mumam BEST METHODS OF TEACHING IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS G. DALLAS LIND LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Cliap Copyright No.. Slielf„_iLr^-_. UNHTED STATES OF AMERICA. Psycbology a$ an na in Ceacbina f^V ^^V f^V That scientific teaching is impossible without a knowledge of Psychology is no longer a debated question. But there is an important question in this connection which has not yet been answered : WHAT BOOK shall the hundreds of thousands of earnest teachers study W'ho have not had the advantages of a college training? 1. Do they need a book which they can understand — a book whose apt illustrations bring abstract truths within the range of universal comprehension ? 2. Do they need a book which makes it clear that there are questions which it does not attempt to answer, questions that no elementary text-book can hope to answer, and which will thus stimulate them to further study and further investigation ? 3. Do they need a book which is constantly raising questions about their minds and the minds of their pupils — a book which will make them students of their own minds and the minds of their pupils in spite of themselves? 4. Do they need a book which is itself from beginning to end a perfect sample of the inductive method of teaching, beginning with the simple and the known and going to the complex and unknown ? 5 Do they need a book which thousands of teachers have declared was the first to interest them in the study of mind? If so> there is one book that will fully satisfy their needs. That book is Gordy's New Psychology. If you wish to see for yourself whether it possesses all of these characteristics send for a copy. It will cost you nothing if you do not like it. If you wish to keep it the price is $1.25. HINDS & NOBLE 4^J3-J4 Cooper Institute - - New York OtY , mistakes m Ceachiitd How to correct them. No book has ever been published containing more helpful sug- gestions to teachers than the "Preston Papers'* by Miss Preston's assistant. Our price to teachers is 80 cents ( regular price $1.00). No money need be sent until you have received the book and approved of it. Among the topics discussed are : How to Preserve Order in the School-Room. How to Secure and Retain Attention. How to Manage Unruly Pupils. Should a Pupil Ever Be Punished? Is Prize Giving a Good Plan? How to Prevent Whispering. How to Teach Manners. A Cure for Laziness and Selfishness. How to Conduct a Recitation. How to Teach Geography and History. How to Teach Arithmetic and English Grammar. How to Teach Penmanship and Physiology. How to Teach Spelling and Reading. How toConduct Examinations and Review Work. Nature Work and Manual Training. We want to place a copy in the hands of every one who is engaged in teaching or is intending to teach, particularly Normal Students. We desire to introduce it into every Teachers' Reading Circle. After read- ing the book, you will want to help us. May we send you a sam ple copy on approval ? HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, 4.5.13. 14 Cooper Institute New York City; m BEST Methods of Teaching IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS BY / G. DALLAS LIND REVISED AND ENLARGED THE AUTHOR OF PRESTON PAPERS COPYRIGHT, 1S79, BY J. E. SHERRILL COPYRIGHT, 1S99, BY HINDS & NOBLE HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-6-1 2-13-1 4 Cooper Institute, New York City School Books of All Ptiblishers at One Store TWO COPIES RECEIVED, ••- 7 Library of Congre«% Office f the JAN 25 1900 Reglsttr of Copyrlg!it«, 51575 Of Interest To You We have a more thoroughly per- fected system and better facilities for furnishing promptly books of all pub- lishers than any other house in the country. Our business is divided into de- partments, each under a superintend- ent, so that every detail is carefully looked after. We deal only in School and College books, of which we carry an immense stock. We are able to supply at re- duced prices any schoolbook published. We issue a complete catalogue of these books, with a classified index. Send for one. HINDS & NOBLE 4.-5-13-14 Cooper Institute, New York City StCJNU COPY, PREFACE • This book was written for country teachers, by a country teacher, and though doubtless possessing im- perfections, the author hopes that by a careful perusal of its contents the reader may learn many things which he has learned in the school of experience, that dearest of teachers. Captious critics may find much to worry over, but the writer can assure them that they will not find any- thing which he has not worried over before them. A strictly logical arrangement of the subject has not been attempted. It was thought that a familiar con- versational style was better adapted to the purpose in hand. It will be observed that frequent references are made from one part of the book to another. This was done to avoid repetition, and it is hoped the reader will follow them out. G. Dallas Lind. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION The book has been thoroughly revised by the author of ''Mistakes in Teaching (Preston Papers)." New chapters on the best methods of teaching Literature, Penmanship and Manual Work have been added. The publishers feel confident that the new edition, printed from brand new electrotype plates, will be of inestimable value to the ambitious country school teacher who is earnestly striving to raise the standard of her school. New Yurk, January i, 1900. For Teachers and Siudents Ce$$on$ Outlined U. S. History^ Geography^ English Grammar Physiology and Arith??ietic By G. Dallas Lind Author of " Best Methods of Teaching in Countrv Schools " Cloih, 224 pages. 200 Lessojis. Regular prlCL\ $i.2j ( To Teachers, $1.00) A Specimen Outline Lesson in U. S. History Outline Lesson LVII McKinlev's Administration '"'' The peace we have ivon ?s not a selfish trure 0/ arvis^ but one whose conditions p7-esage gojci to hiiuta nity.'^ Explosion of the " Maine " Spanish- Ajuerican War : — Dewey at Manila Sampson Bombards San Juan Sinking of the " Merrimac " Schley Destroys Cervera's Fleet Stamp Tax Battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill Ponce Surrenders to General Miles Manila Captured Annexation of Hawaii Treaty of Peace Signed at Paris Peace Conference at the Hague War with the Philippine Insurgents See Montgomery's, McMaster''s, Lee's or any other recent History 0/ the United States. ) Have your pupils write a brief account of the Spanish-American War. HINDS & NOBLE, ^ ^ S New York City TABLE OF CONTENTS SCHOOL MANAGEMENT The Teacher I. Moral Qualifications II. Mental Qualifications III. Physical Qualifications . IV. Scientific and Literary Qualifications V. The Spirit of the Teacher VI. Personal Habits Vll. In Relation to Patrons . VIII. In Relation to Society . IX. In Relation to the Profession . The School I. Preliminary Work . II. Organizing .... III. Conducting Recitations . IV. Government .... The School House I. School Architecture II. Apparatus .... III. Ventilation . . . • I 3 7 ID i6 i8 20 24 25 27 31 33 38 49 56 58 METHODS OF TEACHING Reading . Literature 62 85 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Spelling and Defining Penmanship Arithmetic English Grammar History . Geography Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene Algebra and the Higher Mathematics The Natural Sciences . . o . Manual, or Constructive Work . Morals and Manners .... Model Recitations .... Miscellaneous ..... Hints and Helps for the Teacher PAGE 90 lOI no 127 142 148 162 168 171 180 182 196 212 227 ' BEST METHODS OF TEACHING IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS SCHOOL MANAGEMENT THE TEACHER L MORAL QUALIFICATIONS All men, even the most vicious, will admit that he who is immoral should not be placed in the position of teacher of ycuth. Popular opinion says that teachers should have a good moral character, and all certificates require it; but how often, alas, is there a failure in carrying out this provision in practice! A man may be a very immoral man and yet find no trouble in getting some one or more persons to certify to his moral character. The law can not reach this matter, except in cases of outbreaking immorality. It rests, then, with the teacher himself and with his conscience. Ask yourself, young man, if you are a fit person to enter that sacred temple. Pause and purify yourself on the threshold. Remember, that you carry about you a moral or an immoral atmosphere, according to the condition of the soul within; and that the innocent youth must imbibe that atmosphere, be it healthful or I 2 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING poisonous. It is impossible for anyone to be a' success- ful hypocrite. He may be morally rotten at heart, and attempt to make an outward show of morality, for the purpose of obtaining and holding his position as teacher; but youth is not so easily deceived, and moral instruction will have but little weight coming from such a man. The inward character of a man will crop out, in spite of himself. In his teaching, in his government, in his conversation, in the family, or on the play ground, the character of the teacher will exhibit itself, perhaps unconsciously to him but plainly to others. Says Dr. Holland: ''The mind that has become a treasure house of truth and beauty speaks a world into existence, with every utterance. * * -^ We give what we have received — that which is in us will out of us. Expression is the necessity of possession." If the teacher's heart is a "treasure house of truth and beauty" it will overflow, exerting an ennobling influence on all who may come near it. On the other hand, if it is a whited sepulcher, "filled with dead men's bones and all uncleanness," it will pollute all who have to deal with it. The teacher must be not only a moral but a religious man, not of that kind which loves to "display to con- gregations wide, devotions, every grace except the heart," but one who loves God and his fellow man, and obeys the golden rule, not from policy but as the deep seated conviction of his soul. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 3 II. MENTAL QUALIFICATIONS The teacher may be a truly moral and rehgious man and yet be entirely incompetent. He must have certain mental qualifications. I will simply hint at a few things by which the teacher may measure himself: 1. He should have a cheerful and hopeful disposition. The school-room is no place tor a gloomy, sour, despondent nature. Children and youth are naturally buoyant and hopeful ; but their impressible natures may be easily warped by constant contact with a morose disposition. 2. He should he kind and benevolent No human heart is proof against the power ot kindness. Even brute nature may be greatly impressed by it. 3. He should be open, frank and unsuspicious . These are noble quahties, but I would not be mis- understood here. I do not mean that a teacher should be so unsuspicious that he will consider all children as born angels, who can do no harm. Children sometimes need watching; but the teacher who acts as a detective or spy, and who constantly exhibits their disposition, should' have no place in the school-room. He should also remember that there is a spark of honor m every breast; and that that sentiment should be appealed to and trusted in, if he would attain control over vicious dispositions. He should always be ready to confess himself in the wrong, when he sees that he has made a Tni stalce 4. He should have a love of the work. This implies 4 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING a love for children. He who has not the faculty of philoprogenitiveness well developed should not choose the profession of teacher. He must have a love for the profession or he can not take a deep interest in it. He can have little control of children unless he can sympathize with them ; and he can not sympathize with them unless he loves them. He should have this love sufficiently strong to be able to encourage their efforts and to bear with their shortcomings, to feel for their sorrows, to lift up the despondent, to bring out the timid, to hold in check the bold, to conquer the obstinate, and in general to throw his whole soul into the work of improving their physical, mental and moral condition. 5. He should be cojiscieniiotis. This faculty leads a man to do right because it is right; to shun the wrong because it is wrong. He must feel that it is his duty to teach well, and to feel conscience-smitten if he leaves undone what he might have done for the benefit of those under his care. Without this feeling no one can become a good teacher. All men have this faculty in some degree; but those in whom it is feebly developed are the rogues, scoundrels and hypocrites of society. A lack of this feeling has filled our jails and peniten- tiaries and furnished subjects for the gallows. This faculty should be cultivated in children and youth, and the teacher who has it largely developed himself is best calculated to teach it. 6. He should be a lover of order. Order and system are nowhere needed more than in the school- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 5 room. If the teacher is not naturally systematic, he should use his utmost endeavors to improve himself in this respect. Let him make order and system a study. Let him practice them everywhere, even to the minor details of daily duties. He should practice keeping the articles in his room in order, the books on the shelves, etc., until it becomes a kind of second nature to him. 7. He sJiotild be firfu and self-reliant. This quality may easily be carried to extremes. Many men have the faculty of firmness. so well developed that it be- comes mere obstinacy and mulishness; or, they are so impressed with the importance of being sole master of whatever is in their charge, that they become tyrants and despots. The true teacher must avoid either ex- treme. If he is kind and conscientious and loves children, he can be firm without being despotic, self- reliant without being bigoted, and can govern with justice and equity. 8. He sJionld have a social and agreeable nature . A teacher should have none of the disposition of a hermit. He may succeed in some other occupations and not be of a social nature ; but in this he can not. The teacher's business is to improve society, and there- fore he must make himself one of the mass. He must have a kind word for everyone, must have the power of adapting himself to different classes of people and making his company agreeable to them ; but at the same time he will maintain his self-respect and moral dignity. (See pp. 22 and 24.) 6 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING 9. To be a good teacher a ina7i should have a good brain, all the nieiital faculties well developed. A man may be able to make a good wagon wheel or pair of boots and be greatly lacking in many of the mental faculties. He may be a good penman, musician, or artist, and lack conscientiousness and benevolence. But a man who is greatly lacking can not teach well. The teacher in our public schools is required to teach some- thing of almost everything, either directly or indirectly. Such, also, is the intimate inter-relation of the branches of knowledge, that to be proficient in any one branch a man must have some acquaintance with many other branches. A man can not teach that which he does not know. A teacher can not have too much knowledge. He can not have a knowledge of a branch unless he has a good development of the mental faculty which it is necessary to have, in order to acquire that branch. (See p. 10.) Do not think, teacher, that it is absolutely necessary to be born with a full development of these mental qualifications. Almost any person of ordinary mental caliber can acquire these qualifications by persistent study and practice. If, then, you are lacking in some of these mental faculties necessary to make a good teacher, let it be your constant study to improve your- self. Let the motto, **know thyself," be ever present before your mind ; and apply your energies to the im- provement of those parts which need care. You may be lacking in one faculty and yet be able to make up for it in part by a full delopment of some other one; IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 7 but nothing is of greater advantage than a brain well balanced. If you are greatly lacking in any of these parts, you would better seek some other employment, as the experience necessary to improve you will be at the expense of your pupils and patrons and a constant source of vexation to yourself. If every teacher would look in upon himself, and when he finds that he is not fitted for the place he occupies, would step down and out and enter some other profession or adopt some other employment, the condition of our schools would soon improve rapidly. III. PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS The teacher must have good health. The school- room is not a proper place for an invalid. It is often the case that persons who are, from some physical defect, unfitted for occupations requiring manual labor enter the teaching profession, hoping thus to make a living. Again, many enter the profession with good constitu- tions, to retire from it in a few years with impaired health and seek some other occupation from which they hope to regain their lost vitality. The former should not and the latter need not be the case. No man who, from physical reasons, is unable to work should make this an excuse for teaching school. If he has the proper mental qualifications and good health, though he may lack a limb or the use of one, yet he is capable of teaching school. If the teacher understands and prac- tices the laws of health, he may live as long and enjoy 8 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING as good health as in any other occupation. There is not space in a treatise of this kind for a full discussion of the question of hygiene. A few suggestions, how- ever, will not be out of place: A man may follow some out-of-door occupation, being possessed of a robust constitution, and live and enjoy excellent health for years, and never take a thought about the matter. Exercise of the body, pure air and sunshine will go far towards making up for the excesses in eating and drinking, or for want of sleep. But a teacher is for a great part of the time deprived of the op- portunity for bodily exercise, often of pure air and sun- shine. He should, then, whenever opportunity pre- sents, take daily exercise in the open air and sunshine. Most country teachers board or live at some distance from the school-house; and the necessary walk to and from school affords an opportunity to enjoy these three essentials of health. Some persons need more exercise than others. Those of a rough and sturdy build need bodily exercise more than those of more delicate frame. Persons with delicate frames often overdo this matter of exercise; and the very thing which, if properly con- ducted, should be of great benefit, becomes an injury to them. Exercise, to be beneficial, should not stop short of moderate fatigue. It hurts no one to get moderately tired. The teacher should not be above manual labor. An hour each day spent in chopping or sawing wood would, in many cases, be of great benefit to the teacher's health, and need not detract from his popularity. He IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 9 should take his place on the play ground and exercise with the pupils m their games. The study of some branch of natural science, as botany, zoology, or geology, will necessarily lead him to take walks in pursuit of knowledge. Such rambles among rocks and trees will be food for both body and mind. Riding on horseback, rowing, skating, driving, working in the garden, or at the various occupations on the farm, are all to be highly recommended as beneficial to the teacher's health if not indulged in to excess. What must I say about diet.? Books have been written on the subject; and yet men may follow their instructions to the letter, and come out dyspeptics in a few years. But I will say: be temperate. It is not so much what you eat as it is how you eat it. Regular meals when the occupation is regular, and moderate in quantity, eaten slowly, with cheerful company, not too great a variety at one meal to tempt the appetite, but a variety from day to day, not very much animal food, an avoidance of pastry, plenty of ripe fruits and vegetables, food coarse rather than fine — these requirements will keep one in health, so far as diet is concerned. Another essential to perfect health is cleanliness. Frequent bathing of the whole body in warm or tepid water, with free use of soap and frequent change of underclothing, will go far towards maintaining health. Bathing may be carried to excess. The skin may be excited unduly, causing extreme sensitiveness to changes of temperature. Once a week in winter, and two or three times a week in summer is often enough for most lO BEST METHODS OF TEACHING teachers. A daily bath in cold water, however, is greatly enjoyed by some — and when not found hurtful is a good tonic. The same clothing that is worn in the daytime should not be worn at night. The clothes worn next the skin in the daytime should be removed, and allowed to air at night. They may be put on again in the morning, and those worn at night allowed to air. Tobacco, tea, coffee and spirituous liquors, are not necessary for anyone; and though not all of them are always injurious, the teacher will do well to let them severely alone. (See p. i8.) If the teacher is not already informed in the matter of hygiene, I hope he will study it, and apply his knowl- edge to the care of his physical organization. Said John Locke, nearly two hundred years ago: "A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full descrip- tion of a happy state in this world." A man can not have a perfectly sound mind without a sound body; and certainly, though one may enjoy existence without a sound mind, he is not capable of filling the position of teacher. IV. SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS It is generally supposed that to teach a primary school, or such a school as is generally found in country districts, requires but slight culture and scholarship. While it is true that a man may be a good and successful teacher of the common branches, and know nothing whatever of Latin or Greek, or of the higher mathe- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I I matics, or of the natural sciences, it is also true that had he knowledge of these higher branches, he would be a better teacher of the others. To say nothing of the culture and enlargement of the mind, by the study of science and languages, the mere knowledge obtained is of great value, even to the teacher of the most pri- mary class. Under the present state of society, we can not expect all teachers to be great scholars. They may commence teaching with no more education than that to be obtained in common country schools; but they should not remain content with that. While they teach they should study, not only how best to teach, but to improve their minds in higher branches of knowledge. (See page 6.) The teacher should always be a learner; and if he is a true teacher, he will learn more than his pupils. He will learn not only more of the branches he is teaching, but he will also make rapid progress in the higher branches of knowledge. His first endeavor should be to attain ordinary proficiency in the branches that he is required to teach. This he should have before attempt- ing to manage a school. Then, while teaching, he should study the lessons ahead of his classes, that he may come before them prepared to demonstrate any point which may come up. At the same time that he is keeping ahead of his classes in the common branches, he should pursue some one of the higher branches. He should not, however, undertake too many studies at once. Let him take one extra study at a time, and when he has attained considerable proficiency, take up another. 12 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Many a young man has acquired a knowledge of the higher branches by study of books without a teacher, and many young men can yet do so; but in these days of cheap schools, no young man who expects to become a teacher should fail to spend at least one term in some normal school or other institution where he may obtain a knowledge of literature and science. He may, if he has a good common school education, teach a term or two in the country and then spend his earnings in taking a course of study in some wide-awake institution. The young man may do as I have known others to do: bor- row money to take a course at school, and then go home and teach, and earn the money to pay it back. If such a course can be pursued, the young man can well afford to pay a good interest on the money. He can acquire the fundamental principles of the sciences under a competent mstructor, and in contact with others who are enthusiastically pursuing the same study, much more rapidly than by his own unaided study. Having thus had a start, he can pursue these branches at his leisure, during odd moments, while earning some money, improving himself in the com- mon branches, in the art of teaching school, and gain- ing experience of great value. Much may be learned by improving the odd moments. It is said that Dickens never wrote more than two hours a day, and we wonder at the immense amount of literary work he accomplished. But a short time each day will accomplish wonders. It is not the protracted efforts once in a month or so that count, but it is the little every IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 3 day. The teacher should let no day pass in which he does not do some studying, be it ever so little. He has ample time, if he improves it properly, to mform himself. He has mornings and evenings and Saturdays to study. He can also use a portion of his noons and recesses in looking over his lessons for the day. It is best to have some regular program for study and recreation. For example: let him devote half an hour each morning and evening to the study of some science, not allowing any ordinary circumstance to de- tract from this half hour twice each day. Let him de- vote an hour each Saturday to the study of history, another hour to reading works on teaching or education, and half an hour each morning and evening to the prep- aration of his daily recitations, and the remainder of his leisure time to general reading, recreation and exercise. The time usually spent in loafing at the village store, or in idle conversation, would be better consumed in gen- eral reading, such as newspapers, magazines, or even fiction. I would advise the teacher to be careful what ficti- tious works he reads. The standard authors, as Dickens, Scott, Mrs. Stowe, may be dipped into lightly; but too much time spent even in reading the best and purest works of fiction is wrongly used. The teacher should remember that he has a life-time in which to read these works, and not be in a hurry to finish them. He should use them as a means of mental relaxation, but not be carried away by them. If he finds that they are absorbing too much of his attention, he must stop and 14 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING lay them aside. It is better even never to read fiction at all, if he finds that he can not control his appetite for it. He is driving a fast team, and needs to keep a tight rein. There is plenty of interesting general reading with which to occupy leisure, besides fiction : Works of travel, biographies, historical works, and miscellan- eous sketches; and he will find himself better informed, and at the same time rested from more active labors. If he can take up a work of fiction, and read a few min- utes, and then lay it down without an effort, he is per- fectly safe; but if it absorbs so much of his mind, and excites his imagination so much that he will sit up half a night to finish a novel, he would better never look in- side of one. I was once a whole year reading one of Dickens' novels; and I am positive that it did me more good than if I had read it in two days or two weeks. I have done a great deal of light reading while walking to and from school; but as this is hard on the eyes, I would not recommend it. Perhaps if not more than five or ten minutes at a time is spent in this way, no harm can result to the eyes. It is a good plan for one to carry a book with him, and read a page or two, and then, with eyes off the book, resting them, think over what has been read. Let us consider for a moment what may be accomplished in this way : He may read a page in a mm- ute; and ten pages each day will amount to a large book at the end of the year. If he is enthusiastic, he will always carry a book or magazine with him, and read while waiting for his meals, for the train, anywhere and IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 5 everywhere that opportunity presents to occupy a few moments in this way. This may sound triflmg, but re- member that "Trifles Hght as air make up the sum of human things," and "Little drops of water, httle grains of sand, malve the mighty ocean, and the beauteous land." The teacher needs a general knowledge not only to enable him to teach well, but to enable him to fill a high place in society. But almost every man has some special talent in some direction, a special love and talent for some science or art, and this he should cultivate. Does he take more interest m geology than in any other science.'' Then he should commence a collection of specimens and use every opportunity to inform himself in this specialty. If it is botany, he may make a her- barium. If chemistry, he may get a few chemicals and apparatus and go to experimenting. If he has a talent for music or painting, he should cultivate it. In general, let the teacher make ample preparation for his work ; and though he does not follow it for a life- time, the culture he receives will be of inestimable value in whatever profession or walk of life he may choose, or be driven to accept. He must not think that be- cause he is only a country teacher he needs no special training, or that he will never amount to anything in the world. Some of the greatest statesmen and scientists, poets and authors in this country, began their careers as teachers of country schools. lO BEST METHODS OF TEACHING V. THE SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER Every person who enters the school-room for the pur- pose of assuming control of the young minds which daily assemble for instruction, should make a careful self-examination and inquire what are his motives and what the spirit which prompts him to such a step. Is it for money alone? Is it for popularity? Is it because he is unfitted for any other occupation? Is it because he loves to display his knowledge? If he has no higher motives than these, he would better, for the sake of those who are to be under his care and for his own sake, enlist in the army, go to the poor-house, or run off to sea. I can not better express what I wish my readers to know than in the language of an old and prominent educator whose Theory and Practice of Teaching was of great value to me in my first years of teaching. I refer to David P. Page, who says: ^'But the trne spirit of the teacher — a spirit that seeks not alone pecuniary emolument, but desires to be in the highest degree use- ful to those who are taught; a spirit that elevates above everything else the nature and capabilities of the human soul, and that trembles under the responsibility of at- tempting to be its educator; a spirit that looks upon gold as the contemptible dross of the earth, when compared with that imperishable gem which is to be polished and brought out into heaven's light to shine forever; a spirit that scorns all the rewards of earth and seeks that highest of all rewards, an approving IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 7 conscience and an approving God ; a spirit that earnestly inquires what is right, and that dreads to do what is wrong; a spirit that can recognize and reverence the handiwork of God in every child, and that burns with the desire to be instrumental in training it to the highest attainment of which it is capable — s7icJi a spirit is the first thing to be sought by the teacher; and without it the highest talent can not make him truly excellent in his profession." If the teacher will cultivate such a spirit, with a good moral character, with good mental and physical endow- ments, he will be in the highest degree successful. There are many who make teaching the stepping-stone to some more lucrative employment or profession. I can not say that this is altogether wrong. While it is true that experience makes good teachers, and men who have been a lifetime trying to improve themselves in the art of teaching are generally the best teachers, yet experience is not really necessary to make a good teacher. If a young man throws his whole soul into the work and has the proper qualifications, he may teach as well the first school he undertakes as he would after forty years' experience. He may profit by the ex- perience and mistakes of others. The trouble is not so much that men make teaching a stepping-stone to some- thing else, as it lies in the fact that men do not learn to do with their might what they find to do. A young man may be preparing for the law, medicine or the ministry, and at the same time be wholly and heartily enlisted in the work of teaching. If we consider the l8 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING matter aright a man should be a teacher in any profes- sion ; and he who does his best while teaching will be v^ery apt to do his best in whatever other profession he may afterwards choose. In other words, if he has the true spirit of the teacher, he will have the true spirit of the lawyer, physician or minister. VI. PERSONAL HABITS If men were perfectly well balanced morally, men- tally and physically, perhaps they would have no bad habits. The power of habit is great ; but there are few men who have habits which they can not break, and every man can cultivate good habits. Does a man use tobacco.'' He must break it off when he enters the profession of teacher. He can do it. All that he has to do is to quit. If he has not the moral stamina to say to himself: ''I will not be ruled by habit," he is not fit for a teacher. Of course, no one who pretends in this day to teach, uses ardent spirits; at least they are so few that I need not say anything about it here. Neatness of person and dress. The teacher should dress well, not necessarily in costly garments, but neatly, plainly, and according to his circumstances. A thread- bare coat may be made to look well with a clean, well- laundered shirt and collar, a neat neck-tie and clean, polished boots or shoes. All flashy, foppish costume is out of place upon the teacher. The morning ablution of face and hands, neck and ears, and attention to the finger nails and teeth, are of importance to neatness of IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I 9 appearance. Cutting and cleaning the finger nails and picking the teeth are improper in company. A fre- quent use of a clothes brush to remove dust and spots of grease, and of a hair brush to remove dandruff, is necessary. No person can be clean and nse tobacco. He who is neat of person and dress will generally try to keep the school-room neat and clean. System and regularity. Let everything that the teacher does be done in a regular and systematic manner. This habit once fixed is of incalculable im- portance. Nearly all men who have made a name and fortune in business will tell you that they owed much of their success to the habit of doing everything according to system. (See p. 4.) Politeness. This is one of the necessary habits of the teacher. The true teacher is ever the true gentle- man. He will be polite and courteous in manner and in language. True politeness has its origin in love. He who loves his fellow man as the Savior commanded will be polite. It is the spontaneous overflow of a generous and noble spirit. The teacher who possesses this quality will exercise politeness to all with whom he comes in contact. He will have a word for everybody, and a kind look and engaging manner towards children. His conversation will not be polluted with .slang, nor poisoned with profanity. Pinictnality. This habit should be studiously cul- tivated. If the teacher is not prompt and punctual he can not expect his pupils to be. He should carry this habit into everything he undertakes. Be punctual to 20 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING all engagements, whether to meet a friend, to attend church, to business matters, to school duties, or in what- ever you may have to do with your fellow man. Studiotisness. Study must be made a habit. Teachers should assign certain stated times for study, and con- scientiously devote the required time to it. They must study every day, if it is only a little. VII. IN RELATION TO PATRONS The highest duty of man is to please God ; next, to please his fellow man ; and lastly, to please himself. The majority of men, perhaps, reverse this order in practice. But if a man does right he will please God, all good men and himself. A great responsibility rests upon the teacher. He is placed in charge of a number of human beings, young, inexperienced, of impressible and elastic nature, capable of being molded, bended, at the will of the operator. He holds these beings in trust, and is responsible for their well-being and advancement while under his care. It is true a teacher has a hard task, and too much is often expected of him. When child- ren are without moral or mental training at home, and inherit passions and appetites from vicious parents, it is not to be supposed that the teacher, during the com- paratively short time they are under his care, should reform and change their nature. But much can be done towards this result ; and the most earnest and judicious worker will accomplish the most. The teacher should endeavor to please his patrons. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 2 1 In order to do this his patrons should be acquainted with his plans and modes of work. Every parent in the district should be visited at least once during the term of school; and if possible every parent should be induced to visit the school. The teacher should antici- pate any trouble which may arise between him and the parents, visit them and talk the matter over, and if pos- sible, nip the trouble in the bud. If a child brings any orders or instructions to the teacher from the parent, the teacher should at once visit that parent and talk the matter over and come to a fair understanding. In nine cases out of ten, the parent will yield to the teacher's plans and approve of them, where it would be otherwise if the teacher had gone on and done as he thought best without consulting the parent. He might have made an enemy of the parent, much to his subsequent regret. There should be a perfect understanding between teacher and patron, and perfect cooperation in the plans of teacher and school board. The country teacher will find all kinds of men to deal with. He will find mercenary, close-fisted school direct- ors, who will grudge him his wages, and will not listen to any demands for expenditures in regard to the school or school-house. He will find directors who are care- less and indifferent to the matter, who will not express an opinion in regard to his plans, but tell him to go ahead and do as he thinks best ; and if any trouble arises, in which their children are concerned, they will be the first to make complaint and spread evil reports about the teacher. He will find men who are continually 2 2 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING meddling and causing trouble in the school. He will find families who, having feuds among themselves, will carry them into the school-room, and the teacher will be put to his wit's end to manage matters. He will find the north end of the district arrayed against the south end, a village part against the country part of a district, political troubles, differences among rich and poor, all of which will affect the welfare of his school. The teacher, then, needs to be a tactician of high order. He should be ever on the watch-tower to foresee these difficulties and devise some means to meet them. The teacher should make himself familiar with his patrons, and take an interest in their business, not in a meddling manner, but that he may converse with them on topics with which they are familiar. Let him talk to the farmer about his crops, to the stock raiser or dealer about his cattle and hogs, to the mechanic about his work, etc. Let him not be too ready to communicate knowledge, but rather be a good listener, and by a few judicious questions lead them to do the greater part of the talking. In this way he will make himself agree- able to his patrons, and they cannot have reason to think he feels above them. Poor people and many country people are very sensitive on this point, and are often ready to think a man feels himself above them when no such thing is true. In many localities there is nothing that people so much detest as what they style a '* big-feeling " person or a ''big-head." A teacher in the country must have a good deal of the *'do-as-the- Romans-do" feeling, in order to succeed. St. Paul IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 2^ said : I was all things to all men, that I might win some. So it must be with the teacher to a certain ex- tent. (See p. 5.) A few words should be said in this connection about making application for a school. The teacher has here an opportunity to try his tact. I do not mean that he should try his skill in driving a sharp bargain, although it is sometimes necessary, for some school boards will hire a teacher as they would buy a pair of shoes; but I mean that he should so adapt himself to circumstances that he may make the most favorable impression upon the men with whom he is dealing. Let me illustrate by relatin^-^ a bit of my own experience in this line: I had just been attending a normal school in the vicinity, and the school boards in that section had been imposed upon in a number of instances by young men who, attendmg this school and having run short of funds, attempted to raise money by seeking employment in the neighbor- hood as teachers. Of course I was asked immediately if I had been a student of said school, and on answering in the affirmative was met with the rebuff that I was not wanted. Before coming to the next man I deter- mined to change my tactics. It was harvest time and I found the men busy in the field. I climbed over the fence and began binding wheat until I came up to the men. Having found the director, I kept on at work while talking to him. He never thought of inquiring whether I was from that school; but I was told after- wards that I had created a favorable imipression because I seemed not to be afraid of work. I contracted for 24 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING that school at my own figures. I do not give this as a model way of applying for a school, but to illustrate the power of tact. Remember that tact outweighs talent very often. Show that you mean business and do not display any disposition to yield to the desire for a cheap teacher. Teachers themselves are very often to blame for their low wages. If they would use a little of the shrewdness used by the farmer in selling a horse, the standard of wages would increase. A poor teacher is like poor butter, dear at any price. In the first place he should qualify himself to teach, and then rate his services sufficiently high. Always make a written contract. In some places it is required by boards of education; in others, merely a verbal contract is all that is asked. VIII. IN RELATION TO SOCIETY The teacher should be a model man in the community in which he moves. If he has all the requirements of a true teacher, he will be a model man, so far as human- ity can claim perfection. He should be eminently of a social disposition, and mingle much with society. It is proper to see the teacher take a part in social parties, in the Sunday School, in church, in all meetings and organ- izations which are for the public good. He should not, however, show a partisan or sectarian spirit; nor, on the other hand, must he try to please all by carrying water on both shoulders. But let him be straightforward, candid, and honest, in his views and utterances. He IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 25 may have his political creed and religious creed; but it is not well to make too much of a display of either. Let him show the teacher in all that he does, teaching both by example and precept, not intruding his services, but ready and willing at all times to respond to the public desire. He should be above those little envies and jealousies which abound in some communities. He should have none of that disposition which finds utter- ance in the expression: **If I can not have the best place I do not want any." He should have none of the **rule or ruin" policy. IX. IN RELATION TO THE PROFESSION ''Iron sharpeneth iron." The teacher should come frequently in contact with others of his class. He can learn something from every teacher. Let him visit other schools and observe the work of other teachers. He will not fail to find something to model after or see something to avoid. His own faults may be repeated by some one else; and by seeing them in others he is more apt to see that they are faults. He may learn much by conversing with other teachers, especially with those who have had more experience; and he should seek opportunity to converse with such teachers. He should attend and take part in teachers' institutes and associations. The country teachers are too apt to stand back; and the city teachers, who generally con- duct such institutes, willingly permit them to do so. We hear the frequent complaint that institutes are of 26 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING little benefit to country teachers. It is only too true. The plans and methods there discussed and presented by prominent educators are rarely applicable to the country school. Many of the institute lecturers are men who never taught in a country school; or if they did, it was many years before, and the ideas they have are such as they have acquired by reading or theorizing in their study-rooms. These men will take a class of young men and women and proceed to instruct them as though they were small children, expecting to exhibit in this way their modes of instructing children. Did it never occur to any of them or their hearers that if a class of real children were before them, matters might not proceed so smoothly.? Some of these prominent institute instructors, I fear, would not make a success of a school in a back-woods district. A good plan for country teachers would be to organ- ize township institutes and instruct each other. Let them be something of the nature of a medical society, consisting of free interchange of thought and opinion in the form of essays, orations, debates, etc. If all the teachers of a township can not be brought together, let any half dozen or more teachers organize a society and meet once or twice a month on Saturdays at convenient places. Much good might be done in this way. I appeal now to the reader of this book to work up some- thing of this kind in your neighborhood. You can do it and you ought to do it. Large sums are annually ex- pended in almost every county for prominent instructors at teachers' institutes. Does the outlay pay.? It un- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 27 doubtedly pays the instructors; but I fear that the country teacher is paying a big price to hear a ''big gun" which does but little more than make a noise, after all. These local or township societies will cost but very little, and will be of undoubted value to the teachers. THE SCHOOL I. PRELIMINARY WORK The teacher's work begins the moment he has con- tracted for the school. He should endeavor first to learn something of the nature of the school he is about to undertake. This knowledge he may obtain from the parents, from the former teachers, and possibly from the children themselves. He should spend a week or more in getting acquainted with the parents and pupils. He need not always use formality, but may drop into the homes and chat informally. He will learn all sorts of things about the school in an indirect manner and without asking many questions. Patrons will be ready to tell all about the school as conducted the previous term, and about the bad pupils and what parents are meddlesome; and the new teacher will hear all sorts of opinions about the former one. He can then make up some opinion from this evidence, conflicting though it may be. He should visit the school-house and find out what repairs or apparatus may be needed and kindly ask the directors to have things in order before school commences. He should unfold his plans to them and, 28 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING if possible, obtain their promise of cooperation; and he might also see or correspond with the previous teacher and learn his plans and get such knowledge of the school as may be helpful. There is nothing like making a good beginning. Having found out what kind of a school he is likely to have and what branches will be studied, he should have a program made out before entering the school. Of course it may be necessary to make changes in this one, but it is best to have one made out in general form be- fore the first day of school. A program will vary according to the number and character of the branches taught, and somewhat ac- cording to the number of pupils in the school. The teacher is required by law to teach so many hours. I would advise a teacher to be prompt and punctual to time, not teaching much more nor any less than the re- quired time. Schools in the country usually begin at 9 o'clock and close at 4, with one hour for noon and two recesses of fifteen minutes each. I have a program here which provides, within the time allotted, space for all the branches usually taught in the country school. It is planned for both recitation and study; and for conven- ience I have divided the school into three grades on the subject of reading. The a grade consists of the first three readers; the b grade of the next two readers, and the c grade of the sixth reader. The words in bold faced type denote recitations; in common type, studies. It is supposed that part of the advanced lessons will be pre- pared outside of school hours. It will be objected. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 29 perhaps, by some, that the time allotted to recitations is too short. I have frequently been obliged to teach all of the above branches within the allotted time, and of course had to do the best I could. If there are not so many studies, then more time can be allowed to the others. I have provided for the extreme cases. It will be observed that there is no time for a primary grammar class. The reader is referred to the chapter on grammar for an explanation. I have grouped all be- ginners in reading as the primer class. During the winter months in some schools there will be no one to represent this class, no one who can not read in the First Reader. The program is so arranged that the very small pupils may be dismissed half an hour earlier than the others; also, that they can be allowed to go out and play, in fine weather, after they have recited. It will be seen that the time to study a lesson is provided, so far as possible, immediately after the recitation. This should be insisted on from the beginning. The grades A, b and c are only here given for con- venience in arranging the program. They are not abso- lute divisions of the school. As a general rule those placed in the b grade will study primary geography, arithmetic to about as far as fractions and be in the pri- mary spelling class; but some who are in this grade may study grammar, advanced geography, history or physiology, and some who are in the c grade may be in a primary geography class or primary spelling class. These grades are, therefore, only arbitrary divisions, necessary to form a program both of study 30 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING and recitation, the grades. Many pupils may belong to two of PROGRAM OF RECITATION AND STUDY TIME A GRADE B GRADE W ft) 5' a> ? CO C GRADE 9 9:5 5 GENERAL EXERCISES 9:5 9:15 9:25 9:35 9:15 9:25 9:35 9:45 10 10 10 10 Primer Class First Reader Second Reader Third Reader Spelling Spelling History 9:45 9:50 5 Rest 9:50 10:5 10:5 10:20 15 15 Slates & Blocks Reading Fourth Reader Prim. Geog. Advanced Geography 10:20 10:35 15 Recess 10:35 10:45 II 10:45 II 11:15 10 15 15 Primer Class Slates & Blocks Primary Geog. Grammar Algebra 11:15 11:20 5 Rest 11:20 11:35 11:35 12 15 25 Reading Fifth Reader Arithmetic Grammar 12 1 I 60 1 NOON I i:io 1:20 1:30 1:40 1:10 1:20 1:30 1:40 1:55 10 10 10 10 15 Primer Class First Reader Second Reader Third Reader Slates & Blocks Reading Arithmetic Sixth Reader 1:55 2 5 Rest 2 2:15 2:15 2:30 15 15 Blackboard Reading Arithmetic Adv. Geog. Physiology 2:30 2:45 15 Recess 2:45 3 3:15 3:30 3:45 3 3:15 3:30 3:45 4 15 15 15 15 15 Slates & Blocks Dismissed Prim. Spelling Arithmetic Writing Reading Adv. Spell'g U. S. History Writing Arithmetic * Some teachers prefer to modify this plan, by putting the mathe- matics for the very first recitations, with other difficult lessons to IN COUNTRY .SCHOOLS 3 1 II. ORGANIZING If the preliminary work detailed in the previous sec- tion is attended to, the work of organizing will be mater- ially lessened. Little time should be given to organiz- ing and getting ready for active work. The teacher should commence at once with an explanation of the program. That all may have something to do, he should assign a lesson for each class, something not very difficult but which will occupy their attention for a short time at least. The time allotted for general ex- ercises will be sufficient for an explanation of the pro- gram and assigning lessons; and then he is ready to begin the recitations. A little book is convenient in which to enroll the names of the pupils of each class when they have taken their places at the recitation seats. By enrolling their names in this way, by classes, teachers will the sooner become acquainted with the individual pupils ; and it is not so embarrass- ing as taking a general enrollment of the whole school at once. They must follow the program, seldom vary- ing a minute. They should do this the first day and continue it until the last. Not very much in the way of study need be expected at first; and consequently follow — leaving the lighter work for the last part of the day, when the more recreative studies ^re more acceptable to the tired brains than any can be which require concentrated thought. Others have found it best to put writing into the last half hour of the forenoon, before the attention has become too greatly taxed or the muscles too weary for good work. 32 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING the recitation time can be taken for preliminary drills on the next lesson, for enrolling names and for familiar talk about the studies. The time on the program de- noted ''Rest" can be taken the first day for general remarks on the plan of government, the necessity of system and order in the school, etc. Every pupil should have a slate and pencil. If all have not, the teacher should ask them if they will not try and get them as soon as possible; he should attend, also, to the matter of getting books. If he commences in this way, as though he meant business and thoroughly understood his business, he will create a good impression among his pupils the first day; and this is a point of great value. As it becomes necessary, he may make slight changes in the pro- gram ; but frequent changes should be avoided and they may be, if he has studied the matter well before- hand. I have often heard teachers remark that they always dreaded the first and last days of school. In re- gard to the first day, if they would prepare themselves as above suggested, before coming to the school-house, and then commence actual business at once, the first day need not be a source of dread. Any lengthy speeches or remarks about the former school, or boasting of what is expected to be accom- plished, are out of place not only the first day, but every other day, of the school. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 33 III. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS As much will be said on this subject in connection with the methods of teaching the various branches, a few general observations will be all that are necessary here : The success of a teacher depends in the largest measure upon the manner in which he conducts a reci- tation. Remember that it is one thing to hear a class recite and another to conduct a recitation properly. Under the ancient regime we heard of a master who kept school and heard \\\^ scholars recite. Now it is, or should be, a teacher who teaches his pupils. The objects of a recitation may be grouped under four heads as follows: 1 . Examination. 2. Instruction. 3. Cultivation. 4. Excitation. I. It is to be supposed the pupil has studied his les- son, and the first object is to find out what he knows about it. This information is necessary for several rea- sons: The teacher must know what the pupil has learned, in order to assign further lessons and give addi- tional instruction. The pupil, by rehearsing what he has learned, fixes it in his memory, cultivates the power of expression, and receives instruction from his fellow pupils. The first thing is the examination of the written work previously prepared by the pupils. This may be accompanied with instruction, encouragement, 34 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING criticism or censure. Next, the teacher should test the knowledge of the pupils, by calling for reports on topics, by questions judiciously put, by written work on blackboard or slates, by reviews, drills, etc. Questions are advantageously used, but 'are also abused, by teachers. As a general thing leading questions, or such as suggest the answer, should be avoided. If used, they should be only for young pupils, or for reviews, or as an occasional concert drill. Questions should be so put as to lead the pupil to think and to answer them in his own language. Pupils should not be called upon in rotation, but promiscuously. This secures better atten- tion, and bars the possibility of special preparation for special parts of the lesson to the neglect of other parts. When called upon to report on a topic, it is generally best that a pupil rise to his feet, especially if the class is large. The importance of constant reviewing can not be overestimated. A summary of the lesson of the pre- vious day should be had each day. This need not occupy much time, as only the leading points of the lesson should be reviewed. Not only should each lesson be so treated, but not less than once a week there should be a general review of all passed over since the last one; and once a month or so there should be a general summarizing of the whole subject from the beginning. Review lessons may be given occasionally, requiring written answers to questions placed on the black-board by the teacher. 2. It is the office of the teacher to impart additional IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 35 information. Much of this may be done in preUminary drills. The teacher should be a treasure house of information on each branch he teaches. He can be this by constant study of the lessons previous to the recitations, and by being a general reader and making notes of what he reads. Every teacher should have a blank book in which to note anything and everything which may have a possible bearing on the branches he expects to teach. There are many points of interest which may be learned from newspapers, magazines and journals, cyclopedias, works of biography, history and travel, and in larger treatises on the same subjects as the class books, which should be noted under the proper heads convenient for reference. Among these points are such as follow : In arithmetic, there are always short methods of solving examples, curious properties of numbers, history and origin of figures, test examples. In geography, there are popular names of states, cities and countries, origin and meaning of names, historical incidents con- nected with places or countries, remarkable natural curiosities, manners and customs of the people, recent political changes, and much other matter not found in the text books. In grammar, disposition of difificult constructions, outlines, remarks on the history and origin of language, etc. may be found. In history, incidents will turn up that are not found in text books, popular names and appellations of men, biographical sketches, points in the philosophy of history, recent events, etc. In natural science, any easy experiment. 36 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING or remarkable or interesting fact may be noted. In general, the teacher should note any thought which may come to him at odd times, or any observation dropped from the lips of others on the methods of teaching, governing, or managing a school, or any information obtained from lectures, political speeches or sermons which would have a bearing on his school work. In a few years such a book will prove a mine of gold to any teacher. Also, he may make a scrap- book, and from every newspaper or magazine cull fragments of value, and paste them in it. It is remarkable what may be done in a few years in this way. I have a scrap-book which no money would buy, and it has not cost me one cent of money outlay. I have fragments which I have been gathering for ten years, and now it is a volume of history, biography, poetry, literature, science and art. It is my plan to cut out of every paper which I can get hold of, whether it is one I subscribe for, or a stray copy that is given to me, or one which has been wrapped around goods, or one picked up in the street. I cut out everything useful or interesting, then sort the collection over and put in the scrap-book those articles of most value, clas- sifying them under the proper heads. But the teacher must not be a lecturer. He may talk too much. It is not the amount of information given, but the amount retained, which counts. Give a little at each recitation, and let no recitation pass with- out that little; but avoid prolixity. He should be ready in the use of familiar illustra- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 37 tions and should cultivate the power of explanation. To do this he must study his lesson before coming to the class. Prof. Alfred Holbrook used to say that there were three grades of teaching power : the lowest was the power to make the brightest pupils understand ; second was the power to make the majority of the class under- stand ; and last, the highest power was to make the dullest pupil in the class understand. Teachers should study to attain to this highest grade of teaching power. The teacher will also instruct pupils how to study a lesson and carefully direct their studies. This should be done at the close of a recitation as a preliminary drill for the next lesson. 3. The teacher should seek by the recitation to cul- tivate accurate and fluent expression in writing and speaking. The pupils have prepared written work at their seats. By careful examination and just criticism the teacher can aid the pupil to cultivate his power of expressing himself in writing. Spelling, capitals, punc- tuation, syntax, arrangement, method, neatness, etc., should be carefully noted. In speaking, also, the pupil should be trained in throwing off embarrassment, and in the use of good language. Teachers should seek to cultivate habits of attention in pupils. Much may be done in this respect by mutual criticisms. Care should be taken, however, that it is not overdone. Ill feeling is sometimes the result of pupils criticising each other; and among small pupils much confusion in the class results, unless it is carefully controlled by the ^teacher. A good plan in some schools 2,S BEST METHODS OF TEACHING is to call frequently for a report or repetition of some explanation or information given by the teacher or any of the pupils. For example, the teacher to-day imparts some information not given in the text book, and to- morrow calls for a repetition of it from the class. This is an excellent exercise. 4. Under the head of Excitation, or Inspiration, I wish to speak of the teacher's duty to arouse an in- terest in study, to excite a love for study, and to lead the pupil into channels of independent thought and investigation. He must do all this judiciously and by a careful at- tention to the previous points in this section. In ad- dition, the teacher should be full of enthusiasm. The pupils will get this feeling in a measure from the teacher. They will not be likely to be enthusiastic in their work unless the teacher is in his. This holy en- thusiasm is one of the main points, distinguishing a true and good teacher from a dull, lifeless, and inferior one. The teacher should lead his pupils into new pastures of independent thought and original investigation, by judicious questions and directions, and by assigning ap- propriate topics. Timid or slow pupils should be en- couraged by kind words and favorable comments. IV. GOVERNMENT Volumes have been written on this topic alone. But if a man teaches well, he will have but little governing to do. The tap root of a system of government in IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 39 school is to furnish all with employment that is interest- ing to them and is at the same time conducive to their highest mental and moral development. To keep the imps of mischief away, put the angels of business on guard. This is the Pestalozzian idea. See what this great pioneer of education had to say on this subject: "If, from the imperfection of his reasoning powers, or his want of knowledge of facts, the child is not able to enter into the sense or follow the chain of ideas — if he is made to repeat what to him is sound without sense, it is not strange that he becomes restless and disobedient." The great mistake of too many teachers is that they ex- pect too much of children. They proceed too much on the presumption that a child has the mind of a man and will be interested in abstract subjects. Teachers must not only furnish the child something to do, but it must be something that he can do and will like to. Then he will have business and will have no time nor inclination for mischief. Nothing is naturally more active than the human mind, and especially the mind of a child. It craves and seeks for knowledge. If not properly directed, it seeks for the bad as well as for the good; and we are sometimes inclined to think that it is more apt to seek for the bad. If we place a child in a church during a sermon and watch his actions, and recall our own experience when a child, we can easily imagine his thoughts. He is not interested in the sermon because he can not understand it. He soon grows tired of see- ing the people; and he shifts his position a hundred times, counts the panes of glass in the windows, looks 40 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING at the ceiling and out of the window, and tries every possible way tointerest himself except to get into down- right mischief, which he longs to do, and would do, were it not for parental restraint or the awe of the place and the restraint of the people around him. A child goes to school and is placed on a seat with others of like dis- positions and like restless minds. There is not the awe of a church, the dread of parents' frown, nor the dig- nity of numerous older heads to restrain him. He is assigned a lesson which in great part may as well be for all he can understand of it, a portion of Homer's Iliad in the original Greek. Can you expect anything else than mischief from the child, especially if he has an active mind.? There are some children so dull and stupid that they never give the teacher any trouble, and when grown up will never agitate the world. It is from the child which, if not furnished with employment, would fall into mischief that the world must expect its 'coming man.' A teacher must remember then, that here is where he will begin to lay the foundations of government. This is the solid rock on which he must build. If he suc- ceeds perfectly in this, he will have but little else to do. With a large school he can not succeed perfectly in keeping all employed, but he should do all that he can toward this end. The teacher should train pupils to govern themselves; and only when his best endeavors to this end fail, should he resort to coercive measures. Were children properly trained, from infancy up, there would never be IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 4 1 any need of force in governing them. But the teacher has not had the charge of these children from infancy; and in nine cases out of ten if he had had them in charge, he would have failed to train them properly. Consequently, force sometimes becomes a neccessity in the managing of youth. A republican or democratic form of government is undoubtedly the best for nations or communities, and, to a certain extent, it is best in the school room; but there must be a slight savoring of despotism.''^ The teacher should be, to some extent, the autocrat of the school room. He should endeavor to lay before the school a few fundamental principles of goxernment, and as far as possible, secure the voice of the majority in en- acting and enforcing requirements. But there may be cases where it is necessary for the teacher to use his own mind, without appealing to the pupils for sanction. He should explain to them at the first that as all came there to be instructed, it is to the highest interest of all that the teacher's whole time should be spent in teach- ing; and that if every one would attend only to the work necessary to acquire knowledge, there would be no necessity for government. The teacher, while he does not make a show of watch- ing his pupils, should ever be on the alert to detect departures from propriety and at once check them. A firm stand at the beginning is of great importance. One evil act, if permitted to pass unnoticed, may be * A note to Wilson S. Gill, Pres. of the Patriotic League, New York City, will bring light on this point. 42 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING followed by a score. A rather rigid discipline at first will prevent the necessity of close watching after- ward. The teacher need say but little about government. A system of rules laid down is of more harm than good. The general principle, Do Right, is all the rule neces- sary. Let the teacher be orderly and systematic in everything he undertakes and he will thus unconsciously teach order and system to his pupils. He should not attempt to keep a school as still as a church is while the minister prays. The perform- ance of the actual duties of the school room, if carried on in an enthusiastic manner, can not be without more or less noise. But he should endeavor to check unnec- essary noise, and not expect too much of the pupils. He must consider that forty pupils will make more noise than twenty, and if anyone points him to a quiet school, he may ask how many pupils there are. I have seen teachers who kept forty and fifty pupils almost as still as death; but I never saw very much real progress made in studies under such teachers. They were a suc- cess so far as keeping a school quiet was concerned, and that was all. Shall whispering be suppressed } Yes, and no. If it is injuring the school, suppress it in part. Some claim they can uproot it entirely, but I never did. It was one of my impossibilities; but others may do better. Still, if a school is small, and pupils study and recite well, I can not see what harm there can be in whispering a little. If a pupil has plenty of work to do, he will not IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 43 and the pupils crowded, a great deal of confusion will result if each pupil only whispers a little. In such cases, the teacher should explain the necessity of re- fraining from whispering, and do all in his power to check it. He may find it necessary to deprive those who persist in it of a part of their recesses. With many, merely calling their attention to the fact will be all that is necessary. With some, it will have a good effect to write their names on the blackboard. All this should be done, not so much as a punish- ment but as a reminder of the fact that they are disturbing the school; and the teacher should so explain. Extreme cases may require extreme reme- dies; and the teacher should devise his own mode of punishment. As was said in the beginning of this section, if all are employed, very little in the way of government will be necessary. It behooves the teacher, therefore, to devise ways and means to keep all, from the largest to the small- est, employed profitably and pleasurably. He who suc- ceeds best in this will succeed best in governing his school. Let me make a few suggestions in this matter: With large pupils the question of employment will not be a difficult one. Provide plenty of written work in each of the branches they pursue, and by properly con- ducted recitations and a judicious assignment of lessons, all the older pupils will be kept properly employed. If any wide-awake, active boys or girls are well up with their lessons, it will not be improper to allow them to spend much time in whispering. If a school is large. 44 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING read some book or paper in school hours.'" Many a mis- chievously inclined boy may be diverted from the mis- chief he would fall into, by simply requesting him to bring an armful of wood, a bucket of coal, or a pail of water. Some pupils are naturally so full of life that un- less they are employed constantly, they will easily fall into mischief. Such children are sometimes the bright- est in the school. Their surplus energies need only to be directed in the right channel. Such pupils may be requested to write their spelling or reading lessons, or place the solution of an example on the blackboard. Like the locomotive, they are a power for good so long as they are kept on the track; but let them get off the track, and they are a power for mischief. I do not like to see a child who has not enough energy about him to get into mischief. The teacher should be on the watch for something useful, to act as a safety valve for such vivacious pupils. There is a point worth thinking of right here, and it is a lead, which if followed, will yield rich results in the way of managing such pupils. ( See pp. 45 and 46.) No pupil, old or young, should come to' school with- out a slate. The teacher should attend to this matter; and if he cannot induce parents to purchase slates, it will pay him, in the way of securing order in the school- room, to buy them, and loan them to the pupils. A * A "Book Shelf" or "Reading Table" may be introduced, to which as many as will or can may become "lending members," each one lending one or more books, magazines, or newspapers, for the use of the rest, for the term. The teacher must umpire the matter, so as not to have vicious nor even injudicious literature introduced. IN COl NTRY SCHOOLS 45 little talk with the parents in regard to the matter, will, however, usually secure the slates. There is nothing that will aid so much in keeping pupils occupied as slates. The reading and spelling classes will find them a necessity in writing or printing their spelling lists, and very young pupils, in drawing, printing letters, and making figures. The teacher should keep the young pupils busy with slates and blocks. Simple drawing lessons should be placed on the black- board, such as any teacher can give, whether he has ever studied drawing or not, as squares, triangles, rectangles, parallel lines, stars, boxes, the simple outline of a house, a barrel, a cup, etc. Blocks are another help in government. Let the teacher go to some mechanic's shop; and if he has ordinary ingenuity, he can, out of a few pieces of pine board, make a set of blocks which can be^ used by both small and large pupils : By the small ones to play with, and by large ones to represent square and cube root, mensuration of solids, etc. Let him make a cube, to illustrate cube root, a pyramid, a triangular prism, a parallelopiped, a cylinder, and a cone; also, a number of blocks in the shape and proportion of bricks, but they need not be more than three inches in length. If the teacher can not make these himself, it will cost but a trifle to get a mechanic to make them. Very young pupils can be kept employed for hours in building houses, etc., with these blocks. To prev^ent noise, by the falling of the blocks on the desk, I have sometimes spread a shawl or some newspapers over the desk. Blocks with the 46 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING alphabet on them can be purchased for a small sum, and will be very convenient and useful. During warm weather the very young pupils should be allowed to play out of doors, after they have recited their lessons and practiced for a few minutes with slates; but in winter this cannot always be done, and some means must be used to keep them employed. They may be allowed to draw and print on the black- board as an occasional exercise, for a change. Children are generally fond of marking with chalk. Every school-house should be provided with plenty of black- board. (See p. 54.) Pupils get tired of sitting still, and thus grow restless. For this reason I have provided in the program inter- vals of five minutes which I have denominated ^^Resi.'' Rest is not necessarily absolute cessation from activity. It may be only change. These intervals may be used in various ways. To check whispering I have given these five-minute intervals for that purpose, allowing the pupils to move about the room but not permitting them to leave it nor to indulge in boisterous play, but that they may stretch their limbs and have a few min- utes for conversation. These intervals may be used in giving calisthenic exercises, if thought proper; or the teacher may give oral drills to the whole school on some subject of natural science, or read or relate a story; or sometimes it is necessary to talk to the whole school on some matter pertaining to government, or about something that has occurred in school. I would not have any set program for these intervals, but use them IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 47 sometimes in one way and sometimes in another. Variety is the spice of Hfe, and we cannot get along without it. If a visitor enters your school do not inter- rupt the usual course of your work, but adhere strictly to the program; and when the time for ''Rest" comes, you may ask him to talk to your school or spend the five minutes in talking to him. The five minutes in the morning denominated "Gen- eral Exercises," may be also used in various ways. Exercises may be given which will go far towards securing punctual attendance. Read a portion of some interesting story each morning, always leaving off in an interesting place; or give short lectures on some scien- tific subject; or the time may be devoted to matters of business, as: announcing special lessons, arranging pupils' seats, or providing for a new pupil. A strict attention to these seemingly small matters will go far towards securing good order in school. Very small pupils should not spend the whole day in school; but as this is a matter to be settled between the teacher and parents, I can only ask the teacher to try and make arrangements with parents so that the small pupils can be dismissed an hour or two before the rest. Some parents will even object to allowing small pupils to play out of doors during school hours; but if this matter is explained by the teacher, no trouble will ensue; and if they are consulted in reference to sending small pupils home, the matter can generally be arranged. The only objection to this is in the fact that some chil- dren have a long way to go to school, and very small 48 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING children need the company and protection of their older brothers and sisters. There is no sense nor propriety in keeping small children a whole day in school. It is imposing too much upon the teacher of an ungraded school. He is obliged to teach everything, from the alphabet to alge- bra, and to manage all ages from five years old to twenty; and I do not see the need of keeping the little ones con- fined several hours longer than is necessary for their instruction. Therefore, teachers should try to make such arrangements with school boards and parents as will remedy this matter. To recapitulate the matter of government: 1. Let the teacher teach well. 2. Let him set an example of order and system by being orderly and systematic himself. 3. Let him provide means to keep all profitably and pleasantly employed. 4. Let him secure the aid of parents and school boards and work in harmony with them. 5. Let him be calm, watchful and firm. I can not forbear closing this chapter with an extract from Herbert Spencer: ''The independent English boy is father of the independent English man; and you can not have the last without the first. German teachers say that they had rather manage a dozen German boys than one English one. Shall we, therefore, wish that our boys had the manageableness of the German ones, and with it the submissiveness and political serfdom of adult Germans? Or, shall we not rather tolerate in our IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 49 boys those feelings which make them free men, and modify our methods accordingly?" What Spencer says of the English boy can be, only more emphatically, said of the American boy. That independent spirit which will not take off the hat to a prince, sooner than to a beggar, requires a different kind of government from that necessary for that cringing, servile submis- siveness which characterizes too many of the Old World inhabitants. As self-government prevails in our nation, so it should prevail in the family and school. If properly taught here it will be easy there, and we need not fear a downfall of our republic so long as the principles on which it is based are taught in the family and school. If it is high-minded men who build up a state, it is the teacher's duty to make high-minded men out of the boys under his control, and thus be the greatest benefactor of the race. Ruskin told his countrymen to set their minds upon multiplying Englishmen. Let us set our minds upon multiplying honorable Americans. The teacher of the country school is one of the greatest factors in this work. THE SCHOOL HOUSE I. SCHOOL ARCHrrECTURE Not one half enough money is expended in the con- struction of school nouses, and much that is expended is misdirected; and the result is that in a land of wealth, where costly residences, fine court-houses and peniten- 50 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING tiaries, and elegant churches abound, the great majority of the school buildings are miserable shanties, barely sufficient to shelter the school from the weather, and without yards or trees, or anything which makes a home desirable. The school house is not exactly a home, but it should be just as attractive a place. Our cities, as a rule, it is true, contain fine school houses; and there are, also, some very neat, well arranged and attractive school houses in the country; but it is the exception rather than the rule. Four bare walls of wood, stone or brick, with desks and table for the teacher, a rusty stove and rustier walls, with a greasy blackboard about three by four feet in dimensions, will pretty accurately describe the inside of the majority of country school houses, at least, those in the Central and Western States. Our free school system is a grand and glorious thing, and much money is spent for the sustenance of schools; yet when we consider the money spent for useless pur- poses it is but a trifie. The annual expenditure in the United States for sites, buildings, furniture, libraries and apparatus is but a little for a country like ours. Compare this with the cost of punishing crime, or with the amount annually expended for liquors and tobacco. The people can be taxed to no better purpose, certainly, than that of educating their children. It is a fact that as education of the masses increases, crime and its con- sequences decrease; consequently it is a good invest- ment, for it is a saving to the country of a large propor- tion of the amount necessary to punish crime as well as the loss of property consequent upon crime. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 5 I It frequently happens that a sufficient sum of money is appropriated for buildings and apparatus, but so misdirected that it fails to answer any good purpose. Practical teachers are rarely consulted when a country school house is to be built. I have seen some very costly buildings that were miserable failures as school houses. One third less money would have built better houses for the purpose, if it had been properly applied. For example, I have one in mind just now which cost a large sum of money. There were two small ante-rooms, so arranged that they were of little practical use; and to conceal the want of symmetry, caused by so arranging the rooms, a blind window was made between the en- tries to them. A belfry costing a large sum, and made more for ornament than for use, though not very orna- mental, was placed on the top. An attempt was made to construct a blackboard in the wall; but it was a failure, from want of a little knowledge, and conse- quently was never used for that purpose. It is the duty of teachers, even at the risk of being thought meddlesome, to advise with school boards when new houses are to be built, and see that what money is expended is used to the best purpose. But how can teachers instruct others unless they are themselves in- formed in this matter.*^ The question of school archi- tecture is one of great importance, and not enough attention is paid to it by teachers. Teachers should first urge sufficient expenditure, and then help see that it is properly applied. 52 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Below are a few suggestions as to how I think coun- try school houses should be constructed: 1. Location. As the distance to be traversed by the pupils must be taken into consideration, not a very wide latitude of choice is allowable in this respect ; but when possible, a high ground should be chosen, near a natural forest, and far enough away from the public highway to be free from the noise, dust and danger of passing vehicles. How often do we see these points disregarded ! Country school-houses are often "stuck in a mud hole" and so close to the road side that passing vehicles may rub against their sides. 2. Sjwroiindiiigs. Land is not excessively dear in this country, and there can be no excuse for not having ample grounds in connection with the school house. There should not be less than five acres in the Western States. In the older States where land is now higher, perhaps a less space may be all than can be expected. The ground should be enclosed with a neat fence; and if not naturally furnished with trees, the more hardy kinds of forest trees should be planted — not in straight rows, but in groups as they grow naturally, leaving a large space at a sufficient distance from the house, for a playground for ball and such games as require open ground. All out-buildings should be at the back of the school house some distance, and screened by trees. I will say nothing of laying off flower beds and planting shrubbery, though intensely desirable, as I fear that we are not all quite ready for that. 3. Size. There is little danger of getting a school IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 53 house too large. I have yet to meet with a country school house too large for the number of pupils. Here comes in the matter of expense; and here is where teachers must fight the parsimony that will crowd a number of children together like cattle in a pen. A school house to accommodate sixty pupils should not be less than thirty-two by forty feet in dimensions, and should include a hall and two ante-rooms. This will give ample room for desks, recitation seats, platform and aisles, and desks need not be placed too close to the stove. The ceiling should be at least ten feet high. For a smaller school the building need not be quite so large, perhaps in some districts not more than twenty- six by thirty-four feet. 4. Plan. The following plan for a country school house is calculated to seat sixty-two pupils, and give all ample accommodations. It will, at least, prove suggestive. For convenience in studying geography, as well as for other reasons, the pupils should be seated facing the north, the door entering at the south and the north a dead wall, windows being on the east and west sides. The small room on the right of the hall can be used for hanging clothes, keeping dinner baskets, a small supply of fuel, kindlings, etc. The room on the left I have denominated the teacher's room; but it may be used for a variety of purposes. A school library may be kept here, also all apparatus when not in use; and if occasion requires, it may be used as a recitation room. The stove, it will be observed, is far enough from any 54 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING N 5- 10 5- W 10 5- 12 I I -5 lO -5 E -5 14 10 Outside Door. Inside Door. 3. Door to Clothes Room. 4. Door to Teacher's Room. 5. Windows. Platform 10 inches. Teacher's Desk. Stove. Recitation Seats. Blackboards. Desks for 62 Pupils. Movable Seats. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 55 pupil's desk and opposite and near to the door, the advantage of which will be seen when we come to speak of ventilation. A large blackboard can be made the full width of the room, at the north end and facing the school; while smaller blackboards can be made between the windows. The windows are all at the sides, an ar- rangement better suited to the eyes of the pupils than if facing them. They should be made high, so that the light will shine rather down on the pupils. The aisles should be two feet or more in width. Such a building will cost a little more than such as are usually built; but when once built, it will last just as long as a smaller one and will certainly pay in an educational sense. 5. Construction and ]\Iaterial. School houses may be made of wood, stone, brick or concrete; but of what- ever material, they should be well built, and the mate- rial should be of the best quality of the kind. No bungling workmen should have the contract. The great objection to large rooms with high ceilings is that they are inclined to echo and increase sounds. This may be obviated in a great measure by so plan- ning the floor as to deaden the sound. Architects can accomplish this; and it should be a part of the specifi- cations. Floors should be made of hard wood, the boards being narrow and well joined, so as not to warp. The room should be ceiled with boards, to a height of three or four feet all around. The windows should have : 'mtters on the outside. 56 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Blackboards should be made in the wall. Perhaps the best is made by mixing lampblack and flour of emery with plaster of Paris, and put on as the last coat of plastering, the same as a hard finish. It would lessen the expense somewhat to set the roof down lower and make the ceiling arched or higher in the middle than at the sides. Thus, at a less expense for material, the same or a greater amount of space would be gained. II. APPARATUS Many school houses in this country have not one piece of apparatus, not even a wall map. This is a deplorable state of affairs, and I hope it will not al- ways be thus. I am not going to advocate the pur- chasing of costly apparatus. There is no need of it; but there are a few articles which no school board should neglect to furnish. Among these are a good set of wall maps, a small globe, an unabridged dic- tionary, and charts for teaching penmanship and pri- mary reading. Besides these, there might be a cyclo- pedia of general information, a tellurian to illustrate mathematical geography, a set of mathematical blocks, set of alphabet blocks, a numeral frame, a number of small rulers with scale of inches marked, and a yard stick. Some of these may be easily made by the teacher. According to Webster's definition of apparatus, viz. : "Things provided as means to some end," it will not be improper to include a library as among the appara- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 57 tus of a school. I have already mentioned two works of reference; but there are many books not only valu- able for reference, but for the common use of the chil- dren and youth of our country schools. It seems to me that with such school house such as I have here described, a library should be started. I hope that the day is not far distant when each country school house will be con- structed on some plan similar to the one described, when in the teacher's room there will be a book case well filled with reading matter and works of reference suitable to the young and for the benefit of the teacher. Such a library can be kept under lock and key and the teacher constituted a librarian, books only to be had during session of the school. The Legislature of Ohio once voted a school library to be kept in each district, and the books to be ex- changed periodically. Within a few years the books were scattered and most of them lost, and finally what were left were gathered up and sold. It seems to me that such a state of affairs does not argue a very highly civilized state of society. If parents took that interest in the education of their children which they should take, such would not be the case. I think that if each district would furnish its own library, and school boards would see to it that teachers did their duty as librarians (and if teachers were alive to their work they would need but little watching), a great revolution in the state of society might be accom- plished in a few years. Certain books, such as are not used for reference, might be exchanged from one dis- 58 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING trict to another at certain intervals, thus keeping up new interest. The school house should be the literary center of the rural community. These libraries would be excellent helps to literary societies which could hold meetings at the school house during winter evenings. Public exhibitions, festivals, etc., might be given, and the proceeds devoted to purchasing a library for the school. Other apparatus might be procured in a similar manner. III. VENTILATION I shall not occupy space in speaking of the evils of badly ventilated rooms. Every person of intelligence knows the advantages of thorough ventilation. A room is well ventilated when there is a free access of fresh air and a free exit for the foul air, and when no one is exposed to cold draughts. The bad effects from draughts are almost as great an evil as the breathing of impure air. The majority of, in fact nearly all, country school houses are so constructed that they can not be ventilated without exposing pupils to cold draughts of air. If a window is raised at the bottom, the cold air rushes in and strikes those sitting near it; and if it is lowered from the top, the cold air falls upon the heads of the children. Air that has been inhaled by the lungs contains car- bonic acid gas, as well as organic matters resulting from the waste of animal tissue. This carbonic acid is heavier than common air when cold, but when warmed it is lighter than common cool air. The consequence is that IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 59 when exhaled from the kings it rises, but gradually descends as it becomes cooled. If an opening is made near the top of the room, it will pass out readily, provided there is a sufficient opening at the bottom to admit a corresponding amount of fresh air. If there is an admission of cool air from below and an opening made at the top there will be two currents estabhshed side by side, one of cold air coming in and the other of warm, foul air passing out. The cold air will fall down to the bottom of the room and force the warmer air up. An interesting experiment may be performed by the teacher to illustrate this principle of ventilation. When a room which contains a fire has been closed for some time, let the door be opened for the space of an inch or more, and hold a lighted candle opposite the crack. If it is held near the top the flame will be blown outward; if near the bottom, it will be blown inward, and if near the middle it will remain steady, showing plainly the direc- tion of the currents of air. As a simple and effective means of ventilating a school-room, I would recommend the following: Make a wooden spout, say six inches or more in diameter, to pass from beneath the stove to the outside of the building, under the floor. An opening is to be made in the floor under the stove. At the end of the room farthest from the stove make a similar spout, to extend from the floor to the roof, with openings at the top and bottom and in the middle, with slides to shut when necessary. When a fire is made, the air around the stove becomes heated and, rising, circulates through the 6o BEST METHODS OF TEACHING room and passes out at the openings in the upright spout. A fresh supply of cold air is drawn through the tube under the floor, and in turn becomes heated and circulates through the room. The windows and doors may be shut perfectly tight, and yet there will be good ventilation. Heat is conducted from a stove through a room in two ways — by convection and by radiation. By the former is meant that the air in immediate contact with the stove becomes heated and, rising, its place is supplied by cool air, which goes through the same process. By radiation is meant that heat is thrown off from the stove in direct rays, the same as light from a lamp. To prevent this heating by radiation, some device must be applied, because those sitting near the stove get too warm, while those at a distance may suffer with cold. A piece of sheet-iron or tin should be placed so as to surround the stove on all sides, except top and bottom^ at the distance of four or five inches. The stove should always stand near the door of the room to receive the cool air when the door is opened. A room ventilated and warmed as above described will not be an unhealth- ful place for human beings. But what are you going to do, teacher, if you are obliged to teach in a room not properly ventilated.'' Rather than open a window and expose some pupil to a draught, which will be the case in most houses, open doors and windows wide at each recess and noon, and allow a thorough change of air. When pupils are in motion the draughts will not hurt them. Or a window IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 6l may be opened and the opening screened by a board so as to prevent a direct draught. If the stove is near the door, as it should be, open the door a little way to admit air, provided the pupils are not so seated that the air will strike them. An attention to these matters will often prevent cases of colds which might result in disease producing death. A close, illy ventilated room will also make restless pupils, and government will be more difficult in such a room. The teacher is responsible in great measure for the health and comfort of his pupils. 62 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING METHODS OF TEACHING READING To be a good reader is a most desirable accomplish- ment. As reading is taught in our ungraded schools we can not say that it is a success. The hesitation and drawl of too many school boys and the sing-song tone of, alas, too many ministers are simply abominable. Yet much time is spent in all our schools in the acquisi- tion of this art. The results should be more satis- factory. To make a good reader requires, first, a knowledge of the principles of elocution; second, much practice. In order to teach the principles of elocution, the teacher himself should have a knowledge of them. Too many teachers are wofully deficient in this respect. It must be remembered that a strict observance of the rules for articulation, inflection, accent and emphasis, pitch, gesture, etc., will not make a good reader or speaker. He should enter into the spirit and meaning of the author. He must understand and //?^/ what he reads or speaks. The rules of elocution have many ex- ceptions; so much so that they seem arbitrary. The best orators are children and Indians, because they speak the language of nature, and are not drilled into artificial modes of expression by unnatural customs. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 63 The teacher should endeavor to improve himself in this noble art. He should practice much, reading aloud and declaiming, at the same time studying the principles of elocution, as found in our school readers. He should first try to find out his own faults and set himself to remedy them. If he finds he does not articulate well, he should practice on this branch until he has improved his enunciation. In the same manner let him correct, by drilling himself, any other faults of expression that he may possess. Let the country teacher, after his pupils have gone home in the evening, read and declaim to the empty seats for half an hour each day the lessons in the readers. The time thus spent will repay him many fold. It will elevate him, not only among teach- ers but among all classes. It is expected of a teacher, above all others, that he should possess the art of expressing himself. The American people are a nation of readers, but there are comparatively few good readers among them. It is true that a republic is the best calculated to develop oratory, and we have many of the greatest orators in the world; yet we should have more of them and more who should be above mediocrity in this respect. It is the duty of the country teacher to manufacture many of the future orators of America. Let him fit himself by careful study and constant drill for this purpose. Now that the country teacher is obliged to teach everything, from A B C to algebra, it is not to be sup- posed that he will have the time to give to the subject of reading which the teacher of a graded school can 64 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING have; but what time he has should be economized and profitably used. The time devoted to each class, of course, will vary with the number of branches taught in the school, the number of pupils, and, perhaps, with other circumstances. For example, in some schools, will be found algebra, physiology, history, and, perhaps, two grades each of grammar and geography, while in other schools there may be neither of the first three, and only one class each in the last two. The time, there- fore, must vary with circumstances. (See p. 28.) Teaching Beginnei^s to Read There are various methods in vogue for teaching be- ginners to read. Each one has its advocates, who strenuously hold to their particular methods, just as the different schools of medicine or the different denomina- tions of religious believers hold to their respective dogmas. Now, I do not wish to be behind the times and advise my readers to follow a method which the present age has voted down; but I have some serious ob- jections to following exclusively any method which has yet been invented. There are some methods, as the various phonic methods, which in theory seem to be just the thing; and the enthusiastic young teacher will likely be carried away by the specious arguments used in their favor by some of our educators, who, having watched them in the quiet of their study rooms, and never hav- ing given them a practical test in the school-room, are prepared to denounce anyone as an old fogy or an IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 65 ignoramus who will not at once fall in love with them. I have personal knowledge of at least one prominent educator who is an ardent advocate of what he calls the phonetic or normal method, and who has never taught a class of children in his life. The different methods maybe enumerated as follows: The Alphabetic Method, the Word or Webb Method, the Phonic Method. Of the latter there are several varieties. TJie Alphabetic Method is the one by which the most of us, perhaps, were taught and the one which is in use in the greater number of country schools to-day. It needs no explanation, being simply the teaching of the names of the letters of the alphabet and the combining of them into words. The objection made to it is that it teaches the names of the letters only, and not their powers and sounds, and that it is analytic rather than synthetic. TJie Word or Webb Method hdi^ many advocates. By this method the learner is taught first a number of words as wholes. Objects or pictures of objects are shown to the pupils and they are taught to call the words which represent them at sight. Words are combined in sen- tences, and the child is thus taught to read before he knows a single letter. The letters are then, it is claimed, learned very readily by separating the words into their component letters. The advantages claimed for this method over the former are that it is synthetic rather than analytic, and that it can be made much more interesting to children, words representing ideas 66 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING being more easily grasped as wholes than letters, which are but arbitrary signs. TJie PJionic ATethod clmms superiority over the others from the fact that as our alphabet contains only twenty- six letters to represent about forty sounds, by teaching the sounds of the letters rather than their names, the many difficulties of pronouncing our language are obviated. As before stated there are several varieties of the phonic method. Some have tried to overcome the difficulties by having the sounds of the letters indi- cated by marks over or under them, as they are in the dictionary. Others have the primers printed to repre- sent the different sounds by means of different styles of type; and others still by using different characters for each sound. It will be useless to discuss these different methods. I have only briefly described them that the teacher may not be ignorant of them. If circumstances per- mit, it will be well for the teacher to try the new methods and thus be able to decide for himself. I" will here state only a few facts concerning the matter of teaching beginners in country schools, and then describe the method I have used with the greatest success : 1. A great many children learn the alphabet, and some to spell a little, before they are sent to school. 2. The country teacher will find in many schools only one, or at most only two or three pupils, who can not read quite well in the first reader. 3. Children love to put things together, to build up. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 67 as well as they love to take things apart or tear down. Both synthesis and analysis should be used in teaching. 4. Children learn almost unconsciously the sounds of the letters by naming the letters in familiar words and hearing the words pronounced. Thus it is rarely that a child needs be told twice that c-a-t spells cat, although the sounds of the letters, as heard in the word, are not the same as the names of the letters. The con- verse is true, that even advanced pupils will hesitate about pronouncing a word which is unfamiliar to them, even though it be a word of very easy construction. 5. It is a rather difficult matter to get a child to give the sound of a letter alone. In pronouncing words, he gives the sounds of the letters combined; but if you attempt to get a child to give, say the short sound of a in caty you will find that he does not seem to compre- hend what you mean, and he will hesitate to repeat the sound after the teacher. 6. The fact is, the child has been accustomed from infancy to pronouncing words, i.e. giving the sounds of letters combined in such a way that they represent ideas which he has previously acquired ; and sounds alone and letters alone represent to his mind no ideas at all. This is why it is a difficult matter to teach the alphabet or its sounds. From the above facts, and from my own experience, I have found the following method, which may be termed the ''Ecletic Method," the most applicable in a country school : If no suitable books or charts are at hand, I first 68 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING show the class a simple object, as a box, asking its name. Then I show them a picture of a box in a book, or draw its picture on the blackboard. Then I print the word box on the board. Then I tell them that the word is made up of letters, asking them how many, and naming each letter for them, require them to repeat them after me. Then the word is pronounced slowly, so as to somewhat isolate each sound. Next I take a word having the same letters, or part of them, and drill in the same manner. The word ox would appropriately follow box, or at follow cat. A few letters are learned at a time; they are learned by using them; and their pow- ers are learned at the same time. I so proceed until all the letters are used by their use in words that are already familiar, and easy of pronunciation. As soon as a few words are learned I combine them into sentences, and the pupils read them until they have become quite familiar. The books may be used sometimes, when they contain pictures and words which are applicable. Charts containing pictures and easy words will be found quite convenient. When a letter is learned by the pupil, he may be shown a printed page and exercised in finding out the letters from among others. Blocks with the letters printed on them are very useful. With them words can be put together and taken apart. An ingenious teacher will find many ways of varying the lessons and making them interesting. Pupils, while learning to read, may be taught some ideas of number. This will vary the exercises and will interest the pupils. They may be required to count the letters IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 69 in a word, the words in a sentence, the windows in the room or the number of panes in the windows, etc. There are some letters so nearly alike in form that pupils sometimes find it difficult to distinguish between them, for instance b and d and p and q. The teacher may show them how they are made, that is with a straight line and a curve either at top, bottom, right or left sides. The pupils should be required to form the letters with pencil or chalk. This will give employment and help fix the forms of the letters in their minds. As soon as the letters are learned, exercise should be given in pronouncing words, and continued until they can call a great number of easy and familiar words at sight. Words having a similarity of sound, provided they are simple and convey ideas with which the pupil is already familiar, may be arranged in columns and pronounced first down the column and then across the page. In this way words are learned by their resem- blance to each other, and a test is made by pronouncing across the columns. FIRST READER As soon as the child has learned to call a number of words readily at sight, attention should be paid to the following points: I. Secure Distinct Articulation The teacher should see that the child opens his mouth properly and articulates every sound fully and clearly. He should never allow a word to pass until 70 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING satisfied that the pupil has articulated it as distinctly as it seems possible for him to do. There are defects of the vocal organs which may be remedied in great measure by practice; but it is not expected that a teacher should devote the time necessary to cure stammering and similar defects. This should be done at home or in schools specially for that purpose. Words of the lesson which are difficult to pronounce may be printed on the blackboard, and the class may pronounce them in rotation or occasionally in concert. The pupils may spell the difficult words from the book and pronounce them. The teacher may then pronounce them and the pupils spell them without looking on the book. He may then let them read a paragraph or to a period. 2. Secure Natural Tones a7id Delivery Pupils must not drawl their words. Right here many bad readers are made, if attention is not paid to this point. This drawling habit will go with them through life. The teacher may read the sentence for them and have them read it as they would talk it. The use of the period and interrogation point should be taught. Other punctuation marks may be deferred for the present. 3. See that Pupils Take a Proper Position The posture, whether sitting or standing, should be erect, with shoulders thrown back. Pupils should not lean on anything. This is a very bad habit and should be promptly corrected. If it is not, the habit of loung- TN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 7I ing will be likely to go with them through life. This is one of the greatest faults with which a country teacher has to contend. Pupils should stand with their heels nearly together and their toes apart, at an angle of about forty-five degrees. For a rest and change, one foot may be thrown out so that the heel comes oppo- site the instep of the other foot. They may change weight of body from one foot to the other, as often as necessary to prevent weariness. 4. Cultivate Pei'ception and Language Questions may be asked upon the subject matter of the lessons. A picture may be shown and they asked to point out the objects. An easy sentence may be put on the blackboard, leaving a word to be supplied by the pupil. This will do for an occasional exercise. 5. Prepare for tJie Next Lesson Difficult words should be pronounced. They may be placed upon the board. Pupils may print on their slates a certain number of words of the next lesson. This will give them occupation at their seats. A cer- tain number of words may be given to print; and it should be a less number than is given at the head of the lesson, letting them select what they think are the hard- est words. In this way they exercise their judgment, and it pleases them to be allowed to select the words. SECOND READER Methods used in the first reader may be continued, if necessary, to secure the points indicated under that head. 72 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING More difficult questions upon the subject matter of the lesson may be asked. The use of the comma and semicolon is to be taught. An occasional concert drill, something after this manner, may be given : The teacher reads a sentence, if it be a short one, or a part of a sentence, if it be too long, and the class reads after him. Repeat, until all can begin and end at the same instant. In this way the fast readers are checked and the slow ones hurried up. They may imi- tate the teacher's tones and expression as nearly as pos- sible. The most difficult parts of the lesson may be read in this way. The exercise may be varied by ask- ing questions about the punctuation marks or about the subject matter of what is read. More attention to the spelling of the words at the head of the lesson should now be given. A greater number should be assigned to copy on slates than were copied from the first reader. Words that are missed by all the class may be printed on the blackboard and spelled in con- cert by the class. Emphasis and inflection may be taught by imitation. THIRD READER Exercises given in the second reader are to be contin- ued and made more difficult. The use of italic letters, the apostrophe when it is used in contracting words, and the use of capital letters should be taught at this stage. Pupils are to be shown that the name of every person or place, the names of the days of the week, and names of the months, the words / and O, and the first word after IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 73 every period always begin with a capital letter. The other rules for the use of capitals may be omitted for the present. These points are fixed by frequent drills. It is a good exercise to write a sentence occasionally on the board, omitting capitals where they should belong and placing them where they should not, and have the class correct it. Exercises in correcting false spelling may also be given. The pupil should be taught to write as well as print the spelling lists. Most pupils reading in the third reader are able to write well, and they should be required to do so. The meaning of the more difficult words in the next lesson should be given. The class may define the words; if no one can give the meaning, the teacher may give it, and tell them he will ask them at the next recitation. He can easily overdo this matter of defining words. It is best to talk to the class in a familiar way about the words, giving their meaning by their use in easy sen- tences. It is better even that they should pass some words which they do not know, rather than too great a tax be put upon their minds or too much time consumed by the teacher. (See page yS.) Exercises in articulation may be given, something, after this manner: A word, as nighty is written on the blackboard, and the teacher asks the class to pronounce it. Then the teacher asks how many letters in the word, then spells it by sound, requiring the class to repeat the sounds after him, then asking how many sounds in the word, what letters are silent, etc. 74 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING • Exercises for articulation should always be real words, not mere combinations of letters to represent certain sounds. It is an error to drill children in pronouncing such combinations as fwoiy dofsty tifst^ etc. FOURTH READER The exercises given in the third reader are to be kept up where necessary. More frequent drills on emphasis and inflection may be given. The use of inflection marks, quotation marks and hyphen are to be taught. Class may criticise each others' reading. It is a good exercise occasionally to allow the class to remain at the desks, the teacher calling out one at a time to step upon the rostrum and read a paragraph or two, the others criticising his position, tone, expression, etc. One or more words may be assigned to each pupil to spell and define from memory at the next recitation. The teacher may add to the words, at the head of the lesson, others, requesting the pupils to go to the dic- tionary for their meaning. Teachers should show how to find words in the dictionary. Pupils may be required to write the word and its definition on the slate. Occa- sionally a sentence may be written on the board, con- taining proper names, common abbreviations, contrac- tions of words, etc., and pupils required to copy on slates. This should also be made an exercise in penman- ship. Common rules for the use of capitals and frequent drills, to fix them, are to be given. As members of the fourth reader class usually have IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS * 75 other studies, not so much time need be spent writing the spelHng lists as in the third reader. ADVANCED READING Under this head come fifth and sixth readers as usually found in common schools. Methods used in the fourth reader are to be continued, and practice frequently had upon the exercises given under the rules of elocu- tion in the books. The attention of the class may be called to the rules which should govern them in the piece to be read. Passages which illustrate particular rules in the next lesson should be read and commented upon by the teacher as a preliminary drill. Geographical and historical points in the lesson may be explained. Beauties and excellencies of authors are to be pointed out, and anything known regarding their lives and which would be interesting to the class is to be told. Instruc- tion may be given upon versification so far as pointing out the kinds of poetic feet, kinds of verse and poetic license. These matters to be governed by the powers of the pupils, the time allotted, and the teacher's qualifi- cations. (See page 28.) GENERAL OBSERVATIONS The teacher should, in teaching reading, hold con- stantly in mind two aims, viz. : first, to secure a proper oral expression of written or printed composition; second, to develop and increase the power of grasping thought. The first point is to be secured by constant drill and 76 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING practice in the management of the voice. In the culti- vation of the voice four points are to be considered: qiiajitityy quality, compass and movement. Emphasis, force, stress, slur and accent are all modi- fications of quantity. These parts should be taught from the first reader up, in primary classes mainly by imitation of the teacher. The greatest failing in schools comes under this head. One half of the pupils in all our schools do not read sufficiently loud and strong. Teachers should take particular pains to remedy this by constant effort from the beginning of the pupil's school life. The teacher should stand at a distance from the pupils and require them to read loud enough to be heard in all parts of the room. He should give frequent exercise in pronouncing the vowel sounds, words and sentences, with different degrees of force. The most difficult part of vocal culture, perhaps, is quality of the voice. In order to read in a proper tone, the reader must place himself in the position of the author and enter into his very soul, that he may express his feelings. The pupil must understand the nature of the sentiment before he can give the proper tone. Much may be learned by imitating the teacher, especially with very young pupils. Nothing but careful training can give the proper pitch and inflection of the voice ; and ability to read well depends greatly upon this power. Certain vowel sounds, as a or o, or words as do, ra, may be given in different keys, until the class is able to pitch their voices upon any key within their compass. Drills in inflection may IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS "J'] be given by arranging a series of words and sentences in the form of questions and answers, requiring one portion of the class to give the question and the other the answer. Under the head of movement come rate and pause. Many pupils habitually read too fast, while others are too slow. Concert reading, as an occasional practice, is good to regulate this and other matters. The marks of punctuation, of course, are not to be disregarded; but there are other pauses required by the sense, and the pupil must understand what he is reading or he can not give them. Paragraphs may be selected by the teacher and the class drilled in reading them with reference to rate and pause. TJie Teacher Should Endeavor to Develop the Power of Grasping TJionght A good reader is able to grapple with a whole sen- tence, almost at a glance, and take in its full purport. This part of mental training is very much neglected everywhere. But few persons, comparatively, know how to read a book so as to get at the substance of it. We must know how, as it were, to swoop down upon a mass of words and bear away the ideas expressed. With many writers the words are so many, and the ideas are so few and so well concealed, that it requires the penetrating eye of a hawk and the power of a magnet to discover and drag out the gems of truth from the mass of rubbish. The teacher can do much by asking numerous questions upon the subject matter of what is 78 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING read. The question should be asked in various ways, so as to draw out the full meaning of the author. As an example of the method of asking questions to begin- ners, I give the following:* The trees lift up their green heads in the bright light of spring. Question. What lift up their green heads.? Answer. The trees. Question. In what do they lift up their green heads? Answer. In the bright light of spring. Question. What kind of heads do they lift up.? Answer. Green heads. Question. What kind of light is spoken of? Answer. Bright light. Questioit. Light of what? Answer. Light of spring. Single sentences may be taken in this way and ana- lyzed until the pupils see the full force of what they have read. Questions of an entirely different character should also be given on the entire lesson, questions which should be answered in the pupil's own language. Such questions will not only test the fact of their under- standing of the lesson, but develop their power of ex- pression and cultivate language. Examples of such questions are given in most readers. It should not be expected of pupils that they under- stand absolutely everything they read. There are many words of which they may have an idea, yet not a com- * This method is easily run into a cut-and-dried rote which is stulti- fying. Beware of excess. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 79 plete one, ana many expressions of which they can not see the full force and meaning; but these things will be learned as they grow older. Again; a pupil may have a pretty good idea of the meaning of a word, yet not be able to express his meaning in words. This is the case with all of us, especially with many familiar words which we use every day. To test this, pupils may be asked to give a definition of stove, chair, table, etc. A teacher may try to give a definition of these words. I venture to assert that not one out of a thousand can give a com- plete definition of these words. (See page 73.) Our text books are not always just what they should be. Many of the lessons for young children are too far above their comprehension ; and others are as far below the average. Many teachers assert that pupils should be assigned very short reading lessons, and that these should be read over and over again until they are thoroughly understood and can be read with a great degree of per- fection. This, I thinkj is a mistake. It is a hobby I used to ride myself, but I found it an unsafe one, from this fact: Children soon tire of one thing, and a piece read over so many times becomes almost disgusting; less interest will be taken in it, and consequently less pro- gress made. Our reading books should be twice as large and twice as many. But an item of expense comes in here which is quite an objection. If we could only have many more lessons, each one illustrating the same points in elocution, but in which the matter is different and consequently always something new and 8o BEST METHODS OF TEACHING interesting, I think much greater progress would be made. The rule will apply all the way from beginners up. As soon as a child has learned to call a dozen words at sight, these words should be arranged in as many sentences as possible, each sentence expressing a new thought or expressing it in a new way. All children love stories. The juvenile papers and magazines and nursery books all have a great influence in teaching children and youth to read. How much more progress would be made if they read them under the eye of a teacher than by themselves. But as we must accept our text books as they are, for the present at least, what can the country teacher do in this case.-* In many schools reading classes are small, sometimes not more than two or three, and owing to the irregular attendance in country schools, there will be many days when some one or more of the classes in reading will have but two or three pupils. In such cases assign a lesson from a newspaper; a Sunday-School paper, a juvenile magazine, or any book in which you may find stories or descriptive sketches suited to the wants of your particular class. The pupils can take the paper or book in turn and read the piece over, or copy certain parts of it on their slates; and when the recitation comes they may look on the same book, or, each one having copied his own part, pay strict attention to the others reading their parts, and criticisms may be made by the class. The teacher may take a story from a newspaper and cut into sections, giving each one a sec- tion, and require it to be copied on slates and read from IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 8l the slate at recitation. This can be made an exercise in speUing, capitals, punctuation and penmanship. Country teachers might club together and write or select from books or papers pieces suited to all their classes and have them printed in their county paper. A number of copies of the paper may be taken by the club and each teacher use them in turn. If they are taken care of they may be used for many schools. Country editors can easily be induced to print such matter if the object is explained to them. In fact, if a club is formed and a number of copies taken, it will be to their advan- tage to do so. Other matter in these papers, such as marriage and death notices, local news, advertisements, etc., may be used in advanced classes, as an occasional variation from the monotony of the text book. In this, as in other parts of teaching, the teacher should bend every faculty to his work. In all his reading, which should embrace a wide scope, he should be on the lookout for whatever may benefit his classes. Little stories and sketches are found almost every day by a general reader; and the teacher should try to secure and preserve them for future use. * Occasional reading lessons from the geographies, grammars, arithmetics and histories may be given to vary the exercises. The Constitution of the United States, the Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, etc., to be found in school histories, * Pasted on small sheets of manilla paper, and put into large strong envelopes, they will be durable and convenient. 82 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING should be read one or more times during a term by ad- vanced classes. Besides the methods outlined there are several others in use, including The Sentence Method, Group Method, Object, Action, Ward, and Pollard MetJiods. The Sentence Method of teaching reading has had many and enthusiastic advocates. They claim that as the sentence is the unit of vocal expression, the reading should be based upon this principle. Children are taught to recognize a complete sentence, and to read it, then to select separate words from it, and so learn words, phrases, and letters, even, after having learned to read the sentence. It has at least one advantage: The children who read in this way do not drawl, as too many do who began in the old ways. It is really but an amplification of the word method, and gives better results, so far as expression is concerned. Then, too, It is a principle of pedagogy that the young child should study outlines at first, rather than details; so the first lessons in drawing, now, are not the fine lines of *'ye olden tyme" but bold and large strokes out- lining some comparatively large object, preferably something with which the child is already familiar. On the same principle, he is taught to observe the entire sentence, which at first is of course a short one, and to read it as a whole. TJie Group Method partakes of the character of both the sentence and the word methods; but it is, on the whole more satisfactory than either, as being more likely to develop good expression, and showing, inci- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 83 dentally, the prominent words or phrases in the longer sentences, and so, of course, those that require special stress or emphasis. In the sentence: "The red maple leaf is waving", the child would be taught that there are two parts in this ''story," as most of such work is now called, in order to catch the ear and hold the atten- tion of the little ones ; and he would read it as though a comma had been interposed between "leaf" and "is." By this method I have seen children actually reading, and tolerably well, at the beginning of the second week of school, although they did not really know "their letters" but could tell some of them, and could select some of the common words which they had been read- ing, at sight, wherever found. TJie Ward MetJiod (or as it is called by its author, Edward G. Ward, City Superintendent of the Public Schools of Brooklyn, N.Y., ''The Rational Method'') is a combination of the luord, sentence, and phonetic methods. It purposes, during the first year and a half of the child's school life, to put him in possession of a complete key to the reading of English, so that if his schooling should then cease, his ability to read would then "grow with his growth, and strengthen with his strength." Phonograms are introduced, and marked, even in the primer. The method has been in success- ful use in Brooklyn for six or seven years, and is being adopted in other cities. TJie ''Pollard Method'' is named for its originator, and furnishes the child a large vocabulary of familiar words within a few weeks. I have not seen the work- 84 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING ings of this method, but the publishers of this book will give you information, as they handle these readers. TJie Object MetJiod has good points, and may well be used in connection with the others. Any common thing which is likely to please the child, and with which he is somewhat familiar, is presented, and the words, phrases, and sentences are drawn from him, by means of judicious questions. The ''stories" which he com- poses are written and printed on the board ; and he is then taught, as in the word and sentence methods, how to read them. It will be observed that the child of to- day is taught writing (and drawing) from the start, not waiting until the third or fourth reader grade work is begun. He reads script with print, and as easily, from the first lesson. A judicious combination of all these methods, and variety from time to time, not only to hold the interest up to grade, but also to furnish the all around training which no one method gives, is best. Some ways will catch some children, from the start; while others will not learn until the teacher has exhausted the entire round of methods. No one child may be neglected, even if it takes some special work to help him possess himself of this key to all printed knowledge. Reading must be taught thoroughly, even if other things get slighted in consequence. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 85 LITERATURE Reading being the key to all printed knowledge, and right reading a safeguard against wrong and tempta- tion, as well as an incentive to true nobility (that of character) and a stimulus to ambition, it becomes the teachers' duty to help train the taste and to foster a love for the good in literature, poetic, historic, scien- tific, narrative, informational of all kinds. The country teacher is too apt to think that without a large library this can not be done, and that there is no use in making the attempt. But a small beginning may result in something great for the child for whose benefit the plan was adopted; and it may be the one tiny seed that will bear fruit where mathematics and other studies failed to awake the dormant interest and powers of the pupil. Suppose that the teacher begins with the bookshelf or reading table (see, page 43) and has ''literature" at first as a merely voluntary class, that can be heard but once or twice a week, and that during the recess or rest periods. He may let the pupils first tell what has been of most interest in the work since their last report, and also ask questions concerning what they failed to understand. As interest increases, he may hear the recitation oftener, and combine it with others, as history, geography, etc. Poems of places may well go with either of these, as: "The Courtship of Miles Standish" with the part of United States history which pertains to the colonial times; "The Witch's Daughter" to the 86 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING history of the Salem Witchcraft period ; and from these great interest in Longfellow and Whittier may be developed. Other poems by the same authors, that have a story element in them, can not fail to interest, if well read; and from the stories, the purity of the language, the lofty sentiments embodied, the masterly use of words, etc., may be taught, and great encourage- ment in the study of language, as language, given. One author may sometimes be compared with another for (i) style; (2) scope; (3) popularity, and other points. Authors of one time may be grouped, and those of one country. Living authors may be discussed, and the master- pieces of any studied. The new words may be hunted down in the dic- tionary, talked about, and used in original work by the pupils until each strange sentence has taken on a practical meaning, and the new words have become familiar. Scenes and scenery may be talked over, by the class in literature, and a synopsis of a poem, essay, or book, given, from time to time. All may study to give a review of a different book by the same author; a different book on the same subject by different authors; or all may unite in review- ing the same book, each taking a different part, or by each one doing "digest" work on the entire volume. If a place is mentioned in the geography lesson, and the teacher knows of some poem about that place, or a IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 87 book, magazine, or newspaper, in which a good de- scription of it is given, he may call on the class in literature to help entertain the geography class. So with bits of biography, for the history, geography, or any of the classes with which his time is spent. The day is long enough to give a taste of literature to all; and by selecting only the choicest that is within the comprehension of the pupils, and leading up from that lowest point, the teacher has an unlimited power to open the literary avenues to the most backwoods dis- trict in the country. An entertainment may be given, once or twice in the term, in the evening, to which parents and outsiders may be invited. A special author may be discussed, one furnishing an essay which will sketch the life of the author; another one, one of his books, poems, or essays; and another may tell of some other writer. Or a variety may be given as : English Poets, English Essayists, American Humorists, American Novelists, American Juvenile Writers, etc. Selections may be given, from any or all of these ; and by calling on his singers, or someone from outside, the teacher may easily secure music enough to give variety, and thus a pleasant evening may be spent, and an interest de- veloped in the school, beyond what any ordinary rote work can furnish. It may do, in some instances, to call upon some out- sider; and even if it is someone who would not other- wise have any interest in the school, it may in some cases be all the better — to help out on the evening S8 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING program. Once one has been asked to do something for any school, there is a different feehng for that school, by that person, than he has ever had before. It is always well for the teacher to add as many helps as possible to his own forces, both for his own sake and for that of the school. A Literary Round Table may be held, and an admission fee be charged, unless the laws of the dis- trict forbid that; and the proceeds may be devoted to building up the reading table or the bookshelf. This ''Round Table" may consist of short extracts, of course famihar ones, to be given by the pupils, no one of whom is to know just what anyone else is to give, and no outsider to know. A small prize may be given to the one who first guesses the author. Or, quotations from one author may be given, and the audience may guess from what poem, essay, or book, it is taken. Or, an author may be described, some of his leading works mentioned, some of the important events in his life talked about, and the audience may be left to guess who was meant; but if no one guesses within a stipu- lated time, the contest must be declared closed. Or, questions like the following may be asked, and the prize given to the one who answers the greatest number correctly: Who lived at a country home called ''Sunnyside.?" (Irving.) What poet wrote the Psalm of Life.?" (Longfellow.) Who wrote ''Little Women.?" (Louisa May Alcott.) Who is called "The Quaker Poet.?" IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 89 (Whittier.) Name one of Harriet Beecher Stowe's books. What one helped precipitate the Civil War? (Uncle Tom's Cabin.) Who wrote ''The Biglow Papers ? " (James Russell Lowell.) "An Evening with Whittier" or with Longfellow, or Dickens, or anyone that can be made generally mter- esting, will prove attractive as often as once a month; and the district may have an entire season's study of one person, or it may be made comprehensive rather than thorough, by changing once a month. I had a class that studied Dickens for a year, giving an open meetmg once a month that called out nearly everyone in the district but in many places it would take a long time to educate up to that point. It can be done, however but I do not advise Dickens to begin with, nor Emerson, as a rule. The teacher must be guided by the point at which he finds literary taste and cultiva- tion, and teach from that, always aiming high at the end, but not starting so high as to be beyond the heads of his patrons. A growth may be rapidly made, very often; for many of the farming community have plenty of leisure in the winter months, and not so much variety that they will not welcome the advent of some- thing new or interesting. Many, too, will be glad to add to the general culture that was for any reason denied them in youth, if it comes in this way ; and the teacher will not fail to add to his usefulness, as well as to his list of friends — and even this is a good thing to reach. No one can have too many, and a teacher needs all the friends that honorable means will procure. 90 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Scrap books, in illustration of the people, places, or events mentioned in the literary work, will be found in- valuable. These may be passed around, at the evening entertainment, during the "intermission, and will be duly commented upon; and it will be a good oppor- tunity to impress the idea upon the audience that the school can utilize old papers, magazines and pictures, in this and other ways. Many an old garret will be robbed for the school that is wide awake to oppor- tunities like this; and the teacher who is also up to date need never fear that his certificate will be an- nulled for incompetency or his job given over to another. SPELLING AND DEFINING The orthography of the English language is difficult. The majority of the words are not phonetic, and the rules for spelling have too many exceptions to be of much utility. We learn to spell both by the eye and by the ear. Both written and oral spelling exercises should be em- ployed. We hear a word spelled and remember the order of the letters; or we con the words, repeating the letters, and thus fix their order in our minds. Thus we learn by the ear. We see a word written or printed, observe the order and position of the letters as we would the objects in a picture, and they become fixed in our memory; and thus we learn by the eye. Written spelling has the advantage of giving employment to IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 9 I pupils who would otherwise, perhaps, be in mischief. It also affords training to the hand, and is an aid in penmanship. In addition to the spelling exercises in connection with the reading lessons, daily drills in spelling, defining, capitalization, punctuation and abbreviations should be given, the entire school, from the second reader up, participating. I have found it best to classifiy the school into two general classes, a primary and an advanced. Each of these classes may be divided into two sections, that the exercises may be graded to their capacities. The dif- ferent sections may be assigned different parts of the same lesson ; but it can be so managed that there need be but one recitation for each class. Not less than fifteen minutes should be devoted to each recitation. For an advanced class I give a lesson something as follows: Ten or more words are selected and written upon the blackboard in the morning, in as neat and plain a manner as possible, the letters made according to the Spencerian System. I can best illustrate this by giving a model lesson : 1. curriculum 2. Joseph Ray, M. D. 3. daguerreotype 4. autumnal 5. William H. McGuffey, LL. D. 6. stationary 7. stationery 8. Springfield, 111. 92 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING 9. Honorable E. S. Sampson, M. C. 10, Marion County Democrat. It must be explained to the pupils that words in these lessons are to be written just as they would appear in the middle of a sentence. I have given above rather more words which should be capitalized, and more abbreviations than I would in an ordinary lesson. Perhaps one or two such examples would be sufficient in each lesson. It will be seen by the above that capi- talization, punctuation and abbreviations may be taught in a natural manner. This lesson may remain upon the board until within an hour of the time of recitation, which should be near the close of the day. During this time the class should be required to copy it upon slates one or more times. The most backward spellers, and those inclined to be idle, may be required to copy it oftener than the good spellers or those who are diligent. One or more words may be marked and arranged as a lesson in defining, the pupil to find the meaning in the dictionary. The modes of conducting the recitation are various. The words may be erased or, what is better, covered with a shawl, map or newspaper, before the hour of recitation. The teacher, having reserved a slate containing a copy of the lesson, requires the lessons to be erased from all other slates. He then pronounces the words and the pupils write them on their slates. Slates may be exchanged and the pupils criticise each other's work; or each one may retain his own slate and mark the mis- spelled words as the teacher gives the correct spelling. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 93 The words may then be spelled orally, the slates being turned down on the desks. All words missed should be written again correctly by the pupils. Words missed by the majority of the class should be noted by the teacher and used for future lessons. The covering may be removed from the lesson on the board, and the pupils will correct their slates from that. As an occasional exercise, say once a week, the class may be provided with pens, ink, and slips of paper on which to write their lessons. The lessons being dated and signed by the pupil, both sides may be used, and they may be kept as a record of the pupil's progress in spelling and penmanship. There are blank books provided for this purpose which are both cheap and convenient. These written spelling lessons may be varied in many ways. Occasionally, sentences should be given. The dictation exercises given in spelling books are very con- venient. The lessons need not always be written. Oral spelling should not be neglected. As spelling books are common in most country schools the teacher may make use of them in various ways; but he should avoid a routine plan of teaching, and study new methods of conducting spelling drills. There is nothing like variety here to keep up an interest. The old-fashioned custom of having a spelling match every Friday is not a bad one. The ingenious teacher of today will, however, find many ways of varying the old plan. A good method in oral spelling is to have the class numbered and their numbers written upon the black- 94 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING board. The teacher then, with book in one hand and pointer in the other, pronounces a word and points to a certain number. The pupil corresponding to that number spells the word. If he misses, a mark is made under his number and the word passed to another. By passing rapidly from one number to another promis- cuously, the pupils are compelled to pay close attention. The number of marks, then, will show the number of words missed by each pupil. Another plan is to have each one of the class have slate and pencil in hand, and whenever a pupil misses let him write the word on the slate. Occasionally, words may be incorrectly written on the board, and the pupils be required to write the spelling correctly on slates. In a written lesson, as given above, the teacher may define the words as he pronounces them, sometimes by giving the definition as in the dictionary, or by giving a sentence containing the word, and make such remarks about the origin, etc., of words or terms as he may think proper. Much interesting information may be conveyed in this manner, which will not be lost on many of the pupils. He should avoid, however, con- suming much time in this manner. (See p. 6'j^ Primary classes may receive lessons similar to the above, but limited to their capacities. Many will not be able to write with sufficient rapidity to do it from dictation; but lessons may be placed on the board oc- casionally, copied by the class, and then recited orally. Lessons from the spelling-book may be assigned and copied on slates as a preparation and recited orally. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 95 Occasionally a class may be required to form its own lesson in the following manner: Tell each to write ten names of objects that he saw on the road to school, or objects in the schoolroom, or things used in the kitchen, shop, etc. The slates are then collected and the words pronounced by the teacher. No two pupils will have exactly the same list of words. Per- haps out of the whole number there will be some words which the majority of the class will miss. In this case, a list should be made of such words, to be used in future recitations. Easy abbreviations and contractions, such as Dr., Mr., cant, coiildnt, may be given to primary pupils. It is best to exhibit them in sentences showing their use and meaning. The instruction in regard to use of capitals, punctuation, etc., given in reading classes, should be repeated in spelling classes. When a class is divided into sections, the lesson may be written all together, and words designed for the advanced section designated by a mark, such as a line drawn under them or by inclosing them in parentheses. I would impress upon the teacher the following considerations: 1. Teach the words first which the pupil will be likely to use in writing a familiar letter or in reading ordinary composition. 2. Constant reviews are necessary to fix certain hard words in the memory; therefore, all words which are frequently misspelled should be made the subjects of future lessons, and words which are very easy should not occupy the time of the pupils. 96 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING 3. Too many of the words found in spelling-books are to be found nowhere else outside of medical, law or other technical works; and pupils should not be required to study them until necessity for their use demands it.* A common newspaper is one of the best places from which to select words for spelling lessons. 4. In pronouncing words to be spelled the teacher should do so distinctly and properly, as he would if he were reading a composition containing them. He should never pronounce the word wrong to assist the pupil in spelling it. In oral spelling, the pupils should be required to pronounce the word before spelling it; and in spelling to pronounce each syllable as he spells it. 5. In assigning a lesson, attention should be called to one or more of the difficult words, telling the pupils that such words they will very likely miss — unless they study them particularly. I have pursued this plan with somewhat surprising results. If I found a very hard word I remarked, on assigning the lesson, that I did not think anyone would be able to spell that word to-morrow. I could see among several pupils a look of incredulity, as much as to say: "I am not going to miss it," and the consequence was that the particular word was generally spelled by even the dullest in the class. 6. It will not be amiss to teach something of spelling along with other branches. New words occurring in arithmetic, grammar and history may well be so learned by the pupils. * This rule will tend to narrow the pupils' vocabulary. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 97 7. It may have been noticed by many teachers that those who spell well orally do not always spell correctly when writing. I have seen pupils who could spell any word in the spelling-book if pronounced to them ; yet if they were to write a letter to a friend they would mis- spell ten per cent, of the words. This is owing, in a great measure, to carelessness. The hand being occu- pied in forming the letters, and the mind in composing, one is too apt to neglect the spelling of the words. This fault will be found more especially with those who have never been accustomed to writing spelling. Many persons habitually misspell, in writing, certain very easy words. This is done by mere ''slips of the pen," and is a result of want of attention. The teacher should take particular care to impress upon his pupils the importance of close attention to this matter. It is a good exercise to occasionally dictate a long sentence composed of easy words, and have the class write it as rapidly as possible and then correct the errors, not only in spelling, but in punctuation and capitalization. A short poem or hymn maybe committed to memory ; or one may be chosen which is already familiar to the pupils, as "Mary's Lamb," ''The Little Star," etc., and the pupils be required to copy it from memory and after- wards correct their mistakes from the book. The Lord's Prayer, passages from the Bible, or any short piece of composition which the pupil is able to write from memory, or can easily commit, may be used in this way. Each pupil may have a different piece, and they may be allowed to exchange slates and critici5:e each 98 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Other's work. The teacher may look over this work when corrected, and point out such errors as may still be found. Beautiful lines of poetry, or short, elegant extracts or quotations, may be written on the board and committed to memory, and in a day or two afterwards reproduced by the pupils on their slates. Such exer- cise may be given, say once in two weeks, or monthly. 8. Frequent exercises should be given in addressing letters. The teacher may draw the outline of an envel- ope on the board and write an address in the proper place, showing where to begin the name, post-office, county and state, and where to place the stamp, and require pupils to draw and address a similar one on their slates, allowing each one to use the name and address of one of his friends. 9. Difficult words may be sometimes spelled in con- cert by the class after the teacher, or written in promi- nent characters on the blackboard and allowed to remain several days. 10. The teacher may call attention to some of the most important rules for spelling and syllabication. Very few pupils will, however, learn to spell by rules. Attention should be called frequently to the diacritical marks used in dictionaries and spelling-books, and drills given, in spelling by sound. Attention to words com- monly mispronounced and misspelled, should also be given, and words having more than one authorized pronunciation or spelling. The dictionary should be in every schoolroom, one copy at least, and frequently referred to by both teacher and pupil. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 99 II. Says Wickersham: ''Words are the winged mes- sengers that convey information from one mind and heart to another. All knowledge must be labeled with words, or it can find no place in the cabinet of memory." I need not add that it is of exceeding im- portance that pupils understand the meaning of words which they may find in their daily reading or hear in daily conversation. Many words are learned by a sort of unconscious intuition. Almost daily children pick up and use new words which they hear in conversation or find in their reading. They learn the meaning by the connection. The proper place, then, for the main study of words is in a reading class; but as it will not do to crowd too many things on the pupil's attention at one time, the subject may also profitably occupy some attention of a spelling class. In fact, attention to the meaning of words should be given in every recitation, on whatever subject. The teacher, in defining words for his pupils, should, whenever possible, make the meaning plain by showing the object, action or quality which the words represent. For example, the word calyx may be explained, by show- ing that part of a flower; the word diameter by drawing a circle with a line drawn through the center, also by exhibiting a block, box or ball and explaining that it means the distance through from one side or end to the other, the word compress, by squeezing a handkerchief, a rubber ball, or a sponge in the hand; the words trans- parent and opaque, by pointing to the planes of glass in the window and to the walls of the house. lOO BEST METHODS OF TEACHING The definitions sometimes given in the dictionary and in reading books are as difficult of comprehension as the words themselves. In this case the teacher should give sentences which make clear the meaning. A slight knowledge of Latin and Greek will aid much in defining words, although it is not to be expected that pupils in a country school can always make use of this knowledge. But it will be of great value to the teacher in studying words. He can, however, teach the meaning of a few prefixes and suffixes, and show how they help make words, as ad, ex, tJi, sub, ion, con, de, re, etc., and their use in such words as aspect, in- spect, expect, suspect, respect, conspectJis, suspicion, etc. 12. It will not be out of place here to mention that a small printing press is a valuable aid to good spelling and punctuation. Such presses, with outfits, can be had now for the small sum of five dollars. The teacher may have such a press and permit pupils to use it. He may so interest boys in the art that their parents will be constrained to procure a press for them. The teacher will find a printing press of value to him for many purposes not necessary to mention here. The use of typewriters in the school room is gaining in favor, and has been found of value in stimulating ambition in the indifferent, arousing dormant powers in the slow or dull and furnishing practical ''busy work" for all. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS lOI PENMANSHIP Some of the pedagogical authorities are exclaiming against the use of slates in school work, as being un- pedagogical and not altogether hygienic. It is true that after leavmg school the child will rarely, if ever, need to use the same sort of surface for his written work that the slate gives; but while there, I see no harm in the moderate use of both slate and blackboard, and believe that those who cry out against the one on the first ground, should drop the blackboard work from the child's curriculum on the same principle. Both seem desirable to me. As to the other claim, that the use of slates increases the spread of disease, I think that while that may be true in some large cities, where books and material are furnished in bulk to the schools, and no care taken of them by anyone in particular, and one child may have to-day what another will have to-morrow, none of these reasons prevail in most country districts, where each family ''finds" its own school apparatus and books. But even in cities, if the slates are properly cared for, the same child using the same slate, and each having a small vial of water, and a sponge or cloth for cleansing the slate after using, there is little if any danger of con- tamination from microbes. All of which is preUminary to first lessons in penmanship. During the first few days of the child's school life, while he is becoming way-wise, the teacher will need to provide some means of keeping him busy while higher I02 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING grades are reciting, and penmanship will be one of the best means. The teacher should let him have his slate and pencil, and copy: i. From the blackboard, words and letters, that have already been given in the read- ing and spelling lesson. 2. From the word and letter boxes, selecting for himself, part of the time, and at dictation the rest of the time. 3. From the reading chart, if there is one in the school. 4. From his primer. Once a day, oftener if the teacher has time, he may give a writing lesson, and let other things then be subordinate to that. He should unify, where possi- ble, but always keep the main thought uppermost. The first lesson may be of some common word, which may be written on the board by the teacher. These words should be written in the child's writing book, both because that is how he will write most of his work later in life, and because his teacher must watch his progress. Nearly all country schools should be divided into about three writing classes, following the grades or divisions as previously laid out. The older ones may write from copy books, if the teacher has not time for blackboard teaching for all; but the latter is preferable. I have managed by giving the same lesson for all at first, as for instance, the word **man," that all might have something to do from the start. As soon as mod> erately sure that the least little ones were mastering that, and could go on alone for a few moments, I added for the rest, say, ''can run, but he cannot fly." Then I gave what personal help was needed in the second IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS IO3 grade, that and the older ones all writing the new copy while I helped whoever in the second grade required it. That done, I wrote a new copy for the third grade, be- ginning the line with a capital letter which I analyzed in detail. For this class I called attention to the finer points in writing, and drilled on : i . Legibility. 2. Speed. 3. Proportion. The main lesson done, I put a new copy on the board, perhaps a quotation, a line from some favorite poem, or a list of geographical names, or of distin- guished people, days of the week, names of the months, or something that promised help in some other line of thought as well as spelling. Attention could then be given to the little ones again, and perhaps to the second grade, while the older ones could now go on alone, ask- ing for individual help when necessary. In the higher grades, and even in the second, I have taught the pupils to analyze and criticise their own work, so as to do it independently, and with thought. The writing hour may come late in the forenoon, but never immediately after violent exercise. A study period is a good thing to precede it. That quiets the tired muscles, and puts the entire being into a good condition. About once a month the teacher should have each one write his name, age, and address, in his writing book, that it may constitute a regular record of prog- ress — and he must see that each one makes progress. He may ask anyone to tell of his special difficulty (nearly all are "weak" on the formation of some letter, I04 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING and it is generally capital E and K) and then persuade him to put extra time and effort on that. Once in a while it is well to let the little folks take the second grade lesson with those of that grade, to spur both parties to the combination; and in the same way the second may be combined with the third, occa- sionally. It will keep all up to a better standard than if the separation is settled and arbitrary; and it is not unusual to find that some in each of the lower grades will outdo those in the next higher, while if confined to the lesson designed mainly for their own class, they would not even reach the top line of that. I give easy words and sentences from the start, and analyze one letter for each lesson, in the smallest class, two or more for the next, and as many as possible in the higher one, until all have been analyzed. I also teach the pupils to do this for themselves. I occasionally call for a comparison of letters, and for proportions of letters or parts of them; for, in the main, writing is but a detailed and accurate system of observation put into practice. "How high are the capital letters in proportion to the small letters m^ n, o, a, i, ?/, V, w, X, c, etc.V ''Name the loop letters." ''Those having a right curve." "A left curve." "A capital stem." "A small stem." A little help in this line will open the world of penmanship as no dead fol- lowing of copy ever can. "Vertical or Spencerian?" I don't know. I learned and always taught the latter, but without copy books, other than those made by cutting foolscap crosswise IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I05 and sewing the sheets together. But the vertical has many advantages : i . It is easily learned — but so is any penmanship in the hands of a competent teacher. 2. It is legible — and so is the Spencerian, when well taught. 3. It occupies but little space. On the other hand, there are some points that militate against its prevalence: i. It is a slow method. I have yet to see the first rapid writer of the vertical system, 2. It takes away more of the individuality in the writing. Individuality is not, perhaps, of commercial value; but a child may be taught principles, and proportions, then he may be shown how to develop a handwriting that shall express something of himself in its curves, loops, ovals and straight lines. Between these two comes a "medium" method, by the American Book Company, New York, which embodies the best points of the Spen- cerian and vertical systems. When a copy book has been written full, I have had the children use them for ''exercise" books, turning them crosswise to write on. The exercises are to be given at the beginning of the writing hour, and consist of graded lessons, to be given to the entire school. My first lesson was one of straight lines, extending across the slate or paper pad, and made on (counted) time, I, 2, 3, 4, meaning that four lines, so: were made as I counted, at first, and as the children did io6 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING later, and that set the pace, so that they would know about how many strokes they would make or be ex- pected to in a given time. This prevented "dawdling" to a certain extent, spurring the slow motioned children. One lesson on straight lines, one day, would be fol- lowed the next day by the same thing, connected at the ends, making the audible count: "i and, 2 and, 3 and, 4 and," the ''and" coming on the ''return" below, so: y^gt>t left d Z> The next lesson would be even a little more compli- cated, perhaps, putting one of the "principles" into the middle of the upper and each alternate line, so: -/^^JA^ ,, Ml ----'' slide IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 107 This, again, would be followed by putting a simple letter in the same place, perhaps beginning with u or 0, followed by any of the short letters, so : sTlde As proficiency was gained, a word was put in, as : These exercises never occupied more than from three to six minutes, of the twenty minutes to a half hour which I set apart for a technical lesson and practice in penmanship, daily. They gave a good shoulder and whole arm movement, relaxed the muscles, and helped io8 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING some of the work-stiffened fingers get in place and trim for good book work. And I tried to keep up enough variety of them to make them interesting, as well as im- proving. Sometimes I would put in a row of difficult letters, to be properly proportioned, spaced, etc., so: Then I would give them a more difficult word for special oval movement practice, as : The penmanship of all my pupils improved wonder- fully as a result of this course of training. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS IO9 The following exercises are especially recommended for practice. These exercises should be written without lifting the pen from the paper. Ink may be made, and by the pint, at a low price, by use of the ten-cent packages of dye stuffs. Directions IIO BEST METHODS OF TEACHING are given with each package; and I made all my own, getting more and of a much better quality, for that money, than most of the prepared inks that are found in stationery and department stores. Various colors can be so made, red, green, blue, purple, and black ; but in the ordinary school work of writing, only the black was allowed, as it is the kind that is used in business, and has a more business-like look. For the brush work, of which later, and for certain parts of book- keeping, etc., the colored inks are both pretty and convenient. ARITHMETIC The idea of number is developed early in life. The study of arithmetic may be begun quite early, but should not be pushed too rapidly. It is not the most important branch taught in our schools. Many teachers devote too much time to this branch, to the neglect of more im- p>ortant studies. It is true a knowledge of arithmetic is indispensable in all ordinary operations of life; but the knowledge necessary for the practical work of an aver- age life is soon and easily acquired, and all beyond this is of comparatively slight importance compared with many other branches. The first thing a child learns about arithmetic is to count. This he will learn to some extent with little or no instruction. Exercises in counting, and practice in forming the nine digits may be given in connection with reading. (See p. 63.) IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I I I The teacher, in organizing a country school, will find it necessary to start a class in the first principles of arith- metic. He should begin with addition, it being supposed the pupils are able to count to one hundred. Objects should be used at first, such as pieces of chalk, sticks, grains of corn, beans, books, marks on the blackboard, balls on a frame, or the fingers. He must commence with easy examples, and advance gradually to more diffi- cult ones. Objects should be discarded as soon as the pupil acquires the idea of addition and can add with some degree of readiness. Examples, consisting of single columns of figures, may be placed on the board and the pupils required to add them on their slates as a prepara- tion for the lesson. These examples should consist at first of but two or three numbers, using the smaller digits and advancing to more numbers and larger digits until the pupils are able to add a column of a dozen or more figures, using all the digits from one to nine. In this way they will soon learn the addition table by using it. Oral and written exercises should be given in about equal proportions. Pupils will soon learn by observation to write numbers above nine, so that they can write the answers to the examples given, if they do not go above hundreds. The next step is to teach the first principles of nota- tion and numeration. The teacher must show that the value of a digit depends upon the place it occupies. He will explain the use of the cipher and teach the places up to thousands; and he must drill until the pupils can name the first four places in any order as he points to 112 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING them. He may exercise the class in writing numbers, from one to thousands. Next he will teach the process of carrying, and drill in adding more than one column of figures, until the class is able to add any sum the numbers of which are less than thousands. Subtraction should be next taught, using objects at first until the idea is gained; then exercises in sub- tracting in one column; then in two or more columns where the upper digit is always the largest; then the process of borrowing. Examples should be given until the pupils are able to subtract thousands. Promiscuous examples in addition and subtraction may then be given and the method of proving subtraction explained. Further instruction and exercises in notation and numeration may come next, but haste is to be made slow- ly. There is no end to the examples that may be given to the class as practice in what has already given it in- struction. If the teacher has not books containing ex- amples, he may write them on the board where they can be seen by the whole class. Children need the exercises for practice; and the employment they give will keep pupils from mischief. The next step will be to learn the multiplication table. It is best learned by using it. The teacher will, of course, preface the study of the table by an explana- tion of the principle of multiplication. He may illus- trate by objects or by making marks on the board showing that it is a short method of addition, where the numbers to be added are alike. Examples should be given where the multiplier and the multiplicand are IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS II3 single digits, and next where the multiphcand is a large number, explaining the process of carrying as in ad- dition, and next where both factors consist of several digits. Practice multiplying numbers until the table is learned, giving occasional review exercises in addition and subtraction. Oral drills on the tables should be given daily. Before advancing farther, see that the pupils can add, subtract and multiply with facility. Division is next in order, and with some pupils it will take a great deal of practice to make them perfect. Drill must be given as in the other rules, and for variety a review of what has been taught. Examples combin- ing the four fundamental rules may be given, and oral exercises and drills in notation and numeration. The use of the signs +, — , x> ^> => is to be taught. Ad- dition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and notation and numeration are called the fundamental rules, be- cause all operations of arithmetic are founded on them. The teacher should see that his pupils are thoroughly drilled in them before advancing further. Our text books do not all give a sufficient number of examples. Teachers should not tire the pupils by requiring them to work the same examples over again, but give them new ones illustrating the same principles. This obser- vation will hold good all the way through the book. I have seen pupils who had ''worked," as they said, half way through the text book, yet could not write nor read large numbers nor solve examples in long division. I can see no propriety in putting puzzling examples embracing the fundamental rules immediately after 114 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING division. Examples should be given embracing these rules; but they should be plain and simple, intended to give exercises in the processes of adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing, and not to test the child's skill in reasoning. He is not yet prepared to reason to such an extent. Of what use can an example like the follow- ing be to a child who has just learned the four funda- mental processes.-* A cistern of 360 gals, has 2 pipes, one will fill it in 1 5 hours, the other empty it in 20 hours. If both pipes are left open, how many hours will the cistern be in filling.? The teacher must use his own judgment about such matters." He can give examples of his own which the pupils can solve, and which will give exercise in the processes they have learned ; and such examples as the above should be omitted until the pupil has acquired the skill to solve them himself. Processes should be taught before rules; or rather the rules should be developed from the processes. The in- ductive method is the best in teaching arithmetic. Thus far the pupil has only learned processes ; but they are those that they must use all through life, and are of more importance practically than the more abstract principles underlying them. When the pupil has reached a more mature age and greater intellectual de- velopment, the more abstract parts may be taken up. Examples somewhat like the following may be given as exercises in the fundamental rules : Write 495. Annex a cipher. This multiplies it by 10. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS II5 From this product let 495 be subtracted as many times as possible. The operation will appear thus : 4950 495 4455 495 3960 495 3465 495 2970 495 2475 495 1980 495 H85 495 990 495 495 495 000 It will be seen that after ten subtractions the remainder is naught. This proves that division is but ''a short method of making many subtractions of the same number." Any number other than ten may be used as the multiplier; and it will be found that to make the final remainder naught, there must be as many sub- tractions as there are units in the multiplier. Il6 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING The operation may be reversed; by starting with naught and adding 495 ten times successively the num- ber 4950 will be reached, proving that multiplication is a short method of adding equal numbers. By giving such examples as the above, much exercise can be given the pupil, with but little work on the part of the teacher. The pupils make their own examples. Exer- cise in proving subtraction, multiplication and division should be given, and some of the more important con- tractions taught. Having had sufficient drill in handling simple inte- gral numbers in their fundamental relations, the pupil is now ready to commence with COMPOUND OR DENOMINATE NUMBERS United States Money, though really a form of deci- mals, is placed under this head by some authors; and as it is simple and affords much exercise in the funda- mental rules, and involving only one new idea, that of the separatrix, it is best taken up here. Particular attention should be paid to the fact that the separatrix is used to separate dollars and cents; that it is always placed after dollars and before cents, and should never in any case be omitted. Pupils need frequent remind- ing of this fact; and the teacher should see that the habit of attention to this matter is formed while very young. He must explain to them that if this Httle matter is not attended to, serious trouble will arise in after operations in arithmetic. I have seen pupils working almost through the book who would make IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS II7 blunders of this kind constantly, and get examples so confused that they could not tell what they were doing, and all because they never had been taught the impor- tance of the separatrix. The teacher should explain that, in United States money, ten units of one denomination make one of the next higher, and that consequently they can be handled the same as simple numbers, the only difference being that dollars and cents are always to be separated by the point. The fact that cents always oc- cupy two places should also be impressed on the mind, explaining that accounts are kept in dollars, cents and mills; and that dimes and cents are counted together as cents, and therefore when the number of cents is less than ten there are no dimes, and a cipher must be placed next to the separatrix in the place of dimes. The teacher should show that a mill is the tenth part of a cent or the one thousandth part of a dollar, and is not coined, being too small, but is of importance in calculat- ing large amounts. Pupils will understand this better when they have studied decimals. Numerous examples in adding, subtracting, multiply- ing and dividing United States money should be given, many more than are given in the text books. Examples of merchants' bills are given in most books, but the teacher should add many more, as they are of great practical value. In giving a merchant's bill, the name of some merchant in the neighborhood whom the pupils know may be used, and always the current price of items. Particular attention should be paid to the neat- ness of a bill, use of abbreviations, capital letters, and the ii8 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING punctuation. Pupils may be asked to copy the examples from the board as written by the teacher. An example of this kind will appear something like the following : BussEY, Iowa, July i6, 1899. JAS. H. SIMMS. Bought of Theo. West 1 1 lbs. Coffee @ $ .25 . 17 lbs. Sugar " .08 2 Boxes Matches " .10 3 Pair Shoes " 2.40 12 Yds. Print " .07 23 Yds. Muslin <' .12 3 Spools Thread " .05 2 Doz. Buttons " •03 Rec'd Payment. $ 2.7s 1.36 .20 7.20 .84 2.76 -15 .06 115-32 Theo. West. The more apt pupils may be requested to make out and write bills of their own on their slates. This will, however, be a good exercise for review after the pupil has passed through compound numbers. Reduction of compound numbers may now be taught. The tables should be learned by using them. If numerous examples are given and sufficient drill be had at recitation upon each table, they will soon be learned without the necessity of telling pupils they must commit the tables to memory. The teacher will see that examples are written neatly and all denominations expressed by their proper abbreviations, attention being paid to pronunciation. He will illustrate, by familiar objects, the different weights and measures in common IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS II9 use; and he will not neglect the oral drill on each table. He should give practical examples, such as involve dimensions of the school room, tables, desks, school- yard, fences, etc. It is a good exercise to require pupils to copy the tables from the books, on their slates. Cloth measure and ale and beer measure not being now in use, should be omitted if found in the text book, and circular measure and English money deferred until the pupil has made greater advancement. Reviews, by numerous promiscuous examples for practice, may be had, the teacher giving frequent drills on the tables. Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of compound numbers are next. The teacher explains that numbers of the same denomination only, can be added or subtracted; shows that in simple numbers ten units of one denomination make one of the next higher, but that in compound numbers some other number than ten may be used; explains the process of bor- rowing; gives practical examples in subtraction; lets the pupil find difference between dates, and requires each one to find his own exact age in this way. Longi- tude and time should be omitted until the pupil is more advanced. Compound numbers must be reviewed until pupils understand what has been taught. Teacher should not turn the class back in the book. This is always dis- couraging; but he may give a number of review lessons, taking up those parts in which he finds the class to be the most deficient. This rule will hold good always. I20 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Teachers should never turn a pupil back, but advance slowly, giving plenty of exercises, and review frequently until all is thoroughly understood. The pupil is now ready to investigate some of the properties of numbers, generally considered under the head of factoring. A great deal of preliminary drill is here necessary to get pupils to comprehend the definitions. It is non- sense to require them to commit to memory definitions and rules the meaning of which they can not com- prehend. Pupils always expect their lessons in arith- metic to be mostly examples, and they will take little interest in studying definitions. The teacher may give numerous examples first and develop the definitions from them. He should impress on the minds the idea of a factor, a multiple and a prime number. He will teach the process of finding the least common multiple and greatest common divisor, leaving the demonstrations until a future period, explaining that though the pupils may see no importance in these processes at present, they will as they advance in the book. Cancellation may next be taught, after which the pupil may commence Fractions. The idea of a fraction may be illustrated by taking some object, as an apple, a stick or a piece of paper and dividing it into equal parts. The teacher should then show how a fraction is written, and explain the terms numerator (numberer) and denominator (namer). Numerous examples should be given in writing and reading fractions, and thorough drill, until the class has IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 12 1 the idea of a fraction and understands the terms, numerator and denominator. The process of reduction may follow, remembering to make haste slowly, giving numerous examples and frequent reviews. Fractional compound numbers may next be studied. Examples in United States money and merchants' bills involving fractions should be given. Decimal fractions may follow. Simple numbers should be reviewed, showing how they increase and decrease in a tenfold ratio. The importance of the decimal point must be shown. The teacher compares United States money with decimals, showing the advantages of the decimal system. Percentage should be studied before ratio and pro- portion. Impress particularly the fact that per cent. means so many hundredths, without regard to dollars and cents. More than half the pupils I have had under my care, who have gone through the book, had the idea that per cent, had reference particularly to dollars and cents. This may seem strange to a good teacher, but it is a fact. I may have happened to follow poor teachers, which would account for it. Many examples such as the following should be given : A man had sixty-four hogs. Twenty-five per cent. of them died. How many were left.'^ In studying interest, pupils should have exercise in writing promissory notes and computing the interest on them. Explain insurance, stocks, brokerage, commission, discount,' present worth, taxes, customs and duties, 122 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING bonds, coupons, etc., by familiar illustrations; and make them plainer than text books usually do. Such subjects as alligation, exchange, duodecimals, arithmetical and geometrical progression should be omitted until the pupil has had thorough drill on the more important parts of arithmetic. The subject of mensuration, being of practical value to all classes, should receive considerable attention. Pupils may measure the school-room and find its ca- pacity in cubic feet, bushels, gallons, etc. Measuring fields, corn-cribs, granaries, wagon-boxes, timber, etc., is of practical value to farmers' boys; and these the country teacher has mainly under his care. TJie Griibe MetJiod is a system of number develop- ment that is particularly adapted to the capacity of young children. It proceeds by gradual and easy steps of progression from the concrete or knowledge which is obtained through the senses, to the abstract or that which is gained by reasoning. We no longer mystify little seven-year-olds with im- probable transactions representing thousands, millions, etc., some of which terms even mature minds can not comprehend; but following Grube's plan we first take up the numbers from i to lO and teach the four funda- mental operations in connection with these numbers. In this as in all other lines of study ''Repetition is the law of memory" and there must be repetition enough to enable the child to perform the work quickly and almost mechanically at sight. Thoroughness should be the test for advancement to higher ground. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 23 When the child is perfectly familiar with the opera- tions within the realm of the first ten numbers, the teacher may proceed in the same way to 20, repeating, reviewing and giving new illustrations. If the previous work has been thorough, there will be few difficulties to be overcome here. He may continue this plan of en- larging the mental horizon by lo's until 100 is reached; give frequent reviews and call upon the child to give practice examples from his own experiences. He should begin by using objects and let the child not only see but handle and count them himself. As soon as the child can conceive of the abstract number, the teacher should dispense with the objects and insist upon independent thought. To arouse interest and make the work more real he may give practice examples from the every-day trans- actions of life using class and other familiar names. By the Grube system the child is taught to use ob- jects repeatedly and in great variety, until he has mastered the number in its various combinations and can make them all abstractly. He has had his attention developed and trained and a habit of close observation cultivated, until the numbers thus presented have become a living practical reality. The irregularity of attendance in country schools is so great that it is a difficult matter to conduct a class in arithmetic properly. The pupil is out of school a week and the class has gone so far ahead that he can no longer keep up with it. Must the class be held back to accommodate such pupils.'' Certainly not. The teacher 124 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING must have a number of classes, so that those who are too dull, or too irregular m attendance, may fall back and join a lower class. If he has not time to give a regular recitation each day to every class, he can give them a drill on alternate days and examples for practice on intervening days. In this way he can manage to reach all. He should, however, take notice of each pupil every day in some manner. He may do this by assigning one class examples to work on the blackboard while he is. conducting the recitation for the other class. He can then devote a few minutes to inspecting the work on the board. Each pupil should be allowed to travel as fast as he can, provided he thoroughly understands what he passes over. An apt pupil should never be held back to keep pace with a dull one. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS I would call attention to the following points, most of which are a recapitulation of this chapter: 1. As a rule, teach easiest parts first. 2. Do not hurry through the book, but give plenty of exercises under each subject. 3. Teach processes first, principles next. Teach the rules by stating the steps in the process. 4. Never require rules, definitions or tables to be committed to memory, but let them be learned by use. 5. Let the pupil learn the explanations of rules from the book, the teacher only pointing them out and ex- plaining the language of the book. 6. Pay particular attention to the most practical IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I25 parts of arithmetic, such as pupils will most likely use in after life. 7. Give preliminary drill on each new subject, 8. Require pupils to always use shortest methods of obtaining a result, but insist on clearness of expression and neatness of work. 9. An oral analysis of problems, involving only num- bers small enough to be held in the memory, should always precede a written process. The first step then would be the oral drill in analysis; second, the written process; and third, the rule, which is simply the state- ment of the several steps of the process. For example, the teacher should show analytically that | of | is -^q, and then deduce the written process for finding a frac- tion of a fraction; or that 4 is 25 per cent, of 16, and from that the process of finding what per cent, one number is of another; or that f-^i ^^ ^h ^^^ deduce the process of division of fractions and explain the reason for inverting the divisor. There may be some excep- tions to this with young pupils, as for example, in find- ing the greatest common divisor and least common multiple. 10. Review often. EASY ACCOUNTS There is no reason why the children of the ordinary district school should not be given a lift in keeping or- dinary accounts, be taught how to run a farm day-book- and journal, a store ** blotter," a housekeeper's account book, and how to post a ledger for all of these. They 126 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING should know, too, how to make out bills and receipts, in part or in full; how to endorse checks, drafts and notes — but should be earnestly cautioned not to do the last, even while shown how it is done — how to write business letters of all kinds, to accompany bills; to acknowledge receipt of goods or of funds; to ask about credentials presented by others, and to secure them if needed; to write letters of advice as to business trans- actions, such as they will be likely to have; and, in general, to do common bookkeeping. Unless I had plenty of time to command, which is not likely to be common in a country school, with all grades to be taught, I would go into nothing elaborate along this line, but would give a few lessons; and the pupils who might otherwise have leisure for mischief may so be given a **bent" that will result in their doing more thorough work later. A few points that are essential can be mastered in a few hours, as; 1. All receipts go to the debtor side of an account, no matter whether they come in the shape of cash, goods, or negotiable paper. 2. The debtor side is always at the left column on a double ruled page; and on the left page of a ''single" ruled book. 3. Credits are the things that are given or paid — money, work, goods, or notes. 4. Credits are entered at the right of the page, if a ''double" ruled, or the right page if ruled for one column. "Bills payable" include all notes given; and "Bills receivable" those due. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 12 7 Forms may be given for bills, drafts, checks, promis- sory notes (negotiable and non-negotiable) and the uses of each explained. The teacher may show how to file letters, financial papers, etc., without loss of time and with the fewest possible chances of error. In starting a farm or housekeeper's account book, the teacher must show that the farm or house is to be charged (debited) with cost; and when the expense of the year, or any given time is reckoned, a credit must be entered to balance. A few hints like these will open the pupils' eyes to the fact that bookkeeping is simple, and not a to-be-dreaded study, as too many think; and that it is one of the really useful things that will come into every-day play, no matter what the life business is, nor where carried on. They should be taught, too, that the practice of run- ning in debt, or maKing *' store accounts" is one of the things to be avoided, even if a fair knowledge of book- keeping has been gained. ENGLISH GRAMMAR A NOTED authority on the ''Art of Teaching School" says: ''If, in the spelling classes, the uses of capital letters and punctuation marks have been noted — as should be the case in spelling from dictation and dis- course — and if, in the reading classes, the structure of sentences, the meaning of words and the uses of punctu- ation marks have been properly studied, there is little remaining to be taught on the subject of grammar, to 128 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING pupils in the public schools, that properly comes within the scope of these institutions." There is much truth in this. I have advocated particular attention to defin- ing, punctuation, use of capitals, etc., in reading and spelling classes, because these points are essential to the practical every-day duties of life, and from the fact that comparatively few pupils who attend our country schools ever take up the study of grammar. The country teacher is expected to have a class in grammar, and it should be taught in our country schools ; but I protest against the manner in which it is usually taught. There is no need of, and no time for, a pri- mary text book in grammar in a country school, nor in- deed, in any other school. The primary instruction in grammar should be given in reading and spelling classes, and by general criticisms and oral drills in connection with every other subject. That is, pupils should so be taught to use the English language properly. All writ- ten and oral exercises, where the pupil is required to use accurate language, are exercises in grammar. The teacher should always use accurate language, and cor- rect errors made by the pupils. This should be carried to the play-ground, and every place where the pupil comes in contact with the teacher, provided it can be done without giving offense to anyone. Primary grammar should consist of language lessons; and every lesson, on whatever subject, should be also a language lesson. I am using the word "grammar" in the sense understood from the definitions given by nearly, if not all, writers of text books on the subject, IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I29 and from the definition of the term given by Webster — that is, that it is the science which teaches us how to use language correctly. Hon. E. E. White, in '"The National Teacher," says : "Grammar is not the means for acquiring the art of speaking and writing correctly. It is at best only the finishing instrument. The correct use of language must be learned, as every other art is learned, by prac- tice under intelligent guidance. School training should furnish this practice in a large measure. There can not well be too much of it. It should enter into every reci- tation, and besides have a separate place in the daily program. Composition should be taught as faithfully as arithmetic." I give these extracts for what they are worth. They simply show the difficulty of defining terms. I will add that it is the duty of teachers to teach that which will cause pupils to think, and at the same time to express their thoughts, either with the tongue or pen, in the most fluent, elegant and correct manner. They can be led to improve their thinking powers, to a greater or lesser degree by the study of any subject whatever; and the power of expressing thought is taught under the heads of Reading, Spelling, Defining, Grammar, Rhetoric, Composition, Elocution, Oratory, etc. The question, with the country teacher having a class before him with text books in grammar in their hands, is: "What part of the book shall be taught.^" I will answer in a general way by saying: "Teach that which will aid them most in expressing thought, either by 130 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING tongue or pen." But, to be more specific, I will suppose a class which has never studied the subject technically to have in hand any standard common school grammar. The first lesson in technical grammar should be on the structure of simple sentences. The teacher may write a word as rtui on the black- board, and then ask the class to tell him the name of something that runs. They will probably say: ''Horses run," "A dog runs," "Water runs," etc. He may tell them that it is correct, and they can see that it would not sound well to say " Horses runs," or "A dog run." Next he may write the sentence, Horses 7'im, on the board; and tell them that it is a thought expressed in words, and is called a sentence. Then he may give an exercise in producing sentences, and have the class give half a dozen sentences similar to this, and he may write them on the board. Next he may teach them the prin- cipal parts of a sentence, the subject and predicate. He must be sure that the pupils have a clear idea of these terms. I remember that when a boy studying grammar the definition of subject and predicate were for a long time not understood. I did not know what was meant by affiinned, when the book and teacher said : " The subject is that of which something is affirmed." It sounded big and frightful, and I never had a clear idea until I saw somewhere the definition : "The subject is that of which something is said or written." Now, I might have been an unusually dull boy — in some respects I know I was — but are there not dull boys in IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 13 I every class? The best teacher makes a subject plain to the dullest in his class. He should give plenty of oral exercises, somewhat as follows: Chalk is brittle. What is brittle.? What is said about chalk.? What is the subject of this sentence.? Why.? What is the predicate.? Why.? He may require the class to write three or four sentences for each lesson. He may write a word, as ''fireT on the board, and ask the class to write as many predicates for this subject as they can; also write a predicate, and require them to write a num- ber of subjects. Most text books now give model exer- cises which will suggest the oral drill. After several lessons on the simple sentence, and when the pupils thoroughly understand the principal ■parts of a sentence, I would study the noun. The first lesson would be an outline of the noun, to be made out by teacher and pupils. The teacher writes the main heads and tells where to write the subordinate parts. The outline, when completed, will stand as follows, the parts in italics showing what was written by the teacher and those in roman the parts filled in by the pupils : Noun. Classes. General. Common. Proper. special. Abstract. Verbal. Collective. Class, 132 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Properties. Gender. Masculine. Feminine. Common. Neuter. Person. First. Second. Third. Number. Singular. Plural. Case. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. Absolute. Pupils who have had exercise in outlining in other studies, perhaps would be able to produce the above without the aid of the teacher. But this is intended to be merely suggestive; and the teacher must pro- ceed according to the circumstances present. Several lessons may be m.ade from this outline, discussing all the parts until a pretty thorough knowledge of the noun is secured, so far as can be, without reference to other parts of speech. The parsing of nouns, so far as the pupil is able from what he has learned, and exercises in writing sentences containing nouns, illustrating their properties and classes, should be a part of every lesson. The advantage of writing parsing lessons will be IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I33 obvious to any thinking teacher. It will secure exercise in spelling, punctuation, capitalization and penmanship, will be more interesting, and lead to definite and accurate thinking. The teacher should have some particular order of parsing, and require all pupils to follow it. In another place models will be given for the written parsing of each part of speech. The verb may be studied in a similar manner. An outline giving classes and properties is to be made out and the different parts of it discussed. The more difficult parts may be omitted until a future time, taking only such as are usually given in large print in text books, taking a small portion at each lesson, and giving oral and written exercises as before. The next step is to introduce the objective element into the sentence. The pupil now will understand that a sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and may have an object- The pronoun may be studied next, to be followed by the adjective, adverb, preposi- tion, conjunction and interjection, each to be outlined and discussed as above. After a discussion of the adjective, adverbial and mdependent elements of a sentence, a review of the parts of speech, beginning again with the noun, should be had, studying them in their relations to each other. This time the pupils can make the outlines themselves, adding all the minor points. Compound and complex sentences may next be considered, and the lessons varied with plenty of written sentences and diagramming. The teacher is now ready to introduce the subject of 134 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING composition writing. This is a great bugbear to most pupils in country schools, but it is the fault of no one but the teacher. I remember, when a boy, attending a term of school taught by a lady who required, every Friday, a composition from each pupil who was old enough to write. By dint of coaxing and threatening she succeeded in getting everyone to try but me. I was obstinate, and no coaxing or threatening would induce me to attempt what I was confident I could not do. The pupils wrote compositions on such subjects as spring, autumn, sunset, education; and their thoughts and language were almost sublime. It is said there is but one step from the sublime to the ridiculous. They had almost taken that step, backward. Years afterward I attended a select school, and the teacher was a true teacher; and instead of requiring us to write composi- tions, he taught us hozv to write them, when it was only necessary to give us the privilege. Sentence writing is the first step to composition writing; and if the teacher has thus far given sufficient exercise in that branch the next step will be easy enough. All that is necessary for a composition is to put together a number of sentences relating to the .ame subject. But no one can write sentences or com- position unless he has something to write about. A single word is not sufficient for a subject for a beginner. He must have an outline or skeleton of what he is going to write about. This the teacher must provide; and he must give instruction on points of the outline, at first, until the pupil has acquired sufficient skill and IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I35 command of language and power of thought to construct the outhne for himself. Beginners, if left to themselves, will generally choose some broad theme, as education, intemperance, etc., not knowing that it is far easier to write on a more restricted subject. Men of such broad and liberal culture as Herbert Spencer may take such a subject as education for an essay. The brilliant essayists of this country, as Whipple, Lowell and Holland, may take for their themes humanity, liberty, or truth; but a beginner should choose something more concrete and restricted, such as: Wheat, Apples, Dogs, Cats, A Walk in the Country, What I saw at the Fair, or some other simple topic. The simplest form of essay writing, perhaps, is to write a number of questions and require the pupil to write out the answers in full and connect them. For example, let me suppose the subject to be '*My Dog." The teacher will write a series of questions, as follows: Have you a dog.-^ What kind of a dog is he.-^ What is his color.? Has he long hair.? What kind of a tail has he.? Will he bark at strangers.? Is he cross.? Will he do what you tell him.? Will you name some of the smart things he can do.? Does he dislike children.? What is his name.? The essay, when written, will appear something like the following : MY DOG I have a large Newfoundland dog. He is all over black, ex- cept a white ring around his neck. He has long, shaggy hair, 136 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING and his tail is long and bushy and curls up over his back. He will bark at strangers, but he is not cross, and will not bite any- one unless he thinks they are going to steal somediing. He will do almost anything I tell him. He will bring the cows and horses up from the meadow, will fetch sticks out of the water, and carry a basket in his mouth. He is not cross to children, but will let them ride on his back or pull him around, and seems to enjoy the fun. His name is Ring. A few such exercises as the above will, to use a common expression, get pupils in the way of writing compositions. It is frequently necessary to resort to such expedients to get pupils interested and started, after which they may become the best of writers. I have no doubt that the name Composition has fright- ened many a person who, by proper training, would have made a good writer. The next easiest kind of composition is that of letter writing. Familiar letters to friends, giving an account of a party, a sleigh-ride, a picnic, a description of their homes or their schoolhouse, telling what work they have done or what studies they are pursuing, or any- thing else which may interest them, may be written by pupils in a grammar class. There will be no difficulty in getting the majority of pupils in such a class to try their skill at such work. There may be some who will refuse, either from diffidence or from stubbornness, to attempt anything of the kind; but by kind endeavor, by argument, they may be won over by the teacher. The teacher should not be too severe in criticising compositions of beginners; rather praise than condemn, confining criticisms at first entirely to spelling, capitali- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 137 zation, errors in grammar and the more important parts of punctuation. As the pupil acquires more skill in the use of the pen in conveying thought, the criticisms may extend to the matter of elegance, style, etc. After exercise in writing compositions from questions and in writing letters of friendship, easy descriptions may be attempted. The following outline and essay on ''Stoves" will be suggestive of this kind of exercise: Stove. Definition. Kinds. Parts. With regard to use: Top. Cooking. Bottom. Heating. Sides. Doors. With regard to shape Body. and style: Hinges. Box. Lids. Cannon. Ovens. Plain. Water reservoir. Ornamental. Hearth. Dampers. With regard to fuel : Pipe. Wood. Flues. Coal. Ash pan. Gas. Mica doors. Oil. Grate. STOVES A stove is an iron box, arranged in such a manner that a fire can be made in it and the smoke and gas conducted out of the room, and is used for the purpose of heating rooms and for cook- ing food, etc. 138 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Some stoves have flat tops, with holes which are covered by lids, for the purposes of cooking, heating water, etc. Others have round or irregular shaped tops, made more for ornament than for use. The sides are generally ornamented with raised designs. Some are provided with ovens for baking purposes. Under the oven there are flues for conducting the heated air. In front there is a place for ashes called the hearth, sometimes con- taining a pan to hold the ashes; this can be lifted out and emptied when full. An arrangement is made in the flue or pipe to open or shut, to regulate the draft. It is called a damper, Stoves for burning coal have grates to hold the coal up, so that the ashe? will separate from it. All stoves have a door with hinges. Sometimes these doors have little windows with a transparent mineral called mica in them, instead of glass. Glass could not be used, as the heat would crack it. These little win- dows make a stove look very pretty, as through them we can see the glowing fire. I like to sit and look at the bright, glowing coals. There are many kinds of stoves. We may divide them into kinds with regard to use, as cooking stoves and heating stoves, or with regard to shape and style, as box, cannon, plain and orna- mental stoves; also with regard to the fuel used, as wood, coal, oil and gas stoves. Some stoves are very pretty pieces of furniture, and cost a great deal of money. There are many familiar objects which would be much easier to describe than a stove. I have given this as an example of what may be done by almost any pupil old enough to use a text book in grammar. Many pupils could write a far better description than the one given above. The teacher should make sug- gestions upon the outline, giving facts of which the pupil may not be possessed and hints in regard to de- scribing the different parts. The points in the above TN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 39 outline may be drawn from the class by judicious questioning. These essays need not be long. Better write short compositions, and have them well written, than long ones badly composed. I have found that children, and indeed all of us, do not lack so much for language as we do for ideas, or rather ideas in a classified and connected form. This exercise of outlining furnishes a means of arranging our ideas in a proper shape so that we can write or speak of one thing at a time and in a proper order. In this way we need not repeat nor omit anything, for the plan and order of what we are going to say is mapped out for us. One will indeed be astonished at his own knowledge when he sees it thus arranged and spread out before him. After exercises in easy description, subjects in sim- ple narration may be given. Let the pupils narrate what they did during the previous day or week. In the lives of the humblest individuals enough tran- spires almost every day, if all the minutiae were written, to make quite a lenghty composition. Anyone can certainly say more than Mark Twain said in his diary which he kept when a boy, viz: ''Got up, washed and went to bed." This was all he could think of each day to write in his diary; so he kept repeating it day after day until it became tiresome, and he abandoned the idea of keeping a diary. A pupil may narrate all the actions in order as he can call them to mind, from getting up in the morning to going to bed at night. For example, let me enumerate some of the actions of 140 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING a boy during one day: Got up, washed his face, etc., combed his hair, ate his breakfast (here I might enumer- ate the different articles of food eaten, tell some things that were said at the table, etc.) carried in wood, chopped wood, fed the horses, cows, sheep and pigs, carried water, went to a neighbor's on an errand, started to school, met some other boys, played awhile on the road, was late to school, studied and recited the various lessons (here I might tell some things that he learned), played certain games at noon and recess, came home, did the chores, which I need not enumerate, being the same as he did in the morning, ate supper and went to bed. Have I omitted anything.-* Yes, I did not say he ate dinner. Now, let a boy tell all this in his own way, subject to the criticisms of his classmates and teacher, and he will have quite a little piece of narration, and the foundation may be laid for future journalism. Let the pupils give an account of some accident which happened in the neighborhood, or of a quarrel which took place on the play -ground, or an account of a trip to some town, river or lake, or an account of an excursion, a picnic, or a visit to a factory or foundry. This essay writing should be given in connection with a review of the points of technical grammar, and need not be a daily exercise. Perhaps about two days out of the week may be profitably devoted to this; the other three to written and oral lessons in parsing and analysis. This matter will, however, vary with circum- stances. The teacher must be the judge. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I4I Grammar need not be considered a dry, hard study if it is properly taught. As before stated, there should be but one class in grammar in a country school, but that class should have, on an average, seven or eight pupils, instead of two or three, as is the case in schools ^which have come under my observation. I append a few models for the written parsing of the parts of speech, as being suggestive to the teacher. NOUN John studies grammar. John, n., prop., masc, third, sing., nom., subj. of the prop., John studies grammar. R. The subject of a proposition, etc. PRONOUN ■■,%■■■■■■ / bought the book. /, pron., pers., simp., antec, name of the person speaking, masc, first, sing., R. [Here give rule for agreement.] nom., subj. of the prop., I bought the book. R. [Here give rule for construction.] / remember what you said. What, pron., rel., equivalent to that which, that be- ing the antec. part and which the relative. That, adj., pronom., used as a noun, obj., object of v. remember. Which, pron., rel., antec. that, neut., third, sing., obj., object of v. said. R. 142 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING g VERB Liberty is szveet. Is, v., irreg. (am, was, being, been), intrans. indie., pres., third, sing., agrees with subj. liberty. R. ADVERB He acted wisely. Wisely, adv. (comp. wisely, more wisely, most wisely) of manner, modifies v. acted. R. ADJECTIVE TJie diligent boy zvill he praised. Diligent, adj., descrip., com., (comp. diligent, more diligent, most diligent) pos. qualifies n. boy. HISTORY History is one of the most important of studies, yet I venture to say of those who have considerable knowl- edge of history, that they did not obtain much of it in school. History is a narration of events. No one has a memory sufiicient to retain all events which have been made known to him. The great mistake made by too many teachers is that they try to teach history in detail; and the pupils, in trying to remember all, remember but little. It is like trying to take up a dozen eggs at once in one hand. In the endeavor to grasp all we get none. Could we, indeed, remember all the details of history, of what benefit would it be.-^ IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I43 It is only the great events and the lessons to be drawn from them which are of benefit to us. I remember studying history in a country school, years ago. We read a lesson over and the teacher asked us all the questions found at the bottom of the page. We an- swered many of them and generally in the language of the author. The teacher pronounced us good scholars; but to-day I can scarcely recall a single event le-arned from that book. I distinctly remember the portraits of Washington and Daniel Webster, miserable wood cuts, that had, I suppose, a faint resemblance to the shadows of those great men, also a picture representing the death of General Wolfe, and that the book was bound in black cloth and had red edges, and that is about all I can remember. I have since then taken considerable interest in reading history in course; but I learned far more that has been of real benefit to me by teaching it, and I ascribe my success to the fact that I tried to select a few of the most important events and their dates to fix in the minds of my pupils; and in doing so, I learned them myself. The greater number of the text books on history used in our schools are failures, even in the hands of good teachers. Why.? Because they are but masses of dry details. Why not give only the most important events and illustrate them by anecdote and by a felic- itous mode of relating them, rather than catalogue-like paragraphs, giving only the dry bones or chronology of the subject.-^ There may be others, but thus far I have seen but one book which meets my ideas of a good 144 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING school History of the United States. It is Barnes's Brief History. If the teacher has not such a work, he should have half a dozen different authors and be well read in different works, that he may, when he has selected the important points, so illustrate them that pupils will remember them in spite of themselves. The main point in learning history is to make many minor events cluster and crystallize around some im- portant fact which should be learned as thoroughly as the multiplication table. The association of ideas aids much in the study of history. Why do we all remem- ber who General Greene was.? Because he figured in the Revolution ; and that is one of the events which will be remembered the easiest by all readers of history. So, when we think of the Revolution, we think of a hundred other things more or less directly connected with it. A good way to teach history is to require the pupils to write essays on historical subjects; nor is this im- practicable in country schools. The next best plan is to assign each pupil a topic for investigation and re- port. A lesson of considerable length may be assigned the class, dividing it up into portions, giving each pupil a certain subject to investigate especially, but expect- ing him to read the whole lesson over several times carefully. Certain portions of the lesson may be read at recitation, the same as in a reading class; then each pupil is required to report on his topic, others criticis- ing and adding to it if possible. In this way the whole lesson may be brought out, and by class drill on the IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I45 most important parts, and by daily reviews, a pretty thorough knowledge of the whole subject may be obtained. The most important parts should be re- viewed until fixed, and then the lesser details may be taken up. Remembering dates is not the whole of studying history, but it is an important part of it. Some persons have a much better memory of dates than others. I would have a class remember a few im- portant dates first, and gradually add to them until I had all the dates of importance. The teacher should write on the board two columns of dates: one in large characters the other in small. Among the large char- acters he may put 1492, 1565, 1607, 1620, 1754, 1776, etc. The events connected with these dates may be first studied, each one made a lesson. As the lesser points are brought out the dates may be placed in the second column. Reviews should be had daily until each member of the class can relate the event connected with the dates in the first column; then the dates in the second column should be reviewed until they are learned. A few only may be placed in the second column, and a third column of still lesser dates be made. The point is to learn the most important first, and then those of less importance, and so on as many as are likely to be permanently remembered. Instead of keeping a class a whole term on a few pages of the history of the United States, in order to learn all the minutiae, I would take them through the book and let them gather what they could, taking care that it should be the prominent facts first, and then as 146 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING much more as possible. I would not be understood as taking them through the history as through a chrono- logical table, getting only the dry bones; but I would clothe these with living, breathing flesh as I went along. A certain amount of detail is necessary to illustrate and make an important fact interesting; yet the detail should be used to help fix the main fact in the mind. To make my point plainer, suppose the subject to be the French and Indian wars. Now, there were nu- merous battles and skirmishes and treaties; but before I should expect a class to remember them all, I would have them read an interesting account of Braddock's defeat and the fall of Quebec, the two most prominent events in all those wars. I would have them know something of the character and conduct of Braddock, the discipline of British soldiers, the mode of fighting among the Indians, the locality of the battle, the career of the young Washington, etc. ; and in the other case the death of Wolfe and Montcalm and other circum- stances connected with it, the nature of the battle- ground, etc. Two lessons might be given which would make a more permanent impression, and two dates learned which would be longer remembered, than if a dozen lessons had been made of this subject and all the dates and minor details of these wars committed to memory. To make the study interesting, and for variety, the teacher should gather together, for the purpose of using in his class, a number of the characteristic sayings of historical characters, as ''Don't give up the ship"; "We IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I47 have met the enemy and they are ours" ; ''A little more grape, Capt. Bragg"; ''We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer," etc. ; also some of the popular appellations of great men, as ''Rough and Ready," ''Sage of Monticello," "The American Pathfinder," etc., and such terms as "Fillibusters," "Know Noth- ings," "Grangers." He can make use of this list in review lessons, and it will add much to the interest of the recitation. By use of judicious questions the teacher can, in reviewing, fix many points of interest. Questions somewhat as follows should be asked : Who was Roger WilHams? Pocahontas.? Sir Walter Raleigh.? Balboa.? Major Andre.? What men figured prominently in the war of 1812.? What battle was fought after peace was declared between the two countries.? What led to the settlement of California.? What were the acquisitions of territory to the United States.? Who was President during the war of 181 2.? During the Mexican War.? What was the Missouri Compromise.? etc. A few such questions should be asked for review every day. Pupils who are sufficiently advanced and have time from other studies, should be encouraged to write short sketches on historical subjects. I would not impose it as a duty, but request it and encourage any inclination the pupils may show in that direction. They may be encouraged also to relate incidents which they may have read in other works. There is no branch of learning in which there is such susceptibiUty of illustration by the introduction 148 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING of collateral and explanatory matter. If the teacher is well read, he can enliven each recitation by briefly relating some incident or making some explanation not found in the text books. The study of geography should go hand in hand with history. Free use of the map and globe should be made to illustrate the lessons. Pupils should be en- couraged to read fragments of history, such as Abbott's Histories, some of the more interesting biographies of great men, and many of the historical works written especially for the young. The teacher should point out certain such works which may be accessible to his pupils. Attention should be paid to the progress and devel- opment of science, art and literature among the people; and in reviews scientific men, inventors, artists, poets and authors should be grouped according to their respect- ive epochs. The dates of great inventions and dis- coveries and their effects on civilization should be re- membered, as well as the rise and fall of dynasties or the record of battles and political intrigues. GEOGRAPHY "Geography can not be taught in any proper sense of the word by maps or a bald and wearisome nomenclature of countries, cities, moun- tains and rivers. What is wanted is that these should be intimately blended with the history of the world, of nature, and the history of mankind, thereby better fixing the whole in the memory and giving to geography its true rank among the sciences. The change thus indi- cated is in progress, but much is still wanted for its full accomplish- ment. Sir Henry Holland. Geography as taught in many schools — merely by IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I49 question and answer, with an occasional map drill — is of little practical value ; but in the hands of a compe- tent instructor who teaches, rather than hears a class recite, it is an interesting and valuable study. It has been my experience that but a small propor- tion of the pupils of a country school who are of the proper age study geography. Upon inquiry the uni- versal reason given was that they did not like the study. Now, whose fault is this.^ Certainly the teacher's. The teacher should awaken an interest in this study in his school; and the way to do this is to teach it properly and persuade pupils to enter the class. If he ^teaches it as he should and succeeds in getting a pupil to enter the class and remain one week, I will venture to assert that that pupil will remain for the whole term. In my opinion there is no study of greater importance. It is a branch of knowledge which a Humboldt, a Ritter and a Guyot have adorned, and deserves no mean place among the knowledges of the earth. There need be but two classes in geography in a country school, a primary and an advanced. With a beginning class I would proceed somewhat as follows: (I am supposing that the class is composed of pupils who have never studied the subject). I would begin with an oral drill on direction, next develop the idea of a map by drawing a map of the school room. I would draw the boundary lines on the board, explain- ing that the top of the diagram will represent north, the bottom south, etc., and ask the pupils to step to the board and make a mark to represent the location of the 150 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING stove, the teacher's desk, etc., and proceed until the pupils themselves have mapped out the schoolroom and located all the principal objects in it. The next step would be to map the school-yard, locating the schoolhouse, the out-houses, trees and other objects. I might proceed from this to the surrounding farms ; but perhaps enough has been shown to develop the idea of a map, that it is a representation of a part or the whole of the earth's surface. Next, I may ask some questions about what is found on the surface of the earth. By a few judicious questions I will obtain from the class the facts that rivers, lakes, mountains, cities, towns, etc., are to be seen on the earth's surface. Then I will tell them that we are going to learn all about what we would find on the surface of the earth if we could travel over it, and about the different kinds of people and what they are doing, and many things that are very interesting and useful; that men have learned these things by traveling and observing and have written them in books for us to study that we may learn with- out traveling far from home. With this preliminary drill they are ready to take up a primary work on geog- raphy and begin with the study of the form of the earth, the divisions of land and water, etc. If possible, use a globe to illustrate, if not, get a substitute for one, an apple or a ball. Explain some of the more obvious modes of proving the rotundity of the earth. If possible take the class to a lake shore or river bank and show them capes, bays, islands, etc. Such objects can gener- ally be found on a small scale along a river or lake shore. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I5I The topic method of teaching geography can be made .successful even with beginners; but the topics must be modified to suit their capacities. Most text books on geography are filled with ques- tions, and the teacher is tempted to fall into a rote manner of teaching and content himself with asking the questions and hearing the pupils answer. While I would not ignore questions in teaching, I would cer- tainly avoid depending on them. Slates should be used by primary classes in prepar- ing their lessons. The names of all the prominent objects of study in the lesson should be carefully written on the slate. For example, let the pupil write the words continent, island, cape, river, lake, etc., on the slate and be required to find the definition of the terms in the book. The teacher may write on the board the principal points of the lesson for the pupil to copy. In studying a map the teacher should require the pupils to write a certain number of cities, rivers, moun- tains, etc., allowing the pupil to select what he thinks the most important. The pupil may write also a cer- tain number of the products of a country, as: wheat, corn, coal, iron, gold, silver, etc. Lessons may be assigned as they are laid off in the book; but a written exercise should sometimes accompany them. Frequent review lessons should be given, involving all points of importance the pupil has passed over. Map drills should be had daily, sometimes the teacher pointing to the map and the pupils answering as called upon or occasionally in concert, and sometimes the 152 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING pupils in turn point out places on the map as mentioned by the teacher. It is a good exercise to take an ideal trip, as, for example, starting with Chicago, the teacher and class sail in imagination to New York, mentioning and com- menting upon all the prominent places of interest they would pass on the route. I will here mention a few such routes: From London to St. Petersburg via Gib- raltar, following the coasts of Spain, Italy and Greece, and through Constantinople, the Black Sea, and up the river and overland across Russia. From St. Peters- burg, through the Baltic and along coasts of Denmark, Holland and Belgium, to London. From London, again, to Pekin, around the Cape of Good Hope and via Calcutta. From New York to New Orleans, following coast, and from thence to Pittsburg via Cincinnati and by railroad back again to New York. A whaling voyage from Boston to the Arctic ocean. A trip from Philadelphia to Rio Janeiro, for coffee. Such exercises may be made extremely interesting to children and are excellent for review. Mention may be made of the governments, races, productions, curiosities and other peculiarities of countries as they are passed on these imaginary voyages. Do not attempt to teach too many things, but by frequent reviews fix thoroughly the most important points. For example, if a pupil learns that a certain state produces three or four certain staples, and can tell whether it is level or mountainous, can mention the capital and largest city and locate them, the prin- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 53 cipal river and lake, if any, and can give its bound- aries and comparative size and tell what direction from his own state — if these points are fixed by thorough drill, he will remember them longer and the knowledge be of more practical benefit than if he had learned every little river, lake, town and all the minutiae of detail, only to be forgotten perhaps before the next recitation. (See page 26.) It is a good idea to go over the main points of each lesson in concert as a kind of recapitulation at the close of each recitation. Suggestive questions, such as the following, may sometimes be put to primary classes: What city is world-renowned for carpets? In what city would you ride in a gondola instead of an omnibus.? In what country do the women always go out veiled, and the men wear loose, flowing robes, and sit cross- legged and smoke opium.? What island is celebrated for its peat bogs, potatoes, oats and flax, etc., etc.? Review lessons may be given somewhat as follows: Each pupil is assigned a subject for investigation and report — something easy, yet which will require a search of the book; as, for example, John is told to find all the countries in which mention is made of gold, Mary of silver, Henry of lions, Willie of ele- phants, Carrie of diamonds, etc. The names of the countries when found may be written on the slates, which are brought to the recitation and laid upon teacher's desk. The teacher takes up a slate and calls on the owner of it to mention from memory as much 154 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING as he can of what he has written. The others may criticise errors and add to it if they can. For primary classes it is best that all the pupils have the same text book; but an advanced class may be taught entirely by the topic method, and it is even better if each member of the class has a different au- thor. I have used a topic list something like the fol- lowing : _, . , ( Boundaries, 1. Position, i T . , ( Latitude and Longitude. 2. Size. 3. Mountains and surface generally. 4. Rivers and lakes. Gulfs, bays, straits, etc. 5. Coast line, ( Capes, islands, etc. 6. Climate. I Animal, 7. Productions, a Vegetable, ( Mineral. {Agricultural and grazing, Commerce and fisheries, Mining, Manufacturing. 9. Government, education and religion. ID. Capital and largest city. 11. Other cities and places of interest. 12. History. 13. Population. 14. Miscellaneous. This is to be used in studying the text of the several countries. It should be written on the blackboard and copied by the pupils and pasted in their books. The IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 55 teacher will explain the outline where necessary. In giving latitude and longitude, countries should be compared with each other, foreign countries with our own states, and the states .with each other. The ab- solute size of a few countries should be remembered, especially the pupil's own state, and other states and countries compared with it. Very large and very small states and countries should be compared, as Rhode Island and Texas, England and Russia, etc. In study- ing surface I have given mountains as the most promi- nent objects; but the pupil should be led to mention height above sea level, plateaus, volcanoes, basins, water-sheds, etc. The absolute height of the most important peaks in each country should be remembered and the direction of the mountain chains noted. Rivers should be described by telling where they rise, what course they pursue and into what they empty. Lakes, either salt or fresh, having outlets or inlets, both or neither, depth, height above sea level, etc. The pupil should be taught that climate depends on latitude, proximity to or remoteness from large bodies of water, character and proximity of ocean currents, height of land, slope, character of soil, and the prevailing winds. Under head of animal productions, the wild and do- mestic animals should be mentioned, and the articles produced from them, as furs, wool, feathers, leather, tallow, honey, beeswax, glue, bone-dust, bone, horn, and silk. The vegetable productions are such as grain, mentioning the different kinds, fruits, flax, potatoes, gums, resins, medicines, dye-stuffs, timber, turpentine, 156 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING tar, etc. The mineral productions are the metals, building material, as marble, granite, limestone, sand, lime, potter's clay, mineral paints, and precious stones. Under the head of commerce might be mentioned the principal articles of export and import. Under manu- facturing, the different articles manufactured. Under the head of history, if one of the States of the Union, its first settlement, when, where and by whom, date of admission; if other countries, some of the principal points in their history, as great battles, changes of government. Under the head miscellaneous, mention may be made of anything that would be of interest and which can not well be brought under any of the previ- ous heads, such as natural curiosities, races, languages, and dialects spoken, peculiar customs of the people, national character etc. The above list is flexible enough to adapt itself to an advanced class in any school. There are, of course, great differences in pupils; and the teacher must recog- nize this in teaching any branch and adapt his plans to them. The pupil is to be made to understand that he is expected to obtain the information here outlined; and it need not matter where he obtains it, whether from this author or from that, or partly from one and partly from another. He may learn from travelers, from miscellaneous works or from newspapers, from any reliable source, provided he gets the information in such a way that he can tell it. Dull and backward pupils will need to be questioned to bring out their knowledge; but this should not be done where it can be IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 157 avoided. The pupil should be taught to rely upon himself and tell what he knows without being ques- tioned. Pupils who have been taught in the old rote manner may make objections to this manner of study, but the true teacher will soon win them to his own views. He should explain to them the advantages, and at first modify the plan so as not to make too sudden a change. This topic list cannot be used in all classes. Special outlines should be given in studying some of the points of mathematical and physical geography. Review lessons may be given by special outlines; for example, lakes may be given as a lesson and outlined on the board somewhat as follows: Lakes. 1. Origin. 2. Classes. 1. As to character of water. 2. As to outlets and inlets. 3. Elevation. 4. Uses. 5. Principal lakes of the world. I. As to commercial importance. As to elevation. As to size. As to beautiful scenery. As to any other peculiarity. Mountains, volcanoes, seas, gulfs and bays, oceans, rivers, etc., may be outlined in a similar manner. Such special outlines for review are of great practical 158 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING value, gathering up, as it were, the* knowledge which has been attained into parcels and labeling them, A special outline should also be given for the pupil's own state. This should be very full and minute, embracing all the points which would be worth remem- bering. Ail the latest geographies develop this plan of paying particular attention to home and local geography and give such an outline for the study of any particular state. The teacher, however, who is acquainted with his own state and has paid some attention to outlining can easily produce one which will suit his purpose better than could be given here. The teacher should have a map of the state showing counties and townships, and if possible a map of the county. These maps should be provided by school boards for every schoolhouse. The teacher may, how- ever, do as I have done in several instances, draw on the wall with colored chalk a map of the county, showing townships; and the township the schoolhouse was in, showing school district, schoolhouses, roads, streams, etc. I copied them from borrowed maps. (See p. 200.) Some system of map drawing should be pursued, but I would caution the teacher against making a hobby of it. It is a means and not an end. The teacher should recognize also the different capacities of his pupils in this respect. Some will seem to have a natural ability to draw, while with others it is a difficult matter to interest them or teach them to draw even passably. Particular pains should be taken in drawing the pupils' own state; IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 59 but if it is one difficult to draw, do not give it as the first lesson. Drill them in drawing some state of regular and easy outline. I need not say anything further on this head, as all text books now give instructions in map drawing. For advanced pupils the teacher should prepare questions which will lead them to think and apply their knowledge — questions which can not be answered in the language of any book, but such as the pupil must answer from his own knowledge of the facts. As an example of such questions the teacher will ask why New England is a manufacturing country; why Iowa and Illinois raise so many hogs; why gold and silver are not found in Illinois; why sheep are raised so extensively in Ohio and California; why New Jersey and Delaware raise so many fruits and vegetables ; why Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska have so few large cities; why education is not more universally diffused through- out the Southern States; why Indian corn is not raised in England; why England has such fine breeds of cattle and horses; what would be the effect on the climate of Italy, France, Greece and Spain if the Desert of Sahara were turned into a sea; why the climate of Colorado is both dry and peculiar; why there are so many Spanish names of towns, etc., in the Terri- tories and States west of the Mississippi, and so many French names along the St. Lawrence and Mississippi; why Quito, being on the equator, has such a pleasant climate, etc. The teacher, who is well versed in a knowledge of geography, as he should be, can multiply l6o BEST METHODS OF TEACHING such questions to any necessary extent. A few such questions should be assigned at one time, and the pupils allowed two or three days to prepare their answers. In the hands of a live teacher a class in geography may be made the most enthusiastic and interesting class of the school. There are some points in teaching geography which may be called Geographical Recre- ations. For example, the origin and significance of names of places and countries. If the teacher will consult Webster's Unabridged Dictionary he will find material of this kind. Also, the popular names of cities and states, as Garden City, Crescent City, Hoosier State, Hawkeye State, etc. The formation of some of the physical features of the earth's surface may be illustrated in a simple and pleasing manner by means of a large tray made of boards, in the shape of a box, about three inches deep and two feet wide by three or four feet in length. A dry goods box will answer by cutting it down to the required depth. Fill this with wet sand,^ to within half an inch of the top. Mountains, hills, plateaus and plains may be formed with the sand. A volcano may be made by placing a piece of unslacked lime in a mountain and wetting the sand. In a little while the lime will slack and the sides of the mountain will become hot and crack open and an opening appear in the top, from which will issue steam and powdered lime. By inclining the tray and pouring a shower of water from a sprinkling can, the formation of rivers * If sand is not obtainable, use fine sawdust, omitting the lime. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS l6l may be shown. If the sand is so arranged that the lowest part is along the center, the water will collect and form a large river and its tributaries. The wash- ing down of the mountains to form plains is also illustrated. The formation of canons may be illus- trated by taking clay and mixing it with water until a mud is formed, which, when allowed to dry in the sun or by the fire, will crack open, making large fissures; and by pouring water the fissures will be enlarged, showing how, in the course of ages, the internal heat of the earth and the erosive action of water have dug these wonderful ditches. The latitude of a few prominent places should be fixed in the mind. The following is a good exercise for this purpose: The teacher, taking a globe or map of the world, and selecting a certain parallel, say 40°, says: ''I find on or near this parallel Columbus, O., Philadelphia, Pa., Rome, Italy," etc. Then, selecting another, say 30°, he says: "I find on this New Orleans, La., St. Augustine, Fla., etc. What is the latitude of Philadelphia, of New Orleans, of Rome.^" etc. Then, selecting another parallel, he adds a few more places and asks questions promiscuously, as before, the pupils answering in concert. In this way a short drill occasionally will fix the latitude of the most prominent places in the world in the pupil's memory. Other places may be compared with them. For example, if one wishes to know the latitude of Mobile, Ala., he has only to remember that it is a little further north than New Orleans, and therefore near 30°. About ten years l62 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING ago I participated in a drill of this kind at a teachers' institute in which T. W. Harvey was instructor, and I do not think I shall ever forget the latitude of a number of places I there learned in a few minutes' drill. The teacher who is alive to his work will find many such expedients as I have here given, and will need* no further suggestions from me in regard to teaching geography. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE Anatomy, teaching the structure of our bodies; physiology, the functions of the various organs; and hygiene, the application of this knowledge to the maintaining of a sound mind in a sound body, are sub- jects usually included under the term physiology, and are required by law, in many of the states, to be taught in common schools, or rather the teacher is re- quired to be prepared to teach them. It is eminently proper that this subject should be taught in country schools. Notwithstanding the fact that an out-door life of labor is more conducive to health and longevity than a sedentary in-door life, country people need the knowledge, which, if properly applied, will conserve their health and bodily vigor. Farmers do not always obey the laws of health in regard to diet and exercise; and farmers' children need instruction on this point as well as in regard to keeping accounts or any other branch taught in schools. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 163 The teacher will find that the same methods of teaching which are applicable in geography, grammar and history can be successfully applied in this branch. The topic method should prevail, and pupils should be encouraged to outline and classify the subjects treated in the text book. A class can be, perhaps, more success- fully conducted if each pupil has a different author in his hands than if all have the same. The truly alive teacher will find no difficulty in presenting the subject and conducting a recitation, but questions of more importance are these: What parts shall be studied, and where shall the class commence.'* The subject is too deep to be studied in detail by pupils of a country school. Only the more important general principles should be taught, and these well impressed upon their minds. The following are some of the points which the teacher should select and the order in which they should be presented: I. GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY I . Bones The teacher may let the class make an outline of the bones, naming every bone in the body under the main divisions of head, trunk and extremities, then proceed to learn the names of a few of the more important bones first; those of less importance may be learned in- cidentally by reviews and class drills. Next he may give a lesson or two on the structure and use of the bones, and their importance in a hygienic sense, as, for 164 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING example, the importance of recognizing the fact that children's bones are softer and contain less mineral matter, and the bOnes of old persons are in the opposite conditions; and make the application as regards man- aging children to prevent bow legs, spinal deformities, etc., and care to prevent accidents causing fracture in elderly persons. Three or four lessons will thus bring out all the more important matters relating to the bones. By frequent reviews, after the pupil has ad- vanced to other subjects, these important facts will be fixed in their memories and seen in their relations to other facts of the science. Teachers will proceed according to the intellectual caliber of the pupils. If they are capable of grasping the more abstruse parts, they may gradually be led to them; if not, only what they can comprehend should be taught, and that well. 2. Muscles The teacher may make outlines as with the bones, naming those muscles usually given in school text books, and memorizing a few of the more important. He may give hints in regard to the outline, suggesting that the structure, arrangement, kinds and use of muscles form a part of the outline. Several lessons are then to be made on these points. 3. The Skin A lesson should be given on this subject, discussing its structure and use, including hair and nails, mucous membrane and teeth, the three latter being modifica- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 165 tions of the epidermis, or outer skin. The functions of the skin will be better understood after the subjects of respiration, digestion and circulation are studied. The whole subject of the framework of the body may now be reviewed by outlines and general questions and discussions. II. VITAL PROCESSES 1 . Circitlation Outline organs, as arteries, veins, capillaries, heart, lymphatics, with a discussion of the processes and results. Drill particularly in tracing the course of the blood in the round of the circulation. Draw diagram on blackboard to illustrate. 2. Respiration Outline and discuss organs, as: trachea, bronchial tubes, lungs, air cells, capillaries, with processes and results, as: elimination of impurities and production of pure blood for vital purposes. Show the relation be- tween the lungs and skin in the processes of excretion. Explain the philosophy of "taking cold" and the neces- sity of good ventilation. 3. Digestion The teacher may make outlines of the organs of digestion, including teeth, tongue, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, intestinal canal, pancreas and liver. He may describe these parts in a general man- ner, and next outline and describe the processes of l66 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING digestion ; as mastication, insalivation, deglutition, chy- mification, chylification, with the fluids necessary to perform these processes, as sahva, gastric juice, bile and pancreatic fluid. Tell what processes are mechan- ical and what chemico-vital. A number of lessons should be made of the subject of digestion, as it is of great importance. Give a lesson on the hygiene of digestion in relation to manner and matter of diet. Review the whole subject of vital processes, and dwell on the hygiene of digestion. A general review from the beginning may now be given, asking questions which will make pupils think and reason ; and drill on the more important parts to fix them in the memory. III. NERVOUS SYSTEM The structure, functions and hygiene of the nervous system should be studied by outlines, making the grand divisions of cerebro-spinal and sympathetic systems, also bringing in the terms sensory and motor nerves. IV. THE SPECIAL SENSES The eye and ear should be studied in considerable detail, paying particular attention to the hygiene of these organs. A little knowledge of the sciences of optics and acoustics would be of benefit to the teacher. Let him study these subjects in some work on natural philosophy, and he will be better able to explain the functions of these organs. If the class is capable of going farther during one term, there are many other points which may be taken IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 167 up and discussed ; but first let a thorough investigation of the points I have noted be made. I insist on frequent reviews. The teacher, at least, should have more than one text book, and it would be well if the class had different authors also. There are some very good text books on the subject designed for common schools. Among them may be mentioned Steele's and Cutter's. Some of the review questions in ''Steele's Fourteen Weeks" are valuable aids to the teacher. If his class has not that book, the teacher may use some of those questions by writing them on the board for review lessons. He should use all possible aids in illustrating the anatomy of important organs. It is possible to procure specimens from animals which will illustrate many points in the human system. The eye of a hog is about the same in size and structure as the human eye, and specimens should be procured and dissected before the class. If one is boiled it will bear dissection better, but it should be shown also in a natural state. The larynx of a hog will also illustrate the human larynx, and give a much clearer idea than pictures or models. In fact nearly all the internal organs of the hog are similar in size and appearance to those of the human being. The heart, lungs and stomach, even, of a hog may be exhibited to illustrate these parts in the human body. Bones of animals may be procured and sawn across, to show the structure. Five cents' worth of sulphuric acid, to be had at any drug store, will, if diluted, dissolve the earthy parts of bone, leaving the animal parts intact. A bone may be burned in the 1 68 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Stove, destroying the animal part and leaving the earthy part. ALGEBRA AND THE HIGHER MATHEMATICS The science of algebra is taught regularly in many of our country schools; and some portions of the higher mathematics, as geometry, trigonometry, astronomy, etc., should be taught incidentally in connection with other branches and occasionally by regular lessons, although without using a regular text book. Algebra is a method of solving mathematical prob- lems and representing quantities by means of symbols. It is an indispensable aid in all the higher mathematical branches. It is sometimes called General Arithmetic, and as an aid to arithmetic it is of great value. It should be studied before arithmetic is finished. It frequently happens that the teacher finds an example in arithmetic which will at first puzzle him ; and very often a knowledge of algebra will help him out of the difficulty. He may solve the example by algebra, and from this get an arithmetical solution. As merely an aid to the teacher, even if he is never required to teach it, it is valuable. It will appear evident that algebra should be taught in very much the same manner as arithmetic. I will therefore only offer a few suggestions : There are a certain number of definitions which must be learned before much progress can be made, but I would not advise a study of them alone. The teacher IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 169 should first develop the algebraic idea of representing quantities by symbols. Take, for example, the sum of 24 and 32. Instead of adding the numbers, as in arithmetic, you will say: ''We will represent the num- ber 24 by a, and the number 32 by b, and the operation will then stand a+br Some of the simple examples in arithmetic should be presented and solved algebra- ically. For instance, such problems as the followino-- "A travels a certain distance one day and twice as far the next. In the two days he travels 36 miles; how far does he travel each day.?" A number of such examples should be solved by the pupils, before definitions should be learned. A few definitions only are necessary at first; the others are to be learned as the necessity arises for their use. Numerous examples, like the following, may be given while the pupil is learning the necessary definitions: ''What is the value of c + d—b, c being equal to 5, d to 10 and b to 3?" As soon as the pupil is somewhat familiar with algebraic forms of expression, the operations of addi- tion, subtraction, multiplication and division of alge- braic quantities should be taught, giving numerous examples for practice, and requiring pupils to be par- ticular in the use of signs. Be sure that all pupils have the proper conception of adding and subtracting algebraic quantities, and of the idea that letters may represent any quantity. With these facts well impressed and clearly understood, there will be no difficulty in conducting a class success- lyO BEST METHODS OF TEACHING fully through any text book on the science, if the teacher has profited by the hints on teaching arithmetic. I have already spoken of some of the applications of the higher mathematics, in the chapter on Arithmetic. With advanced pupils in algebra or arithmetic, a slight knowledge of geometry and trigonometry may also be taught, if the teacher has prepared himself by the study of these branches. For example, even very young pupils can be taught the meaning of many geometrical terms, as : angle, plane, the different kinds of triangles, perpendicular, diagonal, parallel lines, parts of a circle, chords, polygons, prisms, etc. ; and advanced pupils in country schools should certainly be made familiar with these terms. Some of the simpler propositions may be demonstrated, or at least taught as facts. The blocks before spoken of (see p. 45), and which should be in every school room, will aid in familiarizing pupils with geometrical terms. The process of finding distances by similar triangles, and some other parts of trigo- nometry, may be taught. Schoolboys are sometimes curious to know how astronomers can tell the distance of the sun from the earth. This may be made plain to them by a simple calculation. Many of the facts of mathematical geography may also be made plainer by a knowledge of geometrical forms and principles. Teachers should not be bound within the narrow limits of the text book which the class is using; but wherever they can fix a fact or draw out a demonstration in any useful line of investigation, they should do so, not wasting time in trying to demonstrate what the IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I7I pupils are not old enough, or have not the intellectual power to understand ; and above all things they should not try to demonstrate anything they do not under- stand. If asked a question, or to explain something of which they are ignorant, they should not pretend to know nor put off with an excuse, but frankly ac- knowledge ignorance; then study on that point until it is mastered, if it is possible. THE NATURAL SCIENCES Under this head I wish to discuss the teaching of botany, geology, natural philosophy, chemistry and zoology in country schools. I think I hear someone saying: ''What! do you propose that all these branches be taught in our common country schools.?" I answer: "Yes; not regularly, not necessarily with text books; but incidentally and occasionally, as a means of culture, and for the purpose of keeping up interest, enthusiasm, assisting in governing, and with the hope that some good seeds may be sown which will find proper soil and receive a start which may culminate in a future Agassiz or Linnaeus." "But teachers are not generally prepared to teach such subjects. They have no knowledge of them them- selves." Then they should inform themselves. Children will often take a deep interest in collecting specimens and exhibit a strong desire to know some- thing about them. There is much difference in neigh- 172 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING borhoods in this respect. There are some suburban communities where anything of the kind would be looked upon as the utmost degree of foolishness, and the people would be ready to call the teacher who would attempt anything of the kind a lunatic. The teacher, then, must feel the public pulse, and beware how he carries innovations into the school room. Wherever anything of the kind is entirely new, the teacher must proceed with caution and make gradual advances, until he captures the fort. I. Let us see what the teacher may do in the line of botanical teaching. In the spring, summer or fall, he may procure a few leaves of different kinds, and either at general exercises, or during the five-minute intervals of rest, call the attention of the school to them. He may show that in one sense they are all alike, and in another all different; that is, they all have a midrib and branching veins. He may draw this fact out by asking questions. He may ask them in what respect they are all alike. They will probably say they are all green. Then he may ask them if any of them ever saw a leaf that was not green. They will probably answer, no. He may tell them that nearly all leaves are green, but that there are some leaves otherwise colored, or partly so. Tell them to ask their parents if they ever saw a leaf that was not green when young and growing. He may call for a report the next day. He may ask them in what respect the leaves are dif- ferent. They will answer at once that they are of different shapes. He may now close the exercise for IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I 73 this time by telling them that to-morrow he wants to see how many different shaped leaves each one can bring. He may make a collection of leaves, and dry them by laying between folds of paper. If pupils take an interest in making a collection (which I am sure they will, many of them, at least) he may give a num- ber of lessons on leaves, classifying them according to their shape. An outline may be written on the black- board; and though it will bring in some new words with which the pupils are not familiar, they are not difificult of comprehension when explained; besides, teachers need not use the technical term when a com- mon word will answer. The words of the outline can be used as a spelling lesson for the next day. I give below a specimen of an outline which may be made out on the subject of leaves : ves. I. Parts. I. Blade. I. Midrib. 2. Veins. 2. Foot stalk or leaf stalk. 2. Forms. I. As to general outline. I. Linear. 2. Lance-shaped. 3- 4. 5- Oblong. Elliptical. Oval. 6. Ovate. 7- Orbicular or rotund. 8. Oblanceolate. 174 BEST r METHODS OF TEACHING 9- Wedge-shaped. 10. Spoon-shaped. II. Obovate. 2. As to ' base. I. Heart-shaped. 2. Kidney-shaped. 3- Eared. 4. Arrow-shaped. 5- Halberd-shaped. 6. Shield-shaped. 3. As to Apex. I. Pointed. 2. Acute. 3- Obtuse. 4. Truncate. 5- Retuse. 6. Notched. 7. Obcordate. 8. Tooth-shaped. 9. Mucronate. 10. Bristle-pointed. 4. As to particular outline. I. Entire, 2. Saw-toothed. 3. Toothed. 4. Scalloped. 5- Wavy. 6. Sinuate. 7. Cut or jagged. 8. Lobed. 9. Cleft. 10. Parted. II. Divided. 12. Simple. 13. Compound. I. Pinnate. 2. Palmate. Two weeks may be profitably and pleasantly spent IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 75 studying the subject of leaves in this way, using no more than five minutes each day. It will be easy enough to collect specimens to represent nearly all the above forms of leaves; and as the pupils do this work at noons, recesses, mornings and evenings, but little time is consumed, much interest can be awakened, some knowledge imparted, and, without doubt, some dormant mind will be aroused and the perceptive fac- ulties cultivated. In winter, a collection of the different kinds of wood may be made by the pupils. This may be made very interesting. The teacher should specify the size and shape of the blocks. They should be cut so as to show the grain of the wood, both longitudinally and transversely, with one side and one end planed or polished. They should then be correctly and plainly labeled and kept as a part of the property of the school. Those kinds which are natives of the county should be so designated, and those which are foreign. In this way a complete collection of all the native woods of the locality and many foreign species may be made, and will be a collection of value when complete. The teacher may give some very interesting lectures on the uses, strength, etc., of woods. The pupils may be asked to name some of the uses of wood, what kinds of wood are valuable for certain purposes, etc. The teacher may procure specimens of foreign woods, as lignum-vitae, logwood, ebony, etc., and speak of their uses in the arts and their value in a commercial sense. There is not a locality in the United States where 176 BEST METHODS OF TEACHIN'G such exercises as the above can not be made practical, a statement which can not be made in regard to all subjects. The live teacher may find other practical and profitable exercises touching the science of botany, but these are sufficient as hints. 2. In many localities geology may be made a prof- itable study, and a collection of specimens of fossils and minerals be made. There are localities where fossils are numerous, and there are but few places where there are not different kinds of rocks. A col- lection may be commenced and extended as far as possible, even if the locality is poor in specimens. The teacher should endeavor to inform himself on the sub- ject of geology, that he may be able to answer the numerous queries which may be put to him in regard to rocks, minerals and fossils. Interesting short lec- tures may be given upon rocks, ores, fossils, etc. Let the teacher prepare himself by reading and study for a short talk about some of these subjects. I have not space to suggest what he may say, but can only, in a o:eneral wav, hint that he should endeavor to make these talks interesting, by talking about that in which the pupils seem to take an interest. The grand object is to wake up mind. When a thirst for knowledge is once induced, it is easy to supply the demand. By a few judicious questions and statements, the teacher will find out what he can talk about with the greatest degree of success. He should, if possible, procure specimens of the different kinds of coal, of iron, lead, zinc and copper ores, of gold and silver-bearing quartz, IX COUNTRY SCHOOLS I 77 of granite, marble, sand-stone, chalk, slate, etc. In localities where there are no such things, they will be a source of interest to the whole school and to geog- raphy classes in particular. A geological collection of such representative specimens should form a part of the teacher's stock in trade. He may procure them in his travels and through the medium of friends and by exchange with others interested in the same subjects. 3. Some very interesting experiments in natural philosophy and chemistry may be performed by the teacher, and the principles made plain to pupils. In searching a work on these subjects he will find many experiments described which, with a little modification, he may perform with little or no cost for apparatus or material. Much of the apparatus for performing experiments in natural philosophy and chemistry may be de\*ised by any teacher who has ordinary ingenuity. These subjects will not, perhaps, be so well adapted to the whole school as botany and geolog}-; but with classes in physiology and advanced geography, many experiments may be performed and principles illus- trated which will prove of great use in widening their field of knowledge and stimulating them to independent investigation and research. I remember, when quite a small boy, I read ''Parker's Philosophy" and performed several of the experiments there described without ever consulting anyone. I found a crooked stem of a poke- weed, and pushing out the pith, made a siphon, and got a scolding for running the water out of my mother's rainwater barrel. Boys frequently exhibit such tenden- 178 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING cies at a very early age. A horse-shoe magnet may be purchased for a few cents, and many wonderful ex- periments performed with it, illustrating the properties of that mysterious agent, electricity. If some common bituminous coal is reduced to a powder and heated in the bowl of a clay tobacco pipe, by covering with moistened clay, the gas which is devel- oped may be burned at the end of the pipe stem. It is the common illuminating gas which lights our cities. If a little lump of green vitriol is dropped into a glass of clear water it will dissolve, and the solution will be clear. Now, if a solution of tannic acid is made, either by dropping a very small quantity into another glass of water, or a few drops of tea from oak bark are added to the water, and the contents of one glass are mixed with the contents of the other, the two previously clear solutions will turn instantly black as ink. Here is an illustration of a chemical change. I will give another just as simple: A small particle of starch may be dropped in a glass of hot water. Into another glass, a drop of tincture of iodine may be put. The clear . liquids, when mixed, will assume a beautiful blue color. Here is one of a different character: A teaspoonful of chlorate of potash may be mixed with a similar quantity of sugar; it may be laid on a board and a single drop of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) let fall upon it. The mass will take fire and burn with a beautiful white flame and with great rapidity. A volcano may be illustrated with this material: A pile of earth may IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 79 be raised on a wide board, and in the center a little of this material may be placed in paper, arranging a paper tube so as to reach the apex of the volcano and com- municate with the material inside. A drop of the acid may now fall through this tube, and instantly the volcano will have an eruption, belching forth fire and smoke. Although the teacher may not be able to explain the exact nature of these chemical changes, the purpose is served as well. It is only necessary to show that a new and different substance is produced by a chemical reaction. The pupil may be referred to the process of making soap from fats and alkalies, as an illustration of a chemical change producing a new sub- stance. 4. A few words in regard to the teaching of natural history in the country school. Here is a wide field for youth to investigate; but the country teacher may not find it so available as the foregoing sciences. Speci- mens can not always be collected, except in the depart- ment of insects. If any teacher's taste inclines in that direction, perhaps he may make this branch a profit- able one. Children love to hear and read about animals. Stories of animal sagacity may be related, and questions asked about the animals of different countries, their habits, uses, etc. Pupils may be told, for example, of the reindeer, an animal which furnishes food, drink, clothing, shelter and implements for a certain class of people; of some of the articles of commerce which are produced from animals, as ivory, bone, whalebone, oil, leather, horn, glue, furs, wool, feathers, etc. ; of the I So BEST METHODS OF TEACHING animals peculiar to different parts of the world, etc. Some of these points belong to geography, but may be taught to the whole school as general exercises. MANUAL, OR CONSTRUCTIVE WORK Industrial training has a much larger place in the curriculum of to-day than even its most enthusiastic teachers and other friends dared to hope for it a decade since. In New York, and most of the larger cities, cooking and sewing for the girls, and knife work, iron, wood and similar work for the boys, are taught as a part of the regular course; and teachers have to fit them- selves to the new demands of the situation. In country districts, all of this is not practicable; but some parts of the work that is done in the cities may be well done by the country teacher. Even if he has little or no knowledge of drawing, brush work, etc., as such, he may at least allow the brighter children to take them up for ''busy work" when the lessons for that day and the next are all prepared ; and he will find them good aids in the question of discipline. Water color paints, a few camel's hair brushes, some of the colored inks mentioned in the chapter on pen- manship, will be a source of grateful amusement and intelligent occupation to the younger ones, and of inspi- ration to the older ones. The teacher may bring, or ask those who wish to un- dertake the work, such plants, vegetables, or other things as can be boldly outlined with the brush; and IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS l8l it will be no small surprise as to what even the very youngest can accomplish by allowing this freedom of the hand. After a fair degree of resemblance to potatoes, bananas, apples, grapes, small squashes, leaves, flowers of a simple kind, etc., are completed, he may encourage the copying, with a brush, of a simple landscape, show- ing how the ''tones" are obtained by the number of times that the work is "washed" with the ink or paint. Very pretty black and white effects are so brought out, and by very young children. They may outline the school building, each other, in different poses, a bit of scenery that illustrates some- thing they have read, or a story that has been told them. They may sometimes select their own subjects, and sometimes be given one in which a little competi- tion will add to the interest. Anything, so that they may be encouraged to find out what their hands hold in store for them. Little ones, and some of the larger ones, will find both pleasure and profit in cutting figures from paper; and the skill developed by some will equal that of a fairly good artist with crayon or pencil. Pictures for a school scrap book may be carefully cut and pasted, after a little practice ; and it will be of great value in much of the class work. All will take hold of this. The teacher may show how to make conventional designs with both the cutting and drawing, and "acci- dentals" with the ink. The latter is done by putting a more or less liberal supply of ink on a sheet of drawing l82 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING paper (or common butchers' paper), and folding the paper at once, so as to produce a blot, which, repeated at regular intervals, makes an odd — and often pretty — figure, that could be obtained in no other way. A bit of tracing paper, placed over it, allows the child to get the outline, which is then cut out; and it is laid on his paper, at sections of regularly crossed lines, forming a pattern. I have seen leaves, butterflies, etc., developed in this way, that were afterwards used for group work, and were more than merely creditable, although done by children who had been in school less than one term. Once the possibilities of constructive work are appre- ciated, the teacher has opened a big door for many a child; and yet all this must be done discreetly, and not in a way to excite prejudice against the "paper tom- foolery," as one irate man designated it. Broad princi- ples are below it all; but it takes a broad mind to comprehend broad principles; and the way-wise teacher will strengthen his own hands by the judicious use of all ways and means with which to reach parents as well as pupils. MORALS AND MANNERS A GRAVE responsibility rests upon the teacher. He should do vastly more than the law requires of him or than his employers expect of him. Instructing children in the branches treated of in text books is not the only teaching that he should do. There is something higher and nobler for him to do. He must teach lessons in IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 1 83 morals and manners, the substratum on which a free government rests. Let me here make an extract from Prof. Huxley's address before the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity : "Size is not grandeur, and territory does not make a nation. The great issue about which hangs a true sublimity, and the terror of overhanging fate is : What are you going to do with these things.? What is to be the end to which these are to be the means ? You are making a novel experiment in politics on the greatest scale which the world has yet seen. Forty millions at your first centenary! It is reasonably to be expected that at the second, these States will be occupied by two hundred millions of English speaking people, spread over an area as large as that of Europe, and with climates and interests as diverse as those of Spain and Scandinavia, England and Russia. You and your descendants have to ascertain whether this great mass will hold together under the form of a republic and the despotic reality of universal suffrage; whether state rights will hold out against centralization without separation; whether cen- tralization will get the better without actual or disguised monarchy; whether shifting corruption is better than a permanent bureaucracy; and as population thickens in your cities and the pressure of want is felt, the gaunt specter of pauperism will stalk among you and com- munism and socialism will claim to be heard. Truly, America has a great future before her; great in toil, in care and in responsibility ; great in true glory, if she be guided in wisdom and righteousness; great in shame if 184 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING she fail. I can not understand why other nations should envy you, or be blind to the fact that it is for the highest interest of mankind that you should succeed; but the one condition of success^ your sole safeguard^ is the moral worth and intellectual clearness of tJie individ- ual citizen. Education cannot give these, but it may cherish them and bring them to the front in whatever station of society they are to be found ; and the uni- versities ought to be and may be the fortresses of the higher life of the nation." I would agree with Huxley in all but the last sen- tence. Education caji give moral worth and intellec- tual clearness ; and the common schools, and especially the country district schools, ''ought to be and may be the fortresses of the higher life of the nation." How many of our great men were educated in our country schools.'' Many received their first impulses in some log schoolhouse in the backwoods. The country school teacher has given an impetus to the intellectual devel- opment of many a statesman and man of worth to the nation. He has made many a man capable of casting an intelligent ballot; and has he not increased the moral worth of many a citizen of this great republic.-* Much more can he do, if guided by right motives and prompted to greater zeal by a true understanding of the responsi- bility of his position and a real love for the profession. Hear what one of our greatest statesmen, Daniel Web- ster, said about the common school : ' Many moral tales and instructive and well contrived fables, always so alluring to children, learned by heart in these schools, IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 185 are still perfectly preserved in my memory. * * * In my opinion, the instruction communicated in the free schools of New England has a direct effect for good on the morals of youth. It represses vicious inclinations, it inspires love of character and it awakens honorable aspirations." The teacher should endeavor by every means in his power to instill into his pupils habits which will make them good citizens of a free republic. The following outline will indicate the order in which I propose a very brief notice of some of the points which teachers should take pains to teach, both by precept and example : 1. Morals. 1. Veracity. I. Avoid Deception. 2. Honesty. I. Avoid Cheating. 3. Industry. 1. At- Study. 2. At Work. 4. Economy. 1. Save Property. 2. Save Time. 5. Promptness and Regularity. 1. Regular in Attendance. 2. Prompt at Recitations. 3. Prompt in the Affairs of Life. 2. Manners. I. Politeness at Home and Abroad. 1. To Strangers. 2. To Teacher. 3. To Companions. 1 86 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING 2. Respect. 1. For Self. 2. For Rights, Property and Persons of Others. 3. Kindness. 1. To Human Beings. 2. To Animals. 4. Generosity. 1. In Yielding Rights and Privileges. 2. In Giving and Sharing Property. 5. Reverence. 1. For God. 2. For Parents. 3. For Teachers. 4. For Age. 6. Purity of Speech, 1. Avoid Profanity. 2. Avoid Impure Language. I. MORALS. I . Veracity. — I need not enlarge on the necessity of inculcating in the young a sincere love of truth. Whenever possible, the teacher should point out the evil effects of lying and deception. Gossiping and tale- bearing are very nearly akin to lying. Children should be taught this, and discouraged in any tendency ex- hibited in this direction. Something has happened on the play-ground, and some one comes and tells the teacher. Here is an opportunity to speak about this matter. Children should be taught that when they are called upon individually for evidence in regard to offenses committed, they should respond with the ''truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth," but that a spirit of tattling and meddling should always IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS iSj be avoided. They should be taught that a person can act a He as well as speak it, and that all double dealing and deception should be abhorred. The teacher can teach much more by example. He should always be just what he appears to be, and make no promises which he does not intend to perform. Many teach deception by not performing what they promise. If it happens that he has made a promise which he is unable to redeem he should be quick to state his reasons, and frankly acknowledge an error if he makes one. 2. Honesty. — I fear that in this free republic few men and women are strictly honest. I do not mean that they all steal; but humbugging and cheating are such commoji things that few are entirely innocent. I have, however, taught school where it was not safe to leave a pencil or knife on the table and leave the room; but because there was one thief in the school, I could not accuse the school of being dishonest. But children need cautioning about taking little things which they might not regard as stealing. They should be shown how taking an apple may lead to taking a knife, and this to something of more value, and so on until they may land in the penitentiary. I would not, how- ever, speak very often about stealing, certainly not at all unless something occurred to give occasion to speak about it, for it is never good to anticipate the commis- sion of a crime by making mention of it. I say an- ticipate it, for I believe that often the mere calling of a crime to mind will prompt its commission. I have not space here to discuss this fact, but it is a fact in human l88 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING nature. Cheating is sometimes practiced in games of childhood. The teacher should take pains to check the tendency at once, for a child who will cheat in a game is likely to cheat in business when a man. Honesty should be taught, not simply because it is the best policy, but because it is one of the noblest traits of human character. 3. Industry. — I have classed industry as a moral trait, for no man can be a moral man and at the same time an idler. Industry lies at the foundation of individual and national life, co-ordinate with honesty and veracity. Habits of industry must be taught in school as well as in the family. The teacher can do much towards fostering this trait, by furnishing all with employment in the school room and by occasionally prompting the idly-inclined pupils. This prompting must not be done in a scolding manner, but pleasantly, by directing them towards an example to be solved, a point to be noticed in the lesson, a paragraph to be read over, a written exercise to be attended to, etc. Occasion should be taken to point out the benefits of industry in the world. In geography classes, when lessons are had on the pro- ductions of various countries, attention may be called to the fact that the wealth and beauty of a country depend on the industry of its inhabitants; the fine cities, build- ings, works of art, etc., are the results of industry. In general exercises in natural science, the uses of certain articles, as iron, wood, etc., should be shown to be the result of the industry of man. The teacher should show that these substances in a state of nature would IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 189 be of little or no use to man; he may call attention to the fact that the farmers who are the most wealthy are generally so from industry and economy. These two traits can not, indeed, be separated. 4. Economy. — I come, naturally, to speak of this ^ also as a moral trait. From the days when the prodi- gal son wasted his substance in riotous living, and was at last obliged to return to an economical parent for support, to the present day, those individuals who have practiced economy have stood foremost in the world's history as the wise ones who provide for the future by taking care of the present, and to whom the prodigal and wasteful must come at last begging. It is to be hoped that the financial depressions through which this country has passed will teach lessons of economy that will benefit the adults of the present generation at least. But the youth of our schools should receive instruction in this branch, that they may not have to learn by dear experience in the future what many of us are learning today. About every fifteen years there is a financial crash in this country, and it is caused mainly by the extravagance and wastefulness of the inhabitants. Pupils should be taught economy in the use of prop- erty and in the use of time. When books are heed- lessly torn or soiled, or school property destroyed, the teacher will have occasion to give a lesson of economy in the use of property. A program of study and recitation economizes time, and the pupils should be made to see this and be prompted to systematize their study that they may save time. Habits of economy 190 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING thus impressed in youth will often have great effect on character in after life. Pupils trained to study by plan will be apt. to work and study by system when they enter the active arena of life. 5. Promptness and Regularity. — Another moral trait which should be instilled into youth at an early age. Regular attendance at school should be shown as highly necessary to secure the benefits of school. The teacher should talk to parents on this subject, and show them that it would be to their own interest to send their children regularly to school. If they are to keep the children at home half the time, that time should be consecutively and not a day now and then. Train pupils to be prompt to come in when the bell rings, prompt to come to the recitation, prompt to answer when called upon to recite. Pupils who are in the habit of straggling when the bell rings should be re- minded of the fact, by being detained a few minutes after the others are dismissed. They can see the justice of this punishment, for if they persist in dis- turbing the order of the school by coming in late, and try to gain a few moments for play at the expense of the rest of the school, they should be compelled to make up this time while those who have been prompt are permitted to play. II. MANNERS It is often remarked that the youth of the present day are not so polite and do not show that respect for superiors which characterized the youth of the preceding IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I9I generation. ''It was not so when I was young," is an expression often upon the Ups of elderly persons. It is true, also, that the American people are lacking in these qualities more than the Old World inhabitants. This fact is owing to our free self-government, which fosters an independent spirit, the opposite of a fawning, cring- ing servility. While this independent spirit should not be crushed out, but rather encouraged, the youth should be taught good manners, which consist in treating fel- low beings as having equal rights to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." (See p. 48.) 1. Politeness. — The teacher will find frequent opportunity to give instruction on the duty of being polite to strangers, to teachers, and to companions. School children frequently insult, or in various ways act impudently towards, strangers who may happen to pass the schoolhouse during play hours. The teacher should try to check any such conduct at once, and take the opportunity to give a lecture on politeness. Pupils fail sometimes to speak in a respectful manner to the teacher or to each other. The teacher should call atten- tion to these points, and remind the pupil of his want of politeness. The teacher should always speak and act politely toward pupils wherever he may meet them, thus teaching by example. 2. Respect. — He who has no respect for himself will have none for others. There is a kind of pride which everyone should possess. It is that pride which leads us to do unto others as we would have them do unto us. We should take pride in doing right, and have 192 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING respect for ourselves by so conducting our manners as to give no offense to others. A respect for the rights, property and person of others is but obeying the Golden Rule, as well as obeying the laws of our land. Children should be taught by example and precept that others have rights which they should be bound to respect. School and other public property is too frequently the object of wanton destruction, or the subject for deface- ment with knives, pencils, etc. Will you find a school- house that has been built one year in all this country that does not bear the marks of a pencil or pocketknife to a greater or less extent.? Children should be taught that the property belongs to their parents, to everyone in the district, and that they have no more right to de- face or destroy it than if it were their neighbor's. They should be made acquainted with the laws of the state in regard to such defilement. Something must be done to check this spirit of vandalism, which seems to be gaining ground in this country; and I know of no better place to begin educating the people to better respect public property than in the district school. 3. Kindness. — Boys are sometimes cruel to their playmates, especially to those younger and weaker than themselves. The teacher should not only see that no one under his charge is imposed upon, but he should take such opportunities to inculcate a spirit of kindness towards humanity and towards the brute creation as well. He must teach that kindness is a wonderful power ; that it will conquer where fear will not ; and IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I93 show what influence may be gained over others, and over animals, by being kind to them. 4. Generosity. — It is unnecessary to enlarge upon this head. Examples will be easily found upon which to teach a lesson of generosity. A number of individuals can not be placed together without its being necessary, for the general welfare, that certain rights, privileges, and property, be yielded from one person to others. This is absolutely necessary to the existence of the social state. Even animals which are in the habit of living together yield to each other certain privileges and share each other's food. 5. Reverejice. — This is closely allied to respect. In fact, all the points in the outline are mutually depend- ent and blend into each other. But we should teach that there is a kind and benevolent Father who watches over us, and has the universe in charge, and who rules with justice and equity, but whose ways are sometimes to us mysterious; and that we. His children and subjects of His sovereign will, should reverence and obey Him. This is a quality of true manners, to reverence an aknowledged superior power. Our earthly parents also claim our reverence. They who have watched over us from infancy, and provided for our future welfare, cer- tainly can claim a respect which amounts to reverence. The commandment, "Honor thy father and mother," if universally obeyed, would be a mighty factor in reform- ing the human race. As the teacher stands in loco parentis for the time being, he also demands a respect which may be called reverence. While the teacher 194 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING should be on familiar terms with his pupils, he should ever maintain his dignity, and teach pupils that on ac- count of his position he demands a certain degree of reverence. A teacher will have but little control over pupils who have not this respect, and a respect which may be called reverence, unless he has it by fear; and he can teach but little who governs by fear. Age de- mands a sort of reverence from youth, so long, at least, as age is respectful. 6. Pui^ity of Speech. — A gentleman may be known by his speech. The young of our day are, in many localities, very much addicted to the use of profanity. It is not strange, however; when they have examples on every hand, when the parents and companions of the child constantly use profane language, it is not strange that the child learns it. It is the teacher's duty to show him that it is wrong, that it is a violation of the moral code, as well as a gross violation of etiquette. The country is also full of slang; and our youth, from infancy, almost, speak in the language of slang. While it is true that there are some expressions, generally called slang, which are very forcible, and might be used occasionally to afford variety and emphasis to our language, the constant use of such expressions is but a sign of weakness; and they lose their force by being wrongly applied and too frequently used. It is of little use to punish pupils for swearing. In nine cases out of ten, the offender is only confirmed in his habit. As soon as he gets out of hearing of the teacher he will very likely swear for having been IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 195 punished. His only care will thenceforth be, not to keep from swearing, but to swear when the teacher does not hear it. The better way is to talk to the school about the habit and try to persuade them to abandon it. The teacher may take five minutes some day, and when he has the attention of the whole school, talk to them in this manner: Boys, I have noticed you often when playing; and sometimes I have heard some of you swear and use language which, it seems to me, you would not like to repeat now if I were to ask you. I have no doubt that you hear somebody swear almost every day of your lives, and you have learned when you hardly knew you were learning it; and perhaps some of you may think it is not wrong because many men swear. Did you never think that men do wrong as well as boys, and if we would try to do what is right in the world it will not do to copy after men and do everything they do } Some men will steal horses and commit murder. Do you think it would be right for you to do so, because these men do ? It is very likely that these men learned to swear when they were small boys like some of you, and it became such a habit that it was almost impossible to break it off. Let me ask you to try and not be a slave to any habit. It is not hard to form habits now when you are young, and not very hard to break off bad habits, not half as hard as when you get older. Let me ask you to quit this habit just as soon as you can. You will forget and say bad words before you think ; but you must think and be on your guard. How many will try to keep from swearing or using bad language.? I mean 196 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING those who have not done so as well as those who have. Hold up your hands, as many of you as will try to avoid it. Now that you have promised to try, I hope you will try; and I do not expect to hear very much bad language again. This kind of moral suasion will have a much more salutary effect than any kind of punishment could have. In concluding this chapter, let me say with Milton: Keep your pupils ''stirred up with high hopes of living to be brave men and worthy patriots, dear to God and famous through all ages." MODEL RECITATIONS ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY Note. — In the following model recitations in this book It is under- stood that the teacher has called upon the pupil whose name precedes the answer. The pupils raise their hands when wishing to criticise or report additional matter and when a question is put to the class as a whole. The teacher selects the pupil whom he wishes shall answer the question and calls him by name. Snapping fingers to attract the teacher's attention should not be allowed. The most backward pupils should be most frequently called upon. The brighter ones will raise their hands the most frequently and get the benefit of the recitation without special effort on the part of the teacher. Subject of the lesson — State of Iowa. [Pupils take their places at the recitation seats at call of teacher or tap of bell.] Teacher — John, can you step to the blackboard and draw an outline map of Iowa, marking the principal points of interest.? Note. — Each pupil has a copy of the outline on p. 154. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 197 John — I will try, sir. Teacher — Henry, you may tell us what you can about the position of Iowa. Henry — It lies between Latitude 40%° and 43%'' north and Longitude, 13° and 20° west from Washing- ton. It is bounded on the north by Minnesota, on the east by Illinois, on the south by Missouri, and on the west by Nebraska. [Several hands raised.] Teacher — Robert. Robert — It is bounded on the west by South Da- kota also. Teacher — Very good. Are there any other criti- cisms or additions to what has been said on this point .-* [Mary's hand is raised.] What is it, Mary.? Mary — It lies between the great rivers, the Missis- sippi and Missouri. Teacher — Very good. That fact, however, will come out under the topic, rivers. Katy, you may tell us something about its size. Katy — Its area is 55,045 square miles. Teacher — That is correct, but you could not prob- ably remember that number very long. Try and re- member the round number, 55,000. But let us com- pare it with other states and countries. [Hands raised.] George. George — Georgia, Florida and Michigan are each a little larger. It is larger than either New York or Pennsylvania. [Teacher calls on William, whose hand is raised.] 198 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING William — It is very nearly the size of Illinois, and more than forty times as large as Rhode Island, the smallest state, and one fifth as large as Texas, the largest state. [Henry is called upon.] Henry — It is larger than either Ireland or Scotland and somewhat near the size of England. Teacher — Carrie, describe the surface of Iowa. Carrie — There are no mountains or very high hills. There are bluffs along the streams. It is called a Prairie State, but there is a considerable amount of tim- ber on the banks of the streams. It has a general slope to the south. Teacher — Anything further under this head.? John — There are two minor drainage slopes, one southeastward to the Mississippi, the other southwest- ward to the Missouri. Teacher — Class, how can you tell by looking at a map in what direction the land slopes.? Mary — By the way the rivers run. They always run down hill. Teacher — What is the ridge of land from which the water flows in opposite directions called ? Many voices — A water shed. Teacher — James, what do you Know of the rivers of Iowa.? James — The Mississippi River forms its eastern boundary and the Missouri its western. The principal rivers in the interior of the State are the Des Moines, Skunk, Iowa and Cedar Rivers, which run towards the IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS I99 southeast and empty into the Mississippi. The Little Sioux and Nishnabotany run southwest and empty into ■ the Missouri. Teacher — Albert, what of the lakes.? Albert — There are no large lakes, but numerous small ones in the northern part. The largest is Spirit Lake, containing about twelve square miles. Henry — The Walled Lakes are great curiosities. There is an embankment of earth all around them as though thrown up by men. Teacher — Can anyone explain this phenomenon.? [No answer.] I will leave this point until to-morrow. I want each one to try and find an explanation. Ask your parents, or, perhaps, some of you have a large atlas of Iowa, which will explain it. There is a natural cause for this singular phenomenon and I want you to find it out. We will pass to the next topic. This is sufficient to illustrate the manner of conduct- ing a recitation in advanced geography. The teacher who cannot get up enthusiasm in his class in this way must try some other. The remainder of the recitation will be similar to the foregoing. If the time will not permit the full discussion of one state, make two or more lessons of it. The map drawn by the pupil sent to the board should be criticised before the close of the recitation ; and the necessary talk about the next lesson should not be neglected. The teacher may impart some information not found in the text books concerning the next lesson, give instructions as to the manner of study, etc., etc. When the next recitation is called, 200 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING the first step should be a review of the last lesson and to call up any points left over for investigation. PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY I here give a report of a lesson to a class just begin- ning the study. The teacher steps to the board and draws a straight line, saying: Children, we are now go- ing to commence the study of geography. The word means a description of the surface of the earth. We live on the earth, and geography describes what we may see on its surface or outside. We are going to begin right at home. Suppose I should want to write to one of my friends in Ohio and tell him that I was teaching school and wanted to describe to him just what kind of a school room I had and how everything was arranged in it. How could I best make it plain to him.^ Hands up, now, all who can answer. John — You could make a picture of the schoolhouse and send it to him. Teacher — Yes, that would show it plainly ; but I can not draw well enough to make a picture; and if I could, it would take a good deal of time. Can you think of no other way.? I will tell you. I can draw a map of this school room, so that our friend in Ohio can see exactly how we are situated here. First, we must know something about direction. Who can tell me in what direction I am pointing (pointing to the north). Several voices — North. How do you know that is north. (No answer). Well, where does the sun rise.? Mary. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 20I Mary — In the east. Teacher — And where does the sun set? Mary — In the west. Teacher — Very well. If you stand with your right hand pointing to the east and your left hand pointing to the west, your face will be to the north and your back, where, class. -* Several voices — To the south. Teacher — Well, now you know the directions. On a map we always represent the top part as north and the bottom will be what, of course, then, class.? South. Teacher — And the right hand will be where t East. And the left.-* West. This line, I have drawn on the board will represent the north and this (drawing another line parallel to it), the south, and these lines (connecting the two) will represent east and west. Now we have shown the north, south, east and west sides of our school room by straight lines. Who will step to the board and make a dot to represent the right place for the stove.'* (A pupil steps up and makes a mark). Is that right, class.'* (Hands go up). John. John — I think it should be nearer the south. Teacher — Yes (pupil changes it), now it is about right. In this manner give each one of the class an oppor- tunity to mark some point on the map. Teacher — Now, children, we have a map of the school room. It is much easier m?.de than a picture and it shows where everything is placed. We could draw a map of the schoolhouse yard in the same way 202 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING and tomorrow we will do so. We could also draw the map of a man's farm, or of the school district which is made up of a number of farms, or of the township which is made up of a number of districts, and so on to the county and state. Here we have maps in our books of the states. These crooked lines represent rivers, or creeks, these dots, towns and cities. The states are colored differently, so as to make them ap- pear plainer on paper. We could not make a picture of anything so large as a county or state. We can only draw a picture of what we can see with the eye by standing in one place. But by traveling we know that this is a very large earth on which we live. We can see only a small part at one time. Now, no one man has traveled enough to see everything; but many different men have traveled, many different ones have written about what they have seen, and drawn maps of small portions and measured distances; and by putting all these together we get a complete description of the earth and are able to represent it on papjer by lines and dots and colors. These representations we call maps, and the description of places and of things on the surface of the earth is called geography. Now, how many think they can tell me to-morrow what geography is and what a map is.'* (Hands go up). Very well, I will ask you tomorrow. But I must now give you something for tomorrow's lesson. I will write some words on the board and I want you to go to your books and find the words and find out what they mean. The books will tell you. You will find IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 203 them on page (here shows them the place) and I want you all to be able to tell me what these words mean. These words are : 1 . Continent. 2. Island. 3. Peninsula. 4. Cape. 5. Isthmus. This will do for your lesson. Write these words on your slates as soon as you take your seats. If any do not understand what I mean, speak and I will explain further. U. S. HISTORY The first day the teacher has explained to the class his mode of teaching, and by reading with the class the first few pages of some school history, he has developed the following outline, and it is now on the blackboard. Discovery of America. 1. Alleged Discovery by Northmen. 2. Circumstances which led to the Discovery by Columbus. 3. Nativity and Character of Columbus. 4. Difficulties in the way. 5. Ferdinand and Isabella. 6. The Voyage. 7. Land Discovered and Date. 8. Other Voyages of Columbus. Q. Death of Columbus. 204 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Teacher — Henry, what can you tell us about the first discovery of America? Henry — I could not find anything about the North- men in my book. It commences with Columbus. (Hands up). Teacher — Philip. Philip — The Northmen claimed to have discovered this country about the year looi. Teacher — Who were the Northmen ? Philip — They were the people who lived in Norway, Sweden and Iceland. Teacher — This question is not of great importance. It is very probable that these northern sea kings, as they were called, sailed westward and landed on the coast of North America ; but they made no permanent settlements, and the route was lost and the existence of this Continent forgotten. David, you may tell us what you can in regard to the second topic. David — Men had come to believe that the earth was a sphere and supposed that Asia extended east until it nearly reached the western extremities of Europe. The mariner's compass had been invented and men were enabled to make voyages out of the sight of land. Men had a great desire to find a nearer route to Asia, as India and China were celebrated for their great riches and trade had been carried on with them for many years. Teacher — Very good, David. Has anyone anything further to say on this point? George — I read somewhere that pieces of carved IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 205 wood and some strange plants had been washed on the shores of Portugal, which led Columbus to think there was land beyond the waters. Joseph — And a canoe and the bodies of two men different from the people of Europe were washed on shore. Teacher — Yes, these are some of the principal cir- cumstances which led Columbus to attempt this won- derful work. James, you may take the next topic. James — Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1435. I cannot tell anything about his character. I suppose he must have been a great man. Teacher — Yes, Columbus was indeed a great man, for he accomplished a great work ; but what is necessary to make a man great.-* Suppose Columbus had said: **Well, I suppose there is a new route to the Indies to be discovered by sailing west, and it would be a great thing to accomplish; but I have no means, I can do nothing." Do you think this Continent would have ever been discovered by him ? It was energy and persever- ance which made Columbus a great man. He was not disheartened by difficulties, but worked away until his object was accomplished. But this brings us to the next topic, The Difficulties in the Way. Charles, you may enlighten us upon this point. Charles — Columbus was poor and had no means of his own. He applied to his own government and then to the King of Portugal and then to Spain but was met with a refusal each time. I will not carry this any further. The reader has 206 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING some idea now of my manner of conducting a recitation. It is not to be supposed, of course, that the pupils will all answer so well as here represented ; and it must be held in mind that much is omitted. The remarks made by the teacher and the questions asked to draw out backward pupils, if all given here, would occupy too much space. When the teacher has thus gone through with the topic outline he should recapitulate the main points in concert or otherwise, and write on the black- board the principal date or dates. In this lesson there should be but one date used, 1492. Encourage pupils to tell what they know, in their own language. You can always tell when they are quoting the language of the text book. It is far better that they use their own language, though it be ungram- matical, hesitating and crude. You have the opportu- nity then to criticise and correct their language and thus incidentally cultivate their powers of expression. The story of Columbus is a most interesting one. It is much more important that the class spend consider- able time getting the interesting details of this subject, in order to fix the main facts and date, than to commit to memory the names and dates of all the discoverers and explorers from that time down to the settlement at Jamestown. Several lessons may be made on the out- line above, giving different pupils different topics each time to report upon. The next lesson to be outlined may be, Other Discoveries. Under this may be brought out the principal voyages and discoveries only, and will bring the subject down to the period of settlement. The IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 207 pupils should write these topics on their slates ; or it would be well to have them write on paper, or in a blank book and preserve them for future use. ENGLISH GRAMMAR The outline on page 131 being on the board, the teacher and class discuss it somewhat as follows: Teacher — Mary, can you tell me what a noun is? Mary — A noun is a name. Teacher — Yes. Every noun is a name, and every name is a noun. All those words which are the names of objects which you can see, hear, feel, taste or smell, and all words which are names of qualities of objects, as goodness, sweetness, all names of anything you can think of, as peace, purity, love, joy, etc. Mary, what nouns in this sentence .-' "Riches take to themselves wings and fly away." Mary — Riches and wings. Teacher — Why .'* Mary — Because they are the names of something. Teacher — Now we have different kinds of nouns, and I have here arranged the different kinds in an outline that I may better fix them in your minds. I have made two classes, general and special; that is, all nouns are either common or proper, but then we sometimes have them arranged in special classes as : abstract, verbal, collective and class nouns. You have studied your les- sons in the book as I wished you do, and now who can tell me what a common noun is ? Carrie. Carrie — A common noun is a common name or a 208 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING name common to a class of objects, as book, tree, house, etc. Teacher — Yes. When we say book, we do not mean any particular book, but the name applies to books as a class of objects. Class, is a horse a common noun.-* Yes. Why? Because it is a name common to a class of animals. The teacher will multiply such examples as these, as he thinks necessary. Teacher — James, what is a proper noun.-* James — A proper noun is the name of a particular individual or object, as John, New York, etc. Teacher — Yes. When I say John, I do not mean any boy or man, but one particular boy or man whose name is John. So, when I say New York, I do not mean any city, but that particular city which is named New York. I think you now understand the distinction be- tween common and proper nouns. But here is a point I wish you to bear in mind, that proper nouns are always written with a capital letter, and never in any other way. If you see the name of a town or person spelled with- out a capital, anywhere, you may know it is a mistake, it makes no difference who wrote it. I want you to re- member this. Thousands of people make such mis- takes every day. Never make this mistake. If you learn nothing else here to-day, remember this; and if you put it into practice always, it may be worth hun- dreds of dollars to you. You seem surprised, but let me explain. Suppose I had charge of a large school where there were several teachers employed and I IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 209 wanted to hire a man to teach in my school. Suppose I should get a letter from a man making application for a school and he should address the envelope in the way I here write it on the board: danville^ Indiana. Do you suppose I would read the letter any further? He may be an intelligent man and a good teacher in many respects, but I would not think so from the letter, and I would not waste further time trying to find out. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred I would save time, by not even opening his letter. So in all kinds of business such little matters as these go a great way. Let me urge you to take particular pains to spell and capitalize properly, if you do not make such great advances in other things. There are other rules for the use of capi- tals, but this is one of great importance, and I wish to impress it on your minds. In a similar manner let the remainder of the outline be discussed. The teacher need not talk so much as here represented ; but the pupils should be encouraged to criticise, ask questions, and give definitions. I have here given a rather lengthy talk for the teacher in order to illustrate the manner in which it is necessary, some- times, to talk to a class. ADVANCED ARITHMETIC The class is using Arithmetic. Each pupil is going as fast as he can. It is impossible to keep a class together in a country school at times, owing to ir- regularity of attendance. The pupils are working in various parts of Profit and Loss. 2IO BEST METHODS OF TEACHING Teacher — On page 248, the 8th example, Charles; the 7th, James. On page 249, the 7th, Mary; the 8th, William; the 9th, Lucy. On page 250, Henry, the loth. Place your examples on the board as rapidly as possible. Let us see how neat you can make your work. While this section is at the blackboard the teacher gives the remainder of the class to whom he has not assigned examples, an oral drill, askmg questions on the principles involved and making inquiries of each pupil as to progress, or explaining some point left over from last lesson. By this time James is ready to explain his example. James — Example 8, p. 248. **A bought 40 bales of cotton, at ^40 each, and sold it at a profit of ^704; what per cent, did he make.'*" Operation : $^0 704 176 44 40 — =: =r .44 = 44 per cent. 1600 400 100 $1600 Explanation : If one bale of cotton cost $40, 40 bales will cost 40 times ^40 which are $1600. He sold it for 1^704 more than it cost him. $704 '^^^-^^^^ of $1600; there- fore he gained -{^-^-^ of what it cost. ^'Wo — iVo — 44 per cent. Teacher — What other way could this have been solved, class.'* Henry — Divide ^704 by ^1600 and express the quotient in decimal hundredths. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 2 I I Teacher — The principle is just the same, but James' method is much plainer. He has given an analysis of the example. Lucy may explain next. Lucy — Example 9th, p. 249. "By selling tea at $1.19 per pound, I lost 15 per cent.; what was the cost price per K) ? Operation : 1. 00 . 85 I 1. 1900 I 1.40 •15 85 5 340 340 Explajtatioii : Here 1 5 per cent, is 1 5 cents on the dollar, so what cost me ^i.oo if I lose 15 cts., I must sell for ^1.00 — ^.15 which is ^.85, and as often as ^.85 is contained in the selling price $1.19, so many times is $1.00 contained in the cost price. $1.19-^.85 = 1.40 =^1.40. When mistakes are made either in tHe expression on the board or in the explanation, the teacher should call out criticisms from the class and make such comments himself as he may deem necessary. Teacher — Observe, class, that the per cent, of gain or loss is always estimated on the cost and never on the selling price. This is a very simple principle, if you will just think that you can not tell whether you are going to gain or lose on any article which you are going to sell unless you know what it cost you. If you sell for less 2 12 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING than cost, you lose; if for more than cost, you gain. Although it is very simple, here is just where a great many fail in solving these examples. REMARKS I have given a few model lessons in this chapter, or partial lessons, sufficient, I think, to illustrate the man- ner of teaching these branches. It is not necessary to give a model lesson in each study, as the idea may be easily grasped from these here given, when taken in connection with the chapters on the respective topics. It would be impossible to represent on paper the actual work of a recitation conducted by a live teacher; but it is hoped that these few examples will prove suggestive and awaken the true spirit in the teacher who begins as a tyro in the work. MISCELLANEOUS Under this head I will make a few suggestions which could not well be classified under any of the foregoing chapters, and perhaps recapitulate and add something to what has already been said. I. Uiiconscioiis TeacJiing. In the opening chapter I have hinted at the fact that a man teaches when he least seems to be teaching. All that a man does and thinks goes to make up his character; and a man's char- acter impresses itself upon all who come in contact with him. If his life has been filled with good deeds and thoughts, a certain good influence will flow from him and exert itself upon all with whom he deals, even upon IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 213 those who know nothing of his former life. On the contrary, if he has been a bad man, has committed crimes, or indulged to a great extent in wicked thoughts, a bad influence will emanate from him, and influence all upon whom it falls. We are all, to a certain extent, character readers. We read persons by their manner, by their conversation, by their looks. Small children, even, are good readers of character, although they could not tell you by what rules they judge. We like or dis- like persons, and we cannot tell why. " I do not love you, Dr. Fell, The reason why I can not tell ; But this alone I know full well, I do not love you, Dr. Fell." But this much is true, that a good man will be gener- ally liked by everybody, that is, they will like him per- sonally, though they may hate his actions, or his princi- ples, because not in accordance with their own notions . and a hypocrite will be generally despised, however well he may play his part. Every thought and action of life, from infancy to manhood, has a bearing more or less direct on the work of a teacher. In other words, the teacher commences to develop in influence and constantly adds to his character that which will make him either a good teacher, or an inferior one. Remember, then, teacher, that you are always teaching when in contact with others. You should be in every sense a man. Strive to cultivate that true manhood. Keep a watch upon your thoughts and actions, and daily 2 14 ^EST METHODS OF TEACHING and hourly build a character that will constantly teach the good, and the good only. But there are some men that are not very good nor very bad, sort of wooden men, mere automata or pup- pets, who can tell what they have learned, as a parrot says its phrase or an inferior stage actor his piece. You sometimes find them in the school room. Such men have so little character that they do very little unconscious teaching. Their presence teaches but little, because they have so little character to exert an influence. For all the good their presence does, the knowledge might as well be sent into the school room through a telephone. Again ; there are men whose very looks and manners teach lessons. You feel their magnetic force when you take them by the hand, and gather inspiration from their eyes. The successful teacher, as well as the men who move the world, belong to this class. 2. Have SympatJiy for Pitpils. The true method of teaching is drawn from Nature. If we observe how a child acquires new ideas when left to himself, we may learn how to teach him. When a child makes a new dis- covery, or gets a new idea, the first thing he does is to make some one else acquainted with the fact. How eager the child is to show his mother any new object he finds, or to tell about any novelty he has seen. Observe how a boy will act after he has been to a circus. Even the infant will hold up his toys for you to look at and admire. We should infer from this, that children need encouragement in all their studies by a kind of attentive IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 215 sympathy with all their efforts to acquire knowledge. When a child has drawn a picture, or formed a letter on the slate, and holds it up for you to look at, you ignore one of the first principles of teaching if you fail to notice the child's effort. This principle should be carried out with all grades of pupils. Take special pains to notice their efforts and give kind words of encouragement. Never make discouraging remarks about pupils' work. If they have through carelessness failed to do as well as you think they are capable of doing, never make sport of their work nor scold, but say : "That does pretty well, but I think you caji do better if you try." Always make favorable comments whenever you can conscientiously, but never compare one pupil's work with another's. In the work of the best pupils you can point out some defects; and in the work of the poorest pupils, you may find something upon which you can favorably comment. By thus taking an interest in, and showing a sympathy for their efforts you will encourage greater effort and secure the good will of all your pupils. 3. Ride No Hobbies. The true teacher has no single pet theory nor patent method of teaching. He is ready at any time to abandon a plan as soon as he finds some- thing better. He is always open to conviction. He is progressive, and agressive, radical and even fanatical in the search for truth, yet conservative and cautious about adopting new methods until he has given them thorough study. He has a variety of plans, and uses different ones for different circumstances. He will not try to make a square block fill a round hole. He will find objections 2l6 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING to all methods and adopt that which, after mature de- liberation, he finds to be the least objectionable. 4. Study Yoiu' Own Failures. "The burnt child dreads the fire." Here again we have Nature's method of teaching. He makes greatest advances who is able to see his own mistakes. He who is bigoted and self- conceited, and never sees his own errors, will make but little progress in anything he undertakes. The teacher should observe closely the results of his plans and note where they are successful, and where a failure, and should govern his future accordingly. Let him review each evening the work of the day and try and find a mistake he has made, and resolve to do better the next day. A man should criticise himself severely, sparing no self-scrutiny with regard to his own actions. 5. Make the School Room Attractive. The teacher can do something towards relieving the monotony of bare walls, plain desks and uncarpeted floor. In the first place, he should keep the school room clean, and in order; and next by use of pictures, mottoes, wreaths and flowers make it as attractive a place as possible. The school room should be as attractive in appearance as the average homes of the pupils. The nature of our daily surroundings has much to do in forming our characters. I might enlarge upon this point, but will not occupy the space, as the fact will be granted by the intelligent reader. You need not go to any considerable expense. Get a few pictures framed, and buy half a dozen mottoes. Keep them as a part of your stock in trade. Your pictures may be chromos, lithographs, or IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 217 steel engravings, which will not cost much when neatly framed, but will, if selected with taste, form very attractive adornments for the walls. Let the subjects be animals, flowers, landscapes, or portraits of distin- guished men. Anything in the style appropriate to a bar-room or saloon will, of course, be out of place in the school room. If framed pictures can not be procured, the engravings from illustrated papers pasted on the walls with wreaths of evergreens around them, will form very attractive objects, for a time at least. A card motto surrounded with a wreath of evergreens, makes a very neat appearance on the wall. Winter bouquets may be made of everlasting flowers, ornamental grasses, etc. If the school room can be kept warm enough, a few house plants might be kept through the winter, and will add much to the cheerfulness of the place. During spring and fall terms, plants and flowers can be had in abundance, and they should form a part of the school room decorations. I need not suggest any further to the teacher who has a love for the beautiful. If you love the school room and school work, and are a true man or woman, you will profit by these suggestions. 6. TJie TeacJier s Library. Books are to the teacher what tools are to the mechanic. As a mechanic can get along with a limited number of tools, so a teacher can get along with a limited number of books; but as cer- tain tools are essential to a mechanic, so certain books are essential to the teacher. T would not advise the young teacher to spend a great part of his earnings for 2l8 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING books, nor to go in debt for them ; but there are a few- books which he ought to have, at almost any sacrifice, if he would be a good teacher. Let him go without paper collars, without tea or coffee, without anything finer than jean pants, rather than without an unabridged dictionary. Let him board himself and live on ten cents a day, rather than do without certain necessary books. I do not hesitate to say that any teacher can so econo- mize his means, and by cutting off an expense here and denying himself there, save money enough during one or two terms of school to procure the essentials of a teacher's library. An unabridged dictionary (either Webster's, Century, Funk & Wagnall's, or Worcester's) is an indispensable part of a teacher's outfit. The unabridged is a whole library in itself. There are few subjects upon which valu- able information can not be had by consulting its pages. There are many men who own dictionaries who know but little of what they contain. I would not only advise the purchase of an unabridged, but insist on its constant use. If you are not already pretty thoroughly read, you will find use for the dictionary in reading almost any species of composition you may take up. You should look up the meaning of every word about which you have the slightest doubt. You should look up the meaning of many simple words, the Anglo-Saxon monosyllables which you have used from infancy, words which you hear in daily con- versation, and meet with in your daily reading. You will find the dictionary valuable reading, notwithstand- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 219 ing, as the old lady said, the subject changes frequently. Study the etymology of words. It will help you greatly in retaining their meaning in your memory. There are many books designed to help teachers, but from which the country teacher can obtain but little practical knowledge. I can call to mind about twenty different works on teaching and school management, which I have read or examined, and among the number I could recommend but two or three which would be of great benefit to a country teacher. Of course, there is much in them that is valuable, but scattered through so much that is merely theoretical and impracticable that it would not pay the outlay. I would advise, of course, that you purchase works on education and read them ; but beware of buying too many books at one time. It would be a good rule never to buy a new book until you have read the last one thoroughly. There is one book, however, I must recommend to every teacher. Though old and though written for students, yet as the truth it contains will never grow old, and as the teacher should be always a student, I can recommend it as next in importance to the unabridged dictionary. It is the Student's Manual, by Rev. John Todd, D. D., a work though small, containing more sensible advise than any work I can call to mind. One text book, at least, on each of the following sciences will gradually find its way into your library: physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, physiology, and geology. The ordinary text books designed for schools, will answer your purpose at first. If you have a class 220 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING in physiology it will be of advantage to you to procure some larger treatise than the ordinary text book. A good work on composition and rhetoric will be valuable. A history of the United States, larger than those de- signed for schools, and an outline of universal history, will be valuable aids in teaching this branch and for self -improvement. There are three books I would like to name here which the teacher may procure when he gets able, and which he will find valuable as bearing more or less directly upon his profession. I will name them in the order in which he should obtain and read them : Herbert Spencer's Essay on Education; Quick's Educational Re- formers; Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. These three volumes will give him a pretty thorough knowledge of the science of education, and they are standard and valuable works, deserving a place in every scholar's library, whatever profession he may follow. They are to be studied, not merely read and laid aside. If the teacher wishes to dip into science, he will find a mine of treasures in the International Series of Scien- tific books, published by D. Appleton & Co., New York. I would advise the teacher to procure the catalogues of the leading publishing houses and read the notices of new books, which are continually appearing. By keep- ing posted as to what the world of authors is doing, he will be able to select good books only, and buying them as he is able, he will, in time, build up a library of great value to him in whatever profession he may finally choose. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 22 1 I would just say here that there are several books published annually by the United States Government, and designed for the improvement of those who are inter- ested in the respective subjects. Among those I would recommend to teachers, are the Reports of the Smithson- ian Institute, to be obtained of the Secretary of the In- stitution; the Reports of the Commissioner of Education, to be obtained of the Commissioner of Education. If these parties are addressed at Washington, D. C, by letter, stating plainly the book wanted and the year issued, they will be sent gratis. These works are fre- quently distributed by members of Congress to particular friends, often for political purposes, and thus do not reach the parties who would make good use of them. The teacher needs these works, and the Government designs that such persons should have them. It should be remembered that they are always issued a year or more after the year for which they are the report. For example, the report for 1 897 will be had sometime during the first of the year 1 899, or latter part of 1 898. By economy, by abstaining from habits such as chew- ing and smoking, any young man, can, in a few years, save enough to procure a good library. If all the money which is spent by young men from the time they are sixteen years of age until they are twenty -five, to gratify their appetites and morbid tastes, was saved and in- vested in good books, they would have a library, of which any man of intellectual taste might well be proud. No one should say, then, that he is too poor to buy books so long as he indulges in expensive habits, 222 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING A good book is a treasure and does not even get old. Says Milton : ''A good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up for a life to come." Commence then, young teacher, to build a li- brary. Commence with one book and add to it as your means will allow; and you will, in a few years, be sur- prised at the result. If you make judicious selections and good use of your books, you will also have a library in your head. » Borrow all the books you can, if they are such as you think will profit you to read. If you take good care of books, and are prompt to return them, you can always borrow. 7. Exercise Your Pen. Lord Bacon said : ''Reading maketh a full man, writing an exact man." If you would profit by what you read and think, write your thoughts. It is a good habit always to read with a pen or pencil in hand. Many an idea is lost because not written. The mind receives ideas one after another and cannot retain them all, although each makes its im- pression. They will make a double impression by the act of writing them, and at the same time be preserved for future rehearsal when the mind has forgotten the form in which they came. Besides, by writing you are improving yourself in the power of expression, you are cultivating language. Take notes of your reading and write any ideas which your reading may suggest. Write essays on easy subjects, even though no one else ever sees them. Your first efforts will be of little benefit to anyone but yourself; but they will be of great IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 223 help to you. Lay them aside for a year and then take them up and read them critically. You will find many errors, and see where you could make great improve- ments. Be the local reporter of your neighborhood. Write for your county paper. Local editors are always anxious to have a correspondent in each village or town- ship. The teacher is eminently fitted to fill that posi- tion, and the exercise will be of great benefit to him. By thus commencing on a small scale, he will, by and by, be able to write for educational journals, for maga- zines, etc. I advise teachers thus to exercise their pens continually for their own improvement ; and when they have improved to a certain extent, their pens will en- lighten others, and thus they will become educators as well as learners. Who knows what future Greeleys may come from among the country school teachers? 8. Recipe for Blackboard. The teacher may find school rooms as I have found them, without sufficient blackboard. A good blackboard may be made for about fifty cents — not more than that. I cannot tell where this recipe came from, but I have used it in several school houses: Take equal parts of lamp-black and flour of emery, and thin with a mixture of equal parts of benzine and Japan varnish. Apply two coats to any smooth plas- tered wall. Where Boards of Education will not furnish plenty of blackboard, the teacher may make them ashamed of themselves for half a dollar. 9. TJie TeacJier s HigJiest Reivard. The compen- 224 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING sation paid teachers for their services is small in com- parison with the rewards of those who follow other pro- fessions. The wages of the best paid teachers are extremely low, compared with the income of a first class lawyer or physician. Some preachers also get large salaries. But professional men generally do not make fortunes. The great fortunes are nearly always made by merchants, or what are called business men. If your highest aim, young man, is to get rich, to amass a colossal fortune, do not enter a profession. But professional men see pleasure in the pursuit of something beside wealth. The highest pleasures flow from the action of the intellect. An Agassiz, who said he had no time to make money, enjoyed existence, I venture to assert, much more than a Vanderbilt or an Astor. The teacher who finds no pleasure in the pursuit of his profession, or in the action of his intellect, would better quit the profession at once, and engage in some other pursuit. But there are times when the best of teachers feel discouraged. There are times when their labors seem in vain. They have labored patiently, day in and day out; and their work seems like the labors of Sisyphus, who was doomed to roll a stone to the top of a hill, and in spite of all his efforts it continually returned upon him. But remember, teacher, that your work is sometimes like bread cast upon the waters, to return after many days. When such thoughts come over you, read the following poem which is such an excellent piece of composition, and so aptly hits the IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 225 point, that I cannot refrain from quoting it entire. It is from the pen of W. H. Venable, distinguished ahke as an educator, author, and poet : THE TEACHER'S DREAM The weary teacher sat alone While twilight gathered on; And not a sound was heard around. The boys and girls were gone. The weary teacher sat alone; Unnerved and pale was he; Bowed 'neath a yoke of care, he spoke In sad soliloquy: "Another round, another round Of labor thrown away, — Another chain of toil and pain Dragged through a tedious day. Of no avail is constant zeal, Love's sacrifice is loss. The hopes of morn, so golden, turn, Each evening, into dross. I squander on a barren field. My strength, my life, my all; The seeds I sow will never grow. They perish where they fall." He sighed, and low upon his hands His aching brow he prest; And o'er his frame, erelong, there came A soothing sense of rest. And then he lifted up his face. But started back aghast, — • The room by strange and sudden change Assumed proportions vast. 226 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING It seemed a Senate Hall, and one Addressed a listening throng. Each burning word all bosoms stirred ; Applause rose loud and long. The 'wildered teacher tliought he knew The speaker's voice and look. "And for his name," said he, "the same Is in my record book." The stately Senate Hall dissolved. A church rose in its place, Wherein there stood a man of God, Dispensing words of grace. And though he spoke in solemn tone, And though his hair was gray, The teacher's thought was strangely wrought; " I whipped that boy to-day." The church, a phantom, vanished soon; What saw the teacher then? In classic gloom of alcoved room, An author plied his pen. "My idlest lad!" the teacher said. Filled with new surprise — "Shall I behold Jiis name enrolled Among the great and wise?" The vision of a cottage home The teacher now descried. A mother's face illumed the place Her influence sanctified. "A miracle! a miracle! This matron, well I know. Was but a wild and careless child, Not half an hour ago. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 227 And when she to her children speaks Of duty's golden rule, Her lips repeat, in accents sweet, My words to her at school." The scene was changed again, and lo, The schoolhouse rude and old. Upon the wall did darkness fall ; The evening air was cold. "A dream!" the sleeper, waking, said, Then paced along the floor, And, whistling slow and soft and low, He locked the schoolhouse door. And walking home, his heart was full Of peace and trust and love and praise; And singing slow and soft and low. He murmured : "After many days." HINTS AND HELPS FOR THE TEACHER Gen. Sheridan wrote to Gen. Grant, ''Things are in a shape to push." Grant repHed, ''Push things." Let me say to you, teacher, country teacher though you are, PiisJi things. Though you may have the dingiest log schoolhouse, among the rudest of backwoods men, for your theater of operations, let me repeat to you, PiisJi tilings. If things are not in a shape to push, put them in a shape to push, and then push. You must have push, vim, energy, call it what you will, j/ on ninst have that which will 7nake things go if you would succeed. Read the following extracts from some of the leading 228 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING thinkers and educators of the world. You may gather inspiration from them and be prompted to take re- newed interest in your work: Ideas make their way in silence like the waters that, filtering behind the rocks of the Alps, loosen them from the mountains on which they rest. — D' Aubigne, In the end, thought rules the world. There are times when impulses and passions are more powerful, but they soon expend themselves; while mind, acting constantly, is ever ready to drive them back and work when their energy is exhausted. — McCosh. I do not think that it is the mission of this age, or of any other age, to lay down a system of education which shall hold good for all ages. Let us never forget that the present century has just as good a right to its forms of thought and methods of culture as any former centuries had to theirs, and that the same re- sources of power are open to us to-day as were ever open to humanity in any age of the world. — Tyndall. The profession of the teacher can not be too highly estimated. It demands, for its highest success and usefulness, a special knowledge and training beyond the scope of the common learning and methodical dis- cipline which it labors to impart. The teacher should know the human mind, and the bodily conditions upon which mind depends. — Hecker. People do not understand childhood. With the false notions we have of it, the further we go the more we blunder. The wisest apply themselves to what it is important to men to know, without considering what IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 229 children are in a condition to learn. They are always seeking the man in the child, without reflecting what he is before he can be a man. This is the study to which I have applied myself most; so that, should my practical scheme be found useless and chimerical^ my observation will always turn to account. I may possibly have taken a very bad view of what ought to be done, but I conceive I have taken a good one of the subject to be wrought upon. Begin, then, by studying your pupils better; for most assuredly you do not at present understand them. — Rousseau. ■ The object of education is to promote the normal growth of a human being, developing all his powers systematically and symmetrically, so as to give the greatest possible capability in thought and action. — Prof. James Johonnot. Education must put the child to work; for by work man is perfected. And what he does not achieve, he never comprehends; and, hence, the barrenness of the word learning of the schools. It profits but little the individual, and none at all the race or nation. — Samuel Royce. I discard, as selfish in the extreme, that narrow principle, which would look down upon any branch of human knowledge as useless or improper, however widely they may differ in relative value. Some topics of study seem to have no object but the occupation and exercise, whether salutary or not, of the mental faculties; while others do not assert a principle, or move a step without contributing to the welfare and 230 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING improvement of the human family. — E, D. Mans- field. The schoolmaster is one of the chief workmen, I may almost say the principal, in preparing for the genius of America, in the bright years of that futurity, the most magnificent edifice that the mind of a nation ever inhabited. — Thomas Smith Grimke. The greatest thing a human soul ever does in this world is to see something, and tell what it saw in a plain way. Hundreds of people can talk for one who can think; but thousands can think for one who can see. To see clearly, is poetry, prophecy and religion, all in one. — Rtiskm. Man's actions here are of infinite moment to him, and never die or end at all. Man, with his little life, reaches upward high as heaven — downward low as hell ; and in his three-score-years of time holds an eternity fearfully and wonderfully hidden. — Thomas Carlyle. Oh, how hard it is to die, and not be able to leave the world any better for one's little life in it! — Abraham Lincoln. The great secret of success in life is for a man to be ready when his opportunity comes. — Disraeli. There is no credit in knowing how to spell, but posi- tive disgrace in being ignorant on that point. So there can be no credit in doing right, while it is infamous to do wrong. — George Francis Train. Censure and criticism never hurt anybody. If false, they can't hurt you unless you are wanting in manly IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 23 1 character; and if true, they show a man his weak points and forewarn him against faihire and trouble. — Glad- stone. The child, through stumbling, learns to walk erect. Every fall is upward. — Theodore Parker. Old truths are always new to us if they come with the smell of heaven upon them. — JoJin Bimya^t. Be a bold, brave, true, honest man. If you know a thing is right, do it. If you have a solemn conviction, dare to utter it in the fear of God, regardless of the wrath of man. — -JoJin B. Gough. There is no temptation so great as not to be tempted at all. — Hannah More. It is a principle of war, that when you can use the thunder-bolt you must prefer it to the cannon. Earnest- ness is the thunder-bolt. — Napoleon. If I take care of my character my reputation will take care of itself. — Moody. I would rather be right than be President. — Henry Clay. An instructed democracy is the surest foundation of Government; and education and freedom are the only sources of true greatness and true happiness among any people. — John Bright. The doorstep to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge of our own ignorance. — Spiirgeon. Let the soldier be abroad if he will, he can do noth- ing in this age. There is another personage, a person- age less imposing in the eyes of some, perhaps insignifi- 232 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING cant. The school-master is abroad, and I trust to him, armed with his primer, against the soldier in full mili- tary array. — Lord Brougham. Let every man be occupied, and occupied in the highest employment of which his nature is capable, and die with the consciousness that he has done his best. — Sydney Smith. But under whose care soever a child is put to be taught, during the tender and flexible years of his life, this is certain : it should be one who thinks Latin and language the least part of education; one, who knowing how much virtue, and a well tempered soul, is to be preferred to any sort of learning or language, makes it his chief business to form the mind of his scholars, and give that a right disposition; which, if once got, though all the rest should be neglected, would, in due time, pro- duce all the rest; and which if it be not got, and settled, so as to keep out ill and vicious habits — languages and sciences, and all other accomplishments of education, will be to no purpose, but to make the worse a more dangerous man. — John Locke. — l6go. In our country and in our times, no man is worthy the honored name of a statesman who does not include the highest practicable education of the people in all his plans of administration. — Horace Mann. The teacher should permit his pupil himself to taste and relish things, and of himself to choose and discern them, sometimes opening the way to him, and some- times making him break the ice himself; that is, I would not have the teacher alone to invent and speak, IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 233 but that he should also hear his pupils speak. Socrates, and since him Arcesilaus, made first their scholars speak, and then spoke to them. — Montaigne. — Written in the age of Queen Elizabeth. There is a most remarkable reciprocal action between the interest which the teacher takes and that which he communicates to his pupils. If he is not with his whole mind present at the subject, if he does not care whether he is understood or not, whether his manner is liked or not, he will alienate the affections of his pupils, and render them indifferent to what he says. But real in- terest taken in the task of instruction^ — kind words and kinder feelings — the very expression of the features, and the glance of the eye, are never lost upon children. — Pestalozzi. Intelligence and virtue are the foundation and the cornerstone of the American Republic. Hence, it fol- lows that ignorance and wrong are its most formidable foes. Its theory is that every citizen must be intelli- gent enough clearly to comprehend, and virtuous enough faithfully to discharge his duties. — Prof. Wm. F. Phelps. All who consider the subject must admit that the teacher is called to labor in a field of vast influence. This the teacher should understand, and, though he may at times feel almost crushed by the weight of his responsibilities, and be induced to exclaim: *'Who is sufficient for these things.!^" yet let him persevere, trusting in Him from whom cometh all needed assist- ance, ever aiming at a nearer approximation to the 234 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING mark of perfection, ever striving to remove defects and cultivate excellences. — NortJiend. In the .name of the living God it must be proclaimed, that licentiousness shall be the liberty — violence and chicanery shall be the law — superstition and craft shall be the religion — and the self-destructive indulgence of all sensual and unhallowed passions, shall be the only happiness of that people who neglect the education of their children. — Hon. Newton Bate man. To teach, whether by word or action, is the greatest function on earth. — Chaiming. We want men of original perception and original ac- tion, who can open their eyes wider than to a nation- ality — namely, to considerations of benefit to the human race — can act in the interest of civilization; men of classic, men of moral mind, who can live in the moment and take a step forward. Columbus was no backward creeping crab, nor was Martin Luther, nor John Adams, nor Patrick Henry, nor Thomas Jefferson; and the Genius or Destiny of America is no lag or sluggard, but a man incessantly advancing, as the shadow on the dial's face, or the heavenly body by whose light it is marked. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. Some teachers have learned how to read mind, to understand a class of pupils in a single day's observa- tion. Some have learned how to encourage one and guide another, how to control each one according to his peculiarities. The teacher who knows this, as the musician knows how to bring out harmonies from the instrument, is the one who can teach easily and success- IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 235 fully, and proves to be the true teacher. Teachers should learn, then, how to read character, how to read the disposition of each pupil, and how, therefore, to manipulate each one in the best manner to secure the highest success. — Nelson Sizer. If we work upon marble, it will perish. If we work upon brass, time will efface it. If we rear temples, they will crumble into dust. But if we work upon immortal minds — if we imbue them with high principles — with the just fear of God and of their fellow men, — we engrave upon those tablets something which no time can efface, but which will brighten to all eternity. — Daniel Webster. It requires more care and attention, more experience and sagacity, and a more intimate acquaintance with the principles of human nature, to direct the opening intellect in its first excursions in the path of knowledge, than to impart to it instructions respecting any particu- lar science in after life. — Thomas Dick. Before the earnestness of truth and sincerity, the glittering charms of wordy eloquence, or the seductive imagery of unhallowed genius, sink into insignificance. — Mrs. L incoln Phelps. The end of education is the power or art of thinking. This power is acquired, but never inborn. It is always the price of long-continued and patient study. Talents though ''angel bright," and even genius, need culture to be educated, as really as the most ordinary intellects. The mere absorption of knowledge, as the sponge absorbs water, gives no discipline; and hence the acquiring of 236 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING knowledge is not the object to be gained, but the develop- ment of mental power. — Oi'ctitt. A believer in the doctrine ''the physician born not made," (a motto on a par with ''the teacher born, not made)," once said to a distinguished oculist, who was advocating the necessity of thorough training in his pro- fession: "Why, doctor, you have attained the highest skill without such aid." The oculist replied: "But I spoiled a bushel of eyes in acquiring the art, and now I can teach others to avoid my blunders." Contrasts most marked I often witness in schools similar in other conditions, except that an expert teaches the one, and a novice experiments in the other. In the one you see order, interest, activity, cheerfulness, and joy of con- scious progress ; in the other, confusion, whispering and mischief, or listlessness, indolence, and dislike of study. — B. G. Noi^thi^op. Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom; and with all thy getting get understanding. — Solomon. Education is intended to enlighten the intellect, to train it and the moral sentiments to vigor, and to repress the too great activity of the selfish feelings. But how can this be successfully accomplished, when the facul- ties and sentiments themselves, the laws to which they are subjected, and their relations to external objects, are unascertained.? Accordingly, the theories and practices observed in education are innumerable and contradict- ory; which could not happen if men knew the consti- tution of the object which they were training. — Geo. Combe. IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 237 Nothing is comprehended so fully and distinctly, nothing retained so firmly, as that which we find our- selves. — Kant. Each one of us has in himself his ideal prize man — that is, the harmonious maximum of all his individual predispositions; and it is the business of education to develop him into full growth. — Richte7\ The educator must adapt himself to the pupil, but not to such a degree as to imply that the pupil is incapable of change, and he must also be sure that the pupil shall learn through his experience the independence of the object studied, which remains uninfluenced by his vari- able personal moods; and the adaptation on the teacher's part must never compromise this independence. — Rosefikranz. The profession of pedagogy is the latest comer among the liberal professions of this country. The law, theol- ogy, and medicine, are already crowded so with partially and well-educated candidates, that the people are able to select the wheat from the chaff. No community of any considerable pretension is now compelled to take up with a pettifogger for its lawyer, a quack for its doctor, or an ignorant gospel ranter for its minister. The objective point of our system of normal education is to stimulate the preparation of teachers, by agencies, public and private, popular and collegiate, till the same "glut in the market," enables the school committees to go into the field and choosethe best the money supplied by the people will command. — Rev. A. D. Mayo. The faithful and competent teacher never fails to 238 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING secure the confidence, respect, and even affection of his pupils. He is, as he ought to be, esteemed "in place of a parent." He is thought to be infallible. He ought therefore, to be correct. He is esteemed as possessing the whole cyclopaedia of knowledge. He ought, there- fore, to be a man of extensive acquaintance with the principles of science. He is thought by the confiding pupil to be incapable of any measure, or even intention at variance with honest views of promoting the best interests of those entrusted to his care. And he ought accordingly, to enlist all his energies in promoting the solid improvement and moral growth of every mind submitted to his influence. — Wm. H. McGiijfey. For precept must be upon precept, precept upon precept; line upon line, line upon line; here a little, and there a little. — Isaiah. Learning is but an adjunct to ourself. — Shakespeare. A mother tells her infant that two and two make four; the child is able to count four for all the purposes of life, till the course of his education brings him among philosophers, who fright him from his former knowledge by telling him that four is a certain aggregate of units. — Samuel Johnson. Books, schools, education, are the scaffolding by means of which God builds up the human soul. — Humboldt. Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how to shoot. — Thomson. What is defeat .-* Nothing but education — nothing but the first step to something better. — Wendell Phillips. Country schools need the very best teachers, men and IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 239 women of broad views and culture, of experience and knowledge of human nature, men and women fitted to be leaders in these little communities. I know of no position of more influence than that of a teacher in a country district where a healthy public sentiment pre- vails. If possessed of any qualifications for leadership, the teacher becomes almost inevitably a leader of thought and opinion. His influence is not bounded by the school room walls, but extends to every home in the district. If this teacher be vain, frivolous, silly, if im- moral or the slave of filthy habits, from that school will proceed influences that will curse every home in the district; if that teacher be pure, noble-minded, strong- souled, as a teacher ought to be, the streams flowing from that school will be streams of blessing, like those "which make glad the city of God." — Mary Allen West. Now, I believe that a school, in order to be a good one, should be one that will fit men and women, in the best way, for the humble positions that the great mass of them must necessarily occupy in life. It is not nec- essary that boys and girls be taught any less than they are taught now. They should receive more practical knowledge than they do now, without a doubt, and less of that which is simply ornamental; bivt they cannot know too much. I do not care how much knowledge a man may have acquired in school, that school has been a curse to him if its influence has been to make him unhappy in his place, and to fill him with futile ambitions. ■ — J. G. Holland. Knowledge which costs nothing, which is not born of 240 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING the travail of the soul, is fleeting and unprofitable. Explain a point to a class, be it never so clearly; impart information even of the most interesting and valuable character; and, if it be not fastened in the mind of the pupil, be not digested and assimilated by a subsequent mental operation, it will soon pass away. Gradgrind may fill the little pitchers ranged before him to over- flowing, but they will not hold water. Here is the great benefit of class-drill and reviews. They force the mind to appropriate knowledge, and so retain what else would be suffered to escape. — J. Dorman Steele. Do not seek happiness in what is misnamed pleasure. Seek it rather in what is termed study. "^ ^ "^ Learn to make a right use of your eyes; the commonest things are worth looking at, even stones and weeds, and the most familiar animals. Read good books, not forgetting the best of all; there is more true philosophy in the Bible than in every work of every skeptic that ever wrote; and we would all be miserable creatures without it. — Hugh Miller. He who would teach well and to advantage, must not only understand the subjects which he is to teach; he must know how to grasp the mental food offered; and he must be able to put that food into such a shape that it may be grasped by the learner. — Anna C. Brackett. Beyond his judicious preference for his own well-ap- proved, though unpretending weapons; beyond his modest, but self-respectful reliance upon his own self- developed powers; beyond his prompt, but unostenta- tious acceptance of the duty and the trial providentially IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS 24I imposed upon him ; beyond that imperturbable coolness and calmness which stamped him every inch a man, as well as a hero ; — beyond all this, let the true teacher discover and ponder well, that lesson of simple, unwa- vering faith in a divine guidance and support, which he, in his conflicts with ignorance and insubordination, needs not less than did David in his memorable combat with the giant of Gath; and may he, in his time of need, both seek and find that guidance and support, and through them, come off conqueror indeed. — Jewell. The human mind is the brightest display of the power and skill of the Infinite Mind with which we are ac- quainted. It is created and placed in this world to be educated for a higher state of existence. Here its fac- ulties begin to unfold, and those mighty energies, which are to bear it forward to unending ages, begin to dis- cover themselves. The object of training such a mind should be, to enable the soul to fulfil her duties well here, to stand on high vantage-ground when she leaves this cradle of her being, for an eternal existence beyond the grave. — Rev. John Todd. Men have tried many things, but still they ask for stimulant' — the stimulant in use requires the use of more. Men try to drown the floating dead of their own souls in the wine-cup, but the corpses will rise. We see their faces in the bubbles. The intoxication of drink sets the world whirling again, and the pulses play- ing music, and the thoughts galloping ; but the fast clock runs down sooner, and the unnatural stimulation only leaves the house it fills with the wildest revelry — more 242 BEST METHODS OF TEACHING silent, more sad, more deserted, more dead. There is only one stimulant that never fails, and yet never intoxi- cates — Duty. Duty puts a blue sky over every man — up in his heart may be — into which the sky-lark, Happiness, always goes singing. — Geo. D. Prentice, INDEX Abbreviations, 91-92. Accent in Reading, 76. Acoustics, 166. Addition, iii. Addressing Letters, 98. Advanced Arithmetic, 110-209. Advanced Geography, 154-196. Advanced Reading, 75. Advanced Spelling, 91. Agreeableness, 5-22. Algebra, 168. Alphabet, 68. Alphabet Blocks, 68. Alphabetic Method, 65. Analysis, 67-124. Anatomy, Physiology and Hy- giene, 162. Animal Food, 9. Apparatus, 56. Appetite for Fiction, 14. Application for School, 23. Architecture, School, 49. Arithmetic, 110-209. Articulation, 63-69. Associations, Teacher's, 24. Astronomy, 168. Attendance, Irregular, 123. Attention, Habits of, T^y. Attractive, Make the School Room, 216. Authors, 13. Autocrat of the School Room, 40 Automatons, Teachers as, 213. Bargains with Directors, 23. Bathing, 9. Beginners, Teaching to Read, 64. Beginning, Make a Good, 28. Benevolence, 3. "Big Head," 22. Bigoted Teachers, 5. Bills, Merchant's, 118. Black-board, Necessity of, 55. Black-board, Recipe for Making, 56-223. Blocks, 45. Biography, Works of, 14. Boarding, 8. Boards of Education, Secure Aid of, 27. Boards of Education, Teachers Instruct, 51. Bones, 163. Books for the Teacher, 219. Borrow Books, 222. Botany, 15-172. Brain, Well-balanced, 6. Bright Pupils, 44. Buildings, 50. Business, Show That You Mean, 32. 243 2 44 INDEX Calibre, Mental, 6. Calisthenic Exercises, 46. Cancellation, i 20. Capital Letters, Use of, 72. Carbonic Acid, 58. Character, i. Charts for Penmanship, 223. Charts for Reading, 68. Cheating, 188. Cheerfulness, 3. Chemistry, 15. Chewing and Smoking, 18. Child, Mind of, 39. Circulation, 165. Classes, 28. Cleanliness, 9. Coercive Measures, 43. Coffee, 10. Colds, 61. Collect Specimens, 1 5-1 71. College Discipline, 12. College Education, 12. •' Coming Man," 40. Commissioner of Education, Re- ports of, 221. Companions, Politeness to, 191. Compass of the Voice, 76. Compositions, 134. Compound Numbers, 116. Conducting Recitations, 23- Conscientiousness, 4. Constitution of U. S. Should be Read in Classes, 8r. Construction of School-houses, 49-55- Contract with School Boards, 23. Convection, 60. Conversation, 22. Costume, 18. County Papers, 81. Crime and Education, 50. Criticisms, ^y. Cultivation, ;^2. Culture, 1 1. Dates in History, 145. Deception, 187. Decimal Fractions, 120. Declaration of Independence Read in Classes, 81. Defining, 90. Delivery, 70. Democratic Form of Government, 41. Denominate Numbers, 116. Despotism, 41. Detective, Teacher as a, 3. Dickens, 12. Dictation Exercises, 93. Diet, 9. Difficult Words, 98. Digestion, 165. Dignity, 194. Direction, Idea of, 200. Directors, 21. Discipline, 38. Dismissal, 47. Disposition, Cheerful, 3. Division, 1 13. " Do Right," the Only Rule Neces- sary, 42. Draughts, 59. Drawing, 45. Drawing Maps, 200. Dress, 18. Drills, Oral, 113. Easy Accounts, 125. Eclectic Method, 67. INDEX 245 Economy, 189. Elocution, 63. Emphasis in Reading, 72. Employment, 43. Encouragement, Give Words of, 215. Encyclopaedias, 56. Enrolling Names, 32. Enthusiasm, 38. Essays, 222. Etymology, 219. Examination, ;^;^. Excitation, 23- Exercise, 8. Exhibitions, 58. Experiments, 177. Expression, 2-37. Eyes, 166. Factoring, 119, Failures, Study Your Own, 216. Farmer, 22. Feuds Among Families, 22. Fiction, 13. Finger Nails, Attention to, 19. Firmness, 5. First Day of School, 32. First Reader, 69. Flowers, 217, Foppishness, 18. Force in Reading, 76. Force in School Room, 43. Fortunes Not Made by Teaching, 224. Foul Air, 58. Fourth Reader, 74. Fractions, 120. Frankness, 3. Free School System, 58. Fruits, 9. . Furniture, 56. Games, 9. General Exercises, 47. General Knowledge, 15. General Reading, 13. Generosity, 193. Geography, 148. Geography, Advanced, 196. Geography, Primary, 200. Geology, 15-176. German Boy, 48. Globes, 56. Government, 38. Grades, 28, Grammar, 127-207. Grasping Thought, 77. Greek and Latin, 10. Group Method, 82. Grube Method, 122 Habits of the Teacher, 18. Health, 8. Herbarium, 15. Higher Mathematics, 168. Highest Reward, The Teacher's, 223. History, U. S., 142-203. Hobby-riding, 215. Honesty, 187. Honor, 3. Horseback Riding, 9. Hygiene, 8. Hypocrite, 2-213.. Illiteracy IxN Proportion to Expenditure, 50. Impression, Make a Good, 23-32, Impure Language, 194. 246 INDEX Independent Spirit, 49? Industry, 188. Inflection in Reading, 72-76. Influence of the Teacher, 20. Institute, Smithsonian, 221. Institutes, Teacher's, 25. Instruction, 33. Interest, 121. Investigation, 38. Irregular Attendance, 123. Kindness, 3-192. Knowledge, General, 15. Know Thyself, 6. Labor, Manual, 8. Language, 71. Language Lessons, 128. Latin and Greek, 10. Latitude and Longitude, How Taught, 1 55-161. Leaves, Collection of, 172. Leaves, Outline of, 173. Lectures, 36. Letters, 136. Library for Schools, 57. Library for Teachers, 217. Listener, Teacher Should be a Good, 22. Literature, 85. Loafing, 13. Local Reporter, 223. Location of School-houses, 52. Love for Study, How to Incite, 38. Love of the Work, 3. Lying, 187. Magazines, 13. Magnetic Force, 214. Manual or Constructive Work, 180. Manual Labor, 8. Majority, Voice of, 41. Map Drawing, 200. Map Drills, 151. Material for School-houses, 55. Mathematics, 168. Meddling Spirit, 22, Mensuration, 122. Mental Qualifications, 3. Merchant's Bills, 117. Mind of the Child, 39. Mischief, 40. Misdirected Funds, 51. Model Recitations, 196. Model SpelUng Lesson, 91. Models for Parsing, 141. Morals and Manners, 182. Moral Qualifications, i. Moroseness, 3. Mottoes, 216. Multiplication, 112. Muscles, 164. Music, 15. Names, write on Black-board, 43- Natural Sciences, 171. Natural Tone in Reading, 70. Neatness, 18. Nervous System, 166. Newspaper, 80-96. Noise, 42-55- Normal Schools, 12. Notation and Numeration,"! ii. Novels, 14. Number, Idea of, no. Numeral Frame, 56. INDEX 247 Object Method, 84. Obstinacy, 5. Odd Moments, 12. Optics, 166. Oral Arithmetic, iii. Oral Drills, in. Order, 4. Organizing, 31, Orthography, 90. Page, David P., Quotation from, 16. Painting, 15. Papers, Reading in School Hours, 44- Parents, 20. Pastry, 9. Patrons, 20. Pause in Reading, 77. Penmanship, loi. Percentage, 121. Perception Cultivated, 71, Personal Habits, 18. Pestalozzi, Quotation from, 39. Philoprogenitiveness, 4. Phonic Method, 66. Physical Qualifications, 7. Physics, 177. Physiology, 162. Pictures in the School Room, 216. Pitch in Reading, 76. Plan of School-house, 53. Play-grounds, 52. Poetic Feet, 75. Poetic License, 75. Politeness, 19-191. Political, 25. Pollard Method, 83. Position in Reading, 71. Preliminary Work, 27. Preparation for Work, 11. Primary Geography, 200. Printing Press, 100. Processes before Rules, 114. Profanity, 194. Program, 30. Profession of Teaching, 25. Promptness, 190. Pronunciation, 96. Property, Protection of, 192. Punctuality, 19, Punctuation, 62. Purity of Speech, 194. Qualifications — Mental, 3. — Moral, I. — Physical, 7. — Scientific and Literary, ro. Quality in Reading, 76. Quantity in Reading, 76. Questions, 34. Quiet School, 42, Radiation of Heat, 60. Rate in Reading, 77. Reading, 12-62. Recesses, 31. Recipe for Black-board, 223. Recitations, Manner of Conduc- ting, 33. Recitations, Model, 196. Recreation, 8. Regular Meals, 9. Relation of Teacher to Parents, 20. Relation of Teacher to Profes- sion, 25. Relation of Teacher to Society, 24. 248 INDEX Religious Creed, 25. Religious Man, 3. Reports by the Government, 221. Respect, 191. Respiration, 165. Responsibility, 20. Rest, 46. Reviews, 34. Reward, Teacher's Highest, 223. Rhetoric, 129. Ride No Hobbies, 215. Rules, 42. Scientific and Literary Qual- ifications, 10. School Boards, 21. School-houses, Construction of, 49-55- School-houses, Location of, 52. School-houses, Plan of, 53. School-houses, Size of, 52. School-houses, Surroundings of, 52. School Room, 216. Scrap-book, 36. Second Reader, 71. Self-government, 49. Self-reliance, 5. Sentence Method, 82. Sentence Writing, 134. Separatrix, Importance of, 11 0. Shrubbery, 52. Skin, Health of, 9. Slates, 44. Slur in Reading, 90. Small Pupils, 47. Social Qualities, 5. Society, Teacher in Relation to, Special Senses, 166. Specimens, Make Collection of, 171. Specimens to Illustrate Physi- ology and Anatomy, 167. Speech, Purity of, 194. Spelling and Defining, 90. Spelling Matches, 93. Spencer, Herbert, Quotations from, 48. Spirit of the Teacher, 16. Statistics, 50. Stepping-stone, Teaching a, 17. Stories, 47-80. Stoves, 60-137. Strangers, Politeness to, 191. Stress in Reading, 90. Student's Manual, 219. Studiousness, 20. Study, Time for, 29. Study Your Own Failures, 216. Submissiveness, 48. Subtraction, 1 12. Sunday School, 24. Swearing, 194. Sympathy for Pupils, 4-214. Syntax, 133. System and Regularity, 19. Tables, 118. Tact, 22-23. Talking Too Much, 36. Tattling, 186. Taxation for Schools, 50. Tea, 10. Teacher, Habits of, 18. Teacher, Health of, 7. Teacher, In Relation to Patrons, 20. INDEX 249 Teacher, In Relation to Profes- sion, 25. Teacher, In Relation to Society, 24. Teacher, Library of, 217. Teacher, Responsibilities of, 20. Teacher, Spirit of, 16. Teacher, Qualifications of, 3. Teaching Power, 37. Teaching, Unconscious, 212. Technical Grammar, 128. Teeth, Care of, 18. Telephone, 214. Temperance, 9. Third Reader, 72. Tobacco, 10-19. Todd's Student's Manual, 219. Topic List for Study of Geog- raphy, 154. Topics, 34. Township Institutes, 26. Tyrants, 5. Unconscious Teaching, 212. Universities, 184. U. S. Money, 116. Unsuspicious, 3. Variety in the School Room, 47. Vegetables, 9. Venable's Poem, Teacher's Dream, 225. Ventilation, 58. Veracity, 186. Visitors, 47. Visit Parents, 21. Vital Processes, 165. Wages, 21-24. Wall Maps, 56. Ward Method, 83. Warming, 60. Webb Method, 65. Weights and Measures, 118. Whispering, 42. Windows, 55. Woods, Collection of, 175. Word Method, 65, Words, Etymology of, 219. Work, Preliminary, 27. Wreaths as Decorations, 217. Write Essays, 222. Write for County Papers, etc., 223. Writing Spelling, 92. Written Contract, 24. Written Exercise, 62-90-1 10-128. SCHOOL BOOKS of all publishers^ new and second-hand. Send for Catalogue. DICTIONARIES French, German, Latin, Greek, Italian, and Spanish. Prices, $1.00 to $2.00. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS Recent College Entrance Examination Questions with Answers (in press), $J.50. A Question Book on Common School and High School Subjects with Answers, $1.50. J 00 J Questions and Answers (U kinds), 50c. Recent Civil Service Examination Questions with Answers, $2.00. A Book Containing Original Valedictories, Saltitatories, Orations, Essays, Compositions, etc.^ $J.50. TRANSLATIONS Literal and Interlinear, 144 Volumes. Prices, 50 cents and $1.50. HELPS FOR TEACHERS Mistakes in Teaching — How to Correct Them, by Miss Preston's Assistant, $1.00. Composition Writing Made Easy, 75c. New Dialogues and Plays, $1.50. A New Speller, 25c. Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching with Questions and Answers, 50c. German Texts with Vocabu- laries, 50c. Completely Parsed Caesar, Book L (in press), $1.50. How to Become Quick at Figures, $ 1 .00. Gordy 's New Psychology, $ 1 .25. A Text Book on Letter Writing, 75c. How to Punctuate Correctly, 25c. A Book of Synonyms and Antonyms, 50c. Debates (Both Sides of Live Questions Fully Discussed), $1.50. A New Speaker, $1.00. Teachers' Class Register, 50c. HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers Ne'ver too busy to ansublishers at one store WHAT SHALL I DO PRICE l.OO FIFTY PROFITABLE OCCUPATiONS Character Building By C. S. Coler, M. S» Cloth, Price, $i.oo What we want to appear in character, we must put into our schools. If, as teachers and parents, we permit selfishness, dishonesty, and sham in children, we need not be surprised if we see these things in society and in the world, — From the Author s Preface. Contents I, Aims in Character Building IL Psychology of Character Building III. Ethics of Character Building IV. Methods in Character Building V. Growth in Character VI, Habit, In Relation to Character Building VII. Study, In Relation to Character Building VIII. Education, In Relation to Character Building IX. The Parent, In Relation to Character Building X. Character and American Citizenship XI. Inspiring Thoughts and Helps The following subjects have been carefully considered by the author : Discipline, Acquisi- tion, Assimilation, Appreciation, Aspiration, Ex- pression, Consciousness, Will Power, Conscience, Duty, Methods of Teaching, Habit, and Moral Instruction. Several teachers have ordered copies for their pupils — others have used it as a text-book in the class-room. One teacher ordered twenty-four copies to present to her graduating class. Dr. W. H. Scott, Professor of Ethics and Psychology in Ohio State University, Cohimbtis, 0., in commenting tipon the merits of the book, writes: " Your book on ' Character Building^ is inspiring. I do not see how an ijitelligent young person can read it without being lifted into the realm of higher ideas and noble purposes. Every teacher will find it full of help:' HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-6-J2-J3-H Cooper Institute New York City School Books of All Publishers at One Store BOTH SIDES OF LIVE QUESTIONS FULLY DISCUSSED Cloth, ^80 pages. Price, $1.30. HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-J3-J4 Cooper Institute - - New York City Contents of ^'Pros and Cons/* SECTION I. II. III. IV. How to Organize a Society, Rules Governing Debates, Introductory Observations, Political Economy, PAGR I 12 15 24 Questions Fully Discussed in the Affirmative and the Negative* V. Resolved, That the Single Gold Standard Is for the Best Interests of the Country, Should Cuba be Annexed to the United States? Resolved, That the Fear of Punishment Has a Greater Influence on Human Conduct than Hope of Reward, ..... Resolved, That the United States should Adopt Penny Postage, ..... Resolved, That High License Is the Best Means ot Checking Intemperance, Should the Government of the United States Own and Control the Railroads ? Should Hawaii have been Annexed to the U. S. ? Resolved, That Woman Suffrage should Be Adopted by an Amendment to the Constitu- tion of the United States, .... Resolved, That the World Owes more to Navi- gation than to Railroads, - . . . Resolved, That the United States should Build and Control the Nicaragua Canal, Resolved, That Tariff for Revenue Only Is of Greater Benefit to the People of the United States Than a Protective Tariff, Resolved, That the Expensive Social Entertain- ments of the Wealthy Are of More Benefit than Injury to the Country, Resolved, That the Hypocrite Is a More Des- picable Character than the Liar, Resolved, That the Government of the United States should Own and Control the Tele- phone and Telegraph Systems, . Resolved, That the Average Young Man of To-day Has Greater Opportunities to make Life a Success Financially than His Fore- fathers, ....... Is Immigration Detrimental to the United States? Are Large Dept. Stores an Injury to the Country? VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX XX. XXL 28 61 77 S6 94 106 122 127 135 148 160 172 179 185 K99 206 21.9 Contents of '*Pros and Cons/* SSCTION PAGB XXII. Should Greenbacks Be Retired and the Gov- ernment Go Out of Its Present System of Banking? ..... 232 XXIII. Resolved, That Our Present System of Tax- ation is the Best that Can Be Devised, 250 XXIV. Should the President and Senate of the U . S. be Elected by Direct Vote of the People? 258 XXV. Resolved, That It Is Not Good Policy for the Government of the United States to Establish a System of Postal Savings, 286 Questions Outlined* XXVI. Resolved, That It is for the Best Interests of All the People for the Government to Own and Control the Coal Mines, . 318 XXVII. Resolved, That Trusts and Monopolies Are a Positive Injury to tiie People Finan- cially, ...... 327 XXVIII. Resolved, That Cities should Own and Con- trol All the Public Franchises Now Conferred upon Corporations, . . 337 XXIX. Resolved, That Education as It Is Now Thrust upon our Youth Is Dangerous to Health and Good Government, . 35 1 XXX. Resolved, That National Banks should Be Abolished, 358 XXXI. Resolved, That Bi-metallism and Not Pro- tection is the Secret of Future Pros- perity, 366 Subjects for Debate. XXXII. Two Hundred and Fifty Selected Topics for Discussion, ..... 376 Addresses for Salutatory, Valedictory, and other occasions* XXXIII. Oration — Decoration Day, . 401 XXXIV. Essay — February 22, ... 407 XXXV. Salutatory — Life, . • • 420 XXXVI. Oration — Fourth of July, . ... 426 XXXVII. Valedictory, . • . 434 XXXVIII. Address — Christmas Eve, . . 440 XXXIX. A Temperance Address — The Nickel Behind the Bar, . • ( • 444 XL. Essay — Coa.jt Pefenses, • • • 450 E Cen Weeks' Course In elocution By J V. Coombs, formerly Professor of English Literature and Elocution in Eureka College, Eureka, 111. Assisted by Virgil A. PiNKLEv, Principal of the Department of Elocution in School of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio. Revised and Enlarged by C. H. Harne, Professor of Elocution and Reading in Salina Normal University, Salina, Kan- sas. Cloth, 415 Pages. Price^ $i.2S- Many good books on the Theory of Elocution have been published — choice selections are plentiful, but very few authors have combined, with the Essentials of Elocu- tion, a good variety of proper exercises for practice. In Part I, the author has briefly outlined the best way to teach a beginner to read. Part II contains a full discussion of Dictionary Work, the value of which cannot be over- estimated. Part III contains helpful suggestions to Teachers of Elocution. Part IV (the largest and most important part) contains a thorough discussion of the Elements of Elocution, each principle being carefully considered. Part V comprises a splendid collection of Humorous, Dramatic and Oratorical selections for prac- tice — the whole being an ideal work for teachers to use with classes which have only a brief period of time to devote to the subject. The chapters devoted to Elocution have been so divided that they can be easily completed by a class in ten weeks' time as follows : 1st Week, Outline of Elocution 2d Week. Respiration and Breathing 3rd "Week. Physical Culture (Calisthenics) 4th Week. Articulation 5th Week. Orthoepy (Pronunciation) 6th Week. Vocal Culture 7th Week. Qualities of the Voice 8th Week. The Art of Vocal Expression 9th Week. Gesture JOth Week. Gesture A great variety of selections, Humorous, Dramatic and Oratorical, illustrating the various principles studied, immediately follow the Lessons. These are to be used to test the Avork that is done by the class from week to week. Sample copies 'will be furnished to Teachers 0/ Elocution and classes supplied at $1.00. HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-6-12-S3-J4 Cooper Institute - - New York City School Books 0/ All Publishers at One Store PIECES FOR : : : ; PRIZE-SPEAKING CONTESTS : I : : : A collection of over one hun- dred pieces which have taken prizes in prize-speaking contests. Cloth, 448 pages. Price, $1.25. PUBLISHED BY HINDS & NOBLE 4-5-6-I2-I3-I4 Cooper Institute^ New York City Fenno's Science and Art of Elocution 1 l)OW to Read and Speak Theory and Practice Combined The Science and Art of Elocution. Embracing a comprehensive and systematic series of exer- cises for gesture, calisthenics and the cultivation of the voice, together with a collection of nearly 150 Literary Gems for Reading and Speaking. Arranged in four parts and designed to be used as a text-book in the class room and for private study, as v^^ell as for the use of Readers and Speakers generally. By Frank S. Fenno, A.M., F.S.Sc, graduate of The National School of Elocution and Oratory, compiler of " Fenno's Favorites for Reading and Speaking," author of "The Chart of Elocution," "Lectures on Elocution," etc., etc. Price, $1.25. Designed to be Used as a Text-book and for Private Study HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-6-J2-J3-H Cooper Institute New York Qty School Books of AU Publishers at One Store Commencement Parts^ CLOTH — Price $1.50 Postpaid — twelvemo Here is a book full of the real iJiingj and con- taining nothing but the real thing ! The models here — every one a complete address — are not composed by the compiler to show what he would say if he should happen to be called on for a class poem, or an ivy song ; a valedictory, or an oration ; a response to a toast, an essay, a recitation, or what-not. Not at all! But every one of the ''efforts" in this book is real — in the sense that it is what some one did do on the particular occasion when he actu- ally had to stand up and speak. This entitles them to be designated models in a genuine; sense. If you are called upon, for any occasion (no matter what) during your whole high-school or college career, and wish a model to show how some one else has risen to a similar opportunity, we think you will discover by a glance at the list of contents of Com- mencement Parts some illustration of exactly what you require. Note also the lists of class mottoes, subjects for orations, essays, themes, toasts, etc. Besides the above we publish also the following, of interest to tliose who have to * ' appear in public on the stage. * ' And we can' t think of any *' effort" throughout one's whole career that is not provided for — from the little tot's first curt'sy, and along through the school and college years, to the debate of important civic problems by the adult before his fellow citizens : — Pros and Cons. Both sides of live questions. 81.5(X. Playable Plays. For school and parlor. $1.50. College Men's Three-Minute Declamations. $1.00. College Maids' Three-Minute Readings. $1.00. Pieces for Prize-Speaking Contests. $1.00. Acme Declamation Book. Paper, 30c. Cloth, 50c. Handy Pieces to Speak, 108 on separate cards. 50c. I-ist of 'VContents " of any or all of above free on request if you mention this ad. HINDS & NCBLE, Publishers, 4^5-13-14 Cooper Institute, 3J. Y. Citj. SchoolbooTis of all publishers at one store* Contents of " Commencement Parts/' I. Introduction to Commencement Parts* 2* The Orator and the Oration* (a) The Orator. [d) The Oration. {c) The Parts of the Oration. 3* Cormnencement Parts* (/) A Latin Salutatory. De Nostro Cum Aliis Civitatibus Agendi Modo. (^) Orations. {a) American Ideals. d) Culture and Service. c) Education as Related to Civic Prosperity, d) Hebraism and Culture. e) Marc Antony. /) Modern Knighthood. [gS The Negro and the South. A) The Decisive Battle of the Rebellion, ^) The University and True Patriotism. (j^ The Discipline of Life and Character. [^) The Liberalistic Temper. /) The Spirit that Should Animate. m) Reverence Due from the Old to the Youngs fj*^ Appropriate Subjects for the Oration (1-136). (^) Valedictories. la) "Perduretatque Valeat" (Latin), !d) Service. c) For a Dental College. [d) For a College. () Lincoln the Immortal. (Lincoln's Birthday.) (^) Washington's Birthday Address. (5) Washington's Birthday. (6) Tree Planting. (A Poem for Arbor Day.) (7) Decoration Day Address. (S) Memorial Day Ode — Our Honored Dead. JO. Occasional Addresses, (t") Religious. (a) Growth. An Address tefore a Christian Endeavor Convention. (3) To be Kings among Men. A Chapel Ad- dress by a College President. (<:) The Culture of the Imagination. Address be- fore a Young Men' s Christian Association. (^) Political. (aj The Cross of War. Delivered in the Con- gress of the United States. (^) Heroes of the ' ' Maine Disaster. ' ' Delivered to the National House of Representatives. (^) Social. (a) The Obligations of Wealth. A Washington's Birthday Address. (b) An Address to Northern and Southern Vet- erans at Chickamauga. ((5) An Address before the Order of Elks. {c) A Poem for a Silver Wedding. (^d) An Address at the Dedication of a Memorial Tablet. ((f) Presentation of a Flag to a Regiment Depart- ing for War. (y") Presentation Address to a Foreman by a W^orkman. (^) Educational. (a) The Higher Education. An Address before a Body of Educators. (3) Dedication of a School Building. An Address of Welcome. (^c) Wealth and Progress. An Address at the Dedication of a Public Building. (d) An Address on Presenting the Keys of a New School Building. (0. Occasional Addresses {continued). (/) Success in Life. An Address before a Busi- ness College. (w) Address before a College Graduating Class. («) Inaugural Address of a President of a Uni- versity. (£>) An Address on Receiving the Degree of Doctor of Laws from a University. (/) The I'residing Officer's Address at a College Debate. (^) The Influence of the Great Teacher. An Address befo'-e College Alumni. (r) Response of a College Professor to a Compli- mentary Resolution, (f) Festival Days. {a) A Thanksgiving Speech. ( (5 ) A Thanksgiving Day Address. ( prepared introduction to each dialogue. Not only are the characters all named in order of importance, but the charac- teristics, the costumes, the relation of one to another, age, size, etc., are all mentioned. Most important of all is what is called the "Situation." Here the facts necessary to a clear comprehension of the dialogue following are given very concisely, very briefly, but, it is hoped, adequately for the purpose in hand. The story previous to the opening of the dialogue is related ; the condition of the characters at the beginning of the scene is stated ; the setting of the plat- form is carefully described. There has been no book of dialogues published containing so much of absolutely new material adapted from the best literature and gathered from the most recent sources— this feature will be especially appreciated. May we send you a copy for inspection subject to your approval ? HINDS & NOBLE Publishers of 3-Minute Declamations for College Men 3-Minute Readings for College Girls, Handy Pieces to Speak Acme Declaination Book, Pros & Cons (Complete Debates) Commencement Parts (Orations, Essays, Addresses), Pieces for Prize Speaking Contests (m press). 4-543-J4 Cooper Institute New York City LIST OF CONTENTS PRIMARY DIALOGUES Humorous Training the Ruggleses Kate Douglas Wiggin Patsy's Visit -Kate Douglas Wiggin Aunt Ellen's Hatchet The New Baby Frances Hodgson Burnett The Unburied Woman Playing Hookey Sophie May Hearsay Tired of Church The Inkstand Sophie May The Sword Berquin Serious Fauntleroy and the Earl .... Frances Hodgson Burnett The Reconciliation Louise M. Alcott Keeping House Sophie May Adopt My Baby Kate Douglas Wiggin Selling the Image Mrs. C. V. Jamison The Sick Boy's Plan A Child's Love A Manly Boy A Tiny Quarrel Sophie May The Mouse Mrs. C. V. Ja}?iison Nell's Christmas Stocking J. L. Harbour Father Time's Granddaughters . . Nathaniel Hawthorne INTERMEDIATE DIALOGUES Humorous The Schoolmaster W. T. Adams A Confession of Love Not Quite John Poole Captain Kempthorn H. W. Longfellow The Restless Youth Testing the Suitors The Emperor and the Deserter Mike Gets a Job The Stupid Lover Our Daughter His Own Pills Louis XIV. and His Minister A. Conan Doyle The Challenge Richard Brinsley Sheridan Serious The Homeless Old Man Hall Caine The Witch of Vesuvius Bulwer Lytton His Enemy's Honor Cleopatra and the Messenger Shakespeare The Bishop's Silver Candlesticks Victor Hugo The Peasant Boy's Vindication Dimond The Baron and the Jew Walter Scott In Love with His Wife Christian Forgiveness A Wife and a Home . Aurelian and Zenobia William Ware ADVANCED DIALOGUES Humofous The French Duel Mark Twain Mrs. Hardcastle's Journey Oliver Goldsmith A Matter of Duty Anthony Hope Pride Against Pride Westland Marston Tom and Roxy Mark Twain A Disastrous Announcement Charles Dickens Miss Judith Macan Charles Lever Helen and Modus Sheridan Knowles Sam Weller and his Father Charles Dickens Extracting a Secret F. Marion Crawford Open or Shut Alfred de Mussel Taming a Wife John Tobm The Prairie Princesses Serious The Suffering of Nehushta F. Marion Crawford "Gentlemen, the King!" Robert Barr Ben-Hur and Iras Lew Wallace Savonarola and Lorenzo Alfred Austin Tito's Armor George Eliot Love Conquers Revenge Robert Byr Becket Saves Rosamund Alfred, Lord Tennyson The Princess and the Countess R. L. Stevenson Queen Catherine Shakespeare Deacon Brodie Henley and Stevenson Pizarro and Rolla Richard Brinsley Sheridan Raimond Released Mrs. Felicia Hemans Mrs. Harwood's Secret Mrs. M. O. W. Oliphant Innocence Rewarded Oliver Goldsmith Books for your Obrary No Private School, High School or College Library is complete without having on its shelves one or more oi the following books for its students to refer to. Teachers are ordering many of these books for their own personal use. Mistakes in Teaching (Preston Papers) $i.oo Craig's New Common School Question Book, with Answers 1.50 Henry's New High School Question Book, with Answers 1.50 Gordy's New Psychology 1.25 Mackenzie's Manual of Ethics 1.50 Lind's Best Methods of Teaching in Country Schools 1.25 Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching " i.oo Character Building (Coler) i.oo A Ten Weeks' Course in Elocution (Coombs) 1.25 Commencement Parts (Valedictories, Orations, Essays, etc.) 1.50 Pros and Cons (Both Sides of Important Questions Discussed). . , 1.50 Three Minute Declamations for College Men i.oo Three Minute Readings for College Girls i.oo Pieces for Prize Speaking Contests (Craig & Gunnison) i.oo New Dialogues and Plays (Gunnison) 1.50 Classic French-English, English-French Dictionary 2.00 German-English, English- German Dictionary 2.00 Italian-English, English-Italian Dictionary 2.00 " Latin-English, English-Latin Dictionary 2.00 " Greek-English, English-Greek Dictionary 2.00 Handy Spanish-English, English-Spanish Dictionary i.oo " Italian-English, English-Italian Dictionary i.oo Shortest Road to Csesar (Jeffers) 75 How to Prepare for a Civil Service Examination 2.00 How to Become Quick at Figures i.oo Likes and Opposites (Synonyms and Antonyms) 50 Hinds & Noble's New Letter Writer 75 Quizzism and Its Key (South wick) i.oo We will send postpaid, subject to your approval, any of the books on this list upon receipt of the price. Mention " Books for your Library " when you write us. HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 4-5-6-I2-ia-I4 Cooper Institute New York City JW ,900 r LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 019 823 495 3