'AL HISTORY i-'DlTORS ■ IN- CHIEF OMAN, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY J,. ROBHRT E. PEARr, U. S. NAVY RTO FT AT- GLOBE CORPORATION ^( ISOO )g , Class. Book. / v^ 5 « > Wd COElfRIGHT DEPOSIT. THE WORLD FLAT GLOBE AND INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD EDITORS-IN-CHIEF JOSEPH EDMUND WOODMAN, A.M., Sc.D. Professor of Geography and Geologj', New York University. Fellow, Geological Society of America, American Geo- graphical Society, New York Academy of Sciences; Mem- ber, Washington Academy of Sciences, National Geo- graphic Society. ROBERT EDWIN PEARY, LL.D. REAR ADMIRAL, U.S.N. (Retired) Discoverer of the North Pole. Gold medallist of many Amer- ican and foreign geographic societies. President, 8th International Geograi)hical Congress; President for tliree years, American Geographical Society. Chairman, Na- tional Aerial Coast Patrol Commission, U. S. A. ASSOCIATE EDITORS WILLIAM THOMAS BLAINE Journalist and Historian. Originator of tliis Twentieth Cen- tury System of World-wide and International Geography, comprised in The World Fi^\t-Globe and Inter.n.vtional Geographical Historv. FRANCIS TREVELYAN MILLER, Litt.D , LL.D. Founder and for four years Editor-in-Chief, Journal of American History. Author of numerous historical works. JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP, A.B. Secretary, Isthmian Canal Commission, 1905-1914. JACQUES WARDLAW REDWAY Geographer and Meteorologist. Fellow, Royal Geographical SvK'iety; Honorary Fellow, Universidad Nacional La Plata, Argentina. PUBLISHED BY THE WORLD FLAT-GLOBE CORPORATION 137 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY, U.S.A. ,•5 it, 1919y/BT COPYRIGHl WORLD FLAT-GLoW^RPORATION All rights reserved OCT |£^-J^I9 )CI.A536J304 ^V\i PUBLISHER'S STATEMENT The World Flat-Globe and International Geographical History (two parts) comprise together a new and wonderfully convenient twentieth-century system of world-wide and international review and reference. Each is necessary to the intelligent and satisfac- tory use of the other. They are complete, up-to-the-minute, con- cise and exhaustive and leave nothing to be desired in reviewing past history and following current events. They have been most carefully prepared and edited by the master minds of the geo- graphical world. The P^'lat-Globe pictures the entire earth's surface at a glance — all lands and waters, in proper size, proportion and relation, as maps, atlases and charts cannot do. The History explains and describes ail the forces and movements of Nature and man's activities and pursuits upon the earth from the earliest records to his wonderful and varied achievements of today; through the slow movements of his conquest of Nature, the annihilation of time and distance in intercommunication and transportation, and his progress in social and governmental life, as well as the pro- duction and distribution of products of the soil, mines and sea, and in the multitude of industries he has developed and organized and the national and international financial systems necessary to their successful prosecution. The following chapters tell the story of the ages in clear and simple form, more interesting and fascinating than any romance or novel. Man's thousands of years of continuous mental effort and physical labor, and the expenditure of untold wealth, have produced the conditions of human life of today. The reading of this story gives the ''wide horizon's broader view" and is an education in itself for every man, woman and child. The Flat-Globe and History are offered at a price so low as to be within the easy reach of everyone. Every place of learning, home, office and place of business can now have a beautiful large "World-Globe and complete International Geographical History. They are pronounced by the leading minds best qualified to judge, the greatest production of intelligence the world has ever seen at the price. World Flat-Globe Corporation. Ui LIST OF PLATES Typical Cloud Forms 43 Rainfall of the World 45 Climatic Belts of the World 55 Ocean Depths 59 Wind and Ocean Currents of the World 63 Distribution of Domestic Animals 67 Density of Population of the World 71 Panama Canal and Canal Zone 115 Gatun Locks Looking South 121 U. S. S. Ohio Passing Cucaraeha Slide 123 Rainfall in the United States 283 Navigable Rivers and Coastwise Steamship Lines . . . 285 Principal Railroads and Standard Time Belts .... 287 Arial Routes of the United States 289 CONTENTS Introduction Physical Geography 2 The Earth as a Whole 3 A Family of Worlds, 3. The lOarth in Space, '.i. Shape, Size and Density, 3. 'I'lie Earlli's I'arls, 4. How the lOailh (;iew, 5. Rotation and Its EITects, 6. The Kaitli's Revolution, 6. Cardinal Points, 7. Direction, 7. TiMrestrial Magnetism and Compass Direction, 7. Latitude, H. Longitude, !). Longitude and Time, 10. The International Dale Line. 11. Inclination of the ICarth's Axis, and Its Effects, 11. The Seasons and Agriculture, 12. Earth and Sky 13 Stars and Their Motions, 13. Comets, 14. Meteors, l.T. Phases of the Moon, 16. Eclipses, 17. The Lands 19 General Relief Features 19 Land and Water, 19. The Continents. 20. Surfaci' of the Continents, 20. Islands, 21. Agents of Change 22 Heat of the Interior — Rock Movement — Weathering, 22. Wind — Running Water, 23. Snow and Ice. 24. Water of Lakes and Seas, 25. Land Forms 26 Mountains, 26. Volcanoes, 29. Earthquakes. 31. riafeaus — Plains, 33. Valleys. 34. Divides — Lakes. S.'J. The "Glacial Accident." 37. The Life History of Land Forms, 37. The Atmosphere 39 2. Weather and Its Forecastlnc. r>.1. The " Pllmsoll Line" and Marine Insurance, 54. Climate, r,4. The Ocean 5g Ceneral Characteristics. .IS. The Ocean Floor — Temperature, 60. Tides. 61. Waves — Currents, 62. V VI CONTENTS Life of the Earth Life of the Earth, Air, and Water, G5. Distiibution of Animal Life 6G. Distribution of Vegetable Life, 68. The Ages of Men — 'I'be Uaces of Men, 68. Man's Conquest of Nature — The Era of Scientific Progress, 72. Industrial and Commercial, Geography Geographic Factors of Industries and Commerce liOcation, 74. Topography, 75. Climate, 76. Earth Resources, 77. Raw Materials and Their Industries . Mineral Resources and Industries, 78. Mining, Smelting, and Uetining, 80. Soils, 81. Irrigation and Agriculture — Agriculture and Land, 82. Foodstuffs, 83. Materials for Clothing and Shelter, 85. Manufacturing Industries 65 72 74 78 Power Development — Varieties of Manufacture, 88. Essentials and Luxuries — Paper, Kulibor. Leathei. and Clothing, 89. Machinery, Ship-l)uilding, and Metal Industries, 90. Chemical Industries — The Esthetic Industries, 91. Marketing the World's Goods .... Principles of Trade — Location of Industries, 93. Financial Machinery of Trade, 94. Geography and Advertising, 95. Transportation and Communication Highways — Automobiles, 96. Canals and Rivers, 98. Railways, 99. Navigation of the Air, 100. Urban and Interurban Transportation, 101. Communication of Intelligence .... Mail Systems, 102. The Telegraph and Cable — The Telephone, 103. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephone, 104. The World's Ocean Highway .... Development of Ocean Transportation, 104. " Freedom of the Seas," 105. Sailing Vessels, 106. Wooden. Steel, and Concrete Power Ships, 106. Submersible Shii)s, 106. Sources of Ships' I'ower, 107. Trade Routes degrees north of the equator. The Polar Circles are each 23% degrees from the nearest pole. The North Temperate Zone is situated between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer; the South Temperate Zone between the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn. 134 SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT-GLOBE 135 The North Polar Zone lies within the Arctic Circle, and the South Polar Zone is within the Antarctic Circle. Dotted black lines illustrate the limits of ordinary navigation toward the poles, the limits of the heavy drift ice, and the ooral reefs and islands. The zones of the planetary winds are indicated on the margin, and the direction of ocean currents are distinctly charted. Standard Time. — Differences of time may be converted readily into differences of longitude, and vice versa. When it is noon on the prime meridian, for example, it is earlier for places to the west of Greenwich by one hour for every 15 degrees of west longitude; it is later in all places east of Greenwich. Thus, the surface of the earth may be divided into spaces by meridians fifteen degrees apart, beginning with Greenwich. These meridians are hour-circles. The first three hour-circles west of Greenwich are in the Atlantic Ocean; the fourth, the meridian of 60°, passes through Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; the fifth, the 75th meridian, is near Philadelphia ; the sixth, or 90th meridian, is near St. Louis; the seventh, or 105th meridian, is near Denver; and the eighth, or 120th meridian, is the western boundary of Nevada. From these standard meridians, standard railway time in North America is now taken, each company adopting the time of the hour-circle nearest the greater portion of its road. The names applied to these standards are Maritime or Atlantic, on the 60th meridian; Eastern, on the 75th meridian; Central, on the 90th meridian; Mountain, on the 105th meridian; Pacific, on the 120th meridian. For the convenience of railway time tables, standard time does not change at the exact meridian; the change is made usually at the end of a division where train crews are changed. It often happens that the business and domestic time of a city varies from standard, being kept more nearly to solar or true time. In order to conserve daylight it is generally customary in Europe, and of late in America, to set the time one hour ahead at 2 : 00 A.M. about the last Sunday in March or the first Sunday in April. This is known as ''summer time." Normal time is restored in October. All places within the same time belt have nominally the same time. On the meridian of 75° west near Philadelphia, for exam- 136 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD pie, it is noon at the same instant from the north to the south pole. Time Around the World. — At the equator on the Flat-Globe are shown twenty-four clock faces, one for every hour of the day. When it is twelve o'clock, noon, at Greenwich, longitude 0°, at fifteen degrees east of that point it is one o'clock P.M., and at fifteen degrees west it is eleven o'clock A.M.; and for every addi- tional fifteen degrees east or west of Greenwich, to the 180th meridian or International Date Line, where it is midnight, there is a difference of one hour in time. East of Greenwich it is P.M., west of Greenwdch it is A.M. For example: to find the time of day at any point, say, from St. Louis, Missouri. If it is twelve o'clock, noon, at St. Louis, it is later to the east, and earlier to the west. One may readily reckon the time from any point by noting the longitude of the given place, and following the dials therefrom, allowing one hour for each fifteen degrees. To Find the Latitudes and Longitudes of Places. — To find the latitude of any place, find the parallel nearest to the place, and follow it to the right or left margin of the map, maintaining the approximate distance above or below the line, as the Flat-Globe shows a line at every ten degrees; if north of the equator it is in north latitude, and if south of the equator it is in south lati- tude. To find the longitude of any place, start from the equator on a meridian nearest to that point and approximate the degrees in longitude from the figures that show at a distance of five degrees on the equator; bearing in mind that the places to the right or east of the meridian of Greenwich to 180 degrees are in east longi- tude, and those to the left of Greenwich to 180 degrees are in west longitude. Approximate Ocean Distances. — A nautical mile is approxi- mately 6,086 feet; a statute or English land mile is 5,280 feet; a nautical mile is therefore equal to about 1.15 statute miles. A knot is a rate of speed of one nautical mile per hour. Actually it is the distance between any two knots in the log line that is used in finding the speed of a vessel. On a clear day two steamers approaching each other on parallel lines at 20 knots speed will meet at the end of fifteen minutes after their hulls first become visible to the naked eye, and at the end of another fifteen minutes will have passed out of sight astern. SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT-GLOBE 137 CUSTOMS DISTRICTS AND PORTS OF ENTRY OF THE UNITED STATES Number of District Chief Port Ports in District Alaska Juneau 12 Arizona Nogales 4 Buffalo Buffalo 5 Chicago Chicago 3 Colorado Denver 1 Connecticut Bridgeport 9 Dakota Pembina 14 Duluth and Superior Duluth-Superior 7 El Paso El Paso 4 Florida Tampa 12 Galveston Galveston 4 Georgia Savannah 4 Hawaii Honolulu 5 Indiania Indianapolis 2 Iowa Des Moines 3 Kentucky Louisville 2 Maine and New Hampshire Portland 26 Maryland Baltimore 5 Massachusetts Boston 12 Michigan Detroit 21 Mobile Mobile 4 Montana and Idaho Great Falls 5 New Orleans New Orleans 2 New York New York City 6 North Carolina Wilmington 6 Ohio Cleveland 12 Omaha Omaha 2 Oregon Portland 4 Philadelphia Philadelphia 6 Pittsburgh Pittsburgh 2 Porto Rico San Juan 9 Rhode Island Providence 2 Rochester Rochester 6 Sabine Port Arthur 2 San Antonio San Antonio 9 San Francisco San Francisco 3 Southern California Los Angeles 5 South Carolina Charleston 3 St. Lawrence Ogdensburg 15 St. Louis St. Louis 3 Tennessee Memphis 4 Utah and Nevada Salt Lake City Vermont St. Albans 1 Virginia Norfolk and Newport News 6 Washington Seattle 20 Wisconsin Milwaukee 9 138 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD New York (Sandy Hook) to Naut. mi. Alexandria 4,988 Algiers 3,564 Amsterdam 3,335 Antwerp 3,208 Azores 2,250 Bermuda fiiH IJrumin 3,484 Cherbourg 3,027 Christiania 3,425 Copenhagen 3,800 Dover 3,160 Fastnet 2,800 Genoa 4,060 Gibraltar 3,200 Glasgow 2,950 New York (Sandy Hook) to Naut. mi. Hamburg 3,510 Havre 3,094 Liverpool 3,032 Lizard 2,934 London 3,222 Marseilles 3,900 Milford Haven 2,875 Naples 4,140 Newfoundland, Banks of 960 Plymouth 2,946 Prawle Point 2,959 Queenstown, Roche Point 2,772 Rotterdam 3,290 Scilly, Bishop Rock 2,886 Southampton 3,1 00 DISTANCES AND MAIL TIME FROM NEW YORK CITY By Postal Route To— Miles Adelaide, via San Francisco Alexandria, via London Amsterdam, " " Antwerp, " " Athens, " " Bangkok, Siam, via San Francisco Batavia, Java, via London Berlin, via London Bombay, " " Bremen, " " Calcutta, via London Cape Town, via London Constantinople, via London Florence, via London Glasgow Hamburg, via London Hong Kong, via San Francisco .... Honolulu, " " " Liverpool London Madrid, via London Melbourne, via San Francisco Paris Rome, via London Rotterdam, via London. . .- Petrograd, via London Shanghai, via San Francisco Stockholm, via London Sydney, via San Francisco Vienna, via London Yokohama, via San Francisco 12,845 34 6,150 14 3,985 9 3,208 9 5,655 14 12,990 43 12,800 35 4,385 9 9,765 26 4,235 9 11,120 29 1 1 ,245 27 5,810 13 4,800 10 3,375 9 4, .340 9 10,.590 30 5.645 13 3. .'540 8 3.740 8 4,925 10 12,265 32 4,020 8 5,030 10 3,935 9 5,370 11 9,920 10 4,975 31 11,570 9 4,740 22 7,348 31 Davs SOME FEATURES OF THE FLAT-GLOBE 139 * Naut. mi. New York to Sandy Hook 18 Sandy Hook to Sandy Hook Lightship 8 Sandy Hook J^ightship to Fire Island 30 Fire Island to Shinnecock 35 Shinnecock to Nantucket Lightship 122 Baltimore to Hamburg (Cuxhaven) 3,813 Baltimore to Southampton 3,405 Baltimore to Queenstovvn (Roche Point) 3,118 Philadelphia to Hamburg (Cuxhaven ) 3,r)33 Philadelphia to Southampton 3,223 Philadelphia to Queenstown ( Roche Point) 2,950 Boston to Hamburg ( Cuxhaven ) 3,27S Boston to Southampton 2,868 Boston to Queenstovvn (Roche Point) 2,581 Index to Map Coloring. — The physical features are shown on the Flat-Globe by the most modern system of color-printing. Political boundaries are clearly but inconspicuously marked by purple lines. The elevation of the land is shown by colors and shades, as follows: — 1. Land below sea-level, purple. 2. From sea-level to 1,000 feet, green. 3. From 1,000 to 2,000 feet, yellow. 4. From 2,000 to 5,000 feet, buff. 5. In the Western Hemisphere, land above 5,000 feet, deeper buff. 6. In the Eastern Hemisphere, land from 5,000 to 15,000 feet, buff like No. 5 above. 7. In the Eastern Hemisphere, land above 15,000 feet, a deep reddish buff. EDITORIAL NOTE This Globe and History have been carefully designed to meet the needs of all places of learning, private homes and business and professional offices. Very slight alterations of boundaries and of the status of countries may follow the final deliberations of the Peace Conference ; but both the Globe and the text of the His- tory have been brought up-to-the-minute, and such changes as may be slowly brought about within the next year or two will be incon- siderable. These little changes have been forecast in the descrip- tions of the various countries and regions under ''National and Political Geography." NATIONAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY Political Divisions of the World Sovereign Nations and Independent States. — In each continent are a few independent countries; most in Europe and least in Africa. Few of the islands are independent; most of them are dependencies of one or another nation, the British Empire hold- ing more than all the rest of the nations together. The total area of the land surfaces of the globe is 52,000,000 square miles; of this, 24,940,000 square miles or 48 per cent, is free, and the remainder tributary. Following is a list of sovereign states and independent coun- tries at the present time : NORTH AMERICA Costa Rica Nicaragua Cuba Panama Guatemala Salvador Haiti Santo Domingo Honduras United States of America Mexico Total 11 140 DESCKIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 141 SOUTH AMERICA Argentina Ecuador Bolivia Paraguay Brazil Peru Chile Uruguay Colombia Venezuela Total 10 EUROPE Albania Liechtenstein Andorra Lithuania Austria Luxemburg Belgium Monaco Bulgaria Netherlands, The Czechoslovakia Norway Constantinople, State of Poland Denmark Portugal Esthonia Rome, See and Church of Finland Rumania France Russia Germany San Marino Greece Spain Hungary Sweden Iceland Switzerland Italy United Kingdom of Great Jugo-Slavia Britain and Ireland Latvia Total 34 ASIA Afghanistan Nepal Bhutan Oman China Persia Hedjaz Siam Japan Turkey Total 10 AFRICA Abyssinia Liberia Total 2 Total sovereign nations and independent states, 67 Colonies and Other Dependencies. — Most large nations, espe- cially those of Europe, have acquired colonial possessions in order to secure space for surplus population, sources for raw material, and new outlets for their trade in manufactures. In some cases these possessions are so administered as to build them up, in others they are gouged and their native inhabitants mistreated and repressed. Most of the trade of dependencies is with the parent country, and this tendency is often strengthened by mu- tually preferential tariffs. A conspicuous example of a new, unde- veloped region parceled out among the stronger nations is 142 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Africa; of which, out of a total area of 11,498,000 square miles, less than 600,000 are free. In the following descriptions, the larger and better known dependencies are treated under their own names; the remainder, cited alphabetically, are referred to the parent country for description. The whole is thus a self-indexed gazetteer and ency- clopedia. Ahgarris Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Abyssinia (Ethiopia). — A native empire in East Africa. Latitude 15°-3° north, longitude 32°-47° east; area, about 350,000 square miles ; population, estimated between 3,500,000 and 5,000,000, no official census. Except that Abyssinia in early times was intimately connected with Egypt, there are no. records of its ancient history. The natives claim to be descended from Solomon, king of Israel. Queen Sheba of Biblical fame was reported to be a queen of Abyssinia. A treaty between Menelek II and Great Britain, France, and Italy guarantees the integrity of the nation and provides for the building of railways. The men are, all things considered, the finest and most independent in the Nile watershed. A rugged plateau mostly, 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. In the center of the country is a great depression, occupied by Lake Tsana, the principal source of the Blue Nile. The chief products are coffee, wild indigo, cotton, sugar-cane, and dates. A fine variety of mocha coffee is grown for export. A native coffee plant is cultivated for domestic use. The country has many valuable forest trees. The capital is Adis Ababa. Other towns — Harrar, 40,000 ; Ankober, Axum, Gondar. No towns except Harrar have a permanent population above 6,000, but great market cele- brations swell the numbers at times. The country is almost exclusively agricultural, but tillage is very inadequate. The higher plateaus are adapted for European cereals. The western lowlands are hot and unhealthful. Indus- tries are very little developed. Mules and donkeys chiefly are used for transportation. The French railroad from Jibuti to Harrar and Adis Ababa is completed. Religion, Christian (Coptic). The exports are coffee, dates, ivory, gums, skins; imports, cotton goods, firearms , sugar, and coal oil. Exports (1913) about $3,750,000; imports about $1,000,000, chiefly from England, France, India, Italy and United States. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 143 Aden: — see British Possessions ; Asia, p. 165. Adrar: — see Rio del Oro and Adrar, p. 259. Admiralty Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Afghanistan. — A despotic monarchy in south-central Asia. Latitude about 38°-29° north, longitude 61°-75° east; area, about 245,000 square miles ; population, 6,000,000 ; capital, Kabul, popu- hition, 180,000; other cities— Kandahar, 40,000; Herat, 20,000. Its early history is obscure. For centuries it was a shuttlecock between Persia and India. In 1839 a British army of 16,000 was massacred in Khaibar Pass. It is now nominally independent, but practically a British protectorate. It is situated between Persia and India, and is of the greatest importance to Great Britain from the fact that Khaibar Pass, the chief overland route to India, is within its territory. It is one of the most barren coun- tries in the world. Sand, bare rocks, sterile hills, and vast snow-capped mountains are the main features of this stern, inhos- pitable country. In summer it is hot everywhere except at high altitudes. The daily temperature range is great. The tempera- ture depends upon the elevation and not upon the latitude. Stony, treeless slopes, parched soil, and whirling sand storms increase the heat and dryness of the scorching air. Winter brings frost, snow and blustering storms. One moment a traveler may be in the sun's glare and the next he is pierced by the icy wind. The products are wheat, barley, rice, millet and Indian com. Fruits, such as figs, pomegranates and almonds, are produced in large quantities. The Bactrian camel, fat-tailed sheep and goats are reared. Agriculture is maintained at a high standard, and irrigation is almost as perfect as in China. The manufactures are mainly felts and carpets of wool and hair, silk and firearms. The Afghans are a Semitic people resembling the Persians and the Muhammadans of India, with whom they apparently are related. They are unfriendly to foreigners. Religion, Muham- madan. Foreign commerce is inconsiderable. Carpet rugs are exported to the United States; lumber, fruits, grain, and asafoetida are sent to India, with which country most of the for- eign commerce is carried on, the products passing from Kabul by the Gomal route. Exports into India (1916-17), about $5,750,000; imports (1916-17), about $5,720,000. Africa. — A continent comprising the largest of the three main 144 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD southward projections of the continental shields. Extends from 37° 21' north, to 34° 15' 35" south in latitude, and in longitude from 17° 33' 22" west to 51° 27' 52" east. Area, exclusive of islands, 11,262,000 square miles; its islands add 236,000 square miles. It is especially characterized by the regularity and short- ness of coast-line, and by the small amount of low coastal land, resulting in relative inaccessibility of much of the interior. Scarcity of good harbors and the difficulty of transportation to the interior imposed by topography and climate, have been impor- tant factors in retarding its economic development. While parts have been known since very ancient times, and whole civilizations have risen and fallen there, most of its surface has been unknown to white men until within a century, and much is still unexplored in detail. Of a very considerable part only the most meagre maps are available. Its native races are largely Berbers, Hamites, and Semites in the north and Negroes and Negroids in the remainder of the continent. These are all relatively low in civilization, as compared with advanced nations, and the larger part of the people are still in a state of savagery or semi-savagery. The development of much of the country has been advanced within the last half-century by Europeans, often through unfair and cruel exploitation. The English, however, have notably aided the natives of parts under their control, so that their productive- ness has increased and their scale of living advanced. With its climatic range — from humid tropical to temperate, with its vast wealth of mineral and vegetable resources, and with the agricul- tural possibilities of the more favored parts, Africa holds unlim- ited opportunities for development. Parts probably will never be reclaimed, as the great deserts on the one hand and much of the tropical jungle on the other; but with these deducted there is yet a vast area that can be made in future to minister to man far more than in the past. Alaska. — A territory of the United States formerly known as Russian America. Latitude 72°-52° north, longitude 130° west- 172° east; area, 590,884 square miles; population (1915) estimated, 66,000; capital, Juneau; other cities — Fairbanks, Nome, Copper City, Valdez, and Seward. This territory, including the Aleutian Islands, came into the possession of the United States by purchase from Russia in 1867, DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 145 at a cost of $7,200,000 in gold. Congress created Alaska a civil and territorial government May 17, 1884. At the time of its pur- chase from Russia it was called "Seward's folly." In its resources in fur-bearing animals, gold, copper, coal, petroleum, salmon fisheries, and timber, Alaska is one of the foremost regions in the world. The salmon fisheries alone yield an income of more than $15,000,000. The mineral output (1916) is about $50,000,000. The seal fisheries at the Pribiloff Islands are closed. It has vast lumber districts in its southern parts. Cedar is abundant. Its coast line is over 18,000 miles, or more than that of all the United States proper. There are 61 volcanoes, 10 of which are active. Katmai, with its ''valley of ten thousand smokes," is the most famous. Alaska is one of the great glacial regions of the world. There are numerous hot mineral and boiling springs. Medicinal springs abound. Its great river, the Yukon, is navigable for upwards of 1,000 miles. The gold placer deposits of the Tanana, Copper and Koyukuk Rivers and Porcupine Creek are conspicuous for their yield. Cop- per is mined in the Copper River, upper Tanana, and other dis- tricts, and is the chief metal in value (1916, $29,500,000). The gold product (1916) is not far from $17,000,000. Coal is mined along the Yukon, and valuable deposits on Controller Bay await exploita- tion. Petroleum occurs at Controller Bay and at Cook's Inlet. The petroleum lands have been withdrawn from exploitation by the government. Tin is mined at Seward Peninsula. The yearly product (1916) is valued at $121,000. The coal fields are likely to prove the most valuable mineral asset. The most available fields are not far from Prince William Sound. They are reached by railways now nearing completion. In a few districts much hay and a good variety of field crops can be raised. Reindeer for draft and meat purposes are multiplying. A railway from Skagway to the head of navigation of Yukon River is in operation. Lines from Cordova to Copper City, and from Seward to Fairbanks are nearing completion. A cable from Seattle connects the most important coast towns with the United States, and a system of internal telegraphs is in operation. Albania. — Albania was originally carved out parts of western Turkey, and has been an independent state since 1912. The ruling prince left upon the outbreak of the World War, and the country 146 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD has been without a responsible head, having been speedily over- run by x\ustrian troops. The Peace Conference proposes to erect the country into a permanent state. The inhabitants are largely a distinct race, separate from the Montenegrins, Serbs and Greeks who are adjacent to them. The boundaries are likely to be approximately those of 1914, except for a slight extension to the northeast and north, and the deduction of the Greek population at the south. As thus constituted, it lies between 42 °40'-40 ° 40' north, and 19° 10-21° 5' east. Its area in 1914 was about 11,000 square miles, its new area may be 9,500 to 10,000 square miles; population (1914), between 800,000 and 800,500. Large numbers were lost during the war. Principal towns, Durazzo, former pro- visional capital; Scutari, 32,000 (1914); Elbasan, 13,000; Tirana, 12,000. The country suffered much under Turkish rule, and had no time to recover thereafter. The inhabitants are of a fine type, capable of great progress. Most of the territory is quite unde- veloped, and transportation facilities must be provided before it can yield to modern economic influences. Aleutian Islands: — see United States of America, p. 278. Alfi Island: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. Algeria. — The most important colony of France; situated on the Mediterranean coast of Africa. Latitude 37°-32° north, longi- tude 2° west-8° east; area, 174,474 square miles, exclusive of the Sahara dependency to the south (750,000 square miles); the main economic portion occupies 343,500 square miles; popula- tion (1916), estimated, 5,230,000, no official census; capital, Al- giers, 172,000; other cities— Oran, 123,000; Constantine, 65,000; Bone, 42,000 — all estimated. Algeria is a part of the north coast known, with Morocco and Tunisia, as Africa Minor. The Romans built the trading-post known as Csesarea at the site of Algiers. The state was formed at the time of the Turkish conquest, in the sixteenth century. It became a French colony about 1830. The climate resembles that of southern Italy. The coast is divided into several long strips by the parallel chains of the Great and Little Atlas — the coast plain, partly cultivable ; the Tell, the chief agricultural and stock-farming region; the great plateau with interior drainage and salt lakes; and the Algerian Sahara, with fertile oases. The chief crops are grain, wine, oil, tobacco, dates and southern fruits. Large quantities of vegetables are DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 147 raised for the markets of France. Cork and esparto grass for paper making are exported. The fisheries are extensive. Horses, camels and sheep are of superior quality. The country is rich in phosphates, and yields iron, copper, lead and salt. The Arab natives make carpets and other distinctive wares. The French have few manufactures. Wagon roads are good, and nearly three times the length of the railroads, of which over 2,000 miles have been Imilt. The population consists mainly of Berbers, or natives, French, Italians, and Jews. The prevailing religions are Muham- madan. Christian, and Jewish. The foreign trade is carried on almost wholly with France, to which it sends foodstuffs, and from which it receives manufactures. Exports (1916), $106,775,000; imports, $106,000,000. American Samoa: — see United States, Outlying Territories, p. 285. American Virgin Islands: — see United States, Outlying Terri- tories, p. 285. Amsterdam Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Anatolia: — see Turkey, p. 274. Anchorite Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Andaman Islands: — see India, p. 219. Andorra. — An autonomous and semi-independent state in the Pyrenees. Latitude 42° 30' north, longitude 1°30' east; area, 191 square miles; population (1916), 5,231. It is nominally under the sovereignty of France and the Bishop of Urgel, Spain; prac- tically it is independent. It is so small that a cannon shot fired from any part will lodge in foreign territory. A prefect has charge of French interests. The inhabitants continue to govern themselves in accordance with old feudal customs. The land belongs to a few families. Cat- tle breeding and a little iron and woolen manufacturing are the chief industries. The village of Andorra is the capital, but San Julia de Loria is a more important place. The Spanish language chiefly is spoken. Foreign commerce is negligible. Angola: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: — see Egypt, p. 191. Annam: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. Annobon Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. Antarctica. — A name commonly given to the land and ice areas 148 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD of the South Polar region. The territory presents two contrasts with the North Polar region. The antarctic ice extends into much lower latitudes than the arctic; so that, while there are habitable lands far within the Arctic Circle, there is none in the Antarctic, and the pack ice lies often considerably outside the circle. The second point of contrast is that in the arctic there is no continental area, but deep sea covered with ice, as Peary and others have shown; while the antarctic area, rising to heights of 11,000 feet and more at and near the pole, with mountain peaks protrud- ing here and there through the glacial ice, is almost certainly a continent, partially submerged, so that it is fringed with a host of islands. These islands and peninsulas, although bearing names indicat- ing the country of their discoverers, are barren and uninhabited, and are not under the political jurisdiction of any nation. The discovery of the South Pole succeeded that of the North Pole but a few months. The former was reached by Peary on April 6, 1909 ; the latter by Amundsen on December 16, 1911, and by Scott on January 17, 1912. Antigua: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Antipodes Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. Apia: — see German Samoa, p. 206. Apolima: — see German Samoa, p. 206. Arabia. — A peninsula, formerly a part of the Turkish Empire, comprising a number of separate states, of which Hejaz and Oman are the largest; Yemen will probably become a part of Hejaz. The great central area, Nejed, is desert. Latitude 34°30'-12°45' north, longitude 32° 30-60° east; area, approxi- mately, 1,200,000 square miles; population, estimated, 8,500,000; capital, Mecca (1916), 80,000; other cities— Basra 80,000; Medina, 40,000; no official census. Arabia is the home of Semitic peo- ples, and from this area as a center they migrated to the four quarters of the earth. During the World War the various petty states declared themselves independent of Turkey, and cer- tain of them organized the independent state of Hejaz. Their tribesmen were of the utmost service to the English forces, espe- cially in Palestine. The Arabian peninsula is surrounded on three sides by seas. It is an extensive desert area, interspersed with fertile lands along DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 149 the coasts and oases in the interior, where millet, cotton, coffee, indigo, barley, sugar, dates, tobacco and aromatic plants are raised. Some of the inhabitants dwell in towns and till the soil. For the greater part they are Bedouins, or wandering tribes, whose wealth consists of horses, camels, asses and mules, for which the country is noted. In all this vast country there is scarcely a stream deserving the title of river. Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, derives its support from the thousands of pilgrims who travel thither from every part of the Mohammedan world. A pilgrimage to Mecca is the duty of every faithful Mussulman. Many also visit Medina, his burial-place. It is on the slopes of Yemen, on the southwest coast, that the famous Mocha coffee is raised ; but owing to primitive methods, the production has become very small. It is exported from Hodeda, a small port on the Eed Sea. Only in the mountainous southwest has a fixed population established itself. The Semitic peoples of Arabia are divided into many tribes. Religion, Mohammedan. Foreign trade small. A railroad from Damascus to Mecca is completed to Medina. The Arabian peninsula is important to the rest of the world from the fact that it lies between two great trade routes — the Suez Canal, and the Bagdad route by way of the Tigris-Euphrates and Shat el Arab to India. This route, formerly held by the Germans, is now occupied by the British. Argentina (Argentine Republic). — South America. Latitude 22°-55° south, longitude 73° 17-53° 40' west; area, 1,153,119 square miles; population (1915), 7,979,259; capital, Buenos Aires; population (1916), estimated, 1,598,600; other cities — Rosario (1915), 234,000; La Plata, 119,000; Tucuman, 66,000; Bahia Blanca, 75,000 ; Mendoza, 62,000. The region including Argentine Republic, commonly called Argentina, was discovered by Juan Solis in 1516. It was a Spanish possession up to 1816, when inde- pendence was declared. The present organization dates from 1853. Argentina is the richest and most prosperous South American State. Climate chiefly temperate. A few years ago only a cattle- raising country, it has become the foremost agricultural state of South America. Most of the surface consists of prairie lands called pampas. It is the foremost wheat producing state of South America and one of the leading wheat-export regions of the world. The eastern part, together with the region between the Parana and 150 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Uruguay rivers, are important farming lands. Maize and linseed are very large crops. Animal raising, chiefly cattle and sheep, is very extensive. The mineral resources near the Andes Mountains are still almost undeveloped. Manufacturing is small, but grow- ing. The Parana, Paraguay and Uruguay Rivers are splendid highways of trade. Railroads, in all nearly 22,000 miles, penetrate the grain-growing plains. In the province of Buenos Aires these form a close network. The Transandine Railway connects Buenos Aires with Valparaiso, Chile. Races — Spanish-American, Italian, German, and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. The foreign trade consists mainly of grain, frozen meats and livestock sold in European markets ; and the import of manufactured articles from Europe and the United States. Exports (1917), $688,212,560; imports, $475,080,394. Exports to United States (1916), $113,488,- 657; imports from United States, $63,522,365. Armenia. — A somewhat ill-defined region along the southern shore of the Black Sea, east of Anatolia (Asia Minor) and extend- ing slightly into Russian Trans-Caucasia and into Persia. It originally formed part of the Armenian Kingdom. North of it lies the territory that declared its independence of Russia in 1918 as the Republic of Georgia. Roughly, it stretches from 41° 30' to 37°30' north, and from 37° to 48° east; area, about 162,000 square miles; population, estimated, at 7,800,000. Important towns are Erzerum, 80,000; Trebizond, 55,000; Bitlis, 40,000; Shusha, 43,000. It is likely to be recognized as a separate state, either of sovereign power or a mandatory under one of the Allied and Associated Powers. Topographically the region is a much dissected plateau, with some mountains, partly volcanic. Mount Ararat is one of the latter. This topography has had the effect of producing in the people a lack of cohesion. Important salt and fresh water lakes are found in the depressions. The plateau surface is forbidding, but the valleys are often wide and of fine agricultural character. Some of the mountain gorges are unsur- passed for scenery, and water-power is abundant. The mineral wealth of the country is very great, but little developed. The crops vary from hardy cereals and fruits on the higher land to rice in the lowlands. Vineyards flourish. Opportunity for stock- raising is very great. The country will respond splendidly to stimulation on the part of a high-minded nation ; but the policy of DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 151 oppression and extermination pursued by the Turks has greatly- depressed and impoverished the people, and has all but obliterated them. Ascension Island: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. AsJianti: — see British West Africa, p. 173. Asia. — The most extensive of the continental areas, and form- ing by far the larger portion of the vast Eur-Asian shield. It extends from 77° 40' north, latitude to 1°1G' north, and in longi- tude from 26° 3' east, to 169° 40' west. Its area, including islands, is estimated at 17,057,666 square miles. Its boundary with Europe is political rather than geographical, extending from the Arctic Ocean along or east of the Ural Mountains to the Caspian Sea, and through the Caucasus Mountains on the south. In this respect it differs from the other continents. The topography of so great a continent must of necessity be most diverse, and the climate equally so. As a result many parts are relatively inaccessible, and large areas are desert. While the former may yield to improved transportation, most of the latter will never be redeemed. Certain portions of the continent, how- ever, are of great importance to western peoples — notably India, Japan, and Siberia. The second of these is the only region that has, as a whole, adopted western methods and been developed in such ways and to such extent as to be comparable to western nations of high grade. The economic possibilities of all parts of the continent except the great deserts are enormous; and the western world has scarcely begun to realize how vast are Asia's resources of raw materials, or what markets can be developed for our manufactured goods. Asir. — Formerly a district of Turkey, lying between Hejaz and Yemen, on the west coast of Arabia. Latitude 21°-17°30' north, longitude 40°30'-45° east. Its indefinite eastern boundary extends along the desert border of Nejed. Its lowlands are hot and sterile; its interior is mountainous, with temperate climate and regular rainfall, and is fertile and populous. The people are warlike mountaineers, who have been virtually independent of Turkey, succeeding better than either Hejaz or Yemen. At pres- ent there seems no likelihood of their incorporation into either of these two countries. The people live for themselves, trading little with the rest of the world. 152 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD AucMand Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. Australasia. — Practically the same as Oceania. It properly includes all the islands, large and small, extending from south- eastern Asia half-way across the Pacific Ocean. Its most impor- tant divisions are: — Malaysia, including the Philippines; Aus- tralia, Tasmania and New Zealand; Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. All the islands and island groups are possessed by some foreign nation, and are described in the text for the most part under the possessions of that nation. With a few exceptions the islands are under British control. Australia, Commonwealth of. — A self-governing commonwealth or Dominion of Gi"eat Britain. Latitude ll°-39° south, longitude 113°-153° east; area, 2,974,581; population (1917), estimated, 4,895,894; temporary capital, Melbourne, 695,640; other cities — Sydney, 764,600; Brisbane, 168,393; Adelaide, 223,718. Aus- tralia and Tasmania originally were convict colonies of Great Britain. Among its early explorers Avere Tasman, 1642, and Dampier, 1688. Its chief explorer was Captain Cook, 1769. The penal settlements were abolished early in the nineteenth century. The commonwealth as now organized was established 1901. The states are New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, West- ern Australia, Victoria, Tasmania. The division known as North- em Territory, a part of South Australia, is practically unorgan- ized. The Federal Territory, Yassa-Canberra, in New South Wales, not yet fully organized, has been made the site of the fed- eral capital. Australia is a typical continental land mass, compact in out- line and with few bays on its coasts, with a high border and low interior, and with the highest mountains on the side of the greater ocean. The Murray, the only large river, is navigable a part of the year only. The eastern highlands receive enough rain for the pro- duction of grass and other foodstuffs. The west coast receives enough rain for wheat, fruit, and grass. Most of the interior is a desert region that is practically uninhabited except by gold miners. Fruit and vegetables, grown in Australian summer, reach British markets in European mid-winter. Fruits, including the vine, are successfully cultivated in many places. Frequent droughts impair the value of agriculture. Australia produces about half the wool the world consumes, practically all of which goes to Great Britain. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 153 The yield of gold is very large, and coal and other minerals are extracted in large quantities. Railways total nearly 21,000 miles in length. The distance of Australia from European markets is a disadvantage to its commerce. The fact that its summer season occurs during the European winter makes its food products more valuable than they would otherwise be. Many steamship routes connect the chief Australian ports with the great trade centers of the world. Races, British and aboriginal. Three-fourths of the population are Protestant. Exports (1916-17), $490,000,000; imports (1916-17), $381,000,000. Australia, Mandatories of. — In general, the Peace Conference awarded to Australia those lands nearest it and most directly af- fecting its future. These are three — the ex-German part of the island of New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon Islands. Kaiser Wilhelm's Land (Island of New Guinea) occupies the northern and eastern part of the island. Latitude 2° 30-8° south, longitude 141°-148° east; area, including attached islands, 70,000 square miles; population, variously estimated at 110,000-350,000. Became a German protectorate in 1884. Principal town, Madang, formerly called Friedrich Wilhelm's Haven. Harbors are few; the coastal lowlands are 60 to 100 miles wide, behind which high mountains rise. Cocoanuts are raised, and all tropical fruits grow wild. Mineral resources great, but totally undeveloped. Trade negligible. Bismarck Archipelago is a large group of islands to the north and northeast of New Guinea. Latitude 0°-8° south, longitude 141°-154° east; area, estimated, 20,000 square miles; population, estimated, 180,000. A German protectorate was declared in 1884- 85 over several groups of islands, which were renamed the Bis- marck Archipelago. The former German names of many of the islands have been lately replaced by English names. Chief islands, New Britain (Neu Pommern), area, 10,000 square miles; and New Ireland (Neu Mecklenburg), 4,600 square miles. Smaller islands are Neu Hannover Island and the Duke of York (Neu Lauenburg) Islands. Besides the main group are — Admiralty Islands (chief island Taui or Manus, 600 square miles), St. Matthew Islands, Gardner Islands, Abgarris or Fead Islands, Nissan or Sir Charles Hardy Islands, French Islands, Rook Islands, Hermit Islands, 154 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Ninigo Group, Anchorite Island and Commerson Island. Many of the islands are mountainous, with active volcanoes. Copra, cotton, coffee, rubber, pearls and shells are the products for export. The German Solomon Islands are part of a group of volcanic peaks, not distinctly separated from Bismarck Archipelago. Lati- tude 5°-ll° south, longitude 155°-163° east; area, estimated, 4,200 square miles; population, estimated, 45,000. The natives belong to the Melanesian part of the Black Race. Islands very mountainous; principal harbor, Kieta on Bougainville, and there are other good harbors. British planters and merchants export cocoanuts, pineapples, sweet potatoes, sandal wood and tortoise shell. Austria.— A state of central Europe ; a limited monarchy until 1918, when Hungary seceded and Austria became a republic. Of the great Dual Empire, little is left. Bohemia, Silesia, Galicia and Bukovina, Moravia, Hungary, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herze- govina are gone entirely. The total area of Austria-Hungary in 1914 was 261,259 square miles; the loss of these divisions reduces it by 198,634 square miles. In 1915 the population was about 51,216,000; it has shrunk by 42,500,000 from the regions named above. Besides these, most of Lower Austria north of the Danube, and much of Tyrol, Carinthia, Carniola and Coastland are gone. The loss of area and population in these cannot be estimated at present. What remains of Austria lies between 48° 30' and 46° 30' north, and between 9° 30' and 17° east. The capital remains Vienna. It is impossible to describe the resources of the country. The best of the arable land is gone, that remaining being chiefly in Lower Austria toward the Danube. Cattle raising, however, thrives in the Alpine sections. All the oil, and most of the coal and iron are found in the regions no longer Austrian. But coal, lignite, iron, copper, mercury, lead, zinc, sulphur, manganese, graphite and salt are all mined in the parts that are left. Race, almost entirely German; religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Azores: — see Portugal, p. 256. Baker Island:— see U. S., Outlying Territories, p. 285. Baker Islands: — see British Possessions ; Australasia, p. 169. Bahama Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Bahrem Islan.ds: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 155 Balearic Islands: — see Spain, p. 268. Bali: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Baluchistan: — see India, p. 219. Banca: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Barbados: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Basse-Terre Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. Basutoland: — see British South Africa, p. 173. Bechuanaland: — see British South Africa, p. 173. Belgian Congo. — A state of Central Africa. Latitude 5° north-12° south, longitude 12''-30° east; area (estimated), 910,000 square miles; population (estimated), 15,000,000, of whom less than 6,000 are Europeans, and the rest Bantus of the Black Race ; capital, Boma; principal trading-stations, Matadi, Banana, Leo- poldville, and Stanleyville. Explored by Dr. Livingstone and Henry M. Stanley, acting for the New York Herald. Founded as a state by Leopold II., King of the Belgians, 1882; made a state of Belgium, 1907. The watershed of the Congo, next to that of the Amazon, is the largest in the world, and most of it is included in the Congo state. The surface is chiefly a high table-land, bordered on the west by mountains, through which the river has cut its way for 270 miles, dropping to the coast plain 1,800 feet in that distance. There is navigation up the lower Congo for 90 miles from its mouth; the rapids through the mountains are circumvented by railways in various places, above which about 8,000 miles of navi- gation are spread along the various branches of the upper Congo. The climate is torrid, and, excepting at some places, unhealth- ful for white races; but the heat is tempered by the elevation of the plateau, and as the whites have learned the conditions of health, the mortality among them has been reduced more than one-half. Great tropical forests are found in the east and north- east. Most of the state consists of rolling grass-lands, inter- spersed with areas of timber. A profusion of tropical plants and animals provides abundant food for the natives. The chief com- mercial products as yet are rubber, palm nuts, palm oil, and ivory; but some cotton and tobacco plantations are beginning to flourish. The wealth in rubber is enormous. European cattle have been introduced into regions where the tse-tse fly is not found. Gold, copper, silver and iron are the principal metals. Katanga, the 156 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD southeast district, has great mineral wealth. On the upper Congo and its tributaries are 100 small steamers and many tow-boats, which ply to the heads of navigation. Ocean steamships reach Moma and the lower river stations. Nearly 1,000 miles of railway are in operation. Many thousands of the younger natives are being taught trades, and all manual and considerable skilled labor is performed by natives under white supervision. In 1912, the year of greatest trade, exports totalled $28,500,000; imports, $22,150,000. The larger part of the export was crude rubber. Belgian Possessions : — see Belgian Congo, p. 155. Belgium. — A constitutional monarchy of northwestern Europe. Latitude 51° 30'-49° 30' north, longitude 2° 30-6° 20' east; area (1914), 11,373 square miles; (1919), 11,775 square miles. The population, by the 1910 census, was 7,423,784; according to the normal increase, in 1919, it should be 8,092,924; the actual number is not known. The ex-German territories awarded to Belgium by the Treaty of 1919 add an estimated population of 119,184. Capital, Brussels (1912), 663,647 with suburbs; other cities — Antwerp, the chief port, 312,884; Liege, Ghent, Bruges, Verviers, Louvain and Ostend. Owing to the World War the population of these cities in 1919 is unknown. In Caesar's time the region was inhabited in part by the Belgae. From 1579, for more than two centuries, Belgium was a battle ground between Dutch and Spanish contestants for the territory. In 1815 it was united to Holland, although practically a separate state. In 1830 it became an independent kingdom. In 1914 it was overrun by Germans, and the greater part of it was held by them for four and a quarter years. The Treaty of Versailles, 1919, added to Belgium neutral Moresnet, the Kreis of Eupen, and the Kreis of Malmedy, extend- ing its boundary somewhat eastward between the Netherlands frontier and Luxemburg, so that there may never again occur the concentration of troops at the gateway to Belgium that took place in July, 1914. The country is normally one of the most densely peopled in the world. Every part of the land is cultivated to the highest degree, and it is a large producer of beet sugar. Nevertheless, although farming is very intensive, it cannot produce enough grain for home consumption. The Ardennes upland is rich in coal, iron, DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 157 zinc, lead and copper. Coal measures underlie a considerable part of the area, but are so deep that coal mining is becoming difficult. Belgium is a great manufacturing country. Normally, more than 1,000,000 persons are engaged in manufactures; metal and machinery industries take the first rank, while textiles, glass, por- celain and other branches are very important. The railroad and canal systems are highly developed; but sea communications are hampered by the small extent of coast line, its shallow waters, and the poor quality of its harbors. More than one-half of the peo- ple are Flemish, 42 per cent. French, and the rest Walloons. Religion, dominantly Roman Catholic. Principal imports, wool, wheat, cotton, hides, coal, seeds, rubber; exports, wool, iron and steel, flax and its yarns, glass. Export trade chiefly to Ger- many, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, United States; import trade from France, Germany, Great Britain, United States, Neth- erlands. Exports (1913), $715,365,000; imports, $916,725,000. Belgium, Mandatory of. — Belgium has become the mandatary for a portion of ex-German East Africa, adjacent to Belgian Congo, included in the Ruanda district at the northwestern corner of the region, and the Urundi district to the south, lying at the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. This country will become practically an integral part of the Belgian Congo. For a descrip- tion of the region of which it is a part, see German East Africa. Bermudas: — see British Possessions; America, p. 164. Bhutan. — A state in the eastern Himalayas. Latitude 28°- 26° 45' north, longitude 89°-92° east; area, about 20,000 square miles; population (estimated), 250,000. The natives were con- quered two centuries ago by Tibetans. In 1774 the East India Com- pany concluded a treaty with the country; but outrages by the inhabitants have led to British control, consummated in 1910, op- erative through India. Religion, a loose form of Buddhism. Chief products, rice, maize, millet, wax, poor cloth, musk, ponies and silk. A beginning has been made by the local government in the encouragement of foreign trade, and of foreign capital in mining and lumbering. The maximum of trade with India was reached in 1914-15, when exports amounted to $725,000, and imports to $585,000. Billiton: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 158 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Bismarck Archipelago {German New Guinea): — see Aus- tralia, Mandatories of, p. 153. Bokhara: — see Russian Possessions, p. 263. Bolivia. — ^A republic of South America. Latitude 10°-16° south, longitude 70°-55° west; area, 514,155 square miles; popu- lation (1915), estimated, 2,900,000; seat of government, La Paz (191G), estimated, 100,000; other cities— Cochabamba, 31,000; Potosi, estimated, 30,000; Sucre, constitutional capital, estimated, 30,000. The state was named after Simon Bolivar, who led in the revolt from Spain. The war for independence lasted from 1809 to 1825. A war between Bolivia and Chile ended in the loss of the coast provinces, Tacna, Tarapaca and Antofagasta. These had not been restored in 1919. The agricultural products are fruit, corn and vegetables common to both temperate and tropical countries. The tropical forests are rich in cabinet, dye and building woods. India-rubber of first-class quality is found in enormous quantities, and the country is second in rubber exports. Gold, silver, antimony, copper and tin are extensively mined, Bolivia being next to the Malay region in tin production. The llama is the beast of burden employed for pack-trains. It is the original of the species from which the camel of the Asian con- tinent is descended. Among the important products is coca, a plant that yields the drug cocaine. In this country is partly situated Lake Titicaca, on whose historic shores stand the ruins of structures built by the once mighty race of Incas. The popu- lation consists of Spanish (white). Mestizos (mixed white and Indian), and full-blooded Indians. The last named constitute about one-third the population. Religion, Roman Catholic. The foreign trade of Bolivia is carried on through the Chilean port of Antofagasta, with which the mining region is connected by rail. Much of the rubber and other forest products reach their markets either by way of the Parana River to Buenos Aires, or by the Madeira River to Amazon ports. The proposed Pan- American Railway will utilize about 400 miles of Bolivian rail- way. The imports are provisions, hardware, liquor, cloth goods, clothes; the exports are chiefly silver, tin and rubber. Exports (1916-17), $39,500,000; imports, $12,140,000. Bonin Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. Borneo: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 159 Bounty Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. Bourbon Island: — see Keunion Island, p. 259. Brazil.— A republic of South America. Latitude 5°-32° south, longitude 35°-74° west; area, 3,219,000 square miles; popu- lation (1912), 24,018,429; capital, Rio Janeiro (1911), estimated, 1,129,000; other cities— Sao Paulo (1911), estimated, 450,000; Bahia, 290,000; Para, 200,000; Pernambuco, 150,000; Manaos, 50,000. Brazil became a Portuguese colony in 1500; in 1813, a kingdom ; in 1822, an empire ; and in 1899 a republic. Brazil is the largest of the South American countries, being a little larger than the United States proper. It comprises nearly one-half of the area of South America. It surpasses all other countries in the extent of its navigable rivers. It has also immense forests and mines of great value, but not much has been done to develop its resources. The lowlands of the Amazon Basin are covered with dense tropical forests. The highlands inland, south of the Amazon Basin, are dry, steppe-like and sparsely populated. The region of the plantations is in the coast zone, which is fairly well tilled, and contains most of the important cities. The climate is tropical in the north, subtropical in the middle latitudes and temperate in the south. Brazil is the largest producer of coffee and rubber in the world. Para is the port of shipment of Amazon rubber; Santos for the coffee marketed as ''Rio." The Amazon Basin abounds in rubber trees. Sugarcane is the great crop of the regions tributary to Pernambuco and Bahia. Cattle thrive chiefly among the farmers of the south. Mining is little developed. Manufactures are confined chiefly to the meat, sugar and brewing industries. Steamships for New York and British ports call at the various coast ports. They also ascend the Amazon to Manaos and Iquitos, Peru, the principal ports for the collection of rubber. The railways are chiefly in the southeastern part, converging at Rio and Sao Paulo. The popu- lation is mainly Portuguese, but it includes a large proportion of Americans, Italians and native Indians. Religion, Roman Catho- lic; language, Portuguese. The exports are chiefly coffee, rubber, tobacco, hides and cacao ; imports, foodstuffs, coal, machinery and textiles. Exports (1917), $299,375,000; imports, $222,550,000. British Borneo: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. British Central Africa: — see Nyassaland Protectorate, p. 248. 160 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD British East Africa. — Consists of a large area on the main- land of Africa, in three protectorates : — East Africa, Uganda, and Zanzibar. The East African Protectorate extends from about 4° 30' north latitude to 5° south; and in longitude from 34° to 43° east; area, 246,822 square miles; population (estimated), 4,038,000. Mombassa is the largest town; population, about 30,000; capital, Nairobi, 14,000. The country was first made known to Europeans by German missionaries about the middle of the last century. Through British interests in Zanzibar, EngUsh companies gained concessions between 1884 and 1888. In 1887 the territory was formally recognized as within the British "sphere of influence," and in 1895 the administration was vested definitely in the British crown. The products of the country are chiefly agricultural — rice, maize, cassava, cocoanuts, sisal hemp, rubber, cotton; in the high- lands, a wide variety of temperate crops. Wheat occupies a large acreage, maize for export is beginning to thrive, and coffee plan- tations abound. Timber, largely of temperate woods, is abundant. The chief imports are cotton cloth, grain and flour, provisions, sugar, building materials, vehicles, machinery, tobacco, liquor, soap, hardware, etc. Exports are chiefly cotton, hides and skins, fibers, coffee, ivory, grain and oil seeds. It is difficult to separate trade figures from those of German East Africa and Congo ; but in 1916-17 the exports of these three were $7,209,385; imports, $15,120,615. Uganda Protectorate adjoins the last on the west, occupying from 5° north latitude to the equator, and from 30° to 37° east longitude; area, 109,119 square miles; population, 2,954,861. Parts of the country are greatly affected by sleeping sickness. The British capital is Entebbe, the native capital Mengo. The products are chiefly cotton, coffee, chillies, ghee, plantation rubber, ivory. Trade is chiefly with Great Britain, United States, and India. Imports are yarns and textiles, provisions, cotton blankets, bags and sacks, soap. Exports (1916-17), $5,384,620; imports, $6,480,500. The Zanzibar Protectorate is an island sultanate, including also Pemba Island, off the east coast of Africa. Area of Zanzibar, 640 square miles; of Pemba, 380 square miles; population of . DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 161 Zanzibar, 114,000, of Pemba, 83,000 ; chief town and port, Zanzibar, a city of 35,000, in wliich a large part of the population is cen- tered. The islands were made a British protectorate in 1890; in 1914 they were declared a British colony and were transferred from the foreign to the colonial office. Zanzibar is an entrepot for the collection of commodities destined for shipment from the neighboring islands and coast regions to foreign countries and for the local distribution of foreign imports. Races, chiefly Negroes, Arabs, and Jews. Cloves, copra and ivory are the chief products. Imports are piece goods, rice, groceries and provi- sions, sugar, copra, grain. Exports (1916), $5,260,835; imports, $6,499,100. British Guiana: — see British Possessions; America, p. 164. British Honduras. — In northeast Central America, adjoining Mexico. Latitude 18°-16° north, longitude 89°-88° west; area, 8,598 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 42,400; capital and chief business center, Belize. Settled in 1638 by logwood cutters who had been sea rovers of unsavory reputation. After various attacks by the Spanish, which were repelled, treaties with Spain, Mexico, and Guatemala made the territory a British crown colony. The country consists chiefly of primeval forests, with savannas and open sandy plains covered with a wiry grass and dotted with pine trees. The soil is exceedingly rich, and sugar-cane is the chief crop. The best of cacao trees grow wild in the bush. Staple products are natural woods, mahogany, log- wood, and many excellent cabinet woods. The cutting and ship- ment of these have been the chief industry for more than two centuries. These have been the chief exports, and they have gone almost wholly to Great Britain. Another important export is chicle (gum). The imports are mainly cotton goods, foodstuffs, and machinery from Great Britain. There are some thriving sugar estates, and large coffee plantations have been started. Fruits are rapidly and extensively grown. Exports (1913-14), $3,213,000 ; imports, $3,273,800 ; later years show lower figures. British North Borneo: — see British Borneo, p. 159. British Possessions. — The dependencies and colonial posses- sions of Great Britain include about one-third of North America and Africa, a large area in southern Asia, all of Australia, and many groups of islands scattered throughout the world. The 162 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLEl vast scale of their area, population and trade may be seen from the following table, compiled for the fiscal year 1916-17: — Continent Area Square Miles Population Exports Imports Africa 3,487,725 4,010,216 1,972,306 3,192,755 120 53,816,000 10,833,000 324,374,000 6,567,000 240,000 $487,920,000 1,517,685,000 1,410,575,000 669,475,000 2,955,000 $504,750,000 993,365,000 1,139,880,000 519,800,000 16,690,000 America Asia Australia and Aus- tralasia Europe Total 12,663,122 395,830,000 $4,088,610,000 $3,174,485,000 Of the British dependencies, the major ones and their sub- divisions are described separately, in proper alphetical order. The following descriptions apply to minor possessions. Africa. — Ascension Island is a small volcanic peak southwest of Africa and 700 miles northwest of St. Helena. Latitude 8° south, longitude 14° 20' west; area, 34 square miles; population (1914), 196; a naval station and sanatorium. It is a breeding place for sea turtles, in the eggs and meat of which there is a small commerce. Mauritius (Isle of France) is an island in the Indian Ocean, about 500 miles east of Madagascar; once a French possession, but a British colony since 1814; area, about 720 square miles; population (1917), 384,253; capital, Port Louis, estimated, 50,000. The population consists mainly of Hindus, but there are many of Malay and African descent. The people of European descent are French and English. Sugar and hemp are the exports. Railways connect the various centers of population. Steamship lines connect the island with British ports. Exports (1916), $29,770,015; imports, $17,988,970. There are several administrative dependencies. The Chagos Islands, latitude 6°-7°30' south, longitude 71°-72°30' east; largest island, Diego Garcia, with 517 inhabitants (1911); popu- lation, Negroes from Mauritius; cocoanut oil exported. Rodrigues Island, 20° south, 63° 30' east; area, 40 square miles; population DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 163 (1911), 4,829. Exports (1916), $106,300; imports, $57,330. St. Brandon (Cargados) Islands, 16° 32' south, 59° 37' east, chiefly barren sand banks; Trois Freres (Eagle) Islands, about which little is known. Nyassaland Protectorate (formerly British Central Africa). Latitude 9°30'-17° south, longitude 33°-36° east; lies west and south of Lake Nyassa; area, 39,573 square miles; population (1916), 1,141,122, mostly natives; seat of government Zomba. Products are coffee, tobacco, cotton, tea; cattle abundant. Im- ports, textiles, hardware and provisions; exports, coffee, cotton, bees' wax, rubber, ground nuts. Exports to Great Britain (1916-17), $1,431,675; imports, $1,429,470. St. Helena is a volcanic island in the South Atlantic, about 1,700 miles northwest of Cape Town. Latitude 16° south, longi- tude 5° 45' west; area, 47 square miles; population (1914), 3,553. The island was a Portuguese possession from the time of its dis- covery in 1502, a Dutch possession from 1645 to 1651, and a British East India Company holding for nearly two hundred years, during which time the plantations were cultivated by Negro slaves. In 1815 it was the place of exile of Napoleon Bonaparte, who died six years later. In 1836 slavery had become past his- tory, and about that time the island became a Crown Colony. St. Helena is a British coaling station and military post. Potatoes and other vegetables are sold to passing vessels, the trade being consid- erable. New Zealand flax and tow are the chief exports. Lace and flax fabrics are manufactured. Exports (1916), $123,180; imports, $232,570. The Tristan da Cunha Islands are a small group in the South Atlantic, midway between South America and the Cape of Good Hope. Latitude 37° 6' south, longitude 12° west; area a few square miles; population (1917), 105, chiefly shipwrecked sailors and their families. There is little industry, and no trade. Seychelles Islands; an archipelago of 90 islets in the Pacific. Latitude 4°-6°30' south, longitude 53°-56° east; area, estimated, 156 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 24,000; seat of administration, Victoria, a coaling station of the British navy; chief island, Mahe (55.5 square miles). The islands were discov- ered in 1502, and formally annexed as a British possession in 1744. They were not inhabited when annexed. The present popu- 164 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD lation consists of East Indians, Chinese and Negroes. The Eng- lish contingent is small. Copra, vanilla, soap, gnano, and culti- vated rubber are the chief exports, and these are cleared mainly- through Mauritius. Imports, foodstuffs, clothing, liquors. Ex- ports (1916), $557,415 ; imports, $495,475. British Somaliland Protectorate. Latitude 11° 30-8° north; longitude 42 ° 30'-49 ° 30' east, lying along the south side of the Gulf of Aden; area, about 68,000 square miles; population, 300,000 nomads; chief town, Berbera, 30,000 (1911). Imports, chiefly rice, textiles, sugar, dates; exports, hides, gum and resin, cattle. Exports (1916-17), $1,100,205; imports, $1,509,955. America. — The Bermudas comprise a colony of 360 small islands, of which only about 20 are inhabited, 580 miles east of North Carolina. Latitude 62° 30-62° 10' north, longitude 65°- 64° 30' west; total area, only 19.3 square miles; population (1917), 20,215; chief town, Hamilton (2,627). An important naval base; exports, onions, potatoes, flowers; imports, food, cutlery, coal, clothing, leather goods, draught animals. Trade almost entirely with United States. Exports (1916), $699,075; imports, $3,673,995. Falkland Islands; a group of continental islands off the east coast of South America, 300 miles east of Magellan Straits. Lati- tude 52° south, longitude 60° west. They are a Crown Colony of Great Britain, to which are attached also South Georgia, the South Orkney, South Shetland, Sandwich Islands and Graham's Land; area, estimated, 6,500 square miles; population, estimated, 3,500; seat of government, Stanley, 950. South Georgia Islands are a whaling settlement. Latitude 54°-55° south, longitude 46°-42° west; area, 1,000 square miles. The Falklands consist of West Falkland (2,300 square miles). East Falkland (3,000 square miles), and about 125 small islands totalling 1,000 square miles. Cattle and sheep farming are the only industries, and the value of exports per capita is very high. The islands are of strategic importance. Imports, gro- ceries, timber, coal, clothing, hardware; exports, whale products, wool, tallow, hides. Exports (1916), $10,268,595; imports, $2,955,085. British Guiana is a colony. Latitude 8° 20'-l° 15' north, longi- tude 61°30'-56°40' west; area, 89,480 square miles; population, estimated (1916-17), 314,000; capital, Georgetown, 54,723. The DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 165 low coastal plain, hot and fertile, is covered with plantations, cultivation being confined chiefly to this narrow zone, where most of the people live. Farther inland the country becomes hilly and mountainous, with wide forest areas and valuable gold mines. The short Demerara railroad, the first to be built in South America, was constructed to meet the needs of the sugar industry, which, with rum and molasses, was long the great industry of the country. Cheap sugar has so seriously injured the industry that many planters have abandoned sugar for the cultivation of tobacco and rice. Gold, rubber, sugar and rice are sent to Great Britain and the United States; the imports consisting of food- stuffs and general manufactures. Races, East Indian coolies, Negroes, Chinese and Indians. Exports (1916), $18,790,330; imports, $12,359,720. Asia: — Aden is a volcanic peninsula on the southern tip of the Arabian coast. Latitude 12° 40' north, longitude 45° east; area, 75 square miles, or with the Protectorate behind, 9,000 square miles; population (1911), 46,165. An important coaling station, and strategically of the utmost importance. Chief industries of Aden proper are salt and cigarette making; trade largely transit. Imports, cotton and cloth, grain, hides, coffee, sugar, tobacco, fruits, vegetables and provisions, coal; exports, coffee, gum, hides, cotton goods, tobacco, grains, sugar, provisions. Exports (1916), $23,125,305; imports, $27,136,130. Perim, attached to Aden, is an island at the narrow entrance to the Red Sea, and commanding its water; area, 5 square miles. Kuria Muria Islands. Latitude 17 ° 30' north, longitude 55 ° 30'- 56° 30' east, off the southeast coast of Arabia. Islands are five in. number, secured by England for a landing place for the Red Sea cable; they are attached to Aden. Sokotra Island. Latitude 12° 30' north, longitude 54° cast; 130 miles southeast of the Arabian coast and on a direct line from Suez to India; area, 1,382 square miles; population, about 12,000, mostly farmers and fishers. Formerly Turkish, became British in 1876 by treaty, as a way-station of the Suez- India route. Products, dates, gum, sheep and cattle; butter, the latter exported. It is attached to Aden for administration. The Bahrein Islands, eight in number, lie in the Persian Gulf. 166 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Latitude 20° north, longitude 50° 30' east; Bahrein, the largest, 10 by 27 miles; population of group, 103,000. Harbor facilities excellent. Industry chiefly pearl fishing; dates and white donkeys are other products; sail cloth and reed mats manufactured. Im- ports, pearls, rice, coffee, sugar, tea, cloth; exports, pearls, rice, coffee, tea, sugar, dates. As would be indicated by these lists the trade is mainly transit. British Borneo occupies the northern coast of Borneo, and some small islands adjoining on the north. Latitude 7° 30'-(3° 40' north, longitude 109° 45'-119° 30' east. British North Borneo, obtained in 1881, occupies the northeastern end; area, about 31,106 square miles; population (1911), 208,183, largely aboriginal tribes. Interior wild and mountainous; trade chiefly through Singapore and Hong Kong with Great Britain and the colonies Products varied and tropical-timber, copra, gum, rubber, cam- phor, spices, rattan, vegetables and tobacco. Exports, all these and birds nests ; timber is the greatest natural resource. Exports (1916), $5,070,710; imports, $1,049,665. Brunei lies southwest of the territory just described; area, about 4,000 square miles ; population, estimated, 30,000. Imports chiefly rice, tobacco, cloth; exports, coal, rubber, sago, cutch' Exports (1916), over $425,000; imports, over $150,000. Sarawak occupies the southwest part of British Borneo; area, about 42,000 square miles; population, estimated, 500 OOo' Be- came British in 1842. Coal and other minerals abundant- oil is being developed. Trade mainly with Singapore. Exports, sago flour, pepper, gold, petroleum, plantation rubber. Exports (1916)' $5,666,785; imports, $4,087,680. Ceylon is an island colony southeast of the southern tip of India and about 30 miles from the mainland. A narrow ridge known as Adam's Bridge, spans all but about 12 miles of the dis- tance between the island and the mainland. Latitude 9°30'-6° north longitude 79° 30'-81° 45' east; area, 25,332 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 4,547,200; capital, Colombo, 211,274 1911); chief port, Galle, 39,960; other cities-Jaffna, 40 441- Kandy, 29,451. Authentic history of Ceylon begins with the Hindu mvasion of the fifth century, B.C. Portuguese merchants established settlements in 1505, which were taken from them by the Dutch. In 1801 Ceylon was made a British possession- in DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 167 1815 it became an organized colony; in 1833 a constitution was framed. About one-eighth of the land is under cultivation. The crop of rice and other grains is used for home consumption. The export crops and products are coir, cacao, coffee, cinnamon, tea and rubber, the two last named being the most valuable. Imports are cotton goods, rice, coal and coke, liquor, sugar, manure. The graphite of Ceylon is of fine quality and is much used in manu- factures; over 950 mines are in operation. Monazite and gems are mined. Railways connect the important industrial centers with Colombo and Galle. The Singhalese form the greater part of the population, but there are many Malays and a few Veddahs, or aboriginal peoples. Exports (1916), $99,180,385; imports, $73,343,630. The Maldive Islands, a dependency of Ceylon, are a group of 13 coral islands, chiefly atolls, southwest of the southern tip of India. Latitude 7°6'-0°42' north, longitude 71°-74° east; popu- lation, estimated, 70,000, all Mohammedans. The people are of superior civilization and skillful as navigators and traders. Coir, cocoanuts, copra and tortoise shell are exported. No trade sta- tistics. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, 40 miles south of Asia Minor and 60 miles west of Syria. Lati- tude 35° 40-33° 30' north, longitude 32° 20-34° 35' east; area, 3,584 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 298,775; capital, Nicosia, estimated, 16,000. There are no good harbors. The his- tory of Cyprus extends back probably 3,000 years before the Chris- tian era. More than once Egypt made a conquest of the island in order to obtain its treasure of copper mines. It was also a possession successively of Greece, Persia, Pha^nicia and Turkey. The anglicized word copper is derived from the Greek form of Cyprus. The island came under the control of Great Britain in 1878, and was formally annexed in 1914. The mineral wealth of Cyprus consists of copper, salt, gypsum and marble. The chief interests are agricultural — wine, fruits, grain, barley, silk, olives, cotton, cattle, wool, hides. There are no railways. Chief imports, sugar, raw coffee, wheat and flour, olive oil, rice, tobacco, petro- leum, cotton and cotton goods, woolen goods, clothing, leather and its goods, soap; exports, animals, carobs, wine, raisins, cot- ton, silk cocoons, wool, hides, pomegranates, citrous fruits. The 168 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD population consists mainly of Greeks and Turks. Exports (1916), $3,542,230; imports, $4,838,900. Hong Kong, an island colony, situated at the mouth of Canton River in China. Latitude 22° 5' north, longitude 114° 10' east; area, 32 square miles; population (1911), 366,145; ceded to Great Britain in 1841; the great center of British trade with China and Japan, and strategically important as well. In 1898, Great Britain leased for 99 years a mainland area of 356 square miles, popula- tion, 96,500 (1916), called the New Territories; in addition, Old Kowloon has 3 square miles area. Hong Kong is a free port; trade mainly with Great Britain (one-half the total), India, Aus- tralia and United States. The variety of trade is great : — among the exports, preserved ginger, silks, drugs, feathers and down, tin; imports, cottons, woolens, iron and steel manufactures, ma- chinery, tobacco. No trade statistics, but the volume is great. The Straits Settlements are a Crown Colony of 1,000 square miles, composed of Singapore, Penang, the Bindings, Malacca and Labuan; and Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands. The four first named are located on the west side of the southern part of the Malay Peninsula. Singapore is an island at the tip of the peninsula. Latitude 1°15' north, longitude 103° 15' east; area, 217 square miles, and attached to its administration are a number of adjacent small islands. Penang is an island, the northern- most of the areas. Latitude 4° 25' north, longitude 100° 20' east; area 108 square miles ; on the adjacent shore is Wellesley Province, a narrow strip of 280 square miles area, forming part of Penang; chief town of Penang is Georgetown, on the island. The Din- dings is an area on the coast of Perak, a strip of mainland together with the island of Pangkor. Latitude 4° 20' north, longi- tude 100° 40' east. Malacca lies between the Dindings and Singa- pore, a strip of mainland 42 miles long and 8 to 24 broad. Lati- tude 2° 12' north, longitude 102° 15' east. Population of the whole colony (1917), including Christmas, Cocos-Keeling and Labuan Islands, 812,793. The ports are all free, and the trade chiefly transit. Exports, mainly tin, spices, sago and tapioca, hides and horns, rattan, rubber, gum, copra. Exports (1916), $287,181,820; imports, $316,210,370. The Cocos or Keeling Islands are a group of a score of small coral islets. Latitude 12 ° 6' south, longitude 96 ° 55' east ; popu- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 169 lation (1916), estimated, 807. Christmas Island, latitude 10° 31' south, longitude 105° 33' east; area, about 80 square miles; popu- lation (1916), 1,909. Probably never inhabited before its occu- pation by whites in 1897. Phosphate of lime is the only resource. Exports (1916), $565,265; imports, chiefly machinery, tools and traction plant, $175,600. Labuan Island lies close to the north- west coast of British Borneo. Latitude 5° 17' north, longitude 115° 15' west; area, 28.5 square miles; population (1916), esti- mated, 6,862, chiefly Malays and Chinese traders. The Federated Malay States are four, occupying a large part of the Malay Peninsula. Latitude 6°-l°40' north, longitude 100° 30'-104° 20' east; area, 27,506 square miles; population (1911), 1,037,000. Chief products, cocoanuts, rice, rubber, sugar, spices, tapioca. Rubber is cultivated, and tin extensively mined, much of the world's supply of the latter being obtained here. The country is rich in other minerals. Imports, chiefly rice, opium, tobacco, cotton goods, sugar, condensed milk, animals, liquor, petroleum and benzine, iron wares, machinery; exports, tin and tin ore, rubber, copra, rice, tapioca, coffee. Exports (1016), $128,300,485; imports, $40,512,340. The Unfederated Malay States are five, lying largely at the north of the Federated States, on the border of Siam. Their total area is about 23,400 square miles; population, estimated, 970,000. The industries and trade are practically those of the other states. Exports (1916), $26,470,000; imports, $8,655,000. Weihaiwei is in the Province of Shantung, China; and with adjacent water was leased by Great Britain in 1898. The terri- tory includes a number of islands and a zone ten miles broad around the bay. Latitude 37° 30' north, longitude 122° 30' east; area, 285 square miles; population (1911), 147,177. The place is a naval base of great strategic importance. The country is agri- cultural and prosperous. Cereals and temperate latitude fruits are cultivated; and silk, the worms being fed on oak leaves. Imports, chiefly kerosene, flour, sugar, liquor, provisions, coal; exports, ground-nuts, seeds and oil and salt fish. The port is free. Australasia: — In the Australasia-Oceania region of the Pacific Ocean, Great Britain, possesses a large number of islands and island groups, widely scattered in latitude and longitude. The Territory of Papua (British New Guinea) includes the 170 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD southeastern part of New Guinea, the D'Entrecasteaux and Louisiade Islands, and all those islands between 8°-12° south latitude and 141°-155° east longitude; total area; 90,540 square miles (Papua proper, 87,786); population (1917), estimated, 201,374, of which 1,036 were Europeans. Latitude of Papua proper 5°-9° 15' south, longitude 140° 50-151° east. New Guinea became British in 1887. Timber is abundant, and the planting of cocoanut palms extensive. Minerals form a large asset, gold mining being an important occupation; copper also is exported. Petroleum underlies at least 1,000 square miles. Trade chiefly with Queensland and New South Wales ; chief ports. Port Moresby, Samarai, Daru. Imports, foodstuffs, tobacco, hardware; exports, copra, sisal hemp, pearl shell and pearls, gold, sandal wood, cop- per ore, timber, rubber. Exports (1916-17), $782,675; imports, $1,358,200. The Louisiade Archipelago extends southeastward from New Guinea, numbering over 80 islands, with many coral reefs between. Latitude 12° south, longitude 152°-154° east. Gold occurs on at least two of the largest islands; tropical forests abundant. The D'Entrecasteaux Islands are a group of volcanic peaks north of the southeastern tip of Papua, and north-northwest of the Louisiades. Latitude 9°-10° south, longitude 150°-152° east. Fiji is an island colony, comprising over 200 islands, 80 inhabited. Latitude 12°-20° south, longitude 177° east-178° west; area Viti Levu, 4,053 square miles; Vanua Levu, 2,130 square miles; total area, 7,435 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 163,565, of whom not more than 4,000 were Europeans; capital, Suva, on Viti Levu; European population, 1,376. Discovered by Abel Tasman, 1643; visited by Cook, 1773; surveyed by a United States exploring expedition, 1840; ceded to Great Britain by chiefs and people, 1874; island of Rotumah added, 1880. Cultivation of sugar cane and tropical fruits, and manufacture of sugar and copra, are the principal industries. Practically all the trade is carried on with British ports. Exports, sugar, fruit and copra; imports, textiles, foodstuffs, oils, machinery and domestic wares. Regular steamships connect Suva and Levuka with New Zealand, Australia and Honolulu. Exports (1916), $11,270,215; imports, $4,392,500. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 171 Tonga (Friendly) Islands form an archipelago of about 150 volcanic islands in the South Pacific in three groups. Latitude 15°-23°30' south, longitude 173°-177° west; area, 250 square miles; population, estimated, including 380 Europeans, 23,000. The islands are a native kingdom, and became a protectorate of Great Britain in 1899. A British commission exercises civil and criminal authority over subjects of foreign powers. The chief exports are copra, bananas, oranges, fungus and live stock. They clear from the port of Tonga to Auckland. Imports are cloth, foodstuffs, tinware. Exports (1916), $162,600; imports, $212,140. Many Pacific islands are attached to New South Wales or New Zealand; the following are unattached: Ducie Island. Latitude 21° 40' south, longitude 124° 48' west. Pitcairn Island. Latitude 25° 5' south, longitude 130° 5' west; off the end of the Paumotu Archipelago ; area 2 square miles ; popu- lation (1914), 140. The island is of social interest from the fact that it was settled by mutineers from the British ship Bounty, in 1790. The island was twice abandoned but again repatriated. It is self-supporting. Sugar, coffee and garden products are exported. Dudoza Island, 7° 40' south, 161° west; area, 2 square miles. Victoria Island; about 7° south, 161° west; area, 2 square miles; uninhabited. Phoenix Islands; 2°30'-4°30' south, 171°-174°30' west; eight islands; area, 16 square miles; population, 59; How- land Island, 1° north, 176° west, is an outlying member, valuable for strategic purposes. Gilbert and EUice Island Colony; protectorates from 1892 and annexed as a colony in 1915. There are four groups: — (1) Union, or Tokelau Group, 8°30'-ll° south, 171°-172° west; five clusters of islets; area 7 square miles; population (1911), 914; (2) Ellice Islands, 5°30'-ll°20' south; 176°-180° east; nine prin- cipal and other smaller islands, Funafuti being the best known; area, 14 square miles; population (1911), 3,093; (3) Fanning Island, 3° 50' north, 150° west; area, 15 square miles; population, 150; and Washington Island, 4° 40' north, 160° 20' west; area, 6 square miles; and Ocean Island; (4) Gilbert Islands, crossed by the equator; longitude 170°-180° east; area, estimated, 166 square miles; population, estimated, 30,000. The chief islands are 17 in number ; they were discovered in 1765 ; the natives are warlike 172 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Polynesians. Principal crops, cocoanuts and pandanus fruit. Exports (1915-16), $916,240, chiefly phosphates and copra; im- ports, $543,915. The British Solomon Islands, about 8° south and 160° west, include 15 major islands and several groups of lesser ones — Low Howe, Santa Cruz and Duff or Wilson Groups, and some single islets; area, about 13,000 square miles; population (1915), estimated, 150,660. Crops are cocoanuts, rubber, sweet potatoes, pineapples, bananas. Imports, foodstuffs, boats, canned meats, timber, clothing, hardware, tobacco ; exports, copra, shells, mother of pearl. Exports (1914-15), $437,695; imports, $665,310. Starbuck Island, 5° 30' south, 155° west; area, 1 square mile; uninhabited. Maiden Island, 4° south, 155° west; area, 35 square miles; population, 168. Jarvis Island, 0° latitude, 159° west longi- tude; area, 1.5 square miles; population, 30. Palmyra Island, 6° north, 162° 30' west* area, 1.5 square miles. Baker Islands, on the equator. These are mainly coral; cocoanuts and guano are their products. The New Hebrides Islands are under joint British and French administration, and are described under French Possessions. Europe. — Gibraltar. Latitude 36° 6' north, longitude 5° 21' west, in the Province of Andalusia, Spain. The famous Rock of Gibraltar is a Crown Colony; area, 1.875 square miles; popula- tion, including port and harbor (1917 estimate), 16,499, excluding military and naval forces. People are chiefly descendants of Spanish and Italian settlers. A naval base of great strategic importance, completely commanding the entrance to the Mediter- ranean Sea. Industries unimportant; trade chiefly transit, and bunker coal. The Island of Malta was annexed in 1814, and is one of the most important ports of call in the world, besides being an impor- tant naval base. It is the largest of the Maltese Islands. Lati- tude 36° north, longitude 14° 30' east; area, 91.5 square miles, or with two small adjacent islands, 118 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 223,741; chief town and port, Valletta. Prin- cipal products, potatoes, citrous fruits, onions, corn, cotton. Manufactures, cotton, filigree. The chief industry is farming, and many cattle are kept. Fishing is important. Transit trade pro- hibited. Imports, wheat, flour, cattle, butter and margarines, DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 173 cheese, fish, fruits, liquor, meat, sugar, cotton goods, petroleum. Exports (1916-17), $2,955,515; imports, $16,692,460. British Solomon Islands: — see British Possessions; Aus- tralasia, p. 169. British Somaliland: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. British South Africa. — Consists of Basutoland, Bechuanaland Protectorate, and Rhodesia. Basuto is a rugged plateau. Latitude 28 " 45-30 ° 45' south, longitude 27°-29'30' east; area, 11,716 square miles; population, about 406,000. It came under British authority in 1884. Eu- ropean settlement is discouraged. The climate and soil have made the country an important grain and cattle center. The products are wool, mealies, kaPir corn, cattle. The imports are chiefly blankets, plows, clothing, iron and tin ware, groceries. Trade figures include all of British South Africa and the Union of South Africa. Exports (1916-17), $150,105,000; imports, $201,651,000. Bechuanaland Protectorate came within the sphere of British influence in 1885. Latitude 17 ° 30'-29 ° 30' south, longitude 20°-29°30' east; area, 275,000 square miles; population, about 126,000. Headquarters, Mafeking. Cattle-raising is the chief industry. Rhodesia has been British since 1889. Latitude 8°30'-22°30' south, longitude 22°-33''30' east; area, 440,000 square miles; population, 1,653,600. There are two quite distinct divisions. Southern Rhodesia is famous for its gold deposits, and has a good development of cattle-raising and agriculture. A large variety of minerals are found in workable quantity. The exports are gold, chrome iron, copper, maize, tobacco; the imports are live stock, foods, clothing, cotton goods, machinery. Total exports (1916), exclusive of gold, $6,397,000; imports, $12,269,000. Northern Rhodesia is a plateau, suitable for grazing and agriculture. The products are maize, cotton, tobacco, wheat, fruits, timber, and minerals. Exports are chiefly cattle, copper ore, corn, grain and flour, hides. Exports (1915), $782,230; imports, $801,855. British Virgin Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. British West Africa. — Comprises Nigeria, Gambia, Gold Coast, Ashanti and Northern Territories, and Sierra Leone. Nigeria, a colony and protectorate, has come into British 174 GEOGEAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD possession at different times, beginning with 1861, Latitude 14°-4° 30' north, longitude 3°-14° east; area, 336,000 square miles; population (estimated), 17,500,000. It is divided into northern and southern groups of provinces. The products are palm oil, rubber, ground-nuts, ivory, live stock, ostrich feathers, cotton, cocoa, coffee. Tin is found over a large area, and other minerals are promising. The chief imports are cotton cloth, liquor, bullion. Exports, palm kernels, palm oil, cotton, tin ore. Exports (1916), $•30,482,930; imports, $28,900,590. Gambia, a colony and protectorate, is a narrow strip extending inland from the west coast. Latitude 13° 30' north, longitude 17°-14° west; area, 4,500 square miles; population, 146,000. Originally part of the West African settlements, it 'oecame a British colony in 1888. Capital, Bathurst. Chief imports, empty bags, cotton cloth, kola nuts, rice, tobacco; chief exports, ground nuts, hides, palm kernels. Value of exports (1916), including specie, $3,527,735; imports, $4,422,770. The Gold Coast Colony stretches along the Gulf of Guinea. Latitude ll°-5° north, longitude 3° west to 1° 30' east; area, about 80,235 square miles; population, 1,500,000. Chief products and exports, palm oil, kola nuts, palm kernels, cocoa, rubber, man- ganese, woods, gold. Chief imports, cotton goods, machinery, pro- visions, clothing, liquor, building materials, motor cars. Exports (1916), $29,000,000; imports, $30,000,000. Ashanti is a part of the Gold Coast, British since 1896. Its chief features are an abundance of cabinet woods, rubber trees, and copal. It is eminently fit for agriculture. The Northern Territories form the northern part of the Gold Coast, British since 1901; capable of great agricultural develop- ment. Sierra Leone, a colony and protectorate. Latitude 10°-7° north, longitude 13° 30'-10° 30' west; area, 31,000 square miles; population, 1,400,000. Chief products, palm kernels, kola nuts, palm oil; chief imports, cotton goods, liquor, coal, tobacco, hard- ware. Value of exports (1916), $6,120,000; imports, $6,455,000. British West Indies. — Comprising six groups of islands : — Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica and Turks Island, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, Windward Islands. Jamaica is described separately. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 175 The Bahamas are a group, consisting of a score of inhabited and many uninhabited islands, southeast of Florida. Latitude 27°-21° north, longitude 79°-69°30' west; area, about 4,404 square miles; population, 58,484. Principal islands. New Provi- dence, containing Nassau, the capital (13,554); Abaco, St. Salvador, Long Island, Eleuthera, Andros. Industries are pearl and turtle fisheries, ambergris collecting, fruits. Exports, sponges, hemp, lumber, pineapples; imports, cotton, silk, linen and woolen goods, flour, hardware, sugar, lard, butter and oils, boots and shoes. Exports (1916), $1,665,000; imports, $2,375,000. Barbados lies to the east of the Windward Islands. Latitude 13° 20-13° 2' north, longitude 59 ° 30-59 ° 25' west; area, 166 square miles; population, 184,000. Mostly under cultivation; sugar and cotton the staple crops. Sugar and molasses are the chief exports; imports, coal, cotton goods, manure, flour. Ex- ports (1916), $11,035,000; imports, $9,255,000. The Leeward Islands lie north of the Windward Islands, com- prising Antigua, St. Kitts, Dominica, Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands, with lesser islands attached to Antigua and St. Kitts. Latitude 18° 45-15° 15' north, longitude 64° 45-61° 15' west; area, 715 square miles; population, 128,000. Dominica is the largest island (305 square miles), and Antigua next (108 square miles) ; the remainder are small. The staple products are sugar and molasses, with lime juice, onions, tobacco and cotton. Exports (1916-17), $5,607,765; imports, $3,211,245. Trinidad lies at the mouth of the Orinoco River, and with it is associated Tobago. Latitude 10° 30' north, longitude 61° west; area, Trinidad, 1,754 square miles, Tobago, 114; population, 372,000. Capital, Port of Spain (60,000). Noted for its asphalt lakes. Chief products, in addition, cocoa, sugar, rum, cocoanuts, petroleum; imports, foods, manufactures. Trade chiefly with United States and Great Britain. Exports (1916-17), $25,285,000; imports, $22,355,000. The Windward Islands comprise Granada, St. Vincent, the Grenadines, St. Lucia. Latitude 14°-12° north, longitude 61° 45'- 60° 45' west; area, 527 square miles; population, 176,000. Each island has its own administration. The main products are cocoa and spices, arrowroot, rum, sugar, limes. Exports (1916-17), $5,255,000; imports, $4,000,000. 176 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Brunei: — see British Borneo, p. 159. Bulgaria.— A Balkan state. Latitude 44° 10'-41° 15' north, longitude 22 ° 30-28 ° 40' east (new boundaries); area, 47,750 square miles (1917); population (1917), estimated, 5,517,000; capital, Sofia, 102,812 (1910); other cities— Philippopolis, 47,981; Varna, 41,419; Rustchuk, 36,255; Slivno (Sliven), 50,600, Crossed by Balkan ranges, with the Danube plain in the north a: id a broad rich plain (East Rumelia) in the south. The Bulgarians are industrious and frugal people, 72 per cent, of whom are farmers. Cattle and sheep-herding are important; iron and coal are the chief minerals. It has a large trade in manufactured articles, and 1,800 miles of railroad in operation. Freed from the Turkish yoke in 1878, many schools have been established, much progress made in all directions, and manufacturing is more advanced than in most Balkan states, especially in footwear, leather, woolen textiles and carpets. Races, two-thirds Bulgarians, one-seventh Turks, the remainder chiefly Rumanians and Greeks. Religion, chiefly Greek Church. Imports are chiefly cattle, cereals, metals, ma- chinery, textiles, hides; exports, wheat, maize, livestock, silk cocoons, hides, altar of roses, fruit, timber, tobacco. Exports (1914), $30,885,000; imports, $48,298,000. Territorial changes resulting from the war promise to be less than in any other enemy country. There may be a slight contrac- tion along the Serbian frontier, and the southern part of Rumanian Dobrudja, occupied by Bulgarians, may revert to the latter country. Caicos Island: — see Jamaica, p. 225. Cambodia: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. Cameroons, The: — see France, Mandatories of; and Great Britain, Mandatories of, pp. 196 and 210. Campbell Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. Canal Zone: — see Panama Canal Zone, p. 250. Canada, Dominion of. — A British possession, with the ultimate executive authority vested in the British sovereign through a Governor General, and legislative functions in a parliament, of which the House of Commons is elected by popular vote. Latitude Arctic Ocean to 42° north, longitude 141°-52° west; area, 3,730,000 square miles; population (1911), 7,207,000; capital, Ottawa, 87,000; other cities— Montreal, 470,000; Toronto, 377,000; Win- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 177 nipeg (1916), 163,000; Vancouver, 100,400, the chief Pacific port; Hamilton, 82,000; Quebec, 79,000; Halifax, the chief Atlantic port, 47,000 (all 1911). Claimed as English territory by virtue of Cabot's discovery; settled at various places as a fur region during the seventeenth century; French claims ceded in 1763; organized as the Dominion of Canada, 1867. It includes nine provinces, British Columbia, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, Alberta, the Northwest Territories, and Yukon. Eastern Canada is chiefly a broken plateau, low near the coast but rising to a considerable height in Labrador. The Hudson Bay region is low and flat, and plains, largely of prairie type, extend throughout the central provinces to the Canadian Rockies on the west. Thence to the Pacific the country is mountainous. The southern part of the eastern region, once heavily forested, has been largely cleared for farms. The central plain, extending into Athabasca, is a prairie with deep rich soil; it is one of the finest farming regions in the world; and the value of farm crops in 1917 was nearly $1,150,000,000. About 70 per cent, of the population are farmers. Wheat, oats, barley and maize are the grain crops. Fruit raising is important in Ontario and Nova Scotia. Wide areas of forest in northern Quebec and Ontario and in British Columbia yield great wealth in lumber, and the manufacture of wood pulp for paper making is very large. In 1916 the value of forest products was $190,000,000. The mountain region is the source of m.ost of the metals, although coal is mined on the east coast. Canada is one of the leading countries in the production of gold, silver and coal; it is among the first in the production of nickel. It is still one of the foremost fur-producing regions. In 1916, the mineral production was valued at $177,357,454. The Canadian Pacific, the Canadian Northern, and the Grand Trunk Pacific are trans- continental railways. The exports are mainly wheat, foreign produce, forest products, flour, meat, cheese, paper and pulp, oats, iron, copper, and furs. The trade is mainly with Great Britain' and United States. Exports (1916-17), $1,375,758,148; imports^ for homo consumption, $873,437,426. The fisheries employ 95,000 persons, and the value of the products in 1916-17 was $39,000,000. The harbors on the Atlantic coast are nearer to European ports than are those of the United States by several hundred miles. 178 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD On the west coast, Pacific ports are materially nearer to Japan than those of the United States. As a result, much com- mercial traffic between Asian and European ports passes in a direct line across the two oceans and Canada. The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River with their ship canals also have a great commercial traffic. Manufacturing requires over 21,000 establishments, and the annual output exceeds $1,400,000,000. Races, British-American, French and Indian. Religions, Prot- estant and Roman Catholic. Vancouver Island is worthy of special notice. It is the largest of the mountain islands fringing the Pacific coast of Canada, lying immediately north of the Strait of Juan de Fuca; area, about 20,000 square miles; capital, Victoria; population, about 55,000. The island is a part of British Columbia. Canary Islands: — see Spain, p. 268. Cape of Good Hope: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. Cape Verde Islands: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Cargados Island: — see St. Brandon, p. 264. Caroline Islands {German New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- tories of, p. 229. Caucasia. — In 1918, the people of Cis-Caucasia and Trans- Caucasia seceded from Russia, forming the Caucasian Republic and the Republic of Georgia. These have not been recognized by the Peace Conference, but it is likely that they may be allowed to form separate states. Latitude 46° 40-38° 20' north, longi- tude 36° 40-50° 30' east, reaching from the Sea of Azov and Black Sea to the Caspian; area, 156,000 square miles; population, estimated, 10,674,000. An unknown portion of the Black Sea part of Trans-Caucasia is expected to be allotted to Georgia, a new republic comprising the area inhabited dominantly by Georgians. The topography varies from the low plains between the Black and Caspian Seas to the high peaks of the Caucasus range. The climate is correspondingly varied. Both wet and arid parts of the country are found. Agriculture and stock-raising are the chief industries. Mineral resources are abundant and varied, and min- ing is important. The oil field of Baku is one of the greatest in Europe. Manufacturing is slight. Foreign trade is considerable, especially in petroleum. The chief cities are Tiflis, 328,000 ; Baku, 237,000; Saliany, 121,000. Cayman Island: — see Jamaica, p. 225. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 179 Celebes Islands: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Ceylon: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Chacjos Islands: — see Mauritius, p. 235. Chandernagor: — sec French India, p. 197. Chalham, Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. Chile. — A South American republic. Latitude 17°-55° south, longitude 75°-68° west; area, 290,000 square miles; population (1917), 3,870,000; capital, Santiago (1916), 398,000; other cities- Valparaiso, the chief port, 201,500; Concepcion, 68,900; Iquique, 45,500; Talca, 41,600; Chilian, 39,000; Antofagasta, 56,300. A Spanish colony from the period of Spanish conquest to 1818, when independence was made complete. The country lies west of the Andes Mountains, extending from Peru on the north to Cape Horn, a distance of 2,500 miles. The elevation of its eastern ])oundary, the Andes range, is from 13,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea-level; many of its peaks rise higher. The greater part of the coast is studded with islands, some of which are very fertile. Chile is one of the most progressive South American states. Most of the farming activities are carried on in short river valleys. Much of the mesa lands between rivers is desert. The north is a rainless region — the desert of Atacama; the center has regular winter rains, and the south has an abundant rainfall and a cool temperature. Agriculture is pos- sible in the north onlj^ by irrigation of the river valleys; in cen- tral Chile, between Santiago and Valdivia, cereals thrive. Here also tobacco and the grape are cultivated. The central farm- ing region sends foodstuffs to the mining regions. Forests pre- dominate in the south, but are as yet little utilized. Stock raising, chiefly sheep, is increasing. The nitrate mines of the north and the copper mines of the mountain region furnish most of the exports. As many as 2,700,000 tons of nitrate have been exported during a single year. Most of it is used in the intensive farming of western Europe. Copper is the largest metal export, followed by silver and gold. Manufacturing industries, in which Chile is the foremost South American state, consist chiefly of flour, foundry products, steel goods, and textiles. As there is little inte- rior navigation, railroads are of great importance and are well developed. Steamers ply in the coast trade. Races — Spanish- American, European and Indian. Religion — Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), $190,594,275; imports, $83,445,310. 180 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD The Juan Fernandez Islands form a group in the South Pacific 400 miles off the coast of Chile, to which state they belong. The islands are of strategic importance only, and are now occupied by a radio station of great power. The reputed connection of Alexander Selkirk with the original of Robinson Crusoe is meretricious. The real Robinson Crusoe, or Kreutznaer, lived on the island of Tobago, near Trinidad. Easter Island lies in the South Pacific and belongs to Chile, from which it is distant about 2,000 miles. Latitude 27° south, longitude 109° west; area, about 45 square miles; population, estimated, 150; at one time was several thousand. The island is famous for its wonderful archaeological remains of stone buildings and images, all of colossal size. The natives now on the island migrated from the Tubuai Islands; they have no knowledge of the origin of the remains, which were the work of a prehistoric race. In 1863 many of the inhabitants were kidnapped by Peruvians and carried off to work the guano diggings on the Church Islands, off the Peru- vian coast. China, Republic of. — Next to Siberia, the largest political divi- sion of Asia. Latitude 54°-18° north, longitude 74°-134° east; area, about 1,532,420 square miles; population, estimated, 302,- 110,000; capital, Peking, estimated, 700,000; other cities — Canton, estimated, 900,000; Hankow, estimated, 1,321,000; Tientsin, esti- mated, 800,000; Fuchow, 624,000; Shanghai, estimated, 650,000; Chunking, estimated, 700,000. The early history of China dates back to at least 2,200 B.C. It is thought by some that Confucius — the Latinized form of K'ung-fu-tse — was contemporary with the Prophet Isaiah. The middle period begins about the year 1325, when European travelers began to visit the country. The Impe- rial period ends with the fall of the Manchu invaders and the beginning of the republic in 1912. China contains over one-seventh the population of the earth. Its civilization, arts and culture are the oldest in the world, and for centuries have been practically unchanged. It was about the last of the eastern nations to open its ports to the world. Western methods of manufacturing by improved machinery have been introduced. The rivers and canals are of great importance for transportation. Its largest cities stand on their banks, while many thousands of people live in boats which float on their sur- face. More than 5,900 miles of railway are in operation, and DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 181 2,273 under construction. Trunk lines from Peking extend to the Trans-Siberian Kailway, to Shanghai, and to Hankow. The last named is completed nearly to Canton. Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and Chinese Turkestan are de- pendencies of the republic. Tibet is high, cold and barren, except- ing in some of the lower lands in the south. Manchuria has fine and well-tilled agricultural lands in the south, raising large crops of wheat, beans and other produce. It is the most valuable part of the empire outside of China proper. Mongolia and Chinese Turkestan are arid and sparsely peopled. Rice forms the principal food in China; fish comes next. Domestic animals, excepting hogs and poultry, are of subordinate importance. Ninety per cent, of the people are engaged in agri- culture. Tillage of the soil is most intensive. Each family has only a half acre to two acres, and the hoe takes the place of the plow. The country is very rich in minerals, especially coal and iron; but mining methods are primitive, and the output is small. Tea, silks, soy beans, vegetable oils, and porcelains are the exports that connect China with the rest of the world. Cotton goods, rice, cigarettes, fish, metals and machinery are the chief imports. Great Britain has most of the trade. Religions — Confucianism, Bud- dhism and Taoism. Exports (191G), $401,498,000; imports, $430,339,000. Chinese Possessions. — China has several dependencies and frontier provinces, loosely connected with the republic. Chief of these are Manchuria, Tibet and Mongolia. Manchuria. Latitude 53° 30'-38° 30' north, longitude 115°-135° east; area, about 3G3,G10 square miles; population, approxi- mately 20,000,000; capital, Mukden (1G0,000). Railway facilities have increased greatly of late, and the cultivation of the soya bean has aided in a development more rapid than in any other part of China. Exports (1915), $142,07G,715; imports, $G3,355,915. Tibet. Latitude 39°-22° north, longitude 79°-101° east; area, 4G3,200 square miles; population, estimated, 6,000,000; capital, Lhassa (15,000 to 20,000). Some agriculture is carried on, as well as stock raising. Hand weaving is common. Minerals mined are gold, borax and salt. Trade chiefly with China and India. Ex- ports to these amounted in 191G-17 to $2,380,000; imports are negligible. 182 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Sin-Kiang consists of Chinese Turkestan, Kulja and Kash- garia, lying between Mongolia and Tibet; occupies 550,340 square miles; population, about 1,200,000. Parts near large rivers are under cultivation. Wool, cotton and silk are produced, and jade is worked. As a whole, the country shows much promise. Mongolia. Latitude 54°-32°30' north, longitude 82°30'-126° east; area, 1,367,G00 square miles; population, about 2,600,000. Inhabitants chiefly nomads, and whatever prosperity is found is due to Chinese immigrants. A vast territory can be reclaimed by irrigation. Some foreign trade is conducted, the exports being wool, hides, furs and horns. Exports from Urga, the chief center (1908), $4,950,000; imports, $7,900,000. Chinese Turkestan: — see Sin-Kiang, p. 267. Chosen (Korea). — A vassal state which is practically an integral part of Japan. Latitude 43°-34° north, longitude 130° 45'-124" 40' east; area, 84,738 square miles; population (1916), 17,500,000; capital, Seoul, estimated, 300,000; other cities — Ping-Yang, 173,000; Fusan, chief port, estimated, 25,000 ; Chemulpo, estimated, 13,000 — all doubtful as to population. Thought to have been founded in the fourteenth century, Korea was under Chinese influence until 1895, when China renounced her claim. In 1904 it became a vassal state of Japan; in 1910 it was formally annexed. A mountainous peninsula, about 600 miles long and 135 miles wide at its broadest part. The climate is mild and delightful. It has several excellent harbors. Most of the people are farmers ; agriculture thrives best in the southern half of the peninsula, rice and beans being the chief crops. The industry is greatly hampered by lack of room, as the valleys are narrow. In many localities mountain-sides are ter- raced and cultivated. Gold has been found in many places, and foreign companies, especially American, hitherto have worked mining concessions. These are now largely in the control of the Japanese. Ponies, wheelbarrows, and sedan-chairs are much used for freight and passenger traffic. A railway extending from Fusan is connected with the Peking branch of the Trans-Siberian Railway. A short branch line extends to Chemulpo. The various ports are open to foreign traders. Practically all commerce and manufactures are controlled by the Japanese. Religions, Bud- dhism, Confucianism. Imports largely cotton and silk goods and grasscloth, machinery, kerosene, sugar, paper, coal, timber; DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 183 exports, rice, beans, bides, cattle, gold. Exports (191G), $294,- 010,000; imports, $372,284,000. CJuistmas Island: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Cochin-China: — see Frencb Indo-Cbina, p. 197. Cocos Islands: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Colombia. — A Soutli American republic. Latitude 5°-12° soutb, longitude 78°-fi7° west; area, 440,846 square miles; popula- tion (1912), 5,100,000; capital, Bogota (1912), 121,300; otlier cities — Medellin, 71,000; Barranquilla, 49,000 (witb Puerto Colombia); Cartagena, 37,000; Manizales, 35,000. A Spanish possession dur- ing the period of Spanish conquest, it became independent of Spain in 1819, comprising at that time the territory now included in Venezuela and Ecuador. In 1832 the republic of New Granada was formed, and in 18G3 it became officially the United States of Colombia. Low plains and valleys in the north give abundant pas- turage to cattle. South of the Caribbean coast the ranges of the Andes cover about one-third of the state. The high plateaus among them yield wheat and other temperate crops. Rainfall is very heavy on the narrow Pacific slope, which is covered with dense tropical vegetation. East of the mountain region is a wide expanse of selvas (forested plains), rich in rubber, also llanos, or grass plains, where cattle graze. Coif ee of good quality is culti- vated at middle altitudes. The great differences in altitude give Colombia diversity of climate and a great variety of the vegetable products of the world. In the coast plains and river valleys the products are purely tropical; between 3,000 and 6,500 feet, maize and coffee predominate; between 6,500 and 10,000 feet, the climate is delightful, and wheat, vegetables and northern fruits are cul- tivated. Colombia is the source of the world's supply of emeralds. Gold-mining is an important industry. Wild and the cultivated rubber is an important product. Vegetable ivory, drugs, dye- woods and crude ru])ber are the chief items of foreign trade. The manufacture of *' panama " hats is an industry of considerable importance. The population live chiefly on the high plateaus and at the seaports. Few countries are so poorly provided with means of transportation. There are about 400 miles of railroad, almost no wagon roads, and only poor mule paths. The Magdalena River is navigable nearly to Honda, GOO miles, the Cauca to Caceres, and the Atrato to Quibdo ; but the most populous regions among 184 GEOGKAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD the highlands are reached only by mule trains. The coast towns import wheat more cheaply than they can bring it from their own highlands. The few industries are centered around Bogota. Most of the foreign trade is carried on with the United States and Great Britain, Principal exports, coffee, hides, bananas, gold; imports, flour, lard, petroleum and cotton goods, chiefly from the United States. Races, Spanish-American and Indian, Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), $31,654,275; imports, $28,922,525. Commerson Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Comoro Archipelago: — see Madagascar, p. 234. Constantinople, State of. — It is proposed by the Peace Confer- ence to restrict the Government of Turkey to portions of Turkish territory in Asia Minor; and to erect an internationalized state comprising the area northwest and west of Constantinople, and a protecting strip on the Asiatic side. On the Black Sea coast the boundary with new Greece begins about at Midia, latitude 41 ° 40' north, and runs directly southwest to the mouth of the Maritza River, north of the Gulf of Zaros. It thus protects all the Dardanelles-Marmora-Bosporus section on the north. In Asia Minor the boundary with Turkey starts at the junction of the state of Constantinople and the vilayet of Kastamuni on the east, and describes a curved line to the head of a bay on the Sea of Marmora, near the village of Gemlik. The location of the two fragments lies, then, between 41 ° 40-40 ° 20' north, and 26°-31° east. The state will not bo self-supporting in a large commercial way, but is an artificial creation to escape a situation intolerable to humanity. By it, the Black Sea should be forever free to commerce. Cook- Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. Corisco Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. Costa Rica. — A Central American republic. Latitude ll°-8° north, longitude 86°-82° west; area, estimated, 23,000 square miles; population (1917), estimated, 441,342; capital, San Jose, 35,654; other cities — Cartage, 12,900; Heredia, 8,200; Limon, At- lantic port, 6,700; Punta Arenas, Pacific port, 5,000 — all estimated, 1915. An unorganized Spanish possession, which became a prov- ince about the end of the sixteenth century, and an independent republic in 1821. Two parallel mountain ranges cross Costa Rica, with the depression of Cartago between them. Several active vol- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 185 canoes are in the northern range; among them Turrialba and Irazu are over 11,000 feet in height. The southern chain also has lofty mountains. A third of the popuhition live on the Pacific or dry side of the mountains, many having relations with the planta- tions that supply Costa Rica with more than half her exports. Coffee is the largest crop, and is noted for its excellence. Cattle are herded on the uplands, but the home supply of beef is not equal to the demand. San Jose, the capital, in the heart of the coffee district, is connected by rail with Limon, the Atlantic port. Coffee and bananas are the chief exports. Manufacturing is increasing. The steamships of the United Fruit Company carry fruit-cargoes to New Orleans, Mobile, New York, and Boston. The imports, largely cotton goods, wheat and flour, come mainly from the United States. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1917), $11,382,000; imports, $5,595,000. Crete. — Also called Candia; an island southeast of Greece. Latitude 35° north, longitude 24°-26'' east; area, 3,330 square miles; population (1916), estimated, 320,000; seat of government, Canea (Khania), estimated, 25,000. The island was a vassal of Venice from 1211 to 1669, when it fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1898 it was made an autonomous state by Great Britain, France, Italy, and Russia; in 1913 its annexation to Greece was completed. Surveys have shown that the island is rich in minerals. The chief wealth is now derived from the plantations of olives, oranges, and lemons. Cuba.— A republic of the West Indies. Latitude 23°-20° north, longitude 85°-74° west; area, 44,215 square miles; population (1916), estimated, 2,627,536; capital and chief port, Havana (1916), 359,259; other cities — Cienfuegos, 82,000; Camaguey, 93,000; Matanzas, 56,500; Santiago, 63,400; Manzanillo, 61,000. A Spanish colony from the time of its discovery by Columbus until 1898, when it became a republic. It is practically a protec- torate of the United States, which must approve treaties and national loans, reserving the right of intervention in case of revo- lution or of violation of treaty. Cuba, the largest island of the West Indies, and the largest fertile island of America, embraces nearly half the land surface of the West Indies. Its deeply indented coasts provide many excel- lent harbors, which form one of its great commercial advantages. 186 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD In the west are the low mountains, Sierra de los Organos, on whose southern slopes, the Vuelta Abajo district, the most highly prized tobacco of Cuba is raised. In the east are highlands, where agri- culture is much diversified, but this region yields less for export than other parts of the island. Between the eastern and western mountains are the rich central plains that produce the great sugar crop of Cuba and give pasturage to large numbers of cattle. The climate is tropical, tempered by the northeast trade winds. The cities in which sanitary regulations are enforced are healthful. Sugar and tobacco are the principal export crops. About two- thirds of the tobacco crop is exported. Cocoanuts and bananas come from the eastern part of the island. The Juragua mines in the eastern part yield manganese iron ore which is extensively exported. About 2,000 miles of railway are in operation. Steam- ship lines connect Havana and Santiago with Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. Steamers in the coastal trade make the circuit of the island. The population consists chiefly of Spanish- Americans and Negroes. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Havana is the chief tobacco and Matanzas the sugar port, the United States having the greater part of the trade. The principal imports are cotton goods, machinery, and cereals. Exports (1917), $357,040,000; imports, $261,377,000. Culebra Island: — see Porto Rico, p. 255. Curagao: — see Dutch West Indies, p. 189. Cyprus: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Cyranaica: — see Tripoli and Cyranaica, p. 274. Czecho-SIovakia. — A new state of central Europe, comprising parts of Austria and Hungary occupied predominantly by Czechs, Slovaks and Moravians; and recognized by the Peace Conference. Its territory is that of Bohemia, Moravia, Lower Austria nearly as far south as the Danube, and part of northern Hungary. Lati- tude 51°-48° north, longitude 9° 30' to about 22° 30' east; area and population alike difficult to forecast, tentative figures being 47,000 square miles and 17,500,000. Important cities, Prague, 541,000 (1914); Briinn, 132,000. The situation of the country, entirely separated from the sea-way to world trade, is poor in the extreme; and a right-of-way through a foreign country must be secured for its foreign commerce. In order to safeguard inter- national interests, the German peace treaty of May, 1919, gives DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 187 assurance of free access to the sea, through Trieste and Fiume on the south and through Hamburg and Stettin on the north. The natural resources, both of soil and minerals, are great. Agricul- ture is highly developed in the west, and mining is carried on in Bohemia and Hungary extensively. Wheat, barley, oats and rye are raised over large areas. Coal and lignite, gold, iron, copper, lead, zinc and graphite are all worked. Manufactures of many kinds, notably glass and its wares, and beer, are highly developed. Dahomey: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Damao {Daman or Damaun) : — see Portuguese India, p. 258. Danish Possessions. — Until recently, Denmark has had three colonial possessions : — Iceland, Greenland and certain of the Virgin Islands, popularly known as the Danish West Indies. The first has just declared its independence (see Iceland) ; the last has been purchased by the United States; there remain only the coastal strips of Greenland. Danish West Indies: — see Virgin Islands, p. 290. Denmark. — A limited monarchy, including the peninsula of Jutland and the nearby islands. Latitude 58°-54° north, longi- tude 8°-12°45' east; area, 15,600 square miles; population (1916), 2,940,979; capital, Copenhagen and suburbs, 605,772; other cities — Aarhuus, 65,900; Odense, 45,000; Aalborg, 38,000. Founded as a kingdom in 1448. In 1852 the Great Powers of Europe guar- anteed its integrity. The kingdom is entirely lowland, and the west coast is protected from the sea by dikes at many points. The Baltic islands, excepting Bornholm, are flat and fertile, but large areas of moor and sand are met in Jutland. The climate is oceanic, mild for the latitude, but great storms sometimes lash the coasts. Agriculture and cattle breeding are the chief re- sources. Eighty per cent, of the land is productive ; the pastures are large and rich; and stock farming is the special sphere of the Danish farmer. The export of butter and eggs is enormous. The kingdom is poor in minerals and wanting in metals. Fishing is an extensive industry. Beet sugar is refined, flour mills are numerous, factories make sail-cloth, leather, and prepare tobacco, and the brewing and distilling interests are large. Copenhagen is one of the free ports of Europe, all goods admitted to the free port being exempt from customs duties. Thus they may be reshipped to foreign ports without examination, but if sent into Denmark 188 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD outside of the free port, they must pay tariff charges. Copen- hagen and Odense, the chief centers of manufacture, produce also machinery, porcelain and cloth. The rail and wagon roads are adequate and excellent. Race, Danish. Religion, chiefly Lutheran. The chief trade is with Germany and Great Britain. Imports, metals and hardware, textiles, coal, cereals; exports, provisions, animals. Exports (1914), $241,000,000; imports, $220,900,000. D'Entrecasteaux Islands: — see Papua, p. 250. Desirade Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. Diego Garcia Island: — see Chagos Islands, p. 179. Bindings, The: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Diu: — see Portuguese India, p. 258. Dominica: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Ducie Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Dudoza Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Dujf Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. Duke of York Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Dutch Borneo: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Dutch East Indies. — Colonial possessions of the Netherlands. Latitude 6° north-ll° south, longitude 95°-141° east; area, 735,000 square miles; population (1912), 48,000,000; capital and commercial center, Batavia, 138,500; other cities — Soerabaya, 157,000; Soerakarta, 118,400; Samarang, 97,000. The islands were held by the Dutch East India Company from 1602 to 1798, at which time they were taken over by the Dutch Government. This group of islands comprises Java, Madura, Sumatra, Dutch Borneo, Banca, Billiton, Celebes, Dutch New Guinea, the Riau-Lingga Islands, the Moluccas, and the Sunda Islands. Java, the most im- portant, produces large quantities of sugar, tea, coffee, indigo, cinchona bark, and tobacco. Sumatra produces the famous cigar- wrapper tobacco, used all over Europe and the American conti- nent, and a very choice coffee. The Dutch are very skillful in their colonial policy. They protect the natives from arbitrary oppres- sion and spoliation, and have made the East Indies an inex- haustible source of wealth for the mother country. The climate is tropical, but all the larger islands are mountainous, and cool retreats are accessible. Java is the most densely peopled land near the equator. Next to Cuba, it is the largest producer of cane- sugar, and the " old plantation " coffee is sent to all parts of the DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 189 world. The island is the largest producer of quinine, and the tea plantations yield important returns. Sumatra's products are like those of Java, but it grows a far larger amount of tobacco. The products of the other islands are about the same as those of Java; Banca and Billiton furnish the major part of the world's tin supply. A large part of the spices, tortoise-shell and pearl-shell in the world's trade comes from the various Dutch islands. Four- fifths of all products are sent to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, where they are greatly enhanced in value by manufacture and prepara- tion for market. Dutch merchants sell these products in many lands, and send to the East Indies great quantities of cottons and other manufactures; so that the Dutch East Indies are the best customers of the Netherlands, excepting Europe. Races, Malayan and Chinese. Exports (1916), $361,732,000; imports, $186,000,000. The size and population of the various divisions follow : — Java and Madura 50,557 square miles, population (1912) 36,035,435; Sumatra 159,739 square miles, population 3,782,990; Riau-Lingga Archipelago 16,300 square miles, population 187,460; Banca 4,446 square miles, population 118,653 ; Billiton 1,863 square miles, popu- lation 58,840; West Coast Borneo 55,825, population 467,158; Borneo, South and East Districts, 156,912 square miles, population 905,300; Celebes Islands 72,070 square miles, population 2,677,690; Molucca Islands 195,653 square miles, population 1,061,072 ; Timor Archipelago 17,698 square miles, population 950,000; Bali and Lombok 4,065 square miles, population 1,207,310. The Molucca Islands deserve special mention. They are a group of volcanic islands crossed by the equator and the 130° meridian east, best known by the name of " Spice Islands." The islands are the chief source of many of the spices of commerce. Practically all the nutmegs come from the Banda Islands, a group of the Molucca archipelago. The people are mainly Malays. Spices are the chief exports and these are shipped from Batavia, Java. Dutch Guiana: — see Surinam, p. 270. Dutch Neiv Guinea: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Dutch West Indies. — Possessions of the Netherlands in the West Indies are Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, and Curagao. Surinam is situated on the north coast of South America, lati- tude 6°-2" north, longitude 58 ° 20-53 ° 50' west; area, 46,060 190 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD square miles; population (1917), 91,622, exclusive of forest Negroes and Indians. Capital, Paramaribo, 38,190. Became Dutch in 1667, by treaty with England, and has been in English hands twice since for short periods„ Chief products, sugar, cacao, bananas, coffee, rice, maize, rum and molasses. Gold also is ex- ported, as well as balata, a rubber gum. Exports (1916), $3,355,- 850; imports, $2,463,000. The colony of Curagao consists of six islands, of which Curasao (210 square miles, population, 1917, 34,168), is the chief. Latitude 13° north, longitude 69 "-es" west; area, 403 square miles; popu- lation (1917), 57,381. Chief products are maize, beans, pulse, cattle, and lime phosphate. Exports (1916), $1,007,650; imports, $2,564,090. Eagle (Trois Freres) Islands: — see Mauritius, p. 235. East African Protectorate: — see British East Africa, p. 164. Easter Island: — see Chile, p. 179. East Falkland Island: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. Ecuador. — A South American republic. Latitude 2° north-4° south, longitude 81°-73° west; area, 116,000 square miles; popu- lation, estimated, 2,000,000; capital, Quito, 70,000; other cities — Guayaquil, chief seaport, 105,000; Cuenca, 50,000; Riobaroba, 18,000 — all estimated. Formerly a part of New Granada (Colom- bia), from which it separated in 1830. The constitution now in effect was adopted in 1906. Ecuador is so called because it lies under the equator. Its position and surface illustrate the influence of altitude on climate and production. On the narrow Pacific coast plain there are tropical forests, high grasses, rubber, cacao and other products of the hot lands. The people live in thin-walled houses. Seventy miles to the east is the high plateau of Ecuador, between Andine ranges, where the population is housed in stone and adobe dwell- ings amid fields of wheat, barley, potatoes and alfalfa. Farther east the land slopes to another forested tropical plain. The low- land east of the excellent port of Guayaquil and the plain of the Rio Guayas are a continuous garden, rich in tropical vegetation. Here sugar-cane is cultivated. Cacao is the principal wealth of the country, and Ecuador is the chief source of the world's supply. Cacao forms three-fourths of the total exports. The wheat-fields of the high plateau hitherto have been inaccessible because only DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 191 mule paths connected the high with the low-lying regions. The railroad from Guayaquil to the plateau of Quito now reaches the grain-growing district. The eastern lowlands are rich in rubber and gold. The coast Indians produce the famous Panama hats from the fine straw of the toquilla, called Panama simply because they are forwarded to market through that port. There are few other manufactures except the products of a small number of woolen and cotton mills, saw mills, chocolate works, and soap factories. Most of them are at Guayaquil, the best harbor on the west coast of South America, which in the past has been exceed- ingly unhealthful. The imports are mainly manufactures and foodstuffs. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Exports, 1916, $18,075,800; imports, $9,599,000. Egypt— Latitude 32°-22° north, longitude 24°-36° east; area, estimated, 350,000 square miles; population (1917), 12,570,000, of whom about 275,000 are of European descent; capital, Cairo (1917), 785,000; chief seaport, Alexandria, 435,000; other cities- Port Said, Suez Canal port, 90,000; Tanta, 74,000; Damanhur, 40,000; Mansura, 49,000; Asyut, 51,000. A kingdom in early biblical times, and probably the oldest organized nation in the world, Egypt was successively a Greek, a Roman, a Muhammadan, and a Turkish vassal state. From the time of the acquisition of the Suez Canal by the British, the influence of Great Britain be- came paramount. In 1914 Egypt became a British protectorate. The habitable and food-producing part of Egypt is confined to the flood plain and delta of the Nile, an area not materially greater than 12,000 square miles. The rest of the country is upland, the wind-swept Libyan desert, which is a continuation of the Sahara. The Nile traverses this desert, and where it overflows its flood plain or is carried by irrigation to the land, it covers the desert with luxuriant subtropical flora. It is thus the life of Egypt. The greater part of its waters comes through the Blue Nile from Abys- sinia, and the fertilizing silt is also chiefly derived from the eastern tributaries bringing rock waste from the Abyssinian highlands. Much water was wasted for centuries, because at flood time the Nile brings a larger supply than can be utilized, while at low Nile there is not sufficient water for the crops. This difficulty has been removed by the great dam built at Assuan, which impounds the surplus waters at flood, forming a great lake which at low Nile 192 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD is run through the sluices and carried into the irrigation ditches; so that today Egypt is raising two to three crops from the same land each year where formerly only one crop was possible. Be- sides supplying food for its millions of inhabitants, Egypt is send- ing to American and European factories almost all the cotton it raises, a fiber of peculiar excellence. Wheat, maize and onions are also large export crops. The live-stock industry is subordinate, although many dromedaries, cattle, goats and poultry are raised. There is little mining, although gold is now being taken from the mountains east of the Nile. The Suez Canal made Egypt the con- necting link between Europe and eastern Asia, and stimulated its trade. Races, Egyptian, Greek, Italian, British and French. Religion, chiefly Muhammadan. Exports (1917), $250,380,000; imports, $163,175,000. Elhasa: — see Hasa, El, p. 215. Ellice Islands: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. Eritrea: — see Italian Possessions, p. 222. Esthonia. — A new state proposed in the Peace Conference to be carved out of western Russia. As projected, it occupies all of the old government of Esthonia, south of the Gulf of Finland, part of western Pskof, and northern Livonia; and in a general way embraces the area occupied predominantly by Esthonians. Its location is latitude 59° 35-57° 15' north, longitude, including the islands of Osel and Dago off the west coast, 22°-28° east; area and population of old Esthonia, 7,605 square miles and 512,000; of the new country perhaps 16,000 square miles and 1,185,000. Principal city, Reval (or Revel), 137,000 (1913), a naval port of importance. The land is low, the soil chiefly a mixed glacial type, the climate severe. Agriculture is the chief industry, and is very scientifically administered. Cattle-raising flourishes. Crops are mainly rye, oats, barley, potatoes and other vegetables. Meat and butter are exported. A considerable number of manufac- tories have arisen. The dominant race, Esthonians, are allied to the Finns. Ethiopia: see Abyssinia, p. 142. Europe. — The smallest of the continents proper. Latitude of mainland 71° 6-36° north, longitude 9° 28' west-36° east; area, somewhat over 3,800,000, mth islands ; population, previous to the World War, approximately 400,000,000, giving a population DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 193 density of 106 per square mile. The groups of islands in the Arctic Ocean belonging to Europe, ending with Franz Joseph Land, extend the boundaries of European territory far in that direction. Europe is a peninsula of peninsulas, with a coast line of extraordinary length — 20,000 miles without minor embayments, and nearly 50,000 miles when measured along the actual water front. The average elevation of the continent is low, and the lower portions of most of the streams are navigable. The resul- tant accessibility of the interior of the land has had a dominant influence upon the economic advance of many of the European nations. The population density, while high on the average, ranges from 1,000 in industrial regions to almost zero in rocky or desert- like areas. Taken throughout, Europe presents remarkable diversity of condition. The western portions are on the whole the most ad- vanced in the world; the eastern and southeastern parts are singu- larly backward. Topography has influenced this condition in part, and accessibility to the world's foreign markets more. The com- plementary position of western Europe and the United States — strategically located on opposite shores of the narrowest ocean, has stimulated greatly the economic advance of the parts adjacent to the common ocean highway. It is noticeable that, while a few European countries are chiefly agricultural, and early in economic stage, as Russia in 1914, even here parts had developed manufacturing to a considerable degree, as Russian Poland. Most of the countries listed as industrial have so large an amount of agriculture that they are as much char- acterized by the one activity as by the other. Great Britain has advanced farthest in this respect, her agriculture being relatively small and her manufacturing very extensive. Faeroe Islands: — see Denmark, p. 187. Falkland Islands: — see British Possessions; America, p. 164. Fanning Island: — see Gilbert and EUice Islands, p. 208. Fead Islands: — see Abgarris Islands, p. 142. Federated Malay States: — see British Possessions ; Asia, p. 165. Fernando Po Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. Fiji Islands: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169, Finland. — Formerly a grand duchy of Russia; proclaimed its 194 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD independence on July 20, 1917; on October 7, 1917, it was declared a republic within Russia; and on December 9, 1917, it became an independent republic, now recognized by all the great nations. Latitude 70°-60° north, longitude 20° 15-33° east; area (1915), 125,689; population (1915), 3, 277,100. Both area and population are likely to be somewhat augmented by the accession of Russian territory along the Arctic coast about 80 miles wide, with an area estimated at 10,400 square miles and a population numbering perhaps 16,000. At present there is no capital, Viborg and Vasa being used by the tAvo main factions engaged in civil war. Agriculture forms the occupation of a large part of the people; wheat, rye, barley, oats and potatoes being raised. Cattle are numerous. A large area is forested, the woods being of a fine quality of northern varieties. Most of the country is too flat for extensive water-power, but innumerable lakes are found, many of which could be made to furnish low falls. Internal communi- cation is largely by these chains of lakes; in addition, there are 2,506 miles of railway. The only mineral worked is iron ore, a few thousand tons yearly being the output. Iron is made chiefly from imported ore. Considerable manufacturing has developed, chiefly wood industries, iron and mechanical works, textiles and paper. Foreign trade has been mainly with Russia and Germany. Im- ports are cereals, coffee, sugar, iron and its wares, cotton, machinery; exports, timber, butter, paper. Exports (1913, the best year), $75,899,815; imports, $92,893. Formosa: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. France. — A republic of western Europe. Latitude 51°-42°20' north, longitude 4° 50' west-7°40' east. In 1914 the area was 207,054 square miles; population, 39,602,258. The Peace Confer- ence has awarded to France 5,680 square miles, with an estimated population of 1,874,014; total area, 1919, 212,734; population (1919), according to normal increase should total 46,862,000; the actual figure is unknown; capital, Paris (1911), 2,890,000; other cities— Marseille, 551,000; Lyon, 524,000; Bordeaux, 262,000; Lille, 218,000; Nantes, 170,500; Toulouse, 149,500; St. Etienne, 149,000; Nice, 143,000; Le Havre, 136,000. Under normal conditions, 42.5 per cent, of the population of France is urban. The history of the country extends back to the Roman conquest DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 195 of Gaul, a few years before the Christian era. The reign of the Bourbons (1589-1792) marks the period of chief development. France was twice a republic and twice an empire before the over- throw of Napoleon III in 1870, when it became a republic for the third time. W.ith the sea on three coasts, the republic is favorably situated for sea traffic with the western world and the orient. The greater part of France is lowland or occupied by mountains and dissected plateaus of only moderate height. A great plain starts at the Atlantic border with Spain and extends through western and northern France, thence eastward across Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Poland and Russia. It is one of the world's great liighways. The eastern half, on the whole, is moun- tainous. The soil is nearly everywhere fertile. France has over 150 rivers navigable for large or small craft, the most important being the Seine, Loire, Charente, Gironde, Adour, Rhone, Meuse, Somme and Moselle. Many excellent and convenient canals con- nect all the principal rivers. Navigation is confined mainly to the estuaries, except for river craft of very light draught. Many of the rivers are canalized. These with the regular canals furnish 7,000 miles of interior navigable waters. There are thus about 3,000 miles of canals, 5,500 of navigable rivers; for land transpor- tation there are 29,000 miles of national roads, beside a larger number of secondary roads; and 26,000 miles of railway lines. The delightful climate of France insures to agriculture a fortunate combination of central and south European conditions. More than half the surface is under cultivation, and nearly half the people live on farms, most of them so small that France has as many farm holdings as there are in the United States. There are many har- bors but few good ones, most of them being either shallow estu- aries or artificial harbors like Cherbourg. The sea trade is car- ried on chiefly through Marseille, Cherbourg, Le Havre, Boulogne and Bordeaux. Great improvements were made in the old har- bors during the World War, and a number of new ones created; this may affect future trade routes somewhat. Next to Russia, France is the largest wheat-growing country of Europe. Potatoes form the largest crop, succeeded by wheat, oats and beet-sugar. France is the greatest wine-growing country of the world. All domestic animals are raised scientifically, and dairy products have 196 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD high reputation. The fisheries are very important, and sardine canning is one of the large industries. France has much coal in several basins, but chiefly along the Belgian border. Many of the mines were destroyed by the Germans, and the present supply is not equal to its demand. The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine has given the state its former iron mines, making it easily supreme in continental Europe, and the extension of its eastern boundary restores to it many thousand acres of excellent farming land as well. Moreover, Lorraine contains the western end of the Sarre coal field, now restored to France in full; and the remainder of the field has been placed under the League of Nations, virtually as French territory temporarily (738 square miles, population, 234,200). This greatly improves the coal situation, as the mines were abandoned uninjured by the Germans in 1918. It will require five years for French mining to resume a normal position. A special point must be made of the acquisition in Alsace, near the town of Thann, of potash deposits that may yet break the Ger- man potash monopoly. Manufacturing is very highly developed. French silks, cottons and woolens are unsurpassed. Many classes of French goods, including porcelains, glassware and metal prod- ucts, are distinguished for good taste, elegance and finish. The Paris district particularly is noted for the production oi articles de luxe. Race, French; religion, Roman Catholic; trade, chiefly with United Kingdom, United States, Belgium, Germany, Algeria. Imports, chiefly cereals, coal and coke, metals, raw cotton, ma- chinery, woolen manufactures ; exports, silk manufactures, woolen goods, wine, motor cars, butter, wearing apparel, lace. Exports (1913), $3,114,840,000; imports, $3,829,020,000. France, Mandatories of. — Two of Germany's African colonies have been divided by the Peace Conference between Great Britain and France, the latter receiving by far the larger part of the ter- ritory. The Cameroons (ex-German Kamerun). Latitude (south of Lake Chad) 12°30' north-l°30' (Congo River) south; longitude 8°30'-°18 east; area, 291,950 square miles; population, 3,540,000; seat of government formerly at Buea. The chief trading centers are Duala (22,000), Victoria, Kribi, Rio del Rey, and Campo. In 1884, owing to trouble among the blacks, the resident foreign traders requested Great Britain to establish a protectorate. Upon DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 197 her refusal, a successful appeal was made to Germany, The coast regions are fertile, supporting valuable tropical crops; cocoa, coffee, rubber, kola, oil palms. Hardwoods, especially ebony, abundant. Cattle raising is a success inland. Mineral resources scarcely known, but considerable in amount. Imports are textiles, liquor, timber, salt, iron utensils; exports, rubber, palm kernels and oil, cocoa, ivory. Exports (1912), $5,514,000; imports, $8,149,475. The only part of the Cameroons allotted to Great Britain is a narrow strip along the northwestern boundary, adjacent to Nigeria. Togoland. Latitude ll°-6° 15' south, longitude 0° 15' west-2° east; area, 33,700 square miles; population, 1,032,346; coast line only about 32 miles; capital and chief port, Lome. The German protectorate was established in 1884. A hilly country, except on the coast; much of the land grass-covered, some cultivated. Oil palms, caoutchouc and dye-woods grow inland; maize, tapioca, ginger and bananas are grown. Trade in palm kernels and oil, and gum; plantations of palms-, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, rubber and fiber plants are in operation. Imports are machinery, rice, sugar; exports, cocoa, rubber, palm oil and kernels, cotton. Exports (1912, the highest year), $2,490,000; imports, $2,857,000. On the western side of Togoland, a narrow strip adjacent to Gold Coast and Ashanti has been allotted to Great Britain. The port of Lome is included in French Togoland. French Congo: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. French Equatorial Africa: — see French Congo, p. 197. French Guiana: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. French Guinea: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. French India: — see French Possessions; Asia, p. 202. French Indo-China. — Consists of five states: the Colony of Cochin-China, and the Protectorates of Annam. Cambodia, Tonking and Laos, Kwan-Chau-Wan, and the territory around Battambang. The region as a whole extends from 23° 15'-8°30' north latitude, and from 100° 15'-109° 30' east longitude. The total area is about 256,000 square miles; population (1914), 16,990,230. The whole forms a single customs union. Exports (1916), $59,549,560; im- ports $46,866,480. The chief export is rice ; others are fish, pepper, cotton, sugar, rubber, coal. 198 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Cochin-China occupies the southern end of the French posses- sions; area, 20,000 square miles; population (1914), 3,050,755; capital, Saigon (1915), 100,000; Cholon has 168,100. Rice is the chief product; rubber is cultivated somewhat; a large variety of fruits and vegetables is raised; the cattle industry is extensive. Fishing on the rivers and coast is active. Trade controlled by French and Chinese. Exports are rice, fish and their oil, cotton, copra, pepper, silk, hides; value (1916), $40,268,060; imports, $31,149,740. Annam lies above Cochin-China, on the east coast of the penin- sula; area, 52,100 square miles; population (1914), 5,200,000; capi- tal. Hue, 60,600; largest town, Binh-Dinh, 74,400. Products, rice and other cereals, mulberry, cinnamon, tobacco, sugar, manioc, bamboo and timber, coffee, dye and medicinal plants. Raw silk is a large industry, and extensively manufactured. Cattle-raising is growing. Coal and salt are produced. Imports, cotton goods, tea, oil, paper articles, tobacco; exports, sugar, cotton and silk cloth, rice, cinnamon, tea, paper. Exports (1916), $887,650; im- ports, $1,165,000. Cambodia adjoins Cochin-China on the northwest; area, 45,000 square miles; population (1914), 1,634,252; capital, Pnom-Penh, 62,255. Products, rice, tobacco, indigo, pepper, coffee, cinnamon; cotton raising is increasing; cattle-breeding is a large industry; salt is worked. Imports, salt, wines, textiles; exports, salt fish, tobacco, cotton, rice. Tonking occupies the northern end of the possessions; area, 46,400 square miles; population (1911), 6,119,720; chief town, Hanoi (1915), 150,000, the capital of Indo-China; port, Haiphong. Chief crop, rice; maize, sugar-cane, cotton, coffee, tobacco, fruits are raised. Zinc is mined. Imports, metals, tools and machinery, beverages, cloths; exports, rice, maize, cattle products. Exports (1916), $14,216,400; imports, $9,218,972. Laos is a southern extension of Tonking; area, 98,000 square miles; population (1914), 640,877; capital, Vien-tiane. Soil of superior quality, producing rice, cotton, indigo, fruits, tobacco; teak-wood is an extensive product. Mineral resources large. Kwang-Chau-Wan is on the adjacent south coast of China. Latitude 19° north, longitude 110° east; area, 190 square miles; DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 199 population, 168,000. Leased from China, and includes two islands in the adjoining bay. Imports, cotton yarns, opium, petroleum; exports, straw sacks, mats, swine. French Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. French Possessions. — The colonial policy of France began in 1626, when part of Guiana was taken, and has persisted through- out the intervening period to the present day. In all, about 4,000,000 square miles of dependent territory, with a population of 44,000,000, are now under French control or ownership. Tabu- lated by continents, the holdings are as follows : — in America, four colonies contain 33,200 square miles and 459,082 people; in Africa, fourteen regions contain 3,151,024 square miles, with a population of 32,898,518; in Asia, six colonies contain 256,196 square miles and 17,268,728 people; in Australasia (Oceania) two major islands and a number of minor groups embrace 9,150 square miles and 81,200 people. The volume of trade may be judged from these figures, which exclude Algeria and Tunis. Exports from the colonies (1915), $152,309,645; imports, $104,168,750. The following are described under their own names : Algeria, Morocco, Madagascar (including the Mayotte and Comorro Islands). Africa. — French Sahara includes all the territory west of the Nile basin, practically the whole of the Sahara desert except the subordinate Libyan desert, estimated at 1,544,000 square miles, with a population of only 800,000. Much of it contains only oases and connecting caravan routes. Fruits, oil and seeds are collected and exported. The state of Wadai lies at the southeastern corner of this area, in the Sudan. French West Africa includes Senegal, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper Senegal-Niger (French Sudan), Mauri- tania. Senegal occupies the west coast from 21° 15' to about 13° 30' north latitude, merging into Mauritania on the northeast and French Guinea on the southeast ; area, 74,000 square miles ; popula- tion (1915), 1,247,979; capital and port, St. Louis, 22,839 (1916); Dakar is a naval station and seat of government for West Africa (19,808). Soil, sandy; ground-nuts, millet, maize, rice and castor beans are cultivated, and gum and rubber gathered. Ground-nuts are exported, as also hides, skins and rubber. Imports are 200 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD cottons, foodstuffs, metal utensils and coal. Exports (1916), $16,458,075; imports, $23,354,165. French Guinea lies on the west coast, south of Portuguese Guinea; area, about 95,000 square miles; population (1916), 1,808,893. Chief product, rubber; others are palm oil and nuts, millet, gum, coffee, fruits. Cattle are raised on a large scale. Gold is known to occur. Exports, rubber, cattle, ground-nuts, palm kernels. Exports (1916), $3,560,230; imports, $4,041,860. Ivory Coast occupies the north coast of the Gulf of Guinea, between Liberia and Gold Coast, and stretches north to the French Sudan; area, about 130,000 -square miles; population (1916), 1,530,754; seat of government, Bingerville (formerly Adjame) ; at Grand Bassan is a good harbor. Maize, plantains, bananas, pine-apples and coffee are cultivated, and cocoanuts gathered. Mahogany occurs inland, and gold. Imports, chiefly cotton goods, tobacco, rice; exports, palm kernels, oil and rubber. Exports (1916), $1,888,410; imports, $2,109,330. Dahomey stretches inland from the north coast of the Gulf of Guinea, between Togoland and Nigeria, with only 70 miles of coast; area, 39,000 square miles; population (1916), 911,749; seat of government and chief trade center, Porto Novo (20,000). Agri- culture is largely developed, maize, manioc, yams and potatoes being raised near the coast; cotton is cultivated somewhat. Im- ports, chiefly cottons, machinery, liquor, tobacco; exports, maize, palm kernels and oil, copra, kola nuts and rubber. Exports (1916), $3,756,210; imports, $3,476,150. Upper Senegal-Niger was consolidated in 1904 from Sene- gambia and Niger. On the north it merges into Sahara, on the south into the colonies on the Guinea coast; on the west into Mauritania, on the east with the Chad region of Sahara. Its divi- sions include the civil and military Niger Territories ; area, 802,000 square miles; population (1916), 6,449,067. Industry primitive, but includes pottery, brick making, weaving and leather. Cattle are raised on a large scale. Rubber is collected; ground-nuts, millet, maize, rice and cotton are cultivated. Imports, chiefly cottons, metal utensils, foodstuffs; exports, cattle, skins, wool, rubber and ground-nuts. Exports (1916), $622,075; imports, $1,301,250. Mauritania lies northeast of Senegal and east of the Spanish territory of Rio de Oro and Adrar, merging eastward with DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 201 Sahara; area, about 345,000 square miles; population, about 600,000, mostly Moors. French Congo (French Equatorial Africa) lies on the west coast, below the Gulf of Guinea, extending northward from 4° south latitude. It is cut into segments by two intrusions of Kamerun, broadens rapidly northward and merges into the state of Wadai. Its main body is between 2° north and 4° south, and between 8° 30' and 17° east; area, about 669,000 square miles; population, estimated at 9,000,000; capital, Brazzaville; chief ports, Port Gentil and Libreville. Rubber, palm oil and the produce from caravans are the exports. Exports (1916), $732,657; imports, $926,070. French Somali Coast, on the Gulf of Aden, East Africa. Lati- tude 12° 30-10° 40' north, longitude 41 ° 40'-42 ° 40' east; area, about 5,790 square miles; population (1910), 208,000; chief port and seat of government, Dibouti. Coast fisheries and inland trade are the chief occupations; salt is mined. Most trade is transit. Imports, mainly cotton goods, galvanized iron, sugar and butter; exports, coffee, ivory, skins and hides. Exports (1916), $10,325,031; imports, $7,847,771. Reunion (Bourbon) Island lies 420 miles east of Madagascar. Latitude 21° south, longitude 55° 30' east; area, 970 square miles; population (1912), 173,822; chief towns, St. Denis, 23,972 (1912), St. Pierre, 29,481. Has been a French colony since 1767. Chief products, sugar, rum, coffee, vanilla and spices, tapioca; imports, rice, grain. Exports (1916), $6,632,900; imports, $4,679,413. St. Paul and Amsterdam Islands, latitude 38° south, longitude 78° east, are uninhabited rocks. Kerguelen Island, latitude 50° south, longitude 70° east, is a desolate spot, used chiefly as a supply station, especially for antarctic exploration, and as an astronomical station. America. — St. Pierre and Miquelon are the largest islands of two groups near the south coast of Newfoundland. Latitude 47° north, longitude 56° 20' west; area, St. Pierre group, 10 square miles, Miquelon group, 83 square miles; population (1911), St. Pierre group, 4,209, Miquelon group, 443. The islands are rocky, and the chief industry cod fishing. Imports, textiles, salt, wine, meat, foodstuffs; exports, cod, fresh and dried, and other fish products. Exports (1915), $1,783,780; imports, $514,765. 202 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Guadeloupe and its dependencies consist of two closely adja- cent islands and five smaller islands. Latitude 16 ° 30-15 ° 50' north, longitude 61° 50-61° west; area, main islands, 772 square miles, dependencies, 688 square miles. The two main islands are Guadeloupe or Basse-Terre (west), and Grand-Terre to the east. The lesser islands are Marie Galante, Les Saintes, Desirade, St. Barthelemy, and St. Martin. Seat of government, Basse-Terre (8,656) ; Pointe-a-Pitre (22,604) has a good harbor. Products, sugar, coffee, cacao ; many fruits, vegetables and grains are grown for local consumption; parts of the islands forest-clad. Exports (1916), $8,145,680; imports, $4,816,355. French Guiana is on the northern coast of South America. Latitude 5° 40-2° north, longitude 55°-51°30' west; area, about 32,000 square miles; population (1911), 49,000; capital and only seaport, Cayenne (13,527). Population figures are exclusive of a penal settlement of about 8,300. The 200 miles of coast are high, and harbors almost lacking. Agriculture slight in amount; rice, maize, manioc, cocoa, coffee, sugar, tobacco and indigo are grown, and rubber collected. Gold mining occupies many of the people. Exports are cocoa, woods, hides, gold, phosphates. Value of ex- ports (1915), $2,274,380; imports, $2,085,800. Martinique, latitude 14° 52'-14° 27' north, longitude 61° 12'- 59° 50 west; area, 385 square miles; population (1916), 193,087; chief trade center, Port de France (26,400). Chief products, sugar and cocoa ; lesser crops are tobacco, coffee, cotton. Exports (1916), $12,197,965; imports, $6,770,880. Asia. — French India consists of five minute colonies, scattered unsystematically through the peninsula : — Pondichery, latitude 12 ° north, longitude 80° east, on the east coast south of Madras, popu- lation (1916), 168,344; Karikal, latitude 11° north, longitude 80° east, on the coast south of the former, 56,562; Yanaon, latitude 16° 45' north, longitude 82° 30' east, northeast of Madras on the coast; Mahe, latitude 11° 30' north, longitude 75° 30' east, on the southwest coast; and Chandernagor, latitude 22° 40' north, longi- tude 88° 20' east, a few miles northwest of Calcutta. Ground-nuts, paddy and ragi are grown, and rubber, cotton and jute worked up. Exports (1914, the highest year), $6,860,700; imports, $1,909,130. AvrStralasia.—'New Caledonia, an island of the South Pacific, DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 203 Latitude 20°-22°25' south, longitude 161° 30-164° 40' east; area, 7,600 square miles; population (1911), 50,608. The island is largely mountainous ; there is some pasture and some arable land. Chief products, coffee, copra, cotton, manioc, maize, tobacco, bananas, pine-apples; cattle raising extensive; mill industries somewhat developed. Nickel, ore and metal are an important product. Imports, coal, flour, rice, wine; exports, minerals, coffee, copra, rubber, guano. Exports (1916), $4,026,035; imports, $3,445,520. Dependencies of the island are five groups : — Isle of Pines, 30 miles southeast, 58 square miles, population 600; Wallis Archi- pelago, northeast of Fiji, 40 square miles, population, 4,500; Loyalty Islands, 60 miles east of New Caledonia, 800 square miles, on which cocoanuts and rubber are raised; Huon Islands, 170 miles northwest of New Caledonia, barren ; Futuna and Alfi, south of Wallis Archipelago, with 1,500 population. The New Hebrides Islands are a chain of volcanic peaks. Latitude 13°-20° south, longitude 166°-169° east; area, 5,100 square miles; population, estimated, 70,000. The islands were dis- covered in 1606 and visited by Cook in 1774. By a treaty ratified in 1906 the islands were placed under the joint control of Great Britain and France. Maize, copra, coffee, bananas, and Kauri wood are exported. Sulphur is abundant. The Society Islands form an archipelago of the South Pacific. Latitude 16°-18° south, longitude 152°-148° west; area, 637 square miles; population, estimated, 20,000. The islands have been claimed by the French since 1768. Tahiti, the largest and most important island, contains more than half the population of the group; area, 600 square miles; population, 11,700. Papeete, its capital, is a port of call for many vessels in Pacific trade. The natives are among the finest of the Polynesian Malays, but they have suffered much from the vices of Europeans. The chief exports are copra, sugar and rum, which are cleared mainly through the ports of Fiji. Pearls and mother of pearl are impor- tant products. Imports are cloths, wheat, flour, metal utensils. Exports of Tahiti (1913), 1,703,590; imports, $1,685,390. The Paumotu (Paumota, Taumotu or Low) Archipelago is a broad chain of coral stolls in the South Pacific. Latitude 14°-23° south, longitude 150°-131° west; area, about 330 square miles; 204 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD population, estimated, 6,000, mainly Malays of the Polynesian type. The number of islands is 78. They became a protectorate of France in 1844, and were formally annexed to the dependency of Tahiti in 1881. Pearls and pearl shell are the only products, and these are marketed at Tahiti. The Marquesas Islands are a volcanic group in mid-Pacific. Latitude 8°-ll° south, longitude 141°-138° west; area, 480 square miles; population, estimated, 3,500. The islands, discovered in 1595, became a French possession about 1842. The administration includes various other islands in the vicinity. They are of strategic value only. The Leeward Islands lie immediately northwest of the Society Islands, and by some are regarded as a part of that group. The Gambler, Tubuai and Rapa Islands are three small groups near the Tropic of Capricorn, ranging as a whole from 22° to 28° south, and 155° to 135° west. They are of coral origin, and contain altogether a few thousand inhabitants. French Somali Coast: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. French West Africa: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Friendly Islands: — see Tonga Islands, p. 274. Funafuti Island: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. Futuna Island: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. Galapagos Islands. — A group of five large and ten small islands crossed by the equator about 600 miles west of Ecuador, to which state they belong; area, estimated, 2,800 square miles; population, estimated, 800, but likely to increase materially from the fact that the islands are in the route between the Panama Canal and Aus- tralia. The only commercial products are guano and orchilla moss, from which a purple dye is extracted. These are exported to Europe. A powerful radio-station has been erected on the islands. The giant turtles for which the islands were noted are now few in number. Gambia and Protectorate: — see British West Africa, p. 173. Gamhier Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. Gardner Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Georgia. — An old kingdom of northwestern Trans-Caucasia, which led a separate existence for more than 2,000 years until 1801, when it was incorporated into Russia. It proclaimed its independence of Russia as a republic in January, 1918; and is DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 205 expected to be recognized by the Peace Conference, either as a state or as a mandatory of one of the Allied and Associated Powers. The geographical area known as Georgia includes the Russian governments of Tiflis and Kutais, in western Trans- Caucasia. These have a combined area of 24,000 square miles, and a population of about 2,500,000, of which 1,350,000 are Georgians. But in addition, the Georgians occupy adjacent parts of Armenia for some distance west of the Russian boundary. For descrip- tion of the general nature of the country, see under Armenia and Caucasia. The Georgians comprise the finest of the three great divisions of the Caucasian race. Their country, with some of the best of the Black Sea coast, with several large and fertile val- leys, and with its full share of mineral wealth, bids fair to become one of the strongest of the new states of the southeast, arising out of the war. German East Africa: — see Great Britain, Mandatories of; and Belgium, Mandatory of, pp. 210 and 156. German New Guinea: — see Australia, Mandatories of, p. 153. German Possessions (Former). — Previous to the World War, Germany, as part of her imperialistic colonial policy, had acquired in various ways dependent territory aggregating, according to esti- mate, 1,027,820 square miles, and holding a population of consider- ably over 12,000,000. This policy of expansion began to bear fruit in 1884, when the first of the territory was taken; and the increase of colonial lands continued until 1909. Of these colonies and pro- tectorates, Africa furnished four — Togoland, Kamerun, Southwest Africa and East Africa, with an area of 931,460 square miles and a population of about 11,500,000. In 1911, 107,270 square miles was added to Kamerun, with a population of 1,000,000; and 6,450 square miles ceded to France. In Asia one area, Kiauchau, was taken, with 200 square miles of land and an equal area of inclosed water; and a population of 168,900. In the Pacific, German New Guinea consisted of Kaiser Wilhelm's Land and six archipelagos, totalling- 96,100 square miles, with a population of about 636,000. In addition, German Samoa occupied 1,000 square miles with a population of 35,000. These colonies were cleverly situated, for purposes of strategy or of trade. In some cases a colony was warped into fantastic shape in order to tap desirable country — as southwest Africa with 206 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD its long finger reaching four degrees eastward to tap the Zambezi River, or Kamerun, with two prongs reaching far to the east and south to the Congo. The treatment accorded the natives has not been such as to develop properly the latent strength of the colonies ; and, under the direction of the League of Nations, almost limitless economic possibilities lie open for usefulness under the various mandataries. German Samoa: — see New Zealand, Mandatory of, p. 245. German Southwest Africa: — see Union of South Africa, Man- datory of, p. 278. Germany. — A limited monarchy until 1918, now a republic. Latitude 55° 30' (54° 40' with Slesvig eliminated)-47° 15' north, longitude 6°-22°50' east, including the detached area in East Prussia. Area, in 1914, 208,780 square miles; the Treaty of Ver- sailles, 1919, takes from Germany outright 29,219 square miles, and leaves the sovereignty of 8,532 square miles to be determined by popular vote. Population (1914), 67,812,000; the same treaty transfers to other nationality, outright or subject to popular vote, 11,362,000; capital, Weimar; other cities — Berhn, 2,071,257 (1910); Hamburg, 831,535; Munich, 596,467; Bremen, 247,437; Nuremberg, 333,142; Breslau, 512,105; Cologne, 516,527; Frank- fort-on-Main, 414,576; Hanover, 302,978; Dresden, 548,308; Leip- zig, 589,850. The northern half of the republic is a low plain, marshy along the Baltic, and rising gently to the highlands of the southern half; back of the highlands are the Alps, on the south- ern edge of Germany. The Baltic and North Sea coasts extend for more than 1,000 miles; they th^y are sandy and low, and offer poor harborage ; the Baltic coast, moreover, is far from open sea, neces- sitating the construction of the Kaiser Wilhelm or Kiel Canal across the neck of the Danish peninsula. The harbors are estu- aries or are far up the rivers. Hamburg is one of the great- est ports in the world, and handles half of Germany's foreign trade. Bremen, on the Weser, is the second port; and Stettin and Danzig have been the chief North Sea ports. The last-named, with surrounding land on the delta of the Vistula (729 square miles), is now, by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, an international- ized port surrounded by Polish territory. The rivers have great importance in transportation; immense sums have been spent on their improvement, and many canals connect them. The Elbe is DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 207 navigable clear across Germany. Continental climate prevails in the east and oceanic climate in the west, so that the average temperature of eastern Germany is lower than that of western Germany. About one-fourth of the country .is covered with for- ests, which are carefully conserved, and a tree must be planted for every one cut down. The growth of manufactures has reduced the agricultural population so that less than half the people are now farmers. Germany does not raise sufficient food for her dense popula- tion, in spite of intensive cultivation. The leading crop, in acreage, is rye, followed by hay, oats, potatoes, wheat, barley and beets. The country leads the world in the production of beet sugar, but much of the wheat consumed is imported; the potato crop is large. Potatoes are grown chiefly in the sandy northern plain. The hops and beer of Bavaria are famous. The chief dairy industry is in the north, where cattle are easily fattened and the grasses conduce to the richest quality of milk. North Ger- many is also most propitious for horse raising. The goat is the poor man's cow, and many thousands are raised in the southern highlands. Sheep have greatly decreased, and immense quantities of wool are imported for the factories. Fishing occupies a large number of men. Germany, previous to the war, was surpassed only by the United States and Great Britain as an industrial nation. The closest attention was given to perfecting technical processes. The most important industries have been iron and steel, and their manufactures, which are promoted by the great coal-fields of the Ruhr River and Saxony. Textiles are the second largest industry, many towns in Rliinoland-AVestphalia and in the Chemnitz dis- trict of Saxony being spinning and weaving centers. Germany has contained by far the largest fields of coal and lignite (brown coal) worked in continental Europe. The loss of the Sarre field, and of some in Upper Silesia, cripples the country somewhat, but leaves it still strong in this regard. On the other hand, Germany's great steel, ship and munition industries have been based upon an abundance of iron ore as well ; the World War could not have continued for a year, but for the Lorraine and Luxemburg ores. Luxemburg trade will turn to France and Belgium; Lorraine is lost, and Germany's industrial future will be profoundly affected 208 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD by the changed conditions. Potash is one of the resources of the country and a considerable quantity is exported for fertilizer. Until 1914, the German controlling syndicate held a practical monopoly of the world market. The nation's success in dye-making and selling has been very great. Transportation is abundant and comparatively cheap; the splendid development of waterways supplements the numerous railroads. The imports are enormous quantities of food and raw materials, and the exports are manu- factured articles. Race, Germanic, and over 500,000 foreigners, chiefly from other European states. Religion, mainly Lutheran, Roman Catholic and Hebrew. Figures for exports and imports prior to the war are of no value for forecasting future conditions. Gibraltar: — see British Possessions; Europe, p. 172. Gilbert and Ellice Islands: — see British Possessions; Aus- tralasia, p. 169. Gilbert Islands: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. Goa: — see Portuguese India, p. 258. Gold Coast: — see British West Africa, p. 173. Graham's Land: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. Great Britain and Ireland. — Officially, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Latitude 60°-49° north, longitude 11° west-2° east; area, 121,633 square miles; population (1914), esti- mated, 46,760,000; capital, London (greater city), 7,419,704; prin- cipal cities of England — Liverpool, 763,926; Manchester, 731,830; Birmingham, 860,591; Sheffield, 472,234; Leeds, 457,507; Bristol, 361,573; Bradford, 290,642; Kingston-upon-Hull, 287,472; New- castle-upon-Tyne, 271,523; Nottingham, 264,970; of Scotland, capital, Edinburgh, 326,901; Glasgow, 1,072,793; Dundee, 178,752; Aberdeen, 164,307; of Ireland, capital, Dublin, 400,000; Belfast, 399,000. Total population of England (1914), estimated, 23,382,- 000; Scotland (1915), 4,785,598; Wales, 1,712,770; Ireland, 4,324,365. The United Kingdom dates from the Union of the crowns of England and Scotland under James I., in 1603. From 1649 to 1660 the government was practically a republic, styled " The Com- monwealth." Since that time the reigning families have been the Houses of Stuart, Stuart-Orange, Stuart, Hanover, and Saxe- Coburg-Gotha. In 1917 a Royal Proclamation changed the name DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 209 of the House of King George V to that of Windsor. The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom and the various British possessions. These have an aggregate area of about 12,785,000 square miles, or about one-fourth the land surface of the earth. The estimated population of the empire is 442,000,000. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales, with the Isle of Man and Channel Islands. An extensive, undulating and fertile plain covers the south and east of Great Britain. Mountains in the north and west cover two-fifths of the total surface. The mountains of north Scotland are mostly devoid of cultivation. Much of Ireland is an undulat- ing interior plain, with mountain ranges near the sea surrounding it. Most of the plain is very fertile, but one-seventh of Ireland is covered by bog and moor. England has fifty rivers navigable by large or small vessels. The Thames is commercially the most important river in the world, although only 220 miles long. The Clyde excepted, the rivers of Scotland are not of great commercia' importance. Ireland has many navigable streams, among which the Shannon is navigable for almost its entire length. In Eng- land there are over 2,500 miles of canals. A ship canal connects Manchester with the sea. The climate is oceanic, and mild for so high a latitude. The abundant rainfall is most copious in the west. Severe storms in autumn and winter sometimes do great damage on the coasts. Not much more than one-fifth of the soil is cultivated, and the islands produce not more than one-fourth enough food to supply the people. The rest must be imported from the colonies and from the United States. Not much wheat is grown, and the warmth is not sufficient for maize. The oat crop is large, and the pasturage is excellent. No other nation has finer breeds of cattle, horses and sheep. Large quantities of dairy products are imported, but cheese of unusual fine quality is exported. The mineral riches exceed in value the agricultural products. The coal fields, about 4,000 mines, are among Great Britain's most valuable possessions, the yearly output being valued at more than $1,000,000,000. The most important metal is iron, the mines being situated near or among the coal fields. Next to the United States, Great Britain since 1918 has been the foremost producer of iron and steel. Salt is mined somewhat ; the tin mines have pro- 210 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OP THE WORLD duced as many as 15,000 tons of ore in a year, present yield being half that number. The textile industries are first- in the list of manufactures, the greatest centers of the cotton industry being around Manchester, Derby, Nottingham, Glasgow, Paisley and Belfast. About 790,- 000,000 pounds of wool are absorbed in normal times annually by the woolen industries, and 1,600,000,000 pounds of cotton are turned into manufactures. The silk industry does not meet French competition nor supply the home demand. The metal industries form the second great department of manufactures. Besides steel rails, armor plate and steel for bridges, railroads, ships, etc., machinery is made in thousands of machine shops; hardware and glass, chemicals, leather, and, in fact, all branches of manufac- turing are of the highest development. Great Britain is one of the two leading commercial nations, and its trade is world-wide in the fullest sense. The railroads are solidly constructed, usually with double tracks, and the speed of the trains is the highest in Europe. The country's activities are wonderfully stimulated by enormous capital, invested not only at home but also all over the world. Great Britain's chief buying markets are United States, Australia, British India, Egypt, Italy, Argentine, and Canada. These furnish foodstulTs and raw ma- terials to be manufactured into the w^ares for which the country is famous. They are also her principal selling markets. The United States furnishes most of tlie cotton and a considerable amount of wheat and meat. The English people are mainly of Anglo-Saxon descent. The Scotch, Welsh, and Irish are of Keltic descent, wholly or in part. Religions — Established Church, Scottish Church, Protestant Dis- senter, Roman Catholic, Hebrew. Foreign trade (1916-17) — ex- ports, $2,974,306,160; imports, $5,326,280,000. Great Britain, Mandatories of. — Although a considerable part of the ex-German colonies has been placed within the British Empire as mandatory, Great Britain itself has received only one of large size, and a minute island whose importance is strategic. German East Africa: Latitude 1°-11°45' south, longitude 29° 30-40° 30' east; area, 384,000 square miles; coast line, 620 miles; population (1913), 7,680,112, of which 5,336 were white; former capital, Daressalam. The harborage facilities are poor, the DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 211 water being shallow, but eight coast towns are used as ports; the chief of these is the capital. German improvements in this colony- were many, and resistance to its complete subjugation by the Allies lasted throughout the war. The topography is such that a wide range of vegetable products occurs, and culture, under Ger- man stimulus, has proceeded far. Several agricultural experiment stations are in operation. Cattle-raicing flourishes. A number of mineral deposits are known, but prospecting has not been thor- ough. The Germans had very detailed and accurate maps of the protectorate, which doubtless will be available for their successors. Chief imports are cotton, rice, foodstuffs, hardware; exports, rubber, ivory, copra, coffee, sisal, wax. Trade has been chiefly with Germany and Zanzibar. Exports (1913), $8,887,760; imports, $13,339,625. Belgium has become the mandatory for a small area at the northwest corner, which does not, however, lessen materially the size or importance of this addition to the Cape to Cairo railway route. To Great Britain have been allotted two small areas in western Africa. One is a narrow strip along the northwest side of the Cameroons, adjacent to Nigeria; the other is a similar strip on the west side of Togoland, adjacent to Gold Coast and Ashanti. The remainder of these two ex-German colonies are mandatories under France, and are thus described. Nauru, or Pleasant Island. Latitude 0°45' south, longitude 166° 50' east; south of the Marshall Islands, and by some regarded as a part of that group ; west of the Gilbert Islands, and nearer to them. Formerly a guano center; now valuable chiefly on account of a powerful radio station erected by the Germans. Great Elohey Island: — see Spanish Guiana, p. 269. Greece.— A limited monarchy. Latitude (1914) 39 ° 50-35 ° 50' north, longitude 19 ° 20'-26 ° 10' east; area (1914), 41,933 square miles; population (1914), estimated, 4,821,300; capital, Athens (1907), 167,479; other cities— Saloniki (1915), 157,889; Pin^us, port of Athens (1907), 73,579. The kingdom includes many islands of the ^Egean and Ionian seas. Greece has two main divi- sions, northern Greece and the Morea, connected only by the nar- row isthmus of Corinth. Both parts are occupied largely by mountains and hills, the only considerable plain being that of 212 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Thessaly, in the north. The mountains are barren, the islands and plains are fertile. The rivers are short coast streams, and Greece is not richly supplied with water. The irregularity of the coast line aifords good harbors. The coasts and islands have a mild climate, but the inland regions suffer from extremes of heat and cold. About one-fifth of the area is cultivable. Agri- culture is backward, and does not produce sufficient foodstuffs for home consumption. The best farming region is the highly fertile plain of Thessaly, from which considerable wheat is derived. Barley, maize, and rice are important crops. Tobacco is extensively grown, and a large part of the Egyptian cigarettes are made from the tobacco of Greece, Stock raising is insignificant, sheep and goats take the place of cows, and much cheese is made from sheep's milk. Rapid deforestation is injuring the country. Lead, iron and magnesite are mined. The household industries are most important, but cotton and woolen cloths are produced in a number of towns. Zante and the neighboring region grow the small grapes commercially known as Zante currants. Com- munication is poor and insufficient. Races : — the Greeks are de- scended from the ancient Greeks, with Illyrian and other admix- tures; Albanians, Wallachians, Armenians, Turks, etc. Religion, mainly Greek Orthodox. The chief imports are agricultural prod- ucts, crude minerals, yarns, chemicals, papers and books, forest products; the exports are agricultural products, raw minerals, wines, animal products, olive and other oils. Exports (1916), $20,433,280; imports, $45,705,000. Should Thrace and the Adrianople region be given to Greece by the Peace Conference, it will extend the country to 39° 50'- 35° 50' north latitude and 19°20'-28° east longitude. It will add an area of approximately 9,300 s(iuare miles to the country, wall give control of the gateway to Constantinople, and will give an outlook on the Black Sea as well as extending greatly the ^gean coastal length. The added territory is exceed- ingly valuable, but the population is so mixed as to be difficult to govern. It is probable that a small portion of southern Albania, inhabited by Greeks, may be transferred to Greek ownership. In addition, Greece secures a considerable area (possibly as much as 25,800 square miles) in western Asia Minor, of which Smyrna is a center, and which is inhabited largely by Greeks. This is not a mandatory, but is to become an integral part of Greece itself. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 213 Grand-Terre Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. Greenland (see also Danish Possessions). — The largest island of the world. Latitude 83°-60° north, longitude 78°-10° west; area (estimated), 512,000 s(iuare miles; population (1911), 13,500; largest settlement, Sydproven (1911), 766. There were Norse settlements in the tenth century. The settlement at East Bygd, near Juleanshaab, contained a cathedral and several churches. The ruins of an old church at Kakortok, built in the twelfth cen- tury, are still standing. The settlement disappeared early in the sixteenth century. The trade of Greeland has been a Danish crown monopoly since 1774. The inhabited parts of the west and east coast are occupied by Denmark as far as 74° north latitude on the west and 67° north latitude on the east coast. The population, Danes and Eskimos, live mainly on the Danish west coast; a few hundred on the east coast, and a few hundred also in northwest Greenland between Cape York and Etah. The interior is covered by an ice-cap reaching an altitude of 12,000 feet; the coasts are mountainous, w^ith deep fiords, and many glacial tongues move down them from the inland ice. The ends of the glaciers at the sea edge break off as icebergs, which float southward to the tracks of trans-Atlantic steamers. The coast vegetation is scanty, chiefly mosses and lichens, with here and there patches of grass. The few stunted trees in south Greenland rarely grow higher than a man's head. The chief animals are the musk-ox, reindeer, arctic fox and polar bear. The coast waters are frequented by seals, walruses, fish, whales and countless numbers of eider ducks and other birds. The natives struggle hard to gain a livelihood. Seal blubber is transformed into train oil, and seal, polar bear and white fox skins, eider down and a little whalebone are collected. Coal is found, but the only mineral of importance yet worked is cryolite, the mines at Ivigtut being the only known deposits of commercial importance. This mineral was formerly much used in tlie manu- facture of the metal aluminium. Danish trading stations supply the Eskimos with commodities in exchange for the collection of skins and blubber products. Grenada: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Grenadines Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Guadeloupe: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. Guam: — see United States, Outlying Territories, p. 285. 214 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Guatemala. — A ropublic of Central America. Latitude 17° 45'- 13° 45' north, longitude 92° 15-88° 15' west; area, estimated, 48,300 square miles; population (1914), estimated, 2,000,000; capi- tal, Guatemala (1910), estimated, 90,000 (an earthquake in 1917 completely destroyed the city); other cities, Coban, 31,000; Quezaltenango, 29,000. A Spanish possession from 1522 to 1821; a Mexican possession from 1821 to 1847, when it became a republic. Guatemala has larger business relations with the rest of the world than any other Central American republic. Most of the country is an elevated plateau, with a broad frontage on the Pacific and a very short Atlantic coast line. Maize and black beans, the chief food staples in Central America, are grown every- where. Coffee, the great export crop, thrives from the Pacific to the center of the republic. Sugar made from sugar-cane is con- sumed at home, but little is exported. Cotton-fields and sheep pas- tures on the higher lands supply fiber for spinners and weavers, and cattle scattered over the i^lateaus yield hides for export. Most of the commodities required by the people, except textiles and flour, are the products of home industry. There are more than 500 miles of railway. A section of the proposed Pan-American railway skirts the Pacific coast. A transcontinental railway passing- through Guatemala connects the Pacific port, San Jose, and the Atlantic port, Puerto Barrios, Coffee, bananas, sugar, hides and cabinet woods are the chief exports ; imports are cotton, foodstuffs, linen, hemp and jute. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), $10,637,855; imports, $6,725,600. Guiana. — The native name of a region in the northern part of South America. Latitude 8°30'-l°30' north; longitude 61° 30'- 51° 30' west. Physiographically the area extends into Brazil. Guiana was sighted in 1498 by Columbus, when he discovered Trinidad. Guiana is composed of three colonies — British, Dutch (Surinam), and French. The first two are characterized by a low, hot, fertile coastal plain, occupied by most of the population. The third has highland at or near the coast. All the countries are com- paratively undeveloped. For detailed description, see the various subdivisions. Hadramaut: — see Nejed, p. 239. Haiti. — A Negro republic occupying the western part of the DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 215 island of Haiti, one of the largest of the West Indies. Latitude 20° 15-17° 30' north, longitude 74° 30-71° 30' west; area, esti- mated, 10,204 square miles; population (1912), estimated, 2,500,000; capital. Port au Prince, esitmated, 100,000; other cities — Cape Haiti, 30,000; Gonaives, 13,000. A French colony founded about 1697, and proclaimed a republic 1804. The surface is mountain- ous; the highways are poor. Most of the traffic is carried by sea routes. A railway from Port au Prince to Cape Haiti is under con- struction. Other short lines are in operation. The climate is tropical, but is tempered by sea winds. Coffee is the chief product and export, and is superior in quality; but little attention is paid to its cultivation, as a heavy export duty hinders the producers. The coarse cotton textiles, breadstuffs and kerosene, which form most of the imports, are largely supplied by the United States. Coffee, cotton, cocoa, and logwood are the chief exports. Race, French-speaking Negroes. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1915-16), $1,837,744; imports, $1,925,255. Hasa, El: — see Nejed, p. 239. Hawaii. — Or the Hawaiian Islands. A chain of volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean, mainly between latitude 23°-18° north, longi- tude 161°-154° west; area, 6,449 square miles, Hawaii 4,015, Lunai 139, Niihau 97, Maui 728, Oahu 598, Kauai 547, Molokai 261; population (1917), estimated, 250,627; capital, Honolulu, Island of Oahu (1917), estimated, 71,950. The first mention of the islands in modern history occurs in 1528, when two vessels of Alvaro de Saavedra were shipwrecked there. Juan Gaetan visited them in the middle of the sixteenth century, and in 1778 Captain Cook visited them and named them after the Earl of Sandwich. In 1893 the reigning queen was deposed and a provisional government formed; in 1894 a republic was proclaimed; in 1898 they were annexed to the United States, and in 1900 they were organized as a territory. There are eleven islands, eight of which are inhabited. The islands are separated from one another by ocean channels varying in width from 6 to 61 miles. Small as they are, they embrace about as much territory as all the rest of Polynesia. Oahu, the most populous and important commercially, is as large as the Society group. Maui has about the same area as the Marquesas group; and the island of Hawaii, with the remaining islands, is nearly as large as all the other groups of Polynesia. 216 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Hawaii is at the cross-roads of the Pacific, where vessels in the American-Japanese and American-Australian trade put into port. The group is also the starting-point for expeditions to Bering Strait and the South Sea. The geographical position of Hawaii in the central Pacific thus attracts much shipping. The group is purely volcanic, rising abruptly from deep water, and containing the loftiest summits of any oceanic islands. Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, in Hawaii are over 14,000 feet. The volcanic forces are extinct in the west, but very active in the east. Below the moun- tains are fertile plains and valleys. All the soils are derived from lavas. Sedimentary soils, covering the levels bordering the sea, are very deep and rich. The dark red soils are immediately above the sedimentary flats and lowlands, and have high fertility. The light red soils on the uplands, near the mountains, are of small depth and less fertile. The climate is about ten degrees cooler than that of any other land in the same latitude. The windward side of the mountains has abundant rain, but there is much less on the leeward side, where most of the plantations are situated. The islands are wholly dependent upon agriculture. Cane-sugar employs most of the capital and labor, furnishes most of the exports, and maintains most of the people. Nearly all the planta- tions have their own mills and manufacture all the raw sugar produced from their cane. The sugar product reached a total of 640,800 tons in 1917 ; the yield of sugar per acre is from 6,000 to over 9,000 pounds. Rice, growing on the lowest flats and close to the sea, has second place. The rice-growers are almost wholly Chinese. The coffee berry grows wild and is cultivated on the four larger islands, but the production as yet is comparatively small. Chinese gardeners supply Honolulu with nearly all its vegetables. Bananas and pineapples are the only fruits figuring in the exports. The forest areas are considerable, but have suf- fered great reduction; forty government forest reserves are now in existence. Sufficient cattle are maintained for beef and milk. Most of the plantation labor is supplied by Chinese, Japanese, and Portuguese. The native Hawaiians prefer to work for them- selves rather than to take service with employers, and the Portu- guese immigrants, energetic and thrifty people, are mostly en- gaged in horticulture. American capital finances the planting and commercial interests. About three-fourths of the imports come DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 217 from the United States. Kaw sugar is the chief export. Hawaiian pineapples and pineapple products find their way to nearly every country in the world. Practically all the raw sugar has gone hitherto to the California refineries. Exports (1916-17), $75,115,- 983; imports, $46,358,341. Hejaz. — A kingdom of Arabia, formerly, like other parts of Arabia, tributary to Turkey; won its freedom and recognition by the splendid work of the armies under the King of Hejaz, co-operating with the Allies in campaigns in western Asia. It is one of the four new countries permitted to be signatory to the German peace treaty of 1919. The province formerly extended from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to Asir, on the south, and back from the Red Sea for a distance of 100-200 miles. The dimensions and area of the new country are unknown, for it is likely to include Asir and Yemen on the south, and may attempt to extend its dominion over the nomadic Arabs of the great cen- tral desert. The area of the old divisions of Hejaz and Yemen is 170,000 square miles; population, 1,050,000. For description of the nature of the country, see Arabia. Hermit Isla?ids: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Hervey Islands: — see Cook Islands, p. 184. Honduras. — A republic of Central America. Latitude 16° 30'- 13° north, longitude 89° 30-83° west; area, estimated, 44,275 square miles; population (1914), estimated, 562,000; capital, Tegucigalpa, (28,950); Pacific port, Amapala, estimated, 4,000; Atlantic ports, Puerto Cortez (or Caballos), estimated, 2,500, and Trujillo, estimated, 4,000. Columbus landed on the American con- tinent first at Cape Honduras, 1502; first settlement by Cortez, 1524; the region became an independent republic in 1821; a con- stitutional government was formed in 1894. Honduras is second in size of the Central American republics; but, although rich in resources, has little commercial development. The population cannot supply sufficient labor for so large an area, transportation facilities are very poor, and full half of the country is still in a virgin state. The interior plateau maintains many cattle; hides and live animals are important exports. The long Caribbean coast produces bananas and other fruit for United States consumption, and the Atlantic forests abound with fine tropical timber. Hon- duras ''mahogany," which is not mahogany at all, is a beautiful 218 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD cabinet wood. Gold and silver are exported, although mining de- velopment is small. Cocoanuts and rubber also are exported. The United States supplies a large part of the imports, in which tex- tiles and hardware are prominent. The Atlantic ports have regu- lar steamship connection with the United States. The Pacific coast, only forty miles long, has the fine natural harbor of Amapala, from which the metals are shipped. Races, Spanish- American and Indians; language, Spanish. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1916-17), $5,353,450; imports, $6,193,160. Hong Kong: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Rowland Inland: — see Phoenix Islands, p. 254. Hungary. — Sometimes known as the Magyar Republic. It is difficult to tell how much is left of Hungary; but it is to embrace the country dominantly Magyar. The western boundary should be approximately the old political one with Austria, beginning with longitude 16° east; the eastern end is likely to run to longi- tude 22° 15'; the border with Czecho-Slovakia is about latitude 49° 30' north, while that with Jugoslavia will not go below 45° 45'. The area is impossible to compute, owing to uncertainty as to how much of old Hungary is lost to other states. It may be no more than one-third of Hungary proper in 1914, or 36,000 square miles, with a population of some 6,000,000. The part of Hungary left to the new republic contains most of the finest agricultural land of the great Hungarian plain, and agriculture is certain to be the chief occupation of the people. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, apples, plums, tobacco, wine and beet-sugar are the most important products. Animal-raising is a large industry. Chief city and present capital, Budapest, 880,000 (1910). The country will be prepared to export large amounts of livestock and cereals, and will import chiefly cotton and its goods, machinery, wool and woolens, iron and its wares, leather. Huon Island.^: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. Iceland.— Latitude 66° 33'-63° 12' north, longitude 24° 35'- 13° 22' west; area, 40,437 square miles; population, estimated, 93,000. Iceland is one of the newest of sovereign nations, its inde- pendence dating from December 1, 1918, with the full consent of Denmark, whose dependency it had been since 1380. It has the distinction, too, of having been the first modern republic, this form of government obtaining for nearly 400 years, ending in 1264 by DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 219 union with Norway. The present form of government is that of a limited monarchy, in close affiliation with Denmark. Capital and chief town, Reykjavik (about 7,000). The raising of cat- tle, especially sheep, and fishing are the sole industries. All cereal foodstuffs must be imported. Imports are, in addition, liquor, tobacco, metal utensils, timber, salt, coal; exports, sheep, horses, salt meat, wool and hides, fish, eiderdown, and woolen goods. Trade is largely with Denmark and Great Britain. Ex- ports and imports, about $2,900,000 and $2,500,000 respectively. The Danish colony in Greenland occupies 40,740 square miles and has a population of 12,000 (see Greenland). Isle of France: — see Mauritius, p. 235. India. — All that part of southern Asia under British law. Lati- tude 37 "-6° north, longitude 61°-101° east; area, British Prov- inces, 1,093,074 square miles, including feudatory states 1,802,629 square miles; population (1916-17) 224,267,000 and 315,156,400, respectively; capital, Calcutta (1911), 1,222,313; other cities — Bombay, chief west coast port, 979,445; Madras, eastern port, 518,660; Haiderabad, 500,623j Rangoon, 293,316; Lucknow, 259,798; Delhi, 232,837; Lahore, 228,687; Ahmedabad, 216,777; Benares, 203,804. British India proper does not include the semi-inde- pendent states. The history of India extends back for about five thousand years. The Buddhist period furnishes authentic records at least 500 B.C. The invasion by Alexander the Great occurred 327 B.C. ; there were Portuguese settlements in Hindustan in 1500 A.D. The Dutch expelled the Portuguese; the discovery of the all-water route around Cape of Good Hope opened the way to Eng- lish occupation, and the formation of the East India Company. Under Lord Clive, the English occupation gradually covered all of Hindustan. The formation of the Empire of India was cele- brated by coronation ceremonies in 1903. Executive authority is vested in the Viceroy, appointed by the crown. India has three distinctly defined physical regions: the Himalaya Mountain dis- trict, the North Indian Plain, and the Plateau of the Deccan. The colossal ranges of the Himalayas stretch for 1,500 miles along the north wall of the country, dividing India from the plateau of central Asia. South of the Himalayas is the great North Indian Plain, well watered and for the most part well cultivated. East of the Indus delta, however, is the Thar Desert, which stretches 220 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD away almost to the base of the Himalayas. The triangular plateau of the Deccan, from 1,600 to 3,000 feet liigh, occupies the south of the country. India has great rivers, but the only very important ones for navigation are the smoothly flowing Ganges, Bramaputra, Indus, and the Irawadi of Burma. The streams of the Deccan are too impetuous for convenient navigation. India has many kinds of climate; but all, except regions high among the Himalayas or in favored parts of the Deccan, may be called more or less tropical. Only two seasons are recognized — the dry and the rainy season. The southwest monsoon in summer brings an enormous quantity of water vapor, with which it drenches the Western Ghats, and usually has enough left for the interior highlands; but sometimes this monsoon does not continue long enough to give the Plateau of the Deccan sufficient rain. Then crops fail, and a famine may ensue resulting in the death of many thousands. Many millions of the inhabitants, being Brah- mans, are strict vegetarians, and mortality among them in time of famine is increased by the fact that they will not kill their domestic animals for food. The British authorities have inaugurated an elaborate system of public works, by laboring on which the natives can earn money when the wet monsoons fail, and thus buy the food which the government has stored for such occasions. More than 70 per cent, of the people are engaged in pasturage or agriculture. Their methods are primitive for the most part. Fertilizers are little used, but great irrigation systems have been developed in large districts. Rice, the principal food, can be culti vated only in well-watered regions such as Bengal, the coasts of the Deccan and the valleys. Wheat is sown chiefly in the drier northwestern part, mainly the Punjab; and, although it is an un- certain crop, it is often raised in enormous quantities, a great part of the crop being sent to Europe. Next in importance are the fiber crops. India sends a great deal of cotton to China and Japan, in addition to the supply consumed in its own manufactures. In 1917 the weave of cotton cloth was 377,350,000 pounds. The fiber is shorter than American cotton, and is inferior in quality. Jute, cultivated in the damp warm climate of Bengal, holds second rank among the fibers. The teas of India and Ceylon have made great inroads into the Chinese tea trade of the British Empire, and are DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 221 invading many other markets. Animal raising is not important; cows give very little milk, but zebus, an Indian variety of cattle, are used for draft purposes. The mineral production is relatively small, but increasing; in order of output the chief varieties are gold, coal, petroleum, manganese, salt. Little else is done to develop India's mineral wealth. India has been famous for cen- turies for its shawls, rugs, carpets, and textile fabrics. In recent years modern manufactures, such as tanneries, ship-yards, and iron foundries, have been built. The home supply of manufactures is still inadequate, and an enormous quantity of them is imported. Imports are chiefly from the United Kingdom, China and Hong Kong, Java, Borneo and Sumatra, and the United States; exports go mainly to the United Kingdom, United States, Japan, France, Ceylon. There are more than 205,000 miles of roads, and 36,000 miles of railways; in several largo areas, the canals add greatly to the facilities for inland traffic. Religions, Brahman, Muham- madan, nature worship, Buddhist, Christian, Sikh. Exports (1916-17), $831,550,000; imports, $662,495,000. Baluchistan is a country consisting of several native states bordering British India on the west, and regarded as a dependency of it. Latitude 30°-25° north, longitude 61°-69°30' east; area, about 135,638 square miles; population (1911), estimated, 835,000; capital, Kalat ; principal port, Gwador. Tne various petty states of the country have been in existence since the fifteenth century. The Khem of Kalat is the head of a confederacy of chiefs, who administer internal affairs. Since 1876 a British Resident Agent has shaped foreign relations. The country is chiefly barren mountains, deserts, and sandy plains; its climate is dry, with great extremes of temperature. Agriculture is practiced wherever water is sufficient; wheat, barley, rice, maize, potatoes, and many fruits, of which the dates are famous. Useful minerals are considerable in number and value, but little worked. The commerce is insignificant. Dates and dried fish are exported to India. Baluchistan rugs are prized in every part of the United States and Europe. Most of the trade is with India. British Baluchistan is included within British Indian terri- tory. It is occupied by troops and fortified for the protection of India. A branch of the Sind-Pishin Railway extends from the 222 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Indus River to Kandahar, Afghanistan. Quetta is the seat of gov- ernment. The Baluchs are a warlike Semitic people of Arab descent. The religion is that of Islam. Sikkim is an Indian state in the Himalayas, a dependency of India. Latitude 28° north, longitude 89° east; area, 2,818 scjuare miles; population (1911), 87,920. The country produces rice, maize, and fruits, and manufactures woolen cloths. A few copper properties are worked. The chief imports are cotton goods, oils, provisions, salt, silk cloth, sugar, tobacco, tea, rice; exports are grains, vegetables, hides, raw wool, lumber. The country is strategically important, for the principal trade route from Bengal to Tibet must traverse its valleys. Trade is with India. The Andaman Islands form a group in the Bay of Bengal, 120 miles west of Burma; area, 2,260 square miles; inhabited by savages of the Negrito type, and convicts from India; population, about 17,000. The islands are a dependency of British India. Their chief importance is as a meteorological station for the vast Indian Ocean shipping. The Nicobar Islands are a group in the Bay of Bengal, south of the Andamans, 120 miles west of Malay Peninsula; area, 635 square miles; population, about 9,000, mainly Malays. The com- merce of cocoanuts has been the support of the islands for 1,500 years. The climate is tropical, and on the whole unhealthful for whites. The Laccadive Islands are a group lying 200 miles southwest of Hindustan; population, about 10,600 of mixed Hindu and Arab descent. The preparation and commerce of coir, the fiber of the cocoanut husk, is the industry that brings the islands in touch with the rest of the world. Ireland: — see Great Britain and Ireland, p. 208. Isle of Pines: — sec New Caledonia, p. 243. Italian Possessions. — Eritrea is a colony of Italy, on the west coast of the Red Sea. Latitude 18°-12° 30' north; longitude 36'- 43° east; area, 42,800 square miles; population, estimated, 450,000, mostly nomadic. Seat of government, Asmara. Climate, semi- arid to arid, the effects of which are in part overcome by irriga- tion. Domestic animals are common, their produce supplying local trade, but as an industry the raising of animals is little developed. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 223 Pearl fisliing provides a considerable income. Palm nuts and gold form part of the exports. Chief port, Massawah. Exports (1915, the largest year), $2,800,000; imports, $4,720,000. Italian Somaliland is a colony and protectorate on the east coast of Africa. Latitude 12° north-0° 15' south, longitude 42°- 51° 30' east; area, 139,430 square miles; population, 450,000; capi- tal, Mogadisho (13,000). Cattle raising and agriculture occupy the people. Imports are yarn, timber, petroleum, rice, sugar, cotton goods; exports, butter, cotton, hides, dura. Exports are chiefly to Italy, Aden and Zanzibar; thence often to United States and Europe. Exports (1916), $1,460,000; imports, $1,520,000. Tripoli was Turkish from the sixteenth century until 1911, when it was annexed to Italy, the transfer being ratified by treaty in October, 1912. For governmental purposes the country is di- vided into Tripolitania and Cyranaica, with capitals at Tripoli (73,000) and Benghazi (35,000) ; the whole region is often referred to as Libia Italiana. Latitude 33° 15'-22° 15' north; longitude 9°- 25° east; area, 406,000 square miles; population, estimated, 529,000. Tripolitania is divisible into four zones, each with its own topography, climate and activities. In the various parts are cultivated palms, olive and fruit trees, cereals, esparto grass, grapes and ahuonds. Cyranaica produces olives and bananas ; it could well be developed as a cattle country. Ostrich feathers in large quantities pass through from the interior, for Paris and London. Sponge fishing is a large coastal industry. Exports (1915, the highest year), $1,060,305; imports, $10,023,050. The Italian concession of Tiensin, China, lies on the left bank of the Peiho River, with an area of three-tenths of a square mile; population, 10,017 (1915). Latitude 39° 15' north, longitude 117° 15' east. It is of little direct economic importance, having only a strategic value. Italian Somaliland: — see Italian Possessions, p. 222. Italy. — A limited monarchy of Mediterranean Europe. Lati- tude 46° 40' (1914) -36° 40', territory in the Trentino regained by treaty in 1919 raising the upper boundary to about 47° 15'; longi- tude 6°15'-18°40' east; area, 110,632 square miles (1914); popu- lation (1915), estimated, 36,120,118. The additions by the Treaty of Versailles b(.*tween the Allied and Associated Powers and Aus- tria comprise a large area in the Trentino (''Italia Irridenta"), 224 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD north of old Italy, the head of the Adriatic, Istria and much of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In addition Italy has received from Turkey a sphere of influence on the south coast of Asia Minor extending from the end of the new Greek territory of Smyrna eastward nearly to Alexandretta. The area and popula- tion are not estimated; capital, Rome, population (1915), 590,960; other cities— Naples, 697,917; Milan, 663,059; Turin, 451,994; Palermo, 345,391; Genoa, 300,139; Florence, 242,147; Venice, 168,- 038. The northern part of Italy is continental and the southern part consists of a peninsula and a number of islands, including Sicily, Sardinia and Elba. The continental portion is the fertile plain of the Po River — historically the plains of Lombardy; it is the scene of Italy's greatest industrial and agricultural activity. The Apennines are the backbone of the peninsula. Most of the peninsula is well watered, but it has no large rivers. Much of the farm land is held in large estates, and leased in parcels to the peasants. Wheat is the chief crop, and much of it is used with Black Sea imports in preparing macaroni, of which Italy makes enormous quantities. The vine crops are close in value to wheat; the best qualities come from the south. Potatoes and maize are large crops, and beet sugar making is very extensive. Italy is the foremost country in Europe in the growing of rice. The produc- tion of raw silk is the largest in Europe. Most of the mulberry trees feeding the silkworms are on the Lombardy plains. Raw silk is sent to all the leading nations, silk manufactures being of much smaller importance. Italy is rich in some useful minerals, but very poor in coal, so that a great deal must be imported. The sulphur mines of Sicily supply much of the world's demand. Salt is obtained from mines or by evaporating sea-water. Iron ore is obtained chiefly from Elba, but most of it is exported, as there is little development of iron manufactures. The famous marbles of Carrara and Massa find a wide market. Because of the lack of coal, manufacturing enterprises are growing slowly. The chief industries are mining, metal making and construction work, textiles and agriculture. Imports, chiefly wheat, coal and coke, raw cotton, wool and woolen goods ; exports, raw silk, cotton goods, silk goods. Trade is mainly with United States, Great Britain, Argentina, France. Exports (1916), $617,665,955; imports, $1,678,035,215. Races, Italian, a branch of the Latin family. Religion, mainly Roman Catholic. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 225 Ivory Coast: — see French Possessions ; Africa, p. 199. Jamaica. — The largest colony of Great Britain in the West Indies. Latitude 18° 30'-17° 45' north; longitude 78° 30-75° 45' west; area, 4,207 square miles; Turks and Caicos Islands, 224 square miles; population (1916), 906,000; Turks and Caicos Islands, 6,000; capital, Kingston (1911), 57,379; other towns — Spanish To^v^l, 7,119; Port Antonio, 7,074; Montego Bay, 6,616. Jamaica was acquired by conquest in 1655, and its possession was confirmed by a treaty with Spain in 1670. Included in its ad- ministrative jurisdiction are Turks, Caicos and Cayman Islands, and ]\Iorant and Pedro Cays. A mountain range forms the axis of the island, extending through it from east to west, the highest peak rising to 7,400 feet. The climate although tropical is pleasant, and the island has become an attractive resort. The climate of the highlands is materially cooler than that of the coast lowlands. All tropical productions are grow^n to perfection. The sugar planta- tions were once famous, but many planters have abandoned the industry. Fruits, chiefly bananas and oranges, now form nearly half the exports. Coffee, rum, sugar, cocoanuts, logwood and extract, cocoa and Jamaica ginger are also important. The high- ways are good. Railways connect Kingston with Port Antonio and Montego Bay. Races, Negro, mixed breeds, white, and East Indians. Trade is chiefly with United States and Great Britain. Exports (1916), .$14,105,000; imports, $15,555,000. Turks and Caicos Islands have considerable foreign commerce of their own. Salt-raking is the chief industry. Japan. — An island empire, sometimes called the Great Britain of Asia. Latitude, including all dependent islands, 51°-22° north, longitude 120°-157° east; area, 260,738 square miles; population (1916), 76,684,558; capital, Tokio (1917), 2,244,796; Osaka, 1,460,- 218; Kioto, 539,153; Nagoya, 389,272; Kobe, 498,317; Yokohama, 428,663; Hiroshima, 167,400; Nagasaki, 136,800. International events have placed Japan in the first rank among nations. In the peace settlement between Japan and Russia, 1905, of the conten- tions that caused the war with Russia, Japan gained the half of Sakhalin Island from the 50th parallel south, and a suzerainty over Korea, which was annexed in 1910. In the war with China the island of Formosa was gained. In China the concessions gav^e to Japan practical control over the railways in Manchuria. In the 226 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD war against Germany, Japan gained concessions in the Siiantung peninsula, and all the German insular possessions of Germany in Oceania, north of the equator. The empire consists of four large islands and a great number (nearly 4,000) of smaller ones. The islands are mountainous, and a few volcanic summits, such as Fujiyama, reach a height of 12,000 feet or more. The narrow plains along the coasts and the fertile valleys among the mountains are the sources of wealth. There are no great rivers, but numerous mountain torrents pour down the slopes with short but rapid courses to the sea. An extensive system of canals provides irrigation that supplements the rain- fall. The climate is moist, and is cooler than that of countries of the same latitude on the west coasts of Europe or North America. Violent volcanic outbursts sometimes occur, and the country is liable to disastrous earthquakes. A destructive calamity of this nature, the Nagoya-Gifu earthquake of 1891, killed nearly 10,000 people and destroyed 130,000 houses. Agriculture is the principal occupation, and is carried on with painstaking minuteness. Large areas in the mountain regions can- not be tilled, but many mountains are cleared of forest and culti- vated to their very tops; in places the bare rocks are covered with soil brought from a distance. All the lands belong to the state, and are leased to the farmers, who pay a land tax. The chief crop is rice. A large part of the crop is exported and a cheaper grain is imported for home use. The various cereals and vegetables are grown. Cotton is raised in the south. The mulberry thrives, and the largest island produces a large supply of raw silk. Tea, an important export crop, is grown extensively in the southern islands. The United States buys great quantities of Japanese tea. The most important members of the animal kingdom are silk- worms, bees and poultry. The mineral wealth is only moderately large, although coal is mined in Yezo and Kiusiu, and copper, gold and kerosene are produced in quantity. Japan has the largest copper mines of Asia, copper being the only metal exported. Iron, steel and their products are large imports. The empire abounds in the clays that are the basis of its famous earthenware industries. Modern manufactures have had wonderful development in the past forty years. The Japanese were quick to see the advantages DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 227 of western methods, and have applied them with great skill. Many of their products, however, are not equal in quality to those they imitate. Their manufactures are in great variety, and not a few of them supply the home need. So many of the people have been diverted from farming to other industries that, in late years, the cost of living has considerably increased. Among the best indus- trial products are steamships and steam engines, cotton and silk goods. Milk and vegetables are preserved for export. The internal trade is facilitated by post-offices, excellent highways, 7,500 miles of railroad, and 34,000 miles of telegraph and tele- phone lines. Most of the foreign trade passes through the port of Yokohama. Kobe is the second largest port. Silk, raw and manufactured cotton goods, copper, plaiting-straw, coal, sugar, matches and tea are the chief exports. The chief imports are raw cotton, iron and steel, oil cake, wool, machinery. Imports (1916) are from United States, China, British India, cliiefly; exports go to United States, China, Asiatic Russia, Great Britain. Races, Japa- nese and about 15,000 foreigners. Religions, chiefly Shintoism and Buddhism. Exports (1917), $80,150,000; imports, $51,789,000. Japanese Possessions. — Korea, or Chosen, Japan's largest out- lying possession, is described separately. Formosa (Taiwan) is an island belonging to Japan, 90 miles southeast of China. Latitude 25°15'-22° north, longitude 120°- 122° east; area, 13,944; population (1916), 3,710,848, mainly Chinese, including 50,000 Japanese; principal city, Taihoku, 102,- 250, including 6,000 Japanese. The island was settled long before the sixteenth century, at the date when its authentic history begins. It was acquired by Japan at the close of the war with China in 1895. Gold and coal are abundant. Tea is grown for export, most of which is marketed at Amoy, China. Camphor, a go'*7ernment monopoly, is the product which chiefly connects Formosa with the rest of the world. Additional products are sugar, tobacco, oil, iron-work, flour, glass, bricks, soap. A railway extends from north to south through the island. Commerce is chiefly with Japan, China and United States. Exports (1916), $61,086,140; imports, $32,477,330. The Pescadores Islands (or Hokoto) are about twelve in number, with a total area of 50 square miles, and lying a short distance west of Formosa. 228 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Sakhalin is a mountainous island off the coast of Siberia, from which it is distant at its nearest point not more than ten miles. It is separated from Siberia by the Gulf of Tartary, from the nearest part of Hokkaido by La Perouse Strait. The island is 600 miles long and about 105 miles across in its greatest width (south of latitude 50° north) ; area, about 25,000 square miles, of which about one-half belongs to Japan and the remainder to Russia; population of Japanese territory (1915), 57,200; of Rus- sian portion, 34,000, At the close of the war between Russia and Japan, the southern half of the island, now called Karafuto, was ceded to Japan by Russia. Herring fisheries are the chief industry. Large portions could be agriculturally developed, and coniferous trees cover much of the land. Coal and alluvial gold are found. The Russian part of the isand is mainly a convict colony. No trade statistics. Kwantung is a leased area in Manchuria, at the southern end of the Liaotung Peninsula. Latitude 39° 30-39° north, longitude 121°-122°30' east; area, 538 square miles; population (1917), 855,100, chiefly Chinese. It contains the important cities of Dairen (formerly Dalny), the seat of administration, and Port Arthur. It came under Japanese control in 1904. The chief products are maize, millet, beans, buckwheat, wheat, rice, hemp, tobacco and vegetables. Salt is manufactured. The fishing industry is large. Port Arthur is the terminus of an important railway system, con- necting at Mukden with several lines. Trade is mostly with Japan and China. Exports (1916), $80,329,170; imports, $38,259,700. The Bonin and Sulphur Islands are two closely adjacent groups of 20 volcanic peaks. Latitude 27° north, longitude 142° east; area, 27 square miles ; population, estimated, 4,500. For many years the islands were regarded as a British possession, but in 1861 Great Britain renounced her claims in favor of Japan. No commercial statistics. The Kurile Islands are a chain of 31 volcanic islands extending northeasterly from Japan, to which nation they belong. Latitude 51°-44°30' north, longitude 136° 30'-156° 30' east; area, 6,068 square miles; population, small. The islands are commercially unimportant. The Liukiu Archipelago (also Loo Choo, Luchu, and Riukiu) is a long chain of 55 volcanic islands extending from Formosa to DESCRIPTION OP" POLITICAL DIVISIONS 229 Japan. Latitude 30°-24° north, longitude 123°-130° east; area, 941 square miles; population, estimated, 455,000. The islands, claimed for many years by Japan, became a possession of that nation at the close of the war with China in 1895. Sugar, lacquer, and pongee silk are the only important articles of commerce. No commercial statistics. Japan, Mandatories of. — In general, the Peace Conference has made Japan the Mandatary for the ex-German colonies, leases and concessions on the Chinese mainland and the Pacific islands north of the equator. Kiauchau is a district on the Shantung Peninsula. Latitude 36° north, longitude 120° east; area on land, 200 square miles; area of bay, 200 square miles; population, about 192,000. Sur- rounding the district is a neutral zone extending in a semi-circle around the bay for a distance of 30 miles from water, having an area of 2,500 square miles and a population of 1,200,000; virtually German. In 1897 Germany seized the territory, and exacted from China valuable mining and railroad concessions in the guise of a 99-year lease. The region is important as a port of entry for interior Chinese trade, and is active industrially. Fruits, })eans, peanuts, and sweet potatoes are grown; silk culture, coal mining and briquetting, brewing and soap making are other industries. Imports are cotton and cotton goods and yarn, metals, paper, sugar and matches; exports, straw braid, silk, peanut and bean oil, and pongee silks. Exports (1916), $19,966,385; imports, $15,651,820. In 1899 the Caroline, Palao (Palau or Pelew), and Mariana (Marianne or Ladrone) Islands were ceded by Spain to Germany; w4th the exception of Guam, the largest of the Marianas, which had passed to the United States in 1898. The Caroline Islands are an archipelago of three groups of coral islands east of the Philippines, numbering about 500. Lati- tude 12°-3°30' north, longitude 138°-162° east; area, estimated, 380 square miles; population, estimated, 36,000, Malays and Chi- nese. Copra is the only export. The Palao (Palau or Pelew) Islands are a group of about 26 islands west of the Carolines. Latitude 9°-3° north, longitude 131°-138° east; area, about 175 square miles; population, about 3,000. They were discovered in 1543. They were a Spanish pos- 230 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD session until 1899, at which time they were purchased by Ger- many. The islands are of strategic importance only. The Mariana (Marienne or Ladrone) Islands form a group north of the Palaos. Latitude 2r-12"30' north, longitude 144°-146° east. They are inhabited mainly liy Tagals descended from Filipinos. The largest, Guam belongs to the United States. Just after the Spanish-American War they were sold by Spain to Germany for about $4,200,000. Copra and mother-of-pearl are exported. No trade statistics. The Marshall Islands consist of two chains of coral lagoon islands, called the Ratack (13 islands) and Ralick (11 islands) groups. Latitude 15°-4° 40' north, longitude 162 "-177" east; area, estimated, 160 square miles; population (1913), estimated, 15,179. Possession taken by the Germans in 1885. The natives are Malays; they are intelligent, and famous as sailors and boat- builders. Copra and tortoise shell, and mother-of-pearl shell are exported, and phosphates form the chief item. Java: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Jarvis Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Jebel Shammar: — see Nejed, p. 239. Juan Fernandez Islands: — see Chile, p. 179. Jugo-Slavia {Serb-Croat and Slovene State). — A new state of southern Europe, uniting Serbia, Montenegro and the portions of Austria and Hungary inhabited mainly by Coats and Slavonians. Latitude 47°40'-40° 50' north, longitude 14° 30'-23° 10' east. The boundaries will be based upon racial distribution rather than upon physical or past political factors. An important portion is the Dalmatian coast, which, from the head of Dalmatia to the northern boundary of Albania, furnishes the only sea-outlet for the Jugo- slavs. Much of the coast is valueless, in spite of good harbors, because of the inaccessibility of the hinterland. The vital neces- sity of such outlet accentuates the controversy with Italy over the possession of Fiume. The area and population are as difficult to determine as those of the other new countries; tentative esti- mates are 86,600 square miles and 14,000,000. Chief ports, Fiume, through which all the products of the northern sections must pass out, whoever may control the city; Ragusa, Cattaro; inland are Belgrade, the capital of old Serbia ; Sarajevo and Nish, all impor- tant railway centers. The country has great extremes of topog- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 231 rapliy, climate and resources. The western section is wild, largely barren limestone, but containing some very fertile valleys as in Dalmatia. The northeast is in the great Hungarian plain region, and rich in agricultural opportunity. Serbia has some restricted areas of rich soil, but much lean country as well. On the whole, agriculture is backward. Cattle-raising is important in parts, and both could be developed much farther; manufacturing industries are few and primitive. Roads have been exceedingly poor, but a beginning has been made of improvement, through the construc- tion of some modern military roads during the war. Railway communication is limited by topography, enhancing the commer- cial and strategic value of such roads as exist. The notorious *' Berlin to Bagdad" railway required a line from Belgrade through Serbia toward Constantinople to make the plan feasible. Kaiser Wilhelm's Land (German New Guinea) : — see Aus- tralia, Mandatories of, p. 153. Kamerun: — see Cameroons, The, p. 176. Karikal: — see French India, p. 197. Kasligaria: — see Sin-Kiang, p. 267. Keelinrj Island: — see Cocos Islands, p. 183. Kerguelen Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Kermadec Islands: — see New Zealand, p. 244. Khiva: — see Russian Possessions, p. 263. Kiauchau {ex-Germa7i) : — see Japan, Mandatories of, p. 229. King's Islands: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. Korea: — see Chosen, p. 182. Koweit. — A small country of eastern Arabia, lying at the head of the Persian Gulf, between 29° 40-29° north latitude; with Mesopotamia on the north and Hasa on the south. It is under British influence. Its chief importance comes from the port of Koweit, with a foreign commerce of $800,000 to $1,000,000 yearly. The imports are chiefly arms and ammunition, piece goods, coffee, sugar and rice ; exports, horses, pearls, dates, wool. Its physical characters are like those of Oman and Ilasa. Kulja: — see Sin-Kiang, p. 267. Kuria-Muria Islands: — see Aden^ p. 143. Kurile Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. Kwang-Chau-Wan: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. Kwaniung : — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. 232 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Labrador: — see Newfoundland, p. 243. • Lahuan Island: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Laccadive Islands: — see India, p. 219. Ladrone Islands: — see Mariana Islands, p. 235. Laos: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. Latvia. — A state proposed in the Peace Conference to embrace the country occupied predominantly by the Letts, taken from the Riga region of western Russia. It consists of Courland, western Vitebsk and southern Livonia. Latitude 58°-55°40' north, longi- tude 21 "-28° east; area, impossible to determine at this stage, pos- sibly 25,000 square miles; population (1913), possibly 2,360,000. It contains -the great ports of Riga, 569,000 (1913), and Libau, 91,000. The northern part is plateau-like, with poor soil and many glacial lakes, and largely forest-clad. Agriculture is advanced and scientific. Dairy farming and cattle-raising are important occupations. Through Riga are exported petroleum, wool, oil- cake, flax, linseed, timber and wood manufactures. Manufacturing is extensive. The Dvina River is an important highway. The Cour- land section is mainly low and flat, and often marshy. Cattle- raising, as well as agriculture, has reached a high state of success. Leeward Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Leeward Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. Les Salutes Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. Liberia. — A Negro republic in West Africa. Latitude 8°30'- 4° 30' north, longitude ll°-7°30' west; area, estimated, 40,000 square miles; population, including 12,000 Negroes from the United States (1915), estimated, 2,000,000; capital, Monrovia, esti- mated, 6,000. The state originated in the efforts to provide colonization of freed American slaves. First settlement at Mon- rovia 1822; the state was constituted in 1847. The boundaries were tentatively determined by an Anglo-Liberian agreement in 1885. The constitution is modeled after that of this country. With a coast line of 350 miles, Liberia is confined to the basins of the coast streams, none of which is important for navigation. The civilized population lives in towns along the coast and the farming districts near them, or penetrates a short distance up the streams. Behind the mangrove and pandanus swamps near the coast the country rises towards the interior, the successive steps of eleva- tion being marked by rapids in the rivers. Most of the interior is DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 233 covered with dense forests, among which the native population chiefly lives in a state of barbarism. The country is cursed by malaria. Nearly all the colonists live by farming or the collection of palm oil and palm kernels. The chief exports are coffee of excellent quality, rubber, cocoa, ivory, ginger, and palm oil. Im- ports are rice, tobacco, gin, timber, galvanized iron, clothing, dried fish. Race, Negro ; under the law no white man may become a citi- zen. The official language is English, and most of the civilized Negroes are Protestants. Exports (1913), $1,337,197; imports, $902,663. Liechtenstein. — An independent principality between Austria and Switzerland, formerly part of the Rhine confederation, since the dissolution of which it has remained separate. Latitude 47° 15'-47° 05', longitude 9° 25-9° 35' east; area, 65 square miles; population (1912), 10,716. Inhabitants chiefly German Catholics. Industry mainly agriculture, products being corn, wine, fruits, lumber. Cattle of fine quality are raised in the upland pastures. No trade statistics. Lithuania.- — A state proposed in the Peace Conference, to be taken from Russia, comprising the region predominantly occupied by people of that race. A recognition of the country was given by the Germans in the spring of 1918, covering a far greater ter- ritory than is likely to be accorded to it. In general, as now con- stituted, it occupies the government of Kovno, the northern part of Suwalki, and a small area in East Prussia north of the Memel River. Latitude 56 ° 30-54 ° 40' north, longitude 21°-27°20' east; area, approximately 17,000 square miles; population, possibly 2,100,000; chief city Kovno, 92,810 (1913). There is doubt regard- ing the southeastern boundary, where is a broad strip of debatable ground between Lithuania and Poland. The Lithuanians are allied to the Letts. The country is low and flat, with sandy soil and ''black earth," many lakes and several navigable rivers, such as the Dvina, Nieman and Windau. Agriculture is the chief occu- pation, northern grains and vegetables being raised and exported. Cattle-breeding and dairying flourish. Manufacturing has con- siderable opportunity. Little Elohey Island: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. Liukiu (Riukiu) Archipelago: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. Lombok: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. 234 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Lord Howe Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. Louisiade Archipelago: — see Papua, p. 250. Low Archipelago: — see Paumotu Archipelago, p. 251. Loyalty Islands: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. Luxemburg. — A grand duchy of Europe on the southeast slope of the Ardennes. Latitude 50° 10'-49° 25' north, longitude 5° 44'- 6° 31' east; area, 998 square miles; population (1911), 259,891; administrative city, Luxemburg (1910), 20,848. From 1815 to 1866 a member of the Germanic confederation. It was declared a neu- tral territory and its integrity and independence guaranteed by a treaty of London, 1867. It was invaded by the Germans and occupied by them in the World War of 1914. The agricultural interests, including wine, mines, quarries and industrial establish- ments, are important. Nationalities, German and about 4,000 French-speaking persons. Religion, Catholic; language, a Ger- man patois with many French words; French is the commercial language. One of the iron j&elds in eastern France extends into it, and the production of iron ore in 1916 was 1,580,530 tons. No available trade statistics. Macao: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Macaulay Island: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. Madagascar. — A colony of France and the fourth largest island in the world. Latitude 12°-25° south, longitude 43°-51° east; area, estimated, 228,000 square miles; population (1916), esti- mated, 3,512,695; capital, Antananarivo (1914), 63,115; chief ports, Tamatave, 8,647, and Majunga, 7,205. The people, consisting orig- inally of small, independent tribes, were unified about the seven- teenth century. Acquired by the French by conquest in 1885. The whole island was declared a French colony in 1896. Madagascar is 980 miles long; its broadest portion is 360 miles across. It has but few indentations except on the northwest coast, where the best harbors are situated. Since French occupancy the island has been considerably explored. The elevated interior is the most healthful region. Around it is a comparatively level country, extending to the sea, much of it heavily wooded, very fertile, but not healthful. The leading rivers flow to the west coast, and some of them are navigable by small vessels for 100 miles. The capital is in the elevated interior, where live the Hovas, the most advanced and intelligent of the native tribes. A railroad between Tamatave DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 235 and the capital is in operation. There are wagon roads from Antananarivo to both coasts. Cattle breeding and agriculture are improving under the French regime, and many schools and a number of hospitals have been established. The variety of agri- cultural products now grown is very large; the forests are rich in useful woods and gums; a considerable number of minerals are worked, and altogether the possibilities of the island are very great. The exports are caoutchouc, rubber, wax, hides, rice, gold and vanilla. Imports are cottons, clothing, beverages, metals. Races, Malagasy tribes, mainly Hovas, and Europeans. Religions, Protestant and Catholic. Exports (1916), $17,203,000; imports, $20,391,000. Madeira Islands: — see Portugal, p. 256. Madura: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Make: — see French India, p. 197. Make Island: — see Seychelles Islands, p. 266. Malacca: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Malaysia: — see Australasia, p. 152. Malay States, Federated: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Malay States, Unfederated: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Maiden Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Maldive Islands: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Malta: — see British Possessions; Europe, p. 172. Manchuria: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. Manono: — see German Samoa, p. 206. Manus Island: — see Taui Island, p. 273. Mariana Islands (German New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- tories of, p. 229. Marie Galante Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. Marquesas Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. Marshall Islands {Ger^nan New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- tories of, p. 229. Martinique Island: — ^see French Possessions; America, p. 201. Mauritania: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Mauritius: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. Mayotte: — see Madagascar, p. 234. Melanesia: — see Australasia, p. 152. 236 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Mesopotamia. — In general, the watershed of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, lying between the mountains of western Per- sia on the east and the great Arabian and Syrian desert on the southwest except, at the north, where it adjoins the mountain region of Kurdestan. On the south, where it is extremely narrow, it reaches the head of the Persian Gulf. The term is loosely used, and the confines of the region are impossible to define; but roughly it lies between 38°-30° north, and 38°-48° east. With a very ancient history, and under Turkish control since 1562, it is likely to be separated from Turkey and made a mandatory of one of the Allied and Associated Powers. Properly administered, it lias in parts a great future as an agricultural country. The climate is varied, but harshly tropical over much of the region. Winter is the rainy season of growth, and by midsummer vegetation is parched. Sandstorms are widespread and frequent. In ancient times irrigation was practiced; and it is all the country requires today to make large areas extraordinarily productive. Modern irrigation works were projected on a large scale by the British, the first being opened for use in 1913 ; but only a small beginning has been made. Bagdad, 225,000, is the chief city; Mosul, 80,000, lies farther up the Tigris, and Basra, 80,000, at the head of navi- gation of the Shat-el-Arab, the master stream formed of the Tigris and Euphrates. Mexico. — A republic of North America. Latitude 33° 30'- 14° 30' north, longitude 117°-86°30' west; area, 767,198 square miles; population (1912), estimated, 15,500,000; capital, City of Mexico (1910), 471,066; chief ports. Vera Cruz, 48,633; Tampico, Progreso, Port of Mexico, Salina Cruz, Acapulco, Mazatlan ; other cities, Guadalajara, 119,468; Puebla, 96,121; Monterey, 73,528; San Luis Potosi, 68,022. Mexico was an Aztec kingdom, acquired by Spain through conquest in 1521. Spanish rule was ended by a revolution led by the patriot priest Hidalgo, 1810. Republic estab- lished, 1824. An overthrow of the republic was attempted by the leading powers about the time of the Civil War in the United States. War with the United States in 1846; a rebellion in 1913, since which the republic has been in an unsettled state. Mexico is a wide, high table-land between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean, with mountains rising above the plateau on the east and west. There are many volcanic peaks, a few of which are DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 237 active. The rivers are of little economic importance, the chief streams being the Rio Grande del Norte, forming the northeast boundary. On the low and marshy coasts a hot and unhealthful climate prevails. The coast lowlands are called tierra calienta. The tierra templada occupies the middle slopes of the coast moun- tains, and the lower parts of the plateau in the interior, where the climate is temperate and spring seems to be everlasting. The cold zone, tierra fria, is found on the more elevated table-lands; the loftier summits are crowned with snow. The rainy season lasts from May till October. The northern part of Mexico is an arid region, the industries of which are mining and grazing. The agri- cultural part is chiefly in the south. With great variety of climate, Mexico has many agricultural products, but farming has not reached a high level, although rapid progress is now being made. About one-seventh of the surface has been cleared for tillage. The tropical lowlands produce vanilla, coifee, sugar-cane, cotton. In Yucatan the fiber commercially known as sisal hemp has become the largest agricultural export. Maize and beans are very large crops, and are the staple articles of diet. The favorite national drink, pulque, is prepared from the agave. Many tropical and other timbers are found in the forests. Most of the agricultural products are consumed at home, and Mexico's tropical fruits, tobacco and coffee have not yet entered largely into the world's trade. The breeding of domestic animals is growing in importance. Ranches are numerous in northern Mexico, many of the cattle being sent into the United States. The horses, mules, cattle, sheep and hogs are numbered by millions. But the chief source of wealth is the mineral products. Mexico is the richest silver-producing country in the world, and also has large quantities of gold and other metals. The total pro- duction of gold and silver in the three centuries is about $4,000,- 000,000. Iron ore is abundant, and coal is found, but compara- tively little is mined. The precious metals, chiefly silver, form the greater part of the exports. The oil fields in the vicinity of Tam- pico are among the most productive in the world, the output in 1918 being scores of millions of barrels. A large part of the product is used by the British navy; a considerable part is mar- keted in the United States. The exports of oil from Mexico in 1917-18 to the United States were 39,011,095 barrels; to other 238 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD countries, 14,281,276 barrels. The copper mines of Cananea, near the northern boundary, are among the most productive in North America. The Gulf ports. Vera Cruz and Tampico, have been converted into safe and commodious harbors. Vera Cruz, for sisal hemp, is the chief port of the country, Progreso is the shipping port of Yucatan. The leading Pacific ports are Mazatlan, San Bias, Man- zanillo and Acapulco, but they have little trade. Railroads reach all the most important commercial centers, and connect at Eagle Pass, El Paso and Laredo with the railroad systems of the United States. The ship railway across the isthmus of Tehuantepec is controlled by an English company. Races, Mexican, Spanish, and Indian. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. The exports are mainly silver, gold, copper, and sisal hemp. Textiles, hardware and machinery are leading imports, half of them coming from the United States and the remainder from Europe. Exports (1912- 13), $150,202,800; imports, $97,886,000. The Revilla Gigedo Islands are a group attached to the state of Colima, Mexico, situated about 420 miles west of Mexico. The islands are peopled by a few savages. Micronesia: — see Australasia, p. 152. Miquelon Island: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. Molucca Archipelago: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Monaco. — An independent principality, largely surrounded by French territory, in the extreme southeastern part, between Nice and Mentone. Latitude 43° 45' north, longitude 6° 15' east; area, 8 square miles; population (1912), 22,956; cities, La Condamine, .11,082; Monte Carlo, 9,627; Monaco, 2,247. Founded in the tenth century. In 1848 Mentone and Roccabruna seceded, leaving the present state wholly within France, except as fronting on the sea. A constitution was promulgated in 1911. The income of the state is derived chiefly from the tax imposed upon the famous gambling establishment maintained there. Olive oil, oranges, and citrons are exported. Perfumery is manufactured. Races, French and Italian. Trade is included in the statistics of France. Mongolia: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. Montenegro: — see Jugo-Slavia, p. 230. Montserrat: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Movant Cay: — see Jamaica, p. 225. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 239 Morocco. — A sultanate and absolute despotism of northwest Africa. Latitude 36°-28° north, longitude 11°-1° west; area, about 231,500 square miles; population, estimated, 6,000,000; capi- tal at the pleasure of the sultan; cities, Fez, 106,000; Marakesh (Morocco), 99,500; Casablanca, 82,500; Tangier, chief port, 46,000; Rabat, port, 37,500; Meknes, 36,700; all estimated, and about one- fifth of European descent. For the past half-century Morocco has been desired by each of several European powers, but political sentiment has prevented any material changes of government. Since 1912 the country has been a French protectorate, but with a Spanish influence recognized in the form of zones in certain cities. Tangier, an internationalized city, is the principal sea- port and the seat of the foreign consuls. Although mountainous in the north and south, Morocco on its central plateaus has rich opportunities for agriculture and stock- raising. Its undeveloped mineral \vealtli is very great, and in natural resources the state is regarded as richer than any other of the Mediterranean countries of Africa. It is, however, of little commercial importance, for the government is despotic, the taxes are onerous; life and property are not safeguarded; and the fanatical populace bitterly hate all peoples of non-Muhammadan faith. Under such conditions, extensive commercial development is impossible. Practically every change for the better has been thwarted by political intrigue. Races, Berber, Arab, Negro. Religion, Muhammadan. The imports are chiefly cottons, sugar, liquors, tea, flour, groceries and provisions, machinery and hard- ware, vegetables and fruit; exports, barley, wool, eggs, wheat, beans, maize, canary seed. Trade is mainly with France, Algeria and Great Britain. Total exports (1916), $18,925,000; imports, $65,200,000. Mozambique: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Nantucket Island: — ^see Baker Island, p. 154. Natal: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. Nauru (Pleasant) Island (ex-German) : — see Great Britain, Mandatories of, p. 210. Nejed. — The great desert of central Arabia has been claimed by Turkey as the vilayet of Nejed, but its control over the nomadic tribesmen has been nominal at best. Now entirely sepa- rated from Turkey, it is unlikely, because of the natural inde- 240 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD pendence of its people and their fighting qualities, to join with Hejaz or any other state. The whole country is a high desert with scattered oases, inhabited by a very sparse population and incapable of maintaining more. The only means of subsistence must always be a small number of animals and the edible vege- tation of the oases. While it may not become tributary to another state, it will remain one of the regions of the earth that are vir- tually irreclaimable, not contributing appreciably to the advance- ment of mankind. Nejed is bounded on the north by Jebel Shammar, regarded by Turkey as an emirate. This region is but a continuation of the desert to the south, occupied by people wilder and more nomadic, and containing fewer and poorer oases. Whether this country, which has been virtually independent for seventy years, will re- turn to the jurisdiction of Nejed is doubtful. In any event, it will contribute little to the economic well-being of this section of Asia. To the south, occupying the coastal strip, lies the relatively fertile region of Hadramaut, extending from Yemen and Aden on the west to Oman on the east. The coastal plain has nowhere a breadth greater than ten miles, while to the north is the escarp- ment of the Arabian plateau. Despite these limitations and the small rainfall, the country supports a vigorous population and produces some little foreign commerce. Technically it has been a part of Nejed, but what attitude it will assume since freed from Turkish influence cannot be foretold. El Hasa occupies the west coast of the Persian Gulf from Oman on the south to Koweit near the head of the gulf, or be- tween latitude 29° 20' and 25° 10' north. It has been a dependency of Turkey, lately within the emirate of Nejed; but must be regarded as separate today from both. Its future is problematical. The British control of Mesopotamia, reaching southward through Koweit, may embrace it. The coast is low and unhealthful, even where fertile. The interior is part of the sterile Arabian plateau. Oases are not rare, however, and water is found, even outside them. The inhabitants are partly nomadic, partly sedentary, and there are several fixed towns as in Hadramaut. The region prom- ises little, however, except as an outpost of some other country. Nepal. — An independent kingdom in the Himalayas. Latitude 30°17'-26°25' north, longitude 80°6'-88°14' east; area, about DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 241 54,000 square miles; population, estimated, 5,000,000; capital, Katmandu (50,000). Inhabitants, chiefly Gurkhas. Religion, primitive Hinduism. Country under British influence. Chief imports, cattle, salt, spices, sugar, tobacco, drugs and dyes, petroleum, leather, brass, iron and copper utensils, cotton and silk, cotton and woolen cloth; exports, cattle, hides, drugs, gum and resin, jute, cereals, spices, tobacco, timber, saltpeter. Exports to British India (1916-17), $6,810,000; imports, $13,230,000. Netherlands, The. — A limited monarchy of Europe. Latitude 53° 30-51° 40' north, longitude 3°20'-7°15' east; area, exclusive of water, 12,582 square miles; population (1917), 6,583,227; capital, Amsterdam (1917), constitutional, 628,404; Hague, the seat of government, 334,081; other cities— Rotterdam, 487,077; Utrecht, 133,344; Groningen, 86,287; Haarlem, 73,307. The United Prov- inces of The Netherlands was made a state in 1795, and a kingdom in 1815. A flat country with monotonous plains, interrupted only by dunes and a few higher undulations in the east and south. The dunes, stretching along the coast, owe their existence to the winds and waves, which heap the sand into rows of hills. One-fourth of the country lies below sea-level, some districts being from 12 to 20 feet below. Engineering plans now under advisement are reclaim- ing an area from the Zuider Zee aggregating 523,000 acres. Most of the country would be permanently under water, were it not protected from the sea by the dunes and gigantic embankments of earth faced with stone or protected by stakes. These works are called dikes, and they protect the coast from the sea at the points where there are no dunes. The climate is oceanic and moist. The summers are not very warm and the winters are not often very cold. The North Sea washes the whole coast line, which is difficult of access on account of the dunes. The chief rivers are the Rhine, the Meuse, or Maas, and the Scheldt. The river mouths, with their ebb and flow, and a number of bays, chiefly in the Zuider Zee, form the few harbors, of which Rotterdam and Amsterdam command nearly all the sea trade. The country is a land of canals, all the towns and villages being connected by them. These furnish about 2,000 miles of inland navi- gation. The railways total about 3,000 miles. The most important waterways are the North Holland Canal, from Amsterdam to Helder, which, however, is not wide enough for modern large ships 242 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD to enter; the North Sea Canal, 16 miles long, utilized by large steamships between Amsterdam and the North Sea ; and the Rhine Mouth Canal, which gives Rotterdam a deep channel to the sea. The most fertile provinces are in the north and west, and in a part of Limburg, where agriculture has reached a very high stage. Grain, potatoes and vegetables are the chief crops. The Dutch excel in the cultivation of flowers, vegetables and fruit, whicli are important exports to neighboring countries, chiefly England. The country imports its timber, because it is almost destitute of forests. One of the greatest national resources is cattle rearing, which has attained a development equaled in few other countries. Live cattle are exported, and enormous quantities of cheese and butter are sent abroad, mainly to London. The superior horses bring large prices. Sheep are bred mainly for mutton, great quantities of eggs are sent to England, and fishing is a large source of wealth. The supply of minerals is scanty, but some coal is mined in the southeast. A considerable part hitherto has been obtained from Germany. Peat is the chief fuel, and is cut in large quantities. The Netherlands is not an industrial state, its manufactures hardly meeting its own demand. Calicoes are made in great quantities for the colonial trade. Earthenware of all kinds is produced, there being no building stone, and billions of brick are required for build- ing operations. Tobacco manufactures and sugar-refining are among the other leading industries. Diamond cutting has de- creased, as the industry has to a large extent been transferred to Paris and London. Railroads are used chiefly for passenger traffic and the international freight trade, the canals being the main reli- ance for domestic transportation. A very large part of the exports and imports consist of "transit trade" — that is, the goods originat- ing in Germany which cross The Netherlands to be shipped from Amsterdam or from Rotterdam. The Dutch have one of the largest colonial empires, and exploit their colonies strictly for their own benefit; and these possessions are a great source of wealth, giving The Netherlands much of its importance as a commercial nation. Races, Dutch and other Europeans. Religions, Protes- tant, Roman Catholic, and Hebrew. The chief trade is in colonial products, but the larger part of the exports of home products goes to neighboring countries. The larger part of the imports are from Prussia, Dutch East Indies, Great Britain, and United States ; the DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 243 exports go to the same countries. Exports (1913, the highest year), $1,285,000,000; imports, $1,032,500,000. Neu Hannover Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Neu Lauenhurg Islands: — see Duke of York Islands, p. 188. Neu Mecklenburg Island: — see New Ireland Island, p. 244. Neu Pommern Island: — see New Britain Island, p. 243. Neiv Britain Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. New Caledonia: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. Newfoundland and Labrador. — An insular crown colony of Great Britain. Latitude of the island, 51° 40-46° 40' north, longi- tude 59 ° 20-52 ° 40' west; area, 42,734 square miles; population (1917), 252,836; capital, St. John's (1911), 32,292; other cities- Harbour Grace, 4,279; Carbonear, 3,540; Bonavista, 3,900. De- pendent upon Newfoundland is Labrador, a narrow strip on the mainland coast of the Labrador Peninsula. Latitude 65°-56° west, longitude 61°-52° north; area, 120,000 square miles; population (1916), 4,073; a bleak and storm-swept country, in which fishing is the chief occupation. Newfoundland was acquired by Great Britain in 1583. At the close of the French and Indian wars it was ceded to Great Britain in 1763 by the treaty of Utrecht. It is not a province of the Dominion of Canada. The fisheries of Labrador being practically monopolized by Newfoundland fisher- men, the Labrador coast is united with Newfoundland for adminis- trative purposes. St. John's is nearer to Europe than any other port of America, being only 1,675 miles from Cape Clear, on the west coast of Ireland. The east coast of Newfoundland is there- fore an important locality for the Anglo-American ocean cables and for radio-telegraphy, and has recently been used as a point of departure for trans-Atlantic flight. Although good farming land is plentiful in the west and in some of the valleys, the fishing industry dominates everything and agriculture is neglected. Nearly the whole population is devoted to the fishing trade during some part of the year. The hair seal is hunted by many vessels for its oil and skin; and the cod, herring and lobster fisheries give employment to many. Fish are cured in great quantities. Dried codfish form about half the exports; fish otfal is exported for fertilizer. Cod liver oil is used in nearly every part of the world. Seal skins are also exported. Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper, next to codfish, is the most important product. Mineral 244 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD resources are important, the bedded iron ores of Bell Island, espe- cially, furnishing Canada with much of its iron. The chief imports are flour, textiles, hardware; exports are dried cod, pulp and paper, herring, iron ore. Race, chiefly British. Religion, Protes- tant. Exports (1915-16), $19,500,000; imports, $10,883,000. New Guinea: — see Papua, jj. 250. New Hebrides Islands: — see British Possessions, and French Possessions; Australasia, pp. 1G9 and 202. New Ireland Island: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. New Territories: — see Hong Kong, p. 218. New Zealand. — A British Dominion, consisting of North Island, South Island, Stewart Island, and the Cook, Chatham, Auckland, and Kermadec groups. Latitude 34 ° 30'-47 ° 30' south, longitude 166°30'-178°30' east; area. North Island, 44,130 square miles; South Island, 58,120 square miles; Stewart Island, 622 square miles; total with nearby islands, 103,581 square miles; population (1916), North Island, 651,072; South Island (including Stewart and Chatham Islands), 448,933; total, exclusive of Maoris and Cook Islanders (62,513 in 1916), 1,099,499; seat of government, Wellington (1916), 95,235; other cities— Auckland, 133,712; Christ- church, 92,733; Dunedin, 68,716. Probably settled by Polynesians in the fourteenth century. English missionaries and various traders settled in the islands early in the nineteenth century; in 1852 the colony became self-governing; in 1907 the Dominion was formed. The islands are mountainous, the loftiest peak being Mount Cook, in South Island (12,349 feet). The climate is oceanic, but the loftier mountains are snowclad, afforing a rich supply of water to the broad valleys and the plains bordering the sea. The mean temperature of Auckland is 68° F. in January and 50° F. in July. All the climatic conditions make New Zealand a delightful place of residence. Two-thirds of the country is suitable for agri- culture and grazing. The leading branch of farming is cattle and sheep raising, the industry being stimulated by the luxuriant meadows and prairies. This fine natural condition for the animal industry is enhanced by the cultivation of fodder root crops. Sheep are most numerous in the southern part of North Island and the eastern part of South Island. Wool is the most important export crop. Cattle are extensively raised and the exports of butter, cheese and refrigerated meats to Europe are very great. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 245 The common farm crops of the temperate zone are rapidly develop- ing and the farm lands aggregate about 16,800,000 acres. The damp, steep western slope has little agriculture, but the warm, dry plains of the east of South Island especially make ideal farming lands. A great amount of wheat, linseed and oats is raised. Phormium, or New Zealand flax, grows wild, and is used for making paper, cordage and some fabrics. Gold, silver, coal and petroleum are also large resources. The chief manufactures deal with the working up of animal products. Most of the foreign trade is with Great Britain ; wool, meats, gold, grain and Kauri gum are exported. Australia comes second, and United States third. Eaces, chiefly British and Maori. Religion, Protestant. Exports (1916), $166,435,000; imports, $131,696,500. Attached to New Zealand are several groups of islands. The Auckland Islands are 200 miles south of Stewart Island. Latitude 50° south, longitude 166° 20' east; area of the largest island, 330 square miles ; uninhabited ; used only as a refuge for shipwrecked mariners, a station being maintained on the largest island. The Chatham Islands. Latitude 43° 50' south, longitude 177°' west ; 536 miles east of New Zealand ; area, 375 square miles ; popu- lation (1916), 477. The Cook Islands are an archipelago, containing several smaller groups. Latitude 8°-23° south, longitude 157°-170° west; area, about 280 square miles; population (1916), about 13,000, Legends of the native peoples, practically all Polynesians, point to the belief that the islands were peopled by Samoans. The islands have been under the administration of New Zealand since 1901. Copra, coffee, pearlshell, fruits, hats and caps, and lime juice are the export products. Fourteen islands or groups constitute the archipelago. Of the latter are the Parry, Hervey, and Savage Islands. The Kermadec Islands are a group in latitude 36° south, longi- tude 178° 30' west. They are of strategic value only, being unin- habited at present. Total area, 15 square miles. The chief islands are Raoul or Sunday, and Macauley; smaller ones are the Camp- bell, King's, Antipodes, and Bounty Islands. New Zealand, Mandatory of. — One ex-German colony has been granted to New Zealand as mandatory by the Peace Conference. German Samoa. Latitude 14° south, longitude 172° west. Of 246 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD the Samoan group, the islands of Savaii and Upolu were given by Great Britain to Germany in 1899. Area, Savaii, 660 square miles ; Upolu, 340 square miles; population (1912), 35,000; chief port, Apia on Upolu. Two other small islands, Manono and Apolima, also belonged to Germany. Inhabitants, Polynesian, nominally Christians. The country is extremely fertile. Exports (1915), $1,311,950; imports, $118,550. Nicaragua. — A republic of Central America. Latitude 15°- 10° 45' north, longitude 87 ° 30'-83 ° 15' west; area, estimated, 49,200 square miles ;' population (1914), estimated, 703,600; capital, Managua, 34,872; other cities— Leon, 62,569; Granada, 17,092; Matagalpa, 15,749. A part of the Spanish possessions, declared independent of Spain in 1821. The Mosquito coast, now Bluefields, under British protection for many years, was turned over to Nica- ragua in 1906. By a treaty in 1916, the United States acquires the right to construct an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua, together with the occupation of Fonseca Bay as a naval base. Nicaragua is the largest state of Central America, with extensive seaboard on both the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The population is largest on the Pacific slope of the state (over 75 per cent.). The eastern part is covered with tropical forests containing ''Honduras mahogany," other cabinet woods, and dyewoods. Bananas are extensively grown in the valley of Bluefields River and its estuary. They are the chief export of the eastern part, being shipped from Bluefields, the chief Atlantic port. The commerce of the fruit-growing industry is controlled practically by the United Fruit Company. The principal export product of the western country, coffee, is chiefly grown around Leon. The mines yield gold, silver, and copper. They are operated mainly by American and British companies. Many of the coffee planta- tions are owned by Americans. Cattle in the northwest supply many hides for export. Corinto, most important for commerce, and San Juan del Sur are the Pacific ports. A railway connects Corinto with the large interior towns. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), $5,285,000; imports, $4,777,600. Nicobar Islands: — see India, p. 219. Nigeria and Protectorate: — see British West Africa, p. 173. Ninigo Group: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 247 Nissan Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. North America.— Latitude approximately 83°-7° north, longi- tude 170° east to 50" west; area, about 8,000,000 square miles (16 per cent, of all the lands) ; here interpreted to include all land south to the limit of Panama. Its great range of latitude results in most varied climate; but a relatively small portion is dry desert, and no very large percentage is cold desert. The northern portion was completely covered by ice during the Ice Age recently past, and its soils show marked effects of the mixing action so characteristic of glaciated areas. To this may be attributed the fertility of some and the endurance of other parts. The land con- tains some of the largest areas of fertile soil in the world; its manufactures lead the industrial world, and its commerce, chiefly from United States, today commands the world's trade. Its out- look on two oceans aids greatly in its commercial relations. It is unlike other continents in having a small number of countries instead of being dissected into many small nations like Europe, or possessing numerous tributary states like Asia or Africa. Northern Territories: — see British West Africa, p. 173. North Island: — see New Zealand, p. 244. Norway. — A kingdom and constitutional monarchy occupying the western and northern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. Latitude 71° 30-58° north, longitude 5°-36° east; area, 124,643 square miles; population (1910), 2,391^782; capital, Kristiania (1910), 241,834; other towns— Bergen, 76,867; Trondhjem, 45,335; Stavanger, 37,261; Dramen, 24,895. The chronicles of Norse vikings date back several thousand years. The period of written history begins in 1204. In 1814 Norway was made an independent kingdom in union with Sweden. In 1905 the union was dis- solved and Haakon VII became king. Norway is a mountainous coast country on the north Atlantic; the entire shore line including fiords and large islands, being about 12,000 miles long. The prevailing westerly winds, warmed by their passage over the Atlantic, keep the fifty ports among the fiords open the year around, for the drift of warm ocean water keeps the harbors free from ice. The same influence makes oats a flourishing crop at 64°, and barley even at 70°. The country is so rugged that not much of the land produces food staples, and over 75 per cent, of the surface is unproductive. The grain and potato crops satisfy 248 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD only one-half of the domestic consumption. The most impor- tant vegetable resource is the forests, which cover one-fourth of the area; the timber is close grained and tough, and Norway- is one of the leading lumber-producing countries. Sufficient cattle and sheep are reared to meet the home requirements, but only a small quantity of wool is exported. The most valuable animal product is derived from the sea, the cod and herring fisheries yielding millions of dollars every year, and providing a large part of the food of the inhabitants. The principal cod fisheries are off the Lofoten Islands; the less valuable herring fishery is pursued all along the coast. The mining interests are important. Iron ore for smelting, and iron pyrites, used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, are the chief mineral products. Copper and nickel are also mined. The abundance of water power not only stimulates lumber manufacture, but as hydroelectric power carries the manufacturing industries to the various centers of population, Kristiania, Bergen and Trondhjem are the leading ports. Races, Norwegians, Finnish and Lapp. Religion, chiefly Lutheran, the state church. Exports are mainly to United States, Great Britain, Germany and Sweden; imports from Germany, Great Britain, Sweden and United States. Exports (1915), $186,944,800; imports, $241,102,000. Nyassaland Protectorate: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. Oceania (Oceanica) : — see Australasia, p. 152. Ocean Island: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. Old Kowloon :—see Hong Kong, p. 218. Oman. — An independent state in the southeastern part of the Arabian peninsula. Latitude 26° 30-17° north, longitude 50°30'-60° east; area, 2,000 square miles; population, estimated, 500,000; capital, Muskat (24,000). Occupied by the Portuguese until the middle of the seventeenth century, later becoming an independent sultanate. Has gradually lost much of its territory. The Arab population is unstable, and the little land possible for agriculture is but slightly tilled. Camels in large numbers are bred on the inland desert. Commerce, chiefly by caravans and sea routes, is with United Kingdom, India, Persia, and France. Exports, chiefly dates, limes, fish, cotton goods; imports, rice, coffee, cloth, cereals. Trade figures incomplete., DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 249 Orange Free State: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. Palao Islands (German New Guinea) : — see Japan, Manda- tories of, p. 229. Palestine. — The Holy Land occupies southern Syria, and by the Syrians is not regarded as a separate unit. It begins at the north at the latitude of Beirut, 34° north, and extends to the boundary of Iledjaz on the south, about 30° north. To the west lies the Levantine Gulf, to the east the Arabian desert at the south, and part of Syria proper farther north. Jerusalem, 85,000, is the largest town; others are Jaffa, 45,000, and Gaza, 40,000. There are no good ports. The topography is varied, part of it being rugged, with bare rock surfaces or thin soil. The val- ley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea is a remarkable down-fallen block of the earth's crust, called a "rift" valley, and its surface is below sea-level at the Dead Sea. In the larger valleys the soil and water afford good vegetation, and agriculture flourishes; but as a whole the country cannot be made to feed a large popula- tion. Sub-tropical fruits and grains are the produce. Area, about 13,970 square miles; population, 1,074,100. An extensive movement has been launched to make of Palestine an independent Jewish state, possibly as a mandatory under one of the Allied and Associated Powers. Palmyra Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Panama. — A republic of North America. Latitude 9° 30'-7° 15' north, longitude 83° 30-77° 15' west; area, 32,380 square miles; population (1916), exclusive of canal zone, 450,000; capital and Pacific port, Panama (1915), 60,028; Atlantic port. Colon, esti- mated, 26,000. Formerly a state of Colombia. On the refusal of Colombia to ratify a treaty with the United States respecting the Panama Canal, the state of Panama seceded in 1903 and declared itself an independent republic. The state and the isthmus are practically one, extending from Colombia to Costa Rica. The ranges of mountains that border the Pacific coast of the continent give shape to the isthmus. About 150 short rivers flow to the sea from the northern side, and more than twice that number drain the Pacific slope. The largest river, Tuira, is navigable for river schooners as far as Santa Maria del Real. The Bayamo, discharg- ing into the Gulf of Panama, is said to be navigable for small craft for 120 miles. Panama has many bays and ports on both 250 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD oceans, but most of them are unavailable for commerce. There is no hinterland which offers an easy field for development. Dense forests cover three-fourths of the state, and the greater part con- sists of unoccupied land. The climate and the products are tropical. The Canal Zone, the cities of Panama and Colon excepted, is under the control of the United States ; the two cities are under the jurisdiction of the state. The production of the state consists mainly of bananas, coffee, and caoutchouc and these are the chief exports. Cattle raising is successful, and hides are exported. Panama and Colon are the only important ports. The people represent an admixture of Spanish, Negro and Indian blood. The great traffic crossing the isthmus is almost wholly transit trade. Imports are chiefly from United States. Exports (1916), $5, 709,225; imports, $9,397,365. Panama Canal Zone: — see United States, Outlying Terri- tories, p. 285. Pangkor (Dindings) : — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Papua: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Paraguay.— A republic of South America. Latitude 21°-27° 30' south, longitude 61 ° 30-54 ° 30' west; area, estimated, 65,000 square miles, exclusive of the Chaco claimed also by Bolivia (about 100,000 square miles), population (1917), estimated, 1,000,000; capital, Asuncion, estimated, 120,000; other cities — Villa-rica, 26,000; Concepcion, 15,000; Carapegua Luque, 15,000, all estimated. Paraguay gained independence of Spanish rule in 1811. The history from that time was turbulent and revo- lutionary. Peace came with a new constitution in 1870. One of the smallest states of South America; it does not touch the sea, but the Parana and Paraguay rivers, accessible to large steamers, give it an outlet to the Atlantic. It is mountainous in the east, has a sub-tropical climate, agreeable and healthful, and receives abundant rainfall. Most of the country is well adapted for foreign colonization. The western part, bordered by the Pilcomayo River, is a low, warm plain, interspersed with forests and especially adapted for cattle raising. The eastern and more populous region is mainly covered with dense forests with great but undeveloped wealth in timber, interspersed with plains, especially towards the south, which are splendidly adapted for cattle and farming. The vast resources of all kinds are still DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 251 little developed. Rice, sugar-cane, maize and the potato are the chief farm crops, but the great product is mate, or ''Paraguay tea," which is both cultivated and gathered wild. It is exported to the amount of about 15,000,000 pounds a year and is sold chiefly to people in several South American states. It is regarded as an excellent substitute for tea and coffee. Tobacco is also grown for export. Domestic animals are confined chiefly to cattle which are raised mostly for local consumption. Iron, kaolin and salt are abundant but little developed. A few home industries supply most of the demand except for textiles and hardware. Raihvays connect Asuncion with the Uruguay raihvay lines and also with Buenos Aires. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1913, the highest year), $5,631,000; imports, $8,120,000. Parry Islands: — see Cook Islands, p. 184. Paumotu (Low) Archipegalo : — see French Possessions; Aus- tralasia, p. 202. Pedro Cay: — see Jamaica, p. 225. Pelew Islands: — see Palao Islands, p. 249. Pemha Island: — see British East Africa, p. 160. Penang: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Perak (Dindings) : — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Perim Island: — see Aden, p. 143. Persia. — A despotic monarchy of southwest Asia. Latitude 39° 45-25° north, longitude 44°-62°20' east; area, estimated, 628,000 square miles; population, estimated, 9,500,000; capital, Teheran, estimated, 280,000; other cities— Tabriz, 200,000; Ispahan, 80,000; Meshed and Kirman, 60,000 each. The ancient history of Persia extends several thousand years back of the Christian era. In the early period of written history it was occu- pied by Aryan people. The name "Iran" commonly used as a name of Persia means "Aryan." Cyrus, Xerxes, and Darius, kings of Persia, were sovereigns whose fame extends throughout the world. The last-named is a factor in Masonic history. Alex- ander the Great overcame the kingdom about 331 B.C. At the be- ginning of the World War, Great Britain and Russia commanded spheres of influence that covered most of the kingdom. At that time German aggression was already in evidence. Persia is a high table-land, more than a third of it is a sandy desert and salt plain, 252 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD mountainous in the west and north. Cultivation is confined mainly to the irrigated valleys of the western part. The rainfall is largely deficient; the climate healthful, but very warm. The Persian monarch assumes the title of Shah-in-shah, or King of Kings, and his government is an Oriental despotism. The administration is corrupt, but the adoption of European innovations in the army has given to Persia an appearance of progress. During the World War a part of the country was a battleground between the Ger- mans and the Allies. The real wealth is in arbori-culture, par- ticularly fruits. Cotton raising has made great progress. All kinds of minerals are found, but they will not be available until the methods of transportation are improved and mining regions are opened to foreigners. Most turquoises, however, come from Persia. House industries supply most of the local demand, and the Persians are famous for the carpets and rugs of Tabriz, Kermanshah, and Hamadan. These form the export that brings Persia in touch with most of the world. Silk and opium produc- tion are large and increasing. Race, Persian. Religions, chiefly Muhammadan, Christian, and Jewish. Imports are in excess of exports; textiles, glass, sugar, kerosene and tea and coffee being large purchases. Cotton, fruits, wool, silk, carpets, pearls, and turquoises are the chief exports. Exports (1913-14, the highest year), $41,440,000; imports, $58,833,000. Peru.— A South American republic. Latitude 3° 30-18° south, longitude 81° 30-71° west. The western extremity of Peru and of South America is in practically the longitude of Cleveland, Ohio. Area, 722,462 square miles; population, estimated, 4,500,000 (no official statistics) ; capital, Lima (1913), 143,500; chief port, Callao, 34,346 (1905); other cities— Arequipa, 35,000; Ayachuco, 14,346; Iquitos, 12,000; Cuzco, 12^000. Like other one-time Spanish pos- sessions, Peru declared itself independent in 1821. The present constitution went into effect in 1860. Peru has a long littoral on the Pacific, and a part of its territory extends to the east of the Andes, giving access to the Atlantic by the Amazon River. Ocean steamships ascend to Iquitos, the collecting market for the eastern forest products. The plain between the Andes ranges and the Pacific is a desert, with ribbons of verdure along the streams, bordered by irrigated plantations where sugar-cane, cotton and tobacco are raised. The mountain ranges are eco- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 253 nomically important for their vast stores of minerals and the rivers that their melting snows send to the sea. The forests east of the mountains are rich in rubber and cinchona, from which quinine is prepared, and have splendid prospects for tropical agri- culture, as yet little developed. The climate is tropical in the low- lands. Agriculture is limited to the production of food consumed at home. The plantations supply some export cotton, rice and coca, from which cocaine is derived. Sugar-cane is grown for home refineries. Cattle are numerous among the foothills of the Andes. The alpaca supplies much wool, and the llama is used chiefly for mountain transportation. Sugar, cotton, copper, and petroleum are the chief exports; imports arc cloth, wheat, lumber, coal. Mining is restricted l)y the lack of transportation. Of the 1,700 miles of railway only a few lines reach the mineral dis- tricts. Short extensions will connect the Peruvian centers with lines converging at Buenos Aires. Manufactures are confined to sugar refineries, tanneries, coca laboratories, breweries and a few cotton mills. The largest imports are textiles, iron and steel goods, machinery and groceries. Race, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1916), $82,705,300; imports, $43,415,750. Pescadores Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. Philippine Islands. — A group of the Malay archipelago consist- ing of 3,141 islands, of which about 2,750 are very small islets. The largest, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Palowan, Panay, Samar, Negros, and Leyte comprise the important members of the group. Latitude 21° 30'-4°30' north, longitude 117°-12r)° 41' east; area of Luzon, 40,814 square miles; Mindanao, 36,906 square miles; total estimated area, 120,000 square miles; population, estimated, 9,000,000; capital, Manila, 266,943; other cities, Iloilo, on Panay, estimated, 60,000; Cebu, on Cebu, estimated, 60,000. The islands were discovered by Magellan in 1521. By the Bull of Pope Alexander VI they were a possession of Spain. They were ac- quired by the United States at the close of the Spanish-American War in 1898. Mountains are the chief topographic feature. The larger islands, especially Luzon and Mindanao, have broad, well- watered plains that are tillable, but not over a third of the area is adapted for cultivation. The climate is tropical, the night breezes from the sea affording some relief, but as a whole the islands are 254 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD not healthful for the white race. The population is densest in Luzon and the Visayas, or central islands. Rice is the chief pro- duction, but in poor years much is imported from Cochin-China, as this grain is the chief food. Manila hemp, a strong, coarse fiber derived from a species of the banana, is the best material for cordage and sailcloth and is a large export, the Philippines being as yet the chief source of supply. Copra and sugar comprise about one-third of the value of the exports. Tobacco is also an important crop, the best growing in northern Luzon, whence it is sent to other parts of Asia. Manila cigars have a large sale also in the United States. The mineral wealth is large but undevel- oped. The United States has established local self-government wherever-^ practicable, is efficiently protecting life and property, and is developing the islands by establishing agricultural experi- ment stations and schools. The government has surveyed the coasts in the interests of fishing, and in many other ways is doing much to facilitate progress. The Tagals of Luzon and the Visayas are more advanced in civilization than the other natives, who include the dwarf Negritos and the Muhammadan Moros. Races, Malayan, Negroid, Chinese and whites. Over 3,000,000 pro- fess Christianity (Roman Catholic). Imports are chiefly cotton goods, hardware and machinery, and rice, exports, hemp, sugar, copra, tobacco products. Exports (1917), $17,715,375; imports, $51,983,273. Pho&nix Islands: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Pitcairn Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Pleasant Island {ex-German) : — see Nauru Island, p. 239. Poland. — Perhaps the most important, as it is the most inter- esting, of the new states created or recognized by the Allied and Associated Powers. In general, it is to comprise the region occu- pied chiefly by Poles. A definite portion of German territory was ceded to it from Germany by the Treaty of Versailles (1919), amounting to 20,780 square miles, and a smaller area, 5,723 square miles, is to decide by vote whether to join it or to remain in East Prussia. The 729 square miles embraced within the Free City of Danzig will be dominantly under Polish influence. The main body of the country is the Russian province of Poland, with a small area of Suwalki lost to Lithuania at the north. In addition, a large region adjacent on the east is included, comprising sev- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 255 eral Russian governments, and inhabited by White Russians and Ukranians, as well as Poles. Galicia, taken from Austria, seems likely to be included, as also a considerable section of northeastern Hungary. As thus constituted, Poland stretches from 5(3^-54° 40' north, and 16°-28°30' east. The area is impossible to estimate accurately; but may be stated tentatively at 105,000 square miles. The population is not known, but is probably in excess of 35,000,000. Drained by the Vistula, the state would yet be too centrally located for effective growth, were it not for the "cor- ridor" accorded to it by the Treaty of Versailles, running down the river and separating Prussia from East Prussia. Danzig, at the mouth, has been internationalized, giving to Poland good, if somewhat inadequate, coastal outlet. Poland has great age as a nation; but has not persisted, in part because of a lack of natural boundaries to reinforce the racial ones. Now, however, with the League of Nations to aid it in resisting aggression, it should not only maintain its integrity, but become one of the great countries of Europe. Its topography and climate are alike varied; and its industries are as a result numerous. The area includes some of the best agricultural land in eastern Europe, and contains vast stores of mineral wealth, coal, iron, oil and lesser varieties. Forests are extensive. Manu- facturing is on a large scale, and can be vastly increased. Alto- gether, Poland, if properly governed, can become one of the most productive countries of Europe. Important cities are AVarsaw, 910,000 (1913); Lodz, 416,000; Vilna, 204,000; Lemberg, 212,000 (1914); Krakau, 171,000 (1914); Danzig, 170,000 (1910) will be virtually Polish commercially. Polynesia: — see Australasia, p. 152. Pondichery: — see French India, p. 197. Porto Rico (Puerto Rico). — An outlying territory of the United States in the West Indies. Latitude 18° 30-17° 50' north, longitude 17° 15-65° 15' west; area, 3,606 square miles; popula- tion (1914), estimated, 1,184,500, a density of about 325 per square mile; capital, San Juan (1910), 48,716; other cities— Ponce, 63,444; Mayaguez, 42,429. Porto Rico was discovered by Colum- bus on his second voyage, in 1493. It remained a Spanish pos- session until 1898 when, at the close of the Spanish-American W^ar, it w^as ceded to the United States. Although Porto Rico is 256 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD not yet a Territory by enactment, it has a territorial organi- zation. The island is 95 miles long and 35 broad. The central range of mountains extends nearly the entire length of the island, condensing the moist trade winds; so that the northern half of the island has abundant rainfall, while the fields of the southern half often require irrigation. For this reason- the streams of the northern slope contain more water than the southern rivers, and many small boats carry farm produce to the north coast towns. Alluvial plains skirt the coast, but most of the island is broken. The tropical climate is tempered by the trade winds. In the late summer and autumn the island is visited at times by severe hurri- canes. Most of the farms are small, and four-fifths of the popu- lation are engaged in agriculture. The staple products are coffee, sugar and tobacco. The coffee shrubs, grown in the shade of banana and guava trees, do best on the foothills. The quality of the bean is excellent, and the product meets with ready sale. Sugar-cane is planted chiefly on the alluvial coastal plains, and sugar is about one-half the total value of exports. Bananas, pine- apples and grape fruit are important export products. The finest tobacco districts are in the inland mountain regions. The mineral resources are not large, but the evaporation of brine supplies the island with about 10,000,000 pounds of salt a year. Iron ore, gold and copper ore occur. Gypsum, useful in making stucco, is plentiful, and there is an abundance of building stone. The United States has connected the important towns with good roads, and these have an aggregate length of more than 1,000 miles. Railways practically encircle the island. San Juan and Ponce are connected by an excellent macadam road, and sections of a coast railroad that is to extend around the island are in operation. Steamers ply around the island as well as to the United States, Europe and neighboring islands. Races, whites, Negroes and mixed breeds. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Nearly all the trade is with the United States. Exports (1917), to United States, $73,115,224, to foreign countries, $7,855,693; imports from United States, $49,539,249, from foreign countries, $4,005,975. Portugal. — A republic at the western extremity of the Iberian Peninsula. Latitude 42°-37° north, longitude 9°30'-6°15' west; area, excluding Azores and Madeira, 34,254 square miles ; popula- tion (1911), 5,545,595; capital, Lisbon (1911), 435,359; other DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 257 cities— Oporto, 194,000; Setubal, 30,346; Braga, 24,647; Coimbra, 20,581. An independent monarchy, founded in the twelfth century. Portugal became a republic in 1910. Most of the country is moun- tainous. The plains, very fertile, are almost wholly confined to the west coast and along the rivers. The climate is oceanic, and high degrees of temperature are registered only in the south. Rainfall is considerable, especially in winter and spring. The rivers Tagos, Douro, Guadiana and Minho are navigable to the Spanish frontier. Flax and southern fruits are large crops. Wine growing is the most noted branch of husbandry, and in the quality of its wine, Portugal is one of the leading wine countries. Port wine receives its name from the city of Oporto where it is still a market product. Madeira wine bears the name of the islands that made it famous. Cork derived from the bark of a species of oak is sent to all civilized lands. The country has great mineral resources, but the industry is backward and the mines are chiefly in the hands of foreigners. Sea salt obtained by evaporation is a large product. The manufactures do not meet the home demand either in quality or quantity. The manufacture of porcelain tiles, inherited from the Moors, is carried on in the larger cities, and these are sold all over Europe. Railroads connect all the chief centers of population, and domestic trade is facilitated by rivers. Much produce is brought in from the colonies, the leading imports being grain, cotton, coal, and timber. The chief exports are wine, cork, salt, copper and fish. Race, Portuguese. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1913, the highest year), $40,761,000; imports, $89,900,000. The Azores form an archipelago in the north Atlantic Ocean, including three groups of volcanic islands, belonging to Portugal and considered as a part of it. Latitude 40°-37° north, longitude 31° 15'-24°45' west; area, 922 square miles; population (1911), 242,613; chief ports, Horta, on Fayal ; Augra, on Terceira; and Ponta Delgada, on St. Michael's, 16,179. Submarine cables con- nect the islands with ports of the United States, Great Britain, and Portugal. Tropical fruit and wine are the principal exports. The position of the islands, 830 miles from Africa and 1,000 miles from the United States, makes them a natural way-station for trans-Atlantic flight. The Madeira Islands, also a corporate part of Portugal, are 258 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD in latitude 33° 15-32° 30' north, longitude 17°30'-16° west; area, 314 square miles; population (1911), 169,777; Funchal, chief town, 24,687 (1911); location, about 360 miles from the African coast and 535 from Lisbon. The inhabitants are Portuguese, often with Moorish or Negro blood in the lower classes. The land is so steep and the rainfall so light that agriculture is difficult, irri- gation being largely practiced. Wine and sugar are the chief products. The islands were known to the Phoenicians in the fourteenth century, and were colonized by Prince Henry the Navi- gator in 1420. Portuguese East Africa: — see Mozambique, p. 239. Portuguese Guinea: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Portuguese India: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Portuguese Possessions. — The colonial possessions occupy 936,264 square miles, with a population of 8,735,854. Portuguese India consists of Goa on the Malabar coast, Damao, on the coast 100 miles north of Bombay, and Diu, an island 140 miles west of Damao; area of Goa, 1,469 square miles, population, 515,772; area of Damao and Diu, 169 square miles, population, 32,700. Salt is the chief product, and manganese is mined somewhat extensively. Imports are three times the value of the exports. Macao, in China, is on an island at the mouth of the Canton River; area, 4 square miles; population (1911), 74,866. Portuguese Timor occupies the eastern part of Timor Island in the Malay Archipelago, with some adjoining territory. Lati- tude 10° south, longitude 125° east; area, 7,330 square miles; population, 377,815. Chief exports, coffee, sandal wood, copra and wax. The port is Delli. The Cape Verde Islands are fifteen. Latitude 21° 30-23° south, longitude 25° 30' to 23° west; area, 1,480 square miles; population, 149,793 (1912). Chief products, coffee, medicinal materials, millet, sugar, fish and straw hats. They have belonged to Portugal since their discovery, 1456. Portuguese Guinea is on the Senegambian coast west of Africa. Latitude 13°-10°30' north, longitude 16°30'-13° west; area, 13,940 square miles ; population, estimated, 289,000 ; includes many coastal islands. Chief port, Bissau. Chief products, rubber, wax, oil seed, ivory, hides. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 259 Principe and St. Thomas Islands, about 125 miles west of the coast in the Gulf of Guinea, have belonged to Portugal since discovery in 1471. Latitude 0°, longitude 7° east; area, 360 square miles; population (1914), 58,907. The islands are dissected vol- canoes, with rich soil. Chief products, cacao, coffee and cinchona. Foreign trade considerable. Angola, or Portuguese West Africa, occupies a length of 1,000 miles on the coast. Latitude 6°-18° south, longitude 12°-24° east; area, 484,800 square miles; population, 4,119,000; capital, S. Paulo de Loanda. Has been Portuguese since 1575. Chief products, coffee, rubber, wax, vegetable oils, cocoanuts, ivory, oxen and fish. Petroleum and asphalt are worked, and the coun- try is rich in mineral resources. Chief imports, textiles; exports, chiefly to Portugal, coffee and rubber. Mozambique, or Portuguese East Africa, occupies a strip on the coast from latitude 10° 30' to 27° 30' south, longitude 29° 30'- 41° east; area, 426,712 square miles; population, 3,120,000; chief port, Mozambique, 362,734 (1910). Products are especially sugar, cocoanuts, wax and minerals, especially gold and coal. Im- ports are cottons, iron work, liquor; exports, rubber, ores, wax and ivory. Exports (1915), $33,615,000; imports, $10,279,000. Portuguese Timor: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Portuguese West Africa: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Principe Island: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Raoul (Sunday) Island: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. Raioa Island: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. Reunion Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Revilla Gigedo Islands: — see Mexico, p. 236. Rhodesia: — see British South Africa, p. 173. Riau-Lingga Archipelago: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Rio del Oro and Adrar: — ^see Spanish Possessions, p. 269. Rio Muni Settlements: — see Spanish Guinea, p. 269. Rodrigues Island: — see Mauritius, p. 235. Rook Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. Rotumah Island: — see Fiji Islands, p. 193. Rumania. — A limited monarchy of eastern Europe. Latitude (1914) 48°15'-43°40' north, longitude 22 ° 30'-29 ° 45' east. The plans of the Peace Conference contemplate giving to Rumania a large area including Transylvania, most of Bukovina and the 260 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD adjacent section of Galicia, part of Banat, and some of Hungary- proper, and the whole of Bessarabia, and taking away the south- ern part of Dobrudja, which is ceded to Bulgaria because of a prevailingly non-Rumanian population. It is difficult to forecast the results of the proposed changes; Bessarabia begins at 48° 40' north, extending to 35° 15' east, and contains 17,614 square miles and a population of 1,427,500 (1915). Of Banat about two-thirds would appear to be included, or 7,500 square miles; its population may amount to 1,000,000. Bukovina has an area of 4,000 square miles, with a population of 820,000, and nearly all both of land and of people would appear to go to Rumania. The area and population transferred from Hungary are difficult to calculate at the present stage. In general, the territory added to Rumania is that occupied predominantly by Rumanians. Area (1914), 53,490 square miles; population (1912), 7,508,000; capital, Bucharest, population (1914), 345,628; other cities— Jassy, 76,120; Galatz, 72,512. Most of the country is a well-watered plain, with skirts of the Carpathians "only in the west and north. The Danube is the chief river, navigable throughout, but of its tributaries only the Pruth is navigable for steamers and the Sereth for rafts. An international commission for the regulation of the traffic of the Danube formerly sat at Galatz. The climate is continental. Seventy-five per cent, of the people are farmers, but primitive methods still prevail. The soil is very fertile, and all products of the temperate zone, and even rice, are raised. The chief crops are maize (the staple food), wheat, barley, oats, rye, tobacco and wine, all produced in excess of the demand. The excess of the crop goes to the congested parts of w^estern Europe. More maize is raised than in any other country of Europe. Domestic animals are bred in large numbers. The mineral wealth is great, but only petroleum and salt are worked extensively on the east of the Carpathians; the larger part of the newly acquired region on the Hungarian side abounds in minerals. The oil wells are among the most important in Europe, and petroleum and its products are much used as power fuel in transportation and manufactures. Flour mills, distilleries and tobacco works are the chief manufactories. Foreign capitalists own all important manufacturing enterprises, so that the Rumanians derive little profit from them. Races, Rumanians, Jews, Magyars, Slavs, Germans, Austrians, Arme- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 261 nians. Religions, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant, Hebrew and Muhammadan. Grain forms three-fourths of the exports, and imports are mainly textiles and iron goods. Exports from old Rumania (1913), $134,141,060; imports, $118,002,- 520. Russia. — Nominally a republic, but much divided and witliout responsible government. Capital of the Soviet government, Mos- cow. In 1914, the Russian Empire was constituted as follows : — latitude of northernmost European mainland 70°; of European islands 77° 6'; of northernmost mainland in Siberia 78°; latitude of southernmost European Russia 39° no^th, of Asiatic Russia 35°. Longitude, European Russia, 17° 30-65° east; of Asiatic Russia 48° 20' east-170° west. Area, Europe, 2,122,990; Asia, 6,294,119; total, including 347,468 square miles of inland seas, 8,764,586, or one-seventh of the land area of the earth. Popula- tion, Europe, 153,041,100 (1915); Asia, 29,141,500. Since disin- tegration began in 1917, the following fragments of Russia have declared themselves to be independent or semi-independent states. Certain few are recognized by the Peace Conference as sovereign states; the status of the remainder is quite unknown; Finland, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, Courland, Livonia (the last two in part constituting Latvia as now recognized), Esthonia, Bessarabia, Siberia, Caucasus, Don Republic, White Russian Republic, Repub- lic of Turkestan, Kazan Republic, Republic of Georgia, Tauride Republic, Yakutsk Republic. The Peace Commission has recognized Finland, Esthonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland as separate and independent states; Bessarabia has been attached to Rumania. Some of the other states mentioned above are certain to be recognized, the remainder will constitute a revised Russia. An estimate of the losses occa- sioned by the partition as recognized to date is — area, 298,500 square miles; population, 30,282,800; or 10 per cent, of the area of European Russia, and 20 per cent, of the population. More- over, the loss includes almost all the industrial population, and much of the mineral wealth. While the average density of popu- lation for European Russia is below 75 per square mile, Poland has 280, Bessarabia (agricultural) 157, Vilna 129, and Grodno 141. Other provinces of which only parts have been subtracted, run as high as 254 inhabitants per square mile. 262 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD It is convenient to consider Russia under its two main divi- sions — European and Asiatic. European Russia is a vast plain interrupted by the Ural range in the east; tundras form the northern plain. The great con- tinental forest belt crosses the country. In the south is the famous "black earth" region, with its great grain fields. Further south are the steppes, divided by the River Don into a well- watered western half, with countless flocks and herds, and an eastern half of a semi-desert nature. The rivers furnish many thousands of miles of navigation. Their value is impaired by the fact that they are frozen from three to seven months in the year. The Volga system has 10,000 miles of navigation; canals connect the rivers and the Caspian and Black Seas with the Baltic. There lare many lakes in the northwest, chief among them Ladoga, the largest lake in Europe, half of which belongs to Finland. Russia has every variety of climate found in the temperate zone; polar bears live in the north and lemons ripen in the south. The rain- fall is less than in western Europe. Three-fourths of the people live by farming, but in the greater part of the country the crop yield could be more than doubled by more advanced methods. Russia has surpassed all other European states in the production of wheat, rye, flax and hemp; growing two-thirds of the oats, half the rye, and four-fifths of the flax fiber of the continent. The wealth in timber is enormous ; and in spite of poor forestry and wretched roads, timber exports have been very large. Stock farming is a great source of wealth; espe- cially in most developed in the western regions, but flourishing also on the broad steppes of the southwest, where the animals live all the year in the open air. The fisheries are important. Russia is one of the most favored countries in its mineral wealth. Gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, zinc and salt are the prin- cipal minerals worked. Practically all the world's supply of platinum comes from the mines of the Ural Mountains. The coal fields are extensive, but the annual yield is sometimes negligble. Manufacturing has been characteristic largely of the western areas, now lost to Russia ; and it is difficult to forecast the immedi- ate industrial future of the country aside from agriculture. Caucasia and Trans-Caucasia (the former geographically and both administratively, in Europe) are mostly mountainous, save DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 263 for wide steppes north of the Caucasus range and fertile valleys and a part of the Armenian table-land in the south. The climate south of the mountains is cooler than north of them. Caucasia is rich in timber and farm products, especially the vine, but domestic animals are more important than agriculture. The min- eral wealth is great. Petroleum is the most valuable variety. The wells near Baku supply Russia and a good part of Asia with oil, which also is sold in western Europe. Native manufactures barely meet home demands, but Tiflis and Erivan are distinguished for carpets, embroideries and weapons. The River Yenisei divides Siberia into a western half, more or less plain, and an eastern and more mountainous half. Siberia has long, hard winters and short, hot summers. The Obi, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena and Amur rivers are important means of transpor- tation, and many vessels ply on Lake Baikal. The western half of Siberia is more fertile and thickly populated, and is chiefly devoted to agriculture. Cereals, potatoes, onions and melons thrive in southwestern Siberia. The same region contains millions of sheep and cattle. The mineral wealth is considerably devel- oped and widely distributed; gold, silver and graphite being most worked. The great coal field in central Siberia and extensive deposits of iron, lead and copper are still almost untouched. Manufacturing is chiefly confined to tanning, brick-making and ore smelting. The trans-Siberian railway and the rivers supply exten- sive transportation facilities. All the principal towns are con- nected by post routes. The chief commercial centers are Tomsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk and Kiakhta. Russian Central Asia includes the Kirghiz steppes and Turk- estan, the latter being economically more important. The com- mercial center of Turkestan is the flourishing city of Tashkent. Cotton is the leading export, and the Russian government in the past has endeavored to develop its cultivation. Over 800,000,000 pounds of clean fiber formerly were sent each year to Russian mills. Russian Central Asia has exterior trade relations only with Russia, Siberia and Persia; Indian and Afghan merchants also bringing some British commodities into the markets. The trans-Caspian and the Orenburg railroads are capable of stimulat- ing the economic growth of these possessions greatly. Russian Possessions. — Bokhara is a Russian vassal state 264 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD north of Afghanistan. Latitude 41° 30-36° 40' north, longitude 61° 40-73° east; area, about 83,000 square miles; population, about 1,250,000; capital, Bokhara, about 75,000; other cities— Karshi, 25,000; Heissar, 10,000; no official census. Bokhara was founded in the fifteenth century. A holy war against Russia about the end of the eighteenth century ended in its absorption by the Russian Empire. It is autonomous and practically independent. Grain, fruit, cattle, silk and tobacco are produced for home consumption. Silk is exported to India. The beautiful rugs and carpets of Bokhara are sold all over the world. Tea, shawls, dyestuffs and drugs are imported from India. The Russian Trans-Caspian Railway passes through Bokhara. There is steam navigation on the Oxus. Statistics of trade are not avail- able. The native people are of Semitic origin; the religion is that of Islam. Khiva is a vassal state in central Asia. Latitude 43° 40-40° north, longitude 57°-62°20' east; area, 24,000 square miles; popu- lation, estimated, 646,000, chiefly nomads; chief towns — Khiva (4,000-5,000), New Urgenj (3,000) ; chief products, cotton and silk. Sahara: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. St. Barthelemy Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. St. Brandon (Cargados) Island: — see Mauritius, p. 235. St. Helena Island: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. St. Kitts-Nevis: — see British West Indies, p. 174. St. Lucia: — see British West Indies, p. 174. St. Martin Island: — see Guadeloupe, p. 213. St. Matthew Islands: — see Bismarck Archipelago, p. 158. St. Paul Island: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. St. Pierre Island: — see French Possessions; America, p. 201. St. Thomas' {St. Thome) Island: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. St. Vincent : — ^see British West Indies, p. 174. Sakhalin Island: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. Salvador. — The smallest American republic, except Panama. Latitude 14° 30-13° 15' north, longitude 90°-87° west; area, 13,176 square miles; population (1916), estimated, 1,271,336, of whom 265,000 are unmixed white blood; capital, San Salvador, 65,148; other cities—Santa Ana, 58,820; San Miguel, 29,374; Neuva San Salvador, 22,423; San Vicente, 25,863; Sonsonate, 14,752. The DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 265 constitution was proclaimed in 1824. Salvador became independ- ent of the Central American Federation in 1839. It is the most densely peopled Central American state. It extends along the Pacific coast with a sea frontage of 170 miles. The state is noted for its coffee, of which it has the largest export, except Guatemala. There are hundreds of sugar plantations. Livestock does not fill the demand for domestic animals, and mining is not yet impor- tant. Most of the exports are shipped through La Libertad and Acajutla. Great Britain, France and United States have most of the trade. Races, Spanish-American, Indians and mixed bloods. Exports (1917), $10,589,000; imports $2,719,000. Samoan Islands. — A group of fourteen islands in the South Pacific. Latitude 13°-15° south, longitude 172° 25-168° west; distant 4,200 miles southwest of San Francisco ; area, about 1,075 square miles; population, estimated, 35,000; population of Savaii, the largest island, estimated, 12,800; of Upolu, estimated, 17,000; chief ports, Apia, on Upolu ; Paga Paga, on Tutuila. The islands are fertile and highly productive. There are extensive rubber plantations. Tutuila is a possession of the United States; in 1914 the British occupied the other islands which had been a German possession. They are now attached to Australia for administra- tion. Copra is the chief export. Sandwich Islands: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. San Marino. — An independent state and republic within Italian territory. Latitude 43° 55' north, longitude 12° 25' east; area, 38 square miles; population (1916), 11,648. San Marino was founded, according to tradition, during the period of the Roman persecution of Christians. It has existed certainly since the fourth century. It is the smallest republic in the world. The city stands on the summit of Monte Titiano, about twenty miles from the Adriatic. The republic, however, is not democratic, as the citizens have no vote. The supreme power is vested in a council of 60 members, the title of Councilor being hereditary in the family. A treaty of friendship, revised in 1914, is in force with Italy. Wine, cattle products, and building stone are exported. Santa Cruz Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. Santo Domingo. — Negro republic occupying the east end of Santo Domingo or Haiti; area, estimated, 18,045 square miles; population, estimated (1913), 708,000; capital, Santo Domingo, 266 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD founded 1497 by Bartolomeo Colombo, brother of the discoverer, population, 22,000; other cities — Santiago (1917), 14,744; Puerto Plata, the chief port, 10,000. The present republic was founded in 1844. The country is mountainous and inland communications are poor. The chief exports are sugar, tobacco, and cacao, 80 per cent, of which goes to the United States. Race, Spanish-speaking Negroes. Exports (1916), $21,851,390; imports, $11,664,500. Sarawak: — see British Borneo, p. 159. Savage Islands: — see Cook Islands, p. 184. Savaii: — see German Samoa, p. 206. Senegal: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Serh-Croat and Slovene State: — see Jugo-Slavia, p. 230. Serbia: — see Jugo-Slavia, p. 230. Seychelles Islands :^see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. Shantung: — see Kiauchau, p. 231. Siam. — A monarchy of Indo-China. Latitude 20°30'-4° north, longitude 97° 30-106° east; area, about 195,000 square miles, in- cluding 45,000 square miles of the Malay Peninsula; population (1916), estimated, 8,820,000; capital, Bangkok, estimated, 630,000. The surface consists of fertile rolling plains ; the northwestern part is mountainous. The climate is warm and moist. The larger part of the people live in the wonderfully fertile valley of the Menam, upon whose rise every year the quantity of the rice crop depends. Thus the river bears much the same relation to Siam that the Nile does to Egypt. Siam is one of the great rice-producing countries, the exports being surpassed only by those of Burma and Cochin- China. The forests of the mountain regions contain teak and other timbers. Teak is floated down the Menam to Bangkok, this timber and rice are the two great exports. Tin, rubies, and sap- phires are among the mineral products. Most of the commerce is in the hands of Chinese merchants. Bangkok has steamship con- nection with Europe; but the larger vessels cannot cross the bar at the mouth of the Menam, and much freight therefore is lightered between the ships and the docks about twenty-five miles distant. Considerable machinery is being introduced and the country is increasing in prosperity. Races, mainly Indo-Chinese and Malays. Religion, chiefly Buddhist. Trade especially with United King- dom, Singapore and Hong Kong. Exports (1916-17), $46,724,530; imports, $33,756,370. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 267 Siberia: — see Russia, p. 261. Sierra Leone and Protectorate: — see British West Africa, p. 173. Sikkim: — see India, p. 219. Singapore: — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. Sin-Kiang: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. Sir Charles Hardy Islands: — see Nissan Islands, p. 247. Society Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. Sokotra Island: — see Aden, p. 143. Solomon Islands {German New Guinea) : — see Australia, Man- datories of, p. 153. South America.— Latitude 12° 30' north-56° 20' south; longi- tude 78°30'-30°40' west; area, with islands, 7,681,420 square miles ; length, 4,592 miles ; extreme breadth, 3,230 miles ; popula- tion, between 45,000,000 and 50,000,000. Most of the land is south of the equator. The shape of the continent is that of a double triangle, tapering bluntly at the north and gradually at the south, with the larger part of the continent in the equatorial and sub- equatorial regions. This results in a great preponderance of tropical climate, from which only altitude saves some portions. The continent exhibits extremes of climate, from arid and humid tropical to sub-arctic, which have had a marked effect upon natu- ral resources and human development. Parts can never be re- deemed, either from jungle or from sand and rock waste. Other parts are of great productiveness, and under the hand of man have already become the source of great quantities of foodstuffs sorely needed by nations so advanced in development as to be deficient in these commodities. None of the South American countries have developed so far as those of Europe or of North America; but some are farther advanced than any of Africa, or of Asia outside of Japan; and they are capable of traveling the same economic path followed by the United States or the more progressive coun- tries of Europe. In many respects the topography of the continent is broadly similar to that of the United States. It is characterized by several rivers navigable for great lengths, extending possible marine transportation into the center of the land. South Georgia Island: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. South Island: — see New Zealand, p. 244. South Orkney Islands: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. South Polar Region: — see Antarctica, p. 147. 268 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD South Shetland Islands: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. Spain. — A limited monarchy. Latitude 43 ° 45-36 ° north, longi- tude 10° 30' west-4° 30' east; area, excluding Balearic and Canary- Islands, 190,050 square miles; population (1917), 20,747,893; capi- tal, Madrid (1918), 648,760; chief ports, Santander (Bay of Biscay), 72,373; Cadiz (Atlantic), 66,000; Barcelona (Mediter- ranean), 621,419; other cities— Valencia, 245,871; Sevilla, 164,322; Malaga, 140,975. Spain was a Roman colony in 200 B.C., a Visi- gothic kingdom in 531 A.D., and a Muhammadan monarchy in 758 A.D, The better-known history of Spain begins with the voyage of Columbus in search of the Indies during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. The Spanish peninsula is a high mountainous plateau. In the center are the table-lands of Old Castillo and New Castille, dry, unfertile, and better suited for cattle than for tillage. The great lowland plains, the Aragonese in the north, and the Andalusian in the south, are among the most fertile lands of Europe. The rivers are deficient most of the year, and are of little value for shipping. The irrigation canals built centuries ago were permitted to fall into ruin. The government is now repairing the canals and building new ones to serve both irrigation and navi- gation. The climatic conditions of South Europe are found in the coast districts and in Andulasia. Owing to its high elevation, the plateaus suffer extremes of temperature. Even with the sea on three sides, Spain is deficient in rainfall. Most of the people are farmers. Apples, pears and southern fruits thrive ; in good years the northern provinces export cereals and the southern provinces maize and rice. Olive oil is an im- portant product, and the vine is the most important branch of Spanish husbandry. The warm climate of the south produces the famous wines of Malaga, Alicante and Xeres, of which sherry is the best known. The finest pastures are near the Atlantic, in the northwest, but merino sheep graze on the central table-land. Corks are manufactured in large quantity. Spain is very rich in coal, iron, copper, lead and quick-silver, but most of the mining is done by foreign capitalists and the ore is exported. Only a few hundred tons of iron are produced in Spanish foundries. Barce- lona and its vicinity is the home of the greater part of Spanish manufactures. The cotton and metal industries are most promi- nent there, and cotton, flour, corks and olive oil are the leading DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 269 manufactures. The trade of Spain consists mainly in the export of wines, raisins, grain, cotton, and ores, and the import of most of the manufactures consumed. Valencia and Alicante are im- portant ports. Race, Spanish. Religion, Roman Catholic. Exports (1917), $260,069,000; imports, $265,678,000. The Canary Islands are a group of volcanic peaks belonging to Spain, and administratively a province of it; situated about 200 miles off the coast of Africa. Latitude 29° 30'-27° 30' north, longi- tude 18°-13° 30' west; area, 2,807 square miles; population (1917), 497,995. The islands were commercialized by Phoenician mer- chants as early as 40 B.C. They became a Spanish possession in 1495: Bananas, other tropical fruits, and wine are the chief products. The Balearic Islands are a group in the Mediterranean, south of Barcelona and east of Valencia. Latitude 40°-38°30' north, longitude 1°20'— 4°30' east; area, 1,935 square miles; population (1917), 332,756. Fruit, grain and wine are produced, and fish and lobsters sent to Barcelona. Imports, chiefly from Spain, are cotton, leather, sugar, oil, coal, and timber. First civilized occu- pants were the Carthaginians ; afterwards a Roman holding, pass- ing to the Moors about 800 A.D. For a time they formed a sepa- rate kingdom, but w^ere conquered by Spain in 1232. For short periods they have been British. Spanisli Guinea: — see Spanish Possessions, p. 269. Spanish Possessions. — Besides wielding an influence in Morocco, Spain possesses several areas in Africa, aggregating 88,814 square miles, and having an estimated population of 235,844. Sj)anish Guinea (Muni River Settlements). Latitude 2°-l° north, longitude 9°30'-ll°30' east; area, 12,000 square miles; population, estimated, 200,000; capital, Santa Isabel, on the Island of Fernando Po (1,185 square miles). In the Gulf of Guinea are also the Islands of Annobon, 6.5 square miles; Little Elobey, 35 acres; Great Elobey, .75 square miles, and Corisco, 5.5 square miles. On the mainland is Rio Muni, 9,800 square miles, of which Bata is the chief center. The mainland region is dense forest; game abounds. There are some plantations, but trade is mainly in natural products — rubber, palm-oil and kernels, and timber. Fernando Po, an exceedingly fertile island, lies north of the other Spanish territory, in latitude 3° 30' north, longitude 9° east. 270 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Rio de Oro and Adrar stretches south along the Sahara coast from Morocco. Latitude 28° 40-21° north, longitude 17° 30'- 8° 30' west; area, 73,000 square miles; population, 12,000. It is administered by the Canary Islands; capital. Villa Cisneros. A desert country, with few oases. Inhabitants mainly nomads. Spain began to take an interest in the region in the fifteenth cen- tury, as a protection for the Canary Islands to the west. Esparto grass and manzanilla are grown where possible; the natives rear cattle, but horses do not thrive. Fishing, especially for cod, is especially good, and is controlled by the French and Spaniards from the Canary Islands. Spice Islands: — see Molucca Archipelago, p. 238. Spitzbergen. — An Arctic archipelago. Latitude 80° 50'-76° 26' north, longitude 10° 20'-32° 40' east, comprising five major islands and many smaller ones. The chief island. West Spitzbergen, has an area of 15,000 square miles. The lands are mountainous and heavily glaciated. On account of the climate, no permanent in- habitants have occupied the islands, but temporary colonies from several nations have successively attempted establishment there. It must be said, however, that the climate is less severe than that of Greenland in the same latitude, and the continuous daylight for months at a time would aid in the development of its impor- tant minerals. Besides lesser varieties, coal, limestone and iron ore in considerable quantities occur, and form the basis for a pos- sible steel industry of no mean order. This feature engaged the attention of England during the World War, but at that time no active steps were taken. The strategic advantages of the group were seen as well, and British influence in the islands is supplant- ing that of Norway, which has been dominant of late. Starhuck Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Straits Settlements: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Sulphur Islands: — see Japanese Possessions, p. 227. Sumatra: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Sunda Islands: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Sunday Island: — see Kermadec Islands, p. 231. Surinam: — see Dutch West Indies, p. 189. Sweden. — The eastern kingdom of the Scandinavian Penin- sula. Latitude 69°-55° 45' north, longitude 11° ]5'-24° east; area, 173,035 square miles; population (1917), 5,757,566; capital. Stock- DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 271 holm (1917), 408,792; other cities— Goteborg, 191,535; Malmo, 111,823; Norrkoping, 55,623. Sweden is mentioned in the Ger- mania of Tacitus, 99 A.D. It was an establislied kingdom in the time of Harold Fairhair in the tenth century. A union of Sweden and Norway occurred in 1319. Under Charles IX in 1600 it be- came a recognized monarchy. The final dissolution of the union with Norway occurred in 1905. Sweden is mountainous in the west. The river valleys are on the eastern slope ; the chief lowland plain is in the south. These determine the localities of dense population, and the regions of agriculture. The climate is colder than that of Norway; although much of the land is unproductive, half of the people are farmers. Sweden produces more cereals than Norway, but it imports rye and wheat. Livestock are exten- sively raised in the mountain regions. The government has done much for the intelligent development of dairy farming and the general improvement of agriculture. The fisheries are of con siderable importance, but they do not supply the home consump- tion. The timber trade, on the other hand, is of great value, and the shipments, largely to England and France, are the chief exports. Sweden is poorly supplied with coal, but has large de- posits of iron ore in the central and northern parts. Much of the ore is carried by rail to Lulea, a port on the Gulf of Bothnia and thence shipped to England; more is carried to Narvik in Norway for shipment. For want of available coal, Sweden is largely de- pendent on other countries for textile and other domestic materials. The best-developed manufactures are the iron and wood industries ; Swedish matches are everywhere famous. Linen manufactures meet the domestic demand, but the woolen and cotton factories supply only a part of the home need. The manufactories are chiefly workshops, iron and steel plants, and flour and grain mills. Stockholm and Goteborg are the chief ports, and there is a large coastal trade with adequate connections with foreign countries. Sw^eden has a fine canal system, and railroads connect the chief towns with one another and with Norway. Race, Scandinavian. Religion, Protestant, Catholic, and Hebrew. Trade is mainly with Great Britain, Germany and Russia. The leading imports are minerals, raw textiles, corn and flour; exports, timber, livestock and products, wood pulp and products, metal goods and ores and metals. Exports (1917), $422,327,000; imports, $316,518,500. 272 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Switzerland. — A republic in the heart of the Alps. Latitude, 47° 50-45° north, longitude 6°-10°15' east; area, 15,976 square miles ; population (1916), 3,880,500; capital, Berne (1918), 105,000; other cities— Zurich, 213,000; Basel, 137,000; Geneva, 139,500; Lausanne, 71,400. Switzerland is approximately the Helvetia of Caesar's time. The league of the Swiss people began practically in 1291, and became independent of the Holy Roman Empire in 1648. The constitution now in force was adopted in 1874. Three-fourths of Switzerland is covered with mountains, and most of the inhabi- tants live on an undulating plain between the Jura Mountains in the north, and the Alps in the south. Several passes afford wagon roads over the mountains to Austria and Italy. Five tunnels, the Arlberg to Autria, and the St. Gotthard, Simplon, Mont Cenis, and Lotschberg to Italy, give uninterrupted connections across Swit- zerland with the regions north and south. The mountain streams are useless for navigation, but they give abundant power for indus- trial purposes. The lakes furnish local navigation. The scenery, the great resource of Switzerland, attracts over one million for- eigners a year. The climate of the valleys is temperate and the rainfall, chiefly in the form of snow, is heavy. The state as a whole does not produce enough food for the home demand. The importation of grain, meat, and potatoes is large. The vine is extensively cultivated, but the wine product does not meet the demand. The meadow and mountain pastures have developed stock farming to a considerable extent; and the dairy products are famous, three-fifths of the cheese being ex- ported to all parts of the world. Minerals are of little importance, and as there is no coal, the manufacturing industries would be at a great disadvantage if it were not for the water power. The abundance of water power, used for generating electricity, to- gether with the intelligence of the working classes, has made Swit- zerland one of the chief manufacturing countries of the world. The manufactures include the production of cottons, silk, watches, jewelry, machinery, wooden and straw goods and other wares. The products are chiefly those that are distinguished for high quality of workmanship, and Swiss manufactures find markets among all the leading nations. Although Switzerland is far from the sea, the railroads to northern and southern ports serve her commercial relations. Races, German, French, and Italian. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 273 Religion, Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Hebrew. Trade is largely with United States, Great Britain, Austria, Germany, and France. Exports (1916), $489,402,000; imports, $475,600,000. Syria. — A name applied from very ancient times to the coun- try bordered by Asia Minor and the Taurus Mountains on the north, northern Mesopotamia and the central Arabian desert on the east, Hedjaz on the south, and the Levantine Gulf of the Mediterranean Sea on the west. Latitude 37°-31° north, longi- tude 34° 15-41° 30' east; area (Turkish villayet), 114,530 square miles; population, estimated, 3,675,100. Its southwestern coastal section includes Palestine. Parts have been virtually independent for some time, control by Turkey being slight. All the country is likely to be separated from Turkey, Syria proper and possibly Palestine separately, forming one or two mandatories under the Allied and Associated Powers. The climate is varied, tending in most parts to semi-aridity, and the eastern portion forms the Syrian desert. The country will not, apparently, support a dense population, but may well become an agricultural center of importance under modern guidance. Farming is most primitive. Alexandretta is the northern port, Beirut, 150,000, is the southern; Latakia, from which comes a distinctive Turkish tobacco, is another. Damascus, 250,000, and Aleppo, 250,000, are the chief inland cities. Wheat, silk cocoons, wool, hides, sponges, eggs and fruits are exported. Mineral resources are small. Coal and water-power are scarce or lacking, greatly impeding attempts to introduce manufacturing. Railway communication is poor, but there are several strategic lines ; and Aleppo, on the Bagdad rail- way, is an important center. Roads and trails are poor. Tahiti: — see Society Islands, p. 267. Tasmania: — see Australia, p. 152. Taui Island: — see Admiralty Islands, p. 143. Tibet: — see Chinese Possessions, p. 181. Tiensin, Italian Concession: — see Italian Possessions, p. 222. Timor Archipelago: — see Dutch East Indies, p. 188. Timor Island: — see Portuguese Possessions, p. 258. Tobago Island: — see Trinidad and Tobago, p. 274. Togoland: — see France, Mandatories of; and Great Britain, Mandatories of, pp. 196 and 210. Tokelau Islands: — see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. 274 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Tonga Islands: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Tanking: — see French Indo-China, p. 197. Transvaal: — see Union of South Africa, p. 275. Trinidad and Tobago: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Tripoli and Cyrenaica {Libia Italiana) : — see Italian Posses- sions, p. 222. Tristan da Cunha Islands: — see British Possessions; Africa, p. 162. Trois Freres (Eagle) Islands: — see Mauritius, p. 235. Tubuai Islands: — see French Possessions; Australasia, p. 202. Tunisia: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Turkey. — A despotic monarchy, for many centuries holding territory in southeastern Europe, Asia Minor and adjacent parts of Asia, and in northern Africa. Area (1914), Europe, 10,882 square miles; Asia Minor, 199,272; Armenia and Kurdistan, 71,900; Mesopotamia, 142,250; Syria, 114,530; Arabia, 170,300; making a total of 710,224 square miles. Much of this was held, however, most insecurely, and was virtually independent. The population in 1915 was estimated at 21,273,900, of whom 1,891,000 were in Europe. Of all this territory, Turkey is expected to lose the greater part. It is probable that all of European Turkey will be divided between Greec and the new state of Constantinople; the latter to have in addition the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus and part of that along the Sea of Marmora. Greece has claim also to a large district in western Asia Minor, of which Smyrna is the focus. Armenia has declared herself separate. Hejaz is now a recog- nized nation, and the remainder of Arabia is unlikely to remain under Turkish rule. Mesopotamia, once the garden of the world and ruined by Turkish misrule, is expected to be a mandatory under one of the Allied and Associated Powers. Syria, with Palestine, cannot remain Turkish. Indeed, it seems probable that Turkey will soon embrace little more than a part of Anatolia, in Asia Minor. Turk's Island: — ^see Jamaica, p. 225. Tutuila: — see American Samoa, p. 147. Uganda Protectorate: — see British East Africa, p. 160. Ukrainia. — The Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed November, 1917, separating from Russia and forming one member DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 275 of the short-lived Russian Federal Republic. As intended, it was to embrace those parts of southeastern Russia called Little Russia, Southwest Territory and New Russia exclusive of the territory of the Don Cossacks. The state is not recognized by the Allied and Associated Powers as yet. The capital is Kiev (610,000 in 1913). The region is eminently agricultural, a large part being within the ''black soil" portion of the great Russian plain. Wheat has been a large export commodity. Coal and iron in consider- able quantity are known, and there are several iron and steel works. Union Islands: — see Tokelau Islands, p. 273. Union of South Africa. — In 1910, the Union was constituted of the self-governing colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, and Orange Free State. They are governed on the whole as a dominion, a Governor General representing the King. The total included area is 473,075 square miles; population (1911), 1,276,242 whites, 4,697,152 blacks, a total of 5,973,394. The occu- pations are largely agricultural and industrial, and there is a pre- ponderance of dependents over those engaged in any classified occupation. The natural resources, mineral and organic, are very great, and the crude industries are large in scale. Manufacturing has been greatly stimulated by the war. The total exports for 1917 were $143,472,500; imports, $182,.381,190. Cape of Good Hope (Cape Colony).— Latitude 28°-34°30' south, longitude 16°30'-28° east; area of the colony proper, 206,- 860 square miles; additional territory brings the total to 276,995 square miles; population (1911), 1,554,000 (1,982,588 total); capi- tal. Cape Town (greater), 146,000; other cities — Kimberley, esti- mated, 30,000; Port Elizabeth, estimated, 31,000; East London, 21,000. Founded by the Dutch in 1652. The British took formal possession in 1814. The original area has been extended by the annexation of West Pondoland, Bechuanaland, and other small additions. A large part of the country comprises semi-arid graz- ing plains, which have nutritious grasses that support millions of sheep and cattle and many ostriches. Stretching across the south- ern edge of the province is a zone of excellent lands that produce wheat, maize and other crops of the temperate zone. Thousands of acres are in vines and orchard, the colony being a large pro- ducer of wine and fruits. Large quantities of these are sent in cold 276 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD storage to Europe as early as February and March. Four-fifths of Cape Colony needs artificial irrigation, and projects for this pur- pose are developing. The autumn rains provide much water. Wool-growing is the largest grazing industry, and ostrich feathers from domesticated birds are derived chiefly from this region. The Angora goat yields large quantities of mohair. The diamond mines at Kimberley practically monopolize the world's trade. The exports, wool, mohair, hides, diamonds, ostrich feathers, and fruits, are sent to British countries. The imports are cotton goods, steel products and machinery. The ports of Cape Town, East London and Port Elizabeth are connected with stations on the Zambezi River about 1,700 miles distant. The trunk line is a part of the "Cape to Cairo" railway now partly completed. The white population are mainly English-speaking and Dutch-speaking; they constitute about one-third of the whole. The natives belong to the Black Race. Religion, Protestant. Natal. — A maritime province on the Indian Ocean. Latitude 26° 30-31° south, longitude 29°-33° east; area, including Zulu- land (10,424 square miles), 35,290 square miles; population (1911), 1,194,043; capital, Pietermaritzburg, commonly called Maritzburg, 30,555; seaport, Durban, commonly called Port Natal, 69,187; other cities — Ladysmith, Newcastle, and Dundee — no official figures of population. In his search for an all-water route to India, Vasco da Gama sighted the bluff at the entrance of Durban harbor, in 1497. In the latter part of the seventeenth century English ships occasionally called at Port Natal for ivory. Boer prospectors established trading posts in various parts of the province early in the nineteenth century. It was annexed to Cape Colony in 1844. Natal is essentially an agricultural province. Maize and kaffir corn are grown wherever the land is arable; the cattle and sheep ranges are extensive ; tea, coffee, and cotton are grown in the low- lands. The mineral wealth is great, including copper, silver, lead, and gold. There are valuable coal measures and these already furnish most of the local supply. Railways connect Durban and Maritzburg with practically all the commercial centers of South Africa. Ladysmith is the chief center of convergence. Most of the trade is carried on with the United Kingdom. Maize, wool, hides and other cattle products are the chief exports. Transvaal Province. — A state now included in the Union of DESCEIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 277 South Africa. Latitude 22°-28° south, longitude 25°-32° east; area, 110,426 square miles; population (1911), 1,686,212, of whom one-third are Europeans ; capital, Pretoria, 29,618 ; mining center, Johannesburg, 237,104. The Transvaal was colonized by Boers, who left Cape Colony in 1836. On account of trouble with the natives the region was annexed to Great Britain in 1877. In 1881 independence was given to the state. In 1900 the war between the Boers and the British ended with the formal annexation to Great Britain. The Transvaal is situated on the high interior plateau of South Africa, 4,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea. A widespread plain in the interior and smaller plains scattered through the coun- try give the state considerable agricultural land. The plateau is higher in the south than in the north, and the climate, temperate in the south and center, is tropical in the north. No rivers are available for navigation. The plains are the home of most of the Boers, who are among the most thrifty cattle-growers in the world. Maize, tobacco, and meat are grown for export. Truck and dairy farming in the mining regions is a profitable industry. Gold is the greatest mineral resource, and the mines are scattered through the eastern and southern parts of the colony. The Witwatersrand, on wliicli Johannesburg stands, is one of the most productive gold- producing regions in the world. Diamonds are mined near Pre- toria, and the diamond fields rank next to those of Kimberley. At least 5,000 square miles are underlain by coal, of an average thick- ness of six feet. Gold, diamonds, and tin ore are the chief exports. Eailroads extend from Johannesburg to the various South African ports. Races, Boers, British, native blacks and Chinese laborers. Orange Free State. — Latitude 26 ° 30-30 ° 45' south, longitude 24° 30'-30° east; area 50,389 square miles ; population (1911), 528,- 174; capital, Bloemfontein, 26,925, of whom about one-half are black. Originally peopled by Bantu tribes; settled by Boers, or farmers of Dutch descent about 1824; a provisional republic was established in 1836. It was formally annexed to Great Britain at the time of the Boer war, in 1900, under the name of Orange River Colony. As it stands on the high plateau of inner South Africa its climate is temperate and healthful. The state is best adapted for stock raising; wheat and other farm crops are grown in the south. Bloemfontein is a health resort, famous not only on account of its fine, water supply, derived from a spring, but also because of its 278 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD pure air. A considerable part of its population consists of in- valids from Europe. Wool is the chief product and, with hides and other cattle products, forms the bulk of the exports. Some dia- monds are mined, but the mineral industries are little developed. Races, Boers, natives of Bantu stock and British. Religion, Protestant. Union of South Africa, Mandatory of. — Only one mandatory over ex-German colonies has been given to the Union by the Peace Conference. German Southwest Africa. Latitude 17°-29° south, longitude 12°-25°30' east; area, 322,450 square miles; population, 94,386. A large part of the country is desert, some of it irrigable. Indus- tries are backward, but cotton, silk and tobacco engage many people. Stock raising is the chief occupation. Valuable minerals are known, but mining is slight. Exports (1912, the highest year), $9,763,335; imports, $8,124,720. United States of America. — A republic situated mainly in cen- tral North America, but with territories, dependencies, and naval stations in various parts of the world. Latitude of main body 49°_24° north, longitude 66 °-125° west, although the extreme western island of Alaska is approximately longitude 170° east. The Aleutian Islands (Catherine Archipelago) extend about 1,200 miles from Alaska toward Kamchatka. body Continental Alaska . . . rhili])pine Islands Porto Rico Hawaii Canal Zone Virgin Islands ... American Samoa Guam Capital Washington Juneau Manila San Juan Honolulu Charlotte Amalie Aguna Area 3,026,789 590,884 120,000 3,606 6,449 448 240 77 210 Population 03,500,000 66,400 8,937,00 1,118,012 322,900 61,300 26,000 7,300 13,700 * Estimated 1918 The growth of area of the United States began practically at the close of the French and' Indian war by the treaty of Paris, in 1763. The English colonies gained the territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The subse- quent gains are as follows : DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 279 The Louisiana Purchase, west of the Mississippi River, 1805 The Florida country, ceded by Spain, 1819 Texas, annexed, 1845 The Mexican War cession, 1848 The Gadsden purchase, 1853 The Oregon country, acquired by discovery, exploration, and treaties with Spain and Great Britain Alaska, purchased from Russia, 1867 Hawaiian Islands, annexed, 1898 Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, Guam and other islands, ac- quired by conquest, 1898 Tutuila, acquired by conquest in 1898, treaty in 1900 Canal Zone, acquired by treaty with Panama, 1903 The principal physical regions of the United States are also industrial regions. The Atlantic Coastal Plain, New England Plateau and Appalachian Mountains include the most important centers of manufacture and commerce. This is due in part to contiguity to European markets, in part to good harbors, and in part to an abundance of power — water, hydroelectric, and fuel. The chief ports of this region are located at tidewater near the heads of river estuaries or other bays protected from ocean storms. The manufacturing centers are at places convenient to natural water power, hydroelectric power, or to cheap power fuel. The principal ports and their exports are: Portland, cattle products, grain; Boston, leather products, foodstuffs, cotton manufactures; the port of New York (including the New Jersey shores), the fore- most shipping port in the world, grain, flour, cotton, tobacco, pre- served foods; Philadelphia, coal and manufactures; Baltimore, coal, grain, fishing products; Norfolk and Richmond, cotton and tobacco; Charleston, cotton; Savannah, cotton and foodstuffs; Jacksonville, fruit and produce; Tampa, tobacco and cigars; Mobile, cotton, fruits, and produce; New Orleans, cotton and produce; Galveston, cotton. The coastal plain and cultivable land in the vicinity of these ports are characterized by garden truck and dairy farms. The larger cities in the interior of the eastern region — Pittsburg, Reading, Providence, Syracuse, Rochester, Lowell, Scranton, Fall River, Worcester, Bridgeport, New Haven, Newark, Trenton, and Wilmington — are mainly manufacturing centers, making machine-shop products, textiles, clothing, paper. 280 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD oil products, refined metals, metal wares, machinery, chemicals, munitions, and patent food products. In the Appalachian region, where cheap fuel is at hand, the manufactures of steel for building purposes, wire, and sheet metal predominate. The eastern region supplies all the United States with its manufactures and a con- siderable part of the rest of the world in addition. In the great central plains, extending from the northern boun- dary to the Gulf of Mexico, agriculture is the chief industry. From the northern boundary to the Ohio River, and from the Appalachian Mountains to the arid plains west of the Missouri River, the production of wheat, corn, oats and grass is the impor- tant industry. The wheat supplies that part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains with flour, and includes a surplus which is sold mainly in western Europe. The corn crop for the greater part is converted into pork, which supplies not only the United States, but includes also shipments to western Europe and to tropical countries where fresh meat is not always to be obtained. The oat crop is consumed mainly where it is grown. A considerable part is used in the manufacture of oatmeal, the demand for which is increasing. The grass is converted into meat and dairy products, the home demand for which does not much exceed the supply. The chief market centers of this region are Chicago, Minne- apolis, St. Paul, Buffalo, Cleveland, Cincinnati, St. Louis, the Kansas Cities, Indianapolis, and Omaha. These cities are among the world's greatest food markets; Louisville is the principal tobacco market; and Duluth is one of the greatest ore markets. These cities are manufacturing centers as well, the manufactures being connected chiefly with farm machinery, automobiles, and food products. Indeed, manufacturing in the North Central States is competing actively with the east. The southern part of the great central plain produces cotton, sugar, rice, and tobacco for commercial purposes, and ordinary foodstutfs for home consumption. Quick transportation has ex- tended truck-farming for northern cities into this region, with the result that they now begin to receive spring vegetables in February instead of in May. The yearly cotton crop varies from one-half to three-fourths of the world's crop. A part of it is manufactured into cloth in the mills of southern cities ; a considerable part goes to the mills of the New England and Middle Atlantic States ; the DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 281 rest is carried eastward as far as the Ural Mountains and west- ward into Japan and China. It is normally the chief money crop of the United States. Among the cities of this group of states are Atlanta, Nashville, Chattanooga, Memphis, Oklahoma, Dallas, Vicksburg — all engaged in the collection, manufacture, and marketing of the products of the region. The western highlands from the Rocky to the Sierra Nevada Mountains are the metal mining and grazing region of the United States. Because of its rugged surface not much of the land can be cultivated ; in the soutliern part, because of light rainfall, much of it is a desert. For these reasons its food-producing power is low and it is therefore sparsely peopled. The grazing region and the great cattle ranches are in the north. Denver, Butte, Helena, South Pueblo, and Great Falls are centers of mining interests and ore-reduction works; Cheyenne is the chief point of cattle trade; Salt Lake City is the market of an agricultural region. Irrigation projects have brought more than one million acres of the western highlands under cultivation. The Pacific Coast States are marked by mildness of climate. The seasons are two — rainy winters and dry summers. Practically every part has enough rain for an abundance of crops. The broad intermontane valleys produce wheat; the foot-hills yield apples, oranges, cherries, apricots, and lemons that pay for shipment to the cities of the Atlantic States. The ports of the Pacific coast are few in number, but the harbors of Puget Sound, San Francisco Bay, and San Diego Bay are big enough and deep enough to shelter the commerce carriers of the nation. Seattle, Portland, San Fran- cisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego are the chief ports. Much of their trade is with Japan, China, and Australia. The mineral resources of the United States as a whole surpass those of every other country. In the production of iron and copper, the United States stands at the head. -In the production of gold, silver, lead, zinc, and quick-silver, the yearly output many times has been first. In coal, petroleum, and other power fuels the United States is far in the lead. The railway transportation system is quicker and cheaper than that of any other country. Until the beginning of the World War, the cost of railway transportation was about three-quarters of a cent per ton-mile, a rate less than half that on European railways. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 283 Practically all freight moves as fast freight. Trunk lines from every important city in the east connect with the various trans- continental lines that reach Pacific ports. In 1919 the railways had an aggregate length of more than 260,000 miles. The railway across the Isthmus of Panama is owned and operated by the fed- eral government; a railway from Resurrection Bay, Alaska, to Fairbanks is under construction by the federal government. Dur- ing the World War the federal government took over the opera- tion of practically all railways in the United States. . River and canal transportation in the United States is rela- tively undeveloped. The Mississippi and its tributaries afford not far from 12,000 miles of navigable water; other rivers aggregate a possible 8,000 miles in addition. Most of the canals have been abandoned. The Erie Canal, previous to its reconstruction into a barge canal, had lost much freight traffic; its future possibilities are great. The St. Mary's Falls Canal (Sault Ste. Marie or '* Soo "), connecting Lake Superior and Lake Huron, on the other hand, carries more freight than any other canal in the world. In the future both civil and commercial necessities will undoubtedly lead to the development of more extensive inland water trans- portation, which for slow freight can be made far cheaper than railway transportation. Railway transportation is being made more effective in many localities by the use of electricity, generated by water power or by coal of too low fuel power to be carried to consumers. Motor trucks have shown their value in carrying local freight over short lines. Their advantage is quick and direct delivery. Railway trunk lines rarely handle local freight quickly unless it can be carried in carload lots. The cost in stopping and starting a train is sometimes greater than the amount received for a consignment. Airplane routes are being carefully mapped throughout the country, but as yet only a few are in operation. The foreign business of the United States before the World War amounted to about two and one-half billion dollars yearly. The exports usually exceed the imports — that is, the balance of trade usually was in favor of the country. The government ex- penditures were about one billion dollars and these were met by import taxes on foreign goods. The prosecution of the war cost more than fifty billion dollars; the national debt which, July 1, DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 285 1917, was less than three billion dollars, on July 1, 1918, was more than twelve billion dollars. In the twenty-five years preceding the World War the char- acter of the foreign business of the United States did not change much. The imports consisted mainly of fine textiles and manu- factured goods which, on account of the high cost of labor in the United States, could be made more cheaply abroad. Among food- stuffs, sugar, chocolate, bananas, lemons, and wines have been imported in large quantities. Among other imports were dyes, chemicals and toys. Since the war these, for the greater part, have been made in the United States. For the past half century wheat products, meats, raw cotton, cotton textiles, metals, and coal oil have been leading exports. In the future it is likely that the export of manufactures will increase because of new and wider markets, while the export of foodstuffs will decrease because of the increase of population. During the past quarter of a century the increase in population has been a little more on the average than one million per year. Of late, the exports and imports have nearly balanced; for instance, they were each about $6,150,000,000 in 1917. The year 1918, however, shows a very heavy credit — exports, $5,928,285,641; imports, $2,946,059,403. United States; Outlying Territories. — Of the outlying regions that are a part of, or dependent upon, the United States, the fol- lowing are described separately: — Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, Philippine Islands. Other smaller areas are noted below. The American Virgin Islands lie about 50 miles east of Porto Rico. Latitude 48 ° 30-47 ° 45', longitude 65°-64°30' west. The islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John, originally Danish, were purchased by the United States in 1916. St. Thomas, 28 square miles; St. Croix, 84 square miles; St. John, 20 square miles; total population, estimated, 23,000, chiefly Negroes. Sugar-cane, cotton, fruit and vegetables are the products. Panama Canal Zone; area, 448 square miles; population (1915), estimated, 65,000; capital, Panama, estimated, 40,000; Colon, esti- mated, 15,000. By virtue of a treaty with the Republic of Panama, a strip of land five miles in width on each side of the Panama Canal was granted in perpetuity to the United States in order to provide facilities for the construction of the canal. Over this DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 287 strip, exclusive of the cities of Panama and Colon, the federal government has exclusive control for police, sanitary, judicial and commercial purposes. The sum of $10,000,000 was paid for the possession of the zone and by the terms of the treaty the United States pays a yearly rental of $250,000. The Pacific ter- minal of the canal is Port Ancon (Balboa) ; the Atlantic terminal is Cristobal. The World War undoubtedly prevented the growth in canal traffic that has been expected ; and the value of the water- way to world commerce must be judged by the history of the next few years. Guam is the largest and most populous island of the Mariana (Ladrone) Archipelago. Latitude 13° 2G' north, longitude 144° 43' east; area, about 225 square miles; civil population (1916), 13,916, of which only 219 were white ; seat of administration, Agafia ; port of entry, Piti. Guam is a naval base of the United States, which was acquired from Spain by the treaty of Paris, 1898. The highest land is only 1,274 feet above the sea. A mountain chain extends near the southern coast ; the rest of the island is mainly a plateau heavily forested with cocoanut groves, maize, taro, and garden truck planted in narrow strips along the sea. The interior of the island has not been cultivated, but the southern half is well adapted for cattle, and the northern half for coffee, cacao and cocoa- nuts. The climate is healthful and pleasant, the heat being tempered by sea breezes. Rainfall is heavy between June and December, and the island is occasionally visited by severe typhoons. The native inhabitants are mixed Chamorro and Tagal blood, not unlike the Filipinos. The most valuable crop is the cocoanut (copra). Sugar, coffee, cacao, rice, and maize also are cultivated, and much wild timber can be used. About 6,000 head of cattle are kept. There is a small export trade, and imports in 1916-17 amounted to $286,651. The commerce is very small; the development of copra-drying is becoming a source of prosperity. American Samoa consists chiefly of Tutuila, a small island in the eastern part of the Samoan group. Latitude, approximately, 14° south, longitude 171° west; area, about 77 square miles; popu- lation (1916), 5,885. Included with Tutuila are the Manua group of three small islands about 60 miles eastward; area, 25 square miles; population, 1,665. The islands are delightful as to scenery and climate. Tutuila is a naval station of the United States, the DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 289 commandant being also the governor of the islands. In 1900, Great Britain and Germany renounced their claims to all the islands east of 171° west longitude in favor of the United States. Copra is exported. Pagopago, the harbor of Tutuila, is a coaling station. As a strategic position in the Pacific, its importance is second to Hawaii only. Baker Island is an outlying island of the Phoenix group. Lati- tude 0°, longitude 176° west. The island, known also as Nantucket, was formally recognized as United States territory about the time of the Spanish- American War, 1896. It is about 1,800 miles south- west of Hawaii, and at one time was noted for its store of guano. Wake Island is an unoccupied volcanic peak belonging to the United States. Latitude 19° north, longitude 166° 45' east. It is valuable for strategic purposes only. Upolu: — see German Samoa, p. 206. Upper Senegal — Niger: — see French Possessions, p. 199. Uruguay. — A republic of South America. Latitude 30°-35° south, longitude 57 ° 40-53 ° 30' west; area, 72,153 square miles; population (1917), 1,378,808; capital, Montevideo (1918), 376,163; other cities — Paysandu, 21,000; Salto, 19,800. Uruguay was for- merly a part of the Spanish possessions of Rio de la Plata, and afterwards a province of Brazil. Its independence (1825) was affirmed by the treaty of Montevideo in 1828. The country is a wide, grassy plain, intersected by a few low mountain ranges. The climate is temperate, the rainfall plentiful; the soil is excel- lent for grass and grain. The position of Uruguay for trade is very favorable, as the sea forms most of its boundaries, and its rivers. La Plata and Uruguay, are navigable. The land, mostly in large estates, is devoted to pastoral pursuits. Its largest industry is grazing, and most of the cattle are turned into jerked beef, which is exported to several Latin-American countries. The manufac- ture of meat extracts at Fray Bentos is also a large business. Mil- lions of sheep thrive, and the exports of wool to Europe and the United States are usually large. In addition to the vegetable foods consumed at home, wheat and flour are important exports to Europe and Brazil. Flax, raised for linseed, is also an important export. The chief towTis have railroad communications with Montevideo, which is connected by steamship lines wdth Europe and the United States. The mineral resources are little utilized, and coal is a large import. Races, Spanish-American, Spanish, 290 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Italian, and Brazilian. Religion, Roman Catholic. Trade is chiefly with France, Great Britain, Argentina, United States and Italy. Exports (1916-17), $67,515,275; imports, $37,212,230. Vancouver Island: — see Canada, p. 176. Vanua Levu Island: — see Fiji Islands, p. 193. Venezuela. — A republic bordering the north coast of South America. Latitude 12°-1° north, longitude 73 ° 40'-59 ° 40' west; area, estimated, 398,594 square miles; population (1917), esti- mated, 2,827,762; capital, Caracas, estimated, 72,429; other cities — Barquisimeto, 27,000; Maracaibo 48,500; Valencia, 58,387, all esti- mated and only approximate. Puerto Cabello is the chief port of call for most American steamships; La Guaira is the port of Caracas with which it is connected by railway. Venezuela seceded from New Granada, now Colombia, in 1830. The present constitu- tion became effective in 1914. The Orinoco, which drains most of the country, is navigable to the rapids at the western border. The northern and southern parts of the republic are moun- tainous. Between them stretch the wide llanos, or prairies, cov- ered with grasses and adapted for cattle raising. The climate is tropical, with dry and rainy seasons; it is oppressively hot on the coasts. The soil is fertile, but little advantage is taken of this source of wealth. Coffee and cacao plantations, mainly in the foot- hills, are of great importance, and the chief exports are their prod- ucts. Gold is mined in various parts of the republic, but chiefly in the Yuruari River district. Petroleum and asphaltum are abun- dant but the resources are not developed. Asphalt from Lake Bermudez has been exported to the United States. Coffee, cacao, and cattle products are the chief exports. Silver and copper are found, but the mining industry is not commensurate with the wealth in these resources. Political revolutions have retarded the devel- opment of the country. The foreign trade is chiefly in the hands of foreigners, and the great preponderance is with the United States. Races, Spanish-American and Indian. Religion, chiefly Roman Catholic. Exports (1915-16), $24,968,700; imports, $17,- 712,000. Victoria Island: — see British Possessions; Australasia, p. 169. Virgin Islands. — A group of volcanic islands about 50 miles east of Porto Rico. Latitude 18° 45'-17° 40' north, longitude 65°- 64° 30' west. The native population consists chiefly of Negroes. DESCRIPTION OF POLITICAL DIVISIONS 291 Several islands belonging nominally to the group, situated near Porto Rico, became possessions of the United States at the close of the war with Spain. Of these Culebra and Vieques are the most important. The Danish Virgin Islands, St. John, St. Croix, and St. Thomas, were purchased by the United States in 1917 as a West Indies naval base ; area, 240 square miles. The northerly islands of the group belong to Great Britain. Charlotte Amalie, the adminis- trative seat of the American islands, has one of the best harbors in the West Indies. Road Town is the headquarters of the British islands. Cattle products, fiber plants, aloes, and fruits are the chief exports. Viti Levu Island: — see Fiji Islands, p. 193. Wadai: — see French Possessions; Africa, p. 199. Wake Island: — see United States, Outlying Territories, p. 285. Wallis Archipelago: — see New Caledonia, p. 243. Washington Island: — ^see Gilbert and Ellice Islands, p. 208. Weihaiwei: — see British Possessions; Asia, p. 165. Wellesley Province (Penang) : — see Straits Settlements, p. 270. West Falkland Island: — see Falkland Islands, p. 193. West Indies. — The above-water parts of a partly-submerged mountain system extending from Yucatan to the north coast of South America, inclosing the Caribbean Sea. They are conveni- ently divided into the Greater and the Lesser Antilles. The latter are also divided into the Leeward and the Windward Islands. Wilson Islands: — see British Solomon Islands, p. 173. Windward Islands: — see British West Indies, p. 174. Yanaon: — see French India, p. 197. Yemen.— Formerly a vilayet of Turkey, lying on the west coast of Arabia, now independent as a result of the disintegration of the Turkish empire. Latitude 18°-12°35' north, longitude 42°-47° east; area, 73,800 square miles; population, 750,000. Asir lies on the north, Aden on the south, and the high desert of Nejed on the east. The lowland is tropical desert, the highlands fairly well watered. The natives occupy a number of villages, and at least two trading ports. Much of the small commerce passes through Aden. Part of the country is perhaps the best in Arabia. Most of the population are engaged in agriculture. See also Arabia. Zanzibar Protectorate: — see British East Africa, p. 160. APPENDIX TREATY OF VERSAILLES— JUNE 28, 1919 The Treaty of Versailles was signed by the peace plenipoten- tiaries of Germany and of twenty-six Allied and Associated Powers on June 28, 1919. The United States of America, the British Empire, France, Italy and Japan, are described in the treaty as the principal Allied and Associated Powers; Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, the Hejaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, the Serb-Croat-Slovene State; Siam, Czecho- slovakia and Uruguay, constitute with the principal powers men- tioned above the Allied and Associated Powers of the one part; and Germany, of the other part. At the request of the Imperial German Government an armistice was granted on November 11, 1918, to Germany by the principal Allied and Associated Powers in order that a treaty of peace might be concluded, bring to a close the World War which originated in the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on July 28, 1914, against Serbia; the declaration of war by Germany against Russia on August 1, 1914, and against France on August 3, 1914. Okiginal, Text of Covenant of the League of Nations The epoch-making event resulting from the World War and the Treaty of Versailles is in the "Covenant of the League of Nations," the foundation upon which the Peace Treaty is con- structed. It creates within itself a new epoch in human relation- ship. Its historical significance is such that the original text is here recorded in full (as signed by the peace delegates on June 28,1919). The high contracting parties, in order to promote inter- national co-operation and to achieve international peace and security by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honorable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of inter- 292 TREATY OF VERSAILLES 293 national law as the actual rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organized peoples with one another, agree to this covenant of the League of Nations, Article 1. — The original members of the League of Nations shall be those of the signatories which are named in the annex to this covenant and also such of those other States named in the annex as shall accede without reservation to this covenant. Such accession shall be effected by a declaration deposited with the secretariat within two months of the coming into force of the cove- nant. Notice thereof shall be sent to all other members of the League. Any fully self-governing State, dominion, or colony not named in the annex may become a member of the League if its admission is agreed to by two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective guarantees of its sincere intention to observe its international obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by the League in regard to its military, naval and air forces and armaments. Any member of the League may, after two years' notice of its intention so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all its international obligations and all its obligations under this covenant shall have been fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal. Article 2. — The action of the League under this covenant shall be effected through the instrumentality of an assembly and of a council, with a permanent secretariat. Article 3. — The assembly shall consist of representatives of the members of the League. The assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to time as occasion may require at the seat of the League or at such other place as may be decided upon. The assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. At meetings of the assembly each member of the League shall have one vote, and may have not more than three representatives. Article 4. — The council shall consist of representatives of the principal Allied and Associated Powers, together with represen- tatives of four other members of the League. These four mem- 294 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD bers of the League shall be selected by the assembly from time to time in its discretion. Until the appointment of the represen- tatives of the four members of the League first selected by the assembly, representatives of Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Greece shall be members of the council. With the approval of the majority of the assembly, the coun- cil may name additional members of the League whose represen- tatives shall always be members of the council; the council with like approval may increase the number of members of the League to be selected by the assembly for representation on the council. The council shall meet from time to time as occasion may require, and at least once a year, at the seat of the League, or at such other place as may be decided upon. The council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. Any member of the League not represented on the council shall be invited to send a representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the interests of that member of the League. At meetings of the council, each member of the League rep- resented on the council shall have one vote, and may have not more than one representative. Article 5. — Except where otherwise expressly provided in this covenant or by the terms of the present treaty, decisions at any meeting of the assembly or of the council shall require the agree- ment of all the members of the League represented at the meet- ing. All matters of procedure at meetings of the assembly or of the council, including the appointment of committees to investi- gate particular matters, shall be regulated by the assembly or by the council and may be decided by a majority of the members of the League represented at the meeting. The first meeting of the assembly and the first meeting of the council shall be summoned by the President of the United States of America. Article 6. — The permanent secretariat shall be established at the seat of the League. The secretariat shall comprise a Secretary General and such secretaries and staff as may be required. TREATY OF VERSAILLES 295 The first Secretary General shall be the person named in the annex ; thereafter the Secretary General shall be appointed by the council with the approval of the majority of the assembly. The secretaries and staff of the secretariat shall be appointed by the Secretary General with the approval of the council. The Secretary General shall act in that capacity at all meet- ings of the assembly and of the council. The expenses of the secretariat shall be borne by the mem- bers of the League in accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of the International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union. Article 7. — The seat of the League is established at Geneva. The council may at any time decide that the seat of the League shall be established elsewhere. All positions under or in connection with the League, including the secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women. Representatives of the members of the League and officials of the League when engaged on the business of the League shall enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities. The buildings and other property occupied by the League or its officials or by representatives attending its meetings shall be inviolable. Article 8. — The members of the League recognize that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national arma- ments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations. The council, taking account of the geographical situation and circumstances of each State, shall formulate plans for such reduc- tion for the consideration and action of the several Governments. Such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least every ten years. After these plans shall have been adopted by the several Gov- ernments, the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be exceeded without the concurrence of the council. The members of the League agree that the manufacture by pri- vate enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to grave objections. The council shall advise how the evil effects attendant upon such manufacture can be prevented, due regard being had to the necessities of those members of the League which 296 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD are not able to manufacture the munitions and implements of war necessary for their safety. The members of the League undertake to interchange full and frank information as to the scale of their armaments, their mili- tary and naval programs and the condition of such of their indus- tries as are adaptable to warlike purposes. Article 0. — A permanent commission shall be constituted to advise the council on the execution of the provisions of Articles 1 and 8 and on military and naval questions generally. Article 10. — The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integ- rity and existing political independence of all members of the League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled. Article 11. — Any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting any of the members of the League or not, is hereby declared a matter of concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations. In case any such emergency should arise the Secretary General shall on the request of any member of the League forthwith summon a meeting of the council. It is also declared to be the friendly right of each member of the League to bring to the attention of the assembly or of the council any circumstance whatever affecting international rela- tions which threatens to disturb international peace or the good understanding between nations upon which peace depends. Article 12. — The members of the League agree that if there should arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rup- ture, they will submit the matter either to arbitration or to inquiry by the council, and they agree in no case to resort to war until three months after the award by the arbitrators or the report by the council. In any case under this article the award of the arbitrators shall be made within a reasonable time, and the report of the council shall be made within six months after the submission of the dispute. Article 13. — The members of the League agree that whenever TREATY OF VERSAILLES 297 any dispute shall arise between them which they recognize to be suitable for submission to arbitration and which cannot be satis- factorily settled by diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject- matter to arbitration. Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any fact which if estab- lished would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration. For the consideration of any such dispute the Court of Arbi- tration to which the case is referred shall be the court agreed on by the parties to the dispute or stipulated in any convention exist- ing between them. The members of the League agree that they will carry out in full good faith any award that may be rendered, and that they will not resort to war against a member of the League which com- plies therewith. In the event of any failure to carry out such an. award, the council shall propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto. Article 14. — The council shall formulate and submit to the members of the League for adoption plans for the establishment of a Permanent Court of International Justice. The court shall be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an interna- tional character which the parties thereto submit to it. The court may also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question referred to it by the council or by the assembly. Article 15. — If there should arise between members of the League any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not sub- mitted to arbitration in accordance with Article 13, the members of the League agree that they will submit the matter to the coun- cil. Any party to the dispute may effect such submission by giving notice of the existence of the dispute to the Secretary General, who will make all necessary arrangements for a full investigation and consideration thereof. For this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate to the Secretary General, as promptly as possible, statements of their case with all the relevant facts and papers, and the council may forthwith direct the publication thereof. 298 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD The council shall endeavor to effect a settlement of the dis- pute, and if such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made public giving such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and the terms of settlement thereof as the council may deem appropriate. If the dispute is not thus settled, the council either unani- mously or by a majority vote shall make and publish a report containing a statement of the facts of the dispute and the recom- mendations which are deemed just and proper in regard thereto. Any member of the League represented on the council may make a statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclu- sions regarding the same. If a report by the council is unanimously agreed to by th§ members thereof other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute, the members of the League agree that they will not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with the recommendations of the report. If the council fails to reach a report which is unanimously agreed to by the members thereof, other than the representatives of one or more of the partis to the dispute, the members of the League reserve to themselves the right to take such action as they shall consider necessary for the maintenance of right and justice. If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is found by the council to arise out of a matter which by international law is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the council shall so report, and shall make no recommen- dation as to its settlement. The council may in any case under this article refer the dis- pute to the assembly. The dispute shall be so referred at the request of either party to the dispute, provided that such request be made within fourteen days after the submission of the dispute to the council. In any case referred to the assembly all the provisions of this article and of Article 12 relating to the action and powers of the council shall apply to the action and powers of the assembly, pro- vided that a report made by the assembly, if concurred in by the representatives of those members of the League represented on the council and of a majority of the other members of the League, exclusive in each case of the representatives of the parties to the TREATY OF VERSAILLES 299 dispute, shall have the same force as a report by the council con- curred in by all the members thereof other than the representa- tives of one or more of the parties to the dispute. Article 16. — Should any member of the League resort to war in disregard of its covenants under Articles 12, 13 or 15, it shall ipso facto be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other members of the League, which hereby undertake immedi- ately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial rela- tions, the prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals and the nationals of the covenant-breaking State, and the preven- tion of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-breaking State and the nationals of any other State, whether a member of the League or not. It shall be the duty of the council in such case to recommend to the several Governments concerned what effective military, naval or air force the members of the League shall severally con- tribute to the armed forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League. The members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually support one another in the financial and economic meas- ures which are taken under this article, in order to minimize the loss and inconvenience resulting from the above measures, and that they will mutually support one another in resisting any spe- oial measures aimed at one of their number by the covenant- l)reaking State, and that they will take the necessary steps to afford passage through their territory to the forces of any of the members of the League which are co-operating to protect the covenants of the League. Any member of the League which has violated any covenant of the League may be declared to be no longer a member of the League by a vote of the council concurred in by the representa- tives of all the other members of the League represented thereon. Article 17. — In the event of a dispute between a member of the League and a State which is not a member of the League, or between States not members of the League, the State or States not members of the League shall be invited to accept the obliga- tions of membership in the League for the purposes of such dis- pute, upon such conditions as the council may deem just. If such invitation is accepted, the provisions of Articles 12 to 16 inclusive 300 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD shall be applied with such modifications as may be deemed neces- sary by the council. Upon such invitation being given the council shall immediately institute an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and rec- ommend such action as may seem best and most effectual in the circumstances. If a State so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, and shall resort to war against a member of the League, the provisions of Article 16 shall be applicable as against the State taking such action. If both parties to the dispute when so invited refuse to accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, the council may take such measures and make such recommendations as will prevent hostilities and will result in the settlement of the dispute. Article 18. — Every treaty or international engagement entered into hereafter by any member of the League shall be forthwith registered with the Secretariat and shall as soon as possible be published by it. No such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so registered. Article 19. — The assembly may from time to time advise the reconsideration by members of the League of treaties which have become inapplicable and the consideration of international con- ditions whose continuance might endanger the peace of the world. Article 20. — The members of the League severally agree that this covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or under- standings inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof, and solemnly undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any engagements inconsistent with the terms thereof. In case any member of the League shall, before becoming a member of the League, have undertaken any obligations incon- sistent with the terms of this covenant, it shall be the duty of such member to take immediate steps to procure its release from such obligations. Article 21. — Nothing in this covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbi- tration or regional understandings like the Monroe Doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace. TREATY OF VERSAILLES 301 Article 22. — To those colonies and territories which as a con- sequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are in- habitd by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that securities for the per- formance of this trust should be embodied in this covenant. The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the tutelage of such peoples should be intrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exer- cised by them as mandataries on behalf of the League. The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of the development of the people, the geographical situation of the territory, its economic conditions and other similar circum- stances. Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Em- pire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a man- datary until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the mandatary. Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such a stage that the mandatary must be responsible for the adminis- tration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the main- tenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defense of territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other members of the League. There are territories, such as Southwest Africa and certain of the South Pacific islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population or their small size, or their remoteness from the 302 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD centres of civilization ; or their geographical contiguity to the ter- ritory of the mandatary, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the mandatary as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. In every case of mandate the mandatary shall render to the council an annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge. The degree of authority, control or administration to be exer- cised by the mandatary shall, if not previously agreed upon by the members of the League, be explicitly defined in each case by the council. A permanent commission shall be constituted to receive and examine the annual reports of the mandataries and to advise the council on all matters relating to the observance of the mandates. Article 23. — Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the League: (a) will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labor for men, women and children, both in their own countries and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will establish and maintain the neces- sary international organizations; (b) undertake to secure just treatment of the native in- habitants of territories under their control; (c) will intrust the League with the general supervision over the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women and children and the traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs; (d) will intrust the League with the general supervision of the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; (e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of communications and of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of all members of the League. In this connection the special necessities of the regions TREATY OF VERSAILLES 303 devastated during the war of 1914-1918 shall be borne in mind; (f) will endeavor to take steps in matters of international concern for the prevention and control of disease. Article 24. — There shall be placed under the direction of the League all international bureaus already established by general treaties if the parties to such treaties consent. All such inter- national bureaus and all commissions for the regulation of mat- ters of international interest hereafter constituted shall be placed under the direction of the League. In all matters of international interest which are regulated by general conventions but which are not placed under the control of international bureaus or commissions, the secretariat of the League shall, subject to the consent of the council and if desired by the parties, collect and distribute all relevant information and shall render any other assistance which may be necessary or desirable. The council may include as part of the expenses of the secre- tariat the expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed under the direction of the League. Article 25. — The members of the League agree to encourage and promote the establishment and co-operation of duly authorized voluntary national Red Cross organizations having as purposes the improvement of health, the prevention of disease and the miti- gation of suffering throughout the world. Article 26. — Amendments to this covenant will take effect when ratified by the members of the League whose representatives compose the council and by a majority of the members of the League whose representatives compose the assembly. No such amendment shall bind any member of the League which signifies its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a member of the League. 304 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD Annex I. Original members of the League of Nations signatories of the treaty of peace. United States of America. Haiti. Belgium. Hejaz. Bolivia. Honduras. Brazil. Italy. British Empire. Japan. Canada. Liberia. Australia. Nicaragua. South Africa. Panama. New Zealand. Peru. India. Poland. China. Portugal. Cuba. Rumania. Ecuador. • Serb-Croat-Slovene State. France. Siam. Grreece. Czecho-Slovakia. Guatemala. Uruguay. States invited to accede to the covenant. Argentine Republic. Persia. Chile. Salvador. Colombia. Spain. Denmark. Sweden. Netherlands. Switzerland. Norway. Venezuela. Paraguay. II. First Secretary General of the League of Nations. The Honorable Sir James Eric Drummond, K.C.M.G., C.B. This is a transcript from the official record of the covenant of the League of Nations as promulgated at the Versailles Peace Con- ference and subject to ratification by the signatory powers. Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date- B . ^