m^MIMi i •?i;|;!;i|li;| :L«^' •i Qass. Book » TESTIMONIAL . Fbom His Excellency. Horace Eaton, State SoPBRt.s- tendent: I have examined in manuscript, a treatise of the Ge- ography of Vermont, accompanied with maps, which is about to be published by Rev. Z.Thompson, for tbe use of common schools, and am prepared to give it my most full and hearty approval. It contains a great amount of information that should be accessible to every citizen and every child in the State. In addition to the matter usually embraced under the head of Physical and Political Geography, a general ac- count of the geology of the state, accompanied with such definitions and explanations in the science of ge- ology generally, as will render a competent knowledge of the outlines of the geology of the state easily aUain- able by all the scholars in our common schools. But the work will need no com nsndation with those who have seen and examined it ; and no family in Ver- mont, that has 01133 obtained it, will b? afterwards wil- ling to be without it. HORACE EATON. State Sup't. of Com. Schools. Enosburgh, Sept. 8 1848. YERMO^T. iVlM GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF VERMONT, WITH STATE AND COUNTY OUTLINE MAPS, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. BY ZADOCK THOMPSON. II 33 u r 11 n g 1 n : PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, CHAINCET GOODRICH, PRINTER. <■' Entered according lo -net of Corigress, in tho year LS-iS, by Z A D O C K THOMPSON, >a tlio Clerk's o£5co of the District Court, for the District of Vormout. PR L: FACE. The object of this little work, is to enable the youth of Vermont to acquire a competent knov/ledge of their own state. Most of the geographies used in our schools embrace so large a field that Vermont comes in for a very small share. The space in them usually allotted to a single state, affords room, only for a few general facts, and the consequence is that, while they enable pupils to answer with promptitude, general ques- tions relating to the geography of the w^orld, they as- sist them very little in obtaining a knowledge of the individual state in which they reside. To supply in part, at least, this deficiency within our own state, and to enable our young people to grow up in a knowledge of our own institutions, and of the ob- jects and physical circumstances in the midst of which a kind Providence has placed them, is the design of this book. In the j^reparation of it, I have availed myself of the materials within my reach. I am well aware that deficiencies and errors will be found in it. But should it be thought worthy of an introduction into our schools, and another edition be demanded, I trust that superintendents and teachers of schools in the differ- ent sections of the state, will take sufficient interest in it, to induce them to furnish me with the means of sup- plying its deficiencies and correcting its errors ; and with these improvements, it is my intention that there shall be a corresponding improvement in the mechan- ical execution of tlxe book. It may be proper perhaps, to say a few words respec- ting that part of the book which relates to geology. Geology has not hitherto been much studied in our schools; and yet it is, undoubtedly, one of the most useful departments of general geography. On account 10 PREFACE. of this neglect hitherto, I have devoted a very consider- able proportion of the book to the geology of the state ; and in the introduction, I have endeavored to give so much of elementaiy geology, and such definitions and explanations of geological terms as I thought neces- sary to enable persons unacquainted with^the science, to understand v»^hat has been said on the subject in the body of the work. Believing that the technical terms of a science should be understood by all who v/ould have a knowledge of the science, I have not sought to ex- clude them; but have endeavored to explain all those which are not found, and sufficiently defined, in our common dictionaries. In preparing the synopsis of rocks on page 25, I had in view the formation of a small cabinet of specimens of our common rocks and minerals for the use of each school district. A cabinet consisting of from 60 to 100 specimens, neatly and correctly labelled and kept in the school room, to be eniployed in illustrating the lessons in this book, it is thought, would aid very much in mak- ing the lessons understood and remembered, and would create anjinterest in the sciences of geology and miner- alogy, which would be enjoyed and manifested out of the school room. The expense of such a cabinet need not exceed $5, should the districts generally see fit to procure them'. In teaching the descriptive geography the pupils should be required to draw, from niemory, the outline maps, upon the blackboard, or upon their slates. ' Noth- ing else serves to imprint them so indelibly upon the mind. Upon their own neighborhoods they should bo required to amplify, drawing their township upon a large scale, and locating the various hills, streams, vil- lages «Jcc., in accordance v»'ith their own observations, or with their knowledge, derived from otiier and more minute maps. Some errors have been discovered wliich will, in dus time, be corrected. Burlington, Nov. 11, 184S. C O N 1^ E N T S INTRODUCTION. I. G-eneral Definiiions, - - - 13. V. Igneou-? Rocks, . II FQi-ms of Matter, '- - - - 1 1 VI. Arrangement of rocks, III. Geological Elements, - - - lo VII. Ages ol Rock?, , IV. Formation and Position of Rock.?, 18 1 VIII. Synopsis of Rocks, PARTI. PIIYSICALGEOGRAPHY. 1. GENERAl- FSATT7RES OF VERMONT. J Situation and Boundaries, . 2714 Rivers and Sireams, 2 Extent and Area, . . . '28 5 Lakes an;! Ponds, 3 Faee of the country, . . 2S'o Curio-sities, II- GEOLOGV AND MINERAT-OGY . 44 I 2 Table Forma tioai', 1 Geological Map, I. 1 Soil, iiJAUuvium, . . . . 3 Plei.stocene, Sands and Clays, 4 Drift, SliDrift ScratcUe.^, 6 Muck, .... II. Cham plain Group. 1 Red Sandrock, 2 Hudson River Shales, 5 Ut'ca Slate, 4 Trenton Limestone, 5 Islo la Motte Limestone, 6 Calcifcreous Sandstone, I Sec. I. Talcose Slate Formation. QUATERNARY. 451 7 Shell Marl, 46 8 Iafu.?orial Silica, . 401 9 Clay Stones, 47 1 10 Iron Ore, 49 II Pipe Clay, •5(i 8EC0XDARV. Taconic Group. 55 1 Taconic System, KS 2 Taconic Slate, r>9 3 Sparry Limestone, GO 4 Majrnijsian Slate, 61 5 Stockbridge Limestone, C^ Granular Quartz, PRIMARY. 07 1 Sec. 2. Calcaresi-mica Slat©, 7^ 8 Anchor Ice. 85 79 9 Indian Summer, HJ SI 10 Smoky Atmosphere, y j SI U Dark Days, .... yb R.1 12 Fireballs and Earthq uake^'. 80 s:^ 13 Aurora Borealis 87 85 14 Variatiensof the Mag. Needlo, 87 IV, IGNEOUS ROCKS, 1 Granit« . . 74 j 2 Greenstone, . . . 76 | 3 Porphyry, m, CLIMATE AND INIETEOROLOGY. 1 Preliminary Remarks, 2 Temperature, 3 Winds, .... 4 Rain, 6 Snow, 6 Season;?, .... 7 Freezing of Lake Champlain, PART IL~POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Tabular View,— 82. I. ORIGIN OF THE GOVERNMENT. 1 Claims of Jurisdiction, . 9r| 6 Constitution , 2 Township Grants, . . 9U 7 Vermont Charters, 3 Towns, , . , . 9ll 8 Origin of Political power, 4 Councils of Safety, , , 91 1 9 Town Cfficers, 5 Vermont Independence, . 911 10 Freemen's Meeting, II, DEPARTMENTS OP GOVERNMENT. 1 Legislative Power, . , 94 2 Senate, , . . , 94 3 House of Represintatives, . 95 4 Executive Power, . . 90 5 Judiciary Power, . . 96 6 Supreme Court, . . 96 7 County Court, 8 Justices of the Peace, 9 Probate Courts, 10 Council of Censors, 11 Laws and Punishment, 12 State Prieoo, £6 97 97 98 98 100 12 CONTENTS. 1 S a'e Hous», 2 1V!il;tia, 3 Flag, 4 Coat of Armi, D Eaiiks, 1 AliorigineBC, 2 Iidirtii Relics, 3 Hieroglyphics, 4Popiiiatioii, 1 Primary Schools, 2 Acadtmies, 3 University of Vermont, 4 >l;(ldlL'buiy College, 5 NorAvich Univer.sfty, t) Cistleton Medical College 7 Vl rmont Medical College, 8 Piiuiiiig, . , 9 Reli::ioa, STATE INSTITTTTIONS . lOli 6 Revenue, . 102 . 102 , 103 , 103 7 Salaries. 8 Lotteries, 9 Post Offices, 10 Telegraph, ' , IM . , , . 101 , . 103 . 106 - 105 THB PEOPLE AND THEIR EMPLOYMENTS. . 107|o Agriculture, . 105 6 Manufactures, . 1107 Commerce, . llOjS Rail Roads, V. PDBHC INSTRUCTION, . IIS 10 CongregationalistSj 121 11 Methodists, 1-4-2'l-Z Baptists, -. 12;3 13 Episcopalians, 124 U Freewill Baptists, 12ojlj Christians, 125! 1(5 Universalists, 126; 17 Roman Catholics, 12PjH Unitarians, A'ldison County, Beiiuinglou County, Caledonia County, Chittenden County, Essex County. Franklin Coiiiitv, Character of the People, . . 131 PA.IT III. GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. 134 VIH Lamoille County, 11 Grand Isle County, .vZY . 142 IX Orause County, . 14> X Orleans County, • . 15jIX Rutland County, - . 164 Xn Washington County, . 16- XIll Windham County. . 17." XIV Windsor County, THE ULTLINE xMAPS. L Addison, II. Bennington, III. Caledonia, H'. Chitteucieu, y. Esgex. M Mansfield. Ts Camel's Hump, () Jay Peak, A Lake Champlain li :Memphrtmagog, L Duiiiiwre, CcnP9ffti<5P', \ D«erti.id, r. West. d fetxto 1 s, e WiiiuD'S, f Llack V/. Ce. g. Qua Q.uache«», h. V'Villl , COUNTIES. VI. Franklin, VII. Grand Isle. V ill. Lemoiile, iX. Orange, A. Orleans, MOUNTAINS. P KiUingion Peak, S Sterling Peak. 1^. Equinox. LAKES AND PONDS. B'lmbazine, Willoughby, XI. xn. Xlll. AlV. Rutland, Washington, Windh.im, Windsor, I R. Ascutney, T. Shrewsbury Peak. G. Salem Pond, H. Joe's Po ud Wells Pond, filVERS. I. ompompsnoosuc j. W'liis, k. Wells, !. Passumpsic, m. Nuhiegan, u. Clyde, o. Barton, p. Black, O, Co. q. Missisto, r. L.im i:lie, •. Winooski, ;. Laplott, u< Otter Creek, V. Ilubbardton, w. Poultuey, s.. Pawlet, V. Battenkill, .. Hoosic. Ill 112 114 115 127 1Q3 123 129 129 130 133 lao 130 isi 1-6 1112 19>i 203 209 2U Capitak County Seats. Villages. Colleges. Battle Fieldfif — Rail Roads. INTRODUCTION I. GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 1. The earth on which we live is round like a globe or ball. 2. Its diameter is about 8000 miles and its circumference about 25000 miles. 3. The surface of the earth consists of land and water. 4. More than two-thirds of the earth's surface is water and a little less than one-third land. 5. The principal sciences, which relate to the earth generally, are geometry, geography and geology. 6. Each of these terms is composed of the Greek word */?/, (ge), which signifies the earth, and another word in that language denoting the object of the science: thus, 7. Geometry is from /?; and (ibtqov, {metron.^ measure because by it measurements of the earth were made. 8. Geography is from yr] and yQacpco .{grapho) to write, signifying a description of the earth ; and 9. Geology is from yr] and loyo;, (logos) a discourse, signifying a discourse, or desertation about the earth. 10. Geography is the most general of these terms and sometimes embraces both the others. 11. Geography is usually divided into mathematical, physical and political. 12. Mathematical Geography has for its object the de- termination of the size and form of the earth, and its relation to the sun, moon and other celestial bodies ; and also the relative position of places on the earth's surface, and the construction of maps. 13. The 6as?5 of mathematical geography is geometry. 14. Physical Geography describes the features of the earth's surface, as consisting of land and w^ater : — the extent and form of continents and islands ; — the eleva- What is the form of the earth? — its diameter? — its circumference 7— its surface? What part is land? — water? What sciences relate generally to the cartti? Of what are their names composed ? — geometry ? — geography ? — geology ? Which is the most general tenn ? How is geography divided 1 vVhal is mathematical geog- aphy .'—its basis ? What is physical geography ? '2 14 INTRODUCTION. tion and direction of mountain chains ; — the soil and climate, and the animal and vecretable productions. This definition of ph)^sical geography embraces me- teorology, geology, zoology and botany. 15. Political Geography relates to the eartli as the abode of man. It has for its object the descri))tion of all that relates to the social and moral condition of mankind ; — their government, laws, resources, religion, education and history. II. FORMS OF MATTER. IG. Matter exists under three general forms, solid, li- quid and aeriform, and tliese forms depend generally upon temperature. 17. Water, for example, below the temperature of 32 deg. of Fahrenheit's thermometer, is a solid in the form of ice; — above 32*^ and below 212'^ it is a liquid, and above 212° it is changed into steam and becomes aeriform. 18. F/w/fZ^ are either liquids, or aeriform bodies. 19. lAquids are called non-elastic fluids, and aeriform bo- dies, are called elastic fluids. 20. Fluids, which are permanently elastic, are called gases. The three general forms of matter exist abun- dantly at the common temperature; the landheing sol- id, the ira.'er liquid, and the atmosphere aeriform. 21. The matter which composes the earth and the ob- jects upon it, is also distinguished into organic and iyi- organic matter. 22. Organic matter is that which has been affected, or modified" by its connexion with life, or has constituted an organ, part, or appendage of a living being. All terrestrial life, and hence all organic matter, is either animal or vegetable. 23. Inorganic matter is that which lias not been modifi- ed by life, and is comprehended under the term mineral, taken in its most general sense. What (Iocs the definition of physical geography embrace ? To what does political geography relate 1 What its object 1 What are the general forms of matter 1 Upon what do they depend 1 What ei- ample! What are fluids'? What fluids are non-elastic? — elastic? What on gas- Besl In what do the three forms of matter exist abundantly 1 In what other way IB matter distinguished 7 What is organic matter 1 W'hat'is inorganic matter 1 rOH-^.IS OF MATTER. 15 21. Mineralogi/ is the science wiiicli treats of the na- ture, form and composition of minerals. 25. Simple substances are those which consist of only one kind of matter, and are more particularly the objects of Chcmisiry. They are 55 in number, and by their various combinations all known compound bodies are formed. 26. Simple minerals are either simple substances, or such compounds of simple substances, as are homoge- neous in their qualities and aspect. 27. Minerals are distinguished by color, form, lustre, s^treak, hardness, specific gravity &c. and by chemical analysis.' III. GEOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 23 Geology is the science which ti'eats of the combi- nation and position of the mineral masses, v>iiich com- pose the crust of the earth, and of the organic remains which they contain. 29. The crust of the earth is that exterior portion of the earth, wdiich is exposed to human observation. 30. Organic remains are portions, or impressions of an- imal, or vegetable substances, embraced in mineral mas- ses. 31 Fossils is another name for organic remains ; so called because they are usually dug out of the earth. 32 The science which treats of fossils, or organic re- mains, is called pal(Bontology. 33 Minerals are the elements of geology, all rocks being formed of minerals. 34. Nine of the minerals enter so largely into the com- position of rocks, that they have been called the geologi- cal alphabet. These are quartz, feldspar, mica, talc, horn- blende, argillite, carbonate of lime, gypsum and chlorite. 35. Quartz is the mineral commonly known in this state as white flitit. Its usual color is white, though not always so; and, when crystalized, it resembles cut glass and is called rock crystal. It scratches glass and cannot What is minero!oE;y ? What are simple substances ? — how many ? What is said of simple minerals .' IIow are minoralii distinguished ? What is geolopty ? What the crust of the earth ! What are organic remains ? What are lossils ? What tho Bcieuce wliich treats of fossils? Of what are minerals the elements? How m.any oonatiiute the geological alphabet ?■ What their names I What is quartz ? — its color ' 16 INTRODUCTION. <_ , ■ «. I .... .^ ... I.. ■ ... .... J I..I , I - - — , — . _^ t be cut with a knife. Q,uartz constitutes nearly one half of the crust of the earth. The white stones, and white seams in the rocks, in the central and eastern parts of the state, are nearly all quartz. Q,uartz is an essential constituent of glass. The sand used in making bricks and mortar, is quartz. 36. Feldspar has a pearly lustre, is not so hard as quartz, and is less glassy in its appearance. Its usual color is grayish white, though often found of other col- ors. It constitutes about one tenth of the earths crust. Feldspar, decomposed, forms a white clay called kaolin. from which porcelain, stone ware and fire bricks aro made. 37. Mica is always in shining elastic scales, and is of- ten improperly called isinglass. Its more common col- ors are black, yellow and white, or silver colored. It constitutes about one twentieth of the earth's crust. The large sheets of mica are used for lanterns, stove windows, &c. It is sometimes called Muscovy glass. 38. Granite and gneiss consist of quartz feldspar and mica blended together. They differ only in the latter being stratified and the former not. The color of these rocks usually depends upon the amount and color of the mica in them. 39. Talc often resembles mica, but may be distin- guished from it by its being very much softer, by its unctious feel, and by its want of elasticity. If a scale of talc be bent, it remains bent after the force is remov- ed, but if a scale of mica be bent, it springs back on the removal of the force. Its most common color is light green. 40. Steatite, or soapstoneis principally talc, and talc enters largely into the composition of talcose slate, and from it they derive their oily feel. 41. Hornblende is one of the toughest of the earthy minerals. It has a confused fibrous structure and its color is usually greenish, brownish or black. It forms about one twentieth of the earth's crust, and is most com- mon in volcanic countries. It is not so hard as quartz. What part of the earth's crust is quartz ? What are some of its uses ? What is said of feldspar? IIow much of the earth's crust is feldspar? What its use? VVliat is said of mica ? — its^colors ? What part of the earth's crust ? — its use ? Of what are granite and gneiss composed? How distinguished? On what depends tiieir color? What is said of talc ? lIow distinguished from mica?— its color? What is steatite i What is said of hornbleude / IIow much of the earth's cruat is horublcnde ? GEOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 17 42. ArgUlite is the common slate, which is used for l-Qofing and for cyphering slates. It is too well known to need description. 43. Carbonate of lime constitutes all our common lime- Stones and marbles. It is much softer than quartz and ^feldspar, and its colors vary throurh all shades of gi'ay, blue and brown, from pure vv'hite to a perfect black. When crystalized it forms calcareous spar. The white scams in the black slates and limestones along the east side of Lake Champlain and on the islands, are calcareous spar. Carbonate of lime becomes quicklime by burning, which expels the carbonic acid. It may be known by applying to it a drop of sulpl. '■, nitric or muriatic acid. If an effervescence takes place, it is carbonate of lime. Calcareous tufa and shell marl are carbonate of lime. . Any limestone vrhich will take a fine polish, is properly called marble. Limestone constitutes about one-seventh of tiic earth's crust. 41. Gypsum,^ called also jjlaslcr of pari-- is the sulphate of lime. It is softer than common limestones, and may be distinguished from them by not effervescing with ac ids. It is used as a manure, for stucc^^, and for making casts of various kinds. Crystalized, it forms the mine- rals cnlled selenite and alabaster. 45. Chlorite resembles talc, but is a little harder, and has not the oily feel of talc. It is of a dark green col- or, and when breathed upon gives out the odor of clay. Magnified, it apppears lik« a mass of green scales. The presence of chlorite in its composition, is what gives the green color and the name to chlurite slate. 46. All of the preceding nine minerals, excepting gypsum, enter more or less largely into the composi- tion of the rocks of Vermont. No gypsum has yet been found in this State. What isargillite? What is said of c.Tibonate of lime ? Its liardness ? — its col- ors? What is it called when crystalized? How made into quickJtme ? How known? Wliat arp tufa and marl? Wliat is marble ? How much ot the earth's crust is limesto.'ie ? What issypsum ? How known from limestone ! For what used ? Vv'hat iy sakl of chlorite ? How many of the preceding nine mineralg ara foimdinV!.? 2* 18 INTRODUCTIO:^. IV. FORMATION AND POSITION OF ROCKS. 47. The water, or liquid portion of the earth's surface, consists of oceans, seas, ponds, streams and springs. 4S. The land, or solid portion of the earth's surface, or crust, consists of rocks, stones, sand, clay, marl and ve- getable mould. 49. The term rock, as often used in g-eology, may em- brace any, or all of the materials enumerated above, as. forming the crust of the earth. 50. Rocks are divided into two classes, the stratified rocks, and the unstratified rocks. 51. Slrrttijied rocks have their materials so arranged as to be divided by parallel planes, while the unstratified rocks are not thus divided. 52. That i>ortion of a stratified rock, which lies be- tween two of these parallel planes is called a stratum. When two or more of these are spoken of together, they are called strata, which is the plural of stratum. 53. When large wedge-shaped, or ii'regular masses, are interposed between'strata, they are called beds. Tho strata themselves are sometimes called beds. 54. When strata of different kinds alternate with each other, the3/ are said to be interstratified. 55. The" two chief agents, in the formation of rocks, are xcater and^7-e. 56. The stratified rocks were originally, evidently, de- posited from water, in the form of sand, clay, or marl, as we see those materials now deposited in ponds and lakes, and were afterwards consolidated by pressure and heat — the s-and becoming sandstone ; the clay, slate ; and the marl, limestone. Hence the stratified rocks are also called sedimentary rocks, or aqueous rocJcs. 57. The loioest in the series of stratified rock must have been deposited first, and are therefore the oldest of the stratified rocks. 58. When the sedimentary materials, of which the stratified rocks are composed, were deposited, the strata must have been nearly horizontal. If they had remain- ed in that position, only the upper stratum would have been exposed to view. But now, we find the strata with Of wliat does? the liquid portion of the eamh's surface consist ? — the solid por- tion ? How is the term rock used ? How arc rocks divided ? What the distinc- tion? What is said of stratum and strata ? What are beds ? What is meant by interstratified? What are chief an;ents in the formation of rocks'? How are stratified rocks formed I What otner names have they 1 Which of them were fii-st deposited ? In what position were they deposited l FORMATION AND POSITION OF ROCKS. 10 every degree of inclination, from the horizontal to the vertical. Hence the condition of those strata, which are not now nearly horizontal, must have been changed since they were formed. This may have been effected by the upheaval of one portion, or by the depression of another, or by both at the same time. 59. The pitch of the rocks, that is, the angle which the strata make with the plane of the horizon, is called their dip. 60. The strike, or line of bearing of the strata, is al- ways at right angles to the di- rection of "the dip. Illustration.— If a e w be a section of stratified rock, e be- / ing east and w west, then the ^„ /•-" dip of the sratum a e will be east and the measure of the dip will be the arc .v c, which in this case is about 35^. The strike] being at right angles with the direction of the dip, will be north and south. 61. The line of strike, from which, or towards which, the strata on each side dip, is called an axis. If the strata dip from it, as at a, it is called an anti- clinal a^vis, but if tov*'ards it, as at 6, a synclinal a.vis. Fig. 2, 3. 62. If none of the stratified rocks had been disturbed, those in the same country would be very nearly parallel and con- formable to one another. But this is not the case. We often find in the same country a part of the rocks with their strata nearly vertical, other portions less inclined to the horizon, and, perhaps, still others horizontal. Now it is plain that the two formations represented in fig. 4, were deposited at very distinct periods — a b being first formed, and afterwards thrown up, so that the strata made an ansrle (-i.) b Is that their position now? What the inference 7 How effected? What is the dip of rocks ?— the strike ?— how illustrated ? What is meant by axis .'—anticlinal axis ?— synclinal axis ? Under what cuxumstaiices would all straiified rocks have been contormable ? Are they so i so IKTRODUC'flOi^. of about 4:5^. While in that position, the horizontal for- mation c was deposited. These formations are said to be unconformable, because the strata of one are not par- allel to those of the others. It sometimes happens that there are, at the same place, several unconformable se- ries of strata, which have been deposited at periods very remote from each other. 63. The absolute age, in years, of stratified rocks, can- not be determined, but their relative ages are clearly in- dicated by their position and order, the oldest rocks be- ing those which lie lowest in the series, and becoming newer in proceeding upward to the highest, Vviiich is also newest. 64. High and lov/, as applied to rocks, by geologists, have not always the usual reference to the horizontal level. Rocks Vvhich are lowest in a geological sense, often constitute the highest summits of mountains^ while the rocks which are highest in the same sense, oc- cupy the vallies. Thus in fig. 4 a 6 is a lower formation, geologically^, than c. though a portion of it is now higher m reference to the horizon. 65. The lowest stratified rocks rest upon rocks which are unstratified ; that is, rocks which shov/ no planes indicating deposition, but which split equally y/ell iu -all directions. V. IGNEOUS ROCKS. G6. The unstratified rocks occur in irregular masses, often of vast extent, which have been forced outward from the interior of the earth, lifting up the stratified rocks, and frequently protruding through tliem, so as to form the summits of the loftiest mountains.. 67. Granite, syenite, greenstone, hypersthene and por- phyry, are unstratified rocks. 68. The unstratified rocks are more or less crystaline in their structure, and have evidently been melted, or in a state of fusion by heat. Hence they are called j^/w- llow illustrated? Can we determine the age of rock.s? How their relative ages? Wliat is said of his^li and low? How is this subject illustrated ? Upon ■what do the lowest stratilieu rocks rest ? What is said of the unstratified rocKS ? Name the principal ? By v/Iiat general names are they called I Why ? IGNEOUS ROCKS, 21 69. The-io^?eoz^ rocA's, which are exposed to observa- tion, v.-^ere not all formed at the same period^ but are of different ages, some perhaps being older than any of the stratiiie'd rocks, but many of them much more re- cent, as is proved by their containing fragments of stra- tified rock in them, and by their forming dikes and veins in stratihed;focks. 70. Bikes'cwe seams crossing stratified rocks and filled with granite, greenstone, porphyry or some other un- stratified substance. 71. Greenstone dikes, called al- so trap dikes, are met with in many partH of Vermont, but are most numerous in Chitten- den countv. The exposed parts j^u^.i^siate Rock. iiave a dark rusty hue, and they are often mistaken for veins of iron ore. 72. Several of -the greenstone dikes are amygddloidal, that is, they have other minerals embedded in them like almonds in cake. 72. Pofpliyry dikes, and other feldspar dikes, are numerous in the town of Shelburne and Charlotte in the south west part of Chittenden county. They vary in color from a light gray to a dark chockolate brown. They are mostly in the shales extending in some cases into the red sandrock formation. Many of them are of a light grav color without the embedded crystals, v/hich distinguisii porphyry. 74. Graiiit 3 dikes, veins, seams and beds are veiy common in ihe northeastern part of Vermont. A most interesting locality of granite veins and seams may be seen in Mar.shfield near the foot of the Great Falls. 75. All th J granite in Vermont has evidently been for- ced up froi;i beneath, through the stratified rocks. In Woodbury ^:ie granite contains fragment of slate em- bedded in it. 76. The granite of Vermont is of different ages, the more recent often containing embedded fragments of that which is older. Wliatissaid nf their ages? What are dikes? What is said of green stona dikes? For wha have they been mistaken ? \J'hat is said of several ol' the green- »tono dikes? Wh^tissaidof the porphyry dikes ?— their color? tlieir situation? VYhat is said of ^r.:nite dikes, veins . Drift. Feet. 1 1 i jSoulheni States, | 200iVt., Canada, variable. IN. America and Europa- > in '. w Newer rieK>cene.^ J ^^^^ Older rieiocene. 3 ', Miocene. ^^^ Eocene. ' 1000^ England, Italy, ! France, Southern 1 1 States. i J > Q O Is Chalk. Greensand. 600 1 Western Europe and 500 j Southwestern "U. States. } Wealden. ' Oolite. Lias. 9i-»l Enuiand, ■ | 12o0 - We^'stern ! 1000 J Europe. } ^ 5 iNew Red sand-^tone. ^ Magnesian limestone. 900 Connecticut, western Europe. 300 .5 Coal Measures. Carbdnifereous Limestone. Old Red Sandstone. 3U0U1 Vvtfatcru States. SOO-O [Virginia, 1000 J Pennsylvania. .2 lis " d S d il o Erie Group. Ilelderberg Group. Ontario Group. Champlain Group. Taconic Group. 3600 1800 1000 2200 N. Y. & Western States. £| J-| j N. Y. o- Westci-n States. S m'S S c S2 «i <= N. & VvCTtvn Sis tea. - ^^ 5 New York, Vt. £ S-?-? — 3 c Vt.. Massachusetts. ^ ^ S j:^ rt S C C — 0/ j: < 5 Clay Slate. ~1 Talcose slate. Limestone. sipv^r«l Gneiss. Quartz. ] ^ Utistratified Igneous Rocks. INTRODUCTION. 25 VII. AGES OF ROCKS. 88. The relative ages of rocks, as has been already sta- ted. (63.) is determined in the first place by superpo- sition. 89. By examining the fossils in the rocks of different ages, it has been found that there are various geologi- cal eras, which are readily distinguished by fossils pe- culiar to each ; and hence the characteristic fossils have become the readiest means of determining the geologi- cal position and age of a formation. 90. There is, perhaps, no place on the earth where the wiiole series of formations, embraced in the table, is to be found together. But there are many places where a large number of them are exposed to view, and these have been so thoroughly studied and compared, by geologists, and the characteristic fossils of each forma- tion are now so well known, that a single isolated for- mation containing fossils, can usually be referred^ with- out difficulty, to i^s true place in the series. VIII. SYNOPSIS OF ROCKS. 91. The following is a list of rocks found in Vermont, and of the principal minerals and elements, which com- pose them. 1. Granite consists of quartz, feldspar and mica, and is unstratified. (34) 2. Quartz is nearly pure silica. (35) 3. Feldspar consists essentially of silica, alumina and potash.* (36) 4. Mica consists of silica, alumina and iron. (37) 5. Syenite consists of quartz, feldspar and hornblende, and is called syenitic granite. 6. Hornblende consists of silica, magnesia, lime, alu- mina and iron. (41) 7. Gneiss consists of the same materials as granite, but differs from it in being stratified. * Only the principal elements ■which enter into the composition of the different minerals are mentioned in this synopsis. How are the relative ajies of rocks determined 1 IIow are fossils used for this durpose.' Ai-e all the series of rocks found at any one inace? How is the age of a single isolated formation ascertained ? What "is said of granite 1— of quartz ? Feldspar 1 Mica r Svenite f Hornbleude ! Gneiss ? 3 S6 IN'TRODUCTIOM. 8. Mica slate or, Mica Schist, consists essentially of quartz and mica and is stratified. 9. Talcose slate consists of talc and quartz or feldspar, and sometimes has a high lustre. 10. Talc consists of silica and magnesia, and divides into thin laminae. (39) 11. Steatite consists of the same as talc, but it is more massive and usually of a gray color. Nos. 9, 10 and 11 have an oily feel. (40) 12. Chlorite slate consists of chlorite and quartz, and is of a greenish color 13. Chlorite consists of silica, alumina, magnesia and iron. (45) 1 1. Magnesian slate is a general name, embracing both the talcose and chlorite slates, because magnesia enters largely into their composition. 15. Hornblende slate consists of hornblende, quartz and feldspar, and is usually of a darker color and tougli- or than the preceding slates. 16. Clay slate. Argillaceous slate, oy Ai^gillite consists of quartz and alumina. (42) 17. CVay consists of quartz and alumina. 18. Granular Q,uartz consists almost entirely of grains of quartz, and is usually of a brownish yellow color. Limestone consists essentially of carbonic acid and lime. It sometimes contains a considerable proportion of quartz or magnesia. In the former case it is called siliceous limestone and in the latter magnesian lime- stone. (43) 20. Calcareous Spar is crystalized limestone. 21. Serpentine consists essentially of quartz and mag- nesia verry finely and closely compacted together. Itls usually uustratitied; is of a dark green color, often vari- gated. and, when free from seams, is a beautiful substi- tute for marble. 22. Greenstone consists of feldspar and hornblende. It is often called trap. It exists in Vermont only in dikes and when exposed to the weather, is of a dark rusty col- or. (71) 23. Porphyry consists almost wholly of feldspar, con- taining disseminated crystals of feldspar of a ditlerent color. (73) ^_ . . _ chlorite slate ? magnesian slate? y,crnblei'.de Elate ? clay slate ? clay? greenEtoue quartz ? 1 mestone 7 calcat Mica slate "? talcosg slate ? talc ? steatite ? chlor y,crnblei'.de slate ? clay slate ? clay ? greenEtoue •;p»par? terpoijUne ? greenstciit '? ^'orphwv ? STATE OF VERMONT. PART FIRST. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, I. GENERAL FEATURES OF VERMONT. Situation. Vermont belongs to the northeastern di- vision of the United States, and is the northwestern state in New-England. It lies between 42°44'and45° of north latitude and between 3^35' and 5°29^of east longitude from the capitol of the United States at Washington. Addison is the most western, and Ca- naan the most eastern, township in the state. Boundaries. Vermont is bounded on the north by Canada, east by New-Hampshire, south by Massachu- setts and west by New-York, The north line was finally established by treaty, in 1842 on what had been regarded as the 45th parallel of latitude, and, in 1845, permanent monuments were erec- ted upon it, at convenient distances from each other. The true 45th parallel lies a little to the southward of this line. The eastern boundary is formed by the west bank of Connecticut river. The river belongs w^holly to New-Hampshire. The western boundary passes along the deepest channel of Lake Champlain from the mouth of Poultney river. That part of this line south of Poultney river was surveyed in 1813 and 1814. To what division of the U. S. does Vt., belong? In what part ? Between what latitude does it lie? Between what lonsritude ? What is meant by lati- tude and lonjritiide J Wliich is the mo t western townphip ? the most eastern '» How is it boinided ? When and whert was the north line finally eslbalished ? Which way liom ihia is the true 4ylh parallel ? What iu said of the eaateiu boundarv ? 28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Extent and Area. Vermont extends through 2°16' of latitude, and 1°54' of longitude, being 157^ miles long from north to south, and from 41 to 90 miles wide from east to west. The average width of the state is about 57^ miles. The whole area of the state is 9056 square miles, or 5,795,960 acres. This includes those parts of Lake Champlain and lake Memphremagog, which belong to Vermont. The land, embraced in the various grants within the state, amounts to about 8551 square miles, or 5,472,640 acres. Face of the Country. — The surface of Vermont is generally uneven, and its distingishing feature is the range of mountains, which extends through the ^State from south to north, keeping nearly a middle course be- tween Connecticut river on the east and Lake Cham- plain on the west. This range of mountains, being co- vered principally with spruce and other evergreens, was called by the French, who first explored this part of the country, Verd Mont, or the Green Mountain. And these French words were afterwards, by omJtting the cZ, converted into Vermont, and adopted as the name of the state. From the line of Massachusetts to the southern part of Washington county, the main ridge of the Green Mountains continues high and, comparatively, unbroken; while, further north, it is divided into sections by deep vallies, which allow the passage of rivers and conveni- ent roads. In the south part of Washington county and near the middle of the state, the Green Mountains send off a branch to the north east. This, in the north part of the state, divides the waters which fall into Connecticut river, from those which run into lake Champlain and How loiio: is Vt. ? How wide ? What the average width ? How many square miles ? acns ? What does this embrace ? How much is land ? What is said of the surface generally ? What its distinguishinii features ? What tlie tim- ber on the mountain ? How did the name of Vermont originate ? What is said of the ridge ol Gr. 3Its, generally ? What branch do they send off? What is it called 7 GENERAL FEATURES OF VERMONT. 29 lake Memphremagog, and is usually called the height of lands. This range, though generally elevated, does not present any very lofty summits. 434S|Chin, Mansfield Mountain. 4086 Shrewsbury Peak, 40S3JCamel's Hump, 4044 Nose. Mansfield Mt. 4018 Jay Peak, 3904iKilhngton Peak, 3882:S. Peak Mansfield Mt. 3076 Equinox Mt., Manchester. Heights in Vermont above the Sea. 3320 2415 2.340 2115 1615 Ascutney, Windsor. Gr. Mt. pass Lincoln, " " " Granville, " " " Peru, » » Walden 1360 Mt. HoUey Rail R. ' 1307 Snak Mt. 1127 Gr. Mt.pass, Sutton, 1098 " " " Brigblon, 1035|BuckMt. 1003 Sugar Loaf, 912Snake Hill 997;Roxbury Ral R. *'" QOSJVViUiamstowc Sum." 791 ! Manchester Vil. ~ 540|State House, 90 Norwich U. Vt. University, L. Champlain, When the country was new, and the roads poor, the Green Mountains presented a very serious obstacle to the communication between the eastern and western parts of the state, and the phrase, — going over the mountain^ denoted an arduous business. Bat on account of the great improvement of the roads in the past few years, and, especially, of their more judicious location near the streams, the difficulty of crossing the mountains has nearly vanished. What is said of goins: over the Ih? moautain in early times ? How has the difficully been removed ? which is the uigiiost mountain 7 — its hoiglii 1 3* 30 PHYSICAL GFOGRAPHY. The western declivity of the range of Green Moun- tains is, in general, much steeper than the eastern, but the territory lying to the westward of these mountains is less broken and hilly than that to the eastward. The most level townships in the state are in the western part, in the neighborhood of Lake Champlain. The most elevated summits in Vermont are Jay Peak in Jay, Sterling Peak in vSterling, Mansfield Mountains (Chin and Nose) in Mansfield, Camel's Hump in Duxbu- ry, Killington Peak in Sherburn, Shrewsbury Peak in Shrewsbury, Ascutney in Windsor, and Equinox in Manchester. The height of these respectively may be learned from the foregoing diagram and table. Rivers & Streams. The rivers and streams in Ver- mont are very numerous, but none of them are large. Connecticut river runs along the whole length of the eas- tern boundary, but belongs to New-Hampshire, the line between New-Hampshire and Vermont, being the west bank of that stream. The greater part of the streams within the state, have their origin among the Green Mountains. All the streams on the east side of these mountains run easterly, or southeasterly, into the Con- necticut river. Those on the west side run westerly into Hudson river, or Lake Champlain. A few streams in the north part of the state, run northerly into Canada or lake Memphremagog. Winooski, Lamoille and Missisco rivers rise to the eastward of the highest range of Gi'cen Mountains and pass through that range into Lake Champlain. With the exception of these and Otter Creek, none of the streams in Vermont are navigable, and these are navi- gable for boats only a few miles from the lake. Steam- Wlial is said of llic declivities ? Where arc the most level (ownships ? \Miicli are tlic inosl cicva'cd summits ? V\ hat is said of the rivers and streams ? What lie? along- the eastern boundary of Vt. ? To what stafe tloes it belong ? Where do most of the streams originate ? What is said of the streams on tl'e cast side of the mountains ?— on the west side ?— of a few in the north part of the stale 7 — of Winooski, Lamoille and fllissisco rivers ? Arc any ol the streams navigable ? RIVERS AND BTRKAMS, 31 boats ascend Otter Creek as far as Vergennes, which is about seven miles from the lake. The streams, having their origin in the'mountains, are mostly short and rapid, and falls, cataracts or cascades, are very common. These, in the large streams, furnish an abundance of v/ater power for mills and machinery of various kinds, in most parts of the state. Saw milis, gristmills and carding machines are in operation in all parts, and in many parts, woolen factories, cotton facto- ries and mills for other purposes are established. Most of the modern villages, that have sprung up, have arisen around falls, which afford sufficient water power for the establishment of mills and factories. Connecticut River{a) — flows along the east side of Ver- mont, but belongs wholly to New-Hampshire. Its name is derived from two Indian words, which signify the long river. It rises in the north part of New-Hamp- shire, and running between that state and Vermont, and through Massachusetts and Connecticut falls into Long- Island Sound. The breadth of this river, adjacent to Vermont, varies from 150 feet to 450 feet. Its naviga- tion is impeded by several falls and rapids. Bellows falls, OttaUuechee falls, Mclndoes falls and the 15 mile falls are the most considerable. By the aid of locks around a few of these falls boats are enabled to ascend the river as far as Barnet. The first bridge over Con- necticut river was built at Bellows falls in 1785, the se- cond at Windsor in 1796. There are now about 20 bridges over this stream adjacent to Vermont. RIVERS WHICH DISCHARGE INTO THE CONNECTICUT. The rivers which discharge into the Connecticut are twelve in number, Deerfield, West, Saxton's, Vv'illiams, What are common in the streams ? What do these furnish ? Wliat mills in all parts ? Where arc most of the modern villages ? Where is the source of the Connecticut river ? Wiiat its breadth? What is said of Its mag:niiudc ? \M)at are the principal fa is ? How has ihe navifa- fion been improved ? Vv'hen and where was the first bridge over°il I How many bridg:es now ? How many and which nvcrs discharge into the Conncctidut ^ 32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Black, Otta duechee, Ompomponoosuc, Wait's, Well's, Passumpsic, and Nulhegan. Deerjield river (h) — rises in Stratton and runs nearly- south, about 24 miles, into Massachusetts. It then runs south east about the same distance and falls into Con- necticut river between Greenfield and Deerfield. It re- ceives the waters from about 320 square miles in Ver- mont. Wantasticook, or West Biver (c) — has its source in Wes- ton and Peru, and runs south-easterly into Connecticut river at Brattleborough. It is about 40 miles long and drains about 440 square miles. The main stream fur- nishes but few good mill privileges, but they are nu- merous on its branches. Saxton^s River (d) — is formed in Grafton, and, running easterly through the south part of Rockingham, falls into the Connecticut in Westminster. Length about 12 miles. It derives its name from a Mr. Saxton, who unluckily fell into it while engaged, at an early period, in surveying the line between Rockingham and West- minster. Williams^ Biver (e) — is formed in Chester by the union of three considerable branches, and running south-east 15 miles, falls into the Connecticut in Rockingham, three miles above Bellows Falls. This river takes its name from the Rev. John Williams, who was taken by the Indians at Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1704. He is said to have preached a sermon here to his feilovv^ pris- oners, while on their way to Canada, there being, at that time, no civilized inhabitants within the present terri- tory of Vermont. Black Biver (/) — in Windsor county, rises in Ply- mouth, runs nearly south about 12 miles, then east 11 Describe Deerfield river ? How many square miles of Vt. is w itered by It? Where does West river rise ? — how long? — how much does it drain"? —its mill privileges ? Describe Saxton's river ? — whence its name ? What is taid of Williuaia' river?— of its name? Describe Black river ? RIVERS AND STREAMS. S3 miles, and then south-east 12 miles, and falls into the Connecticut in the lower part of Springfield. It is re- markable for the great number of natural ponds through which it passes, for its numerous and excellent mill privileges, and for the dark color of its waters. It drains the water from about 160 square miles. Ottd Quechee Bluer {g) — originates in Sherburne, and, running nearly east through Bridgewater, Woodstock, and Hartford, falls into the Connecticut in Hartland. It has some very good mill privileges. It is 35 miles long; and waters about 212 square miles. The name of this stream is of Indian origin, but its meaning is not known. White Biver (h) — rises in Granville, runs south-east to Stockbridge, then nearly east to Sharon, and then south- east into the Connecticut at Hartford. It receives three large branches from the north, called the 1st branch, 2d branch and 3d branch. It receives the 1st and 2d in Royalton, and the 3d in Bethel. White river furnishes but- few good mill privileges. It is 55 miles long, and drains the waters from 6S0 square miles. This stream was known by the name of White river long before the country, in its neighborhood, was settled, and the name is supposed to have been given it, by the early hunters, on account of the clearness of its waters and the light color of its pebbles. Ompompoiioosuc Biver (i) — rises in Vershire, runs south-east through the corner of West Fairlee and through Thetford, and enters the Connecticut in Nor- wich. In Thetford it receives the waters of Fairlee lake. It is about 20 miles long and affords a number of good mill privileges. It waters 127 square miles. Waifs Biver (j) — rises in Harris' Gore and runs south- For what is it remarkable ? — how much does it water? — what its length ? What i said of Olta Quechee river? — its leni:th ? — its name ? Describe White river ?— its branches ? — its mill privileges ? — what its length ? — how much area drained by it ? — what is said of its name ? Describe Ompom- poaoosuc river ? — what area does it water ? What is said of Wail's river ? 3i PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. east through Orange, Topsham, and Corinth, and joins the Connecticut in Bradford. Its principal branches are North branch, South branch, and Jail branch. It is 20 miles long and furnishes several good mill privileges. It derives its name from Capt. Wait, belonging to Maj. Rogers' Rangers. It drains the waters from 106 square miles. JVells^ River (A-)— originates in Kettle pond in Groton, runs through Long pond and the corner of Ryegate, and falls into the Connecticut in the north-east corner of Newbury. It is 18 miles long, and affords some good mill privileges, particularly at Wells river village near its mouth. It waters 87 square miles. Passumpsic River (I) — has its origin in a pond in West- more, and, running very nearly south 34 miles, falls into Connecticut river in Barnet. Its two principal branches are Moose River, which rises in East Haven and joins it at St. Johnsbury, and Joe's Brook, which originates in Cole's pond in Walden, passes thro' Joe's pond in Cabot and Danville, and falls into the Passumpsic in Barnet. About 445 square miles are drained by this river, a large proportion of which is excellent land. The name is said to be derived from the Indian phrase, Bas-soom-suc, signifying the stream where there is much medicine. Nulhegan River (m) — is formed by two branches, one of which rises in Averill and the other in Avery's gore. They unite in Bloomfield, and after running a few miles, fall into the Connecticut near the south-east corner of that town. This river drains the waters from 120 square miles, and is about three rods wide at its mouth. Rivers which jiow into' Memphremagog Lake. The rivers which empty into Memphremagog lake' are three. Clyde, Barton and Black river. It s branrlies ?— its Irngili ?_its name ? Descrtbc VA'ells river ?— what area does it water ? Where does Passumpsic river rise ?— what ils course ? -—its leiio^th ? — its two principal branches ?— how much area drained by it? — what is said of its name? Whni is said of Nulhegan. river ? — how Much territory is drained by it ? How many and which rivers cmptv into memphreiTiagog laftc ? RIVERS AND STREAMS. 35 Clyde River {n) — has its source in Pitkin's and Knowl- ton's ponds in Brighton, runs north-west through Char- leston and Salem, and falls into Memphremagog lake in Derby. With the exception of three miles of rapids near its mouth, this is a very sluggish stream, passing through, in its course, several natural ponds of consid- erable size. The rapids and falls, near its mouth, fur- nish several very commodious mill seats. The length of this stream is about 25 miles, and it drains the water from about 146 square miles. Barton River (o) — originates in the fountains of Run- away pond on the north line of Greensborough, runs northerly through Glover, Barton and the corner of Irasburgh, and falls into Memphremagog lake in Cov- entry. In Barton it receives the waters of Barton pond, called also Belle Pond, or Crystal lake, and near the line of Irasburgh; the waters of Willoughby river, from a pond of the same name in Westmore. It is about 20 miles in length and waters about 160 square miles. Black River (p) — in Orleans county, is formed in Craftsbury, by the streams which issue from Elligoand Hosmer ponds, and, running north-east through Albany, Irasburgh; and Coventry, falls into Memphremagog lake in Newport. It is a sluggish stream, 30 miles long; and waters about 150 square miles. Rivers which Jlow into Lake Champlain. The rivers which empty into lake Champ] ai-n are eight, Missisco, Lamoille, Winooski. Laplott, Otter Creek, Hubbardton, Poultney and Pawlet. Missisco River (q) — is formed in Lowell, in Orleans county, runs north-easterly into Canada, thence south- westerly into Franklin county, and thence west and Where has Clrde river its source ?— what is said of it ?— its length ?— - how much does it drain ? Where does Barton river rise ? — what does it receive in its course ?--whcit its length ? — how much area does it water ? Where is Black river formed ?— what Is said of it ? How many and what are tJ-ie rivers which empty into lake Champlain ? Wh^re is Missisco rivef formed 7 ^ S6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY* north-west into Missisco bay. It is 75 miles long, and drains 580 square miles. It is navigable 6 miles from the lake, to Swanton falls. The falls in this river afford many excellent sites for mills, particularly the falls at Swanton and Highgate. Missisco is an Indian name, and is said, by some, to signify much grass, and, by others, many water-fowl, and has been spelled in print no less than twenty different ways.* Lamoille River (r) — formerly had its origin in a pond on the line between Glover and Greensborough, called Long pond. On the 6th of June, 1810, some persons cut a channel for the purpose of drawing off a part of the water towards the north, to give a greater supply Ito some mills on Barton river. The bank proved to be mostly a quicksand, and vfhen the water commenced running, it almost instantly opened a channel by which all the waters of the pond were discharged in a few moments, notwithstanding it v/as more than 100 feet deep. The place where the pond was, is now called Runaway pond, and is overgrown with grass and young trees. The road from Derby to Montpelier passes through it. Lamoille river is nov\' formed in Greens- borough, and, running nearly west 70 miles, falls into lake Champlain in Colchester. There are falls in this stream which afford good sites for mills, in most of the towns through which it passes. It receives 'vVild branch in Wolcott and Brown's river in Fairfax, the former rising in Eden and the latter in Underhill. From the niimber of gulls seen about the mouth of this river, the French, who first discovered it, called it the riviere la mouette. In Charlevoix's map of the country, the engra- * See Thompson's Vt., part iii, p. 117. What its course .' — its length ? — how many square miles does it cfrain? — how far navigable? — what is said of it-; falls ? — its name 7 Where did La- moille river have its origin? — what happened to this pond ?-^what is the place called where it was situated ? — what passes through it 7 — where is iliis river now formed 7 — what its length 7 — where does, U empty ?---what jjranches arc meiitioiiecl 7-"how did its name or'ginate T .RIVERS AND STREAMS. 37 ver omitted to cross the ts in lamouettc. making it la- moucUe. which afterwards became Lamoille^ a very eu- plioiiioiis name. Winoosld River, (s) or Onion River,— rises in Cabot, runs south-westerly to Montpelier, and thence north- westerly, and falls into lake Champlain between Bur- lington and Colchester. The principal tributaries to this river on the south side are Stevens' branch and Dog river in Berlin, Mad river in Moretow^n and Hun- tington river in Richmond, and on the north side. North branch in Montpelier and Waterbury river in Water- bury. There are several remarkable chasms cut through the rocks by this river, particularly in Middlesex, Water- bury and at the High Bridge betw^e.en Burlington and Colchester. The water power furnished by this stream is abundant, and, passing, for 40 miles, along the line of the Vermont Central railroad, it will doubtless soon be extensively used for manufacturing purposes. Wi- nooski river is 70 miles long and carries otf the w^aters from 970 square miles. The name, Winooski, is com- posed of two Indian words, winoos, leeks, or wild on- ions, and hi. land, signifying the land which produces wild onions ; so that Onion, the name by which this stream has been generally known, is merely a transla- tion of a part of the Indian name. Laplot JRirer (/')— rises in Hinesburgh and runs north- west into Shelburne bay. It is 15 miles long. There is a tradition that thi,s river derives its name from a plot by which the whites destroyed a party of hostile In- dians here in early times, but it is probably without much foundation. Otter Creek (u) — is formed in Dorset, within a few rods of the Battenkill, and running a little_^w^est of north Where does Winooski river rise .'—what its course ?— where di.^charge ?— what are its principal tributaries ?~what is said of its chasms ?— its water power 7— what distance does the Central rail-roail pass along this stream?— what the length o« this river?— how many square miles does it waier?— from what has it its name 1 De3crii)c Laplot river— what is said 0/ iit name ? Where is Ouer crcci formed .' 38 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. falls into lake Champlain in Ferrisburgh. It is naviga- ble as far up as Vergennes, 7 miles from its mouth. At Vergennes, Weybridge, Middlebury and Rutland are falls, which afford an abundance of available water power. Its principal branches on the east side are New- Haven liver in New-Haven. Middlebury river in Middle- bury, Leicester river in Leicester, Furnace brook in Pittsford, East creek in Rutland and Cold river and Mill river in Clarendon; and on the w^est side, Dead creek in Ferrisburgh, Lemonfair river in Weybridge, and Lit- tle West river in Rutland. It is 90 miles long, being the longest stream in the state, and waters 900 square miles. It was named by the French the river of otters, on account of the great number of otters inhabiting it in early times. Huhbardto7i River (r) — is a small stream, which rises in Sudbury, and, after running south-west about 20 miles, falls into Poultney river in West-Haven. Poultney River (w) — rises in Tinmouth, and in Fair Haven is joined by Castleton river, which rises in Pitts- ford. Poultney river forms the boundary of the state along the south line of Fair-Haven and West-Haven, and falls into lake Champlain near Whitehall. This river and its tributaries water 250 square miles. Pawlet River (.r) — rises in Dorset. In Pawlet it re- ceives the waters of Wells' pond, and, running north- west, enters Wood creek in the state of New York a short distance before its junction with lake Champlain at Whitehall. Rivers which flow into the Hudson River. The rivers in Vermont, which discharge their waters into Hudson river, are the Battenkill and Hoosic. What its course?— where empty ?— is it navigable .'—where arc falls?— what its principal branches on the east side? — on the west side? — what its length ? — what area does it water? — what is meant by area? — what is eaid of its name ? Describe Hiibbardton river. Where does Poultney river rise ? — what river joins it?— how many square miles does it water? What is said of Pawlet river ? What rivere from" Vermont empty into Hudson river.' j,_ LAKES AND RIVERS. 39 Battenhill (y) — is formed in Dorset, and runs a north- westerly course into Hudson river in the state of New York. It waters, in Vermont, about 225 square miles. Hoosic River {z) — is formed in Pownal, and after run- ning a few miles north-westerly into the state of New York, receives the waters of the Walloomscoik from Shaftsbury and Bennington, and then taking a south- western course falls into the Hudson a little below Still- water. The WaUoomscoik is formed in Woodford. On the banks of this stream, near the west line of Ben- nington, was fought the celebrated Bennington Battle. These streams water 180 square miles in Vermont. The letters in the parentheses, after the names of the rivers, refer to the maps. The number of rivers here described is 26, just equal to the number of letters in the alphabet. Only 25 of them, however, belong to Ver- mont. Lakes and Rivers. There are no large bodies of water which lie wholly in Vermont. More than half of lake Champlain, which lies along its western border, belongs to this state ; and also about one-third of lake Memphremagog, which lies on its northern boundary. Those smaller bodies of water, which lie within the state, deserve only the name of ponds, although several of them are called lakes. Most of these ponds and small lakes will be described in the account of the counties in which they are situated. Lake Champlain, (a) — reckoning from Whitehall to St. Johns in a right line, is 126 miles long from south to north. Its width from east to west is very unequal, va- rying from one-fourth of a mile to about 12 miles. Its average width is about 4^ miles, and it covers an area What is said of Battenkill? Where is Hoosic river formed? — which way does it run 7 — what stream does it receive ? What is said of tlie Wallooinscoik 1 — what happened on the banks of this stream 1 — how much of Vermont is watered by these streams'? To what do the letters in parentheses refer"?— how many rivers are de- scribed ?— do they all belong to Vermont ? Are there any large bodies of water iq Vermont? — how much of lake Champlain ? — of lake Memphremagog 1 — what name do other bodies of water deserve? What is the length of lake Champlain l—itB width?— average width l^arca 1 40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPIIT, of about 567 square miles, two-thirds of which belong to Vermont. This lake receives the waters drained from 4100 square miles of the territory of Vermont, which is very nearly one-half of the state. Its depth is, for the most part, sufficient for the navigation of the largest steam-boats, sloops, &c. It contains numerous islands, most of which belong to Vermont ; and several of these islands are sufficiently large to constitute townships. This lake was discovered in 1609, by Samuel Cham- plain, who gave to it his own name — Champlain. It has been said that Champlain was drowned in the waters of this lake ; but this is incorrect. He died of disease at Q,uebec, in 1635. The name, by which this lake was known to the Abo- naqui Indians, was Peta-ud-boucjue. signifying alternate land and water, in allusion to the numerous islands and points of land. The Iroquois Indians called it Cania- deri-Guarunle, or the door of the country, on account of its being the channel of communication between the Six Nations and the tribes of Indians along the river St. Lawrence. This lake discharges, through the river Sorel, or Riche- lieu, into tlie St. Lawrence in Canada. Memphremagog Lake (b) — is about 30 miles long from south to north, with an average width of nearly two miles. Only about one-third of this lake lies in Ver- mont; the other two-thirds in Canada. The interior position of this lake has hitherto prevented its being much used for purposes of navigation. It is crossed by a horse ferry-boat at Georgeville in Canada, and there are upon it some other small boats. This lake re- From how much territory in Vermont does this lake receive tlic waters? — what part of the whole state? — what is said of its depth '—its islands? — when and by wliom discovered and namod? — was he drowned in it ?— what was it called by ihe Abenaqui Indians ?— what does it signily ? — what did iho Iroffuois Indians call it ? — why?— which way does it discharge { "W^hat the length and width of Memphre. niaij'o;^ lake.'— how much of it in ^■ermom;— is it much used for purposes of uuvi- gatiou? CURIOSITIES. 41 Chives the waters of the Clyde, Barton and Black rivers in Vermont, and discharges its waters through what is called Magog Outlet, into the river St. Francis at Sher- broke, and through the St. Francis into lake St. Peter, an expansion of the St. Lawrence. Cl-rios(ties. These consist of waterfalls, chasms, caves &c. Falls. These are very numerous, but, the streams in which they abound, being all small, they cannot vie in sublimity with the cataracts of large rivers. The falls in Missico river at Troy and Highgate, in the Lamoille^ at Milton, [in the Winooski at Marshfield and Burling- ton, in Otter Creek at Vergennes and Rutland, and in Black river at Springfield, are among the most interes- ting. These will be mentioned more particularly here- after. CTia.'^ms. In many places in Vermont the streams have worn down channels in the rocks to the depth of 60 or 80 feet, and sometimes for a distance of half a mile. The most interesting chasms of this kind have been ex- cavated by Black river at Cavendish and Springfield, by Winooski river at Middlesex, Waterbury and Bur- lington, and by Lamoile river at Highgate. At Water- bury the undermined rocks have fallen across the river, forming a natural bridge when the water is low. Pot-Uoles. These are circular holes worn in the rocks which form the beds of streams where there are falls or rapids. They are worn by stones and pebbles which are kept in a circular motion by the current of the stream. These holes usually var}^ from six inches to two or three feet in diameter, and are often from six to ten feet deep. They are sometimes met with at a con- siderable distance from any running water. One such What rivers does it receive from Vermont? — which way does "it dischar-'e ' Of what do these curiosities consist ? What is paid of tho falls 1 Which atr) referred to'.' What is faiH of chasms? What chasms are nu'iilione-'l ? WJiat arc potholes? Hot\- formed ? What ilit ir size ? 42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. in Westford near a person's house, and at considerable distance from Brown's river and many feet above it, is used as a cistern for holding rain water. The stones, by which the holes are worn, are them- selves, for the most part, reduced to powder andjwashed away by the current ; but they are succeeded by others by which the process is continued ; and it is common to find in the bottom of these holes, stones which have been worn into a globular form. One of the most re- markable of these was found, while excavating for the railroad, in Hartford. It was in a pot-hole about 12 feet deep. It is a mass of very compact mica slate, whiclv has been rounded into an almost perfect sphere, meas- uring two and a half feet in diameter, and weighing half a ton. By the generosity of the Hon. Charles Paine]of Northfield, it has been deposited in the Univer- sity of Vermont. Caves. Caves are often met with in the limestone re- gions in this state, but they are not generally of very great extent. The most extensive which have been ex- plored are in Dorset. A very remarkable one is said to exist in Danby. One in Clarendon consists of two rooms, one 20 and the other 30 feet long. The caves ia Plymouth are among the most interesting in the state. The principal cave extends in one direction 100 feet and consists of seven different rooms. When first explored by the author of the work, in 1^18, the rooms were rich- ly ornamented with stalactites hanging like icicles from the rocks, some of which were hollow and nearly transparent, but they have long since been carried off by visitants.. Where sometimes found? What one is mentioned 1 What the form of the stones found in them 7 What is said of that found in Hartford? What is said of caves? — of the caves in Dorset? Danby? Clarendon? Plymouth? When were the Plymouth cavea first explored ? What did 'hey then contain ? CURIOSITIES. 43 Stalactites are carbonate of lime which is deposited from water as it evaporates, or slowly drops, from the underside of rocks in caverns. The deposit of carbon- ate of lime formed at the bottom of the cave where the drops fall, is called a stalagmite. Several curiosities of different kinds will be mention- ed in the articles on the geology of the state. II. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOLOGY. All the geological formations in Vermont belong either to a very recent, or a very remote, geological era. In the general series of formations, exhibited in the ta- ble on page 24 of the introduction, all are entirely want- ing in Vermont between the quaternaiy drift, and the Champlain group of the lower Silurian rocks. Now a knowledge of this simple fact is of veiy great practical value. Coal has never been found in work- able quantities, except in that group of rocks lying be- tween the new red and old red sandstone, called the carboniferous series. This series is entirely wanting in Vermont, and therefore there is nothing in our geo- logical formations to warrant the expenditure of a sin- gle dollar in search of coal. The same remark will apply to salt, that article never having been obtained from any of the geological formations found in Ver- mont. How are stalactites formed ?— stalagmite 1 What is said of the geological for- mations in Vermont ? What formations are entirely wanting? Why is a knowl- edge of this fact valuable ? What is the group of rocks called in which coal is foiuid .' Between what does it lie i What is said of salt ? PHYSICAL GEOCnAFIiY GEOLOGICAL of 1 VERMO.NT L'lKimplam Giciip. Tacoiiic Group Talcose Slate. Calcnrco-micn Slate. Granite. fiEOLOGY AND MIXER ALOLOGY OF VERMONT. 45 With our present knowledge of the geology of Ver- mont, (the geological survey of the state not being yet completed,) the formations may be con.sidered under the following divisions: rsoH. I. QcATERNARY. Superficial Deposits^ ^^'^l^y*"^- ^ * j Pleistocene, Sand and Clav, [ Drift. f Red Sand Rock. 1 Hudson River Shales. rn^ ^ ■ J Utica Slate f Laamplam group -^ rr. . I Trenton Liine?(one. 1^3 ' Isle la Molte liimestone. •T c« I '^ -2 1 Calciferous Sandston-e. j o ^ I Roohng Slate. I ^ m Taconic Slate. 1 rp • . 1 Sparrs' Limestone, i laconic system, < t.\ ■' • oi * ^ i ■ ' \ Magnesian Slates, . Stockbridge Limestone, •^Granular Quartz. ,'Clay Slate. Calcareo-mica Slate^ in. Pkimary System. Azoic Rocks, \ Mica Slate. Talcose Slate. ^Gneiss. f Granite. . IV. Unstr.mified Rocks, Ign<;ous Rocks, -^ Greenstone. f Porphyry. I. QUATERXARY IN VERMONT. 1. Soil is that outward portion of the earth's crust which supports vegetation. Its principal constituents are sand, clay, lime and vegetable mould. The three first are produced by the disintegration of rocks, coRi- posed of those several materials ; and hence the quality of soils depends much upon the nature of the rocks of the neighborhood. The best soils are found where ^\'llat does the quaternary in Vermont embrace.'' Wliat croups of Silurian J^^(•k.s have wo? What are the memhers of the Chaniphiin groiipi* — of the Tacon- j-c? What are tlo m nibers uf the primary system.' What other name have iha primary? Why/ What are our igneous rnck-s? What is soil.' — of what dues 14 «:i.>asifit. ? -how arc the iLreo iJr.^i produced? -where arc sails best? 46 GUATERNARY IN VERMONT. there is a due mixture of these three ingredients. Too great a proportion of sand renders a soil dry, light and sterile, and too much clay makes it wet, heavy and stiff. 2. Alhcviwn consists of materials which have been washed down by water. The flats along the margins of our rivers and streams, called meadows or inter- vales, are made up of alluvium ; that is, of sand, clay, gravel, and vegetable matter, which has been washed down from the higher lands and deposited in low places along the streams. 3. Pleistocene Sands and Clays are regularly stratified deposits of sand and clay along the eastern shore of lake Champlain aijd^ extending, in many places, several miles from the lake. The thickness' of this formation is, in some parts, about 20O feet, and the highest points of it are about 300 feet above the present level of the lake. In Addison county, and in the southern part of Chittenden county, the clay predominates in this for- mation ; while in the northern part of Chittenden county, and in Franklin county, the sand is most abundant, particularly at the surface. At the surface and at various depths in this forma- tion, are found large numbers of marine fossil shells. These are found embedded in the strata in the position in which they lived and died, with the two valves uni- ted and the epidermis entire; and all are such as cannot live in fresh water, and, some of them, such as are found only between high and low water mark on the sea shore ; and, moreover, they are the same kinds which are now most common on the sea coast of New England. Hence it is certain that these sands and clays were deposited from salt water at a very recent geological period, and that an arm of the ocean then occupied the V^hat effect has too much sand? — too much clay? From what is vegetable mould derived ' What is alluvium ? — what examples are given ? What are pleis- tocene sands and clays ? -what their thickness ? — how high above the lake ? — where does clay predominate ?— where sand ?— what are found in this lormalion ?— what is said of them ?— what doss this j)rove ? QUATERNARY IN VERMONT. 47 present valley of lake Champlain and the whole St. Lawrence valley as far westward as lal^e Erie. At that time all the land in the valley of lake Champlain which is not now more than 300 feet above the lake' must have been as low as the level of the ocean- and it has since been elevated about 400 feet above that level ; in consequence of which the salt water was dis- charged and its place supplied, in part only, by the fresh water of the lake. The fossils most common in this formation, are the following: Sanguinolaria fi/sca (TelTina groenlandica.) This species is very abundant in the banks, at places along the shore of the lake, and some localities have been observed several miles inland from the lake shore and about 200 feet above it. Saxacava rugosa. This species is quite common, but not so abun- dant as the preceding. This shell being thick and strong, is .often found in a very good state of preservation. Mya arenaria is the largest of the shells found here. They are less common than the preceding, but on some of ihe islands in ihe northern part of the lake, the number of individuals is very great, and they are often weW preserved. JVucula portlandica is found in the blue clay, but is not very cora- mon. JN'ofe. — For figures of the two first, see Chittenden county. Drift. Over almost the whole territory of Vermont resting upon the solid rocks and beneath the soil, alluv- ium and pleistocene sand and clay, we find a deposit of stones, pebbles, gravel, sand and clay, verj'- irregularly blended together, and with scarcely any signs of strati- fication. At some points, one of the above mentoined materials prevails to the exclusion of the others, form- ing a bed of sand, or of clay, or of gravel, but these are Jisually of small extent. In the drift generally the sand clay, gravel and pebbles are compactly bedded together forming what is usually called hard-pan. The drift is very unequal in depth, varying from a few What is said of the valley of lake Champlain? What are some of the most common fossils ' What do we find beneath the soil, alluvium and pleistocene, sand .and clay .' In what condition .' What is it then called .' What is its depth,' and iiow has it been aJTecied since dcposjtedi What is said of the drift material:-.: 4 4^^ pHYsrcAL GEOcnAPir inches to 100 feet and upwards. Its condition was con- siderably modified during the plei.stocene period by the action of the sea which then occupied tlie valley of lake C'hamplainj and by tlie streams which flowed into it. And since that period, water courses have been worn in it by exis^ting streams and much of it washed down by these streams in the form of alluvium. The stones, peb- bles and gravel found in the drift in Vermont, as is com- mon elsewhere, are, for the most part, different from the yocks on which the drift rests, but are of the same ma- terials, generally, as the rock formations known to exist to the northwestward of the places where the drift is deposited; and these materials are universally worn and rounded, as we find them in running streams, and on the^ .shores of lakes, and on account of being thus roun- ded, the larger stones of tlie drift formation are called boulders. In illustration of these matters, it may be remarked that boulders from the fossiliferous rocks found iu place, along the shores of lake Champlain, are often found, containing their peculiar fossils, resting upon the jinfossiliferous rocks far to the eastward, Boulder.s. from the lower members of the red sandrock along the lake shore, which is instantly recognized by any one acquainted with the formation, are found weighing several tons in Williston, Richmond and other towns-, resting on the talcose slate formation, and in one case» a boulder of this kind, of two or three tons weight, has been met with to the eastward of Camels' Hump, in Dux- bury. This boulder, was at least 20 miles from the near- est rock of the kind, in place, and about 700 feet above the level of the lake. In the eastern part of Craftsbury, in the western part of Korthfield, and in Stanstead in Canada, there exists of their forms ? ^Vha! are the larger stones relied ? Wli.nt is stated in illustra- tion .' \\l);it peculiar formation is iiu'iitioned m furtl e ■ illustralions : Whai is it railed.- U. Vvlnitdoilic bul!.-> coiif^i-tr What io e-.ii of the rocks under the i: ri it f Q.UATERNARY IN VERMONT. 49 a peculiar formation of granite, which has been found, inplace^ no where else. This granite contains balls, usually a little flattened, scattered in it like plums in a pudding. These balls are usually about an inch in di- ameter, and are compo.sed essentially, of hlack mica, having the plates arranged in concentric layers, with a very thin deposit of quartz between the layers. Now, boulders from this formation, weighing several hundred weight, are found in Waterford, Ryegate, and other towns in the eastern part of the county of Cale- donia, more than 30 miles from the ledges, from which they were derived. It is sometimes called Nodular granite. 5. Drift Scratches. The rocks upon which the drift materials lie, are every where found to have their sur- faces worn down and smoothed by some agency, and, in many places, to have numerous, and nearly parallel,, furrows, or scratches upon them ; and as these lie very nearly in the direction in which the drift materials have been transported, they are supposed to have been pro- duced by the same agency, and are therefore called drift scratches. The general directions of the drift scratches, and of the transportation of drift materials, is to a point a little east of south, but varies in different parts of the state, somewhat in conformity to the direc- tion of the valleys and the ranges of mountains. The smoothing and striation of the surfaces of rocks are most conspicuous when the earth is first removed from them. Exposure to the weather tends to oblite- rate them. These polished and striated surfaces are found in the lowest places, and on the highest moun- tains in the state. Mount Washington, in New-Hamp- shire, appears to be the only point in New-England, which was not reached by the agency which produced them. With regard to what this agency was, geologists Why are the furrows called drift scratches? — what their direction? — by what do they aiipear to be varied J— when most conspicuous .'—in what places fo und 1 5 60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. are not fully agreed. Some ascribe it to waves of translation, and some, to marine currents and icebergs, when this part of the world was mostly under water, and, others, to glaciers, when the country was more el- evated and colder than at pr&sent. The probability is that all these causes have been concerned in the pro- duction of these phenomena^ Local Deposits. Belonging to the quaternary divis- ion, there are three deposits which deserve notice. These are muck, shell-marl, and infusorial silica. 6. Muck is a deposit of partially decomposed veget- able matter. It consists of leaves and herbaceous plants, and decayed wood, collected in low wet places, and in the bottoms of shallow ponds. It is a valuable manure, but is much improved for sandy soils by a mixture of clay and lime, or shell marl. It is found more or less abundantly in all parts of the state* 7. Shell-Marl is a white substance, found in the bot- toms of many ponds, and bogs, and in low places for- merly occupied by ponds. It consists essentially of carbonate of lime, which has resulted from the partial decay and crumbling of innumerable freshwater shells, mixed with a small proportion of clay. At, and near, the surface of the beds, the shells are mostly entire, but are usually broken, and the particles finer in proportion to the depth. The species of shells are of the same kinds which are now living in our ponds. They belong mostly to the following genera ; Paludina, Limnaea, Planorbis and Cyclas. How produced? What, are mentioned as local depo;sits? \Miat is muck? Its use? — where found? What is shell marl? Where found ? Of what does it consist ? What is said of the sliells in it ? What genera ? dtlATERNAR? IN VERMONT. 51 (10) Paludina. Planorhis, Cyclas* Marl beds exist only in those parts of the state wher© limestone is found. They are most common and ex- tensive in the counties of Orange, Caledonia, Orleans and Grand-Isle. The most important beds will be no- ticed in the account of the several counties. Marl is an excellent manure for sandy soils, which are deficient in lime ; and mixed with muck, is probably the very best which can be applied to such lands. Burned like limestone, it makes a very good lime fos* mortar, or architectural purposes. S. Infusorial Silica is a white substance, resembling fine marl in appearance, and formed like marl in the bottoms of ponds, and in low places under muck. It consists of the flinty shields of animalcules, and has ac- cumulated from the decay of the successive races of these very minute beings in the same way that marl has, from the decay of the calcareous shells of fresh water molluscs. The most extensive deposit of infusorial silica, knowil in the state, is in Hosmer's pond in the south western corner of Peacham. This pond is surrounded by granite hills, and covers about 250 acres. The infusorial deposit averages about six inches in depth, and is thought to cover the bottom of about two-thirds of the pond. "When taken out and dried in lumps, it is a very good Where do these beds exist ? — where most common ? For what is it raluable ? What is infusorial silica 1 — of what does it consist ? — where is the most extensive cjpposit ?— what is said of the pond? — of the extent of the deposit I— how doesii 52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. substitute for chalk. When dried and pulverised, it re- sembles magnesia in appearance ; and hence the pond is sometimes called Chalk pond, and sometimes Magne- sia pond. There is another small deposite of infusorial silica, in Maidstone, in Essex county.. The shields of more than 20 distinct species of ani- macules are distinguished in these deposits, and they are some of them so very minute, that it would require more than five millions to cover a square inch. 9. Clay Stones. These are concretions which are formed in beds of clay, in various parts of the state. They exhibit an almost infinite variety of forms, and often appear as if turned in a lathe or skillfully carved by art, and hence they are every where regarded as ob- jects of curiosity. Their most common form is that of a flattened sphere, but various forms are often blended together in the most grotesque and fanciful manner. They are formed by the mutual attraction and adhesion of particles, wiiile the materials of the bed in which they are formed, are in a moist, plastic condition, and not by art, nor by running water, as many have supposed. All claystones contain a large proportion of carbo- nate of lime, usually about one half, and hence they are never found in clay beds which do not contain lime. The usual ingredients in claystones are lime, alumina, silica, iron, and magnesia. In many places, particularly in the pleistocene for- mation, the concretions contain a large proprortion of iron and assume a cylindrical form, with a small open- ing along the axis like a pith, having the concretionary layers arranged concentrically around it like the layers of wood in a tree. They often very much resemble the limbs, knots, and roots of trees, and hence many sup- appear when dry? — how many s>pecies of animalcules have been distinguished in it 7— how minute are some of" them 7 Wliat are clay stones ? — what is sa'id of their forms 7— what form most common 7 — how are they formed? — what do they con- tain 7— what the usual ingredients 7 What is said of concretions in the plei'stocen formations 7— what do they resemble 7— are clay stones commou 1 What is eaid of ClUATERNARY IN VERMONT. 53 pose them to be vegetable remains. One of the most interesting localities of this kind is near Appletree point. Localities of claystones are more or less common in all sections of the state. In a clay bed at Mallet's bay. in Colchester, they are often found, formed around and inclosing, wholly or in part, marine fossil shells. 10. Iron Ores. The brown oxide of iron, or brown hematite, is the most abundant and valuable iron ore found in the state. It is found in beds usually, asso- ciated with -and covered by the drift formation. These beds are most juimerous and extensive along the west- ern foot of the Green Mountains. The most valuable beds of this ore, which have 5^et been opened, are in Bennington, Pittsford, Chittenden, Brandon, Monkton and Colchester, on the west side of the mountains, and in PlymoQth on the cast side. Associated with this ore at several places, the oxide of manganese \ii found in large quantities, particularly at Bennington, Chittenden and Plymouth. From the two former places much of it has been sent to market. Manganese is used in the preparation of bleaching pow^der (cliloride of lime) and by glass makers to cor- rect the green tinge occasioned by the presence of iron. A certain proportion of it gives to glass a beautiful violet color, and a still larger proportion makes it black. Hence it i-s employed in pottery for violet and black glazings. Bog Iron Ore is found in low, wet places, in various parts of the state, at many of which it is now iiithe pro- cess of formation. Iron Sand is found at several places along the shore of lake Champlain, in considerable quantities, and it is found diffused in the sand and gravel over much of the western part of the state. At Clay point, in Colchester, through a space of several acres, the sand is strongly brown iron ore ? — how situated ? — \Yliere are beds most numerous 1 — where are the most important beds 7 — what is o/len associated with it? — where 1 — wliat its usei .Wbat is said of bog iron or^l— of iron sand 1— of ochre 7— of white clay?— fof .5* 54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHV. cemented together by hydrate of iron and manganese, to the depth of eight feet or more. Associated with brown iron ore, we usually find yel- Into ochre. Extensive beds of ochre are also found in parts of the state where no solid brown ore is known to exist. One of the largest of the deposits of ochre which has been opened in the state, is at Hydepark, in Lamoille county ; but the beds in Bennington have hithertoyield- ed the greatest quantity for market. 11. Pipe Clay. White Cloy, or Kaolin, is another kind of local deposit, which is found under circumstances veiy similar to those of the brown iron ore, and often asso- ciated v/ith it. The most valuable beds of this clay, which have yet been opened, are in Bennington and Monkton. It is found also in Dorset, Wallingford, Chit- tenden, and Brandon. This clay is very valuable for the manufacture of fire bricks, stone ware, and the finer kinds of pottery. The term Kaolin is now generally restricted to such clays as are known to have' been produced by the de- composition of feldspar. Beds of clay and sand, suitable for bricks and for coarse pottery, are found in almost every town. Common bricks and earthen ware derive their brown- ish red color from the presence of iron, which, in burn- inar, is converted into the red oxide of iron. II. SECONDARY IN VERMONT. Palceozoic — Lower Silurian, The secondary rocks in Vermont all belong to that lower division of fossiliferous rocks, which is known in geology under the name of transition or palcBozoic, and to that subdivision denominated loicer silurian. They what valuable 1 What is said of common clav 1 Why do bricks turn red in bum ing ? To what do the secondary of Vermont belong?— to what Bubdivisionl— in- SECONDARY IN VERMONT. 55 are embraced in two groups, the Champlain and the Taconic, SECTION I. CHAMPLAIN GROUP. The Champlain group consists of six members, viz: the Red Sandrock, Hudson River Shales, Utica Slate, Trenton Limestone, Isle la Motte Limestone, and Cal- ciferous Sandstone. Red Sandrock. The series of rocks which we com- prehend under this name, extends from north to south along nearly the whole length of lake Champlain. The^ western limit of this series, lies, for the most part, some little distance from the shore of the lake to the eastward; but from Shelburne to St. Albans bay, it forms much of the lake shore. This w^estern limit of the series is marked by a line of hills, which are usually steep and precipitous on the west side, having a gentle slope towards the east. Snake mountain, in Addison, Buck mountain, in Waltham, and the Sugar Loaf and Glebe hill, in Charlotte, are some of the most consider- able uplifts. Lonerock point, in Burlington, and Mal- let's Head, in Colchester, are in the same line of hills. This series of rocks has an average extent, from west to east, of about 5 or 6 miles, but varies considerably in different parts. The rocks all have an eastern dip, varying from 5*^ to 25°, and are succeeded on the east by the Taconic and Primary rocks. The rocks of this series differ very much in color and in their composition, or lithological character. The lower strata are, in many places, considerably calca- reous, that is, they contain considerable lime mixed with the siliceous sand. They are thick bedded, and, in some places, the stratification is so much obliterated as to give them the appearance of an igneous or un- stratified rock. The color of this portion is often gray, what groups are they embraced ? How many members in the Champlain group ? — what are they 1 What is the extent of the red sandrock I— its western limits ?— by what marked ?— what are the names of some of them 1 — what its width ? — the dip of the rocks T— do the rocks differ ? What is said of the lower strata 2— what of the 56 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. or variegated with different shades of reddish brown and yellowish white. Some of these strata are suffi- ciently calcareous to admit of being polished without much difficulty^ and make a very beautiful variegated marble. The middle portion of the red sandrock series is al- most entirely siliceous, and is, through a gre-at part of its extent, of a dark reddish brown color. It is the color of this portion which has given" name to the se- ries. Nor is this color uniform, nor, indeed, always present, even in the middle portion of the series. In some parts, the coloring matter seems to be almost, or entirely, wanting; and in places where the strata gen- erally are most highly colored, we sometimes find a single stratum of white quartz sandstone, . only a few inches thick, lying between tvro colored strata, and ex- tending through a considerable distance. An example of this may be seen in Willard's quarry, half a mile ^outh of the village of Burlington. The colored strata of this series furnish a very beau- tiful stone for foundations and underpinnings of build- ings, and, though somewhat refractory and difficult to w^ork, it is extensively, used /or those purposes in the villages in the western part of the state. The founda- tions of the greater part of the buildings in Burlington are of thisjiiaterial. Some of the strata of this series are so entirely sili- ceous and free from coloring m.atter as to be suitable for the manufacture of glass, and have been used to some extent for that purpose. Glass consists essentially of silica (quartz) and potash or soda. Other substances are used with these in the manufacture of the different kinds of glass, among which are oxide of lead, lime, and manganese. From the middle portion of the red-sandrock series middle portion ?— what of the colored strata 1 For what have some of the strata .been used 7 What docs glass consist of 1 What do the strata become in proce.ea- SECONDARY IN VERMONT. 57 the strata become more and more calcareous in pro- ceeding upward and eastward, and at length in many places pass into a very pure limestone. This limestone is generally of a bluish color, but in some places, as in the eastern part of Shelburne, its color is pure white. It makes excellent quicklime, which is extensively ma- nufactured and transported into the interior of the State, where there is no good limestone. Limestone consists of lime combined with carbonic acid. Quicldime is made by heating limestone in a kiln till the carbonic acid is separated fr )m it and driven off in the form of gas. The stone is then much lighter than before it was heated, and has a strong attraction for water. If water be poured upon it, the water is consolidated in the lime, heat is given off, and the lime- stone crumbles to pieces in the form of a white pow- der. This process is called slaking the lime. Portions of the limestone of this series may here- after be found suitable to be worked for marble. This limestone is found in greatest purity in the towns of Charlotte, Hinesburgh, Shelburne, Burlington and Col- chester. The red sandrock series in Vermont contains very fes^j fossils. Wave and ripple marks are very nume- rous and very distinct upon the strata in many places, and the marks of rain drops are also quite common. Impressions are also met with having much resem- blance to the foot-prints of animals, but have not yet been positively ascertained to be such. In several places in this formation there are layers made up of what have \}Qei\ called fucoides, but the forms are very indistinct. The wave and ripple marks, the impressions of rain drops, &c., were made in the sand of the beach, which ing upward? Wliat the color of limestone ? — what use is made of it?— of what does itconsisf? How is quick lime made? — what the eifect of putting water on quick lime ? — what becomes of the water? — what is this process called ? In what towns is this limestone purest? Are fossils common m this rock 7 What are numerous] — what impressions J UuJer what circumstances wero these works 58 PnTSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Was afterwards consolidated into rock without destroy- ing their form. Fucoides are so called from their supposed resem- blance to a genus of marine plants, or sea-weeds, call- ed /z^cz^*. In some of the stata in this formation in Highgate, which have the red color of the middle portion of the series, the fossils are quite numerous, but generally in a bad state of preservation. They consist for the most part of the central portions of the bucklers of trilobites. A few bivalve shells have been found at this locality, which appear to belong to the genus Atrypa. Trilobites are the remains of crustacean animals which are formed of three lobes. The name is from ires^ three, and lohus, lobe. Figure 11 exhibits their general form. Bi- valve shells are such as consist of two parts like the clam, oyster, &c. The minerals found in the red sandrock series ar& not very numerous. Red and brown oxide and sul- phuret of iron are not uncommon. The brown oxide is found in abundance in Colchester in contact with siliceous limestone and covered with drift. Hornstone, jasper and jaspery iron ore, quartz crystals, and cal- careous spar, are not uncommon in the siliceous lime- stone. Hudson River Shales. The rock lying next beneath the red sandrock series is called by this name, because it is so fally developed along Hudson River. In Ver- mont these shales occupy a narrow belt along the east side of Lake Champlain, forming in many places the bank of the lake. This is the case through almost the entire distance from Charlotte to Highgate, Juniper made'?— what la vers are mentioned? Why are fucoides so called? What is said of the fossils in this rock in Highgate 1 What are trilobites? What are bivalve shells ? Wliat minerals are foimd in the red sandrock ? What is said of the H\id- $on river shales ?— why so called?— what do they occupy in Vermont?— what ^ eECONiDARY iN VERMONT. 69 Island, most of the small islands east of Grand Isle and North Hero, and the township of Alburgh belong to this formation. In some places these shales have an even slaty struc- ture, but they are for the most part very much shiver- ed and contorted, and abound in seams of calcareous span Many portions of these shales consist of flatten* ed ovoid, or wedge-shaped masses, which readily sepa- rate from each other, and w^hich have a fine black glossy surface resembling coah This circumstance has led many to suppose that coal may be found in connexion with them, and in several places a considerable amount of labor has been expended in digging into them in the vain search for coal. These shales, though they may resemble in appearance some of the shales of the coal formation, are well known, by every geologist, to be- long to a much earlier geological period. The color of these shales is generally quite dark, and in many places a coal black, and the compact masses of it which are traversed in various directions by fine seams of white spar, are sometimes very beautifuL Calcareous spar, sulphuret of iron, and quartz crys- tals are common in these shales, and the strata are in many places crossed by dikes of greenstone and por- phyry. No fossils have been found in these shales in Ver- mont, but in some places they abound in concretions. Utica Slate. The Utica slate is a black shaly mass of rock lying beneath the Hudson River shales, and cropping out for the most part in Vermont to the west- ward of those shales. This formation occupies but a small extent of surface in this State, but is well expos- ed at numerous places along the shore of Lake Cham- plain to the southward of Burlington, and on many of eaid of their structure 1— why have they been thought to afTord mdications of coal ? —has coal been sought in them 7— will it be four^df What is the color of these ehalesi— by what arc they traversed?— what are common in tbemV- do they con- tain fossils J Whdi is Said of Utica slate ]~where well exposed ?— what is said of 60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the islands to the northward of that town. It is in some places compact and thick bedded, and in others breaks into regular jointed masses. It rapidly dis- integrates, or crumbles to pieces by exposure to the weather, assuming an ash-gray color. The line of junc- tion between the Hudson River shales and the Utica slate in Vermont is not easily traced, A considerable portion of it is covered by the waters of the lake.. The Utica slate, as well as the Hudson River shales, forms the basis of an excellent soil, and it is a valua- ble material for the construction of roads. It is of little value as a building stone. The fossils commonly met with (12) in the Utica slate in Vermont, are uj<4M4^^<^c^^ grajDtolitesandtrilobites. Fig.\2 ^^^^^^^^^^^^ is a common form of graptolite. GraptoJite. Trenton Limestone. — This rock occupies the place next below the Utica Slate, in the Champlain group. From the south end of the lake, it extends- along the east shore as far northward as Charlotte, showing itself in the up- lifts, at various places. It appears again in South Hero, and extends northward, through the western part of that township, and Grand Isle, and constitutes the southeastern and highest part of the Isle la Motte. It also caps some of the elevations near the Medicinal Spring, in Highgate. This formation, though of limited extent in Vermont, is remarkably well characterized, and in many places, is made up almost entirely of fossils. The kinds of fossils are very numerous in this forma- tion, and in many places, a large number of species are mingled together, while in other places, the rock con- sists almost entirely of shells, belonging to a single genus. This is particularly the case with much of the Trenton limestone, in South Hero. its .iunction with the Hu-lson river shales ?— what soil do these form 1— what fossils are common 1 What place does the Trenton limestone occupy ? — its extent 7 — is it well characteriz«d7— wtuit is said of its I'ossila?— in South Kerol What is tb« SECONDARY IJ? VERMONT. 6i The rock here, for a considerable extent, seems to be entirely made up of bivalve shells of the genus Orthis. This limestone stands fire very well, particu- larly, when the edges of the strata are exposed to it, and in early times, was used for fire-places, and hence it has acquired upon the islands, the local name of Jire stone. Fig. 13 IS a common form of Orthis. The limestone in South Hero, mentioned above, is of a grayish color, while the color of the Trenton limestone, generally, is quite dark, often nearly black. The Trenton limestone is conformable to the Utica slate, at their junctions, w^hich may be seen at numer- ous places along the lake shore. One of the most in- teresting of these junctions, is near the northwest cor- ner of Panton. This limestone is in some places sufficiently firm to serve as a building stone, but for the most part, the strata are too thin and shaly for that purpose. isle la Motte Limestone. Under this name are includ- ed all those rocks which have been described under the names of Chazy limestone, Birdseye limestone, and Isle la Motte marble. The Isle la Motte limestone lies lower in the series than the Trenton limestone, wiiich may be seen rest- ing directly upon it at many places along the east side of the lake; but it is more extensively exposed to view on the Isle la Motte than elsewhere in the State, and from this circumstance it has received its name. Portions of this lim.estone, lying next to the Trenton limestone, are perfectly black, having a finely granular and compact texture, and are susceptible of a high polish. They have been worked at several places for Black Marble^ but the quarry opened on the east side stone here called ?— its color ? What is said of its jimction with T'tica slate 1 Is it a!good building stone ? What are included under the name of Isle la Motte limc- Blone ?— how situated? Where largely exposed! What is said of portions of it 6 63 PHYSICAL GEOGHAPny. of the Isle la Motte furnishes a marble superior to any of the others. The black marble of the Isle la Motte occupies the same position in the series of rocks, and is very simi- lar to that worked at Glens Falls, but is thicker bedded and more perfectly compacted into one mass. The Isle la Motte limestone generally, and particu- larly that portion of it which has been called Chazy limestone, is distinguished by several large and con- spicuous fossils. The most remarkable of these are", the Columnaria, the Orthocera, and the Maclurea. (14) (15) (16) Columnar id. Orthocera. Maclurea. The columnar! a has been mistaken by some for petri- fied honeycomb, and the maclurea, for petrified snakes. Calciferous Sandstone. This is the lowest of the Cham- plain group of rocks found in Vermont, and there is but one other below it in the series, which is the Potts- dam sandstone. The Pottsdam sandstone exists ex- tensively on the west side of the lake at Keeseville, Birmingham, and other places, but none of it is found in Vermont ; and the calciferous sandstone is exposed very sparingly on the Vermont side of the lake, unless further observation shall prove, as some geologists have suspected, that our red sandrock series is the for what worked? — where best? What other black marble is mentioned? For what I'lissils is the Isle hi Motte limestone distinguished?— for what have they been mistaken 1 Which is the lowest of the Champfain group in Varmont .'—what other ja lower in the series 7— where found? Is the calcijerous sandetonc much exposed SECONDARY IN VERMONT. 63 calciferous sandstone. The calciferous sandstone is very variable in appearance, but is usually of a gray- ish color with sparkling grains of lime and embedded masses of calcareous spar. It is an impure limestone, usually containing, besides carbonate of lime, a mix- ture of quartz and argillaceous matter. The section below, (copied from the Second Annual Report of Prof. Adams on the Geolgy of Vermont, p. 163,) exhibits the order and position of the Champlain group as they are exposed by the uplift which forms Snake mountain in Addison county. (17) a. Red sandrock forming the the summit of the mountain. b. Debris from the Red ?and rock. e. Hudson River Shales. •/, ik d. Utica Slate. «. Trenton Limestone. /. Isle la Motfe Geological Section, Limestone, g. Caciferous Sand- stone. A. Clay. TACONIC SYSTEM IN VERMONT. Taconic System is the name which has been given to a series of rock formations, extending along the west side of the Green Mountains through the western part of Massachusetts, and Vermont. The name is- derived from a range of high lands lying along the west line of Massachusetts, and extending into Vermont, called the Taconic range. In Vermont this system^ occupies^^a large part of the counties of Bennington, Rutland and Addison. The true geological position of the Taconic rocks is not yet well settled among geologists. While some re- gard them as belonging to the primary strata, and oth- in Vermont'?— what is said of its appearance ?— what does it contain 1 What doea the sectK.n exlubu ]— explain it I To what is the name of Taonic system sivenf —from what IS the nam.- derived 7- what does the system occupy 'in Vermont? Wiat IS ettid of ui^ g^iologicul ivrm^iioaf What is sakl of the final report of tfe« 64 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ers, as members of the Champlain, which have been very much altered by heat, there are still others, who regard them as a distinct group of palaeozoic rocks, all of which are older than the oldest of the Champlain group. On account of this disagreement among geol- ogists, the publication of the final report of the geo- logical survey of Vermont is anticipated with much scientific interest, as likely to aid in settling the ques- tion. Commencing with the most western, or lowest of the series, we shall mention the different members in their order, proceeding eastward, all the rocks dipping in that direction. Taconic and Roojing Slates. These extend through the western part of Rutland county, and a part of Addison county. They are quarried at several places in Rut- land county, and furnish a very good material for roof- ing, and for the manufacture of writing slates, and slate pencils. Spariy Limestone. This rock also, in Vermont, is confined principally to the southwest part of Addison county and the northwest part of Rutland county. Its ground color is bluish, or diff"erent shades of gray, di- vided and checked by numerous seams of calcareous spar. Magnesian Slates. These slates lie to the eastward of the sparry limestone, and between it and the Stock- bridge limestone. They are most fully developed in the northwestern part of Bennington county and south- western part of Rutland county. The magnesian slates are usually of a light gray co- lor, and often of a greenish hue. They split into broad masses, the surfaces of which often have a pearly lustre and an oily feel. Veins and seams of white quartz are geological survey ? In what order are ilie Taconic rocks nieiiiioned ? Wliat is eaid ol' Taconic slates ?— where auarried? What do they furnish? Where ia sparry limestone found ? — what is said of its color ? Where do the macnesian slates lie.'— what their color?— how do they split ?— what veins in it?— from what dot* TACONIC SYSTEM IN VERMONT. 65 often abundant in this slate. It derives its name from having a considerable proportion of magnesia in its composition. Stockbridge Limestone. In an economical view this is far the most important member of the Taconic system, and one of the most valuable rock formations in the State, on account of the great abundance and variety, and the excellent quality of the marble which it furn- ishes. The color of this limestone is generally light, J)eing in some places clear v,iiite, but more commonly jdove-colored or variegated. Commencing at the south line of the State in Pownal^ this limestone forms a belt which extends northward through the counties of Bennington, Rutland and Ad- dison, as far as the town of Monkton. This belt is on an average about five miles wide, having the magne- sian slate on the west, and the quartz rock on the east. To the northward of Bennington county it occupies the valley of Otter Creek. Some of the most import- ant marble quarries in this range will be mentioned under the names of the counties in which they are sit- uated. The name of this limestone is derived from the town of Stockbridge, Mass., which lies in the range as it ex- tends southward through that State. Along the eastern margin of the Stockbridge lime- stone are found the extensive beds of brown iron ore mentioned on page 53. Though usually detached and mixed with drift materials, there are strong reasons for thinking that they have their origin in this lime- stone. Granular Quartz Bock. This rock forms a belt or range extending from the south line of the State to the northern part of Addison county, and lying between It derive Us* name ? What is saiil ef the value of the Stockbridge limestone ?— what docs It lorm ?— how wide is it ?— what bound it ?— what does it occupy north of Bennington ?— from what is its name derived ?— what is found alon^ its eastern margin?— what is ihere^strong reason for thinking ? What is eaid of the rfuartz 6* i Co rnTsicAL geographt. the Stockbridge limestone and the primary rocks of the Green Mountains. This range is quite irregular, and in some places is not readily traced. It is very barren in minerals, containing only occasional crystals of sul- phuret of iron and schorl. The Taconic rocks in general contain few minerals, Fossils are supposed to have been found in some of them ; but, if so, they are certainly of very rare occur^ ence, and in a very imperfect state of preservation, These rocks generally have a steep eastern or souths eastern dip. Further observation may possibly prove that a por- tion of the slates in the counties of Chittenden and Franklin, which we for the present include in the tal- cose slate formation of the primary, belongs to the Ta- conic system. III. PKIMARY SYSTEM IN VERMONT. The jn-imarij system embraces all the stratified rocks, which are older than the transition or palaeozoic rocks. Ill these rocks, no fossils are found. Tliey consist prin- cipally of gneiss, and several vai-ieties of scliists or slates. The primary system in Vermont, occupies nearly three-fourths of tlie surface of the state. From the Champlain and Taconic series, eastward to Connecti- cut river, it embraces all the territory, with the excep- tion of several censiderable patches of granite and ser- pentine. The primary system in Vermont maybe considered under two general divisions, or as two great geologi- cal formations of nearly equal extent. The line divi- ding these, commences in the south line of the state, ]-ock? — does it contain many minerals? — wliat is said of the Taconic rock in gene- ]-al ?— vvhnt is said of their fossils .'—of their dip ? Wliat may further observation li(\i; Wii.tt ilocs tlip priiunrv rv«'.em emhiace ? Are the rocks fossjlifeioii? ?. PaiMA&Y SYSTEM IN VERMONT. 67 in the town of Halifax, and runs nearly north, through New-fane. Bridgwater, Ludlow, Bethel andNorthfield, to Montpelier village, and thence a little east of north thro' Calais, Craftsbury, and Irasburgh. to Memphremagog lake. This line is easily ti^aced through almost the en- tire distance from the southern boundary of the state, to Canada. All the primary rocks to the westward of this line, are embraced under the general name of the TaJcose slate formation, and all to the eastward, under the name of the CaJcareo-mica slate formation. These names are descriptive only, as indicating the prevailing rocks of each formation. SECTION I. TALCOSE SLATE FORMATION. This division of the primary, embracing the e-ntiro range of the Green Mountains in Vermont, averages about 14 miles in width, from the line of Massachu- setts, up to the south line of Washington county, and from the latter, to the north line of the state, its average width is about 30 miles. That tract, which we have in- cluded in this formation, and which lies west of the Green Mountains, in the north part of the state, may hereafter be found to be. in whole, or in part, the mag- nesian slate, of the Taccnic system; but for the present we include it in the talcose slate formation. Adjacent to the Champlain group, in the counties of Chittenden and Franklin, the strata of this formation have an easterly dip from 3 P to 60^, andthe rock con- sists principally of a shaly quartz. In proceeding east- ward, the dip gradually increases, and the rock exhib- its niore of the characteristic of talcose slate, which ia \VTiat is meant by fossil and fosgiliferous ? Of what do the primary consist ? How nnichof VoriTKHit does the p imary occupy .? Wliat are its limits? IIow may it he consi(lere(7 What line divides the two ? Is it easily traced ? What name is given to tli-c primary west of this line ? What to the east i What do these names indicate ? What does the talcose slate formation embrace .' What is its width ? what is said of that part of it v/est of the Green Mountains 1 Wliat is said of the stra^^Tia Ijacent to the Champ-ain groiv;^ ? Want of them in proc eed-' 68 PHYSICiiL GEOGRAPHY. an oily feel. In some places it has a greenish or chlo- ritic hue, and is so compact and thick bedded as to make a tolerable building stone. This is the case in Jericho and Westford. In some places the rock is a conglomerate, that is, formed of rounded pebbles of different sizes cemented together. Near the western foot of the Green Mountains, the dip of the strata becomes vertical, forming a synclinal axis. The line of this axis, passes through Berkshire, Enosburgh, Bakersfield, Cambridge, Underhill and Jer- icho. To the eastward of this line, the dip continues nearly vertical for several miles, being sometimes to the west, and at others to the east, forming a success^ ion of synclinal and anticlinal axes. The dip then be- comes uniformly west and continues so through the eastern part of the formation. The slate of this form.ation varies very much in its appearance and composition. In several places it is very well characterized clay slate, as in Berkshire and Enosburgh. Along the west foot of the mountains is a narrow range of plumbaginous slate. It appears in Richford, Cambridge, Jericho and Huntington. In Cambridge it is used for marking as a substitute foF black lead. The rocks, which form the highest summits of the Green Mountain range, are of a coarse and often gran^ ular texture. In some places they would be called taU cose slate, in others, mica slate, but a large proportion of it is in thick masses resembling gneiss, and it has been proposed to give to the whole, the name of Green Mountain gneiss. Much of the slate along the east slope of the mountains in the north part of the state, has a nET eastward! What of it in diflerem places ? Of what do conglomerates con- sist ? Where does the dip become vertical? What does it forml Through what towns'? What is said of the dip to the eastward of this line? What of it in the eastern parts of the Talcose formation ? Is tlie slate of this formation vari- 1 ihle 1 What examples ? What is said of the rocks which form the highest part* uJ the Green MoMntaiue ? What general name has been projioeed for theee f TALCOSE SLATE FORMATION. 69 greenish tinge, and might properly be called chlorite slate. Embraced in the talcose slate formation, is a narrow range oi^ steatite, extending from north to south, through the whole length of the state, showing itself at short intervals. The line of this range passes through Troy, Eden, Stow, Moretown. Roxbury, Bethel, Bridgewater, Windham and Marlborough. Steatite is also found in Richford, Belvidere and Waterville. In connexion with the steatite are immense beds of serpentine. This is particularly the case in Troy, Low- ell, Waterville, Roxbury and Ludlow. The serpentine at several of these places, makes a beautiful variegated marble. The serpentine shows little or no signs of stratification, and has been generally regarded as an igneous rock, or one which has been melted by heat. Throughout almost the whole extent of this forma- tion, there is a very great deficiency of lime. To the northward of Plymouth, in Windsor county, there can hardly be said to be any which is of any practical im- portance. There are small beds of limeston, in Stock- bridge, Moretown, Johnson, Waterville, Bakersfield and Richford, but none of these exceed a very few feet in extent, duicklime has been manufactured from that in Johnson, but it is not of the best quality. At Ply- mouth, the limestone is abundant, and is extensively burned into lime, which is of good quality. Iron ore, is found in this formation in numerous pla- ces. The most important localities, are Fairfield, Shel- don, Berkshire, Richford, Jay, Troy, Elmore, and Ply- mouth. The ore in Fairfield, Sheldon and Berkshire, is the red hematite, and probably all belongs to the same vein. The ore in Jay, is chromic iron, which is found What is said of the slate of the east slope 1 What range of steatite is mentioned ? Tlirough what towns ? Where is Pieatite found out of this line 1 What is found in connexion with the steatite ? Where? What is said of it ? Is it stratified 1 Is lime common? Is there any north of Plymouth 1 At what place ? What is »aid of them ? Has lime been burned at any of them 1 What is said of Plymouth ? Ja iron ore found 1 What localities are mentioned 1 What is said of the thre« 70 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHT. in large veins, and is easily quarried. It is from this ore, that the chromic acid is obtained for manufacturing the chromate of lead, which is that beautiful paint known by the name of chrome yellow. It is also, used for the green colors on porcelain, and is employed in some of the processes of calico printing. The iron ore in Troy, is mostly the titaniferous mag- netic oxide. It is very abundant, in an irregular rein in serpentine rock. Works have been erected, and large quantities of this ore have been worked,but it has been found so difficult to work, that it has not hitherto yielded any profit to the proprietors. The iron ore in Plymouth is very abundant, and is principally the brown hematite. It is situated near the junction of limestone and quartz rock, and beneath drift ; a condition very similar to that of the brown iron ore mentioned in the account of the Taconic system, and it is not improbable that there is a tract here which belongs to the Taconic system. Lead ore, (galena), is fou^d in Morristown in a seam in the talcose slate, and particles of gold hare been found in this formation in the lower part of Windham county. The sulphuret of copper is found in seams of this slate in Waterbury and on Sterling mountain. The principal minerals in this formation are talc, ac- tynolite and bitter spar in connexion with the steatite, asbestus and amianthus in connexion with the serpen- tine, octcedral crystals of iron in the Green Mountain gneiss, and epidote. The latter is particularly abund- ant in the rocks in Berkshire. Very large and remark- ably fine specimens of rock crystal are obtained in Waterbury and Middlesex, and chlorite and acicular crystals of schorl are found in numerous places. first? — of .Ifiy ? What is obtained from ihi«ore? What irs U!?es ? What is paid of tha ore »t.Iay ? Has it been worked to advantage? VVhat is said of the I'iy- tnouih iroii ore! — what is the inffrcnca? Where i« lead found?— gold? — tha aul- i'huret oi" copper? — Wiai minerala are fouud in coiiiicsioD witJi the ewrJii^f-^ PRIMARY SYSTEM m VERMONT. 71 Rock crystal is usually in the form of a six-sided prism, truncated or cut off to a point, at the end. It re- sembles cut glass, and is often erroneously called dia- mond. SECTION II. • Calcareo-mica Slate Formation. This formation em- braces the whole of that part of the State lying to the eastward of the talcose s-late formation, with the excep- tion of a few tracts of granite. It is called the calcareo- mica slate on account of its consisting, to a great ex- tent, of impure limestone and mica slate interstratified, calcareo signifying limy. The principal members of this formation are clay slate, mica slate, and strata and beds of siliceous lime- stone. There is a range of clay slate, frequently alter- nating with calcareous strata, along the west side of this formation, and adjacent to the talcose slate. It is largely developed in Randolph, Brookfield, Berlin, Ca- lais, and Coventry. In Berlin a very good slate for roofing has been obtained from it. In the southeast corner of the State, through the towns of Guilford, Brat- tleborough and Dummerston, there is a range of clay slate, which furnishes very excellent roofing slate, and in which quarries have been worked, for that purpose, for many years. Clay slate also occurs in the eastern part of Orange county, and in Caledonia county, along the Connecticut and Passumpsic rivers, and in nume- rous other places. The mica slate of this section is not in general very well characterized. Indeed, the slate generally seems to be a compound of clay slate, mica slate, hornblende slate, talcose slate and quartz slate. At some places one of these predominates, and, at others, another pre- dominates. There are some tracts in Windham county and the lower part of Windsor county, where the mica with eerp«ntine .^— with the Green Mountain gneiss?— Where does epidote abound 1 — jock ci) sial ?- schorl I— what is the form of rock crystal l—whai does it rescm- 72 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. slate is^tolerably pure, and also in the northeastern part of the State, but in general it contains a large propor- tion of clay or argillite. In the western part of Caledonia county hornblende prevails, giving the rocks the character of hornblende slate. In the southern part of Essex county they as- sume the character of talcose or chlorite slate, and in the northwest part of that county they are a siliceous or quartz slate. The limestone of this formation every where con- tains a large proportion of sand. It has been burned for lime in several places, but is no where sufficiently pure to make good quicklime. It is useful in agricul- ture, to be applied to soils which are deficient in lime. But the lime from the beds of shell marl, which abound in this formation, is preferable to that made from the stone for all purposes. The blue siliceous limestone of this formation is readily recognized, where it has been exposed to the weather by its rotten and rusty surface. This rotten coating is a loose siliceous sand, from which the lime, which cemented it together, has been washed out. Be- yond the influence of the weather it will be found to be solid and compact. In some places, as at Hardwick and Berlin, this limestone is regularly arranged in parallel strata, showing very distinctly the planes of deposit ; but it more commonly occurs in irregular beds of unequal thickness in the diff"erent varieties of slates. The water of the wells and springs in the calcareo mica slate region, is generally hard. This is in conse- quence of the ease with which the limestone is dissol- ved by exposure to air and moisture, thus impregna- ting the water generally with lime. In this, we see the reason why marl beds are common on the formation, ble ? — what is it commonly called? — What is said of the western part of Caledonia county ? — What in the south part of Essex county ? — in the northwest part ? — What 16 said of the limestone of ihis formation] — does it make good quicklime ? — is it of any use]— wuai is preferable fuit]— how is this limestone recognized f— what PRIMARY ROCKS IN VERMONT. 73 While there are none on the talcose slate formation, where the waters contain little or no lime. The marl beds consist of the shells of molluscs, which have lived and died in the water, which occupied the places, where the beds are deposited. These shells are carbonate of lime, which the animals secreted from the water. Hence, it is plain that the water must be impregnated with lime, or these animals cannot live in it; and that, where the waters do not contain lime, beds of shell marl cannot be formed. There are several mineral springs in this formation, all of which derive their medicinal properties from the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. The springs at Newbury, Tunbridge, Williamstown, Hardwick and Brunswick, have all been places of resort for invalids. The principal metalic ores found in this formation, are sulphuret of iron, and sulphuret of copper, or iron and copper pyrites, and sulphuret of lead, called also ga- lena. Iron and copper pyrites are associated together,' and exist in abundance at Strafford, Corinth and Brigh- ton. From the iron pyrites at Strafford, most of the copperas used in the northern states, is manufactured. The small yellow cubes found in the slate, in many places, and which are often mistaken for gold, are iron pyrites, or sulphuret of iron. The richest veins of copper pyrites, are found in Corinth, and lead ore, con- taining a small proportion of silver, is found in Thet- ford. The most common minerals in this formation, are the different varieties of tourmaline and garnet The black tourmaline, or schorl, is found in very large crystals, which, when broken, have been mistaken, by persons is the coating?— how is it below the coating ?— is it stratified ?— how does it gen«- rally occur? What is said of tho water of this formation ? What refe'-ence haa this to the marl beds ! What do these beds consist of? Of what do the shells consist 7 What is the inference 1 Are there any mineral springs 1 What do they contain 1 What springs are mentioned ? What ores in this lorrnation ! Whera arc uou and coopper pyrites found together in abundance.-' What is said of cot>. peras i ol the yellow cub«» fauud in ilats I 7 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ignorant of minerology, for anthracite coal. Very large crystals of this kind, are found in Bridge water, Thet- ford, and other places. In the siliceous limestone, in the western part of Cal- edonia county, are radiated or stellor crystals of black hornblende, which are often very beautiful. Rock crys- tal, actynolite, kyanite and numerous other minerals, are found in different parts of the formation^ IGNEOUS ROCKS IN VERMONT. The only igneous unstratified rock in Vermont, which occupies any considerable extent of territoiy, is granite; and the granite is all confined, to that division of the primary, which is embraced under the name of the cal- careo-mica slate formation. It appears to have been forced up from beneath, through the primary strata, in ranges, which are, for the most part, very narrow fi-om east to west, but often extending many miles from north to south, in the direction of the strike of the strata. This is particularly noticeable in the eastern part of Orleans and Washington countieSj and in the western part of Caledonia county. The most extensive tracts of granite are in Essex county and in the south-western corner of Caledonia county, and the adjacent parts of the adjoining counties. It was from the north-western part of this last tract, in the town of Barre, that the granite for the state house was procured. Towards the south-eastern part of the state, there are some isolated patches of granite, but they are all small. In many places, the granite is seen traversing the other rocks, in the form of dikes, veins, and seams This is particularly observable in Marshfieldj and this What is the principal igneous rock ? lo wliat is it confined ? How d'^>ei it ap- pearto have cnginattd? 'What is Paid of the ranges? Where js '.his ncticaat-e? Where are the mcyt extensive tracts of granne? Is there anr lu the south ea^ pa.rt of the siatt ? In what .forifjs i? i! foi^nd b othei" locksi What does ih)s IGNEOUS ROCKS IN VERMONT. 10 fact, together with the fact that fragments of slate are found embedded in granite, makes it certain that the granite has been in a melted state since the formation of the slate. Granite boulders are found scattered over all the north-eastern part of the state, some of which are of very great size. From a single boulder, in Greensbo- rough, the material for a good sized stone house, inclu- ding the walls of the cellar, were obtained without using it all up. Another boulder, in this town, is 41 feet long and 22 high, and is calculated to weigh 1200 tons. About half a mile from the latter, there are two other boul- ders, which are about 80 feet apart, and both are so nicely balanced upon other rocks as to be easily moved by the hand, and hence they have acquired the name of rocking stones. Their relative situations will appear from the cut. They are (IS) both considerably eleva- ted above the surround- ing country. The most elevated is 9 feet high and twelve feet long, weighing about 80 tons, and the other 8 feet high and 11 long, weighing about 50 tons. Fig. IS will afford some idea of the position of these stones. The granite contains very few minerals, execepting those which enter into its composition. In Cabot, near Joe's pond, feldspar is found in large wedge-shaped masses, and in Craftsbury the granite contains flatten- ed balls, which are made up of concentric layers of mica. Thise are about an inch in diameter, and are scattered in granite like plums in a pudding. The name of nodnlar granite has been given to the rock. It has been found in place only in Craftsbuiy and Northfield, f)roTe ? What is said of granite boulders "? What was tnade from one in Green^- ^oronjh? How large is another? D.^^rribe the rocking srono?j ? H'W large are the^' f Does crranite contain many min-^rai?! ? What is"paid of Jae's ^^^n^.j in Ca- l>'/; VVha'. is in *iie granite of CWtsbur/? How larg*? What namo if jirsi^ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. and in Stanstead, Canada. These places lie in the di- rection of the strike of the stratified rocks. Large boul- ders, which were doubtless transported from this range, are found scattered towards the south-east, as far as the eastern part of Caledonia county. Greenstone and Porphyry, the other igneous rocks in the table, are found only in dikes in Vermont. Greenstone dikes are found in all the different forma- tions, but are not equally common in all. In the Ta- conic rocks, and in the talcose slate formation, they are exceedingly rare. They are found, but quite sparingly, in all parts of the calcareo-mica slate formation, but they are far most common in the Champlain rocks, par- ticularly in the neighborhood of Burlington. The most common width of the greenstone, or trap dikes, is from 4 inches to 5 feet wide. The greatest num- ber of them are about 2 feet. The greater part of them cross the stratified rocks nearly at right angles with the strike of the rocks, and descend nearly perpendicu- lar into the rock. In some places, they may be traced for several miles in nearly a straight course across the edges of the strata, but they sometimes terminate sud- denly, and commence anew at some little distance to the right or left, and then proceed onward again in the same direction as before. Such an occurrence is called 'A fault in the dike. (19) Fig. 19, represents a dike 10 inches -J wide in the slate, on the lake shore at Clay Pt., Colchester. The fault is an offset of about three feet. Th(? highest part of the rocks, above the - outcrop of slate is sand. % .-^M to the granite ? Where found in place ? Where are boulders found \ What is B.iid of greenstone and porphyry ? Where are greenstone dikes found ? Wher» are they rare? Where sparingly found? Where most common? What is said of their width? How? How do they cross the strata? Wiiat is said of their course ? What is meant by a fault in a dike ' What is repre^enisd in the figures 1 IGNEOUS ROCK.'^ IN VERMONT. 77 At Hubbell's falls, in the town of Essex, there are two faults in the same dike. In some places these dikes liave a concretionary structure, and by exposure to the weather come to pieces in the form of balls. In other l)laces, the greenstone is filled with whitish crystals, and is said, to be arnygdaloidal. One of the most in- teresting of this kind is on a small island in lake Cham- j.lain. a little north of Colchester point. Signs of co- iuninar structure vn'c seen in some few of the dikes. The Porpkifri; dikes are mostly confined to the south- Y\-estern part of Chittenden county. Like the green- stone dikes, their general course is from west to east, but tlicy are much more irregular in their direction and width. In some i)!ac-es they are forced up tlirough the slate, in large rounded masses. Their color varies from dark chockolate brown to a light cream color. In some the embedded chrystals are very numerous ; in others, rare. In several, no crystals are seen. These are more j)roperiy cn.\\ed feldspalkic dikes. One of the most interesting places for examining C)f these dikes, is at Nash's point, in Shelburne, where the means are afforded for determhiing the relative ages the greenstone and porplijny dikes. There, tv.o greenstone dikes have been jilainly cut off by a mass of porpliyry flov/ing laterally between the layers of slate, thus jiro- ving that the porphry is more recent than the green- svone. Fig. 20, represents this. It will be seen by the figure tJiat there is a fault in one of the greenstone dikes. Th^ more recent origin of the por- phyry is also infered from the general fact that the porphyry is frequently found to have What occurs ii) E>sex 7 What is said of structure of some of these dikes? When ore they said to be amygdaloidal ? To what par^ arc porphyry dik«s confined? XV'hat is said of ihoir cuirse ? Are they as regular as the srreenstone dikres ! Wh< I i.- their color ' What is said of their "crvstalBl What are iho.so called wi:hcb. rt^stals'? What locality is mentioned? i)e.cribeu? What dues it prove? \»haj general fact i.? m?ntionod a: provins the samJ .' 7S piirgicAL geography. flowed literally between the strata of the rocks, while the greenstone is never found to have done so, proving that the latter Vr^as formed under a much grea^ ter pressure than the former. III. CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY. 1. Climate is from a Greek word, which signiiieSj t^ incline. It originally had reference to the inclination of the earth's axis to the horizon, which occasions the inequalities of day and night. The ancient geogra- phers divided the space between the equator and the poles into 30 parts, which they called climates, and the limits of these spaces was determined by the lengths of the longest days. Climate, in this sense, belongs strictly to matliematical geography. Climate, in its present ordinary acceptation, has re- ference to the condition and various modifications of the atmosphere. In this sense, its meaning is very nearly the same as that of meteorology, which embraces the various phenomena which have their origin in the atmosphere. The term, vieteor, is more commonly ap- plied to those lights, which appear and disappear sud- denly in the heavens, such as fireballs, shooting stars, the rainbow, and the aurora borealis ; but, in its general acceptation, it embraces winds, clouds, rain, hail, snow, and, indeed, every kind of atmospheric phenomenon. Phenomenon is a term used to denote some unusual natural appearance, or appearance, the cause of which is not immediately obvious. Phenomena, the plural, is From what \a the word chmate derived ? To what did it orij^inally refer t TTjion v.-hat (hd th« liniita of cliaiiiate?i dopend ? How many were there ? Wha? is the present accspiation of the term ? What is embraced in meterok)gy ? What the most couimob applicatioa of the term ineleor ? What is its ujenera! sense ? VVhat !s uieant by pheaooienoa f— rhenomcna) In what Zone ja Vi. ? In what CLIMATE AND METEROLOGY. 79 used when more than one such appearance is spoken of at the same time. 2. Temperature. Vermont, though situated in the mid- dle of the north temperate zone, is subject to very con- siderable extrem-es, both of heat and cold, and the changes of temperature are often very sudden. The usual annual range of the thermometer, in this state, in the shade, is from about 92° above to 22° below the zero of Fahrenheit's scale. It is sometimes known to rise as high as 100°, and at other times to sink as low as 36°, or even 40°, below zero. For some time after the settlement of Vermont, the thermometer was hardly known in this part of the coun- try; and since that instrument has become common, very few meteorological journals have been kept, and :$hose few haye not, in general, been kept with sufficient Care to render them of much value ; nor have they been preserved in a condition to be accessible to those who may wish to consult them. Hence we possess few ac- curate data, either for determining the relative mean temperature of the different sections of the state, or the question with regard to a change of climate, corres- ponding with the clearing and cultivation of the coun- The following table contains the mean results of ob- servations of temperature continued at each of the pla- ces named through 13 years, and as the notes were made at the same hours of the day at each place, viz : sunrise Ih. P. M. and 9 P. M., the results probably exhibit pretty accurately, the difference of mean temperature between the central mountainous parts of the state and the low- er parts of the valley of lake Champlain. By this table it appears that the mean temperature of Burlington, is S^"^ warmer than that of Williamstown. The height of the place where the observations were made, in Wil- part .'' What is said of the changes of temperature ? What the usual range of the thermometer ? Wiiat the exti-eme ? What is said of meterologicul observa- ions in Vt. What is the consequence 1 From what observations were the results in the table obtained ? What do they exhibit 1 How much warmer is Burlington than Williamstown 1 How much highest is thelatter ? In what way may the main so PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. llamstowii, above the sea, exceeds that of Burlina'ton about 1000 feet. Williamsiown. Burlington. 1 WiUianistown'Burlington. January, 15 5° 19 4" July, 63.5^ 69,1° February. 157 20 5 An oust. 61.3 68.6 March, 25 5 30 6 Septem. 52.9 59,7 April, 3S.2 43,2 October. 418 469 May, 50.3 551 Novem. 301 35 8 June, 59,5 64 5 Decern. 18.S 23 9 39,4 44 8 The mean annual temperature of a neighborhood, maybe ascertained very nearly from the temperature of deep wells, and perrennial springs. The the tempe- rature of the weils in Burlington, indicates a mean aur- nual temperature of 45°, differing veiy little from the result of the daily observations, as shown in tlie table. In penetrating into the earth, it is found, that for a certain distance downward, the temperature varies with the season; but on reaching a certain point, the tempe- rature is then found to be uniform through the ye^ir, agreeing vith the mean Annual temperature of the sur- fnco. This pc-rint is usually nt about the depth at vrliich the sjiriiigs are formed, which sui)i)ly our wells, and v.hicli issue from the earth; and hence, the tem!)e- rature of their vraters, affords a neai' approximation to the mean temperature of the climate. Below the point of uniform temperature, the heat in- creases in descending, la the abortive attempt to ob- tain salt by boring into the rocks at Montpelier, this fact was fully coroborated. The boring was extended downward about 800 feet, and. at that'depth, the tem- perature was found to be some degrees warmer, than at the depth of 50 feet. The increase of heat is greater in some places, than in others, but by observations made in dee]) mines, in different parts of the world, it has been found that the averasre rate of increase, is about one degree of Fah- ■yVhat is .vaid of the tempprafure of a certain pom:? — ot the springs wliicli originate CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY. 81 renheits thermometer, for every 50 feet. Supposing this rate of increase to continue, at the distance of 60miies, the heat would be such as to melt all the earthy mate- rials, and render them fluid. 3. Winds. For small sections of country, the prevail- ing v/inds usually take their direction from the position of the mountains and valleys. This is very much the case in Vermont. Through the valley of the Connec- ticut, and of Lake Champlain, the winds for the most part blow either from the south, jDr from the north or north-west, wiiile winds from the east or west are, com- paratively of rare occurrence. Along. our smaller riv- ers, particularly the Winooski and Lamoille, the pre- vailing winds are from the north-west. The winds oc- casionally do some damage in Vermont by unroofing buildings and prostrating forest trees, but it is very sel- dom. In the valley of lake Champlain, the southerly winds are to the northerly about in the proportion of 5 to 4. 4. Bain. The quantity of water which falls in rain and snow in any ©ne year, does not probably differ very con- siderably in the different sections of the state ; but the quantity which falls at the same place in different years, is very variable, as may bo seen by the following table, which exhibits the fall of water at Burlington, in inches and decimal parts, during ten successive years. nnte there? What talces place below this point ] Where proved 7 — What tha rate? At what depth at tliis rate would all be melted ? Upon what does the di- rection of winds depend ? Is this ;he case Lb Vt. ? How do they blow in tlie vally of the Connecticut and Lake Champlain? What is said of the fall of wa- ter at different places?— At same' place? In which month greatest ] In whick ?2 rilTSICAL GEOGBAPIIY. TABLE Of the Monthly and 'Annual fall of Water at Burlington. ivio. !16:;d.|153D. 184 .il»4J. 1842. 1843.]1844.;i845.!l846. 1847.|Avr. Jan. 2.52[ 0.80 1 26 3.49 1.04 0.71 j 2.29| 2.381 172 2 80' 1.91 l^eb. 1.321 1.2{, 1.89; 0.80i 3.75 1.43: 0.73 2.52; 1.47 1.85, 1.70 Mar. l.io; 1.43! 3.05' 3.23; 1.97 2.i2j 2.35i 2.481 2.20 2.10 220 Apr- 1.34' 1.60 4.69' 3.54 i 2 52 0.82 1 43 2.22 0.91 3.15' 2.32 May 4.51 2.43 2.46 2.28 1.55 247 4.40 339! 3.18 1.85' 2 85 June 5.37 3.71 2.84 5.16 3 24 4.58 2.08 2.08i 3.63 5.051 3 87 July 3.25i 6 26 4.18 2.87, 4.62 2.59 5.35, 4.51! 5.08 4.05! 4.23 Aug. 2.4li 1.9i 351 1.40; 1.74 2.09 3.4& 2.37 0.48 3.12: 2 25 Sep. 1,331 2.9J 4,71 3 62 3.80 1.80 1.36: 5.62; 3.78 4.691 3 36 Oct. 2.98! 0.45 3 66 0.83 4.10 5.03j 5 11' 2.26' 2.65 3.69i 3.09 .\ov. 3.7.^1 2.57 2.25 2.47 2.32 1.63 0.57' 4.00! 2,88 2.13; 246 Dec. O.S2| 2.68 2.62 3.02 3.20 1.48 2.08' 2.21! 1.68 ! 1 4.07 2.40 Tot. 3U.83;27.9C 37.19 32.71.33 85 i^6.75 31 21:36.04,29.66.38.65132.69 By the above table it appears that the greatest aver- age quantity of water falls in July, and the least in Feb- ruary. These results, however, have reference only to Burlington. They may be found to vary in different parts of the state. There is reason to think that the an- of the other parts of the state. The quantities in the table include what falls in snow and hail, as well as rain. The depth of water, which falls in a rain storm, or thunder shower, is much less than is generally sup- posed. One inch of water in a thunderstorm, or in a rain of 2i hours, is a large amount. During the whole period emb] ac^d in the above tabic the water of a sin- gle shower, has not in more than one case exceeded two inches, and in only one case has it exceeded three in- ches in 2i hours. The prevailing notion, that the water sometimes falls to the depth of 5 or 6 inches in a sin- gle storm, is altogether an illusion. least? What do tho quantities include'? What is said of the r.n in in a tlmnder storm?— of ih-: rain? in ihe ten years embraced in the table ? Wrtat of a prevail- ing noiioat CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY. 83 5. Snow. The ground is usually covered with snow about four months of the year, or from the first of De- cember to the beginning of April. The snow falls ear- lier and deeper, and lies later upon the high lands, than in the valleys.' The most severe snov/ storms are usu- ally accompanied by a northeasterly wind. Less snow fails at Burlington, than in most other parts of the state. The following table exhibits the amount, which fell, at Burlington, in each of the last eleven winters. inches 1837-8 . 60 inches 1842-3 • . . 115 183S-9 . . 41 1843-4 . . 73 1830-40 . . 48 a 1844-5 . 75 1840-1 . . 92d - 1845-6 . . . 73 1841-2 . . 64 u 1846-7 . . 1847-S • • . 110 . 67 In the winter of 1S45-6, there was uninterrupted good sleighing in Burlington from December 1, to March 15, 104 days, a much greater amount than had been knowa for many years. The annual amount of snow is thought to be less now than when the country was new, and the amount of good sleighing much less, and more precarlus. 6. Seaso72s. During the winter the ground is generally covered with snow, and the cold often severe. The snows begin to disappear the last of March, and are usu- ally gone early in April, and spring grain is generally sown and gardens planted in that month ; but the open- ing of spring is liable to a variation of at least two weeks. Indian corn is usually planted between the 15th and 25th of May, and is ripe in October. Hay making commences about the 4th of July. Severe frosts cease about the lOth of May, and begin again the last of Sep- tember. Robbins and song sparrows return about the 21st of March, barn swallows about the 28th of April. How long is the ground usually covered with snow ? Where deepest t What is paid of enow at Eunjngton ? When the greatest quantity ? leaat J rnoFt Elei^h- itg 1 Kow rr.uch 7 How does the preseni coccpare witii esily i\rr.i.3t WheiTdo Tjncvrn ujuaHy di;arre^r ; Lj 'he sDn.?.g vaij-^h'e ir. opening ; "'A/'hfcfj i? co/n ^:'dr. led? VV'hfa rif€ ■? hayLRg coian.f.7.ce,'-; fio^-^ ce^^e; bep-D^ ; roLi.ic ytiui-i- ; tail rwai-owi 1 0'-Jrrsn« bloesoiK ? plums? cherries? appxt? 84 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Currants blossom about the 12th of May, plums and cherries the ISth, and apples the 25th. It is found by observation, that in cold weather, when it is clear and calm, the valleys are coldest, but when cloudy, or windy the high lands are coldest. Vegeta- tion upon the low lands and along the margin of the lakes and large streams, is, in the spring, a week or ten days earlier than upon the high lands and mountains; but frosts, in the fall, occur earliest upon the low lands, allowing- to each nearly the same time of active vege- tion. The low lands, however, enjoy a higher mean temperature, and bring fruits and vegetables to matu- rity, which do not succeed well upon the higher lands. There are several phenomena connected with [this subject, which many jDeople understand practically without knowing their cause. In summer, when their is much dew, in the morning, a fair day is -expected ; — when it is cool, calm and clear, at night, a frost is feared. But if there be no dew, foul weather is appre- hended, although the sky may be nearly clear; — and if. at night, it be cloudy, or windy, although quite cold, no frost is expected. In clear, calm weather, after the smi sets, the earth's surface soon becomes cooler than the air above by its radiation, in consequence of which the moisture in the air is condensed upon the surface in the form of dew. If the cooling be sufficient to reduce the surface to the freezing point, the dew becomes frozen in the form of hoar-frost, and this often takes place while the air, generally, is several degrees above the freezing point. When the atmosphere is cloudy or hazy, the heat which the earth's surface looses by radiations is restored by the radiation from the clouds and vapor, and when it is windy the warmer parts of the air are continually brought down to the surface. What 19 said of the temperature of vallicsaml high lands 7 — of rc^etatir.n ]— of frosts ? What does a copious dew indicate ! — the'absence of dew ? ^Vhen i8 frost fcar»l.' How is dew formed ?— frost 7 Wliy have w« no dews ^heu it :« kazy, Cloudy or windy 1 CLIMATE AND METI>0R0tOOV. 85 6. Freezing of Lake Champlain. — The narrow parts of Lake Champlain, become frozen so as to interrupt nav- igation through the Lake, early in December, and the broadest parts are closed over about the first of Feb- ruary. The lake usually opens again early in April, and is again navigable about the 20th of that month. The usual period of navigation through the entire length of the lake extends from the 20th of April to the 28th of November. The broadest part of the lake, be- tween Burlington and Port Kent in New York, contin- ues open for navigation till some time in January. When the lake opens late in the spring, the ice some- times disappears so suddenly that many have supposed that it sinks. But this is not so. At such times, the water un,der the ice being seT/eral degrees above freez- ing, and the ice having become very porous, whenever a rent is made in it, and the wind high, the agitation of the water causes it to dissolve almost as readily as so much snosv. The lake has been kno3A'n to be passable by persons on foot on om^ day, and to be clear of ice the next, but such occurrences are rare, and only take place with a high wind when the ice has continued later than usual upon the lake in the spring. 7. Anchor Ice. During the severe cold weather of winter, ice is sometinjes seen formed upon the stones beneath the >vater at the bottoni of streams, where the current is rapid and considerably agitated. This is called anchor ice. In order to the formation of anchor ice, it is necessary that the water of the stream and the stones at the bottom be first cooled down to the temperature of freezing. The stones than act as nu- clei upon which the crystals of ice are formed, and to which they adhere by attraction. Under these circum- When does lake Chaniplain usually close and open "? What the period of navi- gation ? What is said of the broadest part "? What is said of the disappearance of the ice? Does it sink? How explained? What has been known of it? What is found in streams 7 What is it called ? What is necessary to its forniu- tiou ? What the process 7 What phenomenon is mentioned ? 66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Stances the ice, which is lighter than water, is said^ sometimes, to accumulate in such quantity as to lift the stones from their beds, and float them down the stream. 8. Indian Summer is a name given to a period, usually of about two weeks, which occurred between the middle ofOctoberandthe firstof December, in which the weath- er was veiy calm and warm, and the atmosphere filled with smoke. These seasons appear to have been very regular in their occurrence and marked in tiieir charac- ter when the country was new, but they have now be- come so irregular and illdeliiicd as almost to have ceas- ed to attract attention. 0. Smoky Atmosphere. During the spring and fall there are usually a number of days in which the atmosphere is filled with smoke, and the opinion has prevailed, said to have been derived from the Indians, that there must be at least 30 smoky days both in spring and fall, and that the setting in of winter was not to be feared in the fall till that number had elapsed. But the number. 30, has now ceased to be a charm to delay tlie advance of wint/^r. 10. Dark Days. During the occurrence of the smoky days in spring and fall, the atmosphere sometimes be- comes so much filled with smoke, vapour and clouds, as almost to convert the day into night. The most remarkable occurrence of this kind, on record, wa.s on the memorable 19th of May, 1780, denominated em})ha- tically thoDark Day. The darkest days in modern times were in the fall of 1819 and in the spring of 1820. 11. Fire Balls and Earthquakes. Several of those meteors called fire balls have been noticed in Vermont. One of these passed over the southern part of the State on the 23d of Feb. 1819. Its diameter was computed to be one-third of a mile. Another similar meteor was seen ■what is meant by Indian summer 1 when docs it occur ? — what is said of it— wha of somky atmosphere 1— what traiUiion ?— what is said of Dnrk Days?— wliat one is mcniorable .'-wbaJ said of fire balls ?— what ones mentioned ?— what the CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY. 87 on the 9th of March, 1822, and another was seen from the north part of the State on the 28th of May, 1834. The concussion of the atmosphere, occasioned by the last mentioned meteor, caused a trembling of the earth which would have been mistaken for an earthquake, produced by some force v/ithin the earth, if the meteor had not been seen. Very many of the earthquakes no- ticed in New England, have probably been produced by meteors. Meteors of this kind often throw off fragments, which fall to the earth. These are called meteoric stones or meteorolites. A large quantity of meteoric stones fell to the earth from a meteor which passed over Wes-ton in Connecticut on the 14th of December, 1807. 12. The Aurora Borealis has been a very common mete- or in Vermont from the first settlement of the State ; but in some years it occurs much more frequently, and is more remarkable in appearance, than in ethers. Its most common form is that of streamers shooting up from the horizon towards the zenith, or of concentric arches spanning the northern portion of the heavens. One of the most remarkable exhibitions of this meteor was on the evening of the 25th of January, 1837. It appeared in the form of two broad belts, one a deep red and the other white ; but the red light so far predo- minated as to give a bloody hue to the snow and all visible objects. The aurora borealis is probably pro- duced by electricity, but the manner in which it is produced is not well understood. 13. The Variation of tJw Magnetic Needle is the deviation of the north end of the needle from the true north point of the horizon. Very few observations have been made m Vermont to determine this variation j and these few effect of the last 1— what the inference? What do meteora throw 00"?— what ex- ample nifiitioned 7 — What is said of the Aurora Borealis 1 — of its Ibrrns ? — what remarkable one ? — how is this meteor produced ? What is meant by the variation of the needle ? — has it been well determined in Vermont 1 — what appeara 1 — whal was it in l-rOo ]— what since ]— prcaeni variation J 88 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. have been made with so little care and with such im- perfect instruments that veiy little reliance can be placed upon them. It appears, however, that the varia- tion has always been towards the west since the first settlement of the State— that in 1805, the western varia- tion in the central parts of the State was 5 or 6*=^., and that it has nearly doubled since that period. The pre- sent variation at the north line of the State is now about 12°.j and at Burlington about 10°. Tahh ef Magnetic Variatioyi observed in Vermont. Place of Observation. --I -i I Lamude|^L-i, Avthoritiea. Burlington, 1793 7<=38' 44°28'1 73« Dr. Williams, « ° ' 1818 7 SO u (( J. Johnson, Esq. u 1822 7 42 u u u ' u 1830 8 10 u u u « 1831 8 15 a li u u 1832 8 25 a (C a u 1834 8 50 u (( u u 1837 8 45 u u Prof, Benedict. u 1840 9 42 li u J. Johnson, Esq. Rutland, 1789 7 3 A3 37 72 Dr. Williams. « ' 1810 6 4 a u a « 1811 6 1 (( li li Rye gate, 1801 7 44 10 72 Gen. Whitelaw. Holland, 1785 7 40 45 71 " St. Johnsbury, 1837 9 16 44 26| 71 Prof. Twining. Barton, 1857 10 51 44 44 u Montpelier, 1829 12 25 44 17 72 Exec. Docu's. Pownal, 1786 5 52 42 46 72 Dr. Williams. Canaan, 1806 9 00 45 71 u STATE OF VERMONT, PART SECOJND. POLITICAL GEOGRAPtlY. I. TABULAR VIEW. First settlement, - - - 1724 Government organi?:ed, - 1778 Admitted ipto the Upion, 1791 Sq. miles(exclusive of lakeC.)8,55l PopylatioR in 1840, - - 291,948 Pop. to a square mile, - - 34^ *The grand list is only the o?ie hundredth part of the ratable prop- erty of the state. It serv'es, however, tt^ indicate the relative wealth of the different counties aiid townst When was the first settlement in Vermont .'—the jrovernment organized?— admitted into the union 7 llow many square miles? What is meant by a square mile] What the difference between'iwo square miles and two miles »quare? — population in 1S40 ?— to a square mile 1 Which county was first settled ? — next ? Which county is most populous ] — least.' Which largest? — smallest? Which has most persons to the square mile J Which ftwest ? Which has the hightot list .'— lovvest ' 8* 90 POLITICAL CEOGRArHY. ORIGIN OF THE GOVERNMENT. 1. Claims of JurisdiciLon. Previous to any settlements within the present limits of Vermont, what is now the southeast corner of this State was supposed to be a part of Massachusetts ; and, in 1724, Massachusetts built fort Dummer in wiiat is now the township of Brattle- borough. In 1741 the north line of Massachusetts was surveyed, and fort Dummer was found to be to the northward of that line, and, as was supposed, within the limits of New Hampshire, both of those provinces claiming: jurisdiction as far westward as to a line 20 miles east of Hudson river. 2. Township Grcinls. In January, 1749, Benning Went- worth, governor of New Hampshire, made a grant of s township lying, as he supposed, on the west line of that State, and which, in allusion to his own name, he ealled Bennington. This was the first grant of land within the present State of Vermont. Other townships were, however, granted soon after, and in the course of 15 years they amounted to 13S. During this period a violent controvery arose between New Hampshire and New York, both claiming jurisdiction over the territory. In the mean time extensive settlements had been made under New Hampshire titles. In 1764 the jurisdiction of New York was confirmed by a royal decree.but New York refused to confirm the grants made by New Hampshire, nnd proceeded to regrant the lands ; for which was de- manded an exorbitant fee. The settlers under grants from New Hampshire refused to pay this fee, or to re- linquish the titles for which they had paid to New Hamp- shire. This brought on a controversy between New York and the settlers under grants from New Hamp- When was fort Dummer built 7 — where? — in what was it supposed to be? When was the uorlh lino of Mass. surveyed ! — what was found ? — what suppos^'d? IIow far did these provinces claim r Which townshij) was first granted in Vermont? — when? — by whom? Why so named? IIow many grants in 15 years? W'hat otlier?~w!iat took i>lace in 17&1?— what did N. Y. do?~what did the settlers do? OIUGIN OF THE GOVERNMENT. 01 sliire, and licnce the whole territory in dispute became known to the world as the Neio TIainpshir-e Grants. 3. Towns. Each township charter granted by New Hampshire provided for the organization of the town, whenever the settlement was sufficiently advanced, by the election of certain town officers, and by the adop- tion of such regulations as the condition of the town was thought to require. The townships were generally six miles square, con- taining 23040 acres, and divided into 72 shares, of 320 acres each. Four of these shares were reserved for public rights, viz. : one for the society for the propaga- tion of the Gospel, one for a glebe for the Church of England, one for the first settled minister of the Gos- pel, and one for the benefit of schools. The above mentioned society for propagating the Gospel, is in England ; but the avails of the grants made to that society, in Vermont, are enjoyed by the Protest- ant Episcopal Church in this State. The glebes for the Church of England have been appropriated by our State Legislature for the support of schools. 4. Councils of Safety. As early as 1770, several towns had become organized, and soon after this period they began to organize Councils (f Safety in the several towns for the purpose of a more effectual opposition to the unjust claims of New York ; and at length formed, for the same object, a general Council of Safety^ consisting of delegates from the several towns. 5. Vermont Independence. By these councils, or com- mittees, the affairs of the New Hampshire Grants were managed till 1776, when about 50 towns had become organized. It was then agreed to call a convention to consist of delegates, to be chosen by the several orga- —wbat (lid this produce?— why was the country called the N. II. Grants? What was provided for in the town charters? What tlie size of the townships? How many acres? shore? What public rights reserved? Where is the society for propogating the gospel? What is said of the glebes? How early were towns or- ganized? Councils of saA'ty? What their object? How loner were atfairs nian- aTC'd by these councils? What was then done .' When did it nject ?— what dui jj 92 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ■ ■" ■ ' ■ • — ■'"■■'■ ■ ■ ■ II »•* . nized towns. This convention met at Westminster on the 15th of January, 1777, and on the following day de- clared the territory, usually called the New Hampshire Grants, to be a free and independent State, to be hereaf- ter called New Connecticut alias Vermo?it. On the 4th of June following, this convention met again, at Windsor, and resolved to drop the New Connecticut and the alias andto retain VERMONT alone as the name of the State. 6. Cotistitution. On the 2d of July, 1777, delegates from' the several towns met ^in convention at Windsor, and adopted the first constitution of the State. This con- stitution was revised in 1786, and again in 1792, and was adopted in its present form on the 4th of July, 1793. Since that time there have been several amendments, the most important of which were made in January, 1836, and by which the old council was abolished and a Senate substituted as a co-ordinate branch of the Legislature. 7. Vermont Charters. Somewhat more than half of our present territory had been granted before Vermont assumed the powers of self-government, and the re- maining portion was, in the course of a few years, grant- ed by the government of the State. The Vermont chart- ers were similar in many respects to those granted by New Hampshire. In most of these one share was re- served for the support of the Gospel in the town, one for the first settled minister, one for the support of schools, one for the support of a county grammar school,- and one for the support of a state university. 8. Origin of PoliticaJ Power. AH political power orig- ' inates in the will of the people. The inhabitants of each town constitute a little democracy, and by asso» elating together, virtually pledge themselves to be gov- • — ■ • ) do ? What part of the name was dropped ? When ? When was the first constitii- ; tion formed '—when devieed 7— when adopted in its present form ? What has since j been done 1 What the most important amendment 7 ^^'hat part of Vi. granted be- \ OniGIX OF THE GOVERNMENT. 03" erned by the will of the majority. They meet together, and by vote adopt rules, and appoint officers to execute the will of the people* This process of town organiza- tion is the first step in the establishment of civil gov- ernment. 9. Ihwn Officers. The principal officers which ouf present town organizations require, are a Town Clerk, whose duty it is to record the proceedings of the town meetings, and all the public documents of the town: three Select men, who shall lay out highways, assess the taxes in accordance with a vote of the town or state, and superintend the general interests of the town: three Listers, who shall appraise property, and make out the grand list ; a Constable,to collect the taxesj a Treasurer, to receive and pay out the public money : an Overseer of the poor: Superintendents of Schools,and some others. All these are elected annually, in the month of March, and hold their offices for one year. 10. Freemen's Meeting. The Constitution of the state, having been formed by delegates from the organized towns, and ratified by the people, is the supreme law of the land. In accordance with the provisions of this instrument, a meeting of the freemen in each town is held on the first Tuesday of September, for the election of state officers. The officers voted for at this meeting are : Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Treasurer, Coun- ty Senators and Town Representatives, and, as occasion requires, Representatives in Congress and electors of President and Vice President. To be entitled to vote in Freemen's Meeting, a person must be a citizen of the United States, must be 21 years of age, must have resi- ded in Vermont one whole year next preceding the meeting, and must have taken the oath of allegiance to the state ; and to^vote for town representatives ho for* its goyemmonl was organized f By whom was the remjiinder granted 7 Wha« is said of the Vt. chaneral — wh^it reservations 1 Where does political poww .'arigiaate ? What do tbe p©o|ji€ 0/ each town constitute 1 Wliai the ptoccsa o( 04 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. must have resided in the town three months next pro- ceeding the election. II. DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT. The government of the State of Vermont consists of three separate departments, the Legislative, the Exe- cutive, and the Judiciary. 1. Legislative Power. The supreme legislative power is exercised by a Senate and House of Representatives, which, together, are stiled The General Assembly of the State of Vermont. The senators and representatives are chosen annually on the first Tuesday in Sep- tember, and meet in general asssembly on the second Thursday in October following. 2. The Senate consists of 30 members, chosen by coun- ties and at present appointed as follows, to wit : Ad- dison, 2 J Bennington, 2 ; Caledonia, 2; Chittenden, 2; Essex, 1; Franklin, 3; Grand Isle, 1; Lamoille, 1; Or-^ ange, 3; Orleans, 1 ; Rutland, 3j Washington, 2; Wind- ham, 3 ; Windsor, 4. - To be a senator a person must be 30 years of age, and must be a freeman of the county in which he is elected. Senators are elected by plurality of votes. The Meutonant Governor is president of the senate c.r-o/^cio, but can give only a casting vote, when the senate is equally divided ; and they elect their own secretary. The senate has power to decide on the elec- tion and qualification of its members, and a majority of the senators constitutes a quorum. The senate may originate resolutions and bills of all kinds, excepting for organization? Name the principal town officers and their duties ? When elec- ted? What is said of the constitution ? For wliat does it provide ? What offi- cers are then voted for ? what is necessary to cjititlc a person to vote in freemen's mcctinir ? Of what departments docs the frnverment consist ? In what is the Ici,'- islativo power rested? What aro they etjledi' When chosen 7 When do thoy moot ? DEPARTMENTS OP GOVERNMENT. 05 revenue, which last must always originate in the house of representatives ; and their concurrence is necessa- ry for the passage of all bills and resolutions, which originate in the house of representatives. The senate have the sole power of trying and deciding all impeach- ments. 3. The Iloii^^e of Represpjitatives consists of one mem- ber from each organized town, to be chosen annually by the freemen of the town, on the first Tuesday in Sep- tember, and the constitution requires that they be per- sons most noted for wisdom and virtue. A majority of the representatives chosen, constitutes a quorum for trans- jictir-.g all business excepting the raising of a stnte tax, and that rocjiiire-s the presence of two-thirds. The rep- resentatives have power to elect a speaker, clerk and other officer-S'Gf tlie house, and to judge of the elections and qualificatiens of their own members. They can also originate and prepare bills.. and, with the concur- roncectf ths -senate, enact them into laws. But they shall have no power to add to, alter, abolish, or infringe any part of the constitution of the state. For the election of general state officers, excepting the Governor, Lieutenant Governor and Treasurer, who are chosen by the people, the 8 enste anS representa- tives meet in joint assenibly, at which meeting the pre- siding officer of the senate shall preside. The perma- nent state officers elected by the joint assembly aTe,va secretary of state, auditor of accouRts, judges of the supreme, the county, and the probate courts, a sheriff and state's attorney for each county, and justices of the peace for each town. When there is no choice of governor, by the freemen, the joint assembly shall elect for governor, one of the three candidates for whom the greatest number of votes shall have been returned. IIow mnny Senators 1 How appointcil ? Qualifications 7 How elected ? What is said ol the lieutenant governor? What is iDeant by ex-olHrio ? What are the powers of jlie Senate? Of what docs the house of representatives consist ? When chosen? What qualifications required ? How many a quorum? What IkeJr powers? What coiisiituie the joint assembly? What state offi;crs ajra 96 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHy. They may also elect major and brigadier generals of milita, as vacancies occur. 4. Executive Power. The supreme executive power of the state is vested in the governor, or. in case of his absence, or disability, in the lieutenant-governor. It is the duty of the governor to commission all officers, to correspond with other States, to transact business with the officers of government, and to lay before the gene- ral assembly such matters as, he may think, require their attention. He n>ay appoint a secretary of civil and military affairs, whose services he may at all times command, and, for the payment of whose salary, provi- sion shall be made by la\yo 6, Judiciary Power. The judiciary power of the. State is exercised by a supreme court and court of chancery, a county court in each pounty, justices of the peace in each town, and a probate court in each probate district. 6. The Supreme Court consists of on,e chief judge and five assistant judges, any three of whom constitute a quorum. This court holds one .session annually in each county. The judges of the supreme coijrt are justices of the peace throughout the State. Each judge of the supreme court is a chancellor, and, within his judicial circuit, possesses, and may exercise all the jurisdiction and powers, which now are, or here- after may be, vested in a court of chancery. 7. The County Court consists of one of the judges of the supreme court, who acts as chief judge, and two assistant-judges in each county, Each county coi;rt, within the several counties, has original and exclusive jurisdiction of all original civil and criminal actions, except such as are made cogniz- able by a justice of the peace, and has appellate juris- diction in all causes appealable to such court, and may render judgment according to law. chosen by the joint assembly ? What is said of the executive power? W^hat is the governor's duty? In what is the judiciary power vetted? what i^ fn(l (Unnb? —blind '—insane 'f— pensioner? ?— employed in agriculture ?— commerce .= — inan* . THE PEOPLE AND THEIR EMPLOYMENTS. Ill 73,150, in commerce 1303, in manufactures and trades, 13,174, and in the learned iDrofessions 1563. The number of white persons above 20 years of age who could not read and write, was 2270, or one to 124, and these were nearly all foreigners. The population of the state by counties has been giv- en in the table on page 89. The population by towns, will be found in part third. 5. Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal employ- ment of the people of Vermont. While suitable num- bers are devoted to the various trades andpiofessions, the great mass of the population is engaged in culti- vating the earth, and it is pleasing to notice the gradu- al improvement, which Las been going on in agricul- ture, both as an art and science ; and more especially the advance wiiich it has made, within a few years past, in the public estimation. The soil of Vermont, generally, is of an excellent quality and seldom ftiils richly to repay the labors of the husbandman. The uneven tracts, which cannot conveniently be ploughed, furnish the best of pastu- rage for cattle and sheep. The most important crops which are taken from the soil are hay, Indian corn, po- tatoes and oats. Considerable quantities of wheat are raised, but not enough to prevent the introduction of vr'e stern jQour. The most important staple for market is wool. Beef, pork, butter, cheese, &c., are furnished in considerable- quantities. The following is an abstract of the agricultural pro- ductions in. 1840. Wheat, bush. 49D.S00'Cocoons, lbs. 4.280 Rye do 230!993JWax,lbs. 4.660 Corn do l,119,G78;Product Dairy $2,003,737 Oats do 2,222,584|do Orchard 213,94-1 factiires?— unable to read .'—What i.? said of tliem .'—What is the chief oinploy- ment ?— What improvement has taken placo?—Wliat i said of tlie soil.'— What tha most imronnnt crops i—oiporig ?— What act was passed in L:>i3]— What baa 112 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Buckwheat do 228.416'clo Garden 16.276 Barley do 54.781 do Nurseries, etc. 5,600 Potatoes do 3,869;751 Horses 62.402 Hay, tons, 869,739 Neat Cattle 384.341 Hops, lbs. 48,137 Sheep 1.681,819 Tobacco, lbs. '585 Swine 203,800 Flax, lbs. 59,000 Poultry, value $131,578 V/ine, gallons 94 Lumber $346,939 Wool, lbs. 3.699,235 Other prod, forest 2,500 In 1843 an act was passed to promote the improve- ment of agriculture, manufactures and the arts ; and to encourage the formation of county societies for these objects, the societies were authorized to draw certain sums from the state treasury, to be distributed in pre- miums, provided the society should raise by subscrip- tion, an equal sum for that object. In accordance with this enactment societies have been formed in most of the counties and annual fairs are held, which evince considerable zeal and success in the good cause in which the societies are engaged. 6. Manufactures. The manufactures carried on in Ver- mont were, for many years, such only as the immedi- ate wants of the people rendered indispensable, and in general each family were their own manufacturers. With scarcely any tools but an axe, the first settlers entered the forests, cleared off the timber from a small piece of ground, cut down trees to a suitable length and by the help of a few neighbors, reared their log houses and covered them with bark. These afforded shelters for their families, and by persevering indus- try, they were soon enabled to raise a little flax and wool, which were spun and wove and colored and made into clothing by the females for home and Sunday wear; and we have no doubt that, at that period, the swains in their tow, or checked woolen shirts and ker- sey frocks andtrowsers, and the girls in their tow and heendoneir. accordance with it.-' — What is s.iid of m.inufiicturep .' — With what tlie first ssillcrs eater iha forcata 7— What did they do ?— What is said of thwir clfttk- THE PEOPLE AND THEIR EMPLOYMENTS. 113 happy, yea, and perhaps as proud too, as the moderns in their broadcloths, and silks, and muslins. The only trades which were then deemed indispensable, were those of the blacksmith and the shoemaker, and these were, for the most part, carried on by persons wlio labor- ed a portion of their time upon their farms. As the condition of the people improved, they, by de- grees, extended their desires beyond the mere neces- saries of life ; first to its conveniences, and then to its elegancies. This produced new wants and ; to supply these, mechanics more numerous and more skilful were required, till at length the cabinet[maker, the tailor, the jeweller, the milliner and a host of others came to be regarded as indispensable. In addition to the various articles and fabrics for do- mestic use, Vermont possesses facilities for manufac- tories on an extensive scale. The water power is un- limited, wood for fuel is abundant, and there is no lack of the raw materials for manufactures of wool, iron, wood and stone ; and since the difficulties of transpor- tation, which have hitherto been the chief obstacles in the w^ay of the establishment of manufactories is about being overcome by the. construction of rail roads, we may hope soon to see our water power more generally employed, and our energies and resources more fully developed. By the returns of the census of 1S40, there were at that time in the state 26 Furnaces 7 Cotton Factories 14 Forges 271 Tanneries 17 Paper Mills 2 Glass Factories 26 Woolen Factories 319 Gristmill J39 Fulling Mills 1081 Saw Mills inp "i What trades were indespensable ?— In wliat manner was the number increas- ed?— What facilitiss for manufacturing has Vt. 7— What raw materials? What ebstacle is being overcome ?— How many furnaces in ISIO ? A:c. 10* 114 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. The amount of maple sugar made in 18-10 is stated at 4.647.934 pounds. The articles manufactured in Vermont are mostly- used here, with the exception of paper and woollen cloths. 7. Commerce. Commerce is the business of buying and selling, or the exchange of commodities. The per- sons by whom this business is transacted are called merchants, or traders. Vermont has little foreign commerce. Her trade is nearly all domestic, or internal. It is domestic when carried on with the sister States, and internal when carried on between citizens of our own state. All trade is carried on either by barter or sale : barter consists in giving or exchanging one article for an- other. It formerly prevailed very generally in this state, much more so than at present. Sale is the exchange of the article sold for a £um of money, called the price. Money is either specie, or paper money. Specie is coin composed of metal, usually gold or silver, which is stamped, and has a legal value. The place where coin is stamped is called a mint. Paper money consists of bank bills, which are promi- sory notes issued by a bank.entitling the holders to the sum in specie, which is stated on the face of the note, whenever demanded at the bank. On account of the inland situation of Vermont, and the various modes of transportation, it is impossible to form any correct estimation of the amount of trade. The commercial business of the State is, however, con- siderable, and is annually increasing. A large amount of dry goods and groceries is brought into the state and disposed of among the inhabitants ; and for seve- ral years past Vermont has, to a veiy great extent, de- IIow much sugar was madel — What is tlone with (he articles made? What is coaunerce 1 What is said of the commerce of Vt. ? When domestic J — wUea iuteiaaU ilow is trad« carried ou.' What is said gf burier? What is THE PEOPLE AND THEIR EMPLOYMENTS. 115 pendccl -upon the state of New i^ork and the western •states for her bread stuffs. The productions for market consist of live cattle, horses, hogs, sheej?, wool, lumber, pot and pearl ashes, butter, cheese, iron, marble, paper, copperas, &c. Wheat was formerly furnislied, but for some years past a suffi- cient quantity has not been raised for home consump- tion. When the country w^s new and the first settlers were clearing their lands, pot and pearl ashes were the staple articles for market. Lumbering also engaged the attention of many in the vicinity of the navigable waters. Connecticut river furnished an outlet for the lumber in the eastern part of the State, while that in the western part found its way to Quebec through lake Champlain, the Richelieu and St. Lawrence, previous to the construction of the Champlain and Hudson canal^ since which much has gone through that canal to New York. But this branch of business has been pursued too eagerly for the good of the State. Pine of a good quality has become scarce for domestic purposes. For about sixteen years past wool has constituted the prin- pal article for market ; and is so at present, although a large amount of the other articles above named contin- ue to be sent away. Vermont being an inland state its navigation is ne- cessarily limited. Indeed it is nearly confined to lake Champlain. A portion of the merchandise and the pro- ductions of the eastern parts of the state, it is true, are transported in boats upon Connecticut river, but far the greater portion of the business of those parts has been over-land to Boston, and will continue to be so, by means of the rail roads now finished. The mercan- tile connexions on the west side of the mountains have been mostly with New York, and most of the business of the north-western section of the state has been ■ale "? Money ?— Specie 1— Paper Money ? Amount of trade ? What the ex- ports? Staple articles'? Outlets for lumber'? What ia said of lumber?— of wood .'—of navi^'aiion i — merciuitilc coiiuexions?— .etlectof rail roads?- r^liipping 116 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. transacted through lake Champlain, the northern canal and Hudson river. But the completion of the railroads leading to Boston, will probably divert a portion of it in that direction. The navigation on lake ChamplaiUj is principally by steamboats, sloops and canal boats. The first steam- boat on the lake was completed in 1809. and was called the Vermont. The whole number, which has been built, is twenty. There are now four splendid boats, which form a day and night line, both ways, thro' the length of the lake. It is remarkable that in the forty years of steam navi- gation upon this lake, only one serious accident has occurred, and that was the burning of the steamboat, Phoenia:, on the fifth of September, 1819, by which six or seven persons lost their lives. For the safety of the navigation of the lake, a light house was built upon Juniper Island in this state, in 1826, and since that period two others have been erect- ed on the New York side, one at Cumberland Head, and the other at Split Rock. A breakwater has been erected at Burlington, for the protection of the shipping at the wharves. The light houses and breakwater, were erected at the expense of the United States gov- ernment. 8. Bail Roads. There are at present three principal rail roads which have been located, and, in part, con- structed in this state. The Central Rail Road extends from Burlington to Windsor, a distance of 117, miles, and there connects with a road through Fitchburgh to Boston. The dis- tance from Burlington to Boston, through this line is 254 miles. At Hartford, 103 mils from Burlington, this line connects with the road to Boston, through Concord on lake Champlain ? When was the first steamboat completed ? What called ? Whatihe whole number? What lines mentioned ? What is remarkable ? What the accident? What litrht houses? — breawaterl — at whose expense ? What the extent of the Central Rail Road 1 Through what roads doet it communicate with THE PEOPLE AND THEIR EMPLOYMENTS. 117 and Lowell. The whole distance from Burlington to Boston this way is 247 miles. This road was opened from Hartford to Bethel, and the first cars commenced running in this state, June 26, 1848. It is now, (Octo- ber 20, 1848.) finished from Hartford to Northfield, and the cars run regularly from the latter place to Boston, by way of Concord. The Rutland and Burlington Rail Road, called also the Southern Rail Road,extends from Burlington to Bellows Falls, through Rutland, a distance of one hun- dred and eighteen miles, and there connects with the road through Fitchburgh to Boston. The distance from Burlington to Boston through this line is two hundred and thirty-one miles. The grading of this line is m.ostly finished, and it will probably be completed in readiness for the cars in the course of the year 1849. The Passumpsic Rail Road, connects with the Cen- tral atHartford, and extends north through Newbury towards Derby. It is located as far as Wells riyer,and finished, and the cars upon it, as far as Bradford. Several other rail roads have been granted within the state, which will probably be constructed in the course of a few years. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. A few months attendance at primary schools, as they existed in New England, before the revolution, was the whole amount of education, which the early settlers of Vermont.generally, enjoyed. But these advantages had been so w^ell improved that nearly all of them were Boston 1 What the distance each way ? When and where did the cars first run in Vermunt ? How far finished in Oct. i>Mc; ? What the extent of the .southern Rail lloadf What its condition? What is said of the Passumpsic llail Road? Wha: is said of the educatioa of the first Ee tilers of Vt.7 118 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. able jto read, write and keep accounts. They were in general, men of strong minds; and, clearly perceiving the advantages, which education confers, they early di- rected th*eir attention to the establishment of schools and seminaries of learning. 1. Prima?]/ Schooh. The first general law on the sub- ject of schools was passed en the 22d of October 1782. This law provided for the division of the towns in this state into convenient school districts, and for the ap- pointment of trustees in each town for the general su- perintendence of the schools. It also provided for the election of a prudential corn- ^nitteebythe inhabitants of each district. This com- mittee was authorized to raise the money required to build, and keep in repair, a school house, and support a school, by a tax on the people of the district, one half of it to be assessed on the grand list, and the other half, either on tlie list, or on the polls of the scholars., as should be ordered by a vote of the district. By the same act the judges of the county court.^ were authorized to appoint trusfees of a county gram- mar school, in each of their respective counties ; and, with the assistance of the justices of the peace, they were authorized to assess a tax on the county for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for a county school house. That" part of the above provision, which relates to county schools, seems never to have been carried into effect, but so much of it as relates to town schools was generally introduced, and now forms the basis of our common school system. , Our present statutes require that all the organized towns in the state shall be divided into school districts of convenient size, and that a school be maintained du- ring a portion of the year in each ; and the select men When was the fa-.?t .ireiieral school lav/ pasjifd"? What were the provisionfi of this law? How could' inoiiey be raised? VVlia* provision for country schools? Was lliis carried into eflect ? ' What do our present siatutiiS re pcrintendent relative to the government, course of in- struction, books, studies, discipline and conduct of the schools in their respective counties. It is made the duty of the state superintendent to prepare and submit to the general assembly at the opening of each annual session thereof, a report con- taining a statement of the general condition of the schools of the state, together with sucli other matters and suggestions, as he may think will promote the general cause of public education. The state superintendent receives an annual salary of $200. The county superintendents are entitled to $2 per day for their services; and the town superinten- dents $1 per day. Contracts between a teacher and a prudential com- mittee for teaching a school, are null and void, unless the teacher obtain a certificate of qualifications before commencing the school. What the duty of town pupprintendents?— Of county do. ? What the duly of thfe riaie superintendent.'' Wh;it pay do the .«upeiiutendeiits receive 1 What issaiJ of t^n'ructs between teacher and coipmittecs ; PUnLfC rNSTRUCTION. 121 The deposit money, mentioned in a preceding para- graph, was a portion of the avails of the public lands of the United States, which was distributed to the sev- eral states by act of congress in 1837. The amount distributed was $28,101,645, and the share which fell to Vermont was $GG9,0S7. This sum was distributed by act of the legislature, among the towns of the state in pro- portion to their population, and then loaned on good security; and the annual interest applied for the sup- port of schools as already stated. The deposit mon- ey is regarded as a loan from the general government to the states. In the school districts, generally, in this state, a male teacher is employed three or four months in the winter, and a female teacher about six months in the summer. The average wages for male teachers are about $12,50 per month, and to female teachers, about §5. per month. The number of school districts in Vermont, as ap- pears from the report of the state superintendent, is 2616, and the number of children between 4 and 18 years of age, about 100,000, This would give an average of about 37 scholars to a district, 2. Academies. About sixty county grammar schoolp, academies or high schools, have been incorporated in this state by special act of the legislature, since the or- ganization of the government j but only a small part of these are now in existence. Our academies being generally without permanent funds, their very exist- ence is dependent upon the popularity of teachers. But under all our disadvantages we have at all times many flourishing academies and high scl)ools in various parts of the state. In these are taught the higher bran- ches of English studies, the mathematics and the ru- Explain what is meant by depopit money? V^^hnt the lencrth of KchoolR?— ave- rage wages V- nnnibtr oJ disirictf? .'—children '<— average ? What is said v{ QCade- siiiiies?- vvha( U-nu'th in thee ?— wluu have sr^cvcral orthtia ? Jl 122 POLITICAL CEOGUAPHy, diments of tlie Latin and Greek languages. Students may here prepare for mercantile or orther business, or to become teachers of primary scImdoIs ; or for admis- sion into college, or the university. Several of the o.cademies in tlie north eastern pan of the state, derive some aid from the avails of gram- mar school lands in the counties in wliich they are situated. "T?. Vnircr sit y of Vermont. In the townships chnrter.'fl by the government of Vermont, one right of land w;is set apart for the endowment and sujiportof astateuniver sity. Tliese lands amounted in the wliole to about 29,- 000 acres, and were scattered through about 120 town- ships and gores, mostly in the northern and central parts of the state. On the 3d of November, 1791, an act was passed by the legislature, incor])orating the university of Ver- mont, and locating it at Burlington. The first univer- sity edifice was erected in ISOl, and cost about $35,000, the greater part of wiiich was contributed in Burling- What was pet .^pan for th« support of a nnivrrsity ?— How many acres?— how situalein- Wlicn was the university chaitcnnl r~\Vhen lornieil ?— When was iho first. pJifirp erootod ?- -(Irsrrilu' it r— What became of it? — Who was iho first pr»'Pitleni ?— Whfn \hf firpr rommrnremcni ? — How was t)ic prei^ent edifire rj-.^r!.- P-\\'bo l.n.l ih.- ronnr moo.- • -• ^\•|,,,I (\,^ rnii ki.ow o| T,:i ravfiie %- PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 123 ton and vicinity. It was 160 feet long, 75 deep in the centre and 45 on the wings, and four stories high. Thia fine building, a figure of wliich stands at the head of this article, was accidentally consumed by fire on the 27tli of May, 1824. The first president of the University was the Rev. Daniel C. Sanders, and the first commencement was held in 1804. After the destruction of the first edifice, the present principal university building was erected in three parts and afterwards united into one. The corner stone of the first wing was laid by Gen. La Fayette, on the 29th of June, 1825. The whole building is 260 feet long, and three stories high. The funds of the university are in lands, and amount to more than 40.000 acres. The University library consists of about 8000 vol- umes, and is the most valuable library in the state. The number of under graduates, has for several years past, averaged about 100. The faculty consists or a president and six professors. The commencement is on the first Wednesday in August annually. 4. Middlchuvy College. Middlebury College was incor- porated November 1st, 1800, and the Rev. Jeremiah Atwater, was constituted president by the act of the in- corporation. A county grammar school had been es- tablished at Middlebury, in 1797, a spacious building erected in 1798, and a school commenced, of which the Rev. Mr. Atwater, was princi]ml, at the time of the in- corporation of the college. The college was, therefore immediately organized in the place of the grammar school, and seven students admitted to the collegiate course. Wliat is paiil of Imiclg ? — Iil)rary ?— .«liidents ? — faculty ? — commenccmrni ? — When was Middlebury college incorporated ?~Who was fi'rtt jiresidcnt ? — When organ- izciU— Why po ponn organized ?— When the first commencement?— IIow ninny graduates in 1608] — VVliat is said of the buildingsl— of its endowraent?— librar/ 1 124 IV^LrtiOAL GEOGRAPHY. The first commencement was held in 1802, when one student received the degree of bachelor of arts. But the number of students increased with great rapidity, and, in 1808, the graduating class numbered 23. The present college buildings consist of three spa- cious edifices, one of wood, and two of stone. The latter are pleasantly situated on an eminence, which overlooks the village, and the adjacent country. This college has recieved no endowments from tho state, biit has been sustained by private bounty, and tho avails from tuition; It has received several large do- nations in lands ahd money. Its library consists of about 3000 volumes, and its apparatus and laboratory are respectable. The faculty consits of the president, four professors and one or two tutors. The commencement is on the fourth Wednosday in July, annually. 5. Norwich University. In 1820 an institution was estab- lished at Norwich, in this state under the name of the American Literary Scientijic and Military Academy^ and a commodious building was erected for its accommoda- tion. This institution, was under the superintendence of Capt. Alden Partridge, and continued for several years in a very flourishing condition, having pupils or cadets, from nearly all tlie states in the Union. On the 6th of November, 1831, after a partial suspen- sion of the original institution for sonietime, an act was passed incorporating it by the name of the Nor- uich University, and Capt. Partridge became its first president. The plan of this university is quite unlike most of our collegiate institutions. There is no definite time in which a regular course of studies is to be completed, and, consequently there is no general course, the sta- — coniniencemtinti — In what manner did Norwich university originate ?— When incorporated ? — Who was lirst president ?— Whet is said of its plan ?— When or- (iauized?— Whon tho first cunimenceniont?— \Vh.^n were medical lecturus lirst dolirorcd at Castleton 7-When was the school chartur'd7-What wus done in l~Mi 7 axddc^^ood ooaronred r— Who wqj tho firs* pircsideui 7— cUiof famjd>-;i ?— Vr kt* * PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 125 ges of which are indicated by years. Each student is permitted to advance in his studies as rapidly as he is able, due regard being had to a thorough understanding of the same, and, when he has completed the full course marked out by the university, he is admitted to an ex- amination, and to the honors of the institution, if found qualified, Mathout regard to tJie time he has been pur- suing his studies. The university was organized under its charter in May 1835, and held its first commencement in 1838. 6. Cast! eton Medical College. Medical lectures were first delivered at Castleton in the spring of 1818. On the 29th of October following, a school was chartered here by the name of the Castlelon Medical Academy. Shortly afterwards a medical faculty was organized, and with two exceptions, regular courses of Medical Lectures, have been delivered annually or semi-annually, ever since. On the 22d of October 1841, tlie charter of the insti- tution was amended, and its name altered by act of the legislature, to that of Castleton Medical College. The president and faculty have authority to confer medical degrees. Dr. Selah Gridley was the first president of the in- stitution, and he and Dr. Theodore Woodward were the Chief founders of it. 7, Vermont Mediccd College.. This institution is located at Woodstock, and owes its origin to the labors and ef- forts of Dr. Joseph A. Gallup. Medical lectures were commenced here in 1827, and the institution was called {he Clinical School of Medicine. In 1835 an act of incorporation was obtained and the school took the name of Verriiont Medical College. By this act it was placed under the care of a board of trus- tees, and power v/as given to confer medical degrees. The first president under the charter wr,s Dr. Henry H. Childs. the Vt Medical Collf^zs ?— Who itr- fruiirip/ ?— n'haf was u fir:f cai-'ea .'— Whe n ) ncorrfrdteri J— thr degrees conferred .'—Who the firtt president 7 ^2Q POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. S. Printing. The first printing office in this state was established at Westminster, in the summer of 1778, by J. P. Spooner, and T. Green. The first Newspaper, was commenced at Westmins- ter, in February, 1781, by Messrs. Spooner and Green. It was called the Vermont Gazette, or Green Mountain Post Boy, and its motto, which it is hoped will always truly characterize our state, was as follows : " Pliant as reeds where streams of freodom glide ; Firm as the hills to stem oppression's tide." This paper was published weekly, on a sheet the size af our common writing paper, and was continued near- ly two years. The second Newspaper was commenced at Benning- ton, on the fifth of June 1783, by Anthony Haswell and David Russell. It v^as called the Vermont Gazette, or Freeman^s Dejwsitory, and has continued, with some change, in the name, down to the present time. The third paper was the Vermont Journal, con'^menced at Windsor, on the seventh of August, 1783. 9. Religion. Christianity is clearly recognized in the constitution of Vermont, and in the subsequent acts of the Legislature, as the religion of the state and the Bible is recognized as embracing the principles and doctrines af Christianity, or the revealed v/ill of God.. Among the first transactions of the Legislature of the state, we find resolutions and laws relating to the due observance of the Lord's day as the Christian Sabbath. But while Christianity is plainly admitted to be the religion of the state, and while the moral precepts of the Bible, are the acknowledged basis of legislative enactments, and while some kind of religious worship, regulated b-y the word of God, is enjoined upon all, government has wisely left the particular modes of When was the first printing ofRce eatablished ?— the firPt newspaper printed? — what its name'? — motio?— how long rout inued?— its size ?— When and where ttio ficcond ? — the third!— What is the reliu'ion of ilie state 7— How does this njj- vieai ]— What is said ol modes of worship aud rej^'ulation of chuichcd 1— Whut PUnLIC INSTRUCTION. 127 worship, and the internal regulation of churches to the judgment and consciences of individuals, provided they do not interfere with the right of others, or cor- rupt the morals and good order of society. The principal religious denominations in the state, are congregationalists, methodists, baptists, episcopa- lians, freewill baptists, christians, universalists, roman catholics and unitarians. 10. Congregationalists. The Congregational church in Bennington, was the first church organization within the limits of Vermont, and the congregational church at New^bury was the second. The former was organ- ized on the third of December 1762, and the latter in the fall of 1764. The whole number of congregational churches, which had been organized at the commence- ment of the revolution, was thirteen. The congregational churches in the different sections of the state, are formed into associations, consociations and conferences. The associations consist of ministers, who associate, adopt a constitution and by-laws, and hold meeting8 for mutual improvement. The consociations consist of a pastor and one delegate, or two delegates where there is no pastor, from each church within their limits, who meet annually to hear reports on the state of religion and devise measures to promote the interests of the churches. The conferences are organizations by counties in those parts of the state, in which consociations have not been formed, and their business and object are nearly the same as of the consociations. Once each year there is a convention of delegates from the several associations, consociations and con- are the principal denominations ? — What was the first church formed in Vt. 1 — Bocond? — How many congregational churches before the revolution? — Whator- ganizatiou3 in the state 7 — What are the associations ?—tiie consociations 1 — iho conltjreucga ]— WU4t convcuiiou ?— How many churchea '/— aunistcitj ?— What 128 POLITICAL GEOURAPHV. ferences, to adopt measures to promote the interests of religion and of the denomination. There are in the state two hundred congregational churches, nearly two hundred ministers, and about twenty-three thousand communicants. TJie Vermont Chronicle, is the organ of this denomination in the state. 11. Methodises. The first methodist church in Vermont, was organized at Vershire in 1796. In the course of a year from that time, churches were organized in Barre and Barnard. In 1798, churches were formed on the w^est side of the mountains. The present number of communicants in the metho- dist episcopal church in Vermont is about 17000. and their local and travelling ministers together number about two hundred and fifty. This denomination have under their patronage and control two flourishing literary institutions, one at Newbury, called the Newbury Seminary, and the other at Poultney, called the Troy Conference Academy. A portion of the methodist in this state, disapprove of the government of the methodist episcopal church, and have separated from it, under the name of pro- testant methodists, or Wesleyans. 12. Baptists. The first Baptist church in Vermont, was organized in Shaftsbury in 1768, and in 1790 there were thirty-five organized churches and sixteen hundred communicants. The Baptist churches in the different sections of the state, are organized into associations, of which there are nine. In 1823 a general convention was planned and organized in aid of domestic and foreign mis- sions. TTieriodical .'—When and where was the first methodist church organized in Vt. •— What others followed? — What number of communicants in Vt. — How many min- isters ?— V^^hat literary iastituuons 7— What separations have (aken place ?-When ?.nd where was the first baptist church formed ?— How many in 1790 ?— Plow md- rUlJLIG INeTRUCTIOPC. 1^ The number of baptist churches in Vermont, is about one hundred and forty, and the number of communi- cants about 12.000. They have several seminaries vrhich are principally under their patronage and con- trol ; among which are the Vermont Literary and Sci- entific Institution at Brandon, the Black river Academy at Ludlow, the Leland School at Townshend and the Derby Institute at Derby. 13. Episcopalians.The first protestant episcopal church- es in Vermont, were organized at Arlington and Man- chester before the revolution. The first church edi- fice was built at Arlington, in 1786. The first episcopal convention vfas held in 1790, when Vermont became organized as a diocese. From 1811 to 1832, this diocese constituted a part of what was called the eastern diocese, but in 1S32 it with- drew^ from that connexion and elected a bishop of its own. The convention, which consists of the bishop,' the parochial clergy and delegates from the several churches, meets annually to make regulations and adopt measures for the good of the church. The number of episcopal churches in the diocese is thirty-one, the number of ministers twenty-one, and the number of communicants about fifteen hundred. - 14. Freewill Baptists. The first freewill baptist church was organized in Strafford, in 1794. The churches are formed into several associations. Delegates from the associated churches meet once in three months, forming a Ciuarterly Meeting, at which re- ports are made respecting the condition of the several churches. Delegates from the several quarterly meet- ny associaiions? — When was their .eeneral convention orffanized? — IIow many haptists churches'? — communicants? — What Beminaries" kave thev ? — What IS said of the first episcojiai churches Id Vt.?— the first church edifice"?— Ihc first episcopal convention ] — i{o\v lows was Vt. a part ol" the eastern diocese ? — When elect a bishop ?— Of what does the convcuiion consist? Wliat the number of churches ? — ministers ?— coHiinmiicants? — What is said oftlio christiaufj 7— When was llio freo-will baptist chnrch formed m Vt.— How arc ti»o churchoa aseociatedf V.^'J rOM7'ICAL GKOORArnV ings, meet annually, forming a Yearly Aleeting. There is also a General Conference, -which meets once in two years. The number of free-will baptist churches is about one hundred, ministers about seventy and communicants about forty-fi\'-e hundred. 15. Christians. The first church of this order in Ver- mont, was formed at Lyndon, in 1801. They are called by this general title because tliey reject all those sum- maries of Christian faith by which the distinctions of the different denominations arc kept up. The number of preachers and churches is between thirty and forty. 16. Univevsalists. The universalists hare about ninety societies and about forty preachers. There is a gene- ral convention of the universalists in Vermont, wdiich meets once a year. They also have a weekly paper, the Universalist Watchman, devoted to their inter- ests. 17. Roman Catholics. The roman catholics have seve- ral large congregations in the state, paiticularly at Bur- I lington and St. Albans. Three or four churches have ' been built, and they have about the same number of ministers. The church members amount to several tliousands, who are mostly foreignei^. IS. Unitarians. There ai'e five or six. unitarian soci- eties in the state and three ministers. What meciinirs.'— :he ' niimher of chiirchosi ?— ministers ? — commiinic.-ints 1 ie said of ilie uuiveralisis ]— What is said of ihc roman cailiolics ?— of tiio uuiia- liaus ? CnARACTEll OF THE PEOPLE The first civilized inhabitants permanently settled ill Vermont, were emigrants from the older parts of New England, and were almost wholly of English or 8cotch descent. At the time the settlement was com- menced, this whole tract of country was covered by an immense unbroken forest, inhabited only by wildbeasts and traversed by merciless Indians, some of whom had their lodo^es upon the upper parts of Com^ecticut river and on the shores and islands of lake Champlain. It rould not, therefore, be expected that any but the most s5old and enterprising, would x^enture to e:s;pose them- selves to the dangers and hardships of establishing themselves here ; and as these were, for the most part, men of smyll fortunes and large families, the labor re- quired in subduing the forests, cultivating the soil and providing the means of subsistence, left them little leisure for the improvement of their minds, or the re- finement of their manners. Hence, as might he expec- ted, their characters partook much of the boldness and roughness of the mountain and forest scen-ery, in the midst of which they resided. Being compelled, on ac- count of their exposed situation, to face dangers of various kinds, and being accustomed to remove obsta- cles and surmount difficulties by their personal exer- tions, they soon acquired unlimited confidence in their own abilities, and imbibed the -loftiest notions of liber- ty and independence. These traits of their general character were fully displayed during those vexatious ;n.nd perplexing controversies in which they were, for twenty seven years, constantly involved; and thej^ have at all subsequent periods, marked their proceedings iia the council and in the field. Though the fathers of Vermont were not liberrjlij iS2 rOLITfCAL GEOGRAFIi¥ = educated, most of them had sliarcd to sonic extent, in the benefits of that excellent system of common school education, for which New-England h>ts always been distinguished; and though not learned, few of them ■were wholly illiterate. Nearly all were able to road and write a fair hand, and were sufficiently acquain- ted with the common rules of arithmetic to become correct accountants. Few of them were versed in the rules of grammar, but they all had sufficient knowledge of their mother tongue to be able to make their niccuiing' understood, and many there were among them who could wield with effect, either the qiUIL or the sword, or the cuve, as circumstances required. The writings of these men, their first attempts at legislation and various other memorials, which have been handed down to us, afford conclusive proof of the possession of intellect and talent of a high order. But they were like the marble from the quarry, roughly hevvm, which exhibits the strength and value of the material, but in which the delicate veins, and colors, and shades have not been brought out and exhibited in all their pleas- ing variety by the skill of the polisher. Among the inhabitants of this state, an equality in [)oint of rank and property, and a sense of mutual de- pendence, have very generally prevailed, which have been higlily favorable to the exercise of the social vir- tues and tlie friendly feelings of the heart. The Ver- monters have hitherto been distinguished for their kindness among themselves — for their attention and liospltality to strangers, and for their benevolence to tlie suffering and needy, both at home and abroad ; and it is to be lamented, and we fear, without being rem- edied, that the growing inequalities and distinctions of rank and property, are beginning to throw a chill over those gushing feelings of philanthropy, which warmed ihe hearts, animated the countenances and blended the ?,yn"i.pai]ii('3 of tlie eailicr Inhabitants vi our land. CHARACTEtt or THE PEOPLE. lS3 The female sex in Vermont may be recommended as patterns of industry and economy. They are nearly all habituated to household labors from their childhood, and they in general pride themselves much on account of their neatness and the management of their domes- tic affairs. They are accustomed to regard the family as the sphere, which they were particularly designed to occupy, and here they usually appear to the best ad- vantage. In common with the other sex, they are all permitted to share in the benefits of common school instruction, but, till recently, very few have had An opportunity to extend their education to the po- lite accomplishments ; and it is pleasing to observe, that parents now are not generally disposed to indulge their daughters in the pursuit of the ornamental, to the neg- lect of the solid and more useful branches of learn- ing. It is undoubtedly the duty of all parents, in training up and educating their daughters, to make it the pri- mary object to fit them, not to shine and gain admira- tion at the opera, the assembly, or at public spectacles, but for the proper discharge of their duties as daugh- ters and wives and mothers ; which alone can mako them truly happy. It is not the outward adorning of dress and plaiting the hair, nor even the mere cultiva- tion of taste and intellect and refinement of manners, however proper and desirable these may be, which make* woman what she should be j but it is the training of them up in the knowledge and practice of their do- mestic and relative — their moral and religious du- ties. 12 STATE OF VERMONT. PART THIRD. GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. I. ADDISON COUNTY. Incorporated, October 18, 1785 First settlement, - - - 1731 Population in 1840, - - 25,087 Number of towns. Square miles, - - Pop. to square mile, 23 719 35 TOWNS. Towns. Chartered. Set- ! tied, i . 1 Orga- nized Pop. in 1S40. Sq. 1 miles Pop. to sq. mile. Grand Li..ow,. ^^v.aly incorporated ■?— settled '—popu'litioB ?—to\ms.' square mile? ?— population to a square mile •?— Which town first chanered ?— firet organized? most populous .'--wealthiest 7 ar is ? 140 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. in places to such a degree as to make the soil stiff and hard to till, but it is generally very producitive. The eastern part of the county lies upon the Green Mounr- tains, and is less suited to tillage, but furnishes excel- lent pasturage. Very fine horses are raised in this county. The productions according to the returns of 1840 were as follows : Horses, - 5.425. Rye, bushels, 11,437. Cattle, - 39,718. Buckwheat, " 7,219. Sheep, - 261,010. Indian Corn, " 95,304. Swine, - 14,305. Potatoes, " 440|079. Wheat,bushels,31,322. Hay, tons, 111,120. Barley " - 225. Maple Sugar lbs. 132,013. Oats " - 141,794. Wool, - •' 676,969. Villages. Middlebury and Vergennes are the two principal places in this county, and are both situated on Otter creek. Vergennes, though not so large as some of the other villages in the etata, has a city charter and a city or- ganization. It is situated at the lower falls on Otter creek, which furnish an abundance of available water power. The city charter embraces a territory a littlo more than one mile square. Middlebury is twelve miles south east from Ver- gennes, and is the shire town of the county. It contains four or five churches, several cotton and woollen fac^ tories, and the edifices of Middlebury College. The Burlington and Rutland rail road passes through both of the above villages. Education. Middlebury college (see page 123,) is sit- uated in the centre of the county, and has exerted a good influence over the the educational interests of the neighborhood. There is also a respectable female sem- inary in Middlebury. . of th« eastern parts T IIow many hor««8 in 1840 .'— cattl* 7— sheep ? &c. Which are the principal places t What is eaid of Vergennes ?— of MiUdUbury )-- of educa- ADDI30N COUNTY. l4^ The number of common schools in the county is 197, and they are, many of them, of high order for schools of that class. Pursuits. The pursuits are chiefly agricultural. In the census of 1840, the returns show that 100 were en- gaged in commerce, 1,076 in manufactures and trades, and 116 in the learned professions. The production of wool has been a favorite pursuit. History. The first civilized establishment on the west side of the Green Mountains, within the present limits of Vermont, was made at the place now called Chimney Point, in the town of Addison. It was made by the French, in 1731, the same year in which they built fort Frederick, which was afterwards called Crown Point. The establishment at Chimney point consisted of a number of small dwellings, and a large stone windmill, which served the double purpose of a mill to grind meal for the little settlement and garrison and a fort to de- fend them from the enemy, for in it were six cannon mounted for service. Chimney point is probably indebted for its name, to the ruins of this mill, they having been mistaken by tho early American settler's for the remains of chimneys. The French abandoned Chimney point in 1759, but no settlements were made within the county by emigrants from other parts of New England, till 1769, when a settlement was effected in what is now Waltham and a saw mill was erected upon the falls in Otter creek now in Vergennes. Settlements were made in Middle- bury and some other towns in 1773, and 1774. During the revolution,after the British got possession of lake Champlain in 1776, the settlements within the county were all abandoned. But at the close of the war in 1783, the settlements were renewed, and, in the course tioni— of common schools? Wl.at is said of the pursuits ? What the first civil- ilized establishment 1 When? What is said of Chimney point?— its name?— When abandoned by the French ?— When the first English settlement ?— What look placj) during the wur ?— at tho close of the war ?— What did the coonty em- 142 ADDISON COUNTY. of two or three years they were in progress in most of the towns in the central and western parts of the county. When Addison county was incorporated, in 1785, it embraced all the territory in Vermont on the west side of the mountains, to the northward of Rutland county. When Chittenden county was incorporated two years after, Addison county was restricted to very nearly its present limits. II. BENNINGTON COUNTY. Incorporated, Feb. 11. - 1779 First settlement, - - 1761 Population in 1840, - 16,872 Number of towtls, . - 17 Square miles, - - - - 612 Population lo square mile, 27^ TO NWS. Towns. Chartered. Set- tled. 1763 Orga- nized 1768 Pop. in 1S40. Sq. miloR Pop. to sq. mile. Gr. List, 18:37. 1. Arlington, jjuly 28, 1761 1,038 39 26| 3,873 2. Bennington'Jan, 3, 1759 1761 1762 3,429 39 87§ 10,566 S.Dorset, [y Aug. 20, 1761 1768 1769 1,426 41 34g- 3,561 4, Glastenbur!Aug.20, 1761 53 40 n 172 5. Landgrove;Nov. 8, 1780 1769 1800 344 8 43 532 6. Manchester Auart ?— southern 7— What is said WollojJiecoik 7 What ia BQ.id ol' falls / What caves in Dorset 't BENNINGTOM COUNTY. 145 Geology. The rocks of all the western and central parts of the county belong to the Taconic group. Those of Rupert Sandgate, Arlington, the greater part of Shaftsbury and the northwestern corner of Benning- ton, are magnesian slate. East of this, extending from Pownal to Dorset, is the range of Stockbridge lime- stone. Adjacent to this limestone, still farther east, is the range of quartz rock of the Taconic system. The rocks of the remainder of the county lying east of a line extending from the centre of Stamford to the cen- tre of Peru, are Green Mountain gneiss. In the range of Stockbridge limestone in this county, quarries of marble have been opened in various pla- ces. The quarries in Dorset have been most extensive- ly wrought. This marble is white, and because sawed in Manchester, is often called Manchester marble. Ores. Iron ore, (brown hematite) is found in Benning- ton, Manchester and Dorset. The most extensive iron works are in the east part of Bennington, and the ore used in them is obtained from two beds, one near the works, and the other in the western part of the town. The black earthy oxide of manganese is found in great abundance in Bennington, in connexion with the iron ore. Ochre is also found in Bennington, and about 500 tons of it are prepared and sent to market an- nually. Building Materials. The range of Stockbridge lime- stone furnishes an abundance of goodbuilding stone, and in most parts there is a plenty of clay and sand for bricks. Clay. Besides the common brown or blue clay, there are in this county several beds of white or jiipe clay^ of- ten called Kaolin. These beds are also sometimes called putty-beds. In Bennington ?— in Manchester ? What rocks in the western and central parts ■? What their order ? What to the eastward 1 What is said of the limestone .'— marble ? Where is iron ore found ? Where abnndant ? What is said of the ox- ide of manganese ?— of ochrc 7— of tjuildius materials .'—clay ; liW GEOGBAPHY BY COUNTIES. One of these beds, in the east part of Bennington, supplies an extensire manufactory of fire-bricks, and stone ware, in tlie east village in that town. K3oil and Productions. A considerable proportion of this county is mountainous and broken, and suitable on- ly for grazing. But there are in the vallies and on tha slopes, large tracts of excellent tillage lands from which good crops are obtained. The statistics of the last census show tliat ther«t were in 1840 Horses - - - - 3 3y7 Rye. bush. - - - 25 671 Cattle - _ - - 1G.S79 Buckwheat - - - 1G.071 Sheep , - - - J0i,721 Indian Corn - - 70 245 Swine - - - - 9^906 Potatoes - - 5G1279 l\nieat, busb. - - 12 959 Hay, ton« - - - 42 907 Jiarley, do - - 1.513 Maple sugar lbs. 180,986 Oats "do - - 137 S37 Wool do 223 'g7 4 Manufactures. Those consist principally of iron, and cotton and woollen goods. The iron produced in 1S40, was 1.829 tons. There were then in the county, 5 furnaces and 8 vrooUen and 3 cotton factories. Pursuiis. In 1840, according to the returns of tho census, there were in this county 3^097 engaged in ag- riculture, 83 in commerce, 945 in manufactures and trades and 81 in the learned professions. Villages. Tho }^>rinoipal villages are in Bennington, Manchester and Arlington. In Bennington there are several villages. The most important of these, are Ben- nington Ckuitre and the East village. The East village is largest, but the county buildings are at the Centre. Education. The number of school -districts in this county 146 and the number of children between 4 and IS years of age is about 5700. There are flourishing academies at Bennington and Manchester. Union Acad- V/hai is nia'l«^ ofit 7 Whnl is sai:l of soil ? &-f. How manyhorsps 7 A-.c. What iss.-ii.l of niamirac(iir«s ? — of iha pursuiis ' What are the "prin-ipal villages?— W-hst ihc numJi-T of ^rh'-ii! tli?;rir!?.-- «'!if>lar5.' Whnt academics ? DENNINGTOX COHNTT. 1 i7 emy cd Bennington is under the patronage of the Bap- tist denomination. Bicrr Seminary^ at Manchester, owes it« existence to the munificence of thie late Joseph Burr, Esq. In the distribution by his will of his large estate in 1828, he loft $10,000 to found a literary institution in Manches- ter. The institution was incorporated Oct. 28, 1829, and the school commenced in May 1833. IJislory. The first township chartered within the state ; and the first permanent settlement in Vermont on the west side of the mountains, was in Bennington county in the town of Bennington, in the spring of 1761. In this county was formed the first organized opposi- tion to the claims of New-York to the territory called the New-Hampshire grants. In this county the coun- cil of safety held its meetings previous to the forma- tion of the state government. On the west line of this county, on the IGth of Aug., 1777, was fought the celebrated Bennington battle, which gave the first check to the proud career of Bur- goyne. The trophies of that battle were, in part, four brass field pieces, two of which have by the generosity of the general government, been recently placed in the Capitol of Vermont at Montpelier, there to remain as monuments of the valor of the Green Mountain Boys. The first Christian church formed vv^ithin the present limits of Vermont, was the Congregational church in Bennington, which v/as organized Dec. 2, 1762 ; and the first settled minister was the Rev. Jedediah Dewey, who was settled over this church in the fail of 1763. What iaeaid ef Burr SeHQinary? Which was the first township graa:ed «nd psrmanently settled ia the western part of the state ? What tosk place her* 1 — what near the west line ot'the coiiiuy ? Where are two olthe field pieces ] Whcu aud wher« was the first church Ibrnied in Vt. 7 — minister settled'? 148 GEOGRAPHT BT COL'NTIHS. III. CALEDONIA COUNTY. Incorporated Nov. 5, First settlement, - Population in 1840, 1792 I Number of towns, 1,770 Square miles, - 21,891 I Pop. to the square mile. 18 640 34 TOWNS. S«t- [Orga- Pop. in Sq. Pop. 10 Gr. L1.SI., tled. uized ISIO. miles sq. mile. isi7. i 1 . Barnet, Sept 15,1763;i770!l783 Jan. 27, 17yi| | 2,030 40 51 $4,857 2. Bradleyvale, 50 6 8 3. Burke, Feb. 26, 1782; 17904 796 997 36 28 2,281 4. Cabot, Nov. 6, 1780; 1785 1,440 36 40 3,169 5. Danville, Oct 31, 1786 1785 1787 2,633 44 60 6.220 6. Groton, Oct. 20,17891787 1797 928 38 24* 1>26 7, Hard wick, Aug.l9, 1781 1790 1795 1,354 36 37| 3,778 8. Kirby, Oct. 27,179017991807 520 19 27:^ 1,185 9. Lyndon, Nov. 20, 178017881791 1,753 36 49 4,746 10. Newark, Aug.l5, 1781 ; 1800 360 36 10 684 11. Peacham, Dec. 31, 1763 1775 1,443 40 36 4,781 12. Ryegate, Sep. 8, 1763 17741 1,223 34 36 3,006 I3.St..Tohnsbury Nov. 1,1786478611790 1,887 35 54 6.234 14. Sheffield, Nov. 7,1780 821 35 23^ 1,371 J 5. Sutton, Feb. 6, 17821791 1,068 36 1,923 16. Walden, Aug. 18, 17814 78911794 813 36 25| 38§ 1,962 17. Waterford, Nov. 8,178017874793 1,388 36 3,471 18. Wheelock, June 14, 178517904792 881 36 24^ 8 320 Goshen & Harris' Gores. ■ 202 25 21,891 64U 34 51,723 Situation. Caledonia county is situated, in the north- eastern section of the State, and embraces the terri- tory watered by the Passumpsic, and by the head branches of Winooski and Lamoille rivers. Boundaries. It is bounded north by Orleans county, east by Essex county and Connecticut river, south by Orange county, and west by Washington, Lamoille, and Orleans counties. Extent. The extreme length of this county from north to south is about 40 miles, and its width is about When was Caletlonia county incorporatedj?— settled ?— population ? Number of towns?— .square miles ? Population to square mile ?— Which town first settled ?— most populous .' — most wealthy ? &c. How situated .^ How bounded.' Whattlis extcut 7— area 7— number of towas ? CALEDONIA COUNTY. 119 A Connectisui, Rivur. K Wells River, L Paccuiiipiic liiver. 2S miles. Its area is 640 square miles. It is divided into 18 townships and tliree small gores. Shire Town. — Danrille. Surface. Much of this county is quite elevated, con- stituting what is called the height of lands, but the surface is less broken than that of several other coun- ties in the State. There are no mountains within the county worthy of particular notice. The heights of several points in this county above the mouth of Passumpsic river were determined by the surveys, made by De Witt Clinton, between 1825 and 1S30, to ascertain the practicability of a canal route from Connecticut river to lake Memphremagog. The Shire town ? What is said of the Bcertaiiiei 13* iurface? How were the height? inentionci 1228 feet lOSO 1043 840 746 209 634 100 68 28 .« 150 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. mouth of the Passumpsic is supposed to be 449 feet above tide vv'ater ; this number being added to the num- bers below will, if correct, give the heights of the seve- ral places above the sea: — Ly ford's pond, Walden, Joe's Pond, Cabot, - - » Onion river, pond, Peacham, Keezers pond, Danville, Savanna j^ond, Sutton, Cahoon mill dam, Lyndon, Wells river pond, Groton, Ramsey's mill dam, St. Johnsbury, Mouth of Moose river, " " of Joe's brook, Barnet, Streams. The southwestern part of the county is wa- tered by Wells river; but full three-fourths of the coun- ty are watered by the Passumpsic and its branches. The most important branches of the Passumpsic are Moose river and Joe's brook, or Merritt's river. The former rises in Essex county, and is about 24 miles long. The latter originates in Cole's pond, in Walden, passes through Joe's pond, and joins the Passumpsic in Barnet. The Yvanooski, Lamoille, and Barton river, all receire Waters from this county. The streams fur- Hish conrenient water power in all parts of the county. The mill privileges at the outlet of Joe's pond are re- markably good. Ponds. Ponds are numerous in this county. The most important are: — Joe's pond. Cole's pond, Wells river pond and Harvey's pond. The following is a list of the principal ponds, their areas and height above tide : — Joe's pond, Cabot, 1000 acres, 1529 feet. Molly's pond, Cabot, GO " 1611 " Cole's " Walden, Lyford's " " 1677 " Wkat tb« liigkcst pond 1 Hew situated 7 Describe th« Pasjumpsic and its braucUes ? Wkat rirwrs ride i» th« county ? What mill privileges mentioned i— What pondfl ? What the hize and lenjith if Joe'« poud \ &.<:. CALEDONIA COUNTY. 151 Onion river pond, Peacham, 300 acres,. 1492 « Hosmer's - 250 ;( V/ells river a Groton, 800 " 1083 '• Little a u ' 100 u Stiles a Waterford. 100 u Harvey's a Barnet, 300 iC Ross' a '' 100 (I Sp7^ing-s. The only s])ring in tJiis county which has attracted attention is in Hardwick. and is thought to be efficacious in some cutaneous complaints. Geology. The rocks of Caledonia are primitive, and belong to the calcareo-mica slate formation, but granite has been forced up through this formation in numer- ous places, and the rock in the southwestern parts, embracing the greater part of Groton and Peacham, and the western part of Danville, and eastern part of Cabot, are almost exclusively granite. Large quanti- ties of granite are likewise found in Walden, Hardwick, and Ryegate. Much of the rock in Cabot, Walden, and Wheelock, is hornblende slate, and there is a range of clay slate, which forms high bluffs along Connecticut river, and extends north through Waterford and Kirby. Dikes. Greenstone and granite dikes are not uncom- mon. One of the former in Barnet, near the mouth of the Passumpsic, acquired some notoriety for a time on account of being mistaken for a vein of iron ore. Marl. The deposits of shell marl in this county are very numerous ; more numerous probably than in any other county in the state; and several of them are quit© extensive. The greater part of these beds are cofered with a thick layer of black muck, but several of them are covered immediately by the water with no muck intervening. The shell which appear most abundant in some of these beds, is a large species of cyclas. Fig. 39. What springs "? What said of iafiisorial silica 1 What is said ef th« rocks ^^{ granite 1 Where is hornblende slate found ?— clay slate ^ What is said of dilies 7 — ol shell marl ?— of the beds ? of shells ? 152 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. not easily tilled, but is good ^or grazing. The statistics in 1840 were as follows : — Horses, - - 5.852 Indian Corn, - 52,250 Cattle, - - 32.668 Rye, bush., 1,799 Sheep, - - 100,886 Buckwheat, - 12.005 Swine, - - 18.991 Potatoes, - - 1.066.848 Wheat, bush., - 52^109 Hay, tons, - ' 67:077 Barley, - - 12,291 Maple Sugar, lbs., 665.397 Oats, bush., - 342,433 Wool, - '• lS3:i9S What of iron ore?— of minerals? What minerals mentioned.' What fo.?silsnre found ? What ia said of buiiding materials ? What do the returno of ISIO Gho\v ,' In Hosmer's pond in Peacham there is a deposit o( infusorial silica, which is a white substance resembling marl in appearance, but consists of silex instead of lime. It is made up of the shields of so very minute animalcules that it would take many billions of them to make a cubic inch. It has already been described on page 52. Ores. Iron ore has been found in Waterford, and in small quantities at some other places, but no large de- posits have yet been discovered. Minerals. This county furnishes a considerable va- riety of interesting minerals, among which are ensi- form crystals of feldspar, staurotide, garnet and horn- blende in Cabot ; the first near Joe's pond, and the others in tlie hornblende slate, a little below the lower village, 1 near the road to Montpelier. In Walden are found j large quantities of stellar crystals of hornblende in a dark arenaceous limestone. About two miles south of Danville village there is a seam of impure plumbago or black lead. Soil and Productions. The soil along the Passumpsic j is inclined to sand, but is easily tilled and productive* Westward from this stream, till the granite is reached ; in the western part of Danville and Peacham, there is a greater mixture of clay and lime, and the soil is very rich and strong. The region of granite is rough and !| CALEDONIA CODNTY. r53 Fossils. The fossils are those of the marl beds, con- sisting mostly of the genera, planorbis, limnaea and cyclas, and those of the infusorial silica, in which more than a dozen known species have been recognized. Buildmg- Materials. Granite, either in place or in large boulders, and of the best quality is found in vari- ous parts of the county. One of the' most interesting quarries is in what is called Blue mountain in Rye- gate. The stone is divided by seams into beds, or plates, which may be easily raised, of almost any required thickness or dimensions. Deposits of clay and sand are found in most parts of the county. Fin^suits. The returns of 1840 show that 6004 in this county were engaged in Agriculture, 913 in manufac- tures and trades, and 103 in the learned professions. Villages. The villages are all small. The principal are Danville, St. Johnsbury, Barnet, Lyndon and Cabot. Danville is the shire tov.m. The village is on elevated ground in the midst of a beautiful farming country. It contains the county buildings, an a acad- emy and three churches. Education. The number of school districts is 221, and the nnmber of scholars between 4 and 18 years of age, 7027, or about 33 to each district. The average length of the schools is 21 weeks. in the year. Caledonia county grammar school was located at Peacham in 1795, and has been one of our most useful academies. Philips academy was incorporated at Dan- ville in 1840. History. The first settlement within this county was made in Barnet, in 1770, by Jacob, Elijah and Daniel Hall, and Jonathan Fowler. The 'first gristmill was built in the sam« town irf 1772, by Enos Stevens. In 1774, settlements were commenced ia Ryegate by emi- grants from Scotland. In 177G, General Bailey commenced making a road from Newbury through Peacham, towatds Canada, and in 1779, General Hazen continued thts road through Cabot, lYalden, &c. to Lowell. The object of this road was said to be to enable the United States to send an army into Canada. This road was of great service in the first settlement of the northern parts of the state, What is said of villayeB?— the principal? — Danville? "What, the number of school districts ''—scholars ?— len^jth of school .-'— grammar schools ? When, "where »nd bj whom was the first sfttlemeiit muds i 151 QgOQRAPHY BY COUNTIES, and was generally known by the name of the llazen Road. Settlements were begun in Poacham in 17S0, and this being the frontier post, a small block house was built and crarrisoned by a sergeant's guard. Th4s guard was however Avithdrawn in the fall, and the settlers left to look out for themselves. In March following a party of the enemy from Canada came upon them car- ried off a number of prisoners, among whom were Col. Thomas Johnson of Newbury, Jacob Page, and Col. Jonathan Elkins. Col. Elkins was carried a pris- oner to England, but subseq^uently returned and resid- ed in Peacham. IV. CHITTENDEN COUNTY. Incorporated, October 22, 3 737 First settlement, - - - 1774. Population in 3 840, - - 22,977 Number of towns, - . - 15 Square miles, ----- 485 Pop. to the square mile, - - 47| Towns. Chartered. Set- tled. Orga- nized ''?£o." Sq.. miles Pop. to 6q. mile. (ir. List] lSi7. j 1. Bolton, June 7, 17631 470 44 11 §1,001 2. Burlington, .Tune 7, 1763 177J 1787 4.271 26 164 18.247 3. Charlotte, .Tune 24, 1762 1784 1,620 38 43 5.755 . 4. Colchester, June 7,17631774 1791 1 ,739 31 56 5,306 5. Essex, .Tune 7,1763178311786 1,824 36 51 4,183 6. Hincsburgh, .Tune 21, 17621783 1787 1.682 36 47 4,622 7. Huntington, June 7,17631786171)0 914 24 38 1,813 S.Jericho, iTune 8,1763177411786 1.68.5 28 60 4,699 9. ?.Iil;on, June S, 17631782!17S8 2,134 40 33 5,819 10. Richmond, 17941784|l7l}5 1,054 27 39 3,305 11. Shelbume, Aug 18,1763177411787 1,098 24 AQ 4,032 12. St. George, Aug. 13, 17631784'1813 121 3 40 360 13. Unclerhill, .Tune 8, ]7631786ll7D5 1,441 46 32 2,254 14. Wcstford, June 8, 17G3i | 1,352 36 38 2.648 15. Williston, Jitfc 7,17631774 1786 1,554 34 46 4,883 Bucl's & Ave- ry's Gore, - - - 18 9 2 22,977 485 47^ 68,925 The first mill built ? What \& said of Ryegate ?— of the Ilazen Read ?— its object 1 Wkat took place in Peacbam ? When was Cliittenden county incorporatpd .'— Mttled'J — population? — numher townsi — square milea .''—population to squar* Hiilo.* Whicli tOTTD first staled 1— organized ? «tc. CHITTENDEN COUNTT. i55 .J A I.iiks r;K';v:p!a:;:. K Lahu.ille River. S Winoojki KiTGr. Mtuation. Chittenden count>MS situated in the north •ivestern part of the state, and borders on lake Cham- plain. Boundaries. It is bounded on the north by Franklh <"onnty, east by Lamoille and \Yashington counties, soTith b/ Addison county and Vv^est by lake Chana- plain. Extent. This county is 30 miles lon.^ from nortii to south, and 22 miles wide from east to west, and contains 485 square miles. Tins territory is divided into 15 town- S!iips and two small gDres. Shire Town. 13ur]mf::ton. 'Surface. The surface of this county, though consid- erably diversified, presents a gradual elevation from IIovv If! Chiiten len county situated? — bonnded?— extern! — number of lowns?*— - *cuajx iniks 7— shire? Wltal the surfor* ?r 156 GEOGEAPHT BY COUNTIES. the shore of hike Champlain to the highest summit nf the Green Mountains. There are some con^-iderabh tracts in the western parts which may be called level, but most of the land lies in swells and acclivities which. in the eastern part, rises into mountains. The alluvial fiats along: Yv'^inooski river, are fertile and beautiful, and are considerably extensive, particularly in Burlington, Colchester and Richmond. Mountains. The eastern boundary of this county pas- ses over the summits of some of the most lofty eleva- tions in the state. These are the several peaks of the Mansfield mountains and Camel's Hump. The Mans- field mountains were originally within the township of Mansfield. That part of Mansfield lying west of t];ie summits of these mountains was annexed to Under- bill. Camel's Hump lies on the line between Hunting- ton and Duxbury, in the county of Vv^ashington. The following are the heights of several places in this county, above lake Champlain, which have been ascertained by measurement. Snake Hill, Milton, Cobble Hill "... Sugar Loaf Charlotte Underbill Flat Church at Jericho Corners Essex Village University of Vermont Court House Burlington, (beginning of brick work) . ' . Church at Winooski village Church at Williston .... Richmond village (R. Road Survey) 242 " Rivers. Chittenden county is well watered. The riv- er Lamoille passes through the north western part, the Laplot waters the southern part, wliile the Winooski river runs through the county near the centre, in. a north western direction, and falls into the lake/Tour Western part ?— flats ?— of the eastern boiindar)' ? What summits ?— in what towns 1 What the height of Snake hill '—Cobble .'—Sugar Loaf? drc. How \\iirrcf" 7- in r.ortiT ?- sourh wert ? 822 fe 737 '• 913 •' 575 f' 514 " 3G2 «' 277 '. 112 '•' 113 '■• 312 '- CHITTE-NUEN COCXTY. lo'i miles in a straight line northwesterly from the village of Burlington. The northeastern part of the county is watered by Brown's river, which rises in Underhill, and taking a circuit through Jericho, Essex and Westford, falls into the river Lamoille in Fairfax, in Franklin covmty. The southeastern part is watered by Hunting- ton river, which rises in Avery's and Buel's gore, runs through Huntington, and falls into Winooski river in Richmond. The streams furnish an abundance of water for mills and manufactories in all parts of the county, and par- ticularly at the falls in Lajiioille river in Milton and Winooski falls, between Burlington and Colchester. Fallu. The most interesting falls in this county, are the Great falls, in Milton, and Winooski falls. The for- mer are at present unoccupied, and surroundedby wild and romantic scenery. On Winooski falls are a large woollen factory, a cotton factory and a variety of oth- er mills and machinery. Half a mile above these falls the Winooski has cut a channel through the limestone rock for nearly a quarter of a mile in length. Portions of this channel are not more than 70 feet wide at the top und are more than 60 feet deep, having both sides near- ly perpendicular. A bridge has been thrown across the tipper part of this channel, which is generally known as the High Bridge. The vicinity of this bridge is a botanical locality celebrated for rare plants. The Central railroad passes for some distance along the brink of this chasm, and then crosses it twice before reaching the lower end. Ponds. The ponds are small, and not numerous. Shelburne pond and Hinesburgh pond, are the most con- siderable. There is also a pond in Essex, and another in Milton ; the latter contains a large quatity of shell- marl. Central? north east? What is said of the streams ?— falls ? What lallsmcntion- •rH What ©f Winooski falls? What is said of channels?— of High bridge ?— Where does the rail road pass 1 What ponds ?— of the on e in Milton r li 158 C4EGGRAPII¥ BY COUNTIES. Geology. The rocks in the eastern half of this coun- ty are all primary. Those in the western half, belong to the transition, or palaeozoic division. The primary rocks of this county, are mostly talcose slate, being in some parts chloritic. and in others ap- proaching to mica slate. Through Underhill and Jeri- cho, at the foot of the mountains, runs a narrow range of plumbaginous slate. The lowest palaeozoic rock, which appears in this county, is the Trenton limestone. Tliis occupies a small space in the south western part of the county and extends along the lake shore a little to the northward of Mc'Ncil's Ferry in Charlotte. It is succeeded to the east by a small extent of bird's eye limestone. Tlien foliov/s a dark shale, which is succeeded by the red sandrock group. Between the sliale and the sandrock, are occasionally interposed bedsof light blue limestone, of considerable tliickness. This is the case at Charlotte, a little south of Glebe Hill, at Burlington, near Lonerock point, and at Mallet's bay in Colcliestcr. The lower and central portions of the red sandrock group, are, for tlie most part, of a chocolate red color, distinctly stratified, and composed essentially of mi- nute grains of quartz. Above Winooski falls, and at several places in Colchester, the strata, of a thickness of 50 feet, consist entirely of brawn quartz. But in gen- eral the strata in this series become more calcareous in proceeding eastward, till they pass into a very good limestone, This is the case in Colchester, in the east part of Burlington and Shelburne, and the western part of Hinesburgh, at all of which places it is made into excellent quicklime. The palaeozoic rocks in this county are to a great ex- wyiat are the rocks? Wh.nt said of the primary ? What in Undarhill ? What 13 eaid of Trenton litiiostone ? — fTY. 167 txeology. The rocks of the central parts of this coun- ty are mostly granite. In the northern parts extend- ing into Canada, the rocks arc a kind of siliclous slate. In the eastern parts granite. mica slate and quartz rock abound ; while in the southern part chlorite or talcosc slate, is the prevailing rock. In this part near Connec- ticut river are vast accumulations of granite boulders. Dikes. — One of the most remarkable dikes observed in this county, is in the town of Concord. It is in tho talcose slate, is about 6 feet wide and has been traced, nearly in a straight line, about 3 miles in a direct4oa north 32^ east. It has a light color and api^ears like a magnesian limestone. Ores and Minerals, This county has been less thor- oughly explored than any other in the state, and, con- sequently,less is known respecting its mineral produc- tions. Iron ore ha.s been noticed in several places, but no extensive deposits of good ore have been found. There is in Brighton a considerable bed of sulplmret of iron suitable for making copperas. In Maidstone, beneath a bed of muck there is a small deposit of infusorial silica. The shields of 9 or 10 different species of infusorial animalcules have been recognized in this deposit, and aLso the fossil pollen of pine and other trees. Soil and Productions. With the exception of ]i arrow tracts along Connecticut river, and a few patclics in other parts, the soil is hard and gravelly, and not very productive. Statistics of 1840. Horses, - - 1,207 Swine, - - 3,G39 -Cattle, - - 6,837 Wh e at, b u s 1 1 . - llXAl Sheep, - - 14,183 Barley, " - - 2!223 Oats, bush. - 46.485 Potatoes, " - - 235,180 Rye, '' - - 1,537 Hay, tons, - - 13.1G7 J?uck v/heat, bush. 15,070 Maple Sugar, lbs. 99,385 Indian Corn, » - 6,709 Wool, - " 23.605 Wh.u are ihe rocks in the central part ? northern ] — eaptern ? — souihern7 What dike ie described 7 Whac is a dike 7(70) What is said of ores 7— of infusririal ^dep^&it ? — of soil ? How many horees, cattle 7 &c. What, the chief pur^uii /— 168 GEOGRAniY nv carXTiEs. Pursuits. Agriculture is the chief pursuit. In ISh' there were 9 enaraged in- commerce, 90 in trades ana manufactures and 18 in the learried professions. Villages. The villages in tiiis county are all very small. ^ Guildhall, Concord and Lunenburgh are the most considerable. Guildhall is the shire ioicn. Educalion. There are in this county 54 school dis- tricts, in 20 of Vviiich there are 630 scholars. Ilisiory. The iirst settlement was made in this coun- ty in the lower part of Gaiidhall, in 1764, by David Page. Timothy Nash and George Wheeler. The lands on^which they settled Vv'ere then supposed to be in Lunentaurgh. The first settlers suffered severe priva- tions and^hardships. They brought their provisions in canoes from Northfield, Mass., a distance of 1'^ miles, and during the revolution they were constant! annoyed by Indians and tories, who killed their cattl>, plundered tlicir houses and. carried several of the in- habitants into captivity. VI. FRANKLIN COUNTY Incorpoiaied,_Nov. 5. - 1702 First settlement, - - - 1783 Populaiion ill 1840, - - 24,531 Number of towns, - . - 1 ■ Square miles, 5!-^ Pop. to the square mile, - - 44^ TOWNS. Towns. ; Chartered. | S: |S^ l»on. ill 1840. 1,25b Si. miles Pop. lo iGr. Lisu sq. mile.! ISl". 1. BakoisfieldJaii. 25,1791 1789; 42 30 1 2,940 2. ]{erksliire, June 22, 1781 17921794 1,818 36 50Ai 3,238 3. Enosburgh May 15,1780 17971798 2.022 36 56 ; 3,372 4. l^airfax, Auff.lS, 17fi3 1783 1787 1,918 36 . 53 ■ 3,53- 5. Fairtield, Aug. 18, 1763 17c:81790 2,44S 60 41 i 4,066! 6. Fletcher, Aug. 20, 1781 1 1,014 36 28 i 2,135 7. Franklin, .VI ar 0, 1789 17801793 1,410 36 39 1 2,498 8. Georgia, Aug 17,1763 1784 1788 2,106 36 58^' 4,361 9. Highg-ate, Aug. 17,1763 i 2,292 30 76 ! 4,375 lO.lNIontgoiu'v Oct. 8,1789 1793 1802 54S 36 15 i 1,278 11. llicliford, Aug.21, 1780 1797 1799 914 36 25 1; 1,306 12. St. Albans Aurr. 7, 1763 1785'1788 2,702 36 78 I 6,785 13. Sheldon, Aug.18,1763 1790i 1,734 36 AS ! 3,542 |14. S wanton, 3ct. 17, 1763 17871790 2,312 42 55 j 4 ,330 lAverv's Gore. - 1 - 35 15 2| < 24,531 549 44 Jj' 49.7641 FRANKLIN COUNTY. t A Lake (. iictiii]; aiii U Mi-^ibLu KiVLf. R Lamoil Sifuatioti. Franklin county is situated in the nortli- western part of tlie State, bordering on Canada and lake Champlain. Boundaries. It is bounded on the north by Canada, east by Orleans and Lamoille counties, south by La- moille and Chittenden counties, and west by Missisco bay and lake Champlain. Extent. The extent of the county from east to west is^about 34 miles, and from north to south about 26 miles. It is divided into li townships and one gore. Shire Town. St. Albans. Surface. The northwestern pp.rt is generally level ; the central parts are gewily diversified with swells, hills, and vallies,''While^the eastern parts rise into mountains- Jay peak, which" is on the east line of the county, is the most lofty summit, and has been found by barome- trical measurement to be 392S feet above lake Cham- ])la.in. How is Fraiiklia co. siLiiated .?— boiiacled ?— extent's si. ire town?— sciviare miL^s ? — number of towns? what is said ol the surface 7— of JaypeakHIow Vvatered .' what 15 170 GEOGRAPHY BY COUXTiES. Rivers. This county is watered principally by Mis- sisco river and its branches. Lamoille river waters a portion of the southern part. The other principal streams are Trout river, which joins the Missisco at East Berkshire and Black creek, which enters it in Sheldon. These and many of the smaller streams af- ford numerous and excellent mill privileges. The most important water falls, and greatest amount of water power, are iii Missisco river in Swanton and Highgate. Springs. There are several sulphuretted hydrogen springs in the western part of the county, the most noted of which is in Highgate. Here excellent accom- modations are provided, and, during the summer, it is a place of considerable resort for invalids, who are of- ten benefitted by the change of air, agreeable scenery and the medicinal waters. Ponds. There are several natural ponds in the coun- ty, the most important of v/hich are Smithfield pond, or Fairfield lake, in Fairfield, and Franklin pond in Franklin. The former is about three miles long and discharges into Black creek. The latter is about the same size and discharges into Pike river, which is formed in Berkshire, and empties into the north end of Missisco bay in Canada. Metcalf pond in Fletcher is about a mile long and half a mile wide. Curiosities. Over a stream in Georgia, called Stone- bridge brook, there is a natural bridge which is about 12 feet wide. In many places the cliffs, at a consider- able distance from the lake and many feet above it, show the action of the arm of the sea that once occu- pied the valley of lake Champlain, they having potholes evidently worn out by the action of waves. One of these in the north part of Highgate is in the form of a cave extending into the rocks in a horizontal direction about SO feet. falls! Gprin^s?— what is taid of Highgate sprine'? What ponds? What natural fcridge 7— pe'.holes ?~cavc 1— what the rocks liear Highgate fpriogs.'—oM i.ie FRANKLIN COUNTY. 171 Geology. In the vicinity of the medicinal spring in Highgate is a patch of Trenton limestone containing fossils, but the rock which forms the shore of the lake through most of this county is black slate in which no fossils have been found. In many places it comes out in thin wedge form and laminated masses, which are so highly glazed as to give them the appearance of an- thracite coal. This is particularly the case in the west- ern part of Highgate, and, deceived by this appearance, persons have expended a considerable amount there in making excavations with the vain expectation of finding coal. Adjacent to the black slate, and between it and the red sandrock formation, are beds of very pure lime- stone. These, in Georgia, St. Albans, and Swanton, are burned into veiy excellent quicklime. In the latter town it is sufficiently compact to be sawed for marble, which takes a good polish, but is rather deficient in strength. East of this limestone the red sandrock series ex- tends from south to north through the county, but has been subjected, in many places, to very great disturb- ance. In some places, as in Georgia and St. Albans, the stratification, and dark red, or chocolate hue, is well exhibited ; but in other localities, particularly in High- gate, it appears as a light gray quartz rock, in some places stratified and arenaceous, but in others exceed- ing compact and fine-grained, approaching almost to chalcedony. In Highgate, about half a mile from Sax's mills on Rock river, the red sandrock, which is there well characterized, contains great numbers of fossils, though they arc somewhat obscure. They appear to consist of the shields of trilobites. All to the eastward of this series, which occupies shore ■?— What is said of the glazed slate 7— what limestone ? What said of it ? of the red sandrock 7— what fopsils in it 7— where 7— what the rocks to the east- ward?— what the strike and dip of iho strata 7 Where is there a synclinal axis? 172 GLOGRAPHY BY CODXTIE3. only the towns bordering on the lake, may be denomi- nated a region of talcose slate. In this there is, how- ever, considerable variety, and in some places it would be called clay slate, in others mica slate, in others chlo- rite slate and in others quartz, but far the greater por- tion would be called talcose slate. Through the west part of R-ichford and Montgomery there is a narrow range of plumbaginous slate. All the rock in the county have their strike, averag- ing about 20°, to the east of north. Through the cen- tral parts of Berkshire, Enosburgh and Bakersfield, there is a synclinal axis, the strata being there verti- cal; on the west side of which all the strata dip to the east, and on the east side of which they dip to the w^est; those lying nearest the axis having the greatest dip. There is no limestone found in the county to the eastward of the towns bordering on the lake, except- ing two small beds of white saccharoid limestone — one in Bakersfield, and the other in Richford. Ores. Iron ore is found at several places in this coun- ty. Red hematite is found in considerable quantities in Fairfield, Sheldon, and Berkshire, the localities ly- ing nearly in the direction of the strike of the rocks. There were formerly works at Sheldon where this ore was "vrrought. Bog ore has also been obtained in con- siderable quantity in Highgate near the Springs. Minerals. Epidote abounds in the rocks in the cen- tral parts of Berkshire. Sulphate of barytes and actyn- olite are found in Richford ; and fossil leather and mountain cork are found in S wanton. Soil and Productions. The soil of this county is in some parts light and sandy, but is gen«rally of veiy good quality. A large part of Highgate and Swanton was originally covered with excellent pine timber. What is a pynclinial axi«7 What limestone in the eastern part ? What ores are found t What minerals J Wiiat id said of the soil ?— of pin« timber ]— of fruit FRANKLIN COUNTY. 173 Horses, - - 4^427 Cattle, - - 26 965 Sheep, - 87,385 Swine, - 8,935 Wheat, bush.j - 48.686 Barley, " - 599 Oats, " - 94,700 Most kinds of grain, grass, and culinary vegetables flourish well in all parts of the county, but for some reason, not very well understood, fruit trees do not succeed at all in the valley of Missisco river. The following were the statistics in 1840: — Uye, bush., 10,144 Buckwheat, " - 9,603 Indian Corn, " - 65,534 Potatoes, " - 709,S96 Hay, tons, - 61,262 Maple sugar, lbs., 400.775 Wool, - " ' - 225,802 Building Materials. There are some pretty good quarries of building stone in the western part of the county, but the talcose slate formation of the central and eastern parts, furnishes few good building stone. Clay and sand suitable for bricks are found in various parts of the county. In Fairfax there is a bed of crys- taline siliceous sand, suitable for the manufacture of glass. Pursuits. The people are nearly all engaged in agri- culture. It appears that, in 1840, the number of per- sons engaged in commerce was 81, in manufactures and trades 636, and in the learned professions 106. Villages. St. Albans is the shire town, and St. Al- bans village is the most important in the county. Be- sides the county buildings it contains an academy, a congregational, an episcopal, and a methodist church, a bank, and the usual variety of taverns, stores, and mechanics shops. The other most considerable vil- lages are Swanton, Highgate, Sheldon, East Berkshire, and St. Albans bay. Education and Schools. The number of school dis- tricts is 195, in 185 of which the number of children, be- trees 1 How many horescs ?— cattle ? &c. what is said of building materials .' —of clay and sand 1 — of rursui'is 1— of villages .'—of schools 1— What scmina- 15* 174 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. tween four and 18 years of age, are 8514, baing an ave- rage of 46 scholars to a district. There is a flourishing academy at St. Albans, and two flourishing seminaries in Bakersfield. History. Previous to the conquest of Canada by the English, in 1760, there was a settlement of French and Indians at Swanton Falls, consisting of about 50 huts. They had cleared some land on which they raised corn and vegetables, and had built a church and sawmill. and they continued to have possession here up to the close of the revolution. The first permanent settlement within the county was made, in 1783, by Broadstreet Spaflford, and his two sons, Nathan and Asa. They emigrated from Pier- mont, N. H., and settled in the town of Fairfax. There was a settlement commenced in St. Albans, about the beginning of the revolution, but it was soon abandoned on account of the w^ar, and the settlers did not return to that tow^n till 1785. The first permanent settlement of Georgia was effected in 1784. When Addison county was formed in 1785, it em- braced all the territory on the west side of the Green Mountains to the northward of Rutland county. After the formation of Chittenden county, the territory to the northw^ard of Addison county was embraced in that, till 1792, when the present county of Franklin was formed, and restricted to very nearly its present limits. ries mentioned 7 What early settlement is mentioned ? When and where was the first permanet settlement 1 When was Georgia settled 1— St. Albans ? In In what counties was this lormerly embraced .' V/hen incorporated as a separate tcunty ? GRAND ISLE COUNTY. 175 VII. GRAND ISLE COUNTY. Incorporated, Nov. 9. - 1802 First settlement, - - 1782 Population in 1840, - 3,883 Number of towns, . - Square miles of land, Population to square mile. Town?. ; Chartered. Set- t!eJ. Orga-;Pop. ini Sq. nizedl 1S40. jmilet Pop. to :Gr. Lisi.i sq. niile.j 1,S17. l.Alburgh, 'Feb. 23, 178l|l782'l792l 1,344! 30 2. Grand Isle, Oct 27, 17791783 | 724 14 3. Isle la Mott, Oct. 27, 17791785 i 435 7 i4. North Hero, Oct. 27, 177917831989 716 11 ,5. South Hero,;Oct. 27, 17791783 664,' 15 I ! 11 3,883! 77 44 §i $2,533- 52 j 2,119 62 689 65 1,.589 44 ; 2,3iS 50 1 9,278 Situation. Grand Isle county is situated in the extreme north western corner of the state, and, with the exception of the town of Alburgh, consists of islands in lake Cham- plain. Boundaries. It is bound- ed on the north by Canada, on the east by Missisco bay and lake Champlain, and on the south and west by lake Champlain. Extent. The extreme length of this county from north to south, is about 28 miles, and its greatest width about 5 miles. The area, exclusive of water, is only about 77 square miles. It is divided into 5a Lake Q Missisco R. R Lamoille R. When was Grand Isle County incorporated.'— settled •'—population .'—Number towns ?— -quare miles .'—population to a tqaare mile ?— fircrt setlled tomx 1— most {.opvii<.«6 7- nsost wealthy 1-tJie last settled i— How is iho county situated 1-- 176 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. townships, but the amount of land is only a trifle more than is contained in two ordinary townships of six miles square. Shire Town. — North Hero. Islands. Besides the three large islands called Grand Island, North Hero and Isle la Motte, there are several \ smaller ones lying to the south and east of these. Providence island, Savage's island and Butler's island, are among the most important of these, and each con- tains 200 acres or more of land. Providence island is near the shore of South Plero. They, who escaped from the steamboat Phcenix, when it was burned on the 5th of Septem.ber, 1819, landed on this island. Surface. The surface of this county is level and low, not rising in any part more than about 200 feet above the level of the lake. There are some tracts of land so nearly on the level of the lake, as to be too wet and swampy to admit of cultivation. One tract of this kind extends north and south through Alburgh, anoth- er through South Hero, and another, running east and west, through the Isle la Motte. Streams. These, as might be expected, are all very small — no one of them sufficiently large to be a perma- nent mill stream. There has been one gristmill, which did considerable business, and one or two windmills, but the grain raised here is mostly floured out of the i county. Springs. There are several springs in this county which are impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen and iron, and are regarded as medicinal. Two of these are in South Hero, and one in Alburgh. The latter has had some celebrity, and been a place of considerable resort for invalids. The water is undoubtedly effica- cious in cutaneous affections, and probably in some others. bounded ?— extent .?— shire town ?— what islands ?— What is said of Providence is- ) land 1— of the surface of the County .'—elevation?— swamps ?— streams?— spriiigs? GRAND ISLE CODNTY 177 Geology. All the rocks in this county belong to the Champlain group, already described. The rock formation of the Isle la Motte, is made up elmost wholly of what we have denominated IslelaMotte limestone, covered to some small extent in the south eastern and north eastern parts with Trenton lime- stone. Near the middle of the east side of the island is an extensive and valuable quarry of fine black mar- ble. No where else in the state can there be found w^ithin the same space, so accessable and so large quantities of limestone, and so suitable for all the pur- poses of sawing, polishing, hammering, and rough ma- sonry, and for the manufacture of quicklime, as exists in the south half of the Isle la Motte. This same kind of limestone occupies a small space along the w^est side of North and South Hero. To the east of this, it is succeeded, on South Hero and Grand Isle, by Trenton limestone, which extends about half way across those towns. The rocks of the eastern parts of these towns, and of nearly the wiiole of North Hero, and the whole of Alburgh, are all either Utica slate, or Hudson river shales. Dikes. Greenstone dikes are not uncommon in Grand Isle and South Hero. They cut across the limestone, and slate formation in an east and west direction, run- ning very nearly in straight lines, and continuing very uniform in width. From one of these in Grand Isle, the more perishable rock on each side, has been removed or worn away, so as to leave the dike, which is about 18 inches wide, rising like a wall above the general surface of the ground. It was noticed by the early set- ters, some of whom thought it to be a work of art. The perfect adaptation of every portion of the dike to its place' they supposed, however, to indicate skill and in- rocks ?-— r»ckp on Isle la Motte ?— of black marble ?— of of south end of Isle la Motte? — What east of trenton limestone 7 — What is said of dikes 7— of one in Grand Isle ?— of marl ] — of the bed ia Alburgh ] What is said of calcareoua spar 7 178 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. telligenee surpassing that of the present race of In- dians. Marl. In this county are several beds of excellent shell marl. One of these in the northeast part of Grand Isle is more than 100 feet above the lake. Another, and the most important one in the county.is in Alburgh. It is situated on the north line of that town, extending a little over it into Canada, and is but little elevated above the lake, and yet sufficiently so to be effectually drain- ed. The bed extends over a level tract of about 60 aicres. The marl rests upon a bed of fine blue clay, is where it has been opened, 6 feet deep, and is covered by a layer of rich black muck 5 feet deep, the surface of which is cleared and cultivated. Minerals. The shales. or slates in this county abound in seams and beds of calcareous spar, which afford fine specimens, which are, for the most part, white, but in some places of a beautiful light blue color. They also furnish nodules and seams of sulphuret of iron, the decomposition of which, in sheltered places, often produces an efflorescence of copperas and alum. Fine specimeni of hexaedral rock crystals are also found in this slate on the east shore of Grand Isle. This slate also abounds in some parts in large colcareo-argilla- ceous concretions made up of concentric laminae. This is particularly the case in the eastern part of Alburgh and north east part of North Hero. Fossils. These are exceedingly numerous and abund- ant in the Isle la Motte limestone, particularly in the central part of the Isle la Motte. Columnaria, maclu- reas, and orthoceras are the largest and most conspic- uous of these fossils. The Trenton limestone also is in places almost entirely made up of fossils. This lime- stone, in the southern part of South Hero, consists of small bivalve shells, and, as it answers very well for — of rock crystal 7— of fossils?— what are some of the largest ?(p. 62)— What is •aidof theTreaton limestoae ?— What is it cailadl— what shells abouad In thesu- GRAND IfiLE COUNTY. 179 hearths and fire places, it is there called fire stone. In the Utica slate trilobites and graptolites are found, but sparingly. The superficial deposits in many places abound in marine shells, such as are now living on the Atlantic coast of New England. The most common species are the Sanguinolaria fusca, Saxacava riigosa and My a are- naria. These are found on the highest land in the county, and are abundant on some of the small islands in the eastern part. The marl beds are composed of fresh water shells «uch as are now living in the lake and other waters of the State. The most common genera of these are Planor- bis, Limnea, and Cyclas. Soil and Productions. The soil of this county is of a very dark color, being formed of disintegrated slates and limestones united with vegetable mould, and in many places with a mixture of marine fossil shells. It is rery rich, and produces most kinds of grain and vege- tables in abundance. In South Hero and Grand Isle considerable attention has been giyen to the cultiva- tion of fruits ', and these towns produce apples, plums and cherries of very fine quality. Statistics of 1840 :— Horses, - 1,161 Indian Corn, bush., 13,816 Cattle, - 5,463 Rye, ' " 9,504 Sheep, - - 27,451 Buckwheat, " 9,216 Swine, - 3,179 Potatoes, - 76,408 Wheat, bush.. - 21,430 Hay, tons. 8,593 Barley, u 1,655 Maple Sugar, lbs.. 34,478 Oats, u - 43,430 Wool, " 57,546 Pursuits. The chief employment is agriculture. On the Isle la Motte the quarrying of marble and building stone is an important business. In 1840 there were 16 perficial deposit ?(p. 47.Vin the marl '(p. 51.) -What is said of the soil ?-- of fruitsf —How Biany horses? «kc.— What ie eaid 9i' the pureuits.^— villages 7— What ia 180 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. engaged in commerce, 84 in manufactures and trades, 17 in navigation, and 19 in the learned professions. Villages. There are clusters of buildings at several places in the county; but they are all very small and hardly deserve the name of villages. North Hero js the shire town. Schools. The district schools are the only permanent schools in the county. There are 27 school districts in 15 of which there are 610 scholars between 4 and IS years. History. More than 100 years ago, while the French had possession of the lake, they erected a windmill on what is now called Windmill point in Alburgh. Before the revolutionary war, while the British possessed the lake, they are said to have had lime kilns, and to have burned lime at what is now Fisk's quarry, on the Isle ]a Motte. During the revolution the British establish- ed a military post on North Hero which was not given up to the United States till 1796. The lands of the county were granted by the govern- ment of Vermont just before the close of the war. The two largest islands in the county were granted at the same time to Ethan Allen, Samuel Herrick, and others, who had distinguished themselves in sustaining the independence of the State and of the United States, and as a compliment to these worthies the islands were called the Heros. In 1788 the Heros were divided into two towns. North Hero and South Hero. In 1798 South Hero was divided into South Hero and Middle Hero. The name of Middle Hero has since been changed to Grand I. The first permanent settlement was made about tlie close of the revolution. Col. Ebenezer Allen, the hero of Mount Defiance, was one of the first settlers. He settled on the southern extremity of South Hero, which is now known by the name of Allen's point. eaid of schools ?— When did the French take possession here 1— What did they do ? —What was done bv the English ?— What i^ said of the quartz ?— Why called J.e- roe3 7— Wiiere was' the first permanent settlement made .'—What ia said of Col. Kbenezer Allen ?— What diseases were prevalent .' LAMOILLE cour;rT. 181 VIII. LAMOILLE COUNTY Incorporated, Oclober 26, 1835 First settlement, - - - 1783 Population in 1840, - - 10,475 Number of towns, - - - 12 Square miles, 431 Pop. to square mile, - - - 24^ Towns. Cliartered. Set- tled. Orga- nized Pop. in 1S40. Sq. mile: Pop. to ■q. mile. Gr. List. 1S17. 1. Belvidere, Nov. 4,17911800 207 7 $ 416 2. Cambridge Aug. 13, 178117831785 1.790 41 371 4.694 3. Eden, Aug. 23,1781 1800 1802 703 57 124 1,155 4. Elmore, Aug. 21, 1781 '17901792 476 36 13 851 5. Hvdepaik, Aug. 27, 178];] 787 1791 1 ,080 36 30 2,170 6. Johnson, Jan. 2,17924784 1,410 36 39 2,226 7. Mansfield, June 8,1763] 223 2b 8 425 8- JMorrist'n, Aug. 24, 1781,1790 1796 1,502 3G 42 3,634 9. Sterling, Feb. 25, 17824799 193 36 5-^ 428 10. Stow, Jnne 8, 1768|l793.1797 1,371 36 38 3,879 11. Wat. rville. Nov. 15,17244789 6!0 15' 32 1.176! 1:2. Wolcott, Aug. 22, 1781 910 36 25i L651i 10,475 431 24i 22,705! Whpn was LamoilJf> coimtv incorperaterli'—pettlcrl ' .— "ipu^jtinn ''— rn '^l-ef of toH-nsr— square miles .?— population to square mile ? W dch town 'wa-' lirst b-i- Icd ? -nnost p^ipiik'u? ;— •oi.-l;c.n settled T-most wca.hy •»■ 182 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIKfi. Situation. Lamoille county is situated a little to the north of the centre of the State, and is one of the only- two counties not having its boundary in part coincid- ing with that of the State. Boimdaries. It is bounded nortliwest by Franklin county, northeast by Orleans county, southeast by Washington county, and southwest by Chittenden county. Extent. It extends about 27 miles from east to west, and 26 miles from north to south, containing 431 square miles. It is divided into 12 townships. Shire Toicn. Hydepark. Surface. A large part of this county is uneven, and some portions of it mountainous. The most lofty sum- mits are the Mansfield mountains, the highest in the State, and Sterling Peak. The latter is about 3700 fee- above the lake. Eden mountain and Elmore moun- tain are conspicuous elevations. Stow and Morris- town, although surrounded by mountains, arc two of the most level townships in the State. Streams. With the exception of Stow and IMans- field, whose V\'aters pass by Vv'aterbury river ijito the Winooski, the county is watered by the river Liunoille and its branches, v\'hich furnish numerous sites for mills, and an abundance of water power. The princi- pal streams received by the Lamoiile in this county are, in Cambridge, North branch oji thenortii side, and Brevv'ster's river and Seymour's brook on tlie south side; in Johnson, Little Nortli branch, and in Wolcott Green river and Wild brauch. all oi\ the north side. Springs. There is a mineral spring in Av'olcott. Ponds. Natural ponds are very numerous. There are not less than 12 in the town of Hydepark, Among the most important ponds in tlie county are North pond How is T.a.noillo co. sitnatOL] ?— hmimled 7— extent ?-^shire (own '—the ^ut/aoe ■? Wiiat Fummits arc mcDiiuiicil ? Wiwt towns ore level? What rivers and etreams ?— springs ?~ppnd.s 3— what are the rocks ?--what 13 ia said of the slate < LAMOILLB COUSTTY. 183 in Eden, which is two miles long, and Mead's pond in Elmore, which covers about 300 acres. Geology. The rocks in this county are all primary, and nearly all of them are talcose slate. The slate in some parts is considerably chloritic, and should per- haps be called chlorite slate, and in other parts, as in Sterling and Mansfield, much of it would be called mica slate. All the rocks in this county have a very steep dip, and in parts of Elmore, Hydepark and Morristown the dip is vertical, and their strike is from north 24'=' east to south 24° west. In the township of Stow the average dip of the rocks is about 70° east. There is a range of steatite, or soapstone, passing through the county. It shows itself in Eden and in Stow. ' Steatite is also found on Sterling mountain and in Waterville. At the latter place it is quarried and wrought to considerable extent. It is easily wrought, and is employed for ovens, furnaces. &c., as a fire stone, and is found to answer the purpose well. Serpentine rock, as is common in some other parts of the State, is found here in connexion with the stea- tite. There is a small bed of whitish limestone found in Johnson, in the talcose slate formation, from which lime has been made, and another bed of v/hite saccharoid limestone in Waterville. These are the only localities of limestone known in the county, and no beds of shell marl have been discovered. Ores. Iron ore of different varieties has been found in several towns in this county ; but has been found in greatest abundance and of best quality in Elmore. It is found in this town in irregular reins, lying rerj nearly in the direction of the strike of the rocks. In the northeast part of Morristown there is a vein of lead ore {sulphuret of lead) or galena. It is in talcose J{ow tloea the slate dipl Where is ihere steatite ?~serpenline I—limestone .'— 194 ■ GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES- ulate on the summit of a considerable hill. The veirij or bed, runs in the direction of the strike of the slaite ^Thich N. 16° E. with a nearly vertical dip. It may be traced several rods before it disappears under the soil and drift. The seam which is filled, with the lead and its gangue, is about 18 inches wide at the surface, but in- creases in width downward, as far as excavations have been made, which is about 10 feet. This lead ore con- tains a small per cent of silver. Copper ore has been found in Sterling. In Hydepark is a very extensive bed of ochre which makes a very good paint. Minerals. Fine talc and actynolite are found in the steatite, particularly at Waterville. Plumbaginous slate is found in Cambridge, which is-used for marking as a substitute for plumbago, or black lead. Building Materials. The territory embraced in this county being throughout a region of talcose slate, does not furnish the best material for building stone. Still, stone are found in most parts sufficiently compact for ordinary purposes. Very good clay and sand for brick are met with in several places. Soil and Produciions. Several of the towns are broken and mountainous, but in the vallies there are many fine farms, and the soil is of good quality. Cambridge, Stow, and Morristown are excellent farming tovms. Stow is one of the most level towns in the State, The following are the statistics of 1S40: — Horses, 2,5?7 Rye, - 1,604 Cattle, 16p55 Buckwheat, 763 Sheep, - 40,921 Indian Corn, 28.4S3 Swine, 7,287 Potatoes, bush., 472.563 Wheat, bush.. - 2i;070 Hay, tons. 29,616 Barley, " 477 Maple Sugar, lbs., 295,476 Oats, - - 70,727 Wool, " 85,595 what ores 1— whore is lead ore found?— What does the lead ore contain ?—wlicre \^ copper ore found ) Where is ochre found ? What minerals are found 7— what w said of buildius materials?— of the soil ]— wliat good farming to wus 1— Uow LAMOILLE COUNTY. 185 Pursuits. The pursuits are almost entirely agricul- tural. In 1S40 there were 68 engaged in commerce 369 in manufactures and trades, and 49 in the learned professions. Villages. The villages in this county are all small. Cambridge, Johnson, Hydepark, Morrisville, and Stow are the principal. Hydepark is the shire town. Education. The ]iumber of school districts is 119. and the number of scholars 3844, averaging 32^ to a district. Lamoille Academy was incorporated at John- son in 1832. History. This county has been formed more recent- ly than any" other in the State, having been incorpora- ted in 1835, from portions of four previous counties, viz: Washington, Chittenden, Franklin and Orleans. The first settlement within the county was commen- ced in Cambridge, in 1783. The next year, 1784, settle- ments were made in Johnson, and soon after in Hyde- park and Wolcott. nnny Horses ? &c. Vvhat is said of the pursuits ?— of villages?— of education.' When and of what was this co. formed ? When and where lirst settled ? 15* 1S6 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. IX. ORANGE COUNTY. Incorporated Feb. first se1;tlement, - Population in 1840, 1781 1762 27,873 Number of towns. Square miles, - Pop. to the square mile, - 17 - 185 - 45i TOWNS. Towns. Chartered. Set- tled. Orga- nized Pop. in IdlO. Sq. 1 miJeS| Pop. to sq. mile. Or. List. 1847. 1. Bradford, .Tan. 25,17911765 1,655 29I 57 4,848 2. Braintree, Aug 1, 1781 1783 1788 1.232 36 34 2,863 3. Brookfield, Aug. 5,17811779 1,789 36 49§ 4.533 4. Chelsea, Aug. 4, 1781 1784 1788 1.959 36 54.^ 4,976 5. Corinth, Feb. 4, 1764 1777 1780 1,970 36 55- 5,336 C. Fairlee, Sept. 9, 1761 1766 1775 644 20 32 1,906 7. iSewbury, Mar. 18, 1763 1762 2,578 57 45^ 7,444 8. Orano-e, Auff. 11, 1781 1793 1796 98 36 ''^n 2,099 9. Randolph, .Tune 29, 1781 1783 2.674 45 59i 9,157 10. Strafford, Aug. 12, 1761 1779 1,V6 38 46i 5.378 ll.Thetford, Aug. 12, 1761 1764 1768 2,06-'> 41 50 5,339 12. Topsham, .Tune 17, 1763 17S1 1790 1,745 42 41i 3,927 13. Tunbridgc, Sept. 6,1761 1776 1786 1,811 36 bOi 4,738 14. Vershire, Aug. 3, 1781 178U 1783 1,198 34 35 2,980 15. Wash'ton, Oct. 25, 1781 1785 1792 1 ,359 36 371 3,030 16. W, Fairlee Sept. 9, 1761 1797 824 21 40 1,.542 17. William'n, Aug. 9,1781 1784 1787 1620 36 45 4,2.54 74.350 27,873 615 45i Situation. Orange county is situated about midway between the northern and southern extremity of the state, on the east side of the Green Mountains and bor- dering on Connecticut river. Boundaries. It is bounded on the north by Caledo- nia and Washington counties, on the east by Connecti- cut rivei'. on the south by Windsor county, and on the west by Addison and Washington counties. Extent. This county extends 34 miles from east to west and 23 miles from north to south, and contains 615 square miles. It is divided into 17 townships. When was Orange co. incorporated ? — settled ? — population 1 — town? ? — square j^iles 1 — per.>ons to a square mile 1 — what town first settled l — first on,'anized 7— mojit populous ?— most wealthy ]— How is Orange co. siiuatedl— bounded?— ex- tciu ?— square miles ]— towns ? OHATTGE COUNTY. 187 A Connecticut River. I Oaapompoaotsuc Rirer. J Waits River. Shire Town. Chelsea. Surface. The surface is generally uneven and hilly, but no where rises into mountains. That branch of the Green Mountain range, which is called the height of lands, passes through the western part of the county, but presents no prominent summits. Streams. The streams in this county are numerous, but none of them large. The principal streams in the eastern part are Ompomponoosuc river and Wait's river. Well's river joins the Connecticut, in the northeast cor- ner, but derives its waters chiefly from Caledonia coun- ty. The southwestern parts are watered by the 1st, 2nd., and 3rd branches of White river, and the north- western part by Steven's branch, which joins Winoos- ki river in Berlin. Falls. The falls in Wells river at Newbury, in Wait's river at Bradford, and the OmpomponoosuCj at Thet- fcliirc (own 7— surface .'—slvcauis ?— lulls ?— pomlj ?— pickerel ? \V'ia( Is eaid of 183 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. ford, furnish a considerable amount of water power, and there are other good sites for mills in different parts of the county. Ponds. Fairlee lake, lying between Fairlee and West Fairlee is the largest body of water in the coun- ty. It is two miles long and three quarters of a mile wide. In 1S09, Samuel Morey, transported some pickerel into the lake, from a pond, in New-Hampshire. Since that time pickerel have multiplied here very rapidly, and they are regarded as of superior quality for the ta- ble. There are other ponds in Newbury, Bradford, &c. ; but they are all small. Springs. There are several medicinal springs in this county, the waters of which are impregnated with sul- phuretted hydrogen. The springs at Newbury have been longest known, and most celebrated, having been more or less resorted to by invalids, since the first settlement^ of the country. Other similar springs exist in Tunbridge and Williamstown, which are also favorite places of resort, in the summer season. Curiosities. In Wright mountain in the west part of Bradford, there is an interesting cave in which are sev- eral apartments. It is known as the Devils Den. In Thetford, there is a pond covering about 9 acres, which is less than ten rods from Connecticut river, but elevated 153 feet above that stream. It has no vis- ible inlet or outlet. It is deep, having been sounded more than 50 feet. It contains perch and dace. Geology. The rocks of the greater part of this coun- ty, belong to the talco-mica slate formation. In a small portion of the western part, they are of the talcose-slate formation. Next east of this, through Randolph, Brookfield and Williamstown. in the calcareo-mica slate sprinsr 7 What curiosities? Describe the pond? Wliat is the rock fovmaiiont Where is ihere taito.-'e slate? Clay slate 7 What is s^iid oi ilifreafiurn par' ?*- OHANGL: COUiNTY. 189 formation there is an unusually large developement of clay slate. The eastern part of the county is very broken, and next to Connecticut river, there are, in several places, high perpendicular precipices. The rocks in the norih^vestern part, and extending thence towards the centre of the county, are gran- ite. Ores. Iron ore has been found in this county in many places, but is known to exist in large quantities only in the state of sulphuret of iron, or iron pyrntes. The most remarkable bed of this ore, is in the southeast cornerof Strafford, and from this bed, v/hich is reckoned inex- haustible, 1000 tons of copperas are annually manufac- tured for market, where it sells for about $2 per hun- dred weight. Copperas is sulphate of iron. Sulphate of iron is iron combined with sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid, is sulphur combined with ogygen. Sulphuret of iron is sulphur combined with iron. It is usually of a yellow color, resembling brass, and has sometimes been mis- taken for gold, and hence it is often called FooVs Gold. The following is briefly the process of manufacturing copperas at Strafford. The sulphuret of iron is blasted from the bed, and is broken into small lumps and par- ticles, with hammers. It is then thrown into heaps, where it ignites by exposure to air and moisture or is set on fire. The combustion continues about two' months, during which time the sulphujf combines with the ogygen of the atmosphere, forming sulphuric acid, and this acid combines with the iron, forming sulphate of iron, or copperas. This crude copperas, mingled with earthy matter, is then leached, and the lye evapo- rated to such a consistency that a large proportion of the copperas will ciystalize as the liquid cools. After Where is iron ore fonud? What kinin What is made from it 1 How much 1 What, is copperaoJ What eulphato ol" irou } What sulphuric acid? What U i'OO GHOGRAriiY BY COUNTIES, the crystaiization is completed the liquid is drawn ofi" and the copperas dried and packed in casks for market. Copper ore (suiphuret of copper) is found at Straf- ford in connexion with the suiphuret of iron in consid- erable quantities, but in greater abundance and purity- farther north in the town of Corinth. In 1S29 a furnace was erected at Strafford for smel- ting the ore for the copper; but it was not found to be profitable, and after a few" years, the business was aban- doned. Considerable quantities of the Corinth ore have been transported to Boston. A specimen of the copper pyrites from Corinth was analyzed by Mr. Olmsted, with the following results. Copper, -------------- 27.'2S Iron", --------------- :}7;91 Sulpliur, -------------- 3o.70 Silica ajid inica - ----------- 1,11= lOQ, Thei-e is a small vein of lead ore (suiphuret of lead) in Thetford. Marl. There are small deposits of marl in Brook- field, Randolph, and Tunbridge, but the most valuable deposit of marl in the county, and perhaps the most valuable in the state is in Wiiliamstown. It is from 6 to 18 feet deep, and slightly covered with a dry soil. This marl is white and very pure, yielding by anal- ysis : Carbonate of lime, ----- -_-_--S9 Carbonate of magnesia, ---- ----- 42 Silica, with traces of o.x.of iron ain: alumina, - - - 10 Water and organie maiier, - _ - _ - _ - 55=^90,7 Large quantities of very excellent quicklime, arc made from this bed. The marl while in a state of paste, is made into the form of bricks, and, after drying is ar- ranged in the kiln, in the manner of arranging bricks for burning, and is then burned by means of a fire pla- ced beneath. Minerals. Kyanite. rock crystal and garnet, are quite Vif-'^uT-et of iron? V/h.at docs it resemble'? Describe the pr'><-e«P of niakinj' covtrre.-aa 1 What is said of copper ore > What was done in L^J'.i .' ^^ l«-it is eai.1 o 'ihe ore at Corinth ?- What percent 01 copv.er ? Where is lead found ?-marI 7 of Williamsiowii btid ?— its analysis ?— how prepared ior .luici^hmc .' W hat jnio - ORANGE COLXTY. 191 common in Thetford, and also bpautifui cla3\ston(;&. Mispickel is found in abundance in the west part of Brooklield, Building Mater Icds. Good granite for building stone, is found in various parts of the county, and good clay and sand for bricks are also common. Soil and Productions. The soil of this county is ffene- rally of a very good quality, particularly when it is for- med by the disintegration of the clay slate and blue limestone, of the calcareo-mica slate t'ormation. whick is the case in Randolph, Brookfield and Williamstown. The following are the statistics of 1S40; Hordes - - - 6,074 Rye '• ~ - 12 933 Cattle - - - 36,853 Buckwheat, busli. m.VU Sheep - - - 156.053 Indian Com, •• - 120.a43 fSwine - - - 22,516 Potatoes, ' •'- 1,055.379 Wheat, bush. ~ 69.565 Ha}^. tons - - _' 73.004 Barley " _ . _ 5,265 Maple sugar, lbs. -420J339 Oats " - - 254.S7S Wool, ""'••- 311.674 Pursuits. The pursuits are generally agricultural. In 1840, there were 132 engaged in commerce, 853 in man- ufiictur0s,and trades. and 1Q6 in the learned professions. Rail Roads. The Central rail road passes throuo-h the western part of the county, and the Passumpsic road tlirough the eastern part. Education. The number of school districts is 273 and the number of children between 4 and IS years of age, S0S6, or 33 1-2 to a district. There is an academy at Randolph; and one at Bradford, and there is a flourish- ing seminary at Newbury under the patronage of the Methodists. Randolpli academy is one of the oldest in the state. It was establisljed in 1806. Villages. Tbe principal villages are in Randoi])li. Chelsea, Newbury, Thetford and Williamstown. The county buildings are in Chelsea.. History. The first civilized inhabitants in this coun- ^rals? — buildiii? niatorial — the soil ? Ilorsos? «tr.— (ho pnrsints ?— mil ro.mU* ,«dioo.i ili-jtrici" "? ScJiolars?— ncat-'ciuio*?— viilag-es ? \Vlion u-ns tliti .s/^rrji-nu'-ifi 192 GrOGRAriiY r.Y CCrNTIE3. ty, settled at Newbury in 1762. The Indians had for- merly resided here in considerable numbers, and the place was called by them Coos. They had made large clearings on the intervales, which were overgrown wilth coarse grass, when the vrhites began their settlement here. Their implements, manufactured out of stone, are often found in the vicinity at the present day. Newbury was the chief place in Vermont on the east I side of the mountains to the northward of Westmin- \ ster, during the revolution, and was garrisoned by one or more companies of soldiers. Gen. Jacob Bailey and ; Col. Tliomas Johnson, vrere among the first settlers of j this county. X. ORLEANS COUNTY. Incorporated, Nov. 5. - ]7i)2 First settlement, - - - JTc'd Population in J 840, - -13,634 Number of tovvus. Square miles, - - - Pop. to the square mile, 20 TOWNS, Town?. ChartcreJ. , S; Oi-i;a ;i iiizefi, 'op. iji 1840. Sq. jPop. t.. miles^sq. milt 36| 25i 1-;;. I,4,.T 1. Albany, .raneS6, 17tr2i799 1806; 92u 2. Barton, Oct. 20, 1 780' J 79,- 1798| 892 361 24? 2 '- > 3. Biown'lon, Oct. 2, 179G;180(; 1 486 31 1 ir,? <■/ 4. Coventrv, Nov. 10,1780| 1805 1SC6: 731 36| 20^ 1,: r 5. Charrton, Oct. 2.S, 17844 800 18031 786 35 1 22h l,r 6. Craftsbury, Au<:.23, 178j'l788 1792: 3,151 2G 32 2 ■'. :-; 7. Derbv, Oct. 29, 1779'l7S;n 17981 1.681 3& 46 3.C95 8. Glover, Nov. 20, 1783! 1797 1 1,119 36: 31 2,139 9. Greens'ro, AuL'.20, 1781 I7bj. 1792| 883 3(ii 24* 2,074 10. Holland, Oct. 26, 1789' 1800 18051 G05 36; 17 787 11. Irasburoh, Feb. 23, J 781 1798 1803| 971 36; 27 1,796 12. Jay, Nov. 7,17921 1 308 361 if, 391| 13. Lowell, .Tune 7, 1791jlSC6 ISlSj 431 61 7 923h 14. Morgan, Nov. G, 1780,1800 I807i 422 31 1 vA 63S| 15. Nevvnort, Oct. 30, 18021 1 591 36 KA 893l 16. Salem, Aug 18, ]78M7.9f 1822! 290 27l 42n 17. Troy, Oct. 13, 1792;180C 1802^ 8.-6 36. 030 ^ nil 18. VVcstfield, May ir,, 178011799 1802 370 36j 3e! 10-} 861I 19. Westmoio, Aug.l7, 1781j 122 3^ 255P Cover.iry Cure. • . . . 1 . . t - * 1 10 ! ;i,6.'?4 689J 20 27. 021 ORLEANS COrXTY. 193 Situation. Orleans county is situated in the north ■part of the state, midway between lake Champlain and Connecticut river and bordering on Canada. Boundaries. It is bounded on the north by Canada, /east by Essex county, south by Caledonia and Lanioillo counties, and west by Franklin county. E.vtent. Tiie length of the county from north to south is about 38 miles, and its width, from east to west, 30 miles, containing 689 square miles. It is divided into 19 towmships, and one small gore. Shire Toion. Irasburgh. Surface. The surface of this county is uneven, and the western parts mountainous. The most elevated summit is Jay Peak, on the line between Jay and Rich- ford. Derby is the most level township, and there are but few handsomer or better townships in the State. The large svv'ell of land on which Craftsbury common is situated is a beautiful and excellent tract of k- n 1 ; and there are some handsome flats along the rivers in dilfereiit parts 'of the county. Tne tol lowing heights tibove the sea are deduced from the canal survevs made by De Witt Clinton, in 1825 :— IVrVi is Oiipans Go. f^ituntcd.'— bomidci ?— extent?— shire towa?-the surface ? 17 a94 Cfi^GRA'PHY EY COU^^TiES. Memphremagog lake, (estimated) 600 feet. Salem pond.'Salem, ' - - 872 •' Pensioners pond, Charleston. 1045 •' Mill dum. Black river, Irasburgh, 723 " Elligo pond, Craft.sbury, - 797 '• Craftsbury common, - - 1153 " Crystal or Belle pond, Barton, 837 " Willoughby lake, Westmore, 1065 '•' Mt. Hor and Mt. Pisgah, in Westmore, rise from tin- margin of Willoughby lake. The highest is probably 1200"feet higher than the lake, or 2250 fee't above the sea. Streams. These are very numerous, and for the most part discharge their waters into bike Memphremagog. The western part is watered by Missisco river, wliich is formed by the union of several streams in Lowell, and runs north through the corner of Westficld. and •through Troy into Potton in Canada. The remaining part of the county is watered principally by Black, Bar- ton and Clyde rivers. The streams which issue from the ponds in Holland, pass through Stanstead. and fall into Masuipp4 lake in Hatlcy, Canada. •^\il(s. The most interesting water-fall is in Missisco river, in the northern part of Troy. Ponds. Beside.s lake Memphremagog, about one-tliir'l of v/hich lies in this county, the ponds are nnmerons, and several of them are of considerable size. Tht- most important are Willoughby lake, in Westmore, 6 miles long and 1 1-2 wide; Crystal or Belle pond, in Barton, 3 miles long and 1 1-2 wide ; Seymour's lake, in Morgan. 4 miles long and 2 wide ; Saiem pond, partly in Salem and })artly in Derby, and Elligo and Hosmer's ponds, in Craftsbury. There Was formerly a pond on the line between Greensborough and Glover, which was 1 1-2 miles long, and was called Long pond, and was the head of Lamoille river. On the 6th of June, 1810, some persons undertook to open a channel at the north end in order to draw off water for the better supply of a mill on Barton river. The bank proved to be a light loose sand, and as soon as the water commenced run- ning in that direction it immediately opened an im- hichest point?— most level towns ?— what swell mentioned .'—heights?— what p'rtams ? Where is Missi?co river formed .' How am the diiTcicnt pans waierpdi' What falls? What lakes and ponds ? What i? ?aid of Runway pond ? With ORLEANS COCKTY. 195 iiiense chnniiel by which all tlie waters of the pond were discharged in a few minutes leavine: its bed bare. This bed is now known by the name o[ JRimawaypo/id. A small stnnim runs from it to the north, forming the head branch of Barton river. Many of the ponds in this county are well stored with trout. Trout (longro valley ? In Craftsbury "? Glover? fee \V]:at i? said o.'' nov.?'M!*>ite'» What n -fiid r.f h\iildinf; niaterials 1 S-i' .and frorluciiuns ?• Horics: r &r. villatros .' How m^ny echooi dj^tricts ]— i-chokri ' ir^ 198 GEOCRAPHY BY COUNTIESf. Villages. The villages are all small. Tho most im- portant are Irasburgb. Craftsbur3'^,Coventry, Barton and Derby. Irasburgli is the shire town. Education. The county has 161 school districts, 159 of which contain 5143 scholars between 4 and 18 years of age, averaging 32^ to a district. Besides the district schools, there have been for several years, three good academies, one at Craftsbury, one at Brownington,"and one at Derby. History. The first settlement within tlie present limits of the county, was made in 1788 by Col.Ebenezer Crafts. XI. RUTLAND COUxNTY. Incorporated, Feb. First setrlement, - Population in 1840, 1781 1761 30,699 IN'umber of towns, Square miles, - - - Pop. to the square milcj 25 862 33 Towns. Chartered. Benson, Brandon, Castleton, CJiitten'n, Clarendon, Danby, Fairhaven, Hubbard'n, Ira, Mer:don, Middleton, Mt Holly, Mt Tabor, Pawlet, \ Pittsfield, ' Pittsford, Poultney, Rutland, \ Sherburne,' Shrewsb'y, Sudbury, ' Tinmouth, VValling'd, Wells, W. Haven, May 5, Oct. 20, Sep. 22, Mar. K^, Sep. 5, Aug. 27, Oct. 27, .Fune 15, Nov. 3, Feb. 23, 1780 1762 1761 1780 1761 1761 1779 1764 1780 1731 Oct. Aug. Au2f. July Oct. Sep. Sep. July Sep. Aug. Sep. Nov. Sep. Oct. 31,1709 28, 1761 1 26,1761 29, 178f 12, 17C)\\ 21, 17611 7, 1761 [ 7, 1761. 4, 1763| 6, 1761! 15, 1761' 27,1761; 15, 17611 27, 1779! Set- Or-^ [Pop. in :40. 1,403 miles 39 17S3 1786 1 775 j 1784 2,194 39 1770 1777 1,7m 39 644 48 17681778 1,549 41 1765; 1769 1,379 39 1779:1783 633 27 1774 1785 719 28 il779 431 22 1806 545 25 1786 1,057 241 1781 1792 1,3.56 441 226 39| 1761 '17G9 1,748 391 17861793 615 22; 1769,1770 1 ,927 u\ 17711 1,878 42! 1770! 2,708 17851794 498 42| 218 44! 796 23 1770 1777 780 29 1773 1778 1,60S 39 1768 1773 740 28 1779:1792 774 24! 28,195 682i Pop. to jGr. List, !q. mile. 1S47. 36 56i 453I 13^ 371 351 23t 25S lOi. 22 44 31 6 45 28 46 5S| 64i 12 27% 34i 27 4U 26^ 32^ 33 i .^4,881 7,090 6,119 1,586 5,791 4,780 2,0.55 2,067 1,468 1,051 2,6021 3,337: 714! G,655 9531 7.133! 6.835i 11,544 910 4,314 2,140 2.654 7.433 1,870 2,142 98,124 RUTLAND COUNTY. 199 Sliuaiion. Rutland county is situated mostly on the west side of the Green mountains, bordering in part qi\ lake Champlain. Boundaries. It is bounded an the north by Addison county, east by Windsor county, south by Bennington county., andwest by Washington county. N. Y., and lake Cham plain. E.rtent. The extreme length of tills county from north to south, is about 42 miles, and its width Si miles, with an area of 862 square miles. It is divided into 2.!>-- townships. Shire 'Town. Rutland. Surface. The eastern part of the county is elevated and constitutes a portion of the main' range of Green mountains, in vrhich are exhibited several important summits. The Tacpnic range of mountains and hills, How eitaatcd ?— bouudcil ]— extent ?—sUirc town 7--the surface ?— raii^'cs of mouu- 200 GECGRAPHT BT COUNTIES. passes from south to north, a little west of the centre, the valley between it and the Green mountains being occupied by Otter creek. The following are the heights of several points in this county, above lake Champlain. Shrewsbury Peak, in Shrewsbury, - - - 3996 1't. Killington Peak, in Sherburne, ----- 3834 Railroad summit. Mount Holly - - - - - 1270 Rutland village,' ----------- 400 Streams. Otter creek flows through the county from south to north, and is the principal stream. Gookui's falls, in this stream, near the centre of Rutland, and Southerland's falls, near the north line of that town- ship, furnish a large amount of available water pow- er. The western part of the county is well watered, by Hubbardton, Castleton, Pawlet and Poultney river. Black, White and Otta Q^uechee rivers, all originate in the eastern part of the county and flow into Connec- ticut river. Several of the branches of Otter creek, in this county, are important mill streams, among which, are Mill riv- er, in Brandon, and Furnace brook, and East creek, in Rutland. Spriu'^s. The springs in Clarendon, have acquired some celebrity, for their medicinal properties, and are places of considerable resort during the summer. They are situated in the western part of Clarendon, near Furnace brook. They contain small quantities of the carbonate and muriate of lime, and sulphate of soda, and abound in gases, particularly nitrogen, which is constantly escaping from the water, in large bubbles. They also contain a considerable amount of carbonic acid gas. Ponds. Ponds are numerous; the most important of which are Wells' pond, in Wells, lake Hiram in Wal- lingford, and lake Bombazine in Castleton. Wells' pond is 5 miles long, and in places, 2 miles wide, covering over 2000 acres. Lake Hiram, from its shape, is also called Spectacles pond. Lake Bombazine, is 8 miles long and its greatest width is 2 1-2 miles. There is an tains .'-height 1 -Oucr creek .'—falls 7— What other streams .'—springs 7— what do ihey contain ? What ponds ? Describe Wells pond ?— lake Hinom.'— Bombazin.' RUTLAND COUNTY. 201 island in this lake containing about 10 acres, which is a favorite place of resort. Geology. The rocks of the central part of Rutland county, all belong to the Taconic group; having the Green Mountain gneiss on the east, aiid rocks of the Champlain group on the west. The most easterly- towns, particularly vSherburne and.Pittsfield, are princi- pally of the talcose slate formation. The quartz rock of the Taconic system extends north through the towns of^NIount Tabor. Wallingford. Shrews- bury, Alendon and Chittenden. ' To the westward of this, occupying the valley of Otter creek, lies the Stockbridge limestone, extending entirely through the county. This limestone furni,«hes marble of excellent quality, and in the greatest abundance. Q^uarries have.,been opened and extensively wrought, particularly in Rutland, Pittsford and Brandon. Som^ of the marble in Rutland, and Brandon is suitable foi* statuary. The green Taconic slate, in Hubbardton is suitable for slate pencils, which are extensively manufac-' tured from it in Rutland. In Fairhaven there is slate suitable for writing slates, and fov roofing, and also for the manufactureof slate pencils. Writing slates havd been manufactured from it to a considerable extent. ^ Fossils. About the first of October, 1848, a fossil tooth weighing about 8 pounds, and supposed to be the tooth of an elephant, was found in Mount Holly, several feet below the surface of the ground, in making excavations for the railroad* A few days af^ terwaixis a horn, or tusk, was found near the same place, which measured about 4 feet in length. If tliese are remains of a fossil elephant, they are the first evev> Ibund in Vermont, and only a very few have been found to the eastward of the Hudson. Marl. There is a bed of marl in Benson, near the meeting house, covered with muck. Orcs^ Brown iron ore isfoundinTinmouth, Walling- ford. Rutland, Pittsford, Chittenden and Brandon. The most important ore beda have been opened in the three towns last mentioned, where the ore is extensively manufactured into iron. In connexion with this Whai are the rocks in the central part ?--western .'—eastern ?— the quartz 'J„Stoc?> bridge iimesioue ? — quarries ?— Taeonic slate ?— of fossils ?— marl T— irou ovsi i«*» 202 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIEa. iron ore, are found large quantities of black oxide rf manganese. From Chittenden a large amount of man- ganese has been sent to market. Minerals, Brown iron ore, oxide of manganese and lead or*? have been already mentioned. Besides these sulphate of iron abounds in Shrewsbury, and has been much worked for copperas. Asbestus is found ii.\. Mount Holly, feted and smoky quartz in Shrewsbury, and calcareous tufa, in Clarendon, Building- Materials. The quarts rock in the northeas-- tern part of the county in many places, furnishes an excellent building stone. It Vv'as used in constructing the jail in Addison county. It is raised in plates so large that a single stone is sufficiently large to form the side of a cell. Soil and Productions. Along Otter creek and in much ©f the western part, the land is tolerably level and the soil rich and productive. In other parts the surface is broken, but the lands produce good grass and grain. The following are the statistics of 1840. Rye, •' - - 38.013 Buckwheat, bush. 10,850 Indian Corn, " - 154.792 Potatoes, " 642.108 Hay, tons, - lOSJS? Maple sugar, lbs. 396 804 Wool, ' " 653,819 Pursiiits. In 1840. 6595 persons were engaged in ag- riculture, 129 in commerce. 1155 in manufactures and trades and 164 in the learned professions. Villages. The most important villages are Rutland, Castleton and Brandon. Rutland contains tlie county buildings, and several churches. Education. The number of school districts is 275. In 240 of these are 8834 scholars between 4 and 18 )'-ears of age, averaging about 37 to a district. The higher institutions are "the Castleton IMedical College." the Troy Conference Academy at Poultney, and the Bran- don Seminary. History. The first settlement within this county wa.s made in Pawlet in 1761, the same year in which the settlement of Bennington was commenced. Before mf.nganese ?— lead ore ?— what minerals ? What building stone .' What is ."aid of the soil.' How many horses ? «fcc. How many scliool districts-? —.scholars ?-av- •rage to a school ? What hi iusiiuitions] When and where was the fir>t Horses, 6200 Cattle, - 40.023 Sheep, - 271.727 Swine. 15.563 Wheat, bush. - - 40.116 Barley, " - - '853 Oats, " - - 154.119 Ri: TLAND COUNTY. 203 the revolution, settlements were begun in nearly one half of the towns in the county. During the war several small forts were erected in the county. Two of these situated in Pittsford, and called fort Motte and fort Vengeance were the most northerly forts lield by the Americans during the revo- lution. InHubbardton in this county, a battle was fought on the 7th of July, 1777. When Rutland county was incorporated in 1781, it embraced all the territory on the west side of the mountains to the northward of J/5eniiington county. XII. WASHINGTON COUNTS. rlrtcorporated Nov. ], Fir>f. selllement, - - Population in 1840, - 1810 ] 783 23,506 Number of towns, - - Square miles, - - - Pop. to the square mile, 17 571 41 TOWNS. Towni. 1 Chartered. j ^^^^ jOrga- Pop. 11 '27l2"6 34 I'op. U) sq. mile. I. Barre, \Nov. 6, 1780 1788 1793 621 -i!»0,092i 2. Berlin June 8, 1763 1785 1791 1,598 34 47 3,969i 3. Calais, Aug. 15, 1781 1787 1795 1,709 36 m 3,5461 4. Du.\bnry, June 7, 1763 1786 820 36 23 1,576 5. Fayston. Feb. 27, 17^:2 1 79& 635 34 I8f 817 6. ]Vfc.rslifield.:June22, 1790 1794 1800 1 ,1 56 3G 32 2 422 7. Middlesex. 'June 8, 17631783 1788 1,270 36 35^ 3,102 8. Montpelier.:Aug.l4, 1781 1787 J 791 3,725 3€ 3 03.i Il,.359j 9. Moretovvn.lJune 7, 1739| 14. Warren, jOct. 20, 1789 1797 943 20 361 1 ,603 !5. Waterbury. June 7, 1763 1784 1790 1,992 36 55jf 5,060 16. Woodbury. Aug. 10, 1781 1,092 36 30^ 1,193 17. Worcester, June 8,1763 1797 1803 587 36 m 1 .052; 23,506j 571 41 54.4231 settlement 1 What said of forts.' \A qiat b ittle ? What do yo u know ibouf it 1 What the original extent of the en. ■» When wa.«i Washinstton co. incorporated .'— Fettled ?— population '—town? .'— -Eouare miles f— pop. to a pqnare mile ? — what town fir.«t settled ?— mosi populous g04 GEOGRAPUY BT COefr?TiE«. y W ii.uoriki Kiver, Situation. Was-hington county lies nearly in \h& centre of the state, andmostl)^ between the main rangh of the Green Mountains on tlie west, and that range of these which strikes oti' to the northeast, called the height of lands. Boundaries. It is bounded north by Lamoille and Caledonia counties, east by Caledonia county, south- east by Orange county, south by Addison county and west by Chittenden county. Extent. This county extends from north to south about 34 miles, and from east to west 34 miles, con- taining 671 square miles. It is divided into 17 towu-- fihips. Shire town. Montpelier. Surface. The surface is very uneven, and in parts mountainous. The Green Mountains extending along the western part present in Duxbury, on the line be tween this county and Chittenden county, one of their loftiest summits, which is Camel's Hump, elevated 408r piost wealthy 1 .Vc. ehire iuy^u ? wbai How i3 Washing.on co. Fitnated ? — bounded ? — extent r- iis i-iui 01 the siulaco 1 ^Vhal heights aie given ? ^^ H-f \ 997 724 540 492 520 418 '• WASaiKGTOr? COUNT*. t05 above the sea. A ridge called the Hog Back, extends north and south between Waterbury and Middlesex. The following are the heights above the sea of some points in this county which have been ascertained by measurement. Camel's Hump, Duxbury, - - ^ Rail Road Summit, Roxbury, - Rail Road Depot, Northfield, State House, Montpelier, Mouth of Dog River, Berlin, Middlesex Village, (R. R. Grade,) Waterbury Village, (R! R. Grade,) Streams. This county is watered wholly by Win- ooski river, which runs through it in a general wester- ly direction; and by its numerous branches. The principal branches, which enter the Winooski on the north side, are Waterbury river, Little North Branch at Montpelier village, and Kingsbury Branch in the eastern part of Montpelier. Those entering on the southside are Mad river in Moretown and Dog river and Stevens Branch in Berlin, These furnish abun- dance of water power in ail parts of the county. Falls. The most interesting fails in the county are in Marshfield, in one of the main head branches of Winooski river, and' called the Great Falls. The fall is 203 feet in about 20 rods. There is a fine view of these falls from the stage road leading from Montpelier to Danville. The head of the falls is 1059 feet above the sea. The falls at Middlesex and Montpelier, are among the most valuable for their available water power. Ponds. There are several natural ponds in Vv'ood- biiry and Calais, but t-hey are mostly small. There is also a beautiful pond In Berlin. Curiosities. A chasrn v.^orn in the rocks by Winooski river at Middlesex village, and another in the lower part of Waterbury, called the Natural Bridge are con- siderable curiosities. Geology. The rocks in this county are all primary, excepting the granite, Vvhich abounds in the towns of Marshlield, Plainfieid and Barre, particularly the latter. Along the western part of tlie county, the rocks are talcose and mica slate.. Then comes a range of stea- mer waters the county? What its boundaries? What flails 1 Tke height »1 the great fall ? What poncl« 7— curiosities f What are the rocke ? Where ui« IS 206 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. tite associated with serpentine. This appears more or less in the towns of IVaterbury, Moretown, Waitsfield, Warren and Roxbury. To the eastward of this, the rocks are talcose and chlorite sIate,to a line along the valley of Dog river, through the village of Montpelior and through the eastern part of Calais and Yv^oodbur3^ This line divides the talcose slate region from that of the calcareo-mica slate which lies to the eastward of it. The change from one of these formations to the other may be seen at the village of Montpelier by com- paring the rocks near the state house with those near the bridge on the Berlin side of the river, and on the east side of the road leading to Northiield. There is no limestone known to exist in the county to the westward of the line above mentioned, excei3t- ing a small bed of white saccharoid limestone in More- town. But to the eastward of this line many of the strata are calcareous, but they are all too siliceous to make good lime for architectural piirpcses. The rocks in the western part of the county have a steep eastern dip. A little to the eastward of the stea- tite range they are vertical, forming a synclinal axis. This may be seen from the stage road in the eastern part of Waterbury, is the principal, forming the bank of the river. All the stratified rocks to the eastward of the axis have a steep westerly dip. At Montpelier vil- lage the dip is about TO'^ west. The general strike of the rocks is from about 22*^ west of south to 22*^ east of north. The rocks in the eastern part of the county are, to a great extent, granite, particularly in the eastenr parts of Barre, Plainfield and Marshfield. The granite qu;ir- ries in iJarre, furnished the stone of which the state house was built. The granite in this county is evident- ly more recent than the calcareo-mica slate formation, since it frequently contains fragments of slate embed- ed in it. The granite, though verj^ irregular, for the most pari; extends in ranges in the direction of the strike of the stratified rocks. Vikef'. Yery few dikes have been observed in this ounty. In the rocks which form the Great falls in Marshfield, there is a greenstone dip, which is 52 inches Fieaiitc and serpeniiine .'' Whore the line betwoen the talcose and calcafes-mira Plate lormation 7 What is said of .''iniestone ?— of dip ?--synclinal axis ?— strike .' rocks in the eastern part ? What is said ol" the granite ?— dikes?— marl .'—ores? — WASHINGTON COUNTY. 207 wide running in the direction of the strike of the rocks \vhich is there about 60° east of north. Marl. Beds of sliell marl have been opened in Ca- lais and Woodbury. They are found here. as elsewhere on the east side of the Green Mountains, only on th» calcareo-mica slate formation. Ores. There is a large bed of sulphuret of iron in Woodbury, suitable for the manufacture of copperas. Specimens of arsenical iron, are found in Waterbury, and also sulphuret of iron, and sulphuret of copper. The latter is found in the hoitheast part of the town in the seams between strata of talcose slate which are there nearly vertical, dipping east 85°. A consid- erable excavation has been made, here and several tons of the ore raised, but the process was found to be oo expensive to warrant its continuance. The com- mon varieties of iron ore have been found in small quantities at several places. Minerals. Lr.rge a. id beautiful specimens of rock crystal are found in Middlesex and Waterbury. There is also in the north west ptirt of Waterbury, a locality of beautiful clnystones. Bdildiug Materials. The gi'anite in Barre, and in ma- ny other places, where granite occurs in the county, furnishes the very best material for building. Blocks of it can be obtained of any size or form that may be required. The clay slate in tlie calcareo-mica slate formation in Beilin, at some localities, is found to an- swer tolerably well for rooting slate. Clay and sand suitable for bricks, are found in various places, but there is no limestone suitable for the manufacture of quicklime in the county. The steatite in Moretown, and serpentine in Roxbury, furnish materials valuable for many purposes. Soil and I ^roduce. The soi 1 generally is rich and pro- ductive. Horses, - - 4.360 Birley, bush. 4.028 Citlle, - 25.415 Oati, ■-' 203;294 Sheap, - 110 392 Rye, '' . 5,7,3 Swine, - 12,150 Buckwheat*' 23.066 Wheat, bush. - 41,110 Indian Cori^k'' 63.108 Potatoes, '' 697,785 Hay, tons, - 55,10J Maple Sugar, lbs. 451,348 Wool, lbs. - - 159.724 minerals?— of building materials 1— soil } How many hoisas ] &c.— of the i^ut- 808 •KOSRAPHT BT •©UNTIE*. Pursuits. The people are generally employed in ag- ricultQre. In 1840, 136 were engciged in commerce, 1403 in manufactures and trades and 105 in the learned professions. Education. The county contains 215 school districts, in 147 of which there are 5678 scholars between 4 and 18 years of age. averaging 38^ to a district. There is a flourishing academy in Montpelier.* Villages. Montpelier is the capital of the state, and the shire town of the county. Montpelier village is one of the largest and wealthiest villages in Vermont. Its principal public buildings are the state house, a court house, (probably the best in the state.) two con- gregational meeting houses, an episcopal church and a methodist chapel. The other villages of most impor- tance are Waterbury, Middlesex, Barre and North- field. History. This county was incorporated, out of terri- tory previously embraced in other counties, November 1. 1810, by the name of Jefferson county, and was or- ganized December 1. 1811. The name w^as altered to Washington county November 8, 1814. The first settlement within tha present limits of the county, was made at Middlesex, in 1783, by Mr. Thomas Mead. XIII. WINDHAM COUNTY. f^itication. Windham county lies in the south east cor- ner of the state bordering ou Massachusetts and Con- necticut river, Boundaries. It is bounded on the north by Windsor county on the east by Connecticut river, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by Bennington county. Extent. It is 36 miles long from north to south, and 28 miles wide from east to west containing 782 square miles. It is divided into 23 townships. Shire Town. Newfane. Surface. The surface of this county is uneven and suits'? How many school l—srholars in 147 districts? What is said of Montpe- lier ?— other villages .' Out of what was the co. formed ?— when ?— by what name? Tfhen was the name altered ? When and where the settlement commenced ? Hnvr is Windham co. eituaied ?— bounded ?— extant ?— shire tetrn 1— what is said of Ui« earfftQ* 7 WINDHAM CODNTT. XIII. WINDHAM COUNTY. Incorporated, Feb. 1 1, - 1779 Number of towns, . . - 23 First settlement, - - - 17i}4 Square miles, - . . - - 782 Population in 1840, - - 27,442 Pop. to the square mile, - - 35 TOWNS. r I Towns. 1 Chartered. j Set- 1 tied. !Orga-lPop. ii jnjzeijj 1840. Sq. miles 'Pop. to sq. mile Gr. List] lcS47. 1 $1,042 1. Athens, May 3, 178l)jl780 !l78l 378 15 25 2. Bratileb'h, Dec 26,1750 1724 1 2,624 34l 77 10,565 3. Brookline, Oct. 30, 1794 1777 1795 32t 11 30 8.38 4. Dover, Nov. 7, 1780 729 29 25 2,121 5. Dumni'n, Dec. 26, 1753 1 1,263 30 42 2,994 6. Graiton, Apr. 6,175411780 1,326 38 35 3.20i 7 Guilford, Apr. 2, 1754il761 1 1,525 39 39 4,824 8. Halifax, May 11, 1750:1761 I770| 1,39< 39 36 2,654 9. Jamaica, Nov. 7, 1780:1780 1781 1,586 49 32^ 3,146 10. London')', Apr. 20, 1780,1774 1 1,210 24 502 2,164 1 1. Marlbo'h, Sep. 21, 1761 1763 I775i 1^027 39 263^ 2,744! 12. Newfane, N«v 3, 176! 1766 1774' 1,403 38 37 4,528! 13. Putney, Dec .126, 1753 1744 1770 1,-383 31 45^ 55, 4,475 14. Rock'gm, Dec. "28, 1752 1753 1760 2,330 42 8,051 15. Somerset, 262 39 768 16. Stratton, 341 42 3^^ 605 17. Townsh'd, June 20, 1753 1761 1771 1,515 47 4,395 18. Vernon, Sep. 5, 1753 705 21 33 2,590 j 2,7901 5,461 1 19. Wards'bo, Nov. 7, 1780 80 1786 1,102 29 38 20. Westmin'r. Nov. 9, 1752 1741 1 ,556 44 35i 21. Whiting'n]. 1770! 1780 1,391 39 36' 3,126 22. Wilm'ton, Apr. 25, 1751 1 ,296 39 331 4,074| 23. Windham, 1 757 24 3U 1 1,878 79,034! J 27,442 762 35 j the greater part of it is hilly or mountainous. The high est summit in the county is Manicknung mountaitrin Stratton. Streams. West river is the principal stream and wa- ters more than half the county. The south western parts are watered by Deerfield river, and the north eastern parts by William's and Saxton's rivers. Green river rises in Malborough, crosses the corner of Hali- fax, and runs through the western part of Guilford When was Windham co. incorporated 7-scitled .'-population?— towns?— jquar« miles ?— persons to a square mile ? — what town fir^t settled 1 — first organized! most populous ?— most wealthy 7— How is Orange co. situated ?— bounded I 18* 210 GEOGRAPHY- BY GOC.NTIES. into Massachusetts. West riTcr, though a considera- ble stream, furnishes very few good sites for mills. There are, however, many good mill privileges on its branches, and on the other streams in the county. Falls. Bellows Fall are in Connecticut river, and be- long to New Hampshire, but the available water power is o^i the Vermont side, and therefore, may be regarded as belonging to this county. The amount of fall in the river here is about 42 feet. The first bridge over the Connecticut, was built here in 1785, by Col. Enoch Hale. Pouch'. There are several small ponds in this county but none of them large. There are two in Marlborough called Allen's pond and south pond, each of which is U mile long and three-fourths of a mile wide. Saiv- daicda pond in Whitingham is so called from an Indian WcKi river ?^*. lb er riv err ?■- what falls .'—pond* ?— of Sawdawda ? Whsi WlN&HAM COtJNTrj 211 of that name who formerly lived near it. This pond is gradually decreasing by the formation of land over the water, which is said to rise and fall with tiie water ef the pond to the extent of 70 or SO acres. Springs. There are several mineral springs in this county. One in Guilford, and another in Whitingham, have been places of resort for invalids. Geoloffy. The rocks of the western part of the coun- ty are Green Mountain gneiss, with some patches of gneiss proper. Next east of this is a narrow range of talcose slate and steatite, extending from north to south through the county, passing fhrough the eas- tern part of the towns of Windham, Jamaica, Wards- borough, and Dover, and the western part of f-^ewfane, Marlborough and Halifax.. Connected with this on the borders of" Newfane, Dover and Marlborough, is an extensive bed of serpentine. The remaining part oT the' county to the east belongs mostly to the calcareo- mica slate formation, embracing some considerable patches of granite. gneiss, hornblende, and argillaceous slate. There is a range of argillaceous slate in thn eastern part of Dummerston, Brattleborough and Guil- ford, which has been opened in several places, at which it has been quarried for many years for gravestones and roofing slate. It is of good quality, and, nov*' that the rail roads have furnished the means' of transportation, there will doubtless be a great increase in the amount prepared for market. Marl. Beds of marl are found in Dummerston, Westminster, and probably in other towns, but they are less common, and less extensive than they are in the calcareo-mica slate formation farther north. Ores. Ores of iron, copper, and lead have been found in the county, but only in very small quantities, and a few particles of gold were obtained a few years ago from the soil in Somerset. Minerals. The variety of minerals found in this coun- ty, is very considerable, among which may be mention- ed the following. Actynolite is found in Windham, Grafton. Newfane, and some other towns. Bitter Spar is found in Grafton, chalcedony in Newfane ; Kyanite at Grafton and Bellows Falls, lluate of lime at Putney Fprin^s? — rock in the western part ?— next east ? — remaing part ? — argillaccoui el>ue ?— What is caid of it ?— of murl ]— what ores ?— what minerals ?— building 212 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. and Rockingham, marie prehnite. prinite and tremolite at Bellows Falls, scapolite and schorl inBrattleborough, talc in Grafton, Windham and Newfane, and steatite in Rockingham and Vernon. Building Materials. Granite or gneiss suitable for building stone is found, either in boulders or in ledges, in various parts of the county. The range of stea1;ite through the central part of the county, furnishes in several places a good material for fireplaces, ovens, hearths, aqueducts. &c. Clay and sand suitable for bricks are found in various places. In Brookline there is a bed of pipe clay. Soil and productions. The soil of the county generally may be regarded as of a medium quality. The mead- ows along Connecticut river are not surpassed, per- haps, in fertility by any lands in the state. Much of tiie upland too is very productive, while some p-7 8, 1761 1770 1773 6, 178! I7:217i:(; 6, ]76i 20, 17. >^ I 17,1761 20,176! 21, 1761 20, 1761 17:>0 6, 1761 K), 1761 :771 1765l7Crt 1764 1792 17 Vo 764 1773! 768180;' 877 155 1,774 1,885 1,363 1,427 2,30:. 2,194 2,341 i.:^6-^ 2.21.-^ 1,417 1,774 1,363 1,396 1,917 1,571 2,625 141P 2.081 1,032 2,744 3,315 40,356 893 27 31 38 a 47*^ 262 37 1 56! 53^ 32. 44 35* 35a 534 58^ 29^ 54:1 -47 76k 73§ ^1.913 483 3,809 4,638 2,859i 6.0411 7,486 6,561 7,750 3.960 5,136 3,151 4,211 3,b90 3,18] 5,204 3,175 8,404 2,795 6,708 2,394 8,804 9,968 451 112,521 Situation. Wimlsor county is situated on the east side of the Green mountains in the South half of the State, and borders upon Connecticut river. Boundaries. It is bounded on the north by Orange county, east by the west bank of Connecticut river, which divides it from New Hampshire, south by Wind- ham county, and west by Rutland county. Extent. The extreme lenfxth of this county from north tto south is about 4S miles, nd its width from east to V/lien TTRS Windsor couuiv incorporated ?-sctile(i?— population J-towns -.^q. ,niles --papulation lo S(|. mile?— first town settled .'— most populous ?-»OJi wealiliyT d:c. How is WiHdliam ceunty situated ?—byuudea 7— cxteBi * II GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES-. 215 west 30 miles ; and it contains 893 square miles. It is divided into 23 townships. Shire Town. "Woodstock. Surface. Excepting a few small but fine tracts of intervale along the rivers, the whole surface of tho county is uneven. The range of Green mountains stretches along the western part, but the most elevated summits of this portion of the range are in Rutland county. The most important isolated mountain in the county is Ascutney, which lies on the line between Windsor and Weathersfield, and is 3320 feet above the Shire t»wn ? What is sa)«l of the surfaea ? 21fi WINDSOR COUNTY. '' level of the sea. The following heights above the level of the sea have been obtained by measurement: — Ascutney mountain, - - - - 3320 feet. Rail Road Grade. Bethel Village, - 556 '• Mouth of White River, Hartford, - 306 " " Otta auechee, Hartland, - 306 " Connecticut River, Windsor Village, 288 " Streams. The principal streams are White river in the northern part, Otta Q,iiechee river in the central part, and Black river in the southern part. These all run into the Connecticut which washes the eastern border. Some of the head branches of West river and Williams river rise in the south western part. These several streams furnish sufficient water power in all parts of the county. Ponds. Natural ponds are not numerous in this coun- ty. Barnard pond and two or three ponds in Plymouth are the only ones worthy of notice. Curiosities. The falls in Black river at Springfield and Cavendish are, perhaps, as great curiosities of the kind as any in the State. The former are 4 1-2 mile from the junction of Black river with the Connecticut. The amount of fall is 110 feet in 40 rods, 50 of which is nearly perpendicular. The channel in some places is not more than three yards wide ; and for 20 rods the river passes through a deep ravine from three to five 3^ards wide, walled by perpendicular ledges from 60 to 80 feet high. In Cavendish the river has v/orn down a cliasm 109 feet deep. Numerous potholes have been worn in the rocks here, of almost every form and dimension. In the limestone rock in Plymouth are some inter- esting caves. The largest consists of seven distinct apartments, and extends in one direction 100 feet. The rooms are of various sizes, some of them being 20 feet wide and 15 high. These caves are about 50 rods from Black river, and Vv^ere explored by the author of this book in July, 1813. Geology. The principal rock formations in this coun- ty are talcose slate, and the calcareo-mica skate forma- tion. The towns of Ptochester and Stockbridge, and What heights given? — tho principal streams ] —what ponds 7 — what curi- •sUies?— in Springfield"! — OaTindish'!— Plymouth ?— what are the j-ock forma- TTINDSOR COUNTY. 21? the greater part of the towns of Bethel, Barnard, Bridge- water, Plymouth, Ludlow and Andover, belong- to the former, while all to the eastward is embraced in the latter. The rocks in Weston and the western part of Ludlow are Green mountain gneiss. Gneiss proper occupies several small sections in the calcareo-mica alate regions, the most considerable of which are As- cutney mountain, and Hawks mountain, between Balti- more and Cavendish. It occurs also in Hartford and Hartland. In the talcose slate formation there is a narrow range of steatite which appears in Plymouth, Bridgewater, Bethel, and Rochester, and has been wrought at seve- ral places. The rocks in the south part of Bridgewater, and in a large part of Plymouth, and a part of Ludlow, are a light gray limestone. This is the only limestone in the county which makes good lime ; and about 2000 hogs- heads of it are manufactured annually and transport- ed to different parts of the county. Portions of this limestone are suitable to be worked for marble, some of it being white and some a variegated breccia. Adjacent to this limestone, and occupying the east- ern part of Ludlow and western part of "^Cavendish, is a large developement of serpentine rock, portions of which furnish that beautiful variety of marble, known by the name of Verd Antique. It is used for centre tables, fire places, and ornamental purposes, receiving a high polish, and being very little affected by the strongest acids. Marl. Shell marl exists in Barnard, Royalton and Woodstook, and probably in other towns. From the bed in Banuird coiisidfrable quantities of lime have been manufactured. The bed in Wood.->tock occupies about a dozen acres, and is probably six or eight feet deep- Ores. Iron ore is found in several places, and is the only metalic ore found in the county in sufficient amount to warrant Vv'orking. The only deposits of iron ore, which have been worked, are in Plymouth, and the ore is of several different varieties. A furnace was erected here, by Mr. Tyson in 1S37, and has been kept in smc- tion ; -what to'jvns belong lo th^ talcnse formation ? — what ie ?aid of ;rneis3 7— f^ieaiiie ? — what lime-tnao is mentioned '— wiiat is paid of serpentine ?— of shell marl .'—iron ore ?— Tvsou'sfiiriiace 7— niinerala ?— name tha pnnoJpci! .' -what 19 2.8 GEOGRAPHY BY COUNTIES. cessfal operatlo:i. The principal bed from which the jurnace is supplied, is about one fourth of a mile westoC i!ie furnace, and is the variety called brown oxide, or In-own hematite. This bed lies some distance below the surface of the ground, and appears to be inexhaus- tible. Minerals. The variety of interesting minerals in this county, is very considerable. In the range of steatite are found beautiful specimens of talc at Bethel and Bridgewater, and at the latter place fine crystals of bit- ter spar occur; and at the former, elegant crystals of actynolite. Actynolite is also found in Norwich, and also kyanite. Fine large crystals of schorl are found in Bridgewater, in white quartz. Manganese is found at Plyniouth in connexion with the iron ore and stalac- tites were abundant in the Plymouth caves when first discovered. Building Materials. The steatite in Bethel, Bridge-- •rater and Plymouth ; and the limestone in Plymouth, and serpentine in Ludlow and Cavendish, are valuable for many architectural purposes ; but the most valua- ble building stone is the gneiss or granite, in the eastern part of the county. The state prison at Windsor, and tJiejail at Woodstock, are built of this material. Good 'olay and sand for bricks are common in various parts of the county, and the limestone in Plymouth turnishes a plenty of very good lime. Pursuits. The census of 1S40 shows that 11,219 were t'len engaged in agriculture, 204 in commerce, 2346 in manufactures and trades, and 297 in the learned pro- fessions. Soil and Productions. The surface of the county is. very uneven ; but the soil is. good, and produces fine crops of corn, grain and grass. The statistics of 1840 are as follows : Horses, - - 8.440 Rye, bush. - 46,12d Cattle, - - 51.863 Buckwheat, •' - 49 330 Sheep, - - 234,826 Indian Corn, " - 168.897 Swine, - - 22,831 Potatoes, " - 1.072.753. >Mieat, bush. - 56,659 Hay, tons, - 107.109 Barley, " - - 5 164 Maple sugar, lbs. - 462.444 Oats, '' - - 331,026 Wool, '• - 552,770 Villages. There are almost as many pleasant villa- ges in this county as there are towns. Among the most 13 said of building niateria".^ ?— pursivits V- pjoductions ] — dillages ?— IIow many WINDSOR COUNTY. 219 important are Woodstock, Windsor, Norwich. Royalton Springfield and Ludlow. Wood.stook, i.s the Shire town and besides the court house and jail, the \allage contain.*? 4 churches. The Vermont State Prison is located at Windsor, and Noiwich Unirersity at Norwicli, Woodstock Court House. Education. The number of school districts is 313, in 231 of which there are S036 scholars between the ages of 4 and 18 years, averaging about 34 1-2 to a disirlct. Besides these, there are in the county, Norwich Univer- sity, the Vermont Medical College^ and several acade- mies. History. The first settlements were made in thi.^ county in 1763, at Hartlnnd and Norwich. At the com- mencement of the revolution, settlements had been made in tbe county all along Connecticut river, and at several places on Ottaquechee and White river. In 1780, the settlement on White river, in Royalton, was visited by a party of Indians, who killed several persons, burnt the buildings, destroyed the cattle, and carried off 25 prisoners into captivity. pchool districts !— scholars in ail of the m ?— what higher ins-timtiQiis ?— when >Yas the CO. settloU 1— where ]— Give an account of ihe burning ef Royalton J GOVERNORS OF VERMONT. Thomas Chittenden, 1778— 178S & 1790—1796, 18 years Moses Robinson, Isaac Tichenor. - Israel Smith, ' - Jonas Galusha, - Martin Chittenden. Richard Skinner, C. P. Van Ness, - Ezra Bntler, Sam'l. C. Crafts - Wm. A. Palmer, - No choice, Silas H. Jenison, Charles Paine John Mattocks, - - Wm. Slade, - - Horace Eaton, Carlos Coolidge, 1789 1797—1806, & 1808, 1807 - - . - 1809—1812 & 1815—1819 1813, 1814, 1820—1822 1823—1825 1826, 1827, 1828—1830 1831—1834 1835 1836—1840 - - - - - 1841, 1842, - . - - 1843, . - - - 1844; 1845 1846, 1847, - . - - - 1848. INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 1 Dip of Rocks, 2 S Synclinal and ? 3 } Anticlinal axes, ^ 4 Unconformable Stia 5 Dikes, 6 Mountains, 7 Geoloijical Map 8 Paludina. - 9 Planoribis, 10 Cyclas, 11 Trilobife, • 12 Graptolitc 13 Orthia, 11 ColuBflnaria, •'c Orthocera, 19: Pago.lFig. Page.lFig. Pafff. 2J16 Maclurea, • 62140 Chittenden Coumy, 155 17 Sec. of S. mountain, 6.:i!4] Sanguinolaria t'usca, lo9 1^ Rocking Stones, 7r)|42 Saiacava rugosa, 1.'j9 19 19 Greenstone Dikes, 7f.i4n Burlington, - 162 2120 Porph'y and Green'e 77 44 Essex County, - 16.T 29 21 State House, - 10l'4-, Franklin County, 169 44 22 Coat of Arms, - 103 46 Crand Isle County, 17S 51 23 Dcv. on Bills of Cr. 103J47 Laaioille County, 181 51 24-;3-2 Indian Relics, 107-1 10 4S Orange County, 187 513:J Vt. University, 122:49 Orleans County, 58 34 Addison County LS^SoO Ruiland County, 60'^ Geological Section, 137151 Wash'gton County, 5^36 Oven.Monkton, 13Si'vi Windham^County , 62^'' Bennington County, 143|53 Bridgeman's Fort, 5-^35 Caledonia, . 119154 Windsor County, 192 199 204 210 213 215 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS IIIIMI-^M ^l|r; 'i< i w i>'Mil 014 065 906 A m