colonial struggles, however, have been successful, and the various republics of South America, and that of Mexico, in North America, attest the energy of that feeling which resolves on independence. Greece, too, favoured by circum- stances, and by the sympathies of nations, but more by her own he- 388 GENERAL VIEWS. roism and self-denial, is an arm broken off from the Turkish powery and with the lingering remains of genius found in her, and quicken- ed into life by the principles and systems of American education, is destined, we may hope, to be twice immortal. 12. Religious Enterprises. — The present era is greatly distin- guished by a spirit of enterprise in religion. Many, in protestant countries, are especially waked up in regard to the precious interests of the Christian church — its prosperity at home, and its extension abroad. Great reformations have taken place, and signal revivals of piety have abounded, especially in the United States ; and both here, and in Great Britain, the work of Christian missions has been vigo- rously prosecuted. Vast numbers of associations are formed in va- rious parts of Protestant Christendom, to give the Bible to the des- titute — to educate pious, indigent youth for the ministry — to imbue the minds of children with scriptural knowledge by means of sab- bath school instruction— to promote religion and morality among sailors — to enlighten the inmates of dungeons — and in this country^ especially, to secure the observation of the sabbath — to do away the abominations of intemperance ; and to benefit the descendants of Africa, by colonizing them in the land of their fathers. The esta- blishment and support of missionary seminaries, and theological se- minaries, are also among the important religious enterprises of the day. Indeed, there is scarcely a conceivable form of benevolent and pious movement which does not receive a portion of regard from the Christian public. The Christian Church. We shall attempt a very brief history of the Church of Jesus Christ, or of Christianity as a divine establishment common to most of the nations, whose affairs have been narrated in a different portion of this work. This is the only religious system that claims much of our attention, in modern annals. A sufficient notice has been taken of the religion promulgated by Mahomet, in the history of the Sara- cens. As to the religion of paganism, we have had so little occasion to bring into view the nations, who, in modern times, possess the pagan creed, that we need not trace its distinctive features. A few, however, of the religious notions of the barbarous heathen tribes, whence sprang the modern European states, have appeared in a des- cription of the manners, institutions, &c. of those tribes. The reli- gion of the Greeks, Romans, and other early nations, all of whom, except the Jews, were pagans, is a topic of Ancient History. 1. It will suffice for the object here contemplated, to sketch the affairs of the Christian Church under three distinct heads. 1. In its primitive and pure state, extending- from the birth of Jesus Christ, to the year 325 A. C, when Christianity became the rehgion of the Roman empire. 2. In its cor- CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 389 mpted state, extending from 325 A. C. to the commencement of the Reformation, 1517 A. C. 3. In its reformed state, extending from 1517 A. C. to the present time. 2. In the first era, as it might be expected, we behold the Christian church in its best condition. Compared with the subsequent era, it was distinguished for the simphcity of its order, purity of practice, and attachment to the doctrines of the Gospel."^ Among the many events of the present period, we can notice only the following leading ones, viz., the ap- pearance of Jesus Christ on earth ; the general success of the Gospel under the preaching of the apostles and others ; and the ten great persecutions of the Church, so enumerated and called, beginning with Nero, and ending with Diocletian. 5 The appearance of Jesus Christ on earth was the most re- markable event that ever occurred. Its date, as commonly given, is four years later than the real time. The prophets had pomted out the period, and the world was in an unusual degree prepared for the coming of the Son of God. But though the nations were expectmg the appearance of some extraordinary personage, and the Jews par- ticularly were waiting for their Messiah ; yet Jesus was almost uni- versally rejected, both by the Jew and Gentile. In the circumstan- ces of his birth and life, and in the doctrines which he taught, the expectations of his countrymen were disappointed, and upon a fri- volous pretence, they put him to the cruel death of the cross. By tliis procedure, so unjust on the part of the Jews, the divine plan, which sought the redemption of the nations, was accomplished, for on the third day, Jesus rose from the dead, and forty days after, having given his disciples suitable instructions respecting their duty as pre'achers of his religion, he ascended to heaven, a cloud receiving him out of their sight. The ^ejieral success of the Gospel under the preaching- of the apostles and others, was also a remarkable circumstance, and strong- ly confirmed the truth of Christianity. Many reasons might be given for this opinion, but our limits forbid. In regard to the fact of the early and general extension of the Gospel, we are left to no doubt, from the nature of the case, and from historic records. The apostles and evangelists were early spread abroad among the na- tions ; and even before the destruction of Jerusalem, the Gospel had been preached to multitudes in several parts of the known world. \\ ithin thirty years of the death of Christ, says Paley, the institution had spread itself through Judea, Galilee, and Samaria, almost all tlie numerous districts of Lesser Asia, through Greece and the islands of the iEgean Sea, the sea coast of Africa, and had extended itself to Rome, and into Italy. At Antioch in Syria, at Joppa, Ephesus, Corinth, and many other places, the converts were spoken of as nu- merous. The first epistle of Peter, accosts the Christians dispersed throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappaclocia, Asia, and Bythinia. In a 33* 390 GENERAL VIEWS. short time, nations and cities more remote, heard of the Gospel. The Gauls received the knowledge of Christianity from the imme- diate successors of the apostles ; and during the second century, the Germans, the Spaniards, and probably the Britons, were converted to the true religion. The ten great 'persecutions of the Church have given a charac- ter to the whole era. They were not, however, in every instance, general through the Roman empire. Persecutions indeed existed from the beginning, and there were not many periods of entire tran- quillity to the Church, during three hundred years. But those of a more marked chaj'acter, are included within the above expressed number. Their order is as follows : 1. The persecution under Nero occurred thirty-one years after our Lord's ascension. When the emperor set fire to the city of Rome, he threw the odium of that execrable action on the Christians, and made it the pretext of persecuting them. Accordingly, they were hunted like wild beasts, and torn to pieces by devouring dogs, and in innumerable other ways, were vexed, tortured, and put to death. 2. The persecution which Domitian instigated, took place in the year 95. It is computed that 40,000 persons suffered martyrdom at that time. 3. The persecution which existed in the reign of Trajan, began in the year 100, and was carried on with great violence for several years. 4. The persecution which was permitted by Antoninus, commen- ced in the year 177. Many indignities, deprivations and sufferings were inflicted on the Christians in this persecution. 5. The persecution under Severus, began in the year 197. Great cruelties were committed at this time against the patient followers of Christ. 6. The persecution which Maximinus ordered, began in 235. It was the more severe to the sufferers from the indulgence they had enjoyed under the reign of his predecessor, Alexander Severus. 7. The persecution under Deciiis, began in 250. It was the most dreadful hitherto known. The Christians were in all places driven from their habitations, stripped of their estates, tormented with racks, &c. 8. The date of the persecution under Valerian, is 257. Both men and women suffered death, some by scourging, some by the sword, and some by fire. 9. The persecution by Aurelian, was in 274. But this was incon- siderable compared with the others before mentioned. 10. The persecution in which Diocletian was concerned, com- ijienced in 295. This was a terrible persecution. It is related that 17,000 were slain in one montii's time. The enemies of Christianity had the presumption to think " that the name and superstition of the Christians" had been effaced from the empire. The period, however, was just at hand, (a salutary lesson to persecutors,) when this holy CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 39t faith was to rise on the ruins of all the former religions of the Ro- man people. During these persecutions, Christians multiplied, and Christianity became a principle of life and power to the hearts of its votaries. So long as their profession of religion was attended with danger — so long as they had the prospect of the dungeon, the rack, or the fag- got, their lives were pure and heavenly. The gospel was their only source of consolation, and they found it in every respect sufficient for all their wants. Affected with mutual sufferings, they sympa- thised most tenderly with each other, and their Lord's new command of brotherly love, was never fulfilled in a more exemplary manner. 3. The Church, at the commencement of the second era, was externally prosperous and flourishing. The storm oif pagan persecution had ceased, and Christianity was support- ed by the Roman government. Under Constantine the Great, that government (which had long included the Umits of the civihzed world) changed from a persecuting to a protecting power. But its love was more fatal to the real interests of the Church than its hate. Evils soon began to arise within, produced or aided by the aggrandizement it received without, which eventually reduced the Church to the lowest state of spiritual weakness and degradation. Worldly prosperity pro- duced pride, ambition, emulation, luxury, and many other vices equally opposed to the spirit of the gospel. The mix- ture of pagan philosophy and superstition exceedingly de- based the purity of religion, and the general ignorance which prevailed during the dark ages, rendered ineffectual its hea- venly truths. Among the more important particulars constituting this state of thin GTS, or affording proof of the disorders of the church and the consequent degeneracy of the people through this long period, may be named the Arian and Pelagian heiesies, the institution of monkery, image worsliip, the establishment of the papal supremacy, the passion for rehcs and pilgrimages, the separation between the eastern and western churches, the crusades, sale of absolution and indul- gences, the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses, the inquisition, the great western schism, the bulls and interdicts of the popes, and the contention of scholastic divines. § These and several others are interesting objects of attention in this portion of the church's history , but except so far as a few of them have been already treated of separately, recourse for informa- tion must be had to more extended accounts. 392 GENERAL VIEWS. 4. Towards the commencement of the third era, the re- ligious state of the world was deplorable. All Christendom was held in bondage to the papal power. Corruption, both in doctrine and practice, prevailed to an extent before un- known. The Reformation of religion, which is the distinc- tion of the present era, was therefore greatly needed ; and we have the satisfaction of exhibiting the christian church under the influence of so propitious a change. The greater part of this body adhered to the papacy, and perhaps still adheres to it ; but though the whole of Christendom did not participate in the reformation, the whole may have derived benefit from it indirectly. The reformed, which is also called the protes- tant* faith, spread rapidly at the beginning, and even now, from the increase of the population in nations embracing this faith, as well as from efforts made to diffuse it abroad, it is favourably extending its influence. The date of the great event of which we speak, is 1517, and the instrumental agent whom Providence employed in bringing it to pass, was Martin Luther. The immediate oc- casion of the reformation was the sale of indulgences, which had been authorized by Leo X., in order to furnish the means of gratifying his taste or extravagances. This traffic having been intrusted to the care of one John Tetzel, an insolent and dishonest wretch, attracted the notice of Martin Luther. His indignation was first excited by the base manner in which it was carried on ; but from noticing the mode, he was led to inquire into the thing itself, and his eyes were soon opened to the enormity of the principle which it involved, and the nefarious character of the whole system. From this period his opinions were openly and boldly expressed, on the various errors which he found prevailing in the Church, and many were convinced on the subject by his preaching and writings. Hence the memorable rupture and revolution which took place — the blessed effects of which have been more and more felt from that age to the present. § During his life time the benevolent labours of Luther were bless- ed in no small degree, and around him gathered a host of able and * So called from the protest which the elector of Saxony and other princes, entered against a decree of the diet at Spires, in 1529, by which every depar- ture from the Catholic faith and discipUne was forbidden, till a general council should be assembled. CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 393 g^dly men, who proved to be, in many instances, the most efficient coadjutors. Among these were Carolsladt, Melancthon, Zninghus, Bucer, Oecolampadius, Martyr, Calvin, and Beza. Several of the princes of Germany were his patrons, and afforded him the most essential aid, among whom especially were Frederick the Wise, and John his brother, electors of Saxony. The new opinions were not long confined to Germany. Tlirough the oppressive measm'es of the papacy, as much as by any other cause, they were diffused abroad among the neighbouring nations. Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland, participated in the reformar tion, and it found many friends in France, the Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, and Bohemia. In England, also, it was firmly establish- ed, though by an instrumentality at first very different from friend- ship to the cause. The passions and obstinacy of Henry VHL, as has elsewhere appeared, were, by the providence of God, concerned in effecting the religious revolution in that country. In Scotland the denunciations of Knox demolished the papal hierarchy. The opposition of the Catholic power to the reformation, pro- duced in Germany much bloodshed, desolation, and discord. These scenes continued till the year 1555, when a treaty was formed at Augsburg, called the Peace of Religion, which established the Re- formation, inasmuch as it secured to all the inhabitants of Germany the free exercise of their religion. The protestant princes of that country never at any time ceased their exertions, till this desirable result was brought to pass. 5. A few years after the establishment of the reformation, the countries of Europe which favoured it and became pro- testant, were Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, England^ Scotland,' Ireland, and Holland. One half of Germany, and a small majority in Switzerland, embraced the reformation. Tiie countries which adhered to Rome were Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Belgic Provinces under tlie Spanish yoke, France became decidedly papal, though at first the hope was entertained that she would favour the protestant cause. A goodly number, however, of the French population w^ere protestants. That portion of the professed Christian body which con- stituted the Eastern or Greek church, was not affected by the revolution in the West. Though religion in this church was then at a very low ebb, and the church had experienced many external calamities, corruption and error had not made so fatal a progress in the East, as among the Latins. Rus- sia and a part of European Turkey were the seat of the Greek religion. Many of its professors, however, were found in various countries of Asia and Africa. In 1589, the Rua- 394 GENERAL VIEWS. sian church separated from the government, though not from the communion, of the Greek church — a circumstance which has reduced the latter to an inconsiderable body. § As the Russian and Greek branches of the Christian church need not be referred to again, it may be added, that they have undergone but few changes in more modern times — perhaps some improvement is visible. Still they seem to be little acquainted with evangelical piety, are in general destitute of the Bible, and consequently involv- ed in ignorance. Their numbers are variously estimated. Hassel makes them seventy-four millions, which is the highest calculation. Members of the Greek church are at present found scattered over a considerable part of Greece, the Ionian isles, Wallachia, Moldavia, Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Lybia, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Cilicia, and Palestine. It must suffice for a rapid survey of the Roman and Protestant churches, from the time that their separation was consummated to the present era, to notice the following particulars. First^ the Roman cAwrcA.— Desperate efforts were made by the popes to regain their lost power, but on the whole with little effect. The means which they used, as enumerated in a recent interesting publication,* were principally these four. 1. The employment of the order of Jesuits, formed in the year 1540, by Ignatius Loyola, whose object was to go forth, as advocates of the papal power. 2. An attempt to christianize the heathen, in several parts of Asia and South America. 3. The better regulation of the internal con- cerns of their church. 4. The persecution of the protestants. In regard to the last, it may be observed, that scarcely a country, in which protestants were to be found, but was the scene of awful suf- ferings. Our blood boils with indignation at the thought, that cru- elties which would have disgraced Domitian, were inflicted by the minions of the papacy, under the sanction of the mild religion of the Saviour, upon his own followers. In these persecutions, fifty millions of protestants are computed to have perished, principally in Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, France, parts of Germany, and England. But all the efforts of the Roman church were in vain, except as by propagating her religion in heathen countries, she was for a time nominally mistress of greater numbers of mankind than before. Several causes have contributed to weaken, essentially, her power, wealth and splendour. These, as enumerated in the work above re- ferred to, are, 1. The loss of foreign conquests. 2. Unsuccessful contests with several European governments. 3. The suppression of the order of the Jesuits. 4. The revolution in France. 5. The abolition of the Inquisition. The statistics of the Roman church, as it exists at the present day, are as follows : The temporal dominions of the pope, are a small territory in ♦ Outlines of Ecclesiastical History, by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich. CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 395 Italy, south of the Po, containing 15,000 square miles, and 2,500,000 inhabitants. Its ecclesiastical subjects are supposed to amount to 80 or 100,000,000, in all parts of the world. Malte Brun put them down at 1 16,000,000. The countries where they most abound, are the pope's dominions m Italy, Spain, Portugal, and South America. These are considered entirely papal. France, Austria, Poland, Belgium, Ireland, and Ca- nada, are chiefly papal. Switzerland has 700,000 ; England half a million, and the United States about that number. Others are found in Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and the West Indies. The pope is at present making great efforts to extend his influence in the United States ; but it is believed either that the system cannot widely pre- vail here, or if from any temporary causes, it is destined to meet with some successes, that it will be in a degree modified by the ge- nius of our institutions, and not be the dark, intolerant, cruel, and licentious system that it has been in other countries. Second, the Protestants. — A diversity soon took place among those who se- parated from the fellowship of Rome, A general division of the protestants is into the Lutheran church, and the Reformed churches. 1. Lutheran Church. — The Lutherans, as the name imports, were the im- mediate foUow^ers of Luther, who consider their church as having been es- tabhshed at the time of the pacification at Passau, 1552. Their standard of foith IS the Augsburg confession. They suffered far less from the persecu- tions of the times than the other portions of the refonned church, though they were unhappily engaged in a controversy among themselves, relating to various points of faith and practice. These controversies were followed by a low state of religion ; and this by ef- forts which many of the better sort uiade to bring about a happier state of things Some good was done by the Pietists, (so this class of people were called,) but far less than mijrht have been, had not their views and principles been misconceived or opposed. The Pietists flourished al>out the middle of the seventeenth century, but they degenerated after a time, and were suc- ceeded by a set of wild religionists, who did much mischief to the cause of aod- hness. To counteract this evil, the system of the Neologists was introduced, which consisted in the application of human philosophy to the interpretation of the Bible. The remedy was as bad as the disease, and the Gospel, stripped ot Its peculiarities, has become a dead letter very extensively in Germany It IS believed, however, that a better spirit is now commencing in some parts of the Lutheran church, while it is a happiness to know that, in other parts of it, both in Germany and the neighbouring churches, there are those who have all along maintained their integrity. In regard to the statistics of the Lutheran church, it may be observed, that portions of it are found chiefly in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, in a great part of Germany, particularly in the north, and in Saxony and Prussia, vvhere Lutheranism is the established rdisrion. Churches of this denomination also ex- ist in Holland, France, Russia, North America, and in the Danish West In- dies. 1 he number of Lutherans is probably between fifteen and twenty millions. x5. Rejormed C/iurc^es— These are numerous, and little more than their names can be here mentioned. The term " Reformed" was a title oricrinally ^suraed by those Helvetic or Swiss churches, which adhered to certain^'tenets ot Zuinghus, in relation to the Sacrament. But in latter times it has a wider signification, and under it may be included all those sects in Protestant Chris- tendom, that dissent from the tenets of the Lutheran church. These are / 396 GENERAL VIEWS. principally the Calvinists, the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Moravians, the Congregationalists of New-England, the Pres- byterian Church in the United States, the Episcopal Church in the United States, the Baptists, Methodists, and Quakers. 1. Calvinists. — The Christians so called, taken loosely for those who ex- plain the Bible as Calvin explained it, constituted at first the whole body of the Protestants as distinguished from the Lutherans. Protestant Christendom even now owns this distinction on the continent of Europe. They were called Huguenots in France, and suffered terrible persecutions. They are not known as one particular denomination, but constitute a portion of several bodies of Christians. They exist in France, Holland, Prussia, Great Britain, and other countries in Europe, and extensively in the United States. The sect of Arminians is, as to sentiment, directly opposed to the Calvinists, though per- sons of both persuasions are often found together in the same churches. The Arminian doctrines began to be propagated at the beginning of the seventeenth century. 2. Church of England. — By this name is known the reformed church as established in England and Ireland. Its history is deeply interesting, as it passed a bloody orcYeal, but there is no space for particulars. The rise of pu- ritanism is connected with the history of the church of England, than which few events in the records of religion are more important ; but this also must be passed over. Dissenters from the church of England are tolerated in the United Kingdom. The establishment embraces 5,000,000 of the inhabitants : its livings are 10,.'300. The dissenters, or independents, in England and Wales, have more than 1000 congregations. 3. Presbyterian Church of Scotland. — The date of the establishment of the Reformation in Scotland, is, about the year 1560. At this time the Presby- terian church in that country began to assume a regular form. This church passed through various vicissitudes, and has in general been distinguished for the piety of its members. It includes nearly the whole population of Scotland. 4. Moravians. — The Moravians, or United Brethren, date their modern history in 1722. They are an exemplary people, and devoted to missionary enterprises. They have settlements in Germany, Denmark, Holland, Eng- land, Scotland, Ireland, Russia, and the United States. Their converts among the heathen, amount to 30,000. 5. Congregationalists ojf New-England. — Under this name are known the descendants of a class of the English puritans, who fled from persecution to the wilds of America. They began the settlement of New-England, on the 22d December, 1620. The sufferings, piety, and success of the fathers of Nevit- England Congregationalism, are rich topics in religious history. The Con- gregationalists have about 1000 churches in New-England, and about 200 in other parts of the United States. 6. Presbyterian Church in the United, States. — This body of Christians was originally composed of a few Presbyterians from Scotland and Ireland, united to a like number of Congregationalists, chiefly from New-England. They have greatly prospered and increased, and are found throughout the middle, southern and western states. The number of their churches is nearly 1900. Our limits preclude an account of other reformed churches, several of which are respectable for their character and riumbers. 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