Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/generaleducationOOnewy THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD •yOcy^^^ =><0J THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD AN ACCOUNT OF ITS ACTIVITIES 1902-1914 With ^2 Full Page Illustrations and ji Maps NEW YORK GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 61 BROADWAY I9IS Copyright, IQIS, by The General Education Board Jll rights reserved, including that of translation into foreign languages, including the Scandinavian CONTENTS PAGE Officers and Members of the General Educa- tion Board xiii Introductory Note xv I. History of the General Education Board 3 II. Resources and Expenditures .... 15 III. Farm Demonstrations; Boys and Girls Clubs 18 IV. Secondary Education 71 V. Colleges and Universities . . . . . 103 VI. Medical Education 160 VII. Rural Education 179 VIII. Negro Education 190 In Memoriam 210 APPENDICES: I. Charter of the General Education Board 212 II. Letters of Gift and Replies Thereto . . 216 (a) Mr John D. Rockefeller (b) Miss Anna T. Jeanes III. Contracts Between Washington University and Barnes Hospital 225 Contract Between Yale University and New Haven Hospital 232 Index . . 243 V LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Photogravure frontispiece . . . John D. Rockefeller LIST OF HALF-TONES FACING PAGE A twenty-acre alfalfa demonstration on J. B. Andrews farm, Roanoke County, Va. The yield was from four and one half to five tons per acre i8 Deep fall plowing (i8 inches deep) in south Georgia by modern machinery 20 Excellent demonstration in cotton and corn, Cullman County, Ala., 191 1 22 Typical stalk of cotton from a field worked under old methods 24 Demonstration .corn, 1910, Thos. Hitchcock Farm, Aiken, S. C 28 Demonstration hay in South Carolina, 3delding 5,000 pounds of cured hay per acre in 191 2 30 Demonstration in oats, Arkansas, 191 1 30 Demonstration cotton in boll- weevil infested territory of Louisiana 32 A contrast between demonstration and ordinary meth- ods in producing cotton in North Carolina in 19 10. 32 Demonstration peanuts near Comanche, Okla., 191 2. 40 vii viii LIST OF HALF-TONES FACING PAGE Kafir corn, as one of the surer crops for the semi-arid section of Oklahoma 40 Field meeting on demonstration of David Johnson, Houlka, Miss 42 Agent of demonstration work, owner, and overseer on the Grinnan Plantation 42 Improved farming implements being explained to Negro farmers by colored District Demonstration Agent . 50 A field of prize rye grown under the direction of colored Demonstration Agent 50 Annual Farmers' Conference, Hampton Institute, 191 2 . 52 Negro demonstrator's home "Before and After" . . 54 A field meeting with the agents 56 A boy's demonstration crop (1909) 56 Field meeting of a boys' club in Elbert County, Ga. . 58 Exhibit of corn at the local fair at Blackstone, Va., 1910 60 Jerry H. Moore, of Winona, S. C, who made 228f bushels of corn on his demonstration acre . ... 62 A club member and her well- tended plant full of fruit . 64 A Georgia canning club demonstration in 1Q12. . . 66 A canning club member's plat of staked tomatoes, 191 2 68 District High School, Clendeik, Kanawha County, W. Va 84 Public High School Building, Tupelo, Miss .... 84 Clinton Public High School, Sampson County, N. C. . 88 Murphy High School, Cherokee County, N. C. . . . 88 Marion, S. C, High School 92 LIST OF HALF-TONES ix FACING PAGE Paragould High School, Ark 92 Knoxville City High School, Tenn 94 Young High School, Knox County, used as a model for rural high schools now building in Tennessee ... 94 New Building, District High School, East Bank, W. Va. 98 New District Graded and High School, Princeton, W. Va 98 Old Unity School, S. C 186 Unity School, S. C. Second story for community pur- poses added to a modification of design . . . , 186 A Negro Rural School 190 Queensland Industrial School, Ben Hill County, Ga. . 190 New two-room Notasulga Schoolhouse, Ala., pupils and teacher 192 Poplar Lawn School, Va., "Before and After". . . 194 Old School, Burkeville, Va 196 New School, three rooms, Burkeville, Va 196 Sewing lesson in a Gloucester County school, Va. . . 200 Northampton County exhibit, Va. . . . . . . 200 Chair caning exhibit, Henrico County, Va. .... 202 Specimens of manual training work and sewing done by Negro school children 202 Boy and girl in their garden getting instructions from teacher 204 A prize garden, Caroline County, Va 204 LIST OF MAPS PAGE Distribution of work between U. S. Government and General Education Board, 1908 ... 26 Location of Agents Farmers' Cooperative Demon- stration Work. Crop season of 1909 . . . 34 Blue indicates territory in which Farm Demon- stration Work was financed by G. E. B. . . 36 Red indicates territory in which Farm Demon- stration Work was financed by U. S. Govern- ment 36 Location of Demonstration Farms in Mississippi, 1907 38 Location of Demonstration Farms in Mississippi, 190S 39 Approximate Location of Demonstration Farms in Mississippi, 1914 41 Farm Demonstration in the State of Maine . . 43 Farm Demonstration in the State of New Hamp- shire 44 This illustrates how the farmers of a county are reached 47 10. Location of 687 institutions of higher learning which confer academic degrees no 11 . Location of 25 institutions of higher learning with annual income of $500,000 and upward . . . 112 X LIST OF MAPS xi FIGURE PAGE 12. Location of 85 institutions of higher learning with an annual income of $200,000 and upward . . 114 13 . Location of 143 institutions of higher learning with an annual income of $100,000 and upward . . 115 14 . Location of 234 institutions of higher learning with an annual income of $50,000 and upward . . 117 15. Location of 176 institutions of higher learning which confer academic degrees, and which have less than $25,000 of annual income . . . . 118 16. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of four colleges. 120 17. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of three colleges . . 122 18. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular classes of four colleges. . . 123 19. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of four colleges 125 20 . Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of three colleges 126 21. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of Amherst College 128 22. Map showing sections from which Amherst Col- lege derives its students 129 xii LIST OF MAPS FIGURE PAGE 23 . Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of Williams College 131 24. Map showing sections from which Williams Col- lege derives its students 132 25 . Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and emolled in the four regular college classes of Harvard University 134 26. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of Yale University. 135 27 . Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of Smith College . 137 28. Map showing sections from which Smith College derives its students 138 29. Map shov/ing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of Vassar College . 140 30 . Map showing sections from which Vassar College derives its students 141 31. Location of 103 institutions of higher learning to which the General Education Board has made appropriations 145 OFFICERS AND MEMBERS or THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD OFFICERS Chairman . William H. Baldwin, Jr. Robert C. Ogden , Frederick T. Gates . Secretary Assistant Secretaries Treasurer Assistant Treasurer Wallace Buttrick William H. Heck . Eben Charles Sage Abraham Flexner George Foster Peabody Louis G. Myers L. M. Dashiell I 902- I 904 I 905- I 906 1907- 1902- 1903-190S 1905- 1913- 1902-1909 1910- 1914- MEMBERS * William H. Baldwin, Jr 1902- 1905 * Jabez L. M. Curry 1902-1903 Frederick T. Gates ....... 1902- * Daniel C. GiLMAN 1902-1908 * Morris K. Jesup 1902-1908 * Robert C. Ogden 1902-1913 Walter H. Page 1902- * Deceased. xiv MEMBERS t George Foster Peabody 1902-1912 John D. Rockefeller, Jr 1902- Albert Shaw 1902- Wallace Buttrick 1902- Starr J. Murphy 1904- * William R. Harper 1905-1906 fHuGHH. Hanna 1905-1912 t E. Benjamin Andrews 1905-1912 Edwin A. Alderman 1906- HoLLis B. Frissell 1906- Harry Pratt Judson 1906- Charles W. Eliot . 1908- Andrew Carnegie 1908- Edgar L. Marston . . . . • • • 1909- WiCKLiEFE Rose 1910- Jerome D. Greene . . . . . . . 191 2- Ans ON Phelps Stokes 191 2- Abraham Flexner 1914- George E. Vincent 1914- • Deceased, t Resigned INTRODUCTORY NOTE This volume gives an account of the activities of the General Education Board from its foundation in 1902 up to June 30, 19 1 4. The Board has made annual reports to the United States Department of the Interior and these have been regularly printed in the reports of the Department; but no further report has been hitherto issued, because, as the Board's work was felt to be experimental in character, premature statements respecting the scope and outcome of its efforts were to be avoided. After something more than a decade, tangible results have begun to appear, and to their description and consideration the following pages are devoted. Henceforth, statements will be issued annually, and, from time to time, a more critical discussion like the present report will be published. XV THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The General Education Board I. HISTORY OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD THE General Education Board, founded by John D. Rockefeller, began informally when, on the evening of January 15, 1902, a few of those who subsequently became its members met for the purpose of discussing the probable scope and methods of an edu- cational organization, the creation of which Mr. Rocke- feller was then contemplating. At a second meeting, held in the following month, and attended by Messrs. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., F. T. Gates, W. H. Baldwin, Jr., J. L. M. Curry, Robert C. Ogden, Daniel C. Oilman, Walter H. Page, Albert Shaw, and Wallace Buttrick,^ the counsel, Edward M. Shepard, submitted articles of association under which the Board began its pre- liminary operations. Incorporation by Act of Congress took place January 12, 1903. The charter^ set forth the general object of the corporation as ''the promotion of education within the United States of America, without distinction of race, sex, or creed"; and this broad object ^Mr: Morris K. Jesup, who had attended the first meeting, was un- avoidably absent from the second. 2 Printed in full in Appendix I, pp. 212-215. 4 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD was specifically stated to include the power to establish or endow elementary or primary schools, industrial schools, technical schools, normal schools, training schools for teachers, or schools of any grade, or higher institu- tions of learning; to cooperate with associations engaged in educational work; to donate property or money to any such association; to collect educational statistics and information, to pubHsh and distribute documents and reports, ''and in general to do and perform all things necessary or convenient for the promotion of the object of the corporation." Under the authority thus conferred, the entire field of education in the United States — taking the word education in its broadest significance — is open to the General Education Board. The Board can em- ploy its resources in supplementing the income of estab- Hshed institutions of learning; it can cooperate with state and local authorities as well as with private organiza- tions; it can undertake educational experimentation along new and hitherto untried Knes, whether at the pri- mary, academic, technical, industrial, or professional level; it can conduct educational research and dissemi- nate educational data. MEMBERSHIP The membership of the Board has from the outset been selected with distinct reference to the varied and weighty responsibihties involved.^ It was recognized that the feasibility of cooperation between private and ^ See list of members, xiii and xiv HISTORY OF THE BOARD 5 governmental agencies and the large opportunity open to individual initiative in deaKng with social and educa- tional problems are among the distinct advantages of a dem.ocratic social order. But the usefulness of any par- ticular effort in these directions must depend on the wisdom with which it is conducted — i. e., on the com- petency and disinterestedness of those charged with its direction. Where a high order of capacity and experi- ence is thus enlisted, it is not too much to say that com- plete responsibility to professional and pubHc opinion is joined with equally complete independence of personal, sectional, or institutional interests. Foreign observers of American conditions have repeatedly commented with something like envy on the comparative ease with which large sums have been brought into fruitful use under a form of supervision, which aims to bring to- gether in one Board both the lay and the professional points of view, and to represent every phase of social and educational concern. The devotion of private fortunes to pubhc ends on these terms is highly desirable; and leaders in social and educational endeavor can and do render intelligent and patriotic service by participation in these characteristically American enterprises.^ RANGE OF ACTIVITIES The creation of the General Education Board marked the coming together and expansion of two distinct lines of interest and activity. ^ For a fuller consideration of these points, see pp. 105-109; 80-82. 6 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD (a) Higher Education Prior to 1902 Mr. Rockefeller had confined his educa- tional benefactions mainly to such institutions as were conducted under the auspices of his own reHgious de- nomination. For this purpose he had acted through the American Baptist Education Society, an organiza- tion which fostered academies, colleges, and theological seminaries under Baptist auspices throughout the United States and Canada. The institutions thus assisted form, in the main, the contribution of the Baptist denomination to the general educational resources of the nation. In this spirit the Society had in 1889 determined on the estabhshment of the University of Chicago, a decision the fulfilment of which, on the broad lines laid down at the outset, was subsequently reaUzed chiefly through Mr. Rockefeller's gifts. ^ The Baptist Education Society aided only institutions which were affiliated with its own denomination, and of these, such only as gave promise of permanent and increasing usefulness. A plan of edu- cation under Baptist auspices had been somewhat care- fully elaborated, which was designed to furnish the Baptist denomination of the United States with a comprehensive and orderly system of colleges and academies. For a decade or more the Society wrought 1 See "Address on the Proposed Institution of Learning at Chicago," by- Mr. Frederick T. Gates, the Corresponding Secretary, in report of First Annual Meeting of the American Baptist Education Society, May i8, 1889. Mr. Rockefeller's gifts to the University of Chicago total $34,702,375.28. i HISTORY OF THE BOARD 7 with diligence and success toward the realization of this denominational system of education, Mr. Rocke- feller being the chief benefactor. But as Mr. Rocke- feller's fortune increased, his interest in education broadened, and with it a sense of public duty and respon- sibiHty which transcended alike denominational, sectional, and racial hnes. To provide an agency through which the broadest possible interest in education throughout the land could find a fitting expression, the General Education Board, long existing as an ideal in his office, finally came into being. Without Hmitation the funds of the General Education Board were to be distributed to institutions of any denomination or no denomination. Moreover, the scope of the Board was designed to include activities with which the Baptist Society had not undertaken to deal. Nevertheless, the historic re- lationship between the two organizations is clear. The General Education Board is, on tWs side, an outgrowth of the Baptist Education Society. The Board adopted the main principles and practices of the Baptist So- ciety and extended them, dropping the denominational and other Hmitations. It took over the conception of a system of higher education, comprehensive, mutually related, and supplemental in its parts, so expanded, however, as to cover institutions with and without denominational connections.^ The Board adopted, too the manner in which the Baptist Society had made *This point will be more fully discussed in connection with the con- tributions of the Board to universities and colleges, pp. 108-112. 8 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD its contributions, and even the precise form of pledge that had been employed. ^ (b) Education in the South Vigorous interest in the industrial and educational upbuilding of the South represented the second of the two Hues of activity which merged in the General Education Board. The Southern states were making unprece- dented efforts toward their own educational rehabihta- tion. In these efforts valuable assistance had already been rendered by several private foundations and organ- izations created for the express purpose of cooperating with the Southern people. The most prominent of these bodies were the Peabody Education Fund, the Trustees of the Slater Fund, and the Southern Education Board. They were all non-ofhcial in character and either endowed or entirely supported by private funds. Neither they nor the General Education Board ever possessed or sought authority; they have simply had such influence as has resulted from pubhc confidence in their disinterested devotion, sympathy, and intelligence. More flexible than governmental bureaus, less restricted in their choice of agents and advisers, more continuous in poKcy, these organizations have for years devoted themselves to furthering educational plans which represent the con- sensus of the best judgment obtainable. So important has been the part played by these bodies in the upbuilding ^This is explained fully in the section devoted to colleges and univer- sities, pp. 144-147. HISTORY OF THE BOARD 9 of Southern education since the war, and so intimate their relationship with the General Education Board, that a word may fitly be said of them in this connection. THE PEABODY EDUCATION FUND The Peabody Education Fund — something above $2jOoo,ooo — was estabhshed, shortly after the close of the war, by George Peabody, a native of Massachusetts, who subsequently became a London banker. The Fund was designed for the promotion of popular education in the Southern states through cooperation with state and local officials. Subject to a representative body of trustees, three general agents were successively engaged in this work: Dr. Barnas Sears, sometime president of Brown University, Dr. J. L. M. Curry of Virginia, and Dr. Wickliffe Rose of Tennessee. The Peabody Board, through its general agents, assisted the educational lead- ers of the several states in creating sentiment and pro- curing legislation favorable to popular education; it aided in the estabhshment of pubKc schools in cities and towns, and in the development of state normal schools, in the support of Hampton Institute, Tuskegee Institute, and other private schools for Negroes, and finally con- tributed the bulk of its capital ($1,500,000) to the new George Peabody College for Teachers, affiHated with Vanderbilt University at Nashville. In combining private and unofficial with public and official endeavor, the George Peabody Fund was the pioneer educational foundation. Its general agents were often invited to lo THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD address joint sessions of the legislatures of the several Southern states; and its efforts were repeatedly recog- nized in legislative enactments. An Alabama statute, for example, provided that the State Superintendent of Education should hold teachers' institutes every summer in each congressional district and authorized him to ex- pend in each district '^not to exceed $500, the amount not in any case to exceed the amount paid for such purpose by the trustees of the Peabody Education Fund.'' The history of this endowment indicates the lines on which cooperation between unofficial and official agencies may be effectively carried on. THE JOHN F. SLATER FUND The Slater Fund, originally $1,000,000, but well-nigh doubled by wise management, was left by the late John F. Slater, a manufacturer of Norwich, Connecticut. Its purpose was the development of educational facilities for the Negro. Bishop Haygood, sometime president of Emory College, Georgia, Dr. J. L. M. Curry, Dr. Wal- lace Buttrick, and Dr. James H. Dillard of New Orleans, Louisiana, served in succession as general agent. The Fund contributed from its income to the support of normal schools, denominational schools, and many town schools for Negroes. It was of material aid in developing the Trade Schools at Hampton and Tuskegee, the Hospital and Teacher Training Departments at Spelman Seminary, the industrial work at Clafhn University, and many other institutions. Throughout its history special emphasis HISTORY OF THE BOARD ii has been laid on the training of the hands and on what is now popularly known as vocational education. Under the direction of Dr. Dillard, the present general agent, the attention of the Board is more and more being con- centrated on the rural schools.^ THE SOUTHERN EDUCATION BOARD The Southern Education Board, organized by the late Robert C. Ogden, was an outgrowth of the Annual Conference for Education in the South. The object of both these organizations will be more definitely stated when rural educational conditions are described.- They must, however, be mentioned at this point because the propaganda in behalf of popular education in the South carried on by them was a factor in crystaUizing Mr. Rockefeller's already profound interest in this particular problem on the estabHshment of the General Education Board. The organizations above described were either limited ^Two additional funds have been created in recent years for the benefit of Negro education : the Anna T. Jeanes Fund for Negro Rural Schools, and the Phelps-Stokes Fund. Miss Jeanes, a native of Pennsylvania, after giving $200,000 in trust to the General Education Board (see p. 202), the income to be expended on Negro rural schools, gave $1,000,000 to a Board organized at her request by Dr. H. B. Frissell and Dr. Booker T. Washington. Dr. Dillard is president of the Board and director of the Fund, which is now utilized to maintain county supervising industrial teachers, cooperating with the public school authorities. See pp. 196-8. The Phelps-Stokes Fund, approximately $1,000,000, left by Miss Caroline Phelps Stokes to a Board of Trustees, is now supporting out of its income a study of leading Negro schools and colleges, and certain fel- lowships at the University of Georgia and the University of Virginia for the study of the Negro problem. 2 See pp. 179-180. 12 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD in point of duration, like the Peabody Fund, or lacked permanent endowment, like the Southern Education Board. It was obvious, therefore, that there was room for still another type of institution — an institution perma- nent in character, and with an assured income, devoted in part, at least, to cooperation with the Southern people in the development of a comprehensive educational policy. For some years previous to the organization of the General Education Board, Mr. Rockefeller's atten- tion had been directed to the needs of the people of the South, both white and colored, and particularly to the existing conditions in respect to elementary education. Its charter was so drawn as to enable the General Edu- cation Board to enter this field. While the precise part to be undertaken was not defined in advance, Mr. Rocke- feller, in making his first gift to the Board, called at- tention to the educational needs of the people of the Southern states and indicated his special interest therein. EDUCATIONAL SURVEY OF THE SOUTH Accordingly, the Board, through its Secretary, as- sisted by several field agents, at once set to work to acquire a thorough knowledge of conditions in the South- ern states. To use the phrase now current, surveys were planned, state by state. In the fall of 1902 a conference of the County Superintendents of Georgia was held at the State University at Athens. Among the questions informally discussed were finance, supervision, school consolidation, Negro education, etc. Similar confer- HISTORY OF THE BOARD 13 ences in Virginia, the Carolinas, Florida, and other states followed. Subsequently, detailed field studies were made and separate state monographs prepared, deahng with the organization of the public school system, its finances, the number and character of school buildings, the num- ber, training, and pay of public school teachers, private and public secondary schools, institutions for the higher education of women, schools for the training of teachers, and schools, public and private, for the education of Negroes. These monographs were distributed to members of the General Education Board and were kept on file in the ofiice of the Board. They were not published, because no good purpose was at that time to be subserved thereby. However, in httle more than the decade that has passed since that time, the general educational situation in the Southern states has been so largely transformed that the facts contained in these documents now possess considerable historic interest. In subsequent pages they will be utilized by way of showing the rapid improve- ments that have taken place. ^ POLICY OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD But the studies just referred to did more than supply facts. For out of them a conclusion of far-reaching importance soon emerged. They convinced the Board that no fund, however large, could, by direct gifts, con- tribute a system of public schools; that even if it were ^See pp. 72-77; 181-184. 14 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD possible to develop a system of public schools by private gifts, it would be a positive disservice. The best thing in connection with public school education is the doing of it. The public school must represent community ideals, community initiative, and community support, even to the point of sacrifice. The General Education Board could be helpful only by respecting this funda- mental truth. It therefore felt its way cautiously, con- scious of the difficulty, complexity, and delicacy of the situation. It hoped to aid, not by foisting upon the South a program from outside, but by cooperating with Southern leaders in sympathetically working out a pro gram framed by them on the basis of local conditions and local considerations. The several steps taken in con- sequence of this attitude will be described in detail in this volume. It will be observed that the Board has scrupulously maintained the position above defined: it has cooperated, not interfered. The fines on which cooperation could profitably take place have been ar- rived at as the result of conference between national, state, and local authorities, competent unofficial ob- servers, and the officers and members of the General Education Board. The experience of over a decade has conclusively proved that on this basis endowed agencies can perform valuable public service in a democracy. II. RESOURCES AND EXPENDITURES PENDING the steps necessary to incorporation, Mr. Rockefeller in 1902 gave $1,000,000 to the General Education Board. In making his in- itial gift,^ Mr Rockefeller referred to the fact that he understood it to be the immediate intention of the Board to devote itself to studying the needs and aiding to promote the educational interests of the people of the Southern states It was stipulated that the principal be used in the Southern states and that it be expended during a period of ten years. GIFTS TO ENDOWMENT The first permanent endowment, received June 30, 1905, and amounting to $10,000,000, was expressly de- signed to furnish -an income ''to be distributed to, or used for the benefit of, such institutions of learning, at such times, in such amounts, for such purposes, and under such conditions, or employed in such other ways as the Board may deem best adapted to promote a compre- hensive system of higher education in the United States."^ ^Mr. Rockefeller's letters announcing his gifts to the General Education Board, with the letters of the Board in reply, are given in full in Appendix II, pp. 216-223. 2 The limitations on the use of this gift were subsequently removed. 15 i6 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD In February, 1907, a further gift of $32,000,000 was made, "one third to be added to the permanent endow- ment of the Board; two thirds to be applied to such specific objects within the corporate purposes of the Board" as Mr. Rockefeller or Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., might direct, '' the remainder not so designated, at the death of the survivor, to be added to the permanent en- dowment of the Board."^ This addition to endowment was accompanied by no restriction whatsoever as to the specific educational objects to which its income was to be devoted. On July 7, 1909, Mr. Rockefeller increased his bene- factions by the gift of an additional $10,000,000, at the same time authorizing and empowering the Board, in its discretion, to distribute its entire principal or any part thereof, and releasing the Board from the obKgation to hold his gifts in perpetuity. Besides the sums above specified as contributed by Mr. Rockefeller, the Board re- ceived, April 17, 1905, the sum of $200,000 from Miss Anna T. Jeanes for the '^assistance of the Negro rural schools in the South. "^ At the present time the Board's resources are valued at $33,939,156.89, of which $30,918,063.80 is general endow- ment and $3,021,093.09 reserve fund. The gross income 1 Out of the sum thus subject to distribution, and its accrued income, the following gifts have been made: (a) To the University of Chicago $13,554,343.99 (b) To the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research . 10,267,022 . 10 (c) To the General Education Board 1,239,830.38 See pp. 223. $25,061,196.47 RESOURCES AND EXPENDITURES 17 from these funds for the year 1913-14 was $2,417,079.62. In addition the Anna T. Jeanes Fund of $200,000 yielded a gross income of $9,231.64. APPROPRIATIONS In accordance with the terms of its charter, the Board has initiated several distinct, though related, lines of activity which will be described in this volume. Its appropriations up to June 30, 19 14, have been as follows: Golleges and Universities $10,582,591.80 Medical Schools 2,670,874.11 Negro Colleges and Schools 699,781.13 Miscellaneous Schools 159,991.02 Professors of Secondary Education . . . 242,861.09 Southern Education Board 97,126.23 Rural School Agents (both races) . . . 104,443.18 Farm Demonstration Work — South (in- cluding Boys' and Girls' Clubs) . . . 925,750.00 Farm Demonstration Work — Maine and New Hampshire (including Boys' and Girls' Clubs) 50,876.45 Rural Organization Service 37,166.66 Educational Conferences 18,108.23 Administrative Expenses ' 304,794.99 Total . . . . • $15,894,364.89 III. FARM DEMONSTRATIONS IT WILL be remembered that Mr. Rockefeller's first gift to the General Education Board was designed to support an inquiry into the educational needs of the Southern people. To the ofiicers and members of the Board who visited the South for personal study, it soon became clear that more favorable economic conditions must be attained before comprehensive school systems could be supported by taxation. The Southern people were not educationally apathetic; on the contrary, popu- lar education, unknown to the antebellum regime, had come to be an object of ardent desire in the three decades that had passed between 1870 and 1900; sig- nificant steps had already been taken in many states, and generous private subscriptions were being added to public taxation. But adequate developments could not take place until the available resources of the people were greatly enlarged. School systems could not be given to them, and they were not prosperous enough to support them. Such was the situation reduced to its simplest terms. EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH A few of the facts gathered at the time by the Board will make this point clear. The state school fund of Alabama 18 FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 19 for the year ending September 30, 1903, was $1,167,887.90; in Georgia, the total from both state and local sources was somewhat less; the total net disbursements of Missis- sippi that year were a Httle less than $1,900,000; in Ten- nessee, expenditures were slightly in excess of $2,600,000. The remaining Southern states did not vary materially from the examples cited. These sums were obviously inadequate to their purposes. In some states they in- cluded amounts raised by local taxation; but in general, local levies were either impossible 01 were confined by statute to very narrow Hmits. The real difficulty became strikingly apparent when the details essential to the organization and conduct of a school system were examined. Salaries were uniformly low and clerical assistance extremely meagre. The State Superintendent of Alabama was paid $2,500 annually, with a total allowance for clerks of $4,400; in North Carolina, $2,000 and $2,500 respectively were appropri- ated; in South CaroHna, $1,900 and $900; in Tennessee, $2,000 and $1,920. Georgia prescribed no qualifications forits State'' Commissioner of Education"; in Mississippi, only an age qualification existed; Tennessee made a vague professional requirement; Virginia specified in general terms "an experienced educator." Matters were even less satisfactory in respect to the county superin tendency. The average salary of these officers in Alabama in 1902 was $575 a year; in Louisi- ana, $482; in Virginia, $399.75. Clearly the county su- perintendent could not as a rule devote himself wholly to 20 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD his educational duties, and it was not to be expected that the post would usually be filled by specially trained men. At this same period the white teachers of Alabama were receiving average annual salaries of $151.84; col- ored teachers, $95.53; in South Carohna, $195.28 and $79.47 respectively; in Louisiana, white and colored together, $254. The average throughout the United States was at this time $516. The per capita expenditure on school children ranged from $3.38 in North Carolina to $7.43 in Louisiana, while in the country at large it stood at $15.08. In Georgia, the county school term averaged 5.2 months; in Mississippi, a four-months' term was required by statute; in Tennessee, the county term varied from fifty-five days in Claiborne County to one hundred and forty-five in Bedford; the statutory require- ment in Virginia was a term of five months or 100 days.^ Under these circumstances the entire organization was necessarily inefficient and unsatisfactory. The sal- aries were too low to support a teaching profession and the terms too brief to engage the time and energy of the teacher; competent professional training could not ex- ist, satisfactory equipment could not be provided, an^, if provided, could not be utilized. A well-organized state system, conducted by properly quahfied officials effi- ciently supervising comfortable schools in charge of trained teachers during a term of sufficient length, did not a decade ago exist in any Southern state. ^All the illustrations here given are taken from the surveys above mentioned. FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 21 UNFAVORABLE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS But, as has already been stated, these conditions were not primarily due to any lack of interest in popular edu- cation. They were mainly the result of rural poverty. While the average annual earnings of individuals en- gaged in agriculture in the State of Iowa were upward of $1,000, the average earnings of those similarly engaged in some of the Southern states were as low as $150. Nor were these meagre agricultural incomes supple- mented by disproportionately large returns from mines or manufactures. Eighty-five per cent, of the Southern population was rural in character. Trade did not there- fore supply what the farm' failed to produce. The great bulk of the people of the Southern states was simply not earning enough to provide proper homes and to support good schools. Whatever the other deficiencies, the prime need was money. It was obvious that the General Education Board could render no substantial educational service to the South until the farmers of the South could provide themselves with larger incomes. The resources of the soil were ample or would become so under scientific cultivation; the climate was highly favorable to general rural pros- perity. But the Southern farmer suffered from lack of scientific knowledge of agriculture, knowledge available, indeed, though never effectually distributed to the people. It was necessary to improve Southern agricul- ture. How could this be done? 22 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The Board was advised to address itself to the rising generation — that is, to support the teaching of agricul- ture in the common schools. After thoughtful consid- eration this plan was rejected. In the absence of trained teachers, the effort was impracticable; moreover, there were no funds with which to pay such teachers, and the instruction itself would not materially contribute to its own support. Finally, it was impossible to force intelli- gent agricultural instruction upon schools whose patrons were not themselves aHve to the deficiencies of their own agricultural methods. Until the pubKc was convinced of the feasibihty of superior and more productive meth- ods, the pubhc schools could not be reconstructed; once the pubhc was convinced, and by reason thereof better able to stand the increased cost, the schools would natu- rally and inevitably readjust themselves. It was therefore deliberately decided to undertake the agricultural education not of the future farmer, but of the present farmer, on the theory that, if he could be sub- stantially helped, he would gladly support better schools in more and more hberal fashion. The Board, therefore, set about an extensive inquiry as to the best means of conveying to the average working farmer of the South, in his manhood, the most eflScient known methods of intelli- gent farming. ORIGIN OF THE FARM DEMONSTRATION The extension of the so-called Cooperative Farm Demonstration movement resulted from this investiga- FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 23 tion. The story of its inception and expansion is not without strong human interest. In the first place, the Secretary of the Board spent almost a year under its authorization in seeking to discover the most effective methods of teaching improved agricultural methods to adult farmers. Agricultural schools in various parts of the United States and Canada were studied: the MacDonald College at St. Anne, Quebec; the Agricultural College of Ontario at Guelph; the agricultural colleges of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Texas. By a fortunate coin- cidence Dr. Seaman A. Knapp chanced at this time to be lecturing on the farm demonstration method at the last- named institution. The Mexican cotton boll weevil was just beginning its devastations. As the pest spread, a panic had taken place in Texas. Cotton was the principal crop, and the days of its profitable cultivation seemed to be numbered. Farms were abandoned and counties well-nigh depopu- lated. Acting for the United States Department of Agriculture, Dr. Knapp in 1903 established a community demonstration farm at Terrell, Texas, for the purpose of showing farmers how cotton could be raised despite the boll weevil, with such success, indeed, that, from one point of view, the boll -weevil curse proved a sort of bless- ing in disguise. By means of the improved methods employed by Dr. Knapp, the production of cotton was actually increased and normal business conditions were accordingly restored. If the demonstration method paid in dealing with a pest-ridden farm, was there not every 24 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD reason to suppose that it would pay still more hand- somely where no handicap at all existed? In Dr. Knapp's farm demonstration work, limited at that time to com- bating the boll weevil, the General Education Board found the answer to its search for a method of delivering the existing knowledge of effective agricultural processes to present farmers. Shortly afterward, the executive officers of the General Education Board — the Chairman and the Secretary — met Dr. Knapp in Washington in a series of conferences. Dr. Knapp's varied agricultural activities and experience were thoroughly discussed — particularly the history and outcome of his efforts in farm demonstration. The feasibility of extending the method as an educational measure was considered — the cost of such extension, the probabiHty of its ultimately supporting itself, the length of time which must probably elapse before any such result could be counted on. It was agreed that the work would permanently affect Southern agricultural prosperity only if it became vitally rooted; that, there- fore, an outside agency engaged in its promotion must regard its part as temporary and experimental. Dr. Knapp was from the outset confident that experience would justify this view. He believed that if the demonstration work could once be started by outside funds in a state, a county, or a community, it would promptly enlist local support ; that it would spread from community to community and from state to state; and that in the end the teaching of agriculture and 1 1 / ^ i^^^L^i ^^fc^'— ^^^fe^^^ Typical stalk of cotton from a field worked under old methods. Note: The weevils have stripped it of all but one boll. FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 25 domestic arts would become an accepted feature of rural education. The program above sketched could not, however, be carried out by the Federal Government, because, at that time, it was held that government funds could be spent only for interstate purposes. Following the success of the experimental demonstration at Terrell, Texas, Congress had made special appropriations for the purpose of combating the boll weevil, and cotton culture farms were estabhshed by Dr. Knapp throughout the infested region ; but, as the appropriation was based on the theory that the weevil was an interstate menace and, only as such, a legitimate object of Federal concern, the money was not available for strictly educational uses. The cooperation of the General Education Board made the educational application of the idea possible. While still retaining his connection with the Department of Agriculture, Dr. Knapp readily accepted an offer made by the Board to finance the educational extension of farm demonstrations, entering into the scheme with all the vigor and enthusiasm of youth. The United States Department of Agriculture became a party to the neces- sary arrangements. An agreement, signed April 20, 1906, by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of the General Education Board, provided that ^'The farmers' cooperative work, in which the General Educa- tion Board is to become interested, shall be entirely dis- tinct in territory and finance from that carried on solely by the Department of Agriculture" and that ^' the United 00 o On "5 c§ en-" O 2 OJ "3 3 a> "rt'cS'cS rt aaaa tn U3 tn en <0 ''.'^?SMBB| K 'S hh Agent of demonstration work, owner and overseer on the Grinnan Plantation at Terrell, Texas; 3,500 acres in improved varieties of cotton and corn. Figure 7. Fann Demonstration in the State of Maine. (Stars mark counties in which demonstrations are in progress. Figure 8. Farm Demonstration in the State of New Hampshire. (Stars mark counties in which demonstrations are in progress ,) FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 45 twenty of whom were supported by the government, four by the General Education Board; thirty-six the next year, twenty-one on the government pay-roll, fifteen on that of the General Education Board; one hundred and fifty-six in 1908, seventy-one paid by the government, eighty-five by the General Education Board. By 191 2 there was a roster of 639 agents, not counting 155 agents assigned to the girls' and boys' clubs which were, as we shall see, an important outgrowth of the demonstration movement. ENLARGEMENT DOES NOT AFFECT METHOD Too often extension involves mechanization and con- sequent sterilization of educational method; with an in- crease of numbers, either inferior persons are employed, or verbal explanation addressed to masses supplants con- crete experiment or demonstration. In the present instance no such deterioration has taken place. The in- struction has remained concrete and individual ; and the development on the social side has served only to in- augurate additional concrete and individual experiments. Four general field agents now keep the central authority in close touch with the work ; they are on the lookout for local difficulties; in addition, they appoint times and places for bringing together state and local agents for conference and instruction. Thus the main principles of the work are constantly kept prominently before those on whom, in the end, success depends. Each state is supervised by its own state agent, assisted by district 46 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD agents in charge of from fifteen to twenty-five local agents. The state and district agents make frequent excursions with the local representative, examining into the loca- tion of farms, assure themselves as to the quahty of the local supervision, and communicate observations made in other sections of their territory. The local agent is absolutely responsible for the number and success of the experiments under way in his field; for the amount of enthusiasm generated; for the extent and variety of other activities, social and individual, following in its wake. The tests appHed are throughout actual, and as long as this is the case extension involves no perils to the spirit and outcome of the movement. appropriations: government, general education board, and other sources The initial appropriation of the General Education Board in 1905 was $7,000. At that time the government was devoting $40,000 to demonstrations directed against the boll weevil. The Board appropriated $30,900 the next year, $76,500 two years later, $130,000 in 191 1, and $252,000 in 19 13. These sums were unevenly distrib- uted: in 1908-9, $4,000 was spent in Florida, $15,000 in Virginia; the next year, $19,000 in Virginia, $30,000 in Georgia; in 1911-12, $23,000 in South CaroHna, $25,000 in North CaroHna. For the current year the appro- priation for Maine was $19,500, for New Hampshire $10,000. The following table summarizes the total cost of the Figure 9. Map of Bulloch County Demon a^r-a^/o/1 Work m District figen^- %. Loca/ Agents • Deman^^fo^ion Fa O Co-oper-ai-ion Farrns This illustrates how the farmers of a county are reached. 48 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD Southern work thus far and shows the sources of the funds by means of which it has been carried on : Year Government General Education Board Other Sources 1903-04 1904-05 1905-06 1906-07 1907-08 1908-09 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 $27,316.04 40,163.29 40,000.00 40,000.50 85,901.85 105,370.34 229,449.17 258,825.83 363,792.19 356,481.31 375,000.00 $7,000.00 30,900.00 69,300.00 76,500.00 102,000.00 118,000.00 130,000.00 140,050.00 252,000.00 $2,800.00 4,200.00 14,297.00 33,714-41 76,622.06 175,054.13 272,568.57 1490,149.08 Totals $1,922,300.52 $925,750.00 $1,069,405.25 By all odds the most important contributions are those designated as coming from ''other sources." The govern- ment had in the first place undertaken to deal with the boll weevil; the General Education Board had supported a straightout educational application of the farm demon- stration; and success had promptly achieved the most significant result that outside assistance can ever achieve — it had led the Southern people to help themselves out of the very first profits of their new insight. In less than a decade, ''other sources" — i. e., the South- ern people themselves, were paying almost 50 per cent. of a total annual expenditure approaching $i,2oo,cxxd, 1 Approximate. FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 49 thus vindicating the policy on which the Board had acted. SELF-HELP The tendency to self-help showed itself very early. Already in 1909, the Virginia legislature created an Agricultural Board with an appropriation of $15,000, which was used in actively supporting the demonstra- tion work; more than a dozen counties made additional appropriations ranging from $300 to $500 apiece. In the same year, $5,360 was locally raised in North Carolina; $6,000 in South Carohna. The next year the Alabama legislature gave $25,000; the Arkansas legislature au- thorized cooperation on the part of the counties . In 1 9 1 2 , Georgia raised something less than $14,000, contributed by the State Agricultural College, various Chambers of Commerce, business men, and local committees. Funds obtained in this manner represent the conviction, effort, and sacrifice of those who are to be benefited — a moral as well as material contribution. The initial demonstra- tion had to be financed from the outside, had also to be temporarily sustained from the outside. But from the moment that results appeared, local support was due. The preceding account shows how promptly and gener- ously it came forth. In the end, the increased resources of the South will fully sustain whatever further demon- strations may be necessary. The whole incident fur- nishes a perfect illustration of the valuable part that can be played by private beneficence. Governmental bodies can with difficulty undertake educational experimenta- 50 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD tion on radically new Knes; unofficial organizations are more receptive of new suggestions, can create here or there the conditions required for an experiment, and, as they are unhampered, can command the advice and the ability needed to inaugurate and to develop a novelty. A successful demonstration once made, the work can be turned over to the state, and the funds released may be devoted to the solution of other problems, handled ac- cording to the same general method of procedure. RESULTS Roughly speaking, it is fair to say that the demonstra- tion method doubles the crop to which it is appHed. In 1909, the United States Bureau of Statistics calculated that the average yield in pounds of seed cotton was 503.6 per acre; on demonstration farms taken by them- selves the average was 906.1 pounds; in 1910, the figures were 512. i and 858.9 respectively; in 1911, 624.6 and 1081.8; in 1912, 579.6 and 1054.8. Corn makes a similar showing. The Bureau of Sta- tistics reports an average of 16.7 bushels per acre in 1909 for states in which demonstrations were in progress; on these demonstration farms, however, the average was 31.7 bushels per acre; subsequent years were as follows: Average bushels corn Average bushels corn per acre taking per acre on entire states demonstration farms 1910 .... 19.3 35-3 1911 .... 15-8 33-2 1912 .... 19.6 35.4 Improved farming implements being explained to Negro farmers by colored District Demonstration Agent T. M. Campbell, of Tuskegee Institute, Alabama. This is the Jesup wagon, used in conveying from place to place good implements, stock, poultry, etc., that their advan- tages may be explained to demonstrators. A field of prize rye grown under the direction of colored Demonstration Agent Jas. A. Booker (on left), Mound Bayou, Miss., 1910. FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 51 No matter how the figures are studied, the same equally favorable results emerge. In Mississippi, for example — to take a single state — an acre of land yielded in 1907 on the average 17 bushels of corn, or 228 pounds of lint cotton; a demonstration acre yielded, however, 35 bush- els of corn or 445 pounds of hnt cotton. In Alabama, in the same year, average acres yielded 15.5 bushels of corn, 169 pounds of cotton; demonstration acres, 37.6 bushels of corn, 428 pounds of cotton. The poorer the season, the more clearly the demon- stration method proves its superiority. The year 191 1 was a poor one for crop raising in the South. Drought was severe and prolonged. In Texas and Oklahoma it was indeed the culmination of a dry period covering three successive seasons. Thousands of acres planted in corn produced nothing at all. Oklahoma, taken as a whole, averaged in consequence only 6.5 bushels of corn to the acre, Texas only 9. Yet the demonstration farms aver- aged 13 bushels per acre in Oklahoma, and over 22 in Texas. Under the unfavorable boll-weevil conditions in Louisiana, 33,622 demonstration acres averaged 1063.5 pounds of seed cotton as against an average of 522 pounds per acre for the entire state. The work can also be viewed from the standpoint of the farmer's financial profit. In Alabama, for example, in 191 2, the average yield of Hnt cotton was 173 pounds per acre; but demonstration acres averaged 428.3 pounds. Demonstration methods, therefore, netted the farmer 255.3 pounds per acre. At the average price of $65 a 52 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD bale for lint and seed, the farmer made an extra $33 per acre; as there were 8,221 acres under cultivation on the demonstration method, the total gain was $271,000. In the same year, 7,402 acres were under cultivation in demonstration corn. Demonstration acres averaged 26.9 bushels more per acre than the general average for the state. The demonstration farmers of the state pocketed $139,379.66 in consequence. DIVERSIFICATION OF CROPS Though corn and cotton have been most frequently instanced in this account, local conditions have been everywhere considered, and efforts to diversify production have been increasing. In Virginia, for instance, it was soon perceived that south of the James River the former tobacco lands, covered with sedge grass and pine brush, had been largely impoverished. The tobacco area had been gradually reduced. After studying the situation, it was decided to try the substitution of hay and corn for the tobacco crop, with the ultimate purpose of developing a dairy and stock country. Six years later, the general agent could report that in counties where demonstra- tions were in progress 15,000 acres were seeded to mixed grasses; that interest in grass culture was rapidly growing, and that 2,000 acres had been seeded in demonstration alfalfa during the past year. Similar phenomena could be cited from every other state. In South Carolina, for example, vetch, oats, rye, crimson clover, cowpeas, and hay are now raised on demonstration farms. The farm- FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 53 ers of the state had previously been prejudiced against the cultivation of grasses. A regular campaign of educa- tion was undertaken. Two special demonstrators were enlisted; the seeding was done in late September, 191 1; the hay cut and cured in the spring and summer of 191 2. There were but two failures as contrasted with many pro- nounced successes. At a total cost of $41.20, one farmer near Lowndesville produced 12,300 pounds of hay worth approximately $125. In Maine, demonstrations were made in market gardening, orcharding, and potato grow- ing, as well as in general farming; in New Hampshire, orcharding and dairying have been particularly empha- sized. Meanwhile, whatever the crop, the demonstration agent is everywhere the evangehst of better things : *' Our work is not Hmited to better cultural methods and to securing better crops," writes Dr. Knapp. ''Every agent is instructed to insist upon a general clearing up of the farm and an improvement in all farm equipment, especially comfortable houses, better barns, stronger teams, better implements, removal of brush patches, and the establishment of good pastures." Hence the beneficent results of the farm demonstra- tion work are not limited to financial profit and cannot be entirely measured in money. The disorganization characteristic of rural life and of the agencies concerned with it tends to disappear before the types of cooperation and intercourse that the demonstration movement has initiated. Colleges of agriculture, farmers' institutes, and agricultural high schools have been brought into 54 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD increasingly intimate relation. These contacts are trans- lating themselves into social and educational terms. Indeed the social and educational awakening of the rural South is to some extent at least a by-product of the cooperative demonstration movement. DEMONSTRATION AMONG NEGRO FARMERS The Negro farmer has been quick to take advantage of such opportunities in demonstration work as have been offered to him. In his very first report Dr. Knapp writes: *'As the bulk of the cotton crop is produced by colored laborers and tenants, all our agents are not only instructed but of their own choice select colored farmers as demonstrators, visiting them regularly and giving them every attention." In some states, colored local agents work under the white state agent. At Mound Bayou, in the delta region of Mississippi, under a colored local agent, six demonstrations were started in 1907; forty-one were in operation the following year, and the sum of $50 was raised by the colored people themselves for prizes. In Virginia a somewhat different plan is pursued, a district agent, reporting directly to Washing- ton, being in charge . Hampton and Tuskegee Institutes, and many other industrial and agricultural schools for Negroes, have played essential parts in this development. Their training has produced agents and teachers, who go out into life persuaded that the fate of the race depends primarily on improved economic efficiency. Frequently, throughout the year, the Negro farmers of the neighbor- Negro demonstrator's home ''Before and after." A little whitewash, a httle cleaning up, and the fences straightened. FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 55 hood or state are brought together to see and to value each other's product. Pride and solidarity are thus built up. The precise results due to demonstration efforts among Negro farmers are difficult to give, because many colored farmers are enrolled under white agents; but the number of colored agents is gradually increasing. In 19 10 there were twenty- three; the next year thirty- two. At the latter date, 3,709 Negro farmers were reported by name, and it was estimated by the Department that 20,000 were under instruction. The results were as good as those obtained by the whites: in South Carolina, for example (where, by the way, 56 per cent, of the farms are operated by Negroes without white supervision), there were, in 191 1, 570 acres of cotton and 449 acres of corn under demonstration by Negroes. The average yield per acre throughout the state was 795 pounds of seed cotton, and 18.2 bushels of corn: the Negro demonstrators averaged 1567.9 pounds of seed cotton, and 38.1 bushels of corn. The gain in money at current prices ap- proximated $24,000. Among Negroes, as among whites, the work tends to expand in scope. Demonstrators are instructed to pro- cure information regarding the rural economy of the Negro farmers : how many plow in the fall, have summer and winter gardens, keep a cow, care for poultry, have pigs, etc. At Snow Hill, Alabama, the Negro demonstra- tors have formed a club and agreed on "sl standard," requiring every member to possess an enclosed garden, 56 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ''in which something must be kept growing the year round; to keep at least one hog for each member of his family, not less than thirty hens, and one or two cows ; to preserve or can fruits sufficient for the family's demand; to plant shrubs, and whitewash the house, and to take at least one agricultural paper." Local agents report many instances of improved farm equipment due to demonstration work: home gardens, wire fences, new mules, harvesters, riding cultivators, grain drills, en- larged houses, cleaned premises, and the Hberal use of whitewash. The farm demonstrator and the farm dem- onstration arouse pride and stimulate energy. The net outcome has never been more picturesquely summed up than by a Negro farmer in Virginia : '^ You done turned de kivers down and waked us up." The account above given must not, however, convey the idea that farm demonstrations now cover the field. This is not the case; the work is far from adequate to the need and the demand. Five hundred Southern counties had not been reached at all at the end of 191 2; needless to say that perhaps no single county has been exhaustively worked and many have been barely touched. There is also every reason to believe that the demon- stration method has significance for North, East, and West — not for the South alone. At best a substantial experiment has been successfully performed; it remains to make a general application of the method. Fortu- nately the value of demonstration has been so clear that the Federal Government will now take over and extend A field meeting with the agents. A boy's demonstration crop (1909). FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 57 purely educational farm demonstrations; success has dissipated the constitutional scruple that for the past ten years has restricted governmental activities in this direction to plague-infested states. Needless to remark, however, the final result will be disappointing unless the movement is dominated by the spirit which was infused into it by its founder; unless the same standards of fitness continue to prevail in the selection of the ever- increasing army of employees who will be required for its extension, and the same constant regard for con- crete results remains the test appKed to the outcome. On the other hand, the progress of the movement has itself created new problems; for the transportation and marketing facihties of the South are already inadequate to advantageous disposition of increased and diversified products. Thus in a Hving and developing society the solution of one difiiculty invariably involves the creation of others. Meanwhile, Dr. Knapp's vision is fairly on the way to realization. "It will take time to transform the methods of the average farmer," he wrote at the outset, ''but if our plans are persistently followed, the beneficent results are as sure as the light from to-morrow's sun." boys' corn clubs The farm demonstration work was designed to reach adult farmers. Obviously, the need for instruction of this type would, in the long run, disappear if, so to speak, the farmer were caught younger. The boys' corn club was designed to accompKsh this end. Sporadic clubs 58 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD had already been organized by a few county superin- tendents of education, when in 1908 Dr. Knapp appro- priated and made the most of the idea. As far as possible, every boy should plant an acre of corn on his father's farm; in every neighborhood there should be a local boys' corn club; next, county and state organizations; finally, a federation of corn clubs, including every South- ern state. Local, county, and state prizes should be awarded; the topmost boys should be sent to Washington, to meet the Secretary of Agriculture and to shake hands with the President. The expanded idea was an effort to appeal to the boy's imagination — assuredly an effective way of dignifying the farming occupation. But the shrewd old teacher knew that merely decorative distinc- tions would in the long run prove ineffective. The boy, therefore, was to sell his crop and pocket the money! A club consists essentially of a group of boys varying in number from twenty-five to one hundred, and ranging in age from ten to eighteen. Corn and cotton are both cultivated, but corn is preferred: first, because the South needs more corn; secondly, because corn lends itself better to study and selection. As a rule, each member works a plot of one acre. The county superintendent of education is usually in charge. Appointed special agent of the Department of Agriculture with a nominal salary of one dollar a year, he obtains the franking privilege which enables him to procure reports from the boys and to disseminate information and instruction among them. But, more and more, other agencies also undertake to FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 59 cooperate, prominent among them being state colleges of agriculture, of which nine were regularly connected with the work in the year 191 2. ^ The club enrolment has increased with great rapidity, as the following figures testify : Year Enrolment of Boys 1908 ....... 10,343 1909 45.000 T.910 46,225 1911 51,178 1912 69,958 1913 9i,ooo(approx.) The growth of club work is itself the best proof of the enthusiasm excited and the substantial material results achieved. Nor has its influence been limited to the boys; for the crops raised have set new standards and opened new vistas for the adult farmer. In 19 10, for example, the boys' clubs of Holmes County, Mississippi, averaged 76 bushels of corn per acre, while their fathers were averaging 16. In the same season, 100 boys in various parts of the South averaged 133.7 bushels, and one boy produced over 200; the following season, 100 boys averaged 137.48 bushels, 7 boys raised over 200; in 1911, 471 made over 100 bushels to the acre; in 191 2, 493 . In the awarding of prizes for these notable perform- ances various factors are taken into consideration and credit is given accordingly: 30 per cent, is allowed for 3deld, 30 per cent, for the showing of profit, 20 per cent. ^ The expenses of carrjdng on the boys' club work have been defrayed out of the appropriations for farm demonstrations. 6o THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD for the best ten ears, 20 per cent, for the best written report. The standards are thus concrete, but not merely quantitative. The instances above cited represent, of course, the most favorable results; but the general average of the boys is, as the following figures show, strikingly superior to results otherwise obtained : State Average Yield on Average Yield on Boy's Acre Similar Lands Alabama 62.3 17.2 Arkansas 49.5 22. Florida 38.58 8. Georgia 56.4 14. Louisiana 55.32 20.24 Mississippi 66.3 18. North Carolina 62.8 20. Oklahoma 48. 22.63 South Carolina 68.79 18.5 Tennessee 91.46 35-5 Texas 38. 24. Virginia 59.5 20. The corn club, like the farm demonstration, is, how- ever, at best as yet only a successful experiment; it remains to be extended and developed. There can be little doubt that, if wisely handled, this movement among farm boys of school age will be the means of en- riching the rural school by associating it closely with the natural interests and environment of its pupils. The boys are "learning by doing." Instead of studying text- FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 6i books on agriculture, instead of simply listening to ex- planation and exhortation, they are performing practical agricultural tasks — tasks which form the basis of school work on the subject. Meanwhile, the mere pecuniary outcome is far from negligible. The following incident is typical : Driving through Macon County, Alabama, not long ago, two strangers observed, in a large field of ordinary corn, a patch standing out like a miniature skyscraper. They dismounted to interview the owner. A Negro boy approached. ''Is this your corn?" "Yes, sir." "How did you come to grow it? " "One of Dr. Knapp's men showed me, sir." "Why did you plant it so far apart in the rows?" "Because, sir, most aU that grows comes from the sunshine and the air." "When did you plow? " "Last fall, sir." "Why?" "To make plant food during the winter." "Where did you get your fertilizer? " "From the bottom, sir." "How many times did you cultivate?" "Six times, sir." "Why?" "Because there's water down next to the clay, and when I don't plow the sun draws it all away." 62 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD *' When did you put in the cowpeas? " *^ After the last plowing, sir." ''What did you do that for?" "Because the cowpeas get out of the air nitrogen, and put back in the ground about as much as the corn takes out." How many valuable lessons had this remote Negro lad learned from doing one job right! But this is not the end of the story. His double crop was worth $5 2 . From his pocket he pulled a dirty little pass-book, the entries in which showed what the crop had cost. Reckoning his own time at ten cents an hour and his father's mule at a dollar a day, he netted a profit of $30 to the acre. His younger sister, it appeared, had had an equally profitable quarter of an acre in cotton. Three years later both were students at Tuskegee, paying for their education with the money earned as club workers. girls' canning and poultry clubs Father and son were reached by the methods above described; mother and daughter remained to be dealt with. ''The demonstration work," wrote Dr. Knapp in his report under date October, 1910, "has proven that it is possible to reform by simple means the economic life and the personality of the farmer on his farm. The Boys' Corn Clubs have likewise shown how to turn the attention of the boy toward the farm. There remains the home itself — and its women and girls. This problem cannot be approached directly. The reformer who tells FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 63 the farmer and his wife that their entire home system is wrong will meet with failure. With these facts in view, I have begun a work among girls to teach one simple and straightforward lesson which will open their eyes to the possibihties of adding to the family income through simple work in and about the home." Something of the kind had indeed already started near Aiken, South Carolina, where Miss Marie Cromer had purchased a canning outfit and organized some canning clubs among the girls of the vicinity, tomatoes having been chosen as the most available garden vegetable. Once more Dr. Knapp seized upon an idea, and in vision saw it encompassing the entire South. He saw in it a means of importing a new interest into the home, of bringing about cooperation in domestic tasks between mother and daughter, of encouraging rural families to provide better food at lower cost by utiHzing orchard and garden products, of providing girls a way of earning money, of furnishing teachers a method of helping entire communities. The method is simple : each girl takes one tenth of an acre and is taught how to select the seed, to plant, culti- vate, and perfect the growth of the tomato plant. Mean- while, portable canning outfits have been provided, to be set up out of doors — in the orchard or the garden — and trained teachers of domestic science instruct the local teachers in the best methods. When the tomatoes are ripe, the girls come together, now at one home, now at another, to can the product. It is done in the most up- 64 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD to-date fashion. The girls are taught the necessity oi scrupulous cleanHness; they sterilize utensils and cans, seal and label, and indeed manufacture an easily market- able product. Naturally, other garden produce and poultry soon become objects of interest and care. A representative exhibit would contain pears and peaches, chow-chow and tomato soy, mustard pickles and pickled onions, corn on the cob and preserved plums. The girls write essays on the ''Life History of the Tomato and Its Uses," ''Gardening and Canning Arithmetic," "The Value of Vegetables in the Daily Diet," "How to Set a Table," "How to Cook a Piece of Meat," and so on. They have to draw sketches of their plots, to figure out and report on the cost of their crop and its market value. A prize is bestowed on the girl who gives the greatest number of recipes for the prepa- ration of a given vegetable. All sorts of things thus im- mediately relate themselves to the job of canning. The enrolment duplicates the experience of the boys' clubs. Three hundred and twenty-five girls were registered the first year; 3,000 the next; 23,550 in the year following; in 1 9 13 there were upward of 30,000 in fourteen differ- ent states. This army of workers was under the general direction of the special agent in the Department of Agri- culture in charge of the Farm Demonstration work, acting through the trained women who were the state and county agents. Headquarters were attached to the state agricultural college, a normal school, or other educational institution. Where the appointment of a A club member and her well-tended plant full of fruit. FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 65 special agent was not feasible, the corn club agent served. By the close of the season 191 2, 134 agents were in the field: 15 each in Alabama and North Caro- lina, 14 in Mississippi, 12 in South Carolina, and 11 in Georgia. The entire expense of the Girls' Canning Club work has at all times been borne by the General Education Board except for local contributions. In 191 1, an in- itial appropriation of $5,000 was made; $25,000 the fol- lowing year; in May, 1913, the appropriation of the Board for this purpose was $75,000. Though the na- tional government through the Department of Agricul- ture has had entire control and supervision, it has borne no part of the expense. The states in which the work is now going forward on this basis are Maryland, Vir- ginia, West Virginia, North CaroHna, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The average profit made by girls reporting in twelve states was $21.98; but not a few made sums far in excess. A Lincoln County-, Mississippi, girl realized a net profit just under $100 on her 950 cans of tomatoes; a neighbor made 1,008 cans with a profit to herself of $77.73; a girl living in Aiken County, South CaroKna, netted $60.51. Nor are these figures rough guesses. The accounts are, in these instances, carefully kept. They reckon rent, cost of preparing and cultivating the soil, fertilizer, cans, labels, labor, vegetables sold, vegetables used fresh foi home consumption, etc. 66 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The imponderable indirect gains are certainly not less important. Canning club day is a social occasion. Mother prepares something a little extra for luncheon, and asks the aid and instruction of the teacher in charge of the Canning Club. The home is "tidied up," tables are properly set out and decorated, bouquets of wild flowers appear here and there about the rooms. The boys come; mothers and fathers come; the neighborhood is there! Thus social interest is kindled about the doing of something worth while. There follows a spirit of mutual helpfulness, mutual concern, mutual affection. This sort of thing lays the foundation for cooperation in larger and more important things — in the church, in the school, in charities, in business. With the sharpened vision of a man nearing his end. Dr. Knapp saw all this. His last visit to the offices of the General Education Board was for the purpose of arranging the expansion of the girls' club work. He was already stricken with illness, but he was not too feeble to foretell what might be accompHshed through this work for Southern woman- hood. This was indeed his last legacy. EDUCATIONAL INTERPRETATION OF THE DEMONSTRATION MOVEMENT The facts above stated are not to be regarded as indicating an accompHshed transformation. No such transformation has been achieved. The data merely show the existence now of numerous foci of fresh inter- est and activity, which, if multiplied indefinitely, seem FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 67 destined to bring about far-reaching material and social changes. In a broad sense of the term this is assuredly educational work of the most valuable kind. But, on closer scrutiny, it will appear that demonstration work is educational even in the narrower technical sense, and, as such, in line with the entire modern educational move- ment. The work was not begun in pursuance of any educa- tional theory. It embodied the reaction of a fresh mind applied to a specific concrete situation. In the first in- stance, an effort was made to deal with an unsatisfactory agricultural situation by improving the farmer himself. This was, in effect, to create a trade continuation school for agriculturists. The demonstration movement em- bodied, perhaps more or less unconsciously, the idea that a man is a single organic thing; that his education and environment are vitally related to each other; that this relation does not arbitrarily stop until he stops, as dead, or utterly unprogressive; that all his life a really live man ought to be gaining from his environment and re- acting favorably on his environment; that out of this shuttlecock movement come increasing economic security, widening of horizon, and spiritual awakening. The trade continuation school is valuable because it favors this sort of growth for the urban artisan; the farm demonstration work has achieved precisely the same thing for the agri- culturist. Neither Dr. Knapp nor those in the General Education Board who supported him foresaw all this; but the passing of a decade makes it plain to those who survey 6S THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD the field in the effort to ascertain and comprehend what has happened. The boys' corn clubs and the girls' canning clubs may be similarly interpreted. They were, as has been stated above, extremely unpretentious outgrowths of the demon- stration idea. What more natural than that, after the father has been assisted to make more cotton and more corn and better cotton and better corn, the boy should be caught earlier, and the girl taught the domestic sides of improved agricultural processes? The authors of the scheme had no further educational philosophy as its sanction. Indeed, the educational philosopher must, like other philosophers, come after the event. The step was taken to meet a situation; and, like all sound steps similarly taken, it developed unsuspected significance. The Southern club movements may contain the germ of the solution of the vocational problem in the rural districts. They take up relevant, vital, fundamental activities and make them part of the normal process of growth. The activities involved are useful; they are productive; they make f or intelHgent living in the child's environment; they increase his economic competency; they do not tie him to the soil, if any sufficient reason exists for his leaving it; they make him more contented and more efficient, however, if he stays there. They fit in with the more intellectual work in the schoolroom without overburdening the school by making it the sole custodian of the growing child, the sole sponsor for everything he gets — a tendency all too plainly evident in FARM DEMONSTRATIONS 69 urban education ; finally, the clubs develop the capacity for united action and may thus prove the beginning of more effective cooperation in our future rural life. A serious problem would be solved if some form of voca- tional training could be found for the city boy that is equally simple, general, concrete, useful, profitable, broadening, and alUed with other equally valuable con- crete and social activities. There is, however, still another aspect to be pondered. Too often the school devitalizes material in order to adapt it to what are supposed to be schoolroom require- ments. Not only literature and history, but concrete things like physics and chemistry, are thus at times systematized to death. Manual training, though of un- doubted educational value as sense and muscle training, has fallen short of the hopes based upon it, to the extent that it has been formalized. Industrial and vocational training is clearly open to the same danger; for the more or less mechanized imitation of industrial and vocational processes, apart from the exigencies and stimuli of real conditions, may prove to be only another kind of manual training. It is fortunate, indeed, that the rural situ- ation is so far simple that it can be handled on the vocational side, without transferring everything to the school; indeed, without subjecting the vocational sub- ject matter to the processes of refinement and abstraction that are all too apt to result in steriHzation. The Southern club work has wholly escaped this fate, because it has been carried on in normal ways in its natural 70 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD habitat, and because its outcome has been subjected to the real tests of the market. The boys have cultivated a real acre apiece on the farm; the girls have cultivated a real tenth of an acre in the family garden. The boys have measured their corn in current bushels and sold it at market price; the girls have had to comply with the pure food law. The cash return has been larger or smaller, according to the quahty and quantity of the result. The conditions have been precisely those prescribed by the task itself; the incentives have been precisely those that operate upon mature men and women, and the reaHty of both process and result grips the growing boy and girl. For this reason the club work is likely to be a determining influence in life; the activity is actual, the standards are actual, and the results — economic and moral — genuine. IV. SECONDARY EDUCATION ^ MERICAN education is organized in three divi- /\ sions : the graded or elementary school, the high X jL school, and the college or university. During the first two decades succeeding the war, provision was made by law in all the Southern states for the organ- ization of pubHc elementary school systems. In a sub- sequent section of this report^ the state of elementary education in the South will be somewhat fully discussed. Suffice it at this point to say that elementary school systems existed in skeleton at least, and that in the cities especially these skeletons were in process of being endued with flesh and blood. Every state also possessed its State University, usually of antebellum origin, while privately supported colleges were then, as now, superabundant. Under this plan of organization the high school is of strategic importance. Without it, the elementary pupil lacks a powerful incentive to continue his schooling. Moreover, without adequate faciHties in the form of secondary education, a competent body of elementary school teachers cannot be obtained in sufficient numbers; the elementary teachers could have only such education as is furnished by elementary schools, supplemented, per- ^ Section VII (pp. 179-189), dealing with rural education. 71 72 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD haps, by a small amount of normal school training or a brief period in a ''college" or academy. The proper development of elementary education is thus necessarily dependent on the vigor of the high school. The college or university is equally dependent. It is not a question as to whether college standards are high or low; from the standpoint of educational organization this is not the main consideration. An effective college can be developed from any one of several starting-points, a two-year, a three-year, or a four-year high school. Essential only are the precision of the point of depart- ure and close articulation between the two types of in- stitution. A sound system of higher education presup- poses the existence of high schools with adequate courses of study taught during a definite series of years by com- petent instructors. Without such facihties at the sec- ondary school level the college must be formless and relatively ineffective. Thus, higher education, as well as elementary education, is peculiarly dependent on the high school. SOUTHERN HIGH SCHOOLS The educational surveys, to which repeated reference has already been made, dealt, therefore, fully with high school conditions in the several Southern states. A chaotic situation was disclosed. High schools had in- deed been enumerated in reports issued by State De- partments of Education and by the Bureau of Education in Washington. But these statistics were found to be SECONDARY EDUCATION 73 entitled to little credence. Though real high schools had been established in a number of cities, in general, even under the most favorable circumstances, a so-called high school was merely the addition of two or occasionally three grades, with as many rooms and teachers, to an elemen- tary school. Even so, nine years ago, only some thirty or forty schools in Virginia could claim to offer two or three extra grades doing high school work ; and in North Carolina, only thirty-five schools set up a similar claim. For the most part the "high school" reported in the statistics was shadowy and confused in the extreme. It had no separate rooms or instructors, no organized curriculum, no regularly organized classes, no differenti- ation of subject matter according to the qualifications of the teachers. Indeed, the subject matter was limited to what could be taught from textbooks to individuals or small groups; laboratory or other equipment, there was, generally speaking, none. In Alabama, to illustrate, 409 schools were reported in 1902 as teaching high school branches, but no information was obtainable as to what the branches were. There were, for the most part, no definite higher grades. At most, the figures mean that some pupils were studying under highly inauspicious conditions certain subjects not regularly included in the elementary course. Five years later a more critical estimate reduced the number of schools ''attempting high school work" to something like a hundred, of which sixty-one were rated as "auxiliary schools of the State University." But even of these "the majority can 74 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD scarcely be dignified with the title of high school, so limited both in time and content are their 'courses of study.'" Outside of a small number of modest second- ary schools in large towns, the Alabama high school was thus at this period nothing but a more or less uncertain addition to a primary curriculum. Similar conditions existed in other states. Of the high schools of South Carolina, for instance, it was said less than a decade ago that ''few offer a course of study of sufficient length; fewer than one fourth offer more than one course of study; in most, the teaching force is inadequate; and a few are entitled to be called high schools only by courtesy." PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS The lack of public high schools was temporarily, and for the most part very poorly, compensated by numerous private schools and academies, usually meagre in outfit and transient in point of duration. In North CaroHna, for example, there were reported to be 486 secondary schools in 1900; three years later the same authority reports only 283, and of these, 135 were not contained in the previous fist. Not infrequently, where the school endured even so brief a period, its name changed or its location shifted. In Alabama, 206 private schools en- rolling upward of 8,000 pupils and doing both secondary and elementary work were reported in 1902; they were in the main the merest makeshifts, admittedly destined to *'die when better pubHc standards demand the develop- SECONDARY EDUCATION 75 ment of modern public high schools." Similarly, in North Carolina, even in the more important towns : while the Raleigh public school had, for instance, only seven grades, six private schools flourished in the town. Whereas in South CaroHna private schools were less numerous and important, the *' colleges" — superabun- dant as they were — operated "preparatory depart- ments," despite the fact that the "college" was itself, as a rule, merely a sort of high school, "though not regarded as such." Altogether, they had little endow- ment; for the most part they were supported by fees mod- est in the extreme^$6o to $75 a year in towns, and $2.50 a month in the country. In general, no inference as to the character of the enterprise could be made from, the title by means of which these schools were described. A few were semi-collegiate in character; a few were good, though narrow, preparatory schools; others were feeble schools of the same scope; many were hardly more than inefficient primary schools. They were largely without equipment of any sort; most of them offered no definite courses of instruction; commonly a single teacher — or perhaps two — tutored a miscellaneous aggregation of boys and girls of all sizes, ages, and degrees of competency in a bewildering variety of "subjects." Particularly in Virginia and Tennessee, however, the private school was not infrequently a more substantial affair, though weak ventures were even in those states far too abundant. In Tennessee, Vanderbilt Univer- sity, the first Southern institution of learning to promul- 76 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD gate and insist upon a definite basis for matriculation, had promoted the development of a number of efficient ' ' fitting schools . " The subjects taught were conventional in character — Latin, Greek, Mathematics, etc. — such subjects, in a word, as could be successfully handled in unendowed schools relying on fees for maintenance and profit. To meet the Vanderbilt requirements certain schools already in existence modified and stiffened their programs; and a considerable number of new schools were estabhshed and manned largely by Vanderbilt graduates for the express purpose of fitting boys for the university. Ninety- eight such schools, claiming property valued at $2,358,850, with 739 instructors and 17,508 students, were listed by the State Superintendent in his report for 1904, and the list was not exhaustive. In consequence of the growth of these sources of supply Vanderbilt was enabled as far back as 1887 to discontinue its own pre- paratory department. The fitting school could not, of course, take the place of the pubhc high school; it was too narrow in scope, too limited in aim. It answered, at best, for those who could afford to pay the tuition and who expected to go to college. To the larger numbers who craved wider opportunities, who could not pay the fees or for whom the secondary school must itself be the educational terminus, the fitting school was ill-adapted. But it performed, nevertheless, a genuine service in emphasizing the necessity of separately organized and competently manned schools of secondary type. SECONDARY EDUCATION 77 COLLEGE AND SECONDARY SCHOOL While the high school was, as has been stated above, confusedly involved with a poorly organized elementary school at one end, its relationship with the college was equally unsatisfactory at the other. Some of the state universities had indeed attempted articulation with sec- ondary schools by arranging '^approved" or ^'aux- ihary" hsts. But recognition of this sort at that time signified Kttle or nothing. The universities had no adequate knowledge of, or influence over, the schools; the schools were too commonly powerless to improve them- selves. Of forty-four such high schools on the approved list of the State University of Louisiana, eleven were at- tempting a course of study, complete on paper, in a shortened session and with a single teacher; eight of them enrolled fewer than fifteen pupils apiece; thirteen had no books of reference at all; twenty-six were without the least equipment for teaching physics; thirty-one were equally bare of equipment for teaching chemistry ; in only six did pupils use note-books for their science work. Of an approved high school in Alabama it was stated at about the same date that the teacher had been able ''by teaching two classes at the same time to have his pupils 'finish' the courses in the allotted time "; the school build- ing was described as "dirty, ill-kept, and foul-smelHng." The foregoing facts are even now recited in no un- sympathetic spirit. Under the circumstances nothing better could have been expected. Systematic public 78 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD education was a new thing in the South. It could not spring into existence, clearly organized, satisfactorily manned, and decently equipped. A start had to be made, and in the absence of buildings, teachers, money, and experience, this start was bound to be chaotic. OBSTACLES TO DEVELOPMENT High schools could not, however, be created out of hand. Even in the cities where school boards were more or less free to act, money, buildings, and teachers were difficult to procure. In the counties and rural districts these serious difficulties were often com- pHcated by the absence of favorable sentiment or by statutory obstacles, now negative, now positive in character. Neither the Constitution nor the State School Law of South Carolina recognized the high school as an essential part of the school system, further than the mere grant of the privilege of estabHshing schools of secondary grade; and this indifference of constitution and statutes proved a complete block to development. The obstruction in Georgia was much more serious; for the law provided that "there shall be a thorough system of common schools for the education of children in the elementary branches of an English education only,''^ and, further, that the " General Assembly shall not have power to delegate to any county the right to levy a school tax for any purpose except for instructing children in the elementary branches of an English education only.^' The State Department of Education could not support, as- SECONDARY EDUCATION 79 sist, or supervise public high schools, nor could counties or rural districts create and sustain them. Thus pro- hibitive obstacles were incorporated in the fundamental law of the State. BEGINNINGS OF IMPROVEMENT At the same time unmistakable signs of better things could be discerned. The Tennessee legislature had already authorized county courts to provide for the estab- Hshment and maintenance of one or more county high schools, by levying the necessary taxes, appropriating from money not already otherwise disposed of, and creating a special county high school fund; and several towns and counties had taken favorable action, though without concerted effort as to the length of the course, the cur- riculum, etc. In Mississippi, school trustees were au- thorized to establish in graded schools a high school course of four years or less with a seven months' term, to fix reasonable fees, if they so chose, and to admit pupils from outside the district on pajonent of a proper fee; but no provision was made for state direction, supervision, or support. In Virginia, a state subsidy to locally created and sustained high schools had been proposed in the legislature, though without favorable action on the proposition as yet. In Georgia, the university, which had never had a preparatory department, had taken hold of the situation, having appointed a high school inspector through whose efforts an accredited list of fifty-one schools, only five of them private, had been 8o THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD got together. In this direction Mississippi had also been effectively busy. Observing that only 3 per cent. of those who passed through its preparatory department reached graduation, as compared with 25 per cent, of those who entered from outside schools, the university aboHshed the department in question in 1892 and threw itself dehberately on the secondary schools of the State. Cooperation between this institution, the State Depart- ment of Education, and the State Teachers' Association was brought about; the high school course of study was revised; members of the faculty visited schools, conferring with patrons and trustees; and an affiliated list was made out, on which, in 1902, there were fifty-nine schools. Thus, without especially favorable legislation, aggressive and tactful leadership on the part of the State Univer- sity, in cooperation with other agencies, was beginning to produce results. From these incipient endeavors to deal with the situ- ation, the General Education Board took its cue. A sound secondary school movement had already begun; the project was therefore not a foreign suggestion, but of local origin. It was in essence the response of the South- ern people to the increasing urgency of their own needs. But, for lack of resources and leadership, the local move- ment was making slow and irregular progress. There was, as a rule, no one whose business it was to inform, cultivate, and guide professional, public, and legislative opinion. There was need in every state of a trained speciaKst in secondary education, who, while sympathize SECONDARY EDUCATION Si ing with local conditions, might skilfully and tactfully marshal all available forces for the purpose of securing concerted action calculated in time to realize a secondary school system. THE PROFESSORS OE SECONDARY EDUCATION Neither State Departments of Education nor State Universities had at the moment funds to devote to the promotion of such a program. At this juncture, the General Education Board stated its willingness to make appropriations to the several state universities for the salaries and traveling expenses of a professor of Second- ary Education who was to be a regular member of the university faculty and whose ''main and principal work shall be to ascertain where the conditions are favorable for the estabhshment of public high schools not now in existence; to visit such places and to endeavor to organ- ize in such places pubhc high schools in accordance with the laws of the State; to endeavor to create in such communities a pubKc sentiment that shall permanently sustain such high schools, and to place the high schools under such local leadership as shall give them intelligent and wise direction, and he and the university shall ex- ercise a fostering care over such institutions." Consistently with the policy of the General Education Board, these professors of secondary education became state and university ofhcials, answerable to their state and university superiors and to them alone. The Board did not dictate or suggest the lines along which they 82 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD should exert themselves. With a common general aim, the precise procedure followed was never the same in any two instances. The sketch above given will show how the local situations varied : here the law was fairly favor- able, there fatally obstructive, in another place passively permissive. Here the field was more or less encumbered with private schools; there it was relatively open. In one state, sentiment was more or less favorable, and efforts were already making; another was indifferent; a third, perhaps, hostile. Under such circumstances, workers could share an ultimate ideal and could meet to exchange experiences, but they could not follow a single path. In any event, the General Education Board was satisfied to provide the necessary funds which would enable the State University, the State Department of Education, the high school representative, and other interested agencies to work out the local problem in whatever way their own judgment approved. The first contract of this character was madein Virginia, in 1905; the latest in Kentucky, in 1910. Cooperative work in this field is now under way in the following eleven states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, North CaroHna, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia. In Louisiana, the work begun by the Board in 1907 has been taken over by the state. THEIR METHODS OF WORK In no state was a cut and dried program pursued. The professors of secondary education were in the first place SECONDARY EDUCATION 83 critical students, each of the conditions in his own state. Their reports contain accurate and detailed accounts of secondary education from the standpoint of law, local sentiment, the number and value of school buildings, school equipment, cost, curriculum, teaching, enrolment, etc. For the first time thoroughly rehable information procured at first hand became available; it was, moreover, diffused through special bulletins and through the re- ports of State Superintendents, so that the Southern people learned to face frankly the facts of their situation. In addition, the professors of secondary education were high school evangelists, traveHng well-nigh incessantly from county to county, returning from time to time to the State University to do their teaching, or to the State Capitol to confer with the State Superintendent. Wher- ever they went, they addressed the people, the local school authorities, the county court, teachers, business men and business organizations, county and state con- ferences, etc. They sought almost any sort of opportu- nity in order to score a point. Law or no law, they urged their hearers to make voluntary efforts toward a county high school, if a start had not yet been made; to add a grade or a teacher to a school already started; to repair the building or to provide a new one; to consolidate weak district schools into a larger one adequate to town or county needs. Nor did they merely expose defects, tender advice, and employ exhortation: they not only urged a poKcy, but nursed a situation. By correspond- ence they kept in touch with places already visited; from 84 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD time to time they returned, to renew pressure or to rec- ognize achievement. Especially in their earlier efforts they relied largely on the contagion of example, and skil- fully played off one vicinity against another. By this method, five county high schools having been previously estabhshed, eleven more were started in Tennessee by the efforts of the secondary school representative in his very first year; thereafter counties were the more easily persuaded, coaxed, or shamed into activity. A small Virginia county seat had a $100,000 courthouse; bonds had been issued for that, for waterworks, sewerage, and electric Hghts; but six hundred children went to school in an obsolete and inadequate building. An agreement was practically extorted from the town fathers to pre- serve the next surplus for a high school and to utilize the credit margin still remaining for the same purpose. A North Carohna town of some 10,000 inhabitants, with fair private schools, had done nothing in the way of public schools. ''Indeed there is a Hngering prejudice against public education — a relic of the time when a public school was regarded as a charity school." A movement to set up pubKc schools being endangered by local rivalries, the secondary school representative exerted himself to bring about harmony, and the election vindicated his efforts. Similar incidents might be quoted from every other Southern state. The work has been extremely trying. Fortunately the men were young, hardy, and enthusiastic — pioneers in physique, as they were evangehsts in spirit. ''After District High School, Clendeik, Kanawha County, W. Va. New building. Public High School Building, Tupelo, Miss. Erected 1914. SECONDARY EDUCATION 85 breakfast, the County Superintendent and I " — so reads a characteristic report — ''started across country to Fall Branch, seventeen miles from Jonesboro. We addressed a good crowd of citizens, and three members of the county court who were present promised to vote for the high school tax. At 3.30 we were due at a church twenty- two miles distant. The roads were very bad, our carriage broke down, and we failed to reach the church in time. Returning to Jonesboro, we had supper and drove to Telford, from which place we planned to get to Washing- ton College for a night meeting. But transportation was lacking. It was dark and raining, but we walked three miles to the college, and found a good crowd waiting for us." The most isolated section of Virginia lies north of the York River and east of Fredericksburg. There is not a foot of railway in it, though it is rich in agricultural, fishing, and lumbering industries. ''We found traveling difficult; naphtha launches, midnight steamers, relays of buggies had to be rehed on. During one dusty day we traveled in three different vehicles, held three differ- ent meetings with school trustees, waited till midnight for a boat, rode till five in the morning, and after sleeping two hours, arose, held another meeting, and drove twenty miles to catch a train." In the summer of 1906 the Tennessee representative and the State Superintendent made a campaign that touched every county in the state. Its central purpose was to impress upon the people the importance of having a complete and well- articulated school system from the elementary school in 86 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD the rural districts through the high school and normal school to the university. The attendance at this series of mass meetings ranged from one hundred to seven thousand — ^perhaps one thousand being the average. The meetings began in Memphis, July 20th, and closed at the opposite end of the state just three months later to the day; seventy-nine towns had been visited and one hundred and fifty speakers had participated, the Gover- nor, university and college presidents among the number. These efforts are fairly representative of one phase of the activities of the professors of secondary education. FAVORABLE LEGISLATION It was from the first clear that sporadic successes due to voluntary initiative on the part of interested commu- nities would not suffice. They could, at best, whet the appetite for a substantial secondary school system. Aside from local benefit, they were, however, valuable because they reduced opposition to satisfactory legislation — con- stitutional or statutory as the case might be. Within less than a decade important legislative gains have been made. In Georgia the prohibitions above noted have been expunged from the State Constitution: counties and school districts may now vote local taxes by two thirds of those voting; under which provision thirty-nine counties and some nine hundred school districts have taken affirmative action. By two other amendments, the Kmitation of pubKc education to *'the elements of an English education only" has been removed; a State SECONDARY EDUCATION 87 Board of Education has been created, and a comprehen- sive system of licensing has just been started. Florida has amended its constitution so as to enable school dis- tricts to sell bonds to provide school buildings and equip- ment; and steps have been taken to insure higher quali- fications for the teaching license. State grants in aid of high schools locally started, not yet brought about in all the states, are at any rate now made in South Caro- lina, North Carohna, Florida, Arkansas, West Virginia, and Virginia, while Tennessee has materially increased its allowance; quahfications for teachers in assisted high schools have been set up in Georgia, Arkansas, Tennes- see, North Carohna, and West Virginia; county agricul- tural high schools have been established in Alabama and Mississippi; legislation favorable to the estabhshment of farm life schools and farm hfe departments has been passed in North Carolina. The foregoing account is not exhaustive; but it shows that the Southern states are now in a fair way to provide the proper basis for an adequate secondary school system. It can fairly be said that in framing and putting through this legislation the high school representatives supported by the General Education Board have in every instance taken a leading part. They would, how- ever, be the first to refuse any undue credit. The or- ganizations already mentioned — the Peabody Board, the Southern Education Board, and the Conference for Edu- cation in the South — had greatly stimulated the demand for adequate and orderly educational facilities; in every 88 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD state, local bodies and organizations, state and local officials were working along one line or another to arouse educational interest. The secondary school men profited immensely by all this activity; at the same time they made their own valuable contribution by directing effort toward a definite and valuable object. RESULTS Favorable legislation has been generally followed by immediate results, so ripe was the situation everywhere for action. The Alabama law in regard to county high schools required that towns in which these schools are located must furnish at least five acres of ground and a building costing not less than $5,000. Eighteen counties promptly promised buildings costing $277,000, no place offering less than twice the minimum required by law; supplemental local appropriations for annual support to the extent of $1,000 to $2,000 were voted; and light, water, and fuel were also promised in some instances. The town of Prescott, Arkansas, was a disappointed competitor for one of the new State Agricultural High Schools, despite a generous offer of money and land. The citizens were, however, induced by the high school representative to turn over to the local school board what the state had not accepted; and the Httle town thus came into possession of a building costing $24,000, exclusive of furniture, a farm of thirty acres, a four-year high school course with electives in science, manual training, do- mestic science, and agriculture. Clinton Public High School, Sampson County, N. C. Erected in igi2. Murphy High School, Cherokee County, N. C. SECONDARY EDUCATION 89 The passage of a law marked the beginning of new endeavors rather than the cessation of old ones — en- deavors to induce the communities to make the fullest use of the opportunities for high school development created by the legislation just obtained. The methods followed by the secondary school men may indeed be commended as ideally adapted to the promotion of edu- cational and social reform. Their homes were in the states they served; they took up a sympathetic attitude toward local problems and conditions; acquainted them- selves with the history and resources of the states; dealt candidly and plainly with every constituency — on the one hand without passion or sensationalism, on the other without the faintest suspicion of exploitation or the faintest imputation of self-interest; proposed meas- ures that were within range of possibility, at the same time that they were essential parts of a far-reaching scheme to be developed bit by bit as opportunity afforded. In homely language, they have kept "pegging away," quietly, persistently, and with ultimate purposes far beyond the immediate propositions, the adoption of which they have urged at any particular place or any particular moment. Their progress has not been marked by explosions which shake a state Hke an earthquake, and are presently forgotten when some new exposure in another field takes place; but interest and enthusiasm have steadily grown on the basis of achievement, with- out any liabihty to reaction or any sign of revulsion of feeling. go THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD NUMBER OF HIGH SCHOOLS A few statistics will convey an idea of what has thus far been accomplished. It has been pointed out above that a decade ago or less, the four-year high school, properly so-called, was practically non-existent in the South outside a few large towns; that in general the high school was for the most part vague and formless. Though, as we shall see, the term ''high school" does not yet mean the same thing or the same sort of thing everywhere, it is nowadays used in the South with a fair degree of critical caution. In this sense, since the appointment of the "Professor of Secondary Education," 174 four- year high schools have been estabhshed in Virginia, no in North CaroUna,^ 78 in Georgia, 8S in Alabama, 37 in Tennessee, 18 in South Carolina, 13 in Florida, 31 in Mississippi, 62 in Arkansas, 15 in West Virginia. Three- year high schools, many of which will shortly add the missing year, are mmierous: Georgia has started 132, North Carolina 100, Arkansas 60, Virginia 146, West Virginia 12, Tennessee 37, South Carolina S8, Alabama 23, Florida 14. STUDENT ENROLMENTS With this development, the enrolment of pupils has kept pace. The high schools of Georgia enrol 25,000 pupils; those of Alabama over 20,000 boys and girls; those of Mississippi over 10,000; North Carolina, 8,500 1 Of these, sixty- two are rural, forty-eight city, high schools. SECONDARY EDUCATION qi in the country, and 8,000 in towns; Virginia, over 18,000. In Kentucky there has been an increase in attendance of 4,000 in three years. In the final year of the four- year high schools the enrolment is, of course, still modest: 550 in the rural high schools and 950 in the city high schools of North Carolina; 470 in South Carolina; 1,143 in Arkansas; in Mississippi, about 1,000; in Georgia, 1,241; in Tennessee, 715; in Virginia, 1,613; boys and girls are included in all these figures. The number of full-time high school teachers — teachers not distracted by having to do also odds and ends of primary work — ^is keeping pace; South Carolina employed 160 in 1906, and 412 in 1913 — a gain of almost 160 per cent., indicative of a far keener appreciation of the importance of an ade- quately trained teaching body, for more and more of these full-time teachers are college graduates. In the same way Tennessee employs 392 full-time teachers in the 117 four-year, three-year, and two-year high schools estabHshed since 1905; Arkansas 106 in the 99 high schools set up since 1908. In Georgia full-time teachers increased from 149 to 443 between 1905 ajid 1914. IMPROVED BUILDINGS In this same period very considerable sums have been invested in new school buildings of improved type:^ $1,750,000 in North CaroHna, $1,500,000 in Florida, $1,265,000 in South CaroHna, $2,500,000 in Mississippi, a little under $2,000,000 in Tennessee, almost $3,000,000 ^ Often used for the grades as well. Q2 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD in West Virginia, more than $3,000,000 in Georgia, and more than $4,000,000 in Virginia.^ The state appor- tionments in aid of high schools locally maintained are beginning to reach considerable dimensions; for this purpose, Alabama has already paid almost $1,000,000; Georgia, $659,600; Tennessee, $282,940; North Caro- lina, $500,000; South Carolina, over $300,000. Private subscription is perhaps most significant of all. In Alabama $685,000 has been thus donated, the relatively large sum being accounted for by the difficulties in the way of raising funds by taxation; in Tennessee, where taxation has been relatively liberal, private parties have contrib- uted $172,000 toward high school buildings and equip- ment; in North Carolina, $250,000. A few cuts printed as illustrations (pages 84 to 98) convey some notion of the improvements now taking place in Southern school architecture. These buildings are, of course, still the exception; but they represent what is rapidly be- coming a general ambition to dignify education by mak- ing the schoolhouse one of the most striking and at- tractive buildings in the community. APPROPRIATIONS OF GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The appropriations of the General Education Board in connection with the secondary school movement ^It will be understood that throughout the figures deal only with the period of activity of the professor of secondary education; this means since 1905 in Virginia, Alabama, Tennessee, Georgia, and North Caro- lina; since 1906 in South CaroHna; since 1907 in Florida and Louisiana; since 1908 in Arkansas and Mississippi; since 1909 in West Virginia; since 191 1 in Kentucky. Marion, S. C, High School. Paragould High School, Ark. Cost $30,000. Built in 1909. SECONDARY EDUCATION 93 above described have been as follows up to June 30, 1914: State Since Total Virginia ....... 1905 $30,500.00 North Carolina .... 1905 28,250.00 Georgia 1905 17,840.00 Alabama 1905 26,624.99 Tennessee 1905 21,144.79 South Carolina .... 1906 26,166.67 Florida 1907 10,172.36 Louisiana 1907 14,000.00 Mississippi 1908 19,166.66 Arkansas . . . . . 1908 18,875.00 West Virginia .... 1909 15,150.00 Kentucky 191 1 14,000.00 Conference, September, 1913 970.62 Grand total . . $242,861.09 The foregoing account reveals a movement rich in promise. But the point adverted to in dealing with the farm demonstrations may well be emphasized anew in this connection. As yet only a beginning has been made. Eight years ago the term ^'high school" con- veyed in the South no definite meaning; now it represents a fairly well conceived educational entity, the place, scope, and requirements of which are quite widely appre- ciated. The experience of Arkansas may be cited in illustration. There the endeavor has been made not only to add to the number of complete high schools and to get the children into them, but to give the term ''high school" a clear, substantial meaning. The state aid law, passed in 191 1, requires assisted schools to conform 94 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD to a standard in length of term, length of recitation period, ntimber of teachers, course of study, etc. These require- ments are defined by the State Board of Education, of which the professor of secondary education is not only a member, but the secretary and school inspector. The first year more than one hundred schools met the standard; now, after the law has been in force only three years, practically all high schools, whether receiving state aid or not, are organized and operated in accordance with the regulations of the State Board. The vastness of the task still to be achieved is fully realized by those who have been the pioneers in the entire movement. Their reports from month to month and year to year emphasize again and again the defects and shortcomings characteristic of even a satisfactorily devel- oping situation. The high schools are rarely full-grown; many of them are meagre; many of them have shot up almost too rapidly and must fill out in the coming years. Separate buildings are still relatively rare; a numerous, stable, and properly qualified teaching and supervising profession has yet to be created, even though a beginning has been made. It is unnecessary in a volume of this kind to attempt an exhaustive discussion of even the more urgent high school problems with which the secondary school representa- tives are now dealing. But one or two may be singled out, on account of their more than local interest : and in the very first place, the question of the high school cur- riculum. Knoxville City High School, Tenn. ^^.^^^ i9ii w Ijiii ^ us %- |Kk «,«;"*' i^.irv 3,! •^MS. -^ -.:?'---"': ■ **' -: fell -**'* ", *!.?^^^r -<; Young High School, Knox County, used as a model for rural high schools now building in Tennessee. SECONDARY EDUCATION 95 THE HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUM At the outset, the course of study of the newly estab- lished high school naturally follows conventional lines; this is indeed at once the easiest and the cheapest thing to do. The close relationship of the high school to the state university rather accentuates this tendency. For the university begins by formulating its entrance require- ments in terms of the traditional cultural subjects. On the other hand, the extent to which the people have di- rectly participated in demanding and paying for the new Southern high schools was bound to emphasize another aspect of high school usefulness. The Southern people want high schools not only as cultural luxuries, but as aids in the solution of political, social, and economic difhculties. The most casual visitor in the South must indeed be impressed by the well-nigh universal recogni- tion there of the existence of problems bequeathed to the present and to succeeding generations by the collapse of the ancient social and economic regime. The South has been convinced that education alone can hope to achieve any kind of solution. Graded schools, high schools, and state universities have been supported with increasing interest and liberaKty on the basis of this newly acquired faith. The high school curriculum must under these circum- stances face both ways, whether its pupils subsequently attend college or not. It must make an immediate re- sponse to present local needs, whatever they are. It 96 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD must, on the other hand, be calculated to widen the scope of its pupils, to create fresh intellectual and spiritual needs not at the moment acutely felt. These two objects are not mutually repugnant to each other; indeed, the first is one of the conditions on which the development of the second depends. If the Southern school man has often been mihtantly aggressive in his criticism of the old-fashioned Hterary or academic course of study, it does not mean that he sees no good in it; he has only wanted to put it in its proper place, to deprive it of its monopoly, to make room for other types of wholesome activity, and to pay proper regard to the large numbers who never go to college. In every Southern state the high school cur- riculum has thus been thoroughly ventilated in the last few years; and with already noticeable results. At formal and informal gatherings efforts have been made to reach some agreement as to why this or that subject should be taught, how, and how much. The cause of the new interests — agriculture, domestic art, business meth- ods — has been discussed earnestly and effectively. ^' The discussions revolved around the present course of study," writes one of the men at the beginning of his service, "an inelastic, hidebound thing, well enough adapted to the making of preachers, lawyers, and doctors, provided boys are so incHned, but wholly unfit for the teaching of agriculture in a practical way. As the representative of the State Department of Education I plead with all my might for the formulation and adoption of a new course of study in which agriculture, home economics, and SECONDARY EDUCATION 97 kindred topics should hold the central place. As a result, a committee was appointed to prepare such a course and to report to the next meeting." The soundness of this point of view at this moment is now generally conceded by Southern educators. Ten- nessee has therefore wisely decided to dupKcate out of the State Fund all local appropriations for the teaching of agriculture, domestic science, and manual training up to $1,500 annually; Virginia appropriated, in 1908, $20,000 for agricultural and manual training departments in ten high schools, and two years later doubled the sum. North CaroKna encourages farm-Hfe schools and farm- Hfe departments in high schools, the state and county each contributing $2,500 a year for support. Georgia has created eleven district agricultural high schools, each enjoying an annual appropriation of $10,000; toward these the counties have contributed $830,000. Of the county agricultural high schools, those of Mississippi may be taken as excellent examples. Generally speaking, these schools, co-educational in character, are aiming to train intelHgent farmers and farmers' wiyes. They have been built with distinct reference to the state's need. They are country-Kfe schools in an environment where the rural problem is vast, promising, and as yet hardly touched. The course of study covers four years ; every boy pursues agriculture, every girl home economics, through the entire curriculum. Biology, applied physics and chemistry, sani- tation and hygiene, tool and bench work, blacksmi thing, and the usual EngHsh branches complete the course of study. 98 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD These and other high schools are likely to become centres for many of the forces now stirring in rural life. The farm demonstration work may be connected with them; boys' and girls' clubs are so connected already. To helpful work of the demonstration type there need be no arbitrary limit. A resourceful teacher of domestic science in one of them immediately perceived that the type of domestic science which she had pursued at college was not adapted to this environment. She vis- ited homes throughout the county in order to formulate her local problem. On the basis of that experience her girls have been trained to attend the sick with care and intelKgence, and to bathe, dress, and prepare food and clothing for an infant. ''I observed, " she said, "that the rural sick suffer less from disease than from discomfort, and that the babies of the county need clean and in- teUigent management." Nor does it follow that educa- tion must be mean, unimaginative, lacking in ideal content, simply because it is mindful of such humble and vital necessities. COLLEGE RELATIONSHIP Attention has been called to the fact that at the outset the university and college influence made for a narrow course of study and so hampered the responsiveness of the high school to immediate needs. This has largely ceased to be the case, the colleges showing more and more dis- position to enlarge the basis of matriculation. A very acute problem in respect to college and high school rela- New building, District High School, East Bank, Kanawha County, W. Va. New District Graded and High School, Princeton, W. Va. SECONDARY EDUCATION 99 tionship nevertheless remains. The South, like the coun- try at large, maintains an excessive number of collegiate institutions; at the same time Southern high schools, as the figures above given show, are still graduating a relatively small number of fully trained pupils. If the Southern colleges all supported the high school movement and refused to receive students who had not passed satis- factorily through the local high schools, many of them would be without students; if the colleges are bent upon surviving, not a few of them must compete with the high schools for students. The more important institutions in every state have, generally speaking, cordially co- operated in reaching an understanding on this point. Conferences have been held and resolutions adopted con- demning the practice of receiving students into college before they have finished the high school courses at their home schools. State Associations of Colleges have been formicd to safeguard this poHcy. As soon as the situa- tion permitted — sometimes even earher — they clarified and raised their entrance requirements in order to effect a close and real articulation with the new high schools. But the institutions that have not pursued this policy, and that can pursue it only if they are willing to subor- dinate themselves to the general educational good, con- stitute a serious difficulty. They exist in every state. Especial efforts to procure and publish the facts have, however, been made in South Carolina. *' Unless the territory of the high school and that of the college be clearly differentiated, and at the same time contiguous/^ loo THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD writes the secondary school representative in 1910, •'these institutions will be continually trespassing upon each other's territory." Annually since that time the bulletins of the University of South CaroHna pubhsh a list of college students "untimely ripped" by the colleges of the state from the high schools where they should have remained a year or two longer. In 19 10, ''out of more than 200 pupils reported by the high schools as having left before completing the courses offered, 82 entered colleges." In subsequent years the matter is pursued in even greater detail, the name of the pupil and his high school standing, together with the name of the college and the class to which he (or she) was admitted, being printed. The argument has been pressed with vigor and ingenuity. "More than one half the high school communities of the state are impoverishing their own high schools by taking their sons and daughters away and sending them to college at a heavier expense than the entire high school at home. It is strange that a man of ordinary business sagacity will take his child out of the high school, where it costs him not exceeding $25 a year, and send him off to college to do the same work at a cost of $250." Again: "Colleges. do not hesitate to take pupils from different classes in the same high school and put them into the same coUege class. In several colleges, first-year, second-year, and third-year high school pupils are side by side in the freshman class." Efforts to complete the high school course are thus de- feated: "We had to give up our eleventh grade; the SECONDARY EDUCATION loi colleges have broken it up," writes one principal. *'Our eleventh grade is very small; two colleges robbed us of our tenth grade pupils during my summer vacation," writes another. It is needless to quote further illustrations ; but the problem must be borne in mind, for we shall return to it in considering the policy of the General Education Board in deahng with colleges and universities.^ HIGH SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION There can, of course, be too many high schools, pre- cisely as there are too many colleges. The consolidation of district into town or county high schools must there- fore be an object steadily kept in mind. As soon as high school classes begin to multiply in scattered elementary schools, a campaign to concentrate the high school grades into a centrally located high school is in order. The teaching of high school subjects in one- teacher rural schools is still widely permitted, and with woful results. Hence, it is important to beware of excessive emphasis on the increased number of high schools ; from time to time a faU in numbers would be more truly indicative of health. Laurens County, S. C, for example, supported at a total cost of less than $ii,ooo eight state aided high schools in 1910, with fourteen full-time teachers, and 338 pupils; yet not one boasted a fourth year. The substitution of a county for a district system would facihtate a process of consolidation through which two or three good and com- plete schools would supplant thrice the number of feeble ^See pp. 109-110. 102 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ones. This policy has indeed been pursued in the newer states. Colorado, with three times the territory of South Carolina, and 4,000 more high school pupils in 19 10, had 90 high schools as against South CaroHna's 156. Other difficulties attendant on a new and rapid educa- tional development need not detain us now. It goes without saying that more and better buildings, more and better equipment, above all, more and better teachers, are needed. Emulation will in time supply the buildings and equipment. Efforts have from the outset been made to improve the present body of teachers, by normal train- ing, by teachers' institutes, by summer schools, bulletins, and by special classes at the state universities and normal schools. A new agency, of whose beneficent influence high hopes are entertained, is the George Peabody Col- lege for Teachers at Nashville, which promises to address itself soberly and intelHgently both to improving the present profession and to training a new and better one.^ ^ At its first summer school, just held, the attendance was over 1,200. V. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES THE situation in the United States in respect to the establishment and management of higher insti- tutions of learning is unique. The universities of continental Europe are governmental institutions, sup- ported by governmental appropriations and conducted by a department presided over by a cabinet minister. The contribution of private individuals or private organ- izations and associations in the way of gifts or even coun- sel is neghgibly small. In England, ancient corporations furnished for centuries such facilities as existed for higher education; latterly, flourishing municipahties have be- stirred themselves with notable results in the estabhsh- ment of universities, the resources of which have been supplemented by grants in aid made by the national government. THE AMERICAN SYSTEM Our American system is much more complicated. Neither the national government nor any one of the states has accepted the responsibility of providing ade- quately for higher education. Some of the states do little in this direction, leaving practically the whole field to private initiative; even those states that maintain universities have never proposed to dispense with pri- 103 104 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD vately endowed and managed institutions; the general government has limited itself to the making of appro- priations to agricultural and mechanical colleges, with- out, however, supervising the expenditure of the funds thus contributed. Generally speaking, therefore, it may be said that in the United States there is a wide-open door in so far as higher education is concerned. Individuals and organ- izations are free to establish and support institutions of higher learning, and it is expected that they will do so. This expectation has not, as a matter of fact, been dis- appointed. In the first place, religious bodies have plentifully planted colleges and universities, in order to protect their several denominations and to secure a com- petently educated ministry. From these foundations, ecclesiastical in origin, many of the strongest and broad- est of our higher institutions have developed in a com- paratively brief space of time. Again, a majority of the states themselves have created universities by way of rounding out their several pubhc school systems. Finally, a small number of strong institutions, independent alike of rehgious denominations and the several states, have been endowed by single individuals. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Our easy-going treatment of this important matter has developed many advantages. People at large have been made to feel responsible for their own higher educa- tion, with the result that nowhere else in the world does COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 105 so much popular interest in higher education exist. An enormous amount of energy has been thus liberated; and sacrifice for ideal educational ends — a rare phenomenon in the rest of the world — has become usual in America. It would, however, be idle to deny that very grave evils have also resulted. If only some general concep- tion or purpose could from the outset have controlled the planting and development of higher institutions of learn- ing, all might have been well. But no such ideal has at any time dominated or even greatly influenced the course of events. Political, local, denominational, and purely personal factors have too often proved determinative. Waste and confusion have been the consequence. States that might have developed a strong and symmetrical university as the crown of a public school system have often either multiplied institutions or split up the univer- sity into several fragments so distributed as to placate pohtical sentiment; rival rehgious bodies have invaded fields fully— or more than fully — occupied already; mis- guided individuals have founded a new college instead of strengthening an old one. Thus institutions have been born which could not possibly grow up — superfluous institutions that interfere seriously with the nutrition of those really needed. GOVERNMENT CONTROL A problem that gravely concerns both the states and the nation results; for on the efficient organization of higher education depends not only the highest culture io6 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD of certain selected individuals, but the vigor and effective- ness of the primary and secondary school systems as well. The facts brought out in considering secondary education in the South — facts that can be more or less paralleled in other sections of the country — amply sustain this view. On the terms upon which the colleges admit students the quahty and performance of the schools to a large extent depend. Moreover, the colleges train the men and women who teach in the lower schools; the com- petency of the colleges, therefore, determines the quaKty and performance of the schools. There is no indication that in the near future either state or national government will fearlessly endeavor to bring order out of the chaos just described; our "open- door" tradition is too deeply rooted; too many vested interests have been created; too many incidental issues are involved. Best of all, too much that is admirable has come to pass under our present methods. The condi- tions that produced Harvard, Williams, Johns Hopkins, the University of Chicago, and half a hundred other well-estabHshed institutions of learning, are not to be lightly discarded. More especially in these days of large fortunes, nothing must be done to deprive private in- itiative of incentive and opportunity, or — more than all — actual responsibihty. It is therefore not probable that the several states will soon utiHze their authority to regulate the founding, development, and conduct of col- leges and universities. Thus far, only a single state has created a department of education armed with anything COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 107 approaching adequate powers; and in this instance it has been found that these powers must be employed with the utmost circumspection. To state action, even in the form of control, there is, in any event, always the objec- tion that it tends to decreased flexibility, thus lessening experimental activity and innovation amidst changing social conditions that cry aloud for both. Finally, whatever may be the case hereafter, up to this time the states have not generally shown themselves competent to deal with higher education on a non-partisan, imper- sonal, and comprehensive basis. SCOPE FOR PRIVATE INITIATIVE If private initiative can enjoy such immense creative opportunities in higher education, is it not conceivable that its collected experience may be brought to bear on the very problems that these same opportunities create? The field is rich and diverse; it contains state institutions, private institutions, and denominational institutions. Can not the responsible heads of such institutions, represent- ing the widest contemporary experience and the soundest contemporary judgment, be brought to reflect on the con- ditions in which they all find themselves? An organiza- tion of this type represents another step in the evolution of private initiative — the effort, in other words, of free- dom to control and guide itself. Such an organization would have no authority. It could, at most, hope to at- tain influence; and the extent of its influence would in the long run depend altogether on its helpfulness. A varied io8 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD membership would tend to eliminate irrelevant consider- ations and to make for the prevalence of broad views of educational policy. The presence of a strong lay ele- ment in its composition would tend to keep it respon- sive to public as well as to professional opinion. In a word, a body of this kind might hope to remedy some of the defects attending unhampered individual initiative by utiKzing private initiative and its experience in another fashion. THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD In respect to higher education, the General Education Board has sought to be useful to the academic depart- ments of colleges and universities ^ in this way. Accord- ing to the terms of Mro Rockefeller's second gift, the Board was to assist "such institutions of learning as the Board may deem best adapted to promote a comprehen- sive system of higher education in the United States." From the standpoint of the amount of money appropri- ated and the amount of attention bestowed, this has indeed been the most important of the Board's activities. The general situation to be dealt with was already well under- stood. But systematic studies were at once undertaken for the purpose of learning the details in so far as col- leges and universities were concerned. Efforts were made to ascertain the number of institutions of higher learning in the country, the purposes for which, and the ^ The Board has as yet made no appropriations to professional depart- ments, except medicine: See pp. 166-172. A single appropriation has been made to a technological institute, viz., $250,000 to the Stevens In- stitute of Technology. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 109 agencies through which, they had been chartered, their location, their resources, their possible sources of strength, and, with the utmost particularity, their relations to their respective communities, educationally and otherwise. NUMBER AND CHARACTER OF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Exclusive of technical institutions, there were in 1902 something like 700 institutions in the United States call- ing themselves colleges or universities. The geographical distribution of 687 of these is indicated on the accompany- ing map (Figure 10). A glance is enough to show the absurdity of the situation. Institutions in such numbers cannot be supported, cannot be manned, cannot pro- cure quahfied students. The State of Ohio, with a total population of 4,767,121, contains over 40 so-called colleges and universities, almost twice as many as the entire German Empire, with a population of 64,903,423; Missouri (population 3,293,335) contains 34, Pennsyl- vania (population 7,665,111) contains 41, Tennessee (population 2,184,789) contains 29, Maryland (popula- tion 1,295,346) contains 20, Iowa (population 2,224,771) contains 32; other states are in substantially the same position. An examination of the scope and facilities of the above- mentioned institutions proved that many of them were hardly more than secondary schools, not always good secondary schools at that; and that others offered only one or two years of college worko Only a minority were ••* /a •<•••* COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES iii rightly called college or university. A small number articulated definitely with the secondary schools of their respective states; not a few, however, competed with the secondary schools, "robbing local high schools of their pupils," as we have already learned. Very few were found to confine themselves to such work as they were equipped to do, or to work for which need and oppor- tunity existed. Imitation had led some of the better to cherish unwarranted academic ambitions; well-nigh all were dangerously, and many were fatally, extended. It has been pointed out that no general design had con- trolled their location or estabHshment; harmonious rela- tions did not even exist between institutions estabhshed under the same auspices — whether state or denomi- national; larger cooperation between all the institutions of a given state had not yet been thought of. Local, institutional, or denominational pride, vanity, or self- interest, propped up tottering, feeble, or superfluous in- stitutions, some of them estabhshed in this or that state or county for no better reason than that a smaU town wanted one, or- a rival denomination already had one. Of course worthier motives in abundance also played their part. Many of these schools, seriously defective according to modern ideas, had done good work under the pioneer conditions that have only lately passed away; splendid devotion and self-sacrifice had gone into their making, and their graduates had been important factors in the development of their respective communi- ties. I :i?i goo §11 as: ^ U bJ iiil 8ii .2 ^i^ H Q Z O o <£o l_j D(d O o I* 22 COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 119 work out their own salvation, and that they are most likely to do this effectually if they are comfortable financially. LAWS OF COLLEGE GROWTH (a) Importance of Location In the selection of institutions to be assisted, the Board has been guided by what appear to be the laws of college growth, as revealed by the experience of a century. The student of college development is struck at the outset by the fact that the subject must be approached, not from the standpoint of the Union as a whole, but from that of the several states. Education is, in the United States, a state function, precisely as it is in the various federated states abroad.^ We can have only such a national system as results from adding together the separate state sys- tems. Moreover, state Hues have always counted heavily in determining the area of college or university influence. The state Kne is a formidable barrier. The circle from which a college chiefly obtains its students is rarely two hundred miles, and usually not over one hundred in diameter. If we draw circles around each American col- lege fifty and one hundred miles from its halls, and trace every student to his home, we shall most frequently find the homes of the majority within these circles. Almost invariably the homes will be thick about the base of the institution, thinning out with distance. This marked tendency is equally strong in all sections of the country. *For example, in the German Empire, Austria-Hmigary, etc. Figure i6. L5^>. 'RoCji^s^fX Ajtl ^7' lOH Wlo Uiic Snfl fi .% "U %% § # / .* Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of four colleges. (The inner circle has a radius of 50 miles; the outer circle a radius of 100 miles) NAMES OF INSTITUTIONS Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. The University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 121 Figure 16, for example, takes at random four represen- tative colleges in the North Atlantic region. From a semicircle — the other half of the circle falls in the At- lantic Ocean — ^with a radius of fifty miles, Bowdoin draws 48 per cent, of its regular undergraduate body; from little more than a semicircle, with a radius of one hun- dred miles, it draws 65 per cent. Union, Swarthmore and Rochester obtain respectively 48 per cent., 64 per cent., and 87 per cent, from within fifty miles; 61 per cent., 79 per cent., and 93 per cent, from within one hundred miles. In the case of Rochester, nearly one half the circle is cut oft' by Lake Ontario, but the local percentage is raised by the inclusion of women students, who necessarily come from Rochester only, since there are no dormitories for the accommodation of those from a distance. In the South Atlantic section, three institutions (Figure 17), similarly chosen, sustain, on the whole, the same principle. One half the students of Richmond College five fifty miles or less from the college; a trifle less than three fourths, one hundred miles or less. Fur- man University derives 60 per cent, of its students from the smaller area, 72 per cent, from the greater. Trinity College, getting only 35 per cent, of its students from within fifty miles and 61 per cent, from within one hundred miles, is a partial exception, only because the State Uni- versity and Wake Forest College, being so near by, drain the same area. Vanderbilt University, Hendrix and Millsaps Colleges (Figure 18) in the South Central section, practically Figure 17. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of three colleges. (The inner circle has a radius of 50 miles; the outer circle a radius of 100 miles) NAMES OF INSTITUTIONS Richmond College, Richmond, Va. Trinity College, Durham, N. C. Furman University, Greenville, S. C. 124 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD conform to the same rule, with 48 per cent., 45 per cent., and 49 per cent., respectively, of their students coming less than fifty miles, and 54 per cent., 68 per cent., and 80 per cent, coming one hundred miles or less. Baylor University; located in the centre of an immense and thinly settled country, might be expected to draw less heavily on its immediate environment; yet 56 per cento of its students reside within the one hundred mile circle. The North Central section illustrates the same ten- dency. Beloit and Grinnell Colleges and Baker Univer- sity (Figure 19) draw approximately one half their regular undergraduate body from the smaller of the two circles we are considering, and from two thirds to three fourths of them from the larger. Marietta, by reason probably of its close proximity to important West Virginia towns, draws over three fourths from the fifty mile area, and almost nine tenths from the one hundred mile area. The extreme West is no exception. Whitman and Colorado Colleges (Figure 20) agree in obtaining 44 per centc within the fifty mile radius; the former obtains 50 percent,, the latter 62 per cent., within one hundred miles. Pomona College, despite the fact that a considerable sHce is cut off the circle by the Pacific Ocean, obtains most of its students (80 per cent.) from its immediate vicinity; less than 15 per cent, travel over one hundred miles. This extraordinarily high percentage is perhaps due to the fact that many famihes settle close to the college so as thus to obtain both cHmatic and educational advantages. o "o 2» 2 . ^ rri bC ^ " c3 O " l| 0) . I H arietta, Ohio t. Wis. innell, Iowa, aldwin, Kan i ietta College. M lit College, Beloi inell College, Gr er University, B S"8 IS c^3 s i a 2 ! g a g l^ c3 r^ s ^ S -3 ^ o 3 ■^ U 6 COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 133 from all sections. Moreover, these institutions have never been so numerous that the demand for higher edu- cation on the part of women could be as a rule locally satisfied. Nevertheless, the one hundred mile hmit takes in a substantial portion of the attendance and only a small percentage come from remote regions. Smith College, for instance (Figures 27, 28), draws 14 and 35 per cent, respectively, from fifty and one hundred miles, 86 per cent, from the larger field east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio. Vassar (Figures 29, 30), drawing 9 per cent, from the fifty mile limit, 42 per cent, from one hun- dred miles, and 86 per cent, from the territory east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio, is similar to Smith. It is clear then that the geographical factor is always powerful, even though not infrequently offset to greater or less extent by historical or other considerations. Institutions which have thus made themselves effective over an unusually wide territory are obviously to be re- garded as permanent and important factors in our educational development, precisely as in Germany the universities of Tubingen and Greifswald have more than triumphed over a disadvantageous location. Never- theless, such institutions constitute no conclusive prec- edent for present-day action. Our college planning, in so far as it endeavors to develop institutions that have not yet attained full power, must give great weight to the consideration that the modern university thrives and is most useful in close association with population, industry, and wealth. Figure 25. / # / ^* Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and enrolled in the four regular college classes of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. (The inner circle has a radius of 50 miles; the outer circle a radius of 100 mUes) Figure 26 W 3 -o^ # ^^ Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and en- rolled in the four regular college classes of Yale University, New Haven, Conn. (The inner circle has a radius of so miles; the outer circle a radius of 100 miles) 136 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD We shall see in a moment that this is a fact, vouched for by experience, even were it a matter to be deplored. But it is by no means clear that a rural location has to-da}' any substantial advantages at all over an urban location . The village or the wilderness was suitable to the college student, from twelve to fourteen years of age at matricu- lation and hardly more than sixteen at graduation, whose instruction was confined to ancient languages, the ele- ments of mathematics, rhetoric, and philosophy. To- day the college student is on the verge of manhood; the college curriculum endeavors to include not only the treasures of historic culture, but the activities and ideals of contemporary Hfe. From these points of view, the opportunities, influences, perhaps even the restraints, surrounding the student in a city of fifty or one hundred thousand inhabitants may well be superior to the influ- ences in the country college situated in a httle village which the students dominate. LARGE DEVELOPMENT OF COLLEGES LOCATED IN CITIES Of the hundreds of colleges and universities struggling for existence at the time the General Education Board was estabhshed, thirty-four, privately founded,, had en- dowments valued at $500,000 or more. Of these thirty- four, twenty-three were located in cities and growing towns. The eleven situated less favorably had $13,000,000 in endowment, and less than 6,000 students; the twenty- three more favorably situated had $72,000,000 of endow- ment, and almost 36,000 students. Figure 27. Map showing the percentage of students coming from within 50 and 100 miles and en- rolled in the four regular college classes of Smith College, Northampton, Mass. (The inner circle has a radius of so miles; the outer circle a radius of 100 ruiles) ^^i- ^ «2^7, be 5a r-H ^' D t- ^ :^ X 2 ;z 5 :si^ 2 M Cl, o 'a ^ C/3 2 p y ? I COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 139 Moved, therefore, by the foregoing facts and consider- ations, the General Education Board has by preference selected for assistance institutions situated within a field where students could be easily procured, where the foster- ing care of a prosperous community could be counted on, where an appetite for knowledge and culture could be readily stimulated and gratified. At the same time it has not passed by older institutions, otherwise located. (b) Denominational Institutions A second factor of immense importance, particularly in the early days of development, is the relationship of the college to a rehgious denomination. It has been al- ready pointed out that religious bodies have very un- wisely over-multipHed colleges, thus scattering students and resources. But, on the other hand, they are en- titled to the credit of having founded and maintained most of our really substantial private foundations. Their loyalty has as a rule not ceased even where the denominational relationship no longer holds. Yale, founded and long controlled by Congregationalists, is still their pride, even though in scope and ideal it has little in common with the small college established to provide an educated ministry for the denomination; Princeton owes as much to Presby terianism ; Brown to the Baptists, Of the newer colleges and universities out of which the future Harvards, Yales, Princetons, and Browns must come, most of them are of denomi- national origin, and most are still the objects of denomi- Figure 29. ./ ,&' ^ .^ o .«^ ^ IVIap showing the percentage of students coming from wdthin 50 and 100 miles and en- rolled in the four regular college classes of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. (The inner circle has a radius of so miles; the outer circle a radius of 100 miles) 142 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD national care. An effort to develop a system of higher education in the United States requires, therefore, con- stant and sympathetic cooperation with denominational organizations; only thus can certain promising institu- tions be aided; only thus can a movement toward con- centration of denominational effort be promoted. (c) Importance of Increasing Endowments It was tentatively estimated that an efficient college should enjoy an income from endowment covering from 40 to 60 per cent, of its annual expenditure. Moreover, the expense of conducting colleges and universities is bound to increase with the cost of living, the competition for trained teachers, the enlargement of the boundaries of knowledge, and the increase of speciaHzation. In order that they may obtain and retain competent teachers, the colleges must be financially strong and secure. Sup- port by fees and by contributions to meet current ex- pense is too precarious to sustain the elaborate organi- zation of a modern institution of learning. It was de- cided, therefore, that the gifts of the General Education Board should be made to endowment and on such terms as were calculated to draw further funds to the selected institutions and arouse other interests in them. There was the further consideration that buildings, grounds, ap- paratus, and scholarships can all be more readily obtained through gifts than can the endowment necessary to meet the expenditure they entail. The three main features of the policy of the General COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 143 Education Board in dealing with higher education may therefore be expressed as follows: (i) Preference for centres of wealth and population as the pivots of the system; (2) Systematic and helpful cooperation with religious denominations ; (3) Concentration of gifts in the form of endowment. APPROPRIATIONS TO COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Up to June 30, 19 14, the General Education Board made contributions to 103 colleges and universities; to nineteen of these it has made a second appropriation. The sums pledged by the Board amount to $10,582,591.80; the institutions assisted have themselves undertaken to raise additional sums aggregating almost $40,000,000. Through the cooperation of the General Education Board, therefore, $50,000,000 will shortly have been added to college and university resources. Nor does this sum represent the full outcome of the Board's work in this direction, for it does not include bequests written into the wills of those whose interest in a particular institu- tion was first aroused or much deepened by campaigns imdertaken to increase endowment. The Board has been assured that very considerable sums have thus been obtained. A recent report received from institu- tions which have been assisted discloses the fact that the total increase in the endowment of colleges to which the Board has made pledges, determined as from the dates of the several pledges, is already $20,760,292. The total 144 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD cost of new buildings for the same period is $6,302,953. A list of the institutions with the sums raised is given below.^ The following map (Figure 31) shows the geo- graphical distribution of the institutions to which appro- priations have been made. It will have been remarked that the gifts of the Gen- eral Education Board to colleges and universities are invariably part only of the sum which the institutions in question have undertaken to raise. It should, however, be stated that this does not mean that the General Edu- cation Board requires an institution to raise any par- ticular sum or to raise money in any particular way. Quite the contrary is the case. Not the Board, but the institution, takes the initiative, by communicating to the Board its intention to undertake the raising of a certain sum, toward which a contribution is requested from the General Education Board. In giving, the Board is therefore in the same position as every other contribu- tor; all alike subscribe specified sums toward a speci- fied total; aU are therefore conditional givers. The General Education Board appears to stand out from the others, not because its offer is any more conditional, but simply because it is usually the largest single con- tributor. Conditional giving is justified by its fruits. Let us recall for a moment what has been previously stated in respect to the founding and support of higher institutions of learning in the United States. They derive their ipp. iss-Q. 146 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD funds largely from private donors; in so far, their secur- ity and growth depend on their possessing a wide circle of devoted friends. Moreover, the sudden increase in the cost of conducting higher education, due to the quick development of laboratories, research, libraries, etc., required that this circle of devoted friends be very rapidly enlarged. More persons had to be interested on short notice, and they had to be trained at once to give more generously. Modest unconditioned gifts might indeed prove a hindrance rather than a help. A new building presented without an increase of endowment sufficient to carry the additional expense incurred in running it; an endowed professorship unaccompanied by increased general funds; a new campus without further unencum- bered funds with which to develop and care for it — these and other unconditioned benefactions tend to embarrass, not to assist, a university. Conditional giving means, therefore, that when an institution undertakes to raise money for expansion, it has calculated what it needs in order, not only to make, but to support, a progressive step. To this end every giver increases the leverage by means of which the required totalmay be collected; every giver accepts a certain — not infrequently a large — responsibility for the future of the institution. It may not be amiss to add in this connection that, in founding the University of Chicago, Mr. Rockefeller acted upon the principle just elucidated. In making his final gift of $10,000,000 to this institution (December 13, 1910) he stated his conviction that ''it is far better that the uni- COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 147 versity be supported and enlarged by the gifts of many than by those of a single donor. I have accordingly sought to assist you in enlisting the interest and securing the contributions of many others." It happens, of course, very often that the General Education Board is unable to see its way clear to making contributions that have been requested. It is beheved that adverse decisions of this kind have as a rule been satisfactorily explained to the applicants, so that, even if the reasons may not be concurred in, the disinterested desire of the Board to do justice has not been questioned. Decisions of this kind may be based on one or more of several reasons: the Board may have already contributed more than a fair share to the section represented; the institution may occupy a more or less unpromising sit- uation ; it may be in too close proximity to a stronger in- stitution; it may be without backing; it may be one of several denominational institutions which ought to be merged rather than separately developed. Some of these schools may at the moment be performing a useful function; yet unless they appear to be necessary factors in a well organized and well distributed permanent sys- tem of higher education, the General Education Board is compelled to pass them by. COLLEGE FINANCE As the General Education Board has undertaken to render financial assistance, special attention has been paid in the study of institutions to their business meth- 148 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ods. As a business organization, alive to the dangers which attend large enterprises, the Board has taken care to aid institutions in safeguarding their property. The Board was indeed bound to exercise as much care in the distribution of its income as in making investment of its principal. For this reason, the business manage- ment of colleges applying for contributions has been care- fully scrutinized with a view to suggesting such improve- ments as might be advisable. At first, request was made for the report of the treas- urer of the college. Sometimes this was sent in printed form, but more often, especially by the smaller colleges, in manuscript form. A few of these financial statements received in the earUer history of the Board were in ex- cellent form, and the information desired was easily obtained from the ofiicial document. More frequently, however, the statement was incomplete and confused. The essential facts about which information was wanted could not be gathered from the report. Furthermore, there was no uniformity of statement among the many colleges reporting, so that comparative presentation of facts regarding several colleges was impossible. The varied systems of accounting employed rendered it practically impossible to secure a correct comparative statement of any item of college finance. It became necessary, therefore, to prepare a set of questions and to ask the colleges applying for aid to cast their accounts in forms provided by the ofiice of the General Education Board. These forms provided for sharp distinction in COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 149 matters that were essentially different, and defined terms so as to leave no doubt in the mind of any one as to their precise meaning. These blanks were sent freely to all who asked for them, and they have contributed toward re- shaping the financial methods of many institutions. It may be interesting, as a matter of record, to mention some of the particulars wherein the Board has been helpful to colleges in impro\ing the management of their finances. IMPROVEMENTS SECURED (a) More Careful Accounting The call for accurate and complete financial statistics has resulted in the more careful keeping of records. Originally, many, particularly the smaller, colleges had no organized bookkeeping staff. One college was dis- covered which had no record of bonds given for endow- ment, except the envelope in which they were placed. In another instance gifts had been received through a series of years and no record of the amounts or the pur- poses for which the gifts were made had been kept. The only thing known by the college when the inquiry was made was that at that time they had such and such secur- ities. Colleges have found it necessary to examine files of years' accumulation, to search records of church or- ganizations, to appeal to the memory of ''the oldest in- habitant " and to resort to every known method of getting information, and then have been obliged to report that the statements submitted were only approximately correct. All this is being changed. Bookkeepers are being installed ; ISO THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD a thoroughgoing system of bookkeeping established; a complete system of vouchers adopted; an annual auditing of accounts required by the trustees, as well as the issuing of financial reports to boards of trustees and to others. (b) Definition of Terms A few words have found their way into college finance which have been freely used without clear or definite meaning. To one, they have meant this, to another, that. Among them are the following: "equipment,'^ "scientific equipment," "capital," "endowment," "in- come," "investments." Early in the history of the Board it became clear that before accurate statements, particularly comparative statements, could be made, words must be defined. For example, what is "en- dowment?" Reports made to other agencies than the General Education Board showed that all sorts of prop- erty were being reported as "endowment," the word being so freely and loosely used by colleges in reporting that pubHshed statistics were valueless. So indiscrimi- nate were the returns under this heading that summaries made on the basis of these reports frequently included the same item twice and sometimes actually included liabilities. "Investments" has been as loosely used. Not infrequently subscription notes and even verbal promises to make gifts have been reported as "invest- ment" or "endowment." One college officer astonished the office by making a report which was very flattering, and when questioned more closely confessed that the COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 151 amount reported was what ''he hoped to have!" A persistent attempt has been made by the officers in charge to define terms and to secure the use of terms in their exact meaning so that, for example, when the word "endowment" was used it would not be interpreted to mean college buildings, or subscription notes of doubtful value, or good- will on the part of some one who might or might not remember the institution in his will. A sharp distinction has been insisted on as between capital and current funds. Colleges have been found which were in the field collecting funds ostensibly for endow- ment or for building purposes, when, as a matter of fact, all receipts were poured into one account from which current expenses were being met without discrimination as to the source of supply. (c) Endowment Funds to Be Kept Intact All colleges with which the Board has cooperated have already been in possession of trust funds. But it has been discovered that not infrequently such trust funds have been depleted. The Board of Trustees of a college, being hard pressed to meet current expenses, has re- sorted to the fiction of ''borrowing" from permanent funds to tide the college over a time of stress; occasionally a "note" is given to cover the "loan." The relief may not have come as anticipated and the "borrowed" money frequently has not been returned to the trust fund. Whenever this state of affairs has been found, the General Education Board has insisted upon the restoration of such 152 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD trust funds before making payments on its pledge. It has also stipulated that the money contributed by the General Education Board ^' shall be invested and preserved in- violably for the endowment" of the institution. The Board has received many assurances from colleges that in the future trust funds will be more strictly regarded and that under no circumstances will encroachment upon per- manent funds to meet current expenses be allowed. The Board has thus been made to beHeve that, apart from rendering direct aid to colleges, it has been of service in throwing safeguards about funds contributed by others. (d) Educational and Business Budgets A distinction has been made between an educational budget and affairs of a business or a semi-business nature conducted in connection with a college. Certain colleges, particularly colleges for women, maintain boarding de- partments, for example. Early records show that it has been customary for many colleges to include gross re- ceipts from the boarding department as ''college re- ceipts." This custom not only made comparison of these colleges impracticable with colleges reporting no such gross receipts, but it rendered impossible the making of a strictly educational budget. In the blank forms above referred to, which have been furnished to colleges making reports to the office of the General Education Board, provision is made for the segregation of all accounts of a business or semi-business nature, thus permitting a clear statement of annual receipts and expenditures for educa- COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 153 tional purposes. College officials have reported to the office that this insistence upon segregation of strictly educational matters from business affairs has been help- ful, not only in preparing the educational budget, but also in determining the profit or loss of the business conducted. {e) Differentiation of Departments As the General Education Board has been devoting its attention to the development of a Hmited number of colleges of the arts and sciences, its officers have sought to learn the facts specifically regarding the college depart- ment of the institution. In the earlier dealings of the Board with colleges it found few institutions maintaining preparatory departments which knew the comparative ex- pense of the collegiate and preparatory departments. The accounts were inextricably mixed. A radical change has been made in the method of accounting so that now all the better institutions are able to determine the exact financial status of their several departments. The ten- dency has been not only to draw a clear Kne of demarca- tion between the finances of the college and the academy, "but to separate the two parts educationally or to dis- continue the secondary work altogether. The very word " coUege" has come to have a new meaning in consequence of a better system of accounting. EFFECT OF EOARD's CONTRIBUTIONS Many years must necessarily elapse before the main task in which the General Education Board is assisting 154 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD can be even approximately completed. Meanwhile, there can be no doubt in the mind of any one familiar with the facts that the growing recognition of the im- portance of conceiving the higher education of the coun- try, from the standpoint of a system of parts mutually related by the voluntary efforts of those interested, is proof of the soundness of the conception which led to the creation of the Board. Nor has the activity of the Board cost institutions anything in the way of freedom to meet their own problems in their own way. On this point expressions are too many and too sincere to leave any doubt whatsoever. The very opposite, indeed, has hap- pened. The gifts of the General Education Board have been the means of arousing new effort. ^' The offer of the General Education Board proved to be the culmination of a series of events which caused the friends of the col- lege to rally to the institution in a campaign for addi- tional endowment as nothing else could have done,'' writes the president of one institution. ''Under the stimulus of your pledge," wrote another, "a local move- ment was begun, local resources were developed, alumni and friends were aroused, and we secured not only a million dollars, but twenty-five hundred investors in our educational enterprise, many of whom had never before contributed to the support of an American university." In one instance, the only endowed college in a Southern state, ''struggHng against almost insuperable obstacles," was saved from destruction and has now $300,000 safely invested; in another — this one of the strongest institu- COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 155 tions of the land — the Board's appropriation was the initial help in obtaining land, buildings, and endowment for a set of adequate university laboratories. In repeated instances, debts have been paid, salaries increased, new departments created, and more teachers suppHed in con- sequence of the increased resources toward which the Board's gifts served as an almost indispensable leverage. An institution's usefulness grows with its financial strength. The canvass for funds itself attracts students by making it better known; increased resources mean larger and more varied facihties, through which, of course, more students are more efficiently trainedo The rapid increase in university attendance has forced the raising of larger sums; the raising of these sums has re- acted on and increased attendance. If colleges and uni- versities are to be thus popularly fostered and sustained, the work of the General Education Board may be fairly said to have made these institutions the more secure to the extent that it has increased the number of those who have a stake in them. TOTAL SUBSCRIPTIONS TO COLLEGES BY THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD Sumn Appropriations of Board lary Entire Sum to Be Raised To Southern States " Western States " Eastern and Middle States . . . $3,052,625 3,967,781 3,562,185 $12,199,677 19,374,522 18,810,124 $10,582,591 $50,384,323 156 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD SUBSCRIPTIONS TO COLLEGES BY SECTIONS SOUTHERN STATES Total Appropriation . $3,052,625 Toward $12,199,677 Subscribed Supplemental byG.E.B. Sum TOrAL Maryland— $250,000 Johns Hopkins University $250,000 $750,000 $1,000,000 Virginia— $490,000 . . . Emory and Henry College 50,000 200,000 250,000 Randolph-Macon College* 60,000 130,000 190,000 Randolph-Macon Woman's College ..... 75,000 175,000 250,000 Richmond College . 150,000 350,000 500,000 University of Virginia . 50,000 450,000 500,000 Washingtion and Lee Uni- versity* 105,000 445,000 550,000 North Carolina— $379,416 Davidson College . 75,000 225,000 300,000 Meredith College . . . 50,000 100,000 150,000 Salem Academy and College 75,000 225,000 300,000 Trinity College .... 150,000 850,000 1,000,000 Wake Forest College . . 29,416 88,248 117,664 South Carolina— $154,176 Converse College . . . $50,000 $100,000 $150,000 Furman University* 50,000 250,000 300,000 Wofford College* , , . 54,176 I5I;704 205,880 Georgia— $232,333 Agnes Scott College 100,000 250,000 350,000 Mercer University . 32,333 97,000 129,333 Wesleyan Female College . 100,000 200,000 300,000 Alabama— $21,700 Howard College .... 21,700 65,100 86,800 Mississippi— $150,000 Millsaps College . . . 25,000 75,000 100,000 Mississippi College . 125,000 275,000 400,000 Arkansas— $175,000 Hendrix College* . . . 175,000 525,000 700,000 Two appropriations made- COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES SOUTHERN STATES— Continued IS7 Subscribed by G. E. B. Supplemental Sum TOTAL Tennessee— $625,000 George Peabody College for Teachers , . . . . Maryville College , . . Union University . University of Chattanooga Vanderbilt University Kentucky-$125,000 Georgetown College Transylvania University . Williamsburg Institute . . Texas— $400,000 Baylor University . . . Southern Methodist Uni- versity . , . . . Florida— $50,000 John B. Stetson University 250,000 50,000 25,000 150,000 150,000 $25,000 50,000 50,000 200,000 200,000 50,000 750,000 150,000 75,000 350,000 150,000 $75,000 150,000 1 70,000 400,000 800,000 100,000 1,000,000 200,000 100,000 500,000 300,000 $100,000 200,000 220,000 600,000 1 ,000,000 150,000 $3,052,625 $9,147,052 $12,199,677 WESTERN STATES Total Appropriations . $3,967,781 Toward $19,374,522 Subscribed by G. E. B. Supplemental Sum TOTAL Ohio— $760,000 Marietta College . . . $60,000 $240,000 $300,000 Oberlin College .... 125,000 375,000 500,000 Ohio Wesleyan University . 125,000 375,000 500,000 University of- Wooster* 275,000 825,000 1,100,000 Western College for Women 50,000 200,000 250,000 Western Reserve University 125,000 375,000 500,000 Indiana— $230,160 DePauw University , . 100,000 400,000 500,000 Earlham College 30,761 133,300 164,061 Franklin College 49,399 214,063 263,462 Wabash College . . . 50,000 150,000 200,000 Two appropriations made. WESTERN STATES— Continued Subscribed Supplemental by G. E. B. Sum TOTAL Michigan— $16,106 Kalamazoo College . . . i6,io6 48,318 64,424 niinois— $300,000 Knox College* .... 150,000 600,000 750,000 Lake Forest College . . 50,000 350,000 400,000 Northwestern University . 100,000 900,000 1,000,000 Wisconsm— $290,000 Beloit CoUege* .... $150,000 $550,000 $700,000 Lawrence CoUege* . 90,000 310,000 400,000 Ripon College .... 50,000 200,000 250,000 Minnesota— $350,000 College of St. Thomas . . 75,000 225,000 300,000 Carleton College . . . 100,000 500,000 600,000 Hamline University 50,000 150,000 200,000 Macalester College* . . 125,000 575,000 700,000 Iowa— $596,515 Coe College* .... 146,515 586,060 732,575 ComeU CoUege .... 100,000 300,000 400,000 Drake University . 100,000 300,000 400,000 Grinnell CoUege* . . . 200,000 700,000 900,000 Momingside CoUege 50,000 150,000 200,000 Colorado— $200,000 Colorado CoUege* . . . 100,000 700,000 800,000 The University of Denver . 100,000 300,000 400,000 Kansas— $275,000 Ottawa University . 25,000 75,000 100,000 Washburn CoUege* . . . 125,000 475,000 600,000 Baker University 125,000 375,000 500,000 Missouri — $525,000 Drmy CoUege* .... $125,000 $525,000 $650,000 Washington University 200,000 800,000 1,000,000 WUUam JeweU College . . 125,000 375,000 500,000 Central CoUege .... 75,000 225,000 300,000 South Dakota— $150,000 DakotaWesleyan University 50,000 200,000 250,000 Huron CoUege .... 100,000 400,000 500,000 Washington— $125,000 Whitman CoUege . . . 125,000 375,000 500,000 California- $150,000 Pomona CoUege .... 150,000 850,000 1,000,000 $3,967,781 $15,406,741 $19,374,522 *Two appropriations made. 158 EASTERN AND MIDDLE STATES Total Appropriations . $3,562,185 Toward . . $18,810,124 Subscribed Supplemental by G. E. B. Sum TOTAL Maine — $50,000 Bowdoin College $50,000 $200,000 $250,000 Vermont— $150,000 Middlebury College . . 50,000 150,000 200,000 University of Vermont 100,000 400,000 500,000 Massachusetts— $750,000 Amherst College . . . 75,000 325,000 400,000 Harvard University . . 62,500 62,500 125,000 Mount Holyoke College 100,000 400,000 500,000 Smith College* .... 212,500 850,000 1,062,500 Williams College . . . 100,000 500,000 600,000 WellesleyCoUege . . . 200,000 800,000 1,000,000 Connecticut— $400,000 Wesleyan University 100,000 900,000 1,000,000 Yale University .... 300,000 1,700,000 2,000,000 New York— $955,000 Hamilton College . 50,000 150,000 200,000 Elmira College .... 100,000 200,000 300,000 St. Lawrence University . 50,000 150,000 200,000 Wells CoUege . . . . 100,000 400,000 500,000 Union College* .... 175,000 625,000 800,000 University of Rochester* . 230,000 970,000 1,200,000 Chamber of Com. of City of New York 50,000 450,000 500,000 Barnard College 200,000 800,000 1,000,000 Pennsylvania— $757,741 Allegheny College* . $150,000 $550,000 $700,000 Bryn Mawr College 250,000 380,000 630,000 Bucknell University 35,000 125,000 160,000 Franklin and Marshall Col- lege 50,000 308,512 358,512 Lafayette College . . . 47,741 381,928 429,669 Pennsylvania CoUege . 50,000 150,000 200,000 Swarthmore College 75,000 425,000 500,000 Washington and Jefferson College 100,000 400,000 500,000 New Jersey— $349,444 Princeton University 99,444 894,999 994,443 Stevens Institute of Tech- nology 250,000 750,000 1,000,000 Rhode Island— $150,000 Brown University .... 100,000 700,000 800,000 Women's College in Brown University .... 50,000 150,000 200,000 $3,562,185 $15,247,939 $18,810,124 VI. MEDICAL EDUCATION THE activities described in the preceding section have been concerned only with what is ordi- narily known as the department or faculty of arts and sciences — the core of the American college or uni- versity. For some years the Board concentrated its attention on this central feature of our institutions of higher learning. Only within the last year has it under- taken to deal with one of the professional schools, viz., that of medicine. DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA The American medical school began as a casual asso- ciation of local physicians lecturing and occasionally demonstrating to a nondescript body of medical students. Up to comparatively recent times the facilities were of the most meagre kind. Laboratories of very un- satisfactory character were provided for anatomy, chem- istry, and perhaps pathology; clinical opportunities were Kmited to a precarious relationship with a private oi public hospital, the appointments to which were made on almost any basis except education and science. The curriculum, originally calling for the repetition of certain courses of lectures during two successive years was only i6o MEDICAL EDUCATION i6i gradually and painfully lengthened and graded. En- trance requirements there were for years none worthy the name. The fees received for the opportunities just described were distributed among those participating in the instruction. CHANGES IN RECENT YEARS During the last twenty-five years these so-called pro- prietary schools have come to be regarded with great disfavor. Many have closed their doors; signs of dis- comfort preceding dissolution can be discerned in those still surviving. These schools were most numerous about the year 1906 when 161 medical schools were in existence in the United States; now, less than a decade later, this number has decreased to about a hundred. The process of reduction has obviously still far to go; but the accomplishment in this direction has undoubtedly been noteworthy. Simultaneously, the surviving schools have greatly improved. Entrance requirements have been formulated, and somewhat rapidly elevated — in the South, especially, with such excessive speed that the better medical schools have for the time being lost touch with the general educational situation. Tuition fees, instead of going into the pockets of practitioner teachers, have been utihzed to equip the necessary fundamental laboratories, and to pay for a gradually increasing number of full-time teachers; the hospital relationship has been improved to the extent that larger freedom for teaching has been obtained, though the hos- 1 62 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD pital staff continues, in so far as these schools are con- cerned, to be appointed largely for other than educational reasons. THE NEW TYPE OF MEDICAL SCHOOL The progress just sketched has been greatly influenced by the outright creation, meanwhile, of a new type of medical school — a school offering from the start, to properly qualified students, a four years' graded course, the first two years devoted to laboratory subjects — anatomy, physiology, and pathology; the last two years devoted to cHnical subjects — medicine, surgery, obstetrics, etc. — all these departments being organized and equipped with education and science prominently in mind. The first and best known of these modern institutions was the Medical School of the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. This institution, fortunate in its freedom from all entanglements, in its posses- sion of an excellent endowed hospital, and above all in wise and devoted leadership, set a new and stimulating example precisely when a demonstration of the right type was most urgently needed. THE LABORATORY BRANCHES At the time of the estabhshment of the Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1893, ^^e fundamental laboratory branches — anatomy, physiology, and pathology — were still taught in even the better medical schools then exist- ing by practising physicians. It is true that at Harvard MEDICAL EDUCATION 163 the important fundamental subjects were already taught by full-time men; and in one or two other institutions an occasional full-time teacher was to be found. But, generally speaking, these instances were sporadic. The subjects were in consequence, as a rule, ill taught and poorly developed; for the main interest of most teachers and their assistants was in their private practice and they could give to teaching only such time and energy as practice did not absorb. In the new Johns Hopkins School the laboratory sciences were from the first placed upon an unconditioned university basis. They were cultivated by ''full-time" teachers working under uni- versity conditions and working for university rewards, such rewards being modest material, and abundant spiritual, satisfactions. In the organization of its labora- tory departments, the Johns Hopkins Medical School rec- ognized the contrast between an academic and a worldly career. The academic career must not indeed defeat its own object by requiring such renunciations as cramp and thwart development; but it can never hope to rival the worldly career on the latter 'sown ground. It will not yield abundant material satisfactions; it cannot, as a rule, Kve with them. The laboratory staff was accordingly com- posed of men of modest income leading academic Kves devoted to teaching and research. It is no exaggeration to say that the few teachers who manned these depart- ments and worked in this spirit revolutionized within a single decade the status of anatomy, physiology, and pathology in America. Their pupils were soon sought as 1 64 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD teachers by other schools; nowadays no reputable medi- cal school uses practitioners to teach these branches. Moreover, the work of these men in America and of their collaborators in other countries has provided a new basis for medical and surgical development. THE CLINICAL BRANCHES On the clinical side, the estabhshment of the Johns Hopkins Medical School was marked by two important features. The first of these was its organic connection with its own hospital. At that time, though one or two medical schools possessed small university hospitals — hospitals, that is, the staff of which the school selected — no such medical school possessed a hospital adequate in size and equipment for such teaching and research as should be prosecuted. For the most part, as has been already stated, hospital relationship to medical schools was casual or precarious. Hospital trustees appointed a medical and surgical staff; and schools desiring hospital facihties had to employ these men as teachers or do with- out. In no case did a hospital sufficient in size, well supported, and well equipped for teaching and investiga- tion belong to an American medical school prior to the estabhshment of the Johns Hopkins Medical School. The second feature above alluded to was the selection of clinical teachers on scientific grounds. The founders of the Johns Hopkins broke with precedent when, instead of filUng the chnical teaching posts with local practi- tioners, as had been and still unfortunately is the pre- MEDICAL EDUCATION 165 vailing custom, the clinical professors were called from other places: Philadelphia, New York, and elsewhere. In this way as capable a staff as the country afforded was assembled, and as selections could be and were made on educational and scientific grounds, the country for the first time saw an entire medical school organized on pre- cisely the same principles that obtained in other uni- versity departments. Unfortunately, the university lacked income enough to pay its cHnical teachers adequately, even had it desired to do so. They had to engage in practice. To greater or less extent cHnical teaching and clinical research have therefore suffered from the distractions incident to the life of practitioner and consultant. This could not be otherwise. CHnical teaching is not easier than labora- tory teaching: it is m^ore difiicult; cKnical research is not easier than laboratory research: it is more compHcated. To conditions essential for research and teaching in anatomy and physiology, medicine and surgery cannot be indifferent. Under existing circumstances, initial suc- cess in clinical investigation may easily prove the chni- cian's permanent undoing. Scientific distiuction brings hordes of patients, especially the rich; and this even though, as a matter of fact, in many instances, equally skilful service can be had elsewhere. In any event so- ciety has other uses for the clinical investigator. For to him the country must look altogether for the training of physicians and very largely for the increase of knowledge. It is necessary, therefore, that obscure cases should en- 1 66 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD gage his attention, and important that he should not ex- pend himself on things that others can do satisfactorily. In Germany the general university tradition, the practice of basing academic distinction and promotion on scien- tific performance, has in the past served to protect clini- cal professors from distraction; nevertheless, in German universities situated in large cities, very disquieting in- dications of demoralization due to the invasion of worldly ambitions can nowadays be perceived. The American teacher of cKnical medicine wholly lacks this bulwark; and though here and there an individual has successfully maintained his ideals against the pressure of private practice, the university type of cKnician is extremely rare. It has therefore become important to create conditions favorable to the evolution of the full-time university cHnician. Fully cognizant of the situation just described, the faculty of the Johns Hopkins Medical School, after de- voting several years to careful consideration of the best way in which to improve clinical conditions, from the three essential points of view — care of patients, teaching, and research — recommended that the main cKnical de- partments — medicine, surgery, and pediatrics — should be organized on the full-time or university basis, if the necessary endowment could be obtained. A letter setting forth the facts was addressed to the General Education Board, October 21, 1013. ''The faculty of the Medical MEDICAL EDUCATION 167 School" — so ran the communication — ^'are fully con- vinced of the wisdom and necessity of commanding the entire time and devotion of a staff of teachers in the main clinical branches, precisely as the school has since its beginning commanded the entire time and devotion of the teachers of the underlying sciences; we are persuaded that the time is ripe for the step in question and we are desirous of undertaking the innovation. Should the General Education Board provide the funds, the depart- ments of medicine, surgery, and pediatrics would be or- ganized on the full-time basis — that is, the professor and his staff consisting of associate professors, associates, assistants, etc. — would hold their posts on the condition that while engaged in the service of the university and hospital they accept no fees for professional services. They would be free to render any service required by humanity or science, but from it they would be expected to derive no pecuniary benefit. Fees charged by the hos- pital for professional services to private patients, whether within or without the hospital, by members of the full- time staff, such as at present are paid directly to the physician, would be used to promote the objects for the attainment of which this request is made." THE WILLIAM H. WELCH ENDOWMENT It was calculated that an endowment approximating $1,500,000 would be necessary for the purpose above mentioned, and this sum the General Education Board appropriated. In consideration of his unique services 1 68 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD to medical science and medical education, the fund was named the William H. Welch Endowment for Clinical Education and Research; for Dr. Welch had planned the Johns Hopkins Medical School, had selected its faculty, had guided its development, and has throughout his Hfe been the wise, forceful, and modest leader of modern medicine and modern medical education in America. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL The Board is also cooperating with Washington Uni- versity, St. Louis, to the same end. The medical depart- ment of this institution had been of the usual local type ; but far-reaching changes have been recently made. "Within the last three years," in the words of the appli- cation addressed to the General Education Board, ^'ihe Medical Department of Washington University has been completely reorganized as follows: The entire faculty resigned and successors, chosen on the advice of the leading medical scientists, were called from different institutions — the pathologist from the Rockefeller In- stitute, the physiologist from the University of Wiscon- sin, the biological chemist from Cornell University, the chief physician from Tulane University, the chief surgeon from the Massachusetts General Hospital. At the same time the university entered into contracts with the trus- tees of the Barnes Hospital and of the Children's Hospital according to which the three parties in interest decided to build a single plant, including a general hospital, a children's hospital, out-patient department, and univer- MEDICAL EDUCATION 169 sity laboratories, on a new site of which all three parties are owners.^ The group of buildings in question is now nearing completion. They are of modern design and equipment, amply furnished with every appHance needed for treatment, education, and research. The hospitals will be opened in the summer of 19 14; the medical school will hold its next session in the new quarters. In addition to highly advantageous contracts giving the university ex- clusive and complete teaching privileges in and m_edical and surgical control of the hospitals, and in addition to the powerful community of interest which these relations create, the plant is physically so unified that it would be practically impossible ever to separate it into its con- stituent parts. ''The plant above described has cost something over two and one half milHons; the Barnes Hospital has an endowment of about one million dollars, which the uni- versity expects to supplement by annual subscriptions, and by raising a university hospital fund of Hke amount. ^The arrangement "between Washington University and the Barnes Hospital is important because it shows how a medical school and a hos- pital with entirely distinct endowments and control may cooperate in caring for the sick, in teaching and research, to the immense benefit of all parties in interest. As it is hardly likely that the same individual will found hospital and university (as Johns Hopkins fortunately did), the type of relationship worked out in St. Louis is of great importance. For this reason, the contract between the two institutions is printed in full in the Appendix, pp. 224-230. A similar contract has also been made between Washington University and the St. Louis Children's Hospital, by which the Medical School obtains complete control of a modem chil- dren's hospital for its department of pediatrics. Washington University has also contracted with both the above named hospitals to operate a Training School for Nurses, supplying both institutions with nurses and charging each its proper proportion of the expense incurred. The con- tract deahng with this service is printed on pp. 230-1. 170 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The Children's Hospital has fixed annual subscriptions of forty thousand dollars. "It is estimated that an endowment producing fifty thousand dollars more would suffice to provide a full- time organization in medicine and surgery. "In case the full-time scheme is introduced, all fees for services rendered in the private wards will be assessed by the university and collected through the hospital in order that in any event only reasonable fees may be charged; wherever such services are rendered by any per- son on the full-time basis, the fee will be covered into the fund which this appHcation seeks to estabhsh, and used for the benefit of the cHnic concerned. As the private ward is a small one, there will be Httle use for it beyond affording the full-time men the opportunity they need for observing obscure or interesting patients who would not enter the wards. "The medical faculty earnestly desires to enter upon its new opportunities equipped to take advantage of them according to the strictest demands of modern science and education. The university has a clean slate; and if the necessary aid is obtained, no step will be taken which will have to be retraced — no compromise effected which will at some future time have to be un- done." In compHance with the foregoing request, the Board appropriated $750,000 toward $1,500,000 for the endow- ment of university departments in Medicine, Surgery, and Pediatrics. MEDICAL EDUCATION 171 YALE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL DEPARTMENT More recently, Yale University has undertaken a thorough reconstruction of its Medical Department, in the course of which the full-time principle wiU be in- troduced into the main clinical departments. The school was organized in 18 13 and has long been an in- tegral part of Yale University. It has, however, lacked separate endowment and has, therefore, up to this time, had no adequate development, even on the laboratory side. Its cKnical facilities have consisted in a partial and unsatisfactory use of the New Haven Hospital, an institution supported partly by income from endowment and partly by subscription. Recognizing the fact that present conditions were neither creditable nor longer tolerable, the Trustees of the Hospital offered to the Corporation of Yale University complete medical and surgical control of the hospital provided the imiversity undertook to furnish adequate laboratories, properly manned.^ This situation made it possible for Yale to develop the type' of university medical school which has proved so productive and efhcient in the smaller uni- versity towns of Germany. The university has now set out to raise at least $2,ocx5,ooo; to erect on and adjacent to the hospital site modern scientific laboratories; and to reorganize the main cKnical departments on the full-time basis. Toward the sum above named, the General Education Board has voted $500,000. *This contract which may also serve as a model is printed in the Ap- pendix, pp. 231-240. 172 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The full-time scheme is so recent an innovation that a few important points may properly be somewhat fully discussed in this connection. FREEDOM UNRESTRICTED The scheme involves no restriction of experience. In the letter of application from the faculty of the Johns Hopkins Medical School it was expressly stated that no hmitation would be placed upon the members of the full- time cKnical organization. They were not to be kept from seeing any patient that they chose to see. They can therefore take whatever steps they please to procure easy and frequent contact with incipient disturbances; they can also attend well-to-do patients afflicted with obscure or difficult disease. In these matters, the advantage lies altogether with the fuU-time as against the part-time man. In reference, for example, to incipient disturbances, the ordinary con- sultant is, indeed, the very one whose advice is least apt to be invoked in the early stages of a malady. For the difficulty of seeing disease in its beginnings, however, a remedy, and what may indeed prove a practically com- plete remedy, lies at hand for the full-time man. The most neglected part of the resources available for clinical teaching and research is commonly the outpatient de- partment or dispensary. The practitioner or consult- ant type of cHnical teacher has not the time to develop, organize, and utilize the outpatient service. The con- nection between the dispensary and the usual indoor MEDICAL EDUCATION 173 clinic is, therefore, as a rule, nominal. It should be close and helpful, for a well-utilized dispensary will feed and supplement a well-organized clinic. The full-time organization favors such a relation. The instructor and his assistants can watch the outpatients for the purpose of detecting disorders at the very point of origin. Advantage has indeed already been taken of this in Balti- more. The favorable comments of the patients them- selves on the care and sympathy with which they have been handled will rapidly build up the attendance and thus increase the reservoir from which usable material can be drawn. Nor is the university clinician cut off from the well-to- do. The scheme seeks only to protect him from those who have no claim upon him beyond their ability to pay him. Inasmuch, however, as he receives no fee for his services, inasmuch as his time and energy are to be de- voted, as far as may be, to teaching and research, he will have no interest in seeing patients whom others can handle as well as he. If well-to-do people come to his clinic under proper conditions, they can be received in a ward maintained for their reception. For such service as is rendered to them, a moderate professional fee will be charged; and this fee will be turned into the university fund out of which the department is maintained. THE PAY WARD This arrangement suggests the proper function of the pay ward in the university hospital. These hospitals, 174 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD like other hospitals, exist to do service. But it does not follow that they will do their greatest service by develop- ing the largest pay ward that can be skilfully and efh- ciently administered. In no event can the pay ward of any single hospital undertake to receive more than a small fraction of the well-to-do sick. The rest must go elsewhere. Perhaps then a smaller pay ward which sets a standard will do the largest service for the most people, because it serves as a model which other estabHshments may follow. If a particular hospital undertook to serve larger numbers, it might be tempted to open the door to the profession generally or certain members thereof, with the result that the organization would be impaired and the work suffer. Mere size is therefore not neces- sarily imposed on the pay ward, in order to serve a large number of pay patients. This is an important consid- eration for all hospital administrators. But it has a pecuHar urgency in case of hospitals associated with university medical schools. Their greatest and widest service is obviously their contribution to the training of successive generations of physicians and to the in- crease of knowledge and skill. A large pay ward filled with patients afflicted with ailments already well under- stood is an obstacle to both research and education; an obstacle to research, because it squanders the time of the staff; an obstacle to education, because, in addition, it lowers the ideals of the entire institution. A pay ward is needed, but it should be small — only large enough, in fact^ to receive for each full-time man a Hmited number MEDICAL EDUCATION 175 of selected patients, for whom, in the interest of science, education, and humanity, it behooves him to care. THE GENERAL PRACTITIONER The full-time scheme involves no reflection upon the general practitioner. It does not raise the question of superiority as between him and the academic clinician. They are simply two different persons, discharging differ- ent functions. This differentiation of function is re- quired by the increased complexity of science and social Hfe; concentration and specialization under favorable conditions have become — as never before — requisite to systematic scientific achievement. As a matter of fact, they have always been more or less so, English medi- cine has been less continuously productive than German medicine, because in England concentration has been more frequently interrupted by professional success. The bril- liant achievements of Hunter, Bright, and Simpson had worldly consequences that made further performance in- creasingly difficult. The genius triumphed, and was swept away by the demands of those whose fortunes en- abled them to command his time. Concentration has therefore been necessary before now; but nevertheless the interrelation of recently developed sciences makes it more important now than ever before. The full-time scheme is the first frank and explicit attempt in medi- cine to accept the facts and to build a new structure upon them. Meanwhile, the practitioner of medicine continues to 176 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD discharge important social, professional, and educational responsibilities. He has an important practical function in translating new knowledge into intelligent therapeutic practice; he is also in position to make valuable con- tributions to knowledge by observation and experiment. Witness the great achievements of James Mackenzie, a practising physician in a small EngKsh town, whose studies mark an epoch in our knowledge of cardiac dis- ease. The practitioner will also have a place, more or less undefined at this moment, in the university medical school. It is, on the one hand, extremely important not to overload the full-time staff with routine; it is, on the other, important to save to the student whatever is val- uable in the practitioner's experience and point of view. The practitioner can therefore be utilized in dispensary teaching, to some extent as clinical lecturer or demon- strator and perhaps in the handling of various specialties. There is no disposition on the part of those who support the full-time plan to deal arbitrarily or dogmatically with these questions; they must be solved on the basis of ex- perience. Nevertheless, there can be no question that the university medical school will more and more get its character from the full-time staff. The school faculty will ultimately be composed only of full-time men; the medical board that controls hospital poHcy will, in the interest of effectiveness, be made up of departmental heads devoting themselves singly to the service of the university and the hospital. Substantially these steps have already been taken in Baltimore; and their success MEDICAL EDUCATION 177 there will lead to general adoption by schools of equal rank. POSITIONS ATTRACTIVE For the reasons just stated, the full-time posts will be occupied by men who desire to be absorbed in teaching and research. The three professorships established at the Johns Hopkins Medical School have been readily ac- cepted at great personal sacrifice by men of conspicuous professional standing, all of whom have gladly renounced personal pecuniary advantage in order to procure ideal conditions for chnical teaching and investigation. A similar experience is confidently anticipated by the authorities of Washington University and Yale. There is no occasion for surprise at this manifestation of practical ideahsm. With all our love of materiaHstic comfort, in no country in the world is there greater striving toward altruistic ends, keener or more constant sympathy, more frequent or more heedless sacrifice in the interest of science and humanity. The teaching pro- fession abounds in men and women moved by nothing less than genuinely religious zeal; in every institution may be found many such — young, gifted, and devoted. An eminent Austrian pharmacologist who recently spent a winter in America declared that America was the very home of practical ideahsm. The full-time clinical chair appeals to ideahstic motive. Medicine has always been humanitarian; in this form it becomes increasingly so. Not less fascinating than others in point of scientific 178 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD interest, the clinical branches are assuredly closer to the humanitarian appeal. They would seem therefore bound in due course to receive their needed share of recruits on the severe terms imposed by academic tradition. If, then, cKnical progress is stimulated, if men are trained willing to devote themselves to science and humanity on such terms as obtain in universities, the full-time organi- zation will have demonstrated its value and vindicated the judgment of those who first enHsted in its service. VII. RURAL EDUCATION I i IN THE opening section of the present volume atten- I tion was called to the organizations that have been j fruitfully busy in arousing educational interest and i directing educational effort in the Southern states. The j Conference for Education in the South was, as was there i pointed out, a more or less informal body, seeking to i assemble at its annual meetings representatives of every | phase of social, industrial, and educational interest, for | the purpose of cultivating friendly intercourse, exchang- | ing views, and harmonizing policies along broad Hnes. ! Out of this Conference, as has been previously stated, | sprang the Southern Education Board, a more definite | organization intended in the first instance to devote its Jj energies to developing public sentiment and to procuring favorable action by legislatures and the people on edu- j cational matters. I ]\ RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISORS |; Among the more important steps taken by the Southern Education Board was the support, in cooperation with the '| Peabody Fund, which had previously begun this work, of ; rural school supervisors, charged with the task of super- .; vising the rural schools to which public attention in the i 179 ] i8o THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD South and indeed throughout the country was then turn- ing. On the dissolution of the Peabody Board in 19 14, the Southern Education Board requested the General Education Board to undertake the future maintenance and development of this phase of its work. The General Education Board thereupon authorized an investigation with a view to taking action in reference to the further support of these officers whose continuance was eagerly desired by the educational authorities of every Southern state. On some of the significant points developed by this objective study of Southern conditions in the spring of the current year this volume has already touched, in connection with the secondary education movement. But the facts are of such importance that a small amount of repetition is necessary in order to show their bearing on the problem of the rural school. IMPORTANCE OF RURAL EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH The outstanding feature of the Southern situation is its predominantly rural character. Despite encroachment in the last two decades, due to the growth for the first time of some relatively large towns, the rural population of the entire region ranges from 70 per cent, in Louisiana to 88.5 per cent, in Mississippi; in seven states, the rural population is between 70 and 80 per cent, of the whole; in six more, between 80 per cent, and 90 per cent. Clearly pubHc education cannot succeed in these states unless * rural education can be made effective. The Southern RURAL EDUCATION i8i states must proceed on the assumption that the under- taking is feasible; their task is to ascertain how. FAVORABLE CONDITIONS To Southern faith in education attention has already been directed. There are, to be sure, backward districts, and great inert masses of population. But there are also forward districts, and active centres of enthusiasm and endeavor. The Conference for Education in the South had contributed to bringing about more soHdarity in respect to educational endeavor than exists in any other section of the country. At times one encounters a fresh- ness, vigor, and confidence that recall the Middle West and Northwest of twenty years ago; one meets teachers, administrators, laymen, aglow with what is to them a new discovery. Their spirit is that of the reHgious mission- ary. If the experiment of developing efficient rural education must, by the necessities of the case, be at- tempted, no more favorable opportunity than the present is likely to occur. Moreover, the South is relatively prosperous, and is wilHngly devoting steadily increasing funds to school purposes. The farm demonstration work, supported by the government and the General Education Board, and now likely to be greatly extended, will more and more create underlying conditions favorable to educational development. Abundant statistics showing increasing provisions for schools can be readily quoted. The an- nual educational expenditures in North Carolina for i82 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD public elementary and secondary schools was $1,091,226 in 1901, $3,069,260 in 1909, $4,300,000 in 1913 — that is, the annual school fund has quadrupled in twelve years. The expenditure of South Carolina in 1901 was $961,897; in 1909, $1,590,732; in 1913, $2,609,766; taxes raised by voluntary district taxation doubled in the same period. Arkansas appropriated $1,369,809 in 1900 and $4,279,478 in 1913; Tennessee raises altogether $5,000,000 a year for educational purposes ; toward this sum the state gave last year $1,350,000; prior to 1903 it gave practically nothing at all. Of its net state revenue of $6,400,000, Virginia in 1 9 14 devoted practically one half to education; Alabama devoted more than half. Even more hopeful and sig- nificant is the fact that, by voluntary community cooper- ation, funds are raised to build schoolhouses which are presented to the county. In CaroHna County, Virginia, a thoroughly agricultural and by no means wealthy com- munity, four schoolhouses for Negroes and three for whites have been lately built and paid for by local sub- scription and then donated to the county authorities. These instances need not be multipKed. Though the totals are not yet sufficiently large, they estabHsh the growing ability and willingness of the Southern people to spend of their substance for the education of their children. UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS On the other hand, there are certain conditions, some of which have already been touched on, that are for the time being distinctly unfavorable to orderly educational RURAL EDUCATION 183 development. As things now stand, there are still in several states serious obstacles to the conception and gradual execution of comprehensive plans. The state educational organization is in some states more or less defective. Few states have instituted really efficient methods of raising money; certain of the states have in recent years made some genuine improvements ; others are moving in the same direction; elsewhere, as in Ala- bama, for exam^ple, local taxation for school purposes beyond one mill is unconstitutional. Perhaps nowhere has an entirely proper relationship between state, county, and district officials been worked out. The State Superintendent is still in some states a political official. In Kentucky and Alabama he may not be reelected; in certain other states, more than a second term, even if not forbidden, is very improbable. The county superin- tendency is as yet too often poorly organized and occupied far too frequently by untrained incumbents, who in many cases give only part of their time to their school duties. Too often the official cannot expect re- election. In Kentucky, custom Kmits the occupant to two terms, though exceptions occasionally occur; over sixty of the one hundred and twenty counties of the state chose new men at the last election. In Alabama 40 per cent, of the county superintendents are also engaged in some other vocation, though of the sixty-eight as- sistant superintendents, 57 per cent, are trained teachers. Again, the teachers, for the most part poorly trained, are a constantly shifting body. Of the Alabama teach- i84 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ers, 75 per cent, were new to their present places this year. In twelve Mississippi counties, a recent study shows that 63^ per cent, of the teachers are in their first year in their present posts, 23 per cent, in their second; of twenty-four schools lately visited in Louisiana, only one school has the same teacher as last year. Finally, the prevailing schoolhouse has still only one room, so that in most rural schools an untrained girl is left to cope alone with all grades and all subjects simultaneously. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS The account just given does not understate the diffi- culties of the problem. But there is another side to it. An inventory must take account not only of such facts, but of efforts and tendencies, not less real and, from the standpoint of development, much more significant. The defects which we have mentioned, and others, as well, are acutely felt and candidly admitted. Efforts are being everywhere made to remedy them. In North CaroHna, the county has already been made the unit of school taxation, school administration, and of the appor- tionment of school funds; and a series of amendments has concentrated the educational administrative power in an appointive county board of education that selects the county superintendent. This type of organization has already achieved excellent results. A majority of the county superintendents of the state devote their entire time to their educational duties. Some have held office for ten or twelve or even fourteen years, and their RURAL EDUCATION 185 salaries range as high as $2,400 with traveHng expenses. The increase of salaries, in order to attract superior men, is indeed becoming quite common. In Mississippi, to give another instance, two thirds of the seventy-nine counties have now full-time superintendents, their sala- ries ranging as high as $1,800 per annum. Kentucky has made some progress along the same Kne. In South CaroHna, two counties have petitioned the legislature for permission to aboKsh the elected in favor of an appoin- tive superintendent, and this most important step was long ago taken in Virginia. In Arkansas, the office of County Superintendent was for the first time made possible by the legislature in 1907, since which date twenty-one counties have taken favorable action. As- sistant superintendents, county supervisors, school super- visors, supervising teachers, whose duty it is to improve teaching and internal school conditions, are provided in Kentucky, South Carolina, Alabama, Louisiana, and other states. An unmistakable effort to supplant the one-room school with a consolidated school of three or four rooms and as many teachers, with the dift'erentiation in teaching and grading thus made possible, is succeeding here and there, and the improvement is hkely to be accelerated by the introduction of the inexpensive auto- mobile. Four years ago, for example, there was not a consolidated school in Mississippi: there are now one hundred and seventy-five. In Pearl River County alone ten consolidated schools have replaced forty one-room schools. In Louisiana only twelve hundred one-room i86 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD schools are left: the state has three hundred school wagons in use. In Alabama, despite constitutional inhibitions, sporadic efforts at consoKdation have been made. The consolidated school buildings represent a striking advance in every respect. They are tasteful, convenient, well lighted, well ventilated; their teachers are happier and more stable; the schools are at times equipped for the teaching of domestic science, and asso- ciated with the club work and demonstration work now under way in all the states. The very substance of rural education has in these instances been more or less trans- formed. The foregoing examples are cited as evidence of the earnest striving characteristic of the situation. There is indeed no lack of such effort. But a serious difficulty, calculated to hamper and retard comprehensive re- organization, arises from the absence of sufi&cient contin- uous direction centred on the really fundamental factors of the situation. The South desires education; there is comparatively Httle need of undertaking to convince the people that popular education is essential to their develop- ment, though of course certain neighborhoods are back- ward and require such efforts. Moreover, the South is willing to pay for education more and more liberally, as it becomes able to do so. Finally, the South is struggling to educate itself and to improve its educational machinery and organization — struggKng with courage and enthu- siasm to overcome obstacles created by poverty and long indifference. But adequate direction is lacking. This is Old Unity School, S. C. "Pt • -m If _ i ! ! ! 1 ■'" 1 » 1 ^ZfMA -jH Unity Schoul, S. C. Second story for community purposes. RURAL EDUCATION 187 the most serious defect, and it is, unfortunately, a defect that the states themselves are not likely to remedy en- tirely at this time. RURAL EDUCATION AGENTS Under these circumstances the General Education Board was convinced that valuable service could be rendered through the estabhshment of a rural education agent attached to the ofhce of the State Superintendent and holding office continuously. The Board therefore authorized the expenditure of not exceeding $45,000 during the current year for the salaries and expenses of such officers in eleven Southern states. Inasmuch as rural school conditions are backward in other sections of the country as well, the Board resolved further to offer similar faciHties to selected states in the North, East and West. It was understood that it would be the function of the rural school agent to assist in making a thorough and dispassionate survey of rural education in his state, including laws, organization, finance, equipment, teach- ing force and methods, etc. On this basis, under the direction of the State Department of Education and in cooperation with other appropriate agencies, organiza- tions, and individuals, an adequate local program was to be worked out. In general, this program should aim to bring about a readjustment, which will substitute the county for the district as the unit of organization, ad- ministration, and finance; an appointive superintendent i88 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD with proper qualifications was to take the place of the elected superintendent; local as well as state taxation was to be made possible; consolidated schools to be favored; the one-room school to be reorganized and de- veloped; facilities to be provided for training teachers for a service rendered more permanent, more attractive, and more fruitful. It was to be the business of the rural education agent to aid the superintendent in recommend- ing the program agreed on to the people of the state, through popular enhghtenment and through the organ- ization of all available forces. His time and energy were thus to be devoted to estabhshing the fundamental general conditions necessary to sound development. If improved conditions and improved faciHties are thus provided, better schools and better teaching will result; intensive improvement of the schools, one at a time, may then profitably be undertaken by local authorities or other- wise. Subsequent to the passage by the General Education Board of the resolution above mentioned, the secretaries of the Board met the Southern State Superintendents in conference at Nashville. These officials were unani- mous in seeking the Board's cooperation. In conformity with the poKcy which has been repeatedly emphasized in this report, it was made clear that every state must handle its problem in its own way; that the Board had no detailed program to propose. This conference, however, developed distinct agreement to the effect that the most useful service that could at this juncture be rendered lay RURAL EDUCATION 189 in the direction of bringing about the improved under- lying conditions above noted, as respects organization, taxation, length of school terms, salaries, training of teachers, etc. The rural school agent was to be an instru- ment in the hands of the State Superintendent to improve conditions as to those and other matters, the State Super- intendent being the judge as to the relative urgency of the several items forming the program. On this basis it was agreed that a concerted effort on more or less similar lines would result, the outcome of which would be a common movement toward a common end. VIII. NEGRO EDUCATION THE improvement of facilities for the education of the Negro was among the first subjects taken up by the General Education Board. In deaKng with it, the Board has followed the method already de- scribed in connection with other activities: thorough in- quiries were made for the purpose of learning the details of the existing status — not only educational, but social and economic; and gifts of a tentative character were made in order that any program ultimately adopted might be the outcome of experiment and demonstration. In determining its successive steps, the Board has drawn on various sources of information and counsel. Its original surveys dealt fully with the conditions of Negro schools in the several states, public and private; special inquiries have from time to time thrown light on particu- lar aspects of the problem; the Secretary of the Board was for several years general agent of the Slater Fund, and in this capacity traveled extensively through the South, visiting Negro schools and conferring with both whites and blacks on the subject of Negro education; and the trustees and the president of tne Jeanes Fund have been in close consultation and cooperation with the offi- cers and members of the General Education Board. I go A Negro Rural School. 'W p 1 ii m ''^ 1 1^ Queensland Industrial School, Ben Hill County, Ga. NEGRO EDUCATION 191 FIRST STEPS IN NEGRO EDUCATION In the years immediately following the war Negro schools were founded throughout the South by several northern organizations, such, for example, as the Ameri- can Missionary Association, the Board of Missions for Freedmen of the Presbyterian Church, the Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, the American Baptist Home Mission Society, and other similar organizations. These schools have, with varying degrees of success, rendered a large service, particularly in the training of teachers for the public schools and in the training of colored ministers. In some cases they have developed colleges which will form the nucleus of a system of schools for the higher education of Negroes. Any discussion of Negro education must recognize the disinterested motives of these organizations and the importance and value of the schools maintained by them. The Negroes .themselves have organized a large num- ber of local schools, some of which have attained size and importance. These schools represent the aspira- tion of the Negro for self-culture, and have been accom- panied in many cases by sacrifice of the highest character. In addition to this, as is well known, large schools like Hampton and Tuskegee, which are strictly of private foundation, have been established. There are also a number of private schools of undoubted value, like the schools located at Manassas, Va. ; Calhoun, Snow Hill, 192 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD and Mt. Meigs, Ala.; St. Helena Island, S. C; Utica, Miss. ; and others, which are largely supported by con- tributions from the North. Moreover, all the states of the South have founded normal schools for the training of Negro teachers, such, for example, as the well-known institutions at Normal and Montgomery, Alabama; Pine Bluff, Arkansas; Talla- hassee, Florida; Frankfort, Kentucky; Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Alcorn, Mississippi; Greensboro and Win- ston-Salem, North Carolina; Orangeburg, South Caro- lina; Nashville, Tennessee; Prairie View, Texas; and Petersburg, Virginia. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL FUNDAMENTAL While fully recognizing the importance of the work above described, and the importance of encouraging private initiative in this as in other educational fields, the Board, nevertheless, has kept steadily in view the obvious fact that in the education of the Negro as of the whites the public school must be the main reliance. An educational agency is needed large enough, well enough supported and organized to train enormous masses in the arts of civihzation. The public school is the sole in-, strumentality equal to a task of such magnitude. More- over, public schools can be developed only through the leadership of the Southern white. Northern philan- thropy may assist, as it has assisted and is assisting, gen- erously, intelligently, and sympathetically. But the main privilege and responsibihty necessarily rest at this o u ce ^ rt 1 o QJ ;h d < O -a oT fy] c« c 5 O o t^ JQ ■*-> a o Oh ^ u CO >o r^ 03 ^ 3 o cfi ^^ cj O ^ 1 o M 6 ^ NEGRO EDUCATION 193 juncture upon the South itself, and upon that part of the Southern people that is strongest in wealth, intelHgence, and power. The General Education Board therefore resolved that, while certain privately managed institu- tions must be aided, its main purpose required that it cooperate with progressive Southern sentiment in cre- ating publicly supported educational systems. As education produces its natural results, the wealth, energy, and ambition of the Negroes themselves become more and more important factors. The Board has there- fore assisted the Negro to help himself, through his pri- vate schools, not so much by working upon him as by working with him; not by founding and supporting schools for him, but rather by helping him to found and support schools for himself. Fortunately, experience has shown that the Negroes welcome opportunities to turn these schools over to the public school system when the authorities are ready to support them; the two Knes of effort thus move in harmony toward a single goal — an adequate pubHc school organization. And it is especially the rural pubHc school that is of interest to the Southern Negro. About 80 per cent, of the Negroes in the Southern states Kve on farms. City schools, normal schools, and colleges do but little for people who live in the open country. They can be helped only as efficient rural schools are developed. The problem is in principle identical with that discussed in the preceding chapter; it is more difficult only because of the greater poverty of the black, his limited develop- 194 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ment, and the prejudices that must be overcome. He profits, however, by the same tendencies that at the moment assist the rural whites: the turning of public sentiment in the direction of the country; the rise in value of farm lands and farm products due to the increased cost of living in towns; the increase in farm productivity by the introduction of machinery and better methods of farming; the general introduction of conveniences and amenities through the telephone, good roads, rapid transit, free dehvery, and the parcel post. The data adduced in connection with farm demonstrations^ prove that the Negro is eagerly taking advantage of his oppor- tunities to attain economic independence in the country; a fact that renders educational improvement at once more necessary, more hopeful, and more certain. STATE SUPERVISORS OF NEGRO RURAL SCHOOLS For the purpose of arousing interest and furnishing inteUigent and speciaKzed guidance, a state supervisor of Negro schools was supported in Virginia by the Peabody Education Fund and the Southern Education Board. The appointee had already demonstrated the value of such supervision while superintendent of schools in Henrico County, Virginia. The General Education Board, recognizing the importance of this work, decided to extend it throughout the South, as opportunity occurred. The Board offered to cooperate with state departments of education by furnishing funds adequate to pay the ^ See pp. 54-57. Poplar Lawn School, Va., ''Before and After." NEGRO EDUCATION 195 salaries and expenses of state agents for Negro rural schools. Appropriations were to be made to the state departments and only on application of these depart- ments; the agent — or supervisor, as he is usually called — was to be chosen by the State Superintendent of Educa- tion and thus become a state official with all the powers and responsibilities of such a position. On this basis, agents are now supported by the General Education Board in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, North Carohna, Tennessee, and Virginia. These agents are white men who have had large and successful experience in school management. They have in every instance gained the confidence not only of the colored people and the pubHc school authorities, but of white citizens in general. As representing the state department, they have the entree to all counties, com- munities, and schools: they transact the state's business with county superintendents, county school boards, local trustees, and teachers. They interest the Negroes of a vicinity in the local school and bring the two races to join in its improvement. Substantial sums have thus been obtained from both races for local school improve- ments. They have already brought about the consoli- dation of several weak schools into central schools; they have participated in planning and constructing school buildings; in choosing teachers; in improving the curricu- lum, especially along industrial and domestic lines; in effecting cooperation between the schools, farm demon- stration and club agents, and in securing gradually in- 196 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD creasing allotments from pubKc funds, of which, however, the expenditure on the Negro is still disproportionately small. For the support of these agents, the General Education Board appropriates $2,500 each per year for salary, and a sum not to exceed $1,000 each for necessary expenses. COOPERATION WITH THE ANNA T. JEANES FUND The effectiveness of this work has been greatly in- creased by its intimate association with the activities of the industrial supervisors and teachers supported by the Jeanes Fund. These teachers, appointed by the county superintendent and working under his direction, are at the same time in close cooperation with the state agent maintained by the General Education Board. At the present time 128 such teachers are at work. They are for the most part graduates of Hampton, Tuskegee, Petersburg, Fisk, Atlanta, Spelman, and kindred insti- tutions. Each teacher visits a number of the country schools, gives a lesson in some industry, plans with the regular teacher to give additional lessons in her absence, organizes parents' clubs, and starts a movement for better school equipment or longer term, counsels the local teacher about her daily teaching, and stirs the community to united effort to better the school. Many of these teachers are employed for the entire year; when school is no longer in session, they carry on similar work in the community. Wherever the industrial teacher and the rural school supervisor have gone, quick improvement is perceptible in Old school, Burkeville, Va. New school, three rooms, Burkeville, Va. NEGRO EDUCATION 197 the physical appearance of grounds, buildings; and pupils. Improvement leagues are formed; money is raised by sub- scription to paint or whitewash the building, to buy a stove and procure the necessary equipment for cooking classes among both the girls and their mothers. Elemen- tary sanitation is inculcated; fairs and exhibitions are held through which the results are brought together for the pleasure and enlightenment of pupils and patrons. In 191 2-13, twenty-three supervising teachers worked under the general direction of the state supervisor in twenty-five Virginia counties: 591 schools were visited, 417 of them regularly; 189 extended their terms by one month, their patrons bearing the expense; 20 new schoolhouses were built at a costof $23,808; 15 more were enlarged at a cost of $2,212; 428; school leagues raised among Negroes $22,655. In 1913-14, supervising industrial teachers worked in 27 counties; 22 new Negro schoolhouses, costing $18,230, were built; 12 enlarged, at a cost of $3,612; 182 extended their terms one month through subscriptions, mainly of their patrons; 125 sanitary outhouses were built; $28,673 was raised by Negroes for school improvements. It is impossible to draw a sharp line between this work and that of the clubs described as part of the farm demon- strations. In Virginia, for example, 14 teachers report 617 girls in the clubs of 15 counties with 416 home gardens, of which two thirds are "excellent"; the girls put up 10,504 jars of vegetables for home use, their mothers 12,269. *'I spent August 5th and 6th with Superintendent Wash- ington of Caroline County," writes the state supervisor 198 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD in September, 19 13. "We joined the supervising teacher and the special agent in charge of canning clubs, and drove through the county, visiting the gardens of the vari- ous members of the club. Every garden was laid off in straight rows, usually eight, with a walk in the middle. There were two rows of flowers, two rows of cabbage, two rows of snap beans, one early and one late, and two rows of tomatoes. They were well cultivated, clean of weeds. Most of them had resisted the temptation to 'hill' the to- matoes, and cultivated level, as they were directed. In nearly every case the tomatoes were held up by some support. *'0n the 8th there was held at BowKng Green the first Conference of the Girls' Canning and Poultry Clubs of Caroline County. Nearly all of the eighty members were present with their parents and other members of their famihes. They brought exhibits of their vegetables, canned goods, bread, cake, sewing, poultry, etc. Simple prizes given by the county school board were awarded. Girls who had been most successful and those who had overcome unusual difficulties were called on to tell how they cultivated their gardens, how they made fences, how they canned their tomatoes, or baked bread, etc. The prize for the best kept garden was awarded to two motherless girls eleven and twelve years of age, who kept house for their father. Their garden, located in a piece of newly cleared land, was a model of neatness and careful cultivation." Similar experiences can be reported from the other states. NEGRO EDUCATION 199 IMPROVED RELATIONS OF RACES A more cordial relation between the races has followed in the wake of educational progress. Nothing, indeed, is of fairer promise than the awakened interest of the white — superintendent and layman — in the improve- ment of Negro schools. For example, a conference of Alabama County Superintendents with the State Super- intendent and the State Supervisor of Negro Schools visits Tuskegee Institute in a body and confesses "sl new vision in regard to the Negro"; again, the state super- visor addresses the Y. M. C. A. of the State College of Agriculture at Auburn, Alabama, on the Negro problem, and forty-five members subsequently accompany him on a visit of inspection to Tuskegee. At one of the summer institutes held for Negro teachers in Georgia, the work of the Negro industrial teacher was so novel and inter- esting that the white county superintendent asked her to come over to the white institute in order to give a demon- stration of her work. She was kept half a day answering questions and explaining the way she did the work. At other times, white teachers have gone to see what the Negroes were doing in their institute. What they ob- serve surprises the whites, and the experience affords pleasure and stimulation to the Negro teachers. "Shall this not be a mighty entering wedge to reach the preju- dices and the S3Tiipathies of the white people?" asks the state agent in reporting the incidents. From North Carolina comes an account of a meeting of lead- 200 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ing white citizens at the Slater Normal School for Negroes. Among them were the city and county superintendents of schools and several members of the Board of Trustees. The object of the meeting was to study the condition and needs of the normal school in order to devise means by which it may train more and better teachers and serve the Negro race more effectively. Plans for the erection of a new dormitory for girls, and for improving the teacher training course were discussed. IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS By way of improving the quahty of the teaching, summer institutes have been widely developed by the state supervisors. In 19 13, thirty-seven such institutes were conducted in Alabama, with an attendance of 1,800 teachers, who received instruction in academic, industrial, and domestic branches; of the total expense of $2,600, the state contributed $1,500, the teachers themselves $1,000, and the Slater Board $100. In Arkansas, five State In- dustrial Summer Normal Schools were held in June, 19 14. The attendance was 935. Meanwhile, county institutes were simultaneously in progress throughout the state. Large summer schools, in which the state supervisors assist, are held regularly at Hampton, Tuskegee, and other institutions. ''A spirit of helpfulness and de- votion characterized the work of these Negro educators," writes the white supervisor in his account of the summer's efforts. Similar undertakings are in progress in every Southern state. Sewing lesson in a Gloucester County school, Va. Northampton County exhibit, Va. NEGRO EDUCATION 201 SELF-HELP Most interesting and significant of all are the indica- tions of self-help reported from all directions. Christian County, Kentucky, reports in a single year 13 new build- ings, 5 new sites, 7 schools with new furniture, 63 new outbuildings, 2 new fences, 2 new cisterns, 31 new stoves —toward all of which the colored people themselves had subscribed more than half. The whites of Fordyce, Arkansas, donated land and lumber for a new building for the Negro school; the colored people of the town contributed $150 toward putting it up. In Ben Hill County, Georgia, a $1,600 schoolhouse and ten acres of land were furnished by the town for an industrial school; the Negroes thereupon raised $550, which the county duplicated, to add two more rooms and an additional teacher. At Spottsylvania, Virginia, the Negroes had acquired 160 acres of land and $800 toward a private secondary school; the school board, impressed by their eagerness, took it over as a pubhc graded school to be maintained by the county. In Carohne County, Vir- ginia, whites and blacks have emulated each other in consoHdating and reconstructing, largely out of their own pockets, the country schools. The experience of this county, indeed, proves the soundness of the policy that has thus far been pursued. The Negroes had estab- Kshed at BowKng Green an Industrial Academy with ten acres of land and a building costing together $2,000; this they have offered to turn over to the county school 202 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD board to be used as a county training school for teachers — the state contributing $350, the Slater Fund $500 annually toward maintenance. Four rural schools, built by the Negroes at a cost of $5,400, and three others in process of construction, to cost $4,900, have been donated to the county. These schools all previously had one room and ran for five months: now they have from two to five rooms and run for eight months. The whites of Caroline County look with 83011- pathy and pride on these improvements; the donation of the schools is an evidence of the mutual trust and confidence that has sprung up between the two races. Similar examples can be cited from AmeHa County, Charlotte County, Cumberland County, and elsewhere. THE JEANES FUND OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The income from $200,000 given to the General Edu- cation Board by Miss Anna T. Jeanes ^ has been utilized in stimulating efforts of this kind. Between 1906 and 191 2, seventy-four schools in Alabama were thus aided; toward buildings and equipment, costing $54,153, the Jeanes Fund of the General Education Board contributed $18,888; Negro patrons of the schools, $35,265; toward $17,690 spent in maintenance in the year 1910-11, the Fund gave $1,068, county boards, $9,070, and Negro patrons, $7,552. ^ See Appendix, pp. 223. Chair caning exhibit, Henrico Coimt}^, Va. f 1 J •1 ^^!^ ■::*^^' ,^^^MMR^^ J^^^^^H Specimens of manual training work and sewing done by Negro school children of Isle of Wight County, Va. Farmers' Conference Exhibit, 191 2, Hampton Institute. NEGRO EDUCATION 203 APPROPRIATIONS TO INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTES At the present time, schools are fortunate if they obtain as principals and teachers the graduates of one of the better industrial schools for Negroes. The General Edu- cation Board has therefore assisted some of the more efficient of these industrial training schools as follows: Hampton Institute $138,000.00 Tuskegee Institute 135,483.48 Spelman Seminary 196,912.88 Other Institutions . 85,384.77 Total $555,781 13 With the same end in view, gifts toward improved physical equipment have been made to a number of sec- ondary schools owned or controlled by Negroes them- selves — e. g.. Waters Normal Institute (Winton, North Carolina) ; Thompson Institute (Lumberton, North Car- olina); Jeruel Academy (Athens, Georgia); Americus Institute (Americus, Georgia) ; Howe Institute (Memphis, Tennessee); Florida Baptist Academy (Jacksonville, Florida) ; and others. HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO While the main stress has been, and for some time must continue to be, laid on the activities which we have described, it has also been recognized that the higher education of the Negro ought not to be neglected. The reasoning followed in dealing with secondary schools 204 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD and colleges for whites is equally valid for Negroes. That is, if primary and secondary Negro schools are to have good teachers, principals, and supervisors, provision must be made for the higher training of these instructors and ofhcers. Moreover, competent Negroes often desire higher education as the basis for some form of specialized or professional training. Personal aspiration and race welfare unite in suggesting the development of suitable academic opportunities for those who are capable. In the years immediately succeeding the war, many institutions were founded for the higher education of Negroes. In too many instances, however, these well- meant endeavors were entered upon without due con- sideration of the magnitude of the work and the diffi- culties involved. Colleges and universities may be never so desirable, but such institutions cannot be created without a competent faculty, a capable student body, suitable facilities, and ample and continuous financial support. In the period with which we are deahng, none of these essential conditions could be met. A small number of capable teachers were indeed secured — mainly Northern men and women inspired by missionary spirit; but, gen- erally speaking, scholarly faculties could not at that time be recruited for the far too numerous colleges and universities established for the colored race. Again, as is evident from the previous sections of this chapter, there were practically no organized facihties for the preliminary training of a body of college students. Boy and girl in their garden getting instructions from teacher. A prize garden, CaroUne County, Va. Two rows of flowers in middle, then on each side a row of cabbage, beans, and tomatoes. NEGRO EDUCATION 205 Finally, funds in sufficient amounts were yet to be raised and plants provided. In the last few years, however, order has begun to emerge from chaos. PubHc school systems are beginning to take shape; and though in the main their work is still limited to the elementary grades, nevertheless, here and there — as, for example, at Little Rock — an excellent public high school has been established. Preparatory schools have also been developed — either as the academic departments of industrial institutes, or in connection with the colleges and universities. Thus, in one way or another, fair opportunities for procuring the necessary secondary training are now open to energetic boys and girls who enjoy the necessary support or are wiUing ''to work their way through." Meanwhile, the formation of a better teaching staff has become feasible. A small number of colored men and women have been graduated by Oberlin, Amherst, Brown, Harvard, and other institutions, a large propor- tion of whom have from the outset had college teaching definitely in view; in addition, many of the most capable graduates of the Negro colleges, keenly reahzing the deficiencies of their training, have from time to time sought the larger opportunities offered by the summer schools or extension courses at Columbia, the University of Chicago, and elsewhere. Nevertheless, the situation still abounds in difficulties. Pure and high motives led religious and philanthropic organizations, white and colored, to estabUsh their so- 2o6 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD called colleges and universities. Bat, as there was no cooperation at the outset, so there has been no cooper- ation since. Each of the interested bodies went, and has continued to go, its own way, with little regard to what other similar bodies had undertaken or were in- tending. The number of institutions now struggHng for existence is out of all relation to. the number of quahfied teachers and students procurable, the financial resources available for support, and the service to be performed. Inevitably, therefore, internal college conditions are bound to be unsatisfactory. A college consists essen- tially of an adequate and homogeneous student body, and a competent staff occupied with their training. But the aggregate number of competent students is so small that there are colleges with as few as eight or ten collegiate students. In consequence of this scarcity of students trained up to college level, secondary and even elementary instruction forms the main activity of most Negro colleges and universities. In only one insti- tution is it claimed that as many as one half the stu- dents are above the high school level; in most institu- tions the number of college students is less than lo per cent, of the total enrolment. Besides, limited as it is, the student body is far from being sufficiently uniform in training or capacity. Under these circumstances the college teachers are required to do an inordinately large amount of non-collegiate teaching; and their college instruction is addressed to an unduly small and a dis- tinctly uneven student body. NEGRO EDUCATION 207 These difficulties are in many places aggravated by the teachers themselves, who pitch their instruction on a plane at once too high and too remote. The mistake is not an unnatural one. These teachers are men and women of unusual abihty, energy, and ambition. Eager to train at a high level the future leaders of their race, they emulate the procedure of the colleges for white boys in which they have themselves studied. As a result, their teaching is too often concerned with tasks which their students are incapable of mastering, or for which there is no practical outcome. The courses offered are often too abstract, too ambitious, or too learned. The students are not lacking in earnestness; they apply themselves to their tasks with all the energy they can summon. But the tasks are too frequently beyond their strength. They strain to grasp what is simply beyond their reach. From the foregoing discussion, several important conclusions follow. A higher education ought to be furnished to capable Negro men and women; but the mere attempt to deliver the traditional college curriculum to the Negro does not constitute a higher education. His own needs, environment, capacity, and opportunity should be freshly studied and college curricula should be framed in the Hght of the facts thus ehcited. Moreover, these curricula should all be regarded as experimental. Teachers should be constantly on the lookout, in order to determine whether the preparatory training of the student is adequate to the collegiate tasks imposed, and, 2o8 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD if so, whether the tasks in question subserve their in- tended purpose. As conditions change, particularly as elementary and secondary training improves, corres- ponding readjustments can be made. The entire pro- cedure must, however, be tentative and critical, rather than cut-and-dried or imitative. Obviously, the or- ganization and management of Negro colleges at this juncture call for educational initiative and resourceful- ness in unusual measure. It is clear that under existing conditions only a few efficient colleges for Negroes can or ought to be main- tained. The organizations engaged in promoting the higher education of the race should therefore concentrate on a reduced number of institutions. In order to obtain a sufficiently large number of qualified students more feeding schools should be developed; indeed, some of the so-called colleges might well be converted into secondary schools for this purpose. For the system thus created, consisting of several preparatory schools and a few col- leges, larger financial support should then be arranged. Finally, for each of the few colleges thus reorganized, highly intelligent educational direction is required. The function of the head of a Negro college is necessarily somewhat different from that of the usual college or university president. He must, of course, be a good administrator; but a very large part of his energy must be devoted to outright pedagogical effort. He must not only select, but assist in training, his teachers; and he must by observation and conference assure himself that NEGRO EDUCATION 209 the instruction offered is calculated to achieve the end in view. For some time to come he will resemble a principal or director rather than a university president, as that officer is usually conceived. The General Education Board has made appropri- ations to Negro colleges and universities as follows: Atlanta University $ 8,000 Florida Baptist Academy ....... 13,000 Fisk University . . 70,000 Lane College . 7,000 Livingstone College . . 12,500 Shaw University 18,000 Virginia Union University 11,500 Total . $140,000 In 90emoriam Jabez Lamar Monroe Curry William Henry Baldwin, Jr. William Rainey Harper Morris Ketchum Jesup Daniel Coit Oilman Robert Curtis Ogden APPENDICES APPENDIX I AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD Be it Enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress Assembled, That William H. Baldwin, Jr., Jabez L. M. Curry, Frederick T. Gates, Daniel C. Oilman, Morris K. Jesup, Robert C. Ogden, Walter H. Page, George Foster Pea- body, and Albert Shaw, and their successors, be, and they hereby are, constituted a body corporate of the District of Columbia; that the name of such body cor- porate shall be GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD and that by such name the said persons and their successors shall have perpetual succession. Sec. 2. That the object of the said corporation shall be the promotion of education within the United States of America, without distinction of race, sex, or creed. Sec. 3. That for the promotion of such object the said corporation shall have power to build, improve, enlarge, or equip, or to aid others to build, improve, en- large, or equip, buildings for elementary or primary schools, industrial schools, technical schools, normal schools, training schools for teachers, or schools of any grade, or for higher institutions of learning, or, in con- nection therewith, libraries, workshops, gardens, kitchens, or other educational accessories; to establish, maintain, or endow, or aid others to establish, maintain, or endow, APPENDIX 213 elementary or primary schools, industrial schools, tech- nical schools, normal schools, training schools for teach- ers, or schools of any grade, or higher institutions of learning; to employ or aid others to employ teachers and lecturers; to aid, cooperate with, or endow associations or other corporations engaged in educational work within the United States of America, or to donate to any such association or corporation any property or moneys which shall at any time be held by the said corporation hereby constituted; to collect educational statistics and informa- tion, and to pubHsh and distribute documents and re- ports containing the same, and in general to do and perform all things necessary or convenient for the promo- tion of the object oi the corporation. Sec. 4. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and use a common seal and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or be sued in any court of the United States or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws for the admission or ex- clusion of its members, for the election of its trustees, officers, and agents, and otherwise; for the casting of votes by its members or trustees by proxy; for the pur- chase, management, sale, or transfer of its property; the investment and control of its funds and the general transaction of its business; to take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, or to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; to accept and administer any trust of money or of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the object of the corporation as aforesaid; to prescribe by by-laws or otherwise the terms and conditions upon which money, real estate, or personal estate shall be acquired or re- ceived by the said corporation, and for the grant, trans- 214 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD fer, assignment, or donation of any or all property of the said corporation, real or personal, to any society or cor- poration for any of the said purposes for which the said corporation is hereby incorporated, and otherwise gener- ally for the management of the property and the trans- action of the business of the corporation. Sec. 5. That the members of the corporation shall be not less than nine in number and not more than seven- teen, as may be prescribed by the by-laws of the corpo- ration : provided, however, That if and when the number of members shall be less than nine, the members remaining shall have power to add and shall add to their number until the number shall be not less than nine : and provided That no act of the corporation shall be void because at the time such act shall be done the number of the mem- bers of the corporation shall be less than nine; that all the members of the corporation shall be its trustees; that no member of the said association shall, by reason of such membership or his trusteeship, be personally liable for any of its debts or obHgations; that each member of the corporation shall hold his membership for a term of three years and until his successor shall be chosen: pro- vided, however. That the members shall be at all times divided into three classes numerically, as nearly as may be, and that the original members shall, at their first meeting, or as soon thereafter as shall be convenient, be divided into three classes, the members of the first class to hold their membership and ofEce until the expiration of one year from the first day of January next after the enactment of this law, the members of the second class until the expiration of two years thereafter, and the members of the third class until the expiration of three years thereafter, and that in every case the mem- ber shall hold office after the expiration of his term APPENDIX 215 until his successor shall be chosen: and provided further , That, in case any member shall, by death, resignation, incapacity to act, or otherwise, cease to be a member during his term, his successor shall be chosen to serve for the remainder of such term and until his successor shall be chosen; and that the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the City of Washington, District of Columbia: provided, That meetings may be held elsewhere within the United States as may be de- termined by the members or provided by the by-laws. Sec. 6. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purpose of producing income, and all personal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes as aforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation: pro- vided, however, That this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corporation: and provided further, That the corporation shall annually file with the Secretary of the -Interior of the United States a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same or the income thereof during the preceding year. Sec. 7. That this charter shall be subject to altera- tion, amendment, or repeal at the pleasure of the Con- gress of the United States. APPENDIX II LETTERS ANNOUNCING GIFTS TO THE GENERAL EDU- CATION BOARD AND REPLIES THERETO (a) Correspondence with Mr. Rockefeller ''Dear Mr. Baldwin: ^^^ ^' ^^°^* ''My father understands that William H. Baldwin, Jr., Jabez L. M. Curry, Frederick T. Gates, Daniel C. Gil- man, Morris K. Jesup, Robert C. Ogden, Walter H. Page, George Foster Peabody, Albert Shaw, have formed themselves into an association called the 'General Educa- tion Board,' pending the formahties necessary to incor- porate themselves into a corporation which shall be known as the ' General Education Board '; "That the object of this Board is to promote education in the United States of America without distinction of sex, race, or creed; "That the immediate intention of the Board is to devote itself to studying and aiding to promote the edur cational needs of the people of our Southern States. "Upon this understanding my father hereby pledges to the Board the sum of One MilHon Dollars ($1,000,000) to be expended at its discretion during a period of ten years, and will make payments under such pledges from time to time as requested by the Board or its Executive Committee through its duly authorized oiEcers. "Very truly, "(Signed) John D. Rockefeller, Jr. ''Mr. William H. Baldwin, Jr., Chairman of the General Education Board, New York City.'' 216 APPENDIX 217 To this letter the following reply was sent: ''March 8, 1902. ^^Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 26 Broadway, New York. ''My dear Mr. Rockefeller: On behalf of the Trustees of the General Education Board, I beg to ac- knowledge receipt of your letter dated March ist, in which pledge is made, in behalf of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, of one milHon dollars to be expended at the discretion of the General Education Board during a period of ten years. "I beg to confirm your understanding that William H. Baldwin, Jr., Jabez L. M. Curry, Frederick T. Gates, Daniel C. Gilman, Morris K. Jesup, Robert C. Ogden, Walter H. Page, George Foster Peabody, Albert Shaw have formed themselves into an Association to be called the 'General Education Board,' with tem^porary Articles of Association pending the formaHties necessary to incorporate themselves into a corporation under Spe- cial Charter from the United States Congress; and, further, that the object of the Board is to promote education in the United States of America, without distinction of sex, race, or creed, and that immediate attention is to be given to the promotion of the educational needs of the people in the Southern States. "I beg further to state that immediate steps were taken through eminent counsel, Mr. Edward M. Shepard, to prepare a charter, which has met with the approval of the members of the Board, and that the charter is now in the hands of United States Senator Aldrich, to be presented to Congress at a favorable moment. "In accepting this munificent gift on behalf of the Board, I wish to assure you of the cordial and loyal sup- port which has been shown by each Trustee. I beheve 2i8 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD that no set of men could have been selected to represent more fully the advanced movement of the education of the Southern people. It is our belief that never in the past has the time been so opportune as this moment for an active and aggressive movement in the Southern States, and especially it is to be noted that the educational point of view of the Trustees of the General Education Board is in perfect harmony with that of the Southern men who represent the intelligent opinion of the South. ''In return for your generous offer, we pledge our de- voted support to the principles which have been laid down in our Statement of PoHcy, and it will be our chief aim to prove ourselves worthy of the great responsibility which you have placed upon us. ''I enclose you herewith a copy of our Statement of PoHcy, together with a copy of the temporary Articles of Association, and a copy of the proposed Act to Incor- porate the General Education Board. ''This letter has been approved by the Executive Committee of the Board, at a meeting held on Monday, March 17 th, 1902. "Very respectfully, "(Signed) W. H. Baldwin, Jr., " Chairman." On June 30, 1905, the Board received the following communication: 'To Messrs. Wallace Buttrick and Starr J. Murphy, Secretaries and Executive Officers, General Education Board. ' ' Dear Sirs : I am authorized by Mr. John D . Rocke- feller to say that he will contribute to the General Educa- tion Board the sum of ten million dollars ($10,000,000), APPENDIX 219 to be paid October first next, in cash, or, at his option, in income producing securities, at their market value, the principal to be held in perpetuity as a foundation for education, the income above expenses of administration to be distributed to, or used for the benefit of, such insti- tutions of learning, at such times, in such amounts, for such purposes and under such conditions, or employed in such other ways, as the Board may deem best adapted to promote a comprehensive system of higher education in the United States. " Yours very truly, '^(Signed) . F. T. Gates." On February 7, 1907, the Board received the following communication: "February 5, 1907. ^^ General Education Board, 54 WUHa?n Street, New York City. *' Gentlemen: My father authorizes me to say that on or before April i, 1907, he will give to the General Education Board income bearing securities, the present market value of which is about thirty-two milHon dollars ($32,000,000), one- third to be added to the permanent endowment of the Board, two-thirds to be appKed to such specific objects within the corporate purposes of the Board as either he or I may from time to time direct, any remainder, not so designated at the death of the survivor, to be added to the permanent endowment of the Board. "Very truly, ' ' (Signed) John D . Rockefeller, Jr. " To this reply was made as follows: 220 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ''New York, February 7, 1907. ^'Mr. John D. Rockefeller, New York City. '^Dear Sir: The General Education Board acknowl- edges the receipt of the communication of February 5th, 1907, from Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., a member of this body, announcing your decision to give to the Board, for the purpose of its organization, securities of the curient value of thirty- two milhon dollars ($32,000,000). The General Education Board accepts this gift with a deep sense of gratitude to you and of responsibihty to society. This sum, added to the eleven milhons ($11,000,000) which you have formerly given to this Board, makes the General Education Board the guardian and administra- tor of a total trust fund of forty-three milhon dollars ($43,000,000). "This is the largest sum ever given by a man in the history of the race for any social or philanthropic pur- poses. The Board congratulates you upon the high and wise impulse which has moved you to this deed, and de- sires to thank you, in behalf of all educational interests whose development it will advance, in behalf of our coun- try whose civilization for aU time it should be made to strengthen and elevate, and in behalf of mankind every- where in whose interest it has been given and for whose use it is dedicated. ''The administration of this fund entails upon the General Education Board the most far-reaching respon- sibility ever placed upon any educational organization in the world. As members of the Board we accept this responsibihty, conscious ahke of its difficulties and op- portunities. We will use our best wisdom to transmute your gift into intellectual and moral power, counting it a APPENDIX 221 supreme privilege to dedicate whatever strength we have to its just use in the service of men. *'Very respectfully yours, '^ (Signed) Frederick T. Gates John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Daniel C. Oilman Wallace Buttrick Morris K. Jesup E. Benjamin Andrews Robert C. Ogden Hugh H. Hanna Walter H. Page Starr J. Murphy George Foster Peabody Edwin A. Alderman Albert Shaw Hollis B. Frissell Harry Pratt Judson" On July 7, 1909, the Board received the following com- munication: ''June 29, 1909. " The General Education Board, 2 Rector Street, New York. ''Gentlemen: My father authorizes me to say that on or before August i, 1909, he will give to the General Education Board income bearing securities, as per the accompanying memorandum, the present market value of which is about ten milhon dollars ($10,000,000) to be added to the permanent endowment of the Board. "He, however, authorizes and empowers you and your successors, whenever in your discretion it shall seem wise, to distribute the principal or any part thereof, provided the same shall be authorized by a resolution passed by the afhrmative vote of two thirds of all those who shall at the time be members of your Board at a special meeting held on not less than thirty days' notice given in writing, which shall state that the meeting is called for the pur- pose of considering a resolution to authorize the distri- bution of the whole or some part of the principal of said 222 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD fund. Upon the adoption of such resolution in the man- ner above described, you and your successors shall be and are hereby released from the obligation thereafter to hold in perpetuity or as endowment such portion of the principal of such fund as may have been authorized to be distributed by such resolution. ''Very truly, ''(Signed) John D. Rockefeller, Jr." "June 29, 1909. "r/je General Education Board. "Gentlemen: I have heretofore from time to time given to your Board certain property, the principal of which was to be held in perpetuity, or as endowment. I now authorize and empower you and your successors, whenever in your discretion it shall seem wise, to distrib- ute the principal or any part thereof, provided the same shall be authorized by a resolution passed by the affirm- ative vote of two thirds of all those who shall at the time be members of your Board, at a special meeting held on not less than thirty days' notice given in writing, which shall state that the meeting is called for the purpose of considering a resolution to authorize the distribution of the whole, or some part of the principal of said funds. Upon the adoption of such resolution in the manner above prescribed, you and your successors shall be and are hereby released from the obligation thereafter to hold in perpetuity or as endowment such portion of the principal of such funds as may have been authorized to be distributed by such resolution. "The provisions of this letter shall not modify the right reserved to myself and my son in the letter of pledge of February 5, 1907, to direct to what specific objects, within the corporate purposes of the Board, two thirds of the APPENDIX 223 property covered by said pledge should be applied; but in case at the death of the survivor of myself and my son, there shall be any remainder not so designated, this re- mainder shall be included within the provisions of this letter. "Very truly yours. ''(Signed) John D. Rockefeller." The Board repHed as follows: "July 9, 1909. "Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Cleveland, Ohio. "Dear Sir: The General Education Board acknowl- edges the receipt of communication of June 29th, 1909, from Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr,, a member of this Board, stating your purpose, on or before August i, 1909, to add to the permanent endowment of the Board an additional sum of ten milHon dollars. "The Board accepts with gratitude this new proof of your generosity, your zeal for an educated citizenship in this democracy, and your confidence, and will endeavor to use the gift with large-mindedness and good sense, to the end that the interests of society in the Repubhc may be increasingly benefited by this great foundation. "The Board begs to acknowledge also the receipt of your personal communication of June 29, 1909, wherein you authorize and empower the Board and its successors, under wise and proper regulations, whenever in their discretion it shall seem wise, to distribute the principal of this fund and all other endowment funds hitherto contributed by you to this Board. "The Board accepts this release from the obligation to hold these funds in perpetuity as an endowment, with a very clear appreciation of the wisdom, the long look- ahead , and the faith in the future manifested in the author - 224 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD ization. The members of the General Education Board, as a body-corporate and as individuals, are Hke-minded in their understanding and in their own determination to use the power you have given them for the public wel- fare, with patience, judgment, and justice. ''Very respectfully yours, "(Signed) Wallace Buttrick." (b) Correspondence with Miss Jeanes. ^^ George Foster Peabody, Treasurer, General Education Board: " I enclose my cheque for two hundred thousand dollars ($200,000) as Special Fund for assistance of the Negro 'Rural Schools' in the South. " (Signed) Anna T. Jeanes." The following resolutions were unanimously adopted: Be it resolved, That this Board accepts with gratitude the gift of Miss Anna T. Jeanes of the sum of "two hun- dred thousand dollars ($200,000) as a special fund for as- sistance of the Negro 'Rural Schools' in the South." Resolved, That this fund be named the Anna T. Jeanes Fund for the Assistance of Negro Rural Schools in the South. APPENDIX III CONTRACT BETWEEN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY AND BARNES HOSPITAL This agreement made and entered into this 28th day of October, a. d. 1911, by and between Samuel M. Ken- nard, Samuel Cupples, and Murray Carleton, Trustees of the Barnes Hospital, under and by the virtue of the will of Robert A. Barnes, deceased, for themselves and their successors in trust, hereinafter styled the Trustees, and the Washington University, a corporation existing under special charter under the laws of the State of Missouri, hereinafter styled the University, witnesseth : That whereas the Trustees have become satisfied, after a thorough examination conducted by them, that the efhciency of a hospital depends, in large part, upon the abiHty of its medical staff, and that a hospital can render better service to its patients when it has* associated with it an organized medical school and scientific staff, labora- tories, and dispensary: And whereas the University realizes from actual experi- ence that a medical department of a university is greatly benefited by having a hospital connected with it in which it can teach its students, from actual observation of the sick, by the student observing the treatment of the sick and injured at the bedside and in the operating room : Now, therefore, the Trustees, for and in consideration of the University fulfilling its agreements hereinafter 225 226 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD made by it in this agreement as to building a medical school, a dispensary, equipping and maintaining the same, and treating the sick and injured in the hospital, hereby agrees that it will, within twelve months after this agree- ment is signed, start to build, and with all reasonable dispatch have built for them a first class hospital at a cost of not less than six hundred thousand dollars ($600,000) upon the ground now owned by them, or which may be hereinafter acquired by them, between Kings- highway on the west. West Kingshighway on the south, Euclid on the east, and the Wabash Railroad on the north, and, after the said hospital is erected, to there- after, during the Hfe of this agreement, maintain and operate the same, according to the best-known methods of running a hospital, within the limitation of their means or income. And the Trustees further agree that the medical staff of the hospital shall consist solely of the teaching corps of the Medical Department of the University, but in any instance where the Trustees shall object for good and sufhcient cause, in writing deHvered to the University, to the attendance at the hospital of any member of the said teaching corps, he shall be withdrawn from the medical staff of the hospital and the University shall appoint in his stead some other doctor, but no objection shall be made to any member of the teaching corps be- coming or remaining a member of the medical staff of the hospital on account of his practising the theory of medicine and practice taught by the University for the time being, as long as the Medical Department of the University continues to teach the theory of medicine and practice most prevailing in the medical schools con- nected with the leading universities of the United States. This clause is not to be understood to give the University APPENDIX 227 a right to have a doctor in its teaching corps for the sole purpose of allowing him to become a member of the medical staff of the hospital, but he must be an active member of the teaching corps. This clause is not to be understood that there cannot be members of the medical staff who are not members of the teaching corps of the Medical Department of the University, but if the Uni- versity and the Trustees wish to have in the medical staff of the hospital doctors who are not members of the teach- ing corps of the Medical Department of the University, the University may suggest names to the Trustees and the Trustees may appoint from such names, as suggested, additional members to the medical staff of the hospital, who may be discharged or dropped from the medical staff of the hospital at the will of the Trustees or at the will of the University. And the Trustees further agree that the medical staff of the hospital, constituted as above provided, shall have the exclusive right to render such medical service as may be rendered to any patient of the hospital therein by any physician or surgeon, and to direct in all respects the treatment therein of any such patient or patients by persons not physicians or surgeons. It is understood, however, that any patient may at his or her request, or at the request of his or her guardian, call into con- sultation any physician not a member of the medical staff. And the Trustees further agree that the members of the teaching corps of the Medical Department of the University shall have the fullest and exclusive possible right consistent with the welfare of the patient to use the ward patients in the hospital for medical research and clinical instruction to the students of the University and medical staff of the hospital. 228 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD The Trustees further agree that they will nominate a man for superintendent, and appoint him upon the ap- proval of the University. If the first man nominated by the Trustees does not meet with the approval of the University, then the Trustees shall nominate another man and submit his name for approval to the University. If the second man does not meet with the approval of the University, then the University shall nominate a man and submit his name for approval to the Trustees, and, if he shall not receive the approval of the Trustees, the Uni- versity shall submit the name of another for the approval of the Trustees. If the second name so submitted shall not be approved by the Trustees, the Trustees shall then proceed to appoint a superintendent without sub- mitting his name for approval, but the Trustees shall not so appoint any man as superintendent whom they have submitted for approval and such approval been refused. The nurses shall be employed, controlled, paid, and discharged by the Trustees, but when in actual attend- ance upon a patient they shall be under the direction of the member of the medical staff attending such patient, and, if such member objects to a nurse, she shall be with- drawn from attendance of such patient. All the agreements herein stated shall continue and remain in force for the term of fifty (50) years from the date hereof. Either party to this agreement may abrogate the same at the end of thirty (30) years from the date hereof by giving to the other party notice in writing not less than th-ree (3) years prior thereto of their or its intention to abrogate the same. Any party giving such notice shall not have a right to withdraw the same without the con- sent of the other party. APPENDIX 229 The Trustees further agree that, if the said hospital shall be wholly or partially destroyed by fire or the ele- ments, they will rebuild or repair as soon as possible. The Trustees hereby agree to make and maintain from time to time such rules and regulations as may be neces- sary to carry into full force and effect all the terms and provisions of this contract. Now therefore the University, for and in consideration of the Trustees fulfilhng their agreements hereinbefore set forth, hereby agrees that it will, within twelve months after the signing of this agreement, start to build and with all reasonable dispatch have built for it a first class dispensary at a cost of not less than one hundred thou- sand dollars ($100,000) on the ground now owned by it, or which may hereafter be acquired by it, within the boundaries as hereinbefore set out for the hospital site. And it further agrees that it will, within twelve months after the signing of this agreement, start to build and with all reasonable dispatch have built for it first class medical school buildings at a cost of not less than two hundred thousand dohars ($200,000) on or near Euchd Avenue between the Wabash Railroad right of way and Chouteau Avenue in the City of St. Louis. The University further agrees that it will equip and maintain in the dispensary and medical school buildings all the necessary and usual laboratories that are found in well-recognized dispensaries, medical school buildings, and hospitals, and that such of these laboratories as are necessary and useful to a hospital shall be open at such times as such laboratories are usually open in first class hospitals for the use of the medical staff of the hospital. And it further agrees that it will employ all necessary scientists for the operating of its laboratories, and that 230 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD those so employed shall do the laboratory work inci- dental and necessary to the hospital, free of charge to the hospital or its ward patients. The University further agrees to have only among its teaching corps, and for its scientists working in its labora- tories, doctors and scientists who are learned in their profession. The University further agrees that the medical staff shall treat all patients in the wards of the hospital free of charge, and shall give to such patients all proper medi- cal attention. It is further agreed and understood by both the Trus- tees and the University that reasonable and customary charges for professional services shall be made by the staff to pay patients occupying private rooms. The Trustees shaU have nothing to do with the collect- ing of fees due doctors for any services rendered within the hospital. If any patient or his representatives shall object to and dispute the charge made by any member of the medical staff for services rendered in the hospital, the same shall be submitted to the Trus- tees who shall determine what the charge shall be, and the finding of the Trustees shall be binding on the physician. The University further agrees that the medical staff shall teach and give the necessary instruction in the hospital, or any other nearby place designated by the Trustees, to the nurses and those who are training to be- come nurses in the hospital, free of charge to the hospital and to the nurses in the hospital. In testimony whereof the Trustees have hereunto set their hands and seals and the University has caused these presents to be signed, in duplicate, in its corporate name by Robert S. Brookings, its President, and its corporate APPENDIX 231 seal duly attested to be hereunto attached, the day and year first above written. Note: The above contract has been amended by agreement of the parties thereto as follows: (i) The right of either party to abrogate the contract at the END OF THIRTY YEARS HAS BEEN CANCELLED; (2) A MEMBER OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE MeDICAL School is to attend the meetings of the Hospital Trustees; (3) Provision has been made looking to the introduction of full- time clinical departments, as described in pp. 168-9 OF this report. CONTRACT BETWEEN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY AND BARNES HOSPITAL REGARDING TRAINING SCHOOL TOR NURSES THIS AGREEMENT made and entered into this 26th day of June, 19 14, by and between the Washington University, a corporation existing under special charter under the laws of the State of Missouri, hereinafter styled the University, party of the first part, and Samuel M. Kennard, Murray Carle ton, and Lon V. Stephens, Trustees of the Barnes Hospital, under and by virtue of the will of Robert A. Barnes, deceased, for themselves and their successors in trust, hereinafter styled the Trustees, WITNESSETH: -Whereas the Nurses' Training School of the University has been and now is training nurses for the Washington University Hospital and the St. Louis Children's Hospital, and has rendered to each an exact account of the expense of such training, including room rent, board, etc., etc., but making no charge for the service of its medical teaching staff, each of said hospitals paying its proportion of said cost in the ratio of the nurses furnished each; and Whereas the Trustees under a contract with said University have obligated themselves to pay all expenses 232 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD connected with the training of their nurses, except such teaching service as is rendered by the said University's medical staff, but had expected to house and board all of its own nurses pending the expected gift of a Nurses' Home; and Whereas no such gift has as yet been reahzed, and it is evident that the Barnes Hospital will not be able, with its present accommodations, to properly care for said nurses; Now, Therefore, in consideration of the facts above recited, the Trustees, parties of the second part, hereby agree that if the University, party of the first part, will proceed to erect a part of the proposed Nurses' Home, and furnish the same and build fence, the Uni- versity may charge as rent for said Home five per cent. (5%) on the cost of building, furnishings, and fence (no charge to be made for the building lot), and the said Trustees will pay their proportion of said rent, and the maintenance of said Home, in the ratio the number of nurses working in the Barnes Hospital shall bear to the total number of nurses housed in the Nurses' Home above referred to. In testimony whereof, the University has caused these presents to be signed, in duphcate, in its corporate name by Robert S. Brookings, its President, and its corporate seal duly attested to be hereunto attached, and the Trustees have hereunto set their hands and seals, the day and year first above written. CONTRACT between YALE UNIVERSITY AND NEW HAVEN HOSPITAL This agreement, between Yale University, a corpora- tion existing under the laws of the State of Connecticut, APPENDIX 233 and located in the City of New Haven, in said State, hereinafter called "The University," and The General Hospital Society of Connecticut, a corporation also ex- isting under the laws of said State and located in said City, hereinafter called "The Hospital," Witnesseth, that. Whereas, the Hospital maintains, and has for many years maintained a general hospital situated in said City of New Haven, on a tract of land bounded northerly by Davenport Avenue, easterly by Cedar Street, south- erly by Congress Avenue, and westerly by Howard Avenue; and Whereas, the University maintains, and has for many years maintained, in said city a department of medicine known as the Yale Medical School, in which instruction is given to students in the theory and practice of medi- cine and surgery; and Whereas, the parties hereto are united in the belief that a closer alliance between them will render the Hos- pital more useful to its patients and to the community, and will benefit said University by enabling it to give the best clinical instruction to its students, and afford the best opportunities for advanced study and scientific research; and Whereas, it is deemed necessary by both parties hereto that the sum of at least six hundred thousand dollars ($600,000) be raised and used for the purposes herein- after expressed, and said University has not available the necessary funds for such purposes, but is endeavoring to raise the same as part of a comprehensive plan to in- crease the endowment and efficiency both of the Hospital and of the Medical School; and Whereas, in the opinion of the parties hereto, it will materially aid in obtaining such sum of money by gift 234 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD or otherwise that the agreement of the parties hereto be reduced to writing, as hereinafter expressed; and Whereas, this agreement is not to become operative and effective unless and until said University gives the written notice hereinafter stated : Now, therefore, the parties hereto, in consideration of the mutual covenants hereinafter expressed, do hereby agree as follows: First: This agreement shall take effect and become operative upon receipt prior to July ist, 19 14, by the President of the Hospital, of written notice from the University, that the University has acquired or set apart not less than six hundred thousand dollars ($600,000) which it agrees to use for the purposes hereinafter stated. If such notice is not received by said President, prior to July ist, 1914, then this agreement shall be null, void, and of no effect. Second: Upon and after the giving and receiving of such notice prior to said date: (i) The University agrees to pay to the Hospital, as hereinafter stated, such amount as shall be required to completely erect and fully equip in a workmanHke and proper manner, and with all suitable technical and other apparatus, on said land belonging to the Hospital, a fire-proof building, similar in character, design, and standard of construction and equipment to the new ad- ministration building to be built by the Hospital, to be used as a cKnical and pathological laboratory, to be known by such name as the University may direct, and pursuant to plans and specifications to be approved by the Corporation of Yale University, or some agent ap- pointed by said Corporation for that purpose, and by the Directors of the Hospital. The cost of said building shall not exceed $115,000 and the cost of said equipment shall APPENDIX 235 not exceed $10,000 unless otherwise mutually agreed. Said money shall be paid by the University to the Hos- pital in installments upon the written order or request of the Executive Committee of the Hospital, or a major- ity thereof, in order that the Hospital may be put in funds to meet the payments as they shall severally be- come due under any contract or contracts executed by the Hospital for the erection and furnishing of said labo- ratory, and for the purchase of said suitable technical and other apparatus to be used therein. (2) The University further agrees to hold and man- age the balance of said fund of six hundred thousand dollars ($600,000) as an endowment fund, with full power to sell and convey the same, or any part thereof, in its discretion, and to invest and reinvest the proceeds of such sale or sales, and keep said fund invested either separately and apart from the other funds held by the University or to mingle the same with such other funds and not to keep the same separately invested, and to collect and receive the income thereof from time to time accruing. If such fund is not kept separately invested, then the income thereof for each year shall be deemed to be such sum as is equivalent to the annual interest, cal- culated at the end of each year, upon said balance to- gether with any accumulations that may be added thereto from time to time, at the average rate of income derived during each preceding year by the University from all its general invested funds. The judgment and determina- tion of the Treasurer of the University as to such aver- age rate, the value of such invested funds, the equivalent of said annual income, and all other conditions which may be necessary in order to determine such equivalent shall be final and conclusive. (3) The University further agrees to expend the in- 236 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD come of the balance of said fund or its equivalent calcu- lated as aforesaid, together with any additional sum or sums of money that may be needed from time to time, for the payment of salaries and other expenses herein- after agreed to be paid by the University. If the income of said balance or its equivalent calculated as aforesaid shall be more than sufficient to pay said salaries and ex- penses, said excess shall be applied by the University for such purposes of the Medical School in connection with the Hospital as the Executive Committee of the Hospital and the Executive Board of said Medical School shall agree, or, failing such agreement, such excess shall be added to the principal of said fund. (4) The University hereby further agrees to pay from time to time out of the income of said fund or its equivalent calculated as aforesaid, or out of other moneys belonging to the University, if said income or its equiv- alent is not sufficient for such purposes, for all proper and necessary repairs on all technical apparatus used in said building and for the replacement of such apparatus as may be worn out or destroyed and reasonably necessary to be replaced, including the expense of all chemicals and destructible suppHes, and to pay the salaries of all needed scientific and educational workers in said laboratory, including a resident pathologist and bacteriologist, an assistant, a technician in pathology, a technician in sur- gery, a technician in medicine, a radiographer, a historian, head internes in medicine, surgery, and pathology, who shall each render his appropriate service to the Hospital and its patients, and the University shall also pay the salaries of a janitor or janitors, if more than one is rea- sonably necessary, to be employed in or about said labo- ratory, and to be appointed by the University; provided, however, that said appointees named in this paragraph APPENDIX 237 shall be acceptable to the Hospital and subject to all reasonable rules and regulations of the Hospital. Third: Upon and after the giving and receiving of such notice prior to said date : (i) The Hospital agrees to completely erect and fully equip, in a workmanhke and proper manner, and with all suitable technical and other apparatus, on said land, a fireproof building of the character hereinbefore speci- fied, to be used as a clinical and pathological laboratory to be known by such name as the University may direct, and pursuant to plans and specifications to be approved as aforesaid, and to pay for the same out of said fund to be provided by the University as hereinbefore stated, and the Hospital agrees to keep and maintain said build- ing in good repair during the continuance of this agree- ment. (2) The Hospital hereby further agrees to permit the Corporation of Yale University to nominate, as vacancies occur, suitable persons for the positions of attending physicians, surgeons, and speciaHsts in medicine and surgery on the staff of the Hospital, also for the positions of resident bacteriologist and pathologist, an assistant, a technician in pathology, a technician in surgery, a technician in medicine, a radiographer, a historian, head internes in medicine, surgery, and pathology above mentioned; it being agreed that the University shall appoint one or more janitors, if more than one is reason- ably necessary to be employed in or about said labora- tory. And the Hospital further agrees that all of said positions, except the position of janitor of said laboratory, shall be filled by election by the Directors of said Hos- pital upon such nominations and not otherwise, it being agreed, however, that the physicians, surgeons, and specialists connected with the Hospital at the time this 238 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD agreement becomes effective shall continue in the service of the Hospital until each shall respectively resign his position, or until the term of service of each shall ter- minate pursuant to the present regulations of the Hos- pital. If any such nomination is objected to by vote of the Directors of the Hospital duly passed at a meeting duly held, such nomination shall be withdrawn upon the written request of said Directors, or a majority of them, stating the grounds of their objections thereto, and another nomination shall be promptly substituted therefor until a nomination satisfactory to said Directors shall be made; it being the intent of this agreement that the Hospital shall secure for the treatment of its patients the greatest degree of medical and surgical skill that can be furnished by said Medical School. It is further agreed that in case of failure to secure a nomination or nomina- tions satisfactory to the Hospital Directors after six months from the time when any vacancy shall occur, and after three nominations for said vacancy shall have been made by said Corporation, the names of such nominees shall be submitted to the arbitrators hereinafter men- tioned, who shall report upon the fitness or unfitness of such nominees and their relative standing and merits. Thereafter such vacancy shall be filled by the Directors of the Hospital from the nominees approved by the arbi- trators as fit for said vacancy, and if none is so approved the Corporation shall submit additional nominations. The Hospital further agrees to suffer and permit the physicians, surgeons, and others elected by the Hospital as aforesaid to use the public wards, laboratories, and other buildingsof the Hospital, wherever located, for teach- ing purposes, according to the most approved practice, consistent always with the welfare of patients and under the reasonable rules and regulations of the Hospital, APPENDIX 239 from the first day of October in each year until the first day of the following June in each year and for such further period in each year as may be mutually agreed upon by the parties. (3) The Hospital hereby further agrees, after said laboratory has been completely erected and fully equipped as hereinbefore provided, to pay all expenses for the maintenance and repairs of said building, and to furnish at its own expense heat, electric light and current, water and gas for said building, it being the intent of this agreement that the University shall pay for the sal- aries of the persons above enumerated, and in addition thereto the expenses connected with the educational or scientific work carried on in said laboratory and Hospital, and that the expenses for the general care, except janitor service, and for the maintenance and repairs of said building, and of heat, electric light and current, water and gas to be furnished and used in said building shall be paid by the Hospital. (4) In case of any disputes and differences between the Hospital and the University in reference to any matter or thing arising out of, or connected with, this agreement, each of such differences and disputes shall be submitted to the determination and award of three ar- bitrators, one of whom shall be the President of the Hos- pital, or some person appointed in writing by him; the second, the President of the University, or some person appointed in writing by him; and the third to be ap- pointed in writing by said other two persons, and in case such third arbitrator is not so appointed within thirty days after the appointment of the other two arbitrators, the third arbitrator may upon request in writing of one of the other two arbitrators be appointed in writing by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Connecticut, or 240 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD by the Senior Associate Justice in case of vacancy in the office, and said arbitrators shall thereupon proceed to determine all differences and disputes submitted to them, in writing, by said parties, in such way and manner as to them, or a majority of them, may seem best, with or without notice or hearing, and upon principles of justice and equity. The decision of said arbitrators, or a major- ity of them, shall be reduced to writing, and dupHcate originals thereof shall be signed by said arbitrators, or a majority of them, and dehvered one to the Hospital and one to the University, and such decision shall be final and conclusive upon the parties hereto. (5) This agreement may be terminated by mutual consent; or, after ten years, by either party imder and pursuant to the conditions hereinafter provided. If two-thirds of the members of the Corporation of Yale University or two-thirds of the Directors of the Hospital shall, at two meetings, with an intervening interval of not less than six or more than nine months, vote in favor of terminating the agreement, the Secretary of said Cor- poration or the Secretary of the Hospital, as the case may be, shall give written notice to the other of said action, and said agreement shall terminate five years after the receipt of said written notice or earlier if the parties shall so agree or if the arbitrators shall so order. If the agree- ment shall be terminated by the University the labora- tory building to be built on said Hospital grounds shall be and remain the property of the Hospital, and the bal- ance of said fund shall be and remain the property of the University, and in such case the income thereof or its equivalent shall thereafter be used for the purposes of the Medical School. If the agreement shall be terminated by the Hospital the balance of said fund shall be and re- main the property of the University as aforesaid and the APPENDIX 241 Hospital shall pay to the University the then fair value of said laboratory building and its equipment, which value shall be determined by agreement of the parties, or faihng such agreement, the question of said value shall be submitted to the determination and award of the three arbitrators appointed under the provision of the fourth section of this agreement. The decision of said arbi- trators shall be final and conclusive upon the parties hereto. In witness whereof, the parties hereto have caused to be subscribed their names, and their corporate seals afhxed, this 29th day of May, 19 13, and to a duplicate hereof, of like tenor and date. INDEX INDEX Agnes Scott College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Agricultural College of Ontario, its meth- ods studied, 23. Agricultural high schools, established in Alabama and Mississippi, 87; state ap- propriations for, Q7. Alabama, cooperates with Peabody Fund in holding teachers' institutes, 10; salaries of educational ofi&cers, 19; state school fund, 1903, 19; low salaries of teachers, 20; extent of farm demonstration work in, 37; increased yield cotton by demonstration methods, 5 1 ; high school conditions of, 73, 77; private schools, 74; Professor of Secondary Education pro- vided for, 82; county agricultural high schools established, 87; requirements to obtain high schools, 88; number high schools established and pupUs enrolled, 90; privatesubscriptionsfor high schools, 92; state apportionment for high schools, 92; appropriations General Education Board for secondary education, 93; total amount subscribed to colleges, 156; de- votes one half net revenue to education, 182; unfavorable educational conditions, 183; creates supervisor of Negro rural schools, 195; summer institutes for Ne- gro teachers, 200; Negro schools aided by Jeanes Fund, 202. Alcorn, Miss., normal school, for Negroes in, 192. Alderman, Edwin A., member of General Education Board, xiv. Allegheny College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. American Baptist -Education Society, work of, 6. American Baptist Home Mission Society, early efforts in Negro education, 191. Americus Institute, aided by General Edu- cation Board, 203. American Missionary Association, early efforts in Negro education, 191. Amherst College, territory from which students are drawn, 130; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Andrews, E. Benjamin, member of General Education Board, xiv. Annual Conference for Education in the South, influence on later organizations, II. Appropriations by state legislatures for farm demonstration work, 49. Appropriations of General Education Board for farm demonstration work, 46; Girls' Canning Clubs, 65; secondarj'^ edu- cation, 92; colleges and universities, 143; total amount to colleges, 156; Johns Hopkins Medical School, 167; Washing- ton University Medical School, 170; Yale University Medical Dept., 171; state supervisors of Negro rural schools, 196. Appropriations of general government for farm demonstration work, and where expended, 35. Arkansas, extent of farm demonstration v/ork in, 37; Professor of Secondary Edu- cation provided for, 82; raises qualifica- tions for teachers, 87; state grants in aid of high schools, 87; number of high schools established, 90; number high school pupils enrolled, 91; number high school teachers, 91; appropriations of General Education Board for secondary education, 93; state aid law for high schools, 93; total amount subscribed to colleges in, 156; annual expenditure for public schools, 182; recent developments in rural education, 185; creates super- visor of Negro rural schools, 195; simi- mer institutes for Negro teachers, 200. Atlanta University, appropriation of Gen- eral Education Board, 209. Baldwin, W. H., Jr., member of General Education Board, xiii, 3. Baker University, territory from which students are drawn, 124; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Barnard College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Baton Rouge, La., normal school for Ne- groes, 192. 245 246 INDEX Baylor University, territory from which students are drawn, 124; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Beloit College, territory from which stu- dents are drawn, 124; appropriations to and total amoimt of subscriptions, 158. Board of Missions for Freedmen, early ef- forts in Negro education, igi. Bowdoin College, territory from which stu- dents are drawn, 121; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Boys' Com Clubs, appropriation of General Education Board for, 17; objects of and how conducted, 57; growth of, showing number enrolled, 59; average yields of throughout South, 59. Brown University, relationship to religious denomination, 139; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Bryn Mawr College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. BuckneU University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Bureau of Plant Industry, in charge of farm demonstration work, 27, 40. Buttrick, Dr. Wallace, secretary and mem- ber of General Education Board, xiii, 3; general agent Slater Fund, 10. Calhoun, Ala., Negro school at, 191. California, total amount subscribed to col- leges, 158. Canning and Poultry Clubs, formation of, 62; success among Negro girls, 197; con- ference of, 198. Canning Club Day, a social occasion, 66. Carleton College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Cajnegie, Andrew, member of General Education Board, xiv. Central College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Chamber of Commerce of City of New York, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Claflin University, aided by Slater Fund, 10. Coe College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. College finance, varied systems of account- ing, 147- College of St. Thomas, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Colleges and universities, appropriations for, 17; chapter on, 103; number and character of, 109; too many ineflScient, 109; financial situation, 113; minimum income necessary, 113; policy of the General Education Board, 116; laws of college growth — importance of location, 119; territory from which students are drawn, 121; larger opportunities of loca- tion in cities, 136; denominational msti- tutions, 139; importance of increasing endowments, 142; how funds are ob- tained, 144, 146, 148; college finance, 147; General Education Board's reasons for declining to aid certain colleges, 147; improvement in accounting, 149; defini- tion of terms in accounting, 150; en- dowment funds to be kept intact, 151; educational and business budgets, 152; diflEerentiation of departments, 153; effect of contributions of General Educa- tion Board, 153; stimulated by coopera- tion of General Education Board, 154; total subscriptions of General Education Board, 155; subscriptions to colleges by sections, 156. Colorado, comparison of high schools with South Carolina, 102; appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 158. Colorado College, territory from which students are drawn, 124; appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Conference for Education in the South, ob- jects of, 179; brings about solidarity in educational endeavor, 181. Conferences, Girls' Canning and Poultry Clubs, 198; Southern County Superin- tendents, 14; Southern state superin- tendents, 188. Connecticut, total amount subscribed to colleges in, 159. Contributions to education, private, 5, 103, 105-109. Converse College, appropriations to and total amoimt of subscriptions, 156. Cooperative farm demonstration move- ment, 22. Com, increased yield by demonstration methods, 50, 55; success of Boys' Corn Clubs in raising yield, 59. Cornell College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Cotton, threatened by boll weevil, 23; scientific methods for growing demon- strated by Dr. Knapp, 23, 27; increased yield by demonstration methods, 32, 50, 55- , Cotton boll weevil, rampant in Texas, 23; Congress makes special appropriation for combating, 25. County agricultural high schools, estab- lished in Alabama and Mississippi, 87. Cromer, Miss Marie, inaugurates canning clubs for girls, 63. Crop diversification, efforts to induce, 52. Curriculum, high school, 95. Curry, Dr. J. L. M., as member of General Education Board, xiii, 3; general agent of Peabody Education Fund, 9; gen- eral agent of Slater Fund, 10. INDEX 247 Dairy and stock farming succeeds tobacco in Virginia, 52. Dakota Wesleyan University, appropria- tion to and total amount of subscrip- tions, 158. Dartmouth College, territory from which students are drawn, 127. Dashiell, L. M., Assistant Treasurer of General Education Board, viii. Davidson College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Demonstration work, see Farm Demonstra- tion Work. Denominational institutions, relationship of colleges to, 139. De Pauw University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Dillard, Dr. James H., general agent Slater Ftmd, 10; President of Board and direc- tor Jeanes Fund, 11 Note. Diversification of crops for Southern farmer, 30, 52. Drake University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Drury College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Earlham College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Education, efforts of Southern States and educational bodies, 8; elementary schools in South, 71; high schools, 72; auxiliary schools, 73; private secondary schools, 74; preparatory schools, 75; secondary school in relation to college, 77, 98; be- ginnings of improvement, 79; Professors of Secondary Education provided for by General Education Board, 81; favorable legislation, 86; number of high schools, and student enrolments, 90; appropria- tions of General Education Board, 92; the high school curriculum, 95; high school consolidation, loi; Education, Medical, see Medical educa- tion. Education, Negro, see Negro education. Education, rural, see Rural education. Educational conditions in the South, 18. Educational conferences, appropriations for, 17. Educational survey of the South, 12. Eliot, Charles W., member of General Education Board, xiv. Elmira College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Emory and Henry College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Factoring system, economic fallacy of, 30. Farm demonstration work, appropriations for, 17; origin of, 22; Dr. Knapp es- tabUshes demonstration farm to combat boll weevil, 23; General Education Board cooperates with U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, 25; work in charge of Department of Agriculture, 27, 40; Dr. Knapp's ten agricultural command- ments, 29; his teaching of business man- agement and diversified farming, 30; leads to higher development and better- ment of rural life, 29, 53, 55, 68; in- creased yield of cotton by demon- stration methods, 32; work extended throughout South, 35; location of agents (1909), 34; proportion of work done by Government and by General Education Board, 27, 35, 45; work of state agricul- tural colleges, 37, 42 Note; number and classification of instructors in field, 42; map showing demonstration farms in Maine, 43; in New Hampshire, 44; duties of agents, 46; appropriations by Government, General Education Board, and others, 46; map of Bulloch County, Georgia, showing disposal of agents, 47; Southern people paying large part of expense, 49; results in increased yield and profits, 50; crop diversification, 52; work among Negro farmers, 54; work as yet inadequate, 56; movement creat- ing new problems in transportation and marketing, 57; Boys' Cora Clubs, 57; Girls' Canning and Poultry Clubs, 62; educational interpretation of the move- ment, 66. Fisk University, appropriation of General Education Board, 209. Flexner, Abraham, Assistant Secretary and member of General Education Board, xiii, xiv. Florida, extent of farm demonstration work in, 37; Professor of Secondary Ed- ucation provided for, 82; amends consti- tution to allow issue of school bonds, 87; number of high schools established, 90; amount invested in new school buildings, 91; appropriations of General Educa- tion Board for secondary education, 93; appropriations to and total amounts sub- scribed to colleges, 155. Florida Baptist Academy, aided by Gen- eral Education Board, 203, 209. Frankfort, Ky., normal school for Negroes foimded, 192. Franklin College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Franklin and Marshall College, appropria- tion to and total amoimt of subscrip- tions, 159. Freedmen's Aid Society, early efforts in Negro education, 191, Frissell, Dr. H. B., member of General Education Board, xiv; aids in organiza- tion of Jeanes Fund, 11 Note. 248 INDEX Furman University, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Gates, Frederick T., Chairman and mem- ber of General Education Board, xiii, 3; corresponding secretary American Bap- tist Education Society, 6 Note. General Education Board, membership of. xiii, xiv, 3, 4; beginnings of, 3; Act of Incorporation, 3. See also Appendix I, pp. 212-215; objects and scope of, 3, 7; range of activities, s; contributions to universities and colleges, 7, 108-112; policy of, 13; appropriations to June 30, 1914, 17; cooperates with Department of Agriciilture in extension of farm dem- onstrations, 25; extends demonstrar- tion work throughout the South, 35; organization of the demonstration work, 42; appropriations for demonstration work, 46; appropriations for Girls' Can- ning Clubs, 65; provides for Professors of Secondary Education, 81; aids in fram- ing educational legislation, 87; appro- priations for secondary schools, 92; re- lation to colleges and universities, 108; appropriations for higher education, 108, 143; system of endowments to col- leges, 142, 144; reasons for declining aid to certain colleges, 147; care in investi- gation of colleges aided, 148; help to col- leges in management of finances, 149; effect of contributions to colleges, 153; total subscriptions to colleges, 155; by sections, 156; aids medical education, 160; appropriation for Johns Hopkins Medical School, 167; appropriations for Washington University Medical School, 170; appropriations for Yale University Medical Department, 171; requested to undertake supervision of rural schools, 180; establishes rural education agents, 187; assisting the Negro to help himself, 193; extends work of state supervisors of Negro schools, 194; appropriations for supervisors of Negro schools, 196; ap- propriations for Negro schools and insti- tutes, 203 ; appropriations for Negro col- leges and universities, 209. George Peabody College for Teachers, en- dowed by Peabody Education Fund, 9; its success, 102; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Georgetown College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Georgia, conference of county superintend- ents, 12; state school fund (1903), 19; average school term (1903), 20; map Bulloch County, showing demonstration farms, 47; high schools and obstructive legislation, 78; state imiversity pro- vides for preparatory schools, 79; Pro- fessor of Secondary Education pro- vided for, 82; legislation favorable to secondary schools, 86; State Board of Education created, 87; state raises quali- fications for teachers, 87; number high schools established and pupils enrolled, 90; number high school teachers, 91; amount invested in new school buildings, 92; state apportionment for high schools, 92; appropriations General Education Board for secondary education, 93; ap- propriations for agricultural high schoofe, 97; appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges, 156; supervisor of Negro rural schools created, 195; in- dustrial school erected by Negroes, 201. GUman, Daniel C, member of General Education Board, xiii, 3. Girls' Canning and Poultry Clubs, founded, 62; growth of, showing number enrolled, 64; profits of members, 65; ap- propriations for, 65. Government control of colleges, 105. Greene, Jerome D., member of General Education Board, xiv. Greensboro, N. C, normal school for Ne- groes in, 192. Grinnell College, territory from which students are drawn, 124; appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Haygood, Bishop, general agent Slater Fund, 10. Hamilton College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Hamline University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Hampton Institute, aided by Peabody Education Fund, 9; aided by Slater Fund, 10; aids in demonstration work among Negro farmers, 54; aid in Negro education, 191; graduates as industrial supervisors, 196; large summer schools held, 200; appropriations from General Education Board, 203. Hanna, Hugh H, member of General Ed- ucation Board, xiv. Harper, William R., member of General Education Board, xiv. Harvard University, territory from ys^hich students are drawn, 130; appropriation to and total amount of subscription, 159. Hay, results of crop diversification in South Carolina, 53. Heck, William H., Assistant Secretary of General Education Board, xiii. Hendrbc College, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appropriation to and total amoimt of subscriptions, 156. INDEX 249 High schools, in Southern States, 72; obsta- cles to development, 78; legislatures pro- vide for, 79; campaigning for, by Profes- sors of Secondary Education, 83; favor- able legislation, 86; state grants to aid, 87; results of favorable legislation, 88; number of, and student enrolments, 90; number of teachers, 91; amount invested in new buildings, 91; state apportion- ments and private subscriptions, 92; appropriations by General Education Board, 92; the curriculum, 95; college relationship to, 98; the consolidation movement, loi. Higher education of the Negro, 203. Hospitals, of university medical schools, 164, 168, 171, 173- Howard College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Howe Institute, aided by General Educa- tion Board, 203. Huron College, appropriation to and total amoimt of subscriptions, 158. Illinois, appropriation to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 158. Indiana, appropriation to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 157. Industrial supervisors, duties of, 196. Iowa, number of colleges in, 109; appro- priations to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 158. Jeanes, Miss Anna T., gifts to aid Negro rural schools, 11 Note, 16; cooperation in Negro education, 196. * Jeanes Fund, cooperation with General Education Board in Negro education, 190; aids Negro schools in Alabama, 202. Jeruel Academy, aided by General Educa- tion Board, 203. Jesup, Morris K., member of General Edu- cation Board, xiii, 3. John B. Stetson University, appropria- tion to and total amount of subscrip- tions, 157. Johns Hopkins University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Johns Hopkins University Medical School, first of the new type, 162; laboratory branches of, 162; clinical branches, 164; "full-time" clinical teachers, 166, 172, 17s. 177; the William H. Welch Endow- ment, 167. Judson, Harry Pratt, member of General Education Board, xiv. Kalamazoo College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Kansas, appropriation to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 158. Kentucky, Professor of Secondary Educa- tion provided for, 82; number of high school pupils enrolled, 91; appropria- tions of General Education Board for secondary education in, 93; appropria- tions to and total amount subscribed to colleges of, 157; unfavorable educational conditions, 183; recent developments in rural education, 185; supervisor of Ne- gro rural schools created, 195; new schools for Negroes, 201. Knapp, Dr. Seaman A., lecturing at Texas Agricultural College, 23; establishes cot- ton demonstration farm, 23; confers with officers of General Education Board in Washington, 24; takes charge of farm demonstration work, 26; interests the farmers in modern methods, 27; his ten agricultural commandments, 29; his teaching of business management and diversified farming, 30; wojrk with Negro cotton farmers, 54; interests in Boys' Com Clubs, 58; adopts Girls' Canning Club idea, 62; his last work, 66. Knox College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Lafayette College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Lake Forest College, territory from which students are drawn, 127; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Lane College, appropriation General Edu- cation Board, 209. Lawrence CoUege, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Livingstone College, appropriation General Education Board, 209. Louisiana, salaries of educational officers, i9;low salaries of teachers (1903), 20; per capita expenditure on school children, 20; extent of farm demonstration work in, 37; high school conditions in, 77; Professor of Secondary Education pro- vided for, 82; appropriations General Education Board for secondary educa- tion, 93; proportion of rvural population, 180; teachers changed too frequently, 184; recent developments in rural educa- tion, 185. Macalester College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. MacDonald College, study of its methods, 23- Maine, extent of farm demonstration work in, 37; map showing counties having demonstrations, 43; appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 159. Manassas (Va.) Industrial Institute, 191. Manual training, appropriations for, 97. 2SO INDEX Marietta College, territory from which students are' drawn, 124; appropriation to and total amoiint of subscriptions, 157- Marston, Edgar L., member of General Education Board, xiv. Maryville College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Maryland, extent of farm demonstration work in, 37; number of colleges in, 109; appropriations to and total amoimt sub- scribed to colleges, 156. Massachusetts, appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 159. Medical education, development of, in America, 160; changes in recent years, 161; new type of medical school, 162; laboratory branches, 162; clinical branches, 164; "full-time" clinical teachers, 166, 172, 175, 177; the Wm. H. Welch Endowment, 167; freedom un- restricted, 172; the pay ward, 173; the general practitioner, 175; positions at- tractive, 177. Medical schools, appropriations for, 17; meagre facilities of, 160; decrease of and improvement in, 161; number of, in United States, 161; the new type of, 162; Washington University Medical School, 1 68; Yale University Medical Depart- ment, 171. Mercer University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Meredith College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Michigan, appropriation to and total amount subscribed to colleges of, 158. Middlebury College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Millsaps College, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Minnesota, appropriation to and total amount subscribed to colleges of, 158. Mississippi, state school fund (1903), 19; short school term (1903), 20; extent of farm demonstration work, 37; location of demonstration farms, 38, 39, 41; dem- onstration work among Negro farmers, 54; Boys' Com Clubs set new standard of yield, 59; state university abolishes its preparatory department, 80; Professor of I Secondary Education provided for, 82; county agricultural high schools es- tablished, 87; number of high schools established and pupils enrolled, 90; amount invested in new school buildings, gi ; appropriations of General Education Board for secondary education, 93; county agricultural high schools held up as example, 97; appropriations and total amount subscribed to colleges of, 156; proportion of riiral population, 180; teachers changed too frequently, 184; recent developments in rural education, 184. Mississippi College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Missouri, number of colleges, 109; appro- priation to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 158. Montgomery, Ala., normal school for Ne- groes in, 192. Momingside College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Mortgaging of cotton crops, economic fal- lacy of, 30. Mount Holyoke College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Mt. Meigs, Ala., Negro school at, 192. Murphy, Starr J., member of General Ed- ucation Board, xiv. Myers, Louis G., treasurer of General Edu- cation Board, xiii. Nashville, Tenn., normal school for Ne- groes at, 192. Negro Education, schools aided by Pea- body Education Fund, 9; trust funds for, 9, 10, 11; discussed at Conference of County Superintendents of Georgia, 12; appropriations of General Education Board for, 17; school houses built in Vir- ginia by local subscriptions, 182; interest of General Education Board in, igo; first steps in, 191; institutes and private schools, igi; normal schools, 192; the public school fundamental, 192; state supervision of Negro rural schools, 194; cooperation of the Jeanes Fund, 196; work of industrial supervisors, 196; new school houses and improvements, 197; improved relations of races due to, 199; improvement of teachers, 200; self- help, 201; appropriations of General Education Board to industrial insti- tutes, 203; higher education, 203; forma- tion of better teaching staff, 205. Negro farm demonstration agents, number of, and results achieved by, 55. Negroes, farm demonstration among, 54; increased yield and value of crops, 55; home life improved by farm demonstra- tions, 55; percentage living on farms, 193- New Hampshire, extent of farni demon- stration work in, 37; map showing covm- ties having farm demonstrations, 44. New Jersey, appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges of, 159. New York, appropriations to and total amoimt subscribed to colleges of, 159. Normal, Ala., normal school for Negroes at, 192. INDEX 251 Normal schools for Negroes in South, 192. North Carolina, salaries of educational officers, 19; per capita expenditure on school children, 20; extent of farm dem- onstration work in, 37; condition of high schools in, 73; private schools, 74; Professor of Secondary Education pro- vided for, 82; state grants in aid of high schools, 87; raises qualifications for teachers, 87; number of high schools established and pupils enrolled, 90; amount invested in school buildings, 91; state apportionment for high schools, 92; private subscriptions for high schools, 92; appropriations of General Education Board for secondary education, 93; ap- propriations for farm-life schools, 97; appropriations to and total amount sub- scribed to colleges of, 156; annual expen- diture for public schools, 182; recent de- velopments in rural education, 184; creates supervisor of Negro rural schools, 195- Northwestern University, territory from which students are drawn, 127; appro- priation to and total amount of sub- scriptions, 158. Oberlin College, appropriation to and total amoxmt of subscriptions, 157. Ogden, Robert C, member of General Education Board, xiii, 3; organizer of Southern Education Board, 11. Ohio, number of colleges in, 109; appro- priation to and total amoimt subscribed to colleges of, 157- Ohio Wesleyan University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157- Oklahoma, extent of farm demonstration work in, 37. Orangeburg, N. C, normal school for Ne- groes at, 192. Ottawa University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Page, Walter H., member of General Edu- cation Board, xiii, 3. Pay ward of imiversity hospital, proper function of, 173. Peabody, George Foster, treasurer and member of General Education Board, xiii, xiv. Peabody Education Fund, work in the South, 8, 9; history of, 9; cooperates with state in holding teachers' institutes in Alabama, 10; cooperates with South- em Education Board, 180; dissolution of, 181; with Southern Education Board support state supervisor of Ne- gro schools, 194. Pennsylvania, number of colleges in, 109; appropriations to and total amount sub- scribed to colleges in, 159. Pennsylvania College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Petersburg, Va., normal school for Negroes at, 192. Phelps-Stokes Fund aids study of Negro schools and Negro problems, 11 Note. Pine Bluff, Ark., normal school for Ne- groes at, 192. Pomona CoUege, territory from which students are drawn, 124; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Poultry clubs, girls, 62. Prairie View, Tex., normal school for Ne- groes at, 192. Prescott, Ark., builds high school, 88. Princeton University, relationship to reli- gious institution, 139; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Professors of Secondary Education, appro- priations of General Education Board for, 17; provided for by Board, 81; duties of, 81; methods of work, 82, 89. Randolph-Macon College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Randolph-Macon Woman's CoUege, ap- propriation to and total amount of sub- scriptions, 156. Richmond CoUege, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Ripon CoUege, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Rhode Island, appropriations to and total amount subscribed to coUeges of, 159. RockefeUer Institute for Medical Research, gifts from General Education Board, 16 Note. RockefeUer, John D., founds General Edu- cation Board, 3', educational benefac- tions prior to 1902, 6; gifts to University of Chicago, 6; interest in Southern educa- tion, 12; initial gift and permanent en- dowments to General Education Board, 15; final gifts to University of Chicago, 146. Rockefeller, JohnD., Jr., member of Gen- eral Education Board, xiv, 3. Rose, Dr. Wickliffe, member of General Education Board, xiv; general agent Peabody Education Fimd, 9. Rural education, organizations interested in, II Note; importance of, in the South, 180; favorable conditions, 181; unfavor- able conditions, 182; recent develop- ments in, 184. Rural education agents, establishment of, 187; functions of, 187. 252 INDEX Rural Organization Service, appropria- tions of General Education Board for, 17- Rural population, proportion of, in South- em States, 1 80. Rural-life schools, 97. Rural school supervisors, 179- Rural schools for Negroes, funds for, 11 Note. Rural school agents, appropriations of Gen- eral Education Board for, 17. Sage, Eben Charles, assistant secretary of General Education Board, xiii. St. Helena Island, S. C, Negro school at, 192. St. Lawrence University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Salaries of educational officers and teachers in the South (1903), 19, 20. Salem Academy and- CoUege, appropria- tion to and total amount of subscrip- tions, 156. Sears, Dr. Bamas, general agent Peabody Education Fund, 9. Secondary education, favorable legislation to, 86; results of such encouragement, 88; appropriations of General Education Board, 93; college relationship with, 98; high school consolidation, loi. Secondary Education Conference, appro- priation for, 93. Shaw, Albert, member of General Educa- tion Board, xiv, 3. Shaw University, appropriation of Gen- eral Education Board for, 209. Shepard, Edward M., 3. Slater, John F., leaves fimd for Negro edu- cation, 10. Slater Fund, work in the South, 8; history of, 10; work in Negro education, 190; contribute to summer schools for Negro teachers, 200; helps maintain Industrial Academy, 202. Slater Normal School for Negroes, 200. Smith CoUege, territory from which students are drawn, 133; appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 159- Snow Hill, Ala., Negro school at, 191. South Carolina, salaries of educational officers, 19; low salaries of teachers (1903), 20; extent of farm demonstration work in, 37; crop diversification gains favor, 52; hay crop a success, 53; yield and value of crops of Negro farmers in- creased by demonstration, 55;Girls'Can- ning Clubs inaugurated, 63 ; condition of high schools, 74, 78; private schools, 75; Professor of Secondary Education pro- vided for, 82; state grants in aid of high schools, 87; number of high schools es- tablished, 90; number of high school teachers and pupils, 91; amount invested in new school buildings, 92; state appor- tionment for high schools, 92; appro- priations of General Education Board for secondary education, 93 ; high school- college relationship, 100; comparison of high schools with Colorado, 102; appro- priations to and total amount subscribed to colleges of, 156; annual expenditure for public schools, 182; recent develop- ments in rural education, 185. South Dakota, appropiations to and total amount subscribed to colleges of, 158. Southern Education Board, its work and field, 8; history of, 11; cooperation with Peabody Fund, 179; with Peabody Fund supports state supervisor of Negro schools, 194. Southern Methodist University, appropria- tion to and total amoimt of subscrip- tions, 157. Spehnan Seminary, aided by Slater Fund, 10; appropriations of General Educa- tion Board for, 203. State agricultural colleges in charge of farm demonstration work, 37, 42 Note. State regulation of colleges, 106. Stevens Institute of Technology, appro- priation of General Education Board for, 108 Note; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Stokes, Anson Phelps, member of General Education Board, xiv. Supervisors of Negro rural schools, pro- vision for, 194; duties of, 195. Swarthmore College, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appropria- tion to and total amount of subscrip- tions, 159. Tallahassee, Fla., normal school for Ne- groes at, 192. Tennessee, salaries of educational officers, 19; average school term (1903), 20; ex- tent of farm demonstration in, 37; pri- vate and preparatory schools, 75; legis- lature provides for high schools, 79; Pro- fessor of Secondary Education provided for, 82; raises qualifications for teachers, 87; number of high schools established, 90; number high school pupils enrolled, 91; number high school teachers, 91; amount invested in new school buildings, 91 ; state apportionment for high schools, 92; private subscriptions for high schools, 92; appropriations General Education Board for secondary education; 93; ap- propriations for teaching agriciilture, domestic science, and manual training, 97; mmiber of colleges, 109; appropria- tions to and total amoimt subscribed to INDEX 253 colleges, 157; annual expenditure for public schools, 182; creates supervisor of Negro rural schools, igs. Texas, cotton boll-weevil demonstration farm established by Dr. Knapp, 23; extent of farm demonstration work in, 37; total amount subscribed to colleges in, 157- Thompson Institute, aided by General Education Board, 203. Tobacco acreage reduced by crop diver- sification, 52. Tomatoes, Girls' Canning Clubs, 62. Transylvania University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Trinity College, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, IS6. Tuskegee Institute, aided byPeabody Edu- cation Fund, 9; aided by Slater Fund, 10; assists in demonstration work among Negro farmers, 54; aid in Negro educa- tion, 191; graduates as industrial super- visors, 196; visits of inspection, 199; large summer schools held, 200; appro- priations of General Education Board for, 203. Union College, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appropriations to and total amoimt of subscriptions, 159- Union University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. University of Chattanooga, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157- University of Chicago, established, 6; gifts from General Education Board, 16 Note; benefited by its location, 127. University of Denver, appropriation to and total amoimt of subscriptions, 158. University of Rochester, territory from which students are drawn, 121; appro- priations to and total amount of sub- scriptions, 159. University of Vermont, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. University of Virginia, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. University of Wooster, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. United States Department of Agriculture in charge of all farm demonstration work, 27, 40. Utica, Miss., Negro school at, 192. Vanderbilt University, preparatory schools for, 75 ; radius from which students are drawn, 121; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Vassar College, territory from which students are drawn, 133. Vermont, appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges, 159. Vincent, George E,, member of General Education Board, xiv. Virginia, salaries of educational officers, 19; average school term (1903), 20; ex- tent of farm demonstration work in, 37; tobacco acreage reduced by crop diver- sification, 5 2 ; demonstration work among Negro farmers, 54; condition of high schools, 73; private schools, 75; state subsidy to sustain high schools proposed, 79; Professor of Secondary Education provided for, 82; state grants in aid of high schools, 87; nimiber of high schools established, 90; number of high school pupils enrolled, 91; amount invested in new school buildings, 92; appropriations General Education Board for secondary education, 93; appropriations for teach- ing agriculture and manual training, 97; appropriations to and total amoimt sub- scribed to colleges, 156; devotes half of net revenue to education, 182; creates supervisor of Negro rural schools, 195; work of industrial supervisors among Negroes, 197; success of Negro Girls' Canning Clubs, 197; schools built and maintained by Negroes, 201. Virginia Union University, appropriation General Education Board, 209. Wabash College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Wake Forest College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Washburn College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Washington, appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges of state, 158. Washington, Dr. Booker T., aids in or- ganization of Jeanes Fund, 11 Note. Washington and Jefferson CoUege, appro- priation to and total amount of sub- scriptions, 159. Washington and Lee University, appro- priations to and total amount of sub- scriptions, 156. Washington University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Washington University Medical School, reorganization of, 168; cooperative ar- rangement with, Barnes Hospital and Children's Hospital, 169; appropriation of General Education Board, 170. Waters Normal Institute, aided by Gen- eral Education Board, 203. Wellesley College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. 254 INDEX Wells College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Wesleyan Female College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. . . Wesleyan University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. West Virginia, Professor of Secondary Edu- cation provided for, 82; state grants in aid of nigh schools, 87; raises qualifica- tions for teachers, 87; number of high schools established, 90; amount invested in new school buildings, 91; appropria- tions of General Education Board for secondary education, 93. Western College for Women, appropria- tion to and total amount of subscrip- tions, 157. Western Reserve College, benefits by re- moval, 127; appropriation to and total amount subscriptions, 157. Whitman College, territory from which students are drawn, 124; appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. William H. Welch Endowment for Clinical Education and Research, 168. William Jewell College, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 158. Williams College, territory from which students are drawn, 130; appropriation to and total amoimt of subscriptions, 159- Williamsburg Institute, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 157. Winston-Salem, N. C, normal school for Negroes at, 192. Wisconsin, appropriations to and total amount subscribed to colleges in, 158. Wofford College, appropriations to and total amount of subscriptions, 156. Women's College in Brown University, appropriation to and total amount of subscriptions, 159. Yale University, territory from which students are drawn, 130; relationship up to religious institution, 139; appro- priation to and total amount of subscrip- tions, 159. Yale University Medical Department, re- organization of, 171, appropriation of General Education Board, 171. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 006 671 061 fJ?