5 ■ J"! i ■:■■:-. '■ 'i-^i-i .4' : ;i ; ; .4. . : "in o » I Map P u b 1 i s h « t f CHIC A C O Class _G A4 Book . M 1 H 5 Gopigliffi? fi°py ^ CaEXRSGtfT DEPOSm MANUAL FOR Harding European History Maps NEW HISTORICAL WALL MAPS Uniform large size, 44x32 inches ANCIENT Breasted Ancient History Series. By James H. Breasted, Ph.D., and Carl F. Huth, Jr., University of Chicago. Sixteen Maps covering the period to the Fall of the Eoman Empire. EUROPEAN Harding European History Series. By Samuel B. Harding, Ph.D., Indiana University. Twenty-three Maps from the Barbarian Invasions to the Great War. AMERICAN Hart American History Series. By Albert Bushnell Hart, LL.D., Harvard. Twenty-three Maps in preparation in 1917. More to follow. WORLD In preparation. For further particulars address DENOYER-GEPPERT COMPANY School Map Publishers 460 E. OHIO ST. CHICAGO, U. S. A. PUBLISHERS' NOTE The announcement on the opposite page gives a suggestion of the very comprehensive plan the publishers have in mind for preparing helps for history teachers. Suggestions for the improvement or extension of the plans will be welcomed. To secure editors who had the unusual combination of scholarship and teaching ability was no easy task The publishers acknowledge the splendid co-operation of the editors, who often at great personal incon- venience and amidst the pressure of other important duties sought to render a service for the better teaching of history in American schools. In the preparation of each of these series the publishers aimed to pro- duce maps that would meet the highest demands of artistic form, arrange- ment, and mechanical excellence; at the same time to keep the price of the maps within the reach of the most modest school system. The success achieved in this direction is due to the skillful and hearty co-operation of the craftsmen of the staff. The publishers also publish and deal in historical pictures, decora- tive pictures, political maps, geographical globes, and anatomical models and charts, and will welcome correspondence in regard to any of these items from school officials who may be interested. A display room is maintained in which maps and pictures of differ- ent publishers can be examined and compared, and at which teachers are always welcome. The editorial staff gladly gives advice, either person- ally or by correspondence as to the best selection of material for a fixed appropriation. School officials are urged to use freely this department of the institution. "History is not intelligible without geography. This is obviously "true in the sense that the reader of history must learn where are the frontiers of states, where wars were fought out, whither colonies were dispatched. It is equally, if less obviously, true that geographical facts very largely influence the course of history. Even the constitutional and social developments within a set- tled nation are scarcely independent of them, since geographical position affects the nature and extent of intercourse with other nations, and therefore the influence exerted by foreign ideas. All external relations, hostile and peaceful, are based largely on geography, while industrial progress depends primarily, though not exclu- sively, on matters described in every geography book — the natural products of a country, and the facilities which its structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign." — H. B. George, Relations of Geography and History. A TEACHER'S MANUAL ACCOMPANYING THE HARDING EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS BY SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. Professor of European History, Indiana University Author of New Medieval and Modern History. Select Orations Illustrating American History. The Story of the Middle Ages. The Story of England. The Story of Europe, etc., etc. DENOYER-GEPPERT COMPANY School Map Publishers 460 E. Ohio Street, Chicago, U. S. A. Copyright, 1917, by Denoyer-Geppert Co. Price 75 Cents MAY 23 1918 ©CI.A5U1003 /— • I CONTENTS PAGE Preface 9 Suggestions to Teachers - n MAP i. Barbarian Invasions of the Roman Empire 15 Insets — Europe in 476. Europe in 526. 2. Europe at the Time of Charlemagne 19 Insets — Europe in 565. Europe in 568. 3. The Holy Roman Empire in the ioth and iith Centuries 22 Insets — Rome in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. London about 1300. 4. Europe at the Time of the Crusades 30 Insets — Mohammedan Power about 950. Saladin's Empire, together with the Results of the Fourth Crusade. 5. Saxon and Norman England 33 A. Saxon England in the 8th Century. Tnset — Alfred's England. B. Norman England, with Routes of William the Conqueror. Inset — Earldoms in 1065. 6. England and France in the Middle Ages 39 A. Angevin Dominions in 1154. Inset — Growth of the French Royal Domain, 1 180-1337. B. France in 1429. 7. Europe in 1360 43 Insets — Swiss Confederation, 1291-1513. Italy about 1494. 8. Medieval Commerce and Industries 47 9. Europe at the Time of Charles V. (1519) 50 10. Germany at the Time of the Reformation (1547) 54 Inset — Saxony in 1519. 7 8 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS MAP PAGE ii. Tudor and Stuart England 57 A. Tudor England (showing the modern counties as com- pleted to 1543). Inset — Chief Monasteries before their Dissolution. B. The Civil War — Districts held for King and Parliament on May 1, 1643. Inset — Districts held November 23, 1644. 12. Europe in 1648 • • 60 Inset — Acquisitions of Louis XIV. 13. Europe in 1740, with Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795 63 Inset — Paris in 1789. 14. Discoveries and Colonization to 1763 67 Insets — West Indies, 1763. India under Clive and Hastings. 15. Europe at the Time of Napoleon (1810) 71 Inset — Waterloo Campaign. 16. Europe after 1815 75 Inset — Siege of Sebastopol, 1854-55. 17. The British Isles 78 A. Scotland — Principal Clans and Families. B. Scotland — 1745, showing route of Young Pretender. C. Ireland — Principal Clans and Families. D. Ireland — 16th and 17th Centuries, showing Plantations. E. British Isles — Parliamentary Reform, 1832. 18. Industrial England 82 A. England about 1700, showing Population Densities. Inset — Coal Areas, as at Present. B. England in 1916, showing Population Densities. Inset — Industries, 1916. 19. Modern Italy 86 A. Unification of Italy, 1815-1870. B. Italy in 1916, showing Population Densities. 20. Modern Germany 89 Inset — Central Europe, showing Population Densities in 1914. 21. Balkan States 93 A. Territorial Changes, 1683-1877. B. Territorial Changes, 1878-1914. 22. The World in 1914 96 Insets — India in 1858. Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05. 23. Europe in 1914 99 Inset — Siege of Paris, 1870-71. Index to Manual • 102 PREFACE The necessity of adequate map equipment for the satisfactory teaching of history is now unquestioned. If, in many cases, teachers are still called upon to teach history without a sufficient supply of maps — to make "bricks without straw," as the Israelites were forced to do in the time of their bondage — it is not because the need of such equip- ment is not recognized and proclaimed by every authority which can make any pretense to a pedagogical hearing. It is rather because of what must be reckoned wholly extraneous considerations — a lack of funds with which to make the purchase, the unprogressive character of the school officials, or a failure on the part of the teacher himself to realize what are the indispensable tools of his calling and by insistence to obtain them. When this series was undertaken there was a certain reason for the lack of maps in high school classes studying European History, owing to the fact that there was not then on the American market any very satisfactory set of charts or wall maps obtainable at a moderate price. It is the purpose of this series to supply this deficiency. In its preparation the following points have especially been kept in mind : ( 1 ) To select the map subjects which will satisfy the requirements of the most progres- sive history instruction. (2) To give upon the face of the maps all needed details, such as mountains, rivers, lakes, cities, names, dates of battles, etc. (3) To eliminate all unnecessary details, with a view to simplifying the maps. (4) By size and style of lettering, and the scheme of color- ing, to make the maps readily intelligible at classroom distance. (5) To keep down the cost of publication, with a view to bringing the price within the means of the most modest school system. For information contained in the maps the author is indebted to the following atlases: William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas (Henry Holt & Co., New York) ; G. Droysen, Allgemeiner Historischer Hand- atlas (Velhagen & Klasing, Bielefeld and Leipzig) ; F. W. Putzger, 9 10 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS Historischer Schulatlas, edited by A. Baldamus and E. Schwabe (Vel- hagen & Klasing) ; R. L. Poole, Historical Atlas of Modern Europe (Clarendon Press, Oxford) ; F. Schrader, Atlas de Geographic His- torique (Hachette & Company, Paris) ; P. Vidal de La Blache, Atlas de Geographic Historique (Paris) ; K. Spruner von Mertz and T. Menke, Handatlas fur die Geschichte des Mittelalters und den neueren Zeit (Justus Perthes, Gotha) ; Cambridge Modern History Atlas (The Macmillan Company, New York) ; C. G. Robertson and J. G. Bar- tholomew, Historical Atlas of Modern Europe (Oxford University Press) ; Ramsey Muir, New School Atlas of Modern History (George Philip & Son, London) ; S. R. Gardiner, School Atlas of English His- tory (Longmans, Green & Co., London) ; etc., etc. In addition he must acknowledge a special obligation, beyond that which he owes to the numerous historical works which he has consulted on particular points, to the admirably arranged information contained in the eleventh edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and to Professor Edward A. Freeman's excellent work entitled The Historical Geography of Europe. S. B. H. Bloomington, Indiana, July, 1917. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Hard and fast rules for the use of these maps can no more be laid down than for any other part of the teacher's work. Pupils are living human beings, with varying dispositions, intelligences, and previ- ous preparation; school systems differ widely from one another; and the teacher must work according to his circumstances and his special gifts. The suggestions which follow, however, will perhaps be of some service. As to aims in the use of the maps, the following points should be borne in mind: 1 . The physical features which constitute the permanent frame- work of Europe, and of each of its more important subdivisions, should be carefully impressed on the pupils' minds. This applies also to the other regions of the world with which European history becomes con- cerned. Geography does not condition history in any absolute sense, but it at least profoundly affects it. 2. In each case the scales of the maps should be carefully noted. All the large maps of Europe are on the uniform scale of 80 miles to the inch, while the maps of special areas are on scales bearing simple ratios to each other and to the maps of Europe. Pupils should be asked to figure out the distances in miles between important places, on the various scaled maps. 3. The changes in political boundaries should be carefully noted. These furnish a valuable index to the life history of states — their rise, growth, and decay. The relation of boundaries to physical features should be dwelt upon and explained. (See George, Relations of Geography and History, ch. iii.) 4. All important places (towns, sites of battles, provinces, etc.) should be located on the map. The cultivation of a "place sense" is quite as important as that of the "time sense" in making history instruc- tion concrete and real. Locations should usually be made with refer- 11 12 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS ence to physical features as well as by latitude and longitude; the latter as coordinates are artificial and arbitrary. 5. The use of the map for the study of industrial, commercial, and social phenomena is quite as important as for political and military. Geography is the chief factor in determining the rise and development of towns, the routes of commerce, the localization of industries, and the concentration of population. Several maps in this series deal especially with these features. As to the method of using the maps, the following suggestions will be found of value: 1 . The map or maps which show the regions dealt with should hang before the class during the recitation period. The method of mounting the maps, which facilitates the easy removal of any map desired, makes possible the display simultaneously of as many sheets as may be useful. 2. Pupils should be required to step up to the map and point out the leading places, boundaries, etc., dealt with in the lesson. 3. Topical recitations given by the pupil before the map, pointing out each place or feature mentioned, have a very high value. 4. At times it will be useful to have a pupil, with pointer in hand, interpret the map as a whole, i.e., to point out and describe all the his- torical features revealed by the map. This is an excellent device for synthesizing and coordinating historical knowledge. 5. The "sequence study" of two or more maps showing the same regions at different periods is a most excellent method of review. The Index to this manual can be made to serve as a guide to such exercises. 6. If possible, the pupils should have access to the maps during the preparation of their lessons as well as during the recitation. The sug- gestive questions which are given in this manual will indicate the sort of topics which the teacher should assign at the time of assigning the lesson. The lists here given are, of course, far from complete, and the teacher can easily expand the topics indefinitely. One way in which this can be done is by changing affirmations made in this manual or in textbooks into interrogations. 7. The filling in from time to time of outline maps to show the geography of a period or a movement is almost indispensable to sound TEACHERS MANUAL 13 historical knowledge. Nowhere else, perhaps, will the principle of "learning by doing" be found so sound pedagogically. Accuracy of locations should be insisted upon, for the deviation of a quarter of an inch on the pupil's map will often mean a difference of a hundred miles or more on the earth's surface. Water colors, wax crayons, or pastels can be used for coloring; but some instruction should be given in their technique. 8. Finally, as a means of testing the pupils' knowledge, they should at examination time or on other occasions be required to show from memory, on blank outline maps furnished them, some of the chief historical locations which they have been studying. Probably there is no other device which will more certainly make for thorough map study, both in their textbooks and in this series. It is only fair, however, that this requirement should be announced beforehand, and fairness also demands that too much should not be made of it. What the wise teacher will demand is understanding — first, last, and all the time; but if the study of history is to be of permanent value, as much accuracy and definiteness of detail as is possible should be combined with this. Harding European History Maps MAP 1— BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE Main Map. The area of the Roman Empire as it existed in 375 A.D. is shown by the regions colored yellow. This is also the area of classical civilization. The lines separating the Eastern Empire from the Western Empire — a separation which was "the great political fea- ture of the fifth century" — is also indicated on the map. In the main, the frontier which defended the Empire on the north was the line of the Rhine and Danube rivers. The chief Roman provinces lying along this frontier should be noted — Moesia, Pannonia, Noricum, Raetia — for these are the regions which first sustained the shock of the barbarian invasions. Attention should also be drawn to the strong strategic position of Constantinople. "It is so placed as to protect Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt from invaders coming from the north. Those invaders who crossed the Danube, therefore, successively passed on ... to Italy and the west; and during the period of the Germanic invasions the eastern part of the Empire was, in comparison with the West, left almost intact." (Ramsey Muir, Atlas, p. viii.) Turning now to the migrations themselves, note first the original location of each of the chief Germanic peoples; second the lines of their migration; and third the regions of their final settlement. The West Goths, perhaps, are the most interesting in their history. Impelled by the Huns, whose invasion from Asia is shown by the black line, the West Goths crossed the Danube; settled for a time in Thracia, following the battle of Adrianople (378) ; then, under their young and able leader Alaric, they set out on that career of conquest which brought them eventually into Rome itself (410). Following Alaric's 15 16 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS death, at Cosenza, on the eve of embarkation for Sicily and Africa, the West Goths retraced their steps, crossed the Alps into Gaul, and established themselves in the southern portion of that land and the greater part of Spain. The Vandals, meanwhile, carrying with them a smaller people, the Sueves, had wandered southward and westward, crossing the Rhine and the Pyrenees, and had established themselves in Spain before the coming of the West Goths. The advent of this latter and more power- ful folk led the Vandals to cross the Strait of Gibraltar into Africa, where they established the second important Germanic kingdom. The Burgundians, whom we first meet with in Germany, in the same region whence came the Goths and Vandals', had meanwhile drifted into Gaul and established themselves (about 443) in those lands with which their name is ever afterward associated. For a time the Huns exercised a wide, though unstable empire in eastern Europe, with its capital in the alluvial plain lying south of the Carpathian Mountains. Their spectacular raids under Attila into Gaul (451) and Italy (452), together with their final withdrawal into Asia, after Attila's death, are shown on the map. The fortunes of the East Goths had been bound up with those of the Huns since the coming of the latter people into Europe in 375. The withdrawal of the Huns to Asia, about 455, released the East Goths, who thereupon established themselves in the province of Pannonia. At an earlier date a portion of the Franks had drifted across the Rhine and established themselves in northeastern Gaul. Under the impact of these repeated blows, the Roman Empire in the West crumbled into ruins. The withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain rendered possible the conquest of that province by the Angles and Saxons (after 449). Finally, the last vestiges of imperial power in Italy were overthrown through the establishment of a nominally dependent, but really independent, kingdom under the barbarian Odoacer (476). FlRST INSET. The situation as it existed in 476 is indicated on this map. Here we note the presence, in what was formerly the Western Empire, of seven Germanic peoples — the Franks, Burgundians, Sueves, TEACHER'S MANUAL 17 West Goths, Vandals, East Goths, and Saxons. Odoacer ruled over no single folk, but over a motley kingdom of Romans and barbarian mercenaries. One continental region alone in the West remained under Roman rule — the so-called Kingdom of Syagrius, a Roman ruler who exercised almost complete sovereignty in the valley of the Seine until he was overthrown by Clovis in 486. SECOND Inset. The establishment of the East Goths in Italy in 493 through the overthrow of Odoacer may be said to mark the com- pletion of this stage of barbarian invasions. Their king, Theodoric, established a powerful but short-lived kingdom, whose extent is indi- cated on this map. The situation here shown is that which existed at Theodoric's death in 526. This inset is also of interest as showing the rapid and permanent increase of the Frankish power under Clovis (481- 511) and his sons. SUMMARY. The result of the barbarian invasions is that the west- ern dominions of Rome, including Italy and Rome itself, have practi- cally, if not everywhere formally, fallen away from the Roman Empire. The whole West is under the rule of Teutonic kings. "But the countries of the European mainland, though cut off from Roman political dominion, are far from being cut off from Roman influences. The Teutonic set- tlers, if conquerors, are also disciples. Their rulers are everywhere Chris- tian; in northern Gaul they are even Orthodox." (Freeman, Histori- cal Geography of Europe, p. 104.) In the Eastern Roman Empire, on the other hand, no change is shown. "The Eastern Empire indeed was often traversed by wandering Teutonic nations; Teutonic powers arose for a while on its frontiers; but no permanent Teutonic settlement was ever made within its borders, no dismemberment of its provinces capable of being marked on the map was made, whether by Teutonic or by any other invaders, till a much later time." (Freeman, p. 84.) QUESTIONS Compare this map with a modern map of Europe, and note the countries which were never under Roman rule. Which of the countries 18 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS included in the Roman Empire still speak" "Romance" languages, i.e., languages derived from the Latin? Note the chief provinces which lay alongside the Rhine-Danube frontier; note also the locations of the chief Germanic tribes about 375 A.D. Why did not the Germans over- run Asia Minor? Follow with the pointer the line of march of the West Goths, re- citing the dates and stages of their progress. Do the same for the East Goths; the Vandals; the Burgundians; the Lombards. Point out on the first inset the political divisions as they existed in 476. Compare with this the second inset, and show the changes which had taken place between 476 and 526. MAP 2— EUROPE AT THE TIME OF CHARLEMAGNE INSETS. The insets on this sheet show the more important develop- ments, so far as they are related to boundary changes, in the period between the death of Theodoric in 526 and the accession of Charlemagne as King of the Franks in 768. The first inset shows Europe in 565, at the death of Justinian, Emperor of the East. Through successful warfare he had overthrown the Vandals in Africa and the East Goths in Italy. The result is the recovery for the Empire of a large portion of the lands in the West which had passed under barbarian rule. The recovery, however, was short-lived. The second inset, showing Europe in 568, reveals yet another Germanic people who have established them- selves on Roman soil — the Lombards. On Map 1 are shown the migra- tions of this folk from the land about the lower Elbe to the region north of the bend of the Danube and thence into Pannonia. The first inset on Map 2 shows them established in the latter province, whence they passed into Italy during the disorder which followed Justinian's death. These insets reveal also the further growth of the Franks through the conquest of the lands occupied by the Burgundians, Alamannians, and Thurin- gians. One other factor in the second inset should be noted, namely, the advent of a new and powerful Asiatic folk, the Avars, in the region formerly occupied by Attila and his Huns. Here they were to remain until the overthrow of their kingdom by Charlemagne in 796, after which they disappear from history. Main Map. Turning now to the main map: (1) Note the wide extension of the Slavic peoples, who had occupied the lands va- cated by the Germans between the Oder and the Elbe and had pressed far down into the interior of the Balkan Peninsula. (2) Note also the great decline in area of the Eastern Roman Empire through the conquests of the Mohammedans; it still retained, however, a portion of the lands recovered for it by Justinian, namely, the islands of Sar- dinia and Sicily, and several districts in southern Italy. (3) The vast 19 20 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS extent of the Mohammedan conquests also calls for notice (more de- tailed information concerning this subject is given on Map 4). Within fourscore years following the death of Mohammed, in 632, his fol- lowers had conquered more territory than did ancient Rome in four centuries. Spain had fallen into their hands in 711. The Mediter- ranean lands of Africa, in which were some of the most flourishing provinces of the Roman Empire, sank gradually under the blight of Mohammedan rule into that stagnation and barbarism from which they were to be rescued only in the nineteenth century by new European con- quest and occupation. In Charlemagne's day this Saracen empire was at the height of its civilization. But its power was weakened — first by Charles Martel at Tours in 732, and secondly by its separation, since 750, into the Ommiad Caliphate of Cordova in Spain, and the Caliphate of the Abbassids with capital at Bagdad. Though Mohammedanism continued dangerous to Italy and the western Mediterranean, it no longer menaced Europe as a whole. (4) The extension of the conquests of the Angles and Saxons to almost the limits of modern England is also shown; as is also the (5) consolidation of the remnant of the Chris- tian population in northwestern Spain into the Kingdom of Asturias. The main fact, however, witnessed to on this map is (6) the de- velopment of the Frankish Kingdom — the only Germanic power estab- lished on the continent by the Germanic invasions which was to endure. The long continued wars of Charlemagne had increased the area of this kingdom by the establishment of the Spanish March, the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy, and the subjugation of the hitherto heathen Saxons. Charlemagne's effective rule, therefore, extended from the Eng- lish Channel and the Bay of Biscay on the west to the middle course of the Elbe and the Bohemian Forest on the east; and from the North Sea and the Danish border on the north to some thirty miles south of Rome. In addition we should note the fringe of tributary Slavic peoples to the east, whose limit is shown by the shaded green line. The truly imperial extent of this domain was the real reason for and justification of Charlemagne's assumption of the title Emperor on that famous Christ- mas Day at Rome in the year 800. A fact of no less importance than the extent of Charlemagne's Empire is the division of that Empire among his three grandsons in TEACHER'S MANUAL 21 843, which is also shown on this map. The portion assigned in the Par- tition of Verdun to Charles the Bald, and that given to his ally, Louis the German, are colored dark green on the face of the map. The "mid- dle strip" and Italy, which were ruled by their elder brother Lothair, are indicated in a lighter shade of green. The portions of Charles and Louis, the differing languages of which are shown in the famous Strass- burg Oaths of 842, are the starting points of the modern states of France and Germany. The portion of Lothair, however, possessed neither racial nor linguistic unity; its parts, therefore, were to be for ten cen- turies the object of conquests and a chief seat of European wars. In so far as the Great War of 1 9 1 4 is connected with the desire of the French to recover Alsace-Lorraine, ceded to Germany in 1871, it too may be traced back in its causation to this important partition of 843. In conclusion, two further points should be noted: first, the con- tinued existence in southern Italy of a remnant of Lombard power in the Duchy of Benevento: and second, a small area at the head of the Adriatic still nominally subject to the Eastern Empire, which was to become the independent domain of the Republic of Venice. QUESTIONS Compare the first inset on this map with the second inset on Map 1 , and show the chief territorial changes which took place between 526 and 565. Show on the second inset the changes which took place between 565 and 568. Compare the main map with the second inset. What increases in territory are shown in the Frankish Kingdom? What changes in Spain? In Italy? Trace the limits of effective rule of Charlemagne's Empire. Show the fringe of tributary countries to the east. Why did Charle- magne not seek to bring these regions under his effective rule? Point out on the map the site of the battle of Testry, of Tours (or Poitiers), of Roncevalles, of Fontenay. Point out and state the historical signifi- cance of: Aix-la-Chapelle, Paderborn, Verden, Verdun, Pavia, Ra- venna, Mersen, Kiersy. Trace on the map the lines of the Partition of Verdun. In what consists the historical importance of this Partition? MAP 3— HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE Main Map. Here is shown the Holy Roman Empire as refounded by Otto I in 962. Its area is smaller than that of the empire of Charle- magne, for France is excluded from it. As a result, "the character of universality, which had come naturally to the earlier empire, was want- ing to that of Otto." Nevertheless, vague theories of the Empire as a World-State, the divinely appointed counterpart of the World-Papacy, play an important part throughout the Middle Ages. This Empire lasts in some sort until its dissolution in 1 806 ; but in its later period it had become, in the language of that witty Frenchman, Voltaire, "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire." The line which bounded the Empire on the west was (after the in- clusion of Burgundy, in 1032) the western line of the Partition of Ver- dun (843). Upon the east the boundary is roughly that which limited the tributary portion of Charlemagne's dominions (see Map 2). The land boundary on the north was the little River Eider, in the Peninsula of Denmark. On the south its extent was somewhat indefinite, but it may be considered as reaching to about thirty miles south of Rome. The southernmost parts of Italy were never properly a part of the Em- pire (see Map 4). Three kingdoms were included in the Empire: the Kingdom of Germany, the Kingdom of Burgundy (after 1032), and the Kingdom of Italy. The crown of the first was assumed at Aix-la-Chapelle, once the favorite residence of Charlemagne; that of the second at Besancon; that of the third at Pavia or Milan. Not until he was crowned by the Pope at Rome, however, might the ruler call himself "Emperor"; until that time he was strictly only "King of the Romans" or Emperor elect. The most instructive features on this map are the stem duchies (so called) which make up the Kingdom of Germany. The whole of Germany at this time was divided into some six or eight large sub-divi- 22 TEACHERS MANUAL 23 sions, each inhabited by a definite branch or stem of the German people ; thus a certain amount of national feeling, with unity of dialect and insti- tutions, was the basis on which these stem duchies rested. A fairly accurate knowledge of the location of each of these subdivisions is im- portant, as their names persist as regional designations long after their disappearance as political divisions. The later chaotic map of Ger- many arises by historical steps out of the disintegration of the stem duchies of the tenth and eleventh centuries. Four of these stem duchies — Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, and Bavaria — play an especially prominent part in this period. ( 1 ) Saxony embraced the flat plains through which flowed the rivers Ems, Weser, and the lower course of the Elbe; the only moun- tainous region was that of the Harz, which lay in the southeast about Goslar. Beyond lay the hill country of Thuringia, which could be re- garded as a Saxon dependency. The Saxon land, whose inhabitants till the time of Charlemagne were heathen, had become within a hun- dred years of his death the most powerful of the German duchies, giving a line of rulers (the Ottos) to the Empire and contributing to it its most virile forces. There can be little doubt, however, that Christianity and the Roman-Frankish civilization for some time remained a mere veneer over barbaric heathenism. (2) Franconia occupied the valley of the Main, the middle course of the Rhine, and the lower course of the Neckar. It derived its name from the Franks who conquered it, and under whom it was known as Eastern Frankland (Francia Orienialis). The most numerous and richest cities, together with the seats of the greatest German bishoprics, were here; in addition, its central location on the Rhine and its tribu- taries gave it control of the most important lines of travel. It, too, gave rulers to Germany, first in the days of Henry I the Fowler, and again in the eleventh and twelfth centuries under the Franconian or Salian line of emperors. (3) Srvabia lay to the south of Franconia, and embraced the mountainous lands about the upper courses of the Rhine and the Danube ; it thus included practically all of what is now eastern Switzerland. Its western boundary for a considerable way was the Vosges mountains, its eastern the River Lech. This region was the original home-land 24 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS of the three most powerful ruling houses that Germany has ever pro- duced — the Hohenstaufen, the Hapsburg, and the Hohenzollern — whose castles are shown upon the map. Because of its juxtaposition with Italy and Burgundy, this was a land of flourishing monasteries, bishoprics, and important cities, and it too had its share in the commerce between Germany and the South. This land was at one time the seat of the Alamannians, who were conquered by the Franks in the days of Clovis (596). (4) Bavaria, the last of the four great duchies, lies to the east of Swabia, and stretches from the River Lech on the west to the River Enns on the east, and from the Bohemian Forest on the north to the Alps on the south. It is the only one of these four divisions which exists at the present time, and in its former location, as a separate state of Germany — for the Saxony of today has shifted to the southeast, to a region entirely outside of the original duchy of that name. Of the other divisions of Germany notice should be taken first of Lorraine, here shown divided into two duchies, Upper and Lower Lor- raine, a division which dates from 959. This important region, com- prising as it does the valleys of the Meuse and Moselle rivers, failed to play the important part in German affairs which it otherwise would have played because of its wavering allegiance as between France and the Empire. It remained, however, a most important region because of the fact that it controlled important waterways, and had within its borders the German capital, Aix-la-Chapelle, together with such other important places as Cologne, Treves, Metz, and Verdun. Friesland in the earlier Middle Ages is of comparative unimportance, because of the poverty of its soil and the backwardness of its inhabitants. The difference in outline of the Zuider Zee, and the coasts of Friesland and Flanders, from the same features in the modern map should be noted. These differences are the result of the ceaseless action of the North Sea since those days, especially in the 1 2th century. Speaking of changes in the physical features of Europe, Mr. H. B. George says: "The greatest change of this kind that Europe has witnessed since history began is the conversion of the Zuider Zee, once an inland lagoon, into an arm of the sea. This added to the facilities for maritime development which Holland possessed ; but it did not create TEACHER'S MANUAL 25 them, and therefore is of little historical importance." (The Relations of Geography and History, p. 10.) Bohemia and Moravia, although included within the Kingdom of Germany, were inhabited by Slavs and not by Germans; the King of Bohemia becomes in the twelfth century one of the seven electors of the Empire, but it is not until the days of the Emperor Charles IV that Bohemia itself plays a leading part. The Duchy of Carinthia, with its dependencies Styria and Carniola, was also largely Slavic in inhabitants. A feature of the map of Germany in this period which is of spe- cial interest is the fringe of "march" or border lands which lay along the eastern frontier. These also were originally inhabited by Slavs, and were part of the tributary lands under Charlemagne. After Charle- magne's day, German conquest and colonization brought these regions into the Empire. This is one of the first steps in an eastward expan- sion of Germany, carrying alike German civilization and Christianity into lands hitherto Slavic and heathen; it is one of the most important features of the medieval history of Germany. The political position of these border districts was also not without its importance; for because of their exposed situation, the counts who ruled over them perforce were given a degree of independence and power without parallel in more protected regions. It is not surprising, therefore, that two of these marches were converted by the energetic action of their holders into important German states later on. The Saxon North March becomes Brandenburg, which in turn is the nucleus of the present Kingdom of Prussia; and the Bavarian East March develops into the Grand Duchy of Austria, which is still the center of the Hapsburg power. Special mention must be made of the Kingdom of Burgundy, or as it was sometimes called, the Kingdom of Aries, from its chief city. "It would be hard to mention any geographical name," says Bryce, "which, by its application at different times to different districts, has caused and continues to cause more confusion than this name Burgundy." He proceeds (in Appendix A to his Holy Roman Empire) to indicate ten separate meanings which have attached to this name: of these we need here only note, first, its use to designate the original seat of the 26 EUROPEAN' HISTORY MAPS Burgundians as shown on the second inset to Map 1 ; second, the Duchy of Burgundy in France, which was a part of the former district, but is excluded from the Kingdom of Burgundy shown on this map. This kingdom was formed in 932 by the union of the southern part, known as the Kingdom of Provence or Lower Burgundy, with the Kingdom of Transjurane or Upper Burgundy, both of which are reckoned among the "little kingdoms" which arose through the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire about 888. This Kingdom of Burgundy, upon the death, in 1032, of its last independent king, came — partly by be- quest and partly by conquest — into the hands of the Emperor Conrad II, and thenceforth formed a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In the thirteenth century France began to absorb it, bit by bit; by the nine- teenth century the whole of it, except the western portion of Switzerland had become a part of France. • The Kingdom of Italy, which by the Partition of Verdun (in 843) was assigned to Lothair, together with Burgundy and Lorraine, had in 855 become a separate kingdom under Lothair's son. In the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire it passed from claimant to claimant, and became the object of rivalry between the heads of vari- ous petty houses in Italy, chiefly those ruling the March of Verona and the Duchy of Spoleto. From this condition it was rescued by the Ger- man King, Otto I, who in 952, at the time of his first Italian expedition, assumed the "iron crown" of Italy at Pavia. Thenceforth, the for- tunes of Italy to the close of the Middle Ages are indissolubly linked with those of Germany, to the injury of both countries. The chief divi- sions of Italy at this time were Lombard)}, the nucleus of Charlemagne's Kingdom of Italy; the March of Verona, which was sometimes reck- oned a part of Germany and sometimes of Italy; the Duchy of Tuscany, which includes the valley of the Arno and the regions for some distance south, and was for a time a subject of controversy between Pope and Emperor; the Papal Stales, which the Pope, by virtue of grants from Carolingian rulers, claimed to rule as an independent state; and various Lombard and Greek principalities in the south, which the prowess of cer- tain Norman chiefs converted, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, into a powerful Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, held in fief of the Pope as suzerain (see Map 4). By marriage with the heiress of this Norman TEACHER'S MANUAL 27 line, the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily passed, in 1 1 83, to the infant Frederick II, of the Hohenstaufen house. The portion of the Papal States marked with border color only was claimed by the Papacy, but was not always ruled by it. A careful study of this map is essential to the understanding of the great contests between Papacy and Empire — the Investiture Con- flict, begun by Pope Gregory VII against the Franconian Emperor Henry IV, and terminated by the Concordat of Worms in 1122; and the equally important contests of the Popes with the Hohenstaufen em- perors, Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II. The towns in Lom- bardy and the March of Verona whose names are underlined were mem- bers of the Lombard League, called into existence in 1067 to combat the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. On this map, as on others in the series, the sites of the most important battles are indicated by a special symbol with date. INSETS. The insets on this map show Rome in the Middle Ages and at the time of the Renaissance, and London about the year 1 300. ( 1 ) As the seat of the Papacy, Rome throughout the Middle Ages was in a strict sense the capital of Europe. It -was the center to which pilgrimages were made, where Emperors were crowned, and whither ambassadors and churchmen resorted in the prosecution of the endless business created by vexed questions of religion and politics. A knowledge of its internal topography, therefore, is of importance to the understanding of many episodes in the history of that time. The limits of the city under the old Roman Empire were the Aurelian walls, erected in the third century, A.D. In the ninth century, as a defense in part against Saracen raids, Pope Leo IV erected the wall marked with his name on the map, which for the first time included what was thenceforth known as the Leonine City on the Vatican hill. Here was located the old basilica of St. Peter's, and the Vatican Palace, which becomes the favorite residence of the Popes. It should be noted that the ground plan of St. Peter's here shown is that of the old basilica, which dated from the early Middle Ages, and not the modern St. Peter's, which was erected in the 1 6th century. In the seventeenth century, the area of the Leonine City was enlarged through the erection of the wall 28 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS of Pope Urban VIII, which also took in a considerable tract to the south, on the right bank of the Tiber, which hitherto had been without the wall. A special point of interest in the defenses of Rome is the Castle of St. Angelo, the fortress with which the Popes at once defended the Leonine City against attacks from without and at the same time over- awed their rebellious subjects of Rome. This fortress was originally the mausoleum of the Emperor Hadrian; it was converted in the course of the Middle Ages into a stone castle, of the medieval type. The churches whose names are underscored on the map are those from which the cardinal bishops took their titles, and which were promi- nent centers of pilgrimage. A considerable number of the other churches of medieval Rome are indicated by crosses; of these the most important historically have index numbers attached, by which their names may be found in the reference list. The same is true of the more important secular buildings of the period, such as the Borghese, Farnese, and Colonna palaces, etc. The more important structures surviving from ancient Roman days are indicated in the outline (blue) color. (2) The plan of London, which is here given, requires little explanation, as the names of the most important places are plainly to be seen upon the map itself. The region included within the wall of London is approximately that of the old Roman city. It should be noted that many of the most important places of modern London, such as the Charter House, the Temple, and Westminster, are at considerable distances outside of the city proper. QUESTIONS Trace the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire in 962. After 1032. Why is Venice excluded from the Empire? Compare the eastern boundary of the Empire with the eastern boundary of Charle- magne's tributary territory. What line on Map 2 is reproduced as the western boundary of the Empire after 1 032 ? Name the chief rivers, physical features, and towns of Saxony. Of Franconia. Of Swabia. Of Bavaria. Of Carinthia (including its dependencies Styria, Camiola, Istria, and the March of Verona). Of TEACHERS MANUAL 29 Lower Lorraine. Of Upper Lorraine. Of the Kingdom of Burgundy. Of Friesland. Of Thuringia. Of Bohemia and Moravia. Of Lom- bardy. Of Tuscany. Of the Papal States. Point out the location of the Saxon North March and the Bavarian East March. What terri- torial divisions later developed from these? Point out the location of the castles Hohenstaufen, Hapsburg, and Hohenzollern. Of the battles of the Lechfeld, Legnano, Bouvines, and Sempach, stating the parties and circumstances of each. Point out the following and state the importance of each in the history of the church: Cluny, Citeaux, Grande Chartreuse, St. Gall. Point out the places prominent in the Investiture Conflict; in the conflict of Frederick I with the Papacy; of Frederick II. Locate the church of St. John Lateran, "the mother and head of all churches" ; of St. Peter's, the later papal church. Point out the other five "greater churches" of the Roman district. What advantages did the Vatican Palace have as a place of residence for the Pope over the Lateran Palace? In what consisted the military importance of the Castle of St. Angelo? What event in the reign of the Emperor Constantine is associated with the Milvian Bridge? Locate on the map of London the churches of St. Paul and West- minster, and the monasteries of the Carthusian monks (Charter House), the Grey Friars, Black Friars, Augustine Friars, and of the Knights Templars (the Temple). Compare the part played by the Tower with reference to London to that played by the Castle of St. Angelo in the history of medieval Rome. For what is the Tabard noted? Billings- gate? Lombard street? Fleet street (later) ? Find out what you can concerning the appearance of London Bridge in the Middle Ages. What historical importance attaches to Westminster Hall? What is the pres- ent association with Westminster (the Abbey) ? MAP 4— EUROPE AT THE TIME OF THE CRUSADES FlRST INSET. In one aspect the Crusades may be regarded as a phase of that age-long conflict between East and West, Mohammedan and Christian, for the possession of the lands about the eastern Mediter- ranean. This inset represents that startling expansion of Mohammedan power which initiated the conflict. Up to the time of Mohammed's death, in 632, only Arabia, the darkest colored region on the inset, had accepted his religion and acknowledged Mohammedan sway. Under his first four successors there were added the regions colored buff — Syria, Egypt, Armenia, and Persia. The areas colored yellow indicate further conquests to 950. The Mohammedan power had thus become, by the time of the Crusades, a vast empire stretching from the Pyrenees and the Strait of Gibraltar, on the west, to the Indus on the east. This empire, however, as is shown by the main map, was not under a single rule. In the west were the dominions of the Almoravids, a Moorish people; in the center was the Caliphate of Cairo, a schismatic Mohammedan state ; while in the east the dominant power was that of the Seljuk Turfys, a rude, barbarian, warlike horde, whose sultans had re- cently overthrown the more cultured but less virile caliphs of Bagdad. Main Map. The substitution of the brutal and intolerant rule of the Seljuk Turks for that of the enlightened Saracens was one of the chief causes of the Crusades. The map shows the situation in Europe at the time of the Crusades, together with the routes of the chief expeditions to the Holy Land. With reference to the first topic, we note the con- nection which existed between ( 1 ) England and Normandy at this time. The green border to Normandy indicating that, although England was an independent kingdom, its king as Duke of Normandy was a vassal of the King of France after 1 066. (2) In Spain the map shows the growth of the Christian areas and their organization into the kingdoms of Leon (with its counties of Portugal and Castile), of Navarre, and of Aragon. 30 TEACHER'S MANUAL 31 The County of Barcelona, it should be noted, was at this time under French rule. (3) In Italy the Papal States now definitely appear, and the Norman Principalities in Sicily and Southern Italy, the result of con- quests made by Norman knights at the expense of various East Roman, Lombard, and Saracen rulers. (4) The extent and internal constitution of the Holy Roman Empire is more clearly shown on the preceding map (Map 3). (5) In Eastern Europe we see, first, the formation of the Slavic lands of Serbia, Croatia, Poland, Pomerania, and Russia; and also of the Magyar Kingdom of Hungary, formed by new Asiatic immi- grants in the tenth century, in the land formerly occupied by their fore- runners, the Huns and Avars. (6) The Eastern Roman Empire is here shown as it existed after the partial recovery of its dominions in Asia Minor as a result of the Pirst Crusade. At the beginning of that move- ment it had entirely lost its possessions in Asia Minor. On the other hand, in 1018 the Empire had overthrown the Kingdom of the Bulgarians, which was first established south of the Danube in 679, and which at its greatest height extended from the Adriatic to the Black Sea and from the Danube to the border of Thessaly. The Crusading routes shown on the map are those of the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Crusades, and of the Crusades of Louis IX of France, which are often numbered the Sixth and Seventh. As an additional aid to the identification of these routes, one dot between dashes is used for the First Crusade, two for the Second, three for the Third, and four for the Fourth. The condition shown in the Eastern Mediterranean is that which existed about 1 1 40, and indicates the territorial changes made by the First Crusade. The area of the Eastern Roman Empire in Asia Minor is thus considerably larger than it was in 1 097; while the Crusading govern- ments of Jerusalem, Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa are wholly new crea- tions. The County of Edessa speedily disappears from the map; its fall was the occasion of the Second Crusade. On this map, as well as on other maps of the series, the chief sites of battles are indicated by crossed swords with dates. SECOND INSET. The second inset shows ( 1 ) the Empire of Saladin, whose conquest of Jerusalem in 1087 was the immediate occa- 32 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS sion for the Third Crusade. It shows (2) the results of the Fourth Crusade of 1 202-04. These include the establishment of the Latin Em- pire of Constantinople, which lasted until 1261, and the establishment of Venetian rule in Crete, Rhodes, Negropont (Euboea), and elsewhere in the East. The fragments of the Greek (East Roman) Empire are here shown in the areas named Empire of Nicaea, Empire of Trebizond, Albania, and Epirus. QUESTIONS On the first inset trace the chronological order of the Mohammedan conquests. What regions ruled by them had been a part of the ancient Roman Empire? What portions of the Roman Empire were still uncon- quered by them in 950? Compare the extent of Mohammedan territory with Christian territory. What element of weakness in the Mohammedan power is shown in the main map? Describe the territorial power of the chief European states at the time of the First Crusade, — England, France, the Holy Roman Empire, the Spanish Kingdoms, the Norman Principalities of Naples and Sicily, the Slavic countries of Eastern Europe (including Hungary), the East- ern Roman Empire (note that in 1097 the whole of Asia Minor had been lost by the Empire) . Trace the routes of the First Crusade. Of the Second Crusade. Of the English, French, and Germans respectively on the Third Cru- sade. Why do the later Crusades go by water? Why was the first Crusade of Louis IX directed to Egypt rather than to Palestine? Point out the four Crusading states established after the First Crusade. Point out the country of the "Assassins" (or of the Old Man of the Mountain) and tell the story of this people. On the second inset point out the extent of Saladin's Empire. Of the Latin Empire of Constantinople (established by the Fourth Cru- sade). Of the remnants of the Greek Empire. Of the gains made by Venice in that Crusade. MAP 5— SAXON AND NORMAN ENGLAND The four maps on this sheet are designed to show the chief events in English history up to the twelfth century. FlRST Map. This map, entitled "Saxon England in the Eighth Century," gives the starting point. On this map are shown: (1) the chief physical features which influenced early English history, (2) the great system of roads constructed by the Romans, which constituted the chief routes of communication to the end of the Middle Ages, and (3) the so-called Heptarchic kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon period. The extensive forest areas in Sussex and Kent, and the marsh lands about the Wash should be noted, as these constituted formidable obstacles to com- munication and played important parts in the history of conquest and migration. The fact that the longest and most important rivers of Eng- land flow eastward, and that the best harbors are on the eastern and southern coasts, made invasion from the continent easy and facilitated commerce. The portions of the coast left white about the Wash in East Anglia, and at the junction of Kent and Sussex, represent regions then under water, but since built up as solid land. Even in Roman days London was marked out to be the future capital of the kingdom, — by its location on the chief navigable river of the island; by its possession of a first-class harbor; and by the concentration there, at the lowest point at which the Thames could be bridged, of the Roman roads leading from the Channel ports and radiating northward and westward to all parts of the kingdom. Of the seven English kingdoms here shown, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex were occupied by the Saxons; Northumbria (with its subking- doms, Bernicia and Delta) , Metcia and East Anglia were settled by the Angles; while Kent was originally occupied by the Jutes, the first of all the Teutonic invaders to effect a lodgment on British shores. Originally there were a larger number of small kingdoms, of various 33 34 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS English folks; these are here represented as consolidated into the seven principal ones. West Wales, North Wales, and Strathclyde were still, in the eighth century, under the sway of various Celtic tribes. In Scot- land were wild tribes of Picts and Scots, the latter recent immigrants from Ireland. The chief towns in existence in this period, a number of them on former Roman sites, are shown on the map; but it should be noted that, aside^from London, there was no place before the Norman conquest which could boast of more than a few thousand inhabitants. The loca- tions of the chief battles of the Anglo-Saxon period are here given with their dates. •Stretching from the mouth of the River Tyne to the Solway Firth, the great Roman Wall, which can still be traced for miles across the north of England, formerly marked the limit of Roman rule. Offa's Dyke, which is shown as the boundary for a considerable way between Mercia and North Wales, was erected by one of the important kings of the former country in the eighth century. Attention should also be called to the little island of Iona, in the upper lefthand corner of the map, and to Lindisfarne, which were the centers from which Celtic monks reintroduced Christianity into England, after its conquests by the English. Canterbury, the center from which Augustine and his fellow monks spread Roman Christianity, following their coming in 597, becomes the chief ecclesiastical center of the island. Whitby, on the Northumbrian coast, was the scene, in 664, of the triumph of Roman Christianity over Celtic. ■ FlRST INSET. The inset to this map, entitled "Alfred's Eng- land," shows the condition existing a century later. Beginning first with piratical raids, in 787, the Danes had advanced to political con- quest. When Alfred came to the throne of Wessex, in 871, all Eng- land, save Wessex and its dependencies lying south of the Thames, was at their mercy. Alfred succeeded in checking their advance; and by treaty with their leading chieftain, Guthrum, in 878 (revised in 886) established a definite boundary. In the language of the treaty of 886, this boundary ran "up on the Thames, and then up on the Lea, and along the Lea unto its source, then right to Bedford, then up on the TEACHER'S MANUAL 35 Ouse unto Watling Street." The latter is the Roman road which runs roughly from Dover, through Canterbury and London, to Chester. This is the boundary shown upon the inset. South of this line lay the Eng- lish lands ruled by Alfred; north of it were the Danish territories, which collectively were styled the Danelaw, — for here Danish and not English law prevailed. In Danish Mercia are shown the five Danish boroughs — Lincoln, Derby, Nottingham, Stamford, and Leicester — which con- stituted some sort of Danish principality, the exact character of which is not known. The portion of Northumbria still under the rule of English princes is here indicated. It should be noted that the area occupied by the Celtic Britons is reduced on this map by the loss to Wessex of West Wales. SECOND Inset. The inset to the second map shows "England on the Eve of the Norman Conquest." Since the reconquest of the Danelaw under Alfred's descendants, m the tenth century, England had constituted a single consolidated king- dom. One good result of the Danish invasions was the wiping out of all competing royal lines among the English, leaving only that of Wessex, under whose kings the whole of England was now united. The conquest of this single kingdom by the Danish king Canute, who was already king of the Scandinavian lands, is not shown on these maps. The inset represents the situation as it existed in the closing year of the reign of Edward the Confessor, the representative of the old Wes : sex line, who came to the English throne in 1 042, upon the death of the last of Canute's sons. Under this weak king power was disputed by various great earls, of whom the chief was Godwine. The region col- ored pink on the map, which represents the richest and at that time the most important part of England, was in the hands of Godwine's sons, Harold, Leofwine, and Gyrth. Their most important rivals were Edwin and Morcar, sons of Leofric, a contemporary of Godwine. The rivalry between the houses of Godwine and Leofric was one factor in weakening England at the time of the Norman Conquest. SECOND Map. The main map on this half of the sheet shows the Norman Conquest and the situation created thereby. 36 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS The death without heirs of Edward the Confessor, in 1 066, was followed by the election to the English throne of Harold, Edward's brother-in-law, who was unquestionably the strongest nobleman in Eng- land. Almost immediately Harold had to face a two-fold danger: first, from the Danish king Harold Hardrada, who came with the Saxon Harold's exiled brother Tostig to claim the English throne; and second, from William, Duke of Normandy, who also put forth flimsy claims to the crown. The Danish invasion, into the Humber River and thence to York, is here shown. At Stamford Bridge Harold met and overcame this danger. His hasty march thence to Hastings, to meet the yet greater menace of William's invasion, is shown by the broken red line. At Hastings, on October 1 4th, 1 066, Harold died gallantly fighting. William's march thence through the Strait towns, whose possession was necessary to his communications with Normandy, is shown on the map. Without attempting to attack London immediately, William marched up the Thames to Wallingford, and thence eastward to Berk- hampstead, where he was in a position to cut off any aid which Edwin and Morcar might send. Here he received the submission of the Eng- lish ; and his campaign of 1 066 closed with his march to London, where he received the English crown. England, however, was not yet conquered. William's subsequent campaigns to effect its conquest are shown on the map: the first to the west, in the spring of 106S, to overthrow Harold's partisans; the sec- ond to the north, in the autumn of 1 068, to bring that region into sub- jection; and the third, in 1069-70, to repel a new invasion of the Danes, and to quell a formidable rising of the English. William's winter march from York to Chester is a noted feature of this campaign; as is also the terrible devastation which he wrought throughout the whole of the north, and from which that region did not recover for more than two centuries. The county divisions of England, as they existed at the close of the Anglo-Saxon period, are indicated on this map, together with the pala- tine earldoms created by the Normans — Kent, Hereford, Shrewsbury, Chester, and the Bishopric of Durham. These were all regions of special military importance, and hence were under exceptional jurisdiction. TEACHERS MANUAL 37 Tynedale is a similar feudal lordship, long possessed by the Scottish kings. In Wales is shown the region occupied by Norman barons (the Lords Marcher) as it existed in the twelfth century, together with the lands ruled by native Welsh princes. Attention should also be called to the fact that on this map appears for the first time the word Scotland, this kingdom having been formed in the middle of the ninth century by an amalgamation of the Picts and Scots. Among additional details to be noted upon this map are : ( 1 ) the castles erected by William as a means of keeping the English in sub- jection; (2) the so-called Cinque Ports established to guard the coast of the Strait of Dover; (3) the archbishoprics and bishoprics, as reor- ganized by William; and (4) the other boroughs in existence in Nor- man days. This map shows also the sites with dates of the chief bat- tles, from the Norman Conquest to the accession of the House of Anjou (Plantaganet) in 1 154. For a plan of London in the Middle Ages, see Map 3. QUESTIONS FlRST Map. Compare the eastern watershed of England with the western. In which are located the more important rivers and har- bors? Name these. Where are the chief mountainous areas? What do these facts suggest with reference to the location of minerals and arable lands? Where were the chief forests of England located? The chief marshes and fen-lands? Trace the course of the Roman road from Dover to Chester (Wat- ling street). From London to the Firth of Forth (Ermine street). From Exeter to Lincoln (Fosse way). Note the chief towns which were to arise on each of these roads. What geographical factors ex- plain the rise of London to be the metropolis of England? Point out the location of Hadrian's Wall; of the islands of Iona and Lindisfame. What part did these two islands play in the conversion of the English? Point out the center in England from which Roman Christianity spread. What part did Whitby have in this movement? Review in connection with the map the development of the Anglo- Saxon conquest of Britain, pointing out the places associated with the 38 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS dates 449, 577, 613. What regions were still unconquered by the English in the eighth century? Point out the kingdoms established by the Angles; the Saxons; the Jutes. Point out at least one place of his- torical interest in each kingdom, stating why it is of interest. What changes have taken place in the political divisions of Eng- land by Alfred's time? In what region has the English rule advanced? What English kingdoms have disappeared? What new rule has appeared, and where? What line on the main map coincides for a considerable distance with the southern boundary of the Danelaw as shown on the inset? SECOND Map. Show on the inset the great earldoms in 1065. With pointer and map describe William's campaign of 1 066. Do the same for his campaign in the spring of 1 068 ; for the first conquest of the North; for the second conquest of the North. Point out and name some of the chief castles erected by William; some of the chief arch- bishoprics and bishoprics. What were the Cinque Ports? Point them out on the map. Name and indicate the "counties palatine" of the Norman period, stating their purpose. Who were the "lords marcher"? Show on the map where they were located. Point out on this map (and on the preceding one) the chief battle site? of the Anglo-Saxon and Norman periods. MAP 6— ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES In these maps may be traced the continuation of the history of Eng- land dealt with on the preceding sheet, and also the development of the conflict with France in the medieval period. FlRST Map. Here is shown the extent of the English dominions at the accession of the Angevin king, Henry II, to the throne, in 1154. England, together with the southern part of Wales, was already under the rule of the English crown; the region colored pink in Ireland, how- ever, was not subjected until the latter part of the reign of Henry II. The principality of North Wales, though acknowledging a certain allegiance to the English kings, was not subjected to their direct rule until the time of Edward I (1272-1307). The most important feature shown on this map is the great extent of territory in France ruled by the King of England. Of the provinces here shown, Normandy with certain claims over Brittany was acquired by Henry II in right of his mother, Matilda, daughter of the English King Henry I. Maine, Anjou, and Touraine came to him from his father Geoffrey of Anjou, whose habit of wearing in his cap a sprig of the broom plant (planta genista) earned for him the surname Planta- genet. The remainder of the region colored pink in France, known as Aquitaine, was secured by Henry II in right of his wife, Eleanor, the divorced queen of the French king, Louis VII. All of these lands were held by Henry II and his immediate successors as fiefs of the crown of France. But the fact that Henry II was also an independent king, coupled with the great extent of his holdings in France, made his allegi- ance to his French suzerain more formal than real. It was this anomaly of a foreign sovereign holding in fief the greater half of France, and cutting off the French king from all direct access to the English Channel and the Atlantic, which constitutes the real cause of the persistent wars 39 40 EUROPEAN- HISTORY MAPS between England and France in the Middle Ages- — wars which lasted until, with the loss of Calais in 1556, the English were finally expelled from France. In 1 1 54 the power of the French king had not yet made those great strides which were to change it from the rule over a few small terri- tories about Paris into the effective control of the whole realm. The immediate French Royal Domain had increased very little from what it had been at the accession of Hugh Capet, in 987. It stretched from Senlis on the north to Bourges on the south, and from Sens in the east to Orleans in the west. The remainder of the realm, aside from the portion in the hands of the English king, was in the hands of various feudatories, of whom the chief were the counts of Flanders, V ermandois, Champagne, and Blois, the Duke of Burgundy, the Count of Bourhon, the Count of Toulouse, etc. With reference to the limits of France, it should be noted that south of the Pyrenees the greater part of the old Spanish March of Charlemagne still owed nominal allegiance to the French king; and that on the east, except for the acquisition of certain small territories lying west of the lower Rhone, the boundary was the same as that in the Partition of Verdun (843). INSET. This map shows the growth of the French Royal Domain, 1 1 80 to 1 337. Colored buff are the additions made by Philip Augustus (1 180-1223) ; these mark the first great forward stride in territory of the French crown. The most important of these additions made by Philip II were Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine, made at the expense of King John of England, Henry II's incompetent younger son (1199-1216). The regions colored yellow show the acquisitions be- tween 1223 and 1337. Of these Champagne and Blois were acquired through marriage by Philip IV; and Poitou, Toulouse, and Languedoc, which were gained immediately or ultimately as a result of the Albigen- sian Crusade, directed against the counts of Toulouse (1209-1266). At the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, in 1337, the English fiefs in France were reduced to the narrow strip about Bordeaux, which is colored pink on the inset. SECOND Map. This map illustrates the next great struggle be- tween the French and the English kings, which we call the Hundred TEACHER'S MANUAL 41 Years' War. By the close of the first stage of this conflict, in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360) the English king, Edward III, had broadened out his French possessions to the limits shown on Map 7. In succeed- ing stages of the war, the English possessions in Aquitaine again shrank to the limits shown on this map. Meanwhile, however, had come the great victories of Henry V, beginning with Agincourt in 1415, which won for him the greater part of northern France. On this map may be traced the route of Henry V to Agincourt, and the conquest of Calais. The situation as shown upon the map is that which existed, after the death of Henry V, at the time of the appearance of Joan of Arc as the savior of France, in 1 429. The lands held by England in that year are colored pink- The buff indicates the lands held by England's ally, the Duke of Burgundy. It should be noted, however, that some of these lands, which were within the Empire, were not acquired by the Burgundian dukes until after 1 429. Their extent, therefore, is rather that of the Burgundian domains at the death of Charles the Bold in 1477. The area colored green was nominally subject, in 1429, to the Dauphin, Charles VII, who refused to recognize the Treaty of Troyes (1422) which disinherited him, and who was struggling to secure the kingdom as his inheritance. His resources, however, were exceedingly scanty and his power was weak; and without the new vigor infused into his cause by Joan of Arc, he would undoubtedly soon have lost all his hold upon France. The addition to France of the Dauphine, a portion of the old Kingdom of Burgundy, is one of the changes in the extent of the kingdom which should be noted. Nominally this region was still a portion of the Holy Roman Empire, but the weakness of that state enabled the French kings to incorporate Dauphine in the realm of France. This was the first important extension of the French boundaries to the east of the River Rhone. The sites and dates of the chief battles of the Hundred Years* War are also indicated on this map. 42 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS QUESTIONS FlRST Map. Point out on the map the regions ruled over by Henry II of England. Which of these did he rule over as sovereign? Which did he hold as fiefs of the King of France? Which did he receive by inheritance from his father Geoffrey of Anjou? Which from his mother Matilda of England? Which from his wife? Which did he acquire by conquest? Indicate the extent of the French Royal Domain in 1 180. Point out the districts added by Philip Augustus. Point out the later additions up to the opening of the Hundred Years' War. Point out the following places, and state the event connected with each: Tinchebrai, Bouvines, Evesham, Runnimede. Compare the area in France under English rule in 1 337 with the area ruled by them in 1 360 (see Map 7). Second Map. Locate and state the circumstances and outcome of the following battles of the Hundred Years' War: Crecy, Poitiers, Agincourt. Trace the route of the English king leading to the latter battle. Point out the chief territories occupied by the English in 1 429. What was the attitude of the Burgundian duke toward the English? What important event is associated with the city of Orleans in 1429? What other places on the map are associated with the life of Joan of Arc? Name some of the districts held by the Duke of Burgundy in 1477, indicating which were fiefs of France and which fiefs of the Empire. Point out the site of the death of Charles the Bold (Nancy). MAP 7— EUROPE IN 1360 Main Map. This map shows the Holy Roman Empire as it existed following its disastrous conflicts with the Papacy in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. Germany is now a chaos of some hundreds of states, mostly of infinitesimal size. The Emperor Charles IV in his Golden Bull (1356) recognized the practical independence of these states and fixed the constitution of Germany as a loose confed- eracy under the Emperor; in the words of the historian Bryce, "he legalized anarchy and called it a constitution." The area of the Em- pire is also considerably curtailed. On the east, France has begun the swallowing up of the old Burgundian lands, and on the south all Italy save Tuscany and Lombardy are practically free from imperial control. To compensate, there has begun an eastward expansion at the expense of the Slavs, which has already brought Silesia and a portion of Pomerania within the Empire. The chief interest in the history of Germany henceforward lies in the rivalry of the great princely families, the territories of two of which — the House of Luxemburg (colored blue) and the House of Hapsburg (colored buff) are shown on the map. Bavaria, under the House of Wittelsbach, and Brandenburg, not yet, however, under the House of Hohenzollern, are the only other Ger- man states which here need indication. Attention should be called, however, to the lands conquered by the Crusading Order of Teutonic Knights from the heathen Prussians, which were ultimately to consti- tute a leading portion of Germany. On this map Hungary (with its dependencies Moldavia, Wal- lachia, and Bosnia), the Kingdom of Naples, and Provence are all shown in the same color, to indicate the rule of these regions by the French House of Anjou. The Kingdom of Sicily, which formerly, under the Normans, and then under Hohenstaufen rule, was united in a single kingdom with Naples, is now under a branch of the House of Aragon. Aragon 43 44 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS itself is now, with Castile, Portugal, and Navarre, one of the four Christian states of Spain, the Mohammedan power in this peninsula being confined to the small kingdom of Granada. In France is shown the condition created by the Treaty of Bretigny, in 1 360, at the close of the first stage of the Hundred Years' War. In northern and eastern Europe we should note : ( 1 ) the union of the Scandinavian kingdoms, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, through the Union of Calmar in 1 397; (2) the creation of a greater Kingdom of Poland through the annexation of Lithuania in 1386; and (3) the great Balkan Kingdom of Serbia, which, until his death in 1 355, was ruled by the hero king Stephen Dushan. (4) Note also that Bulgaria, first established by an Asiatic folk in 679, and then conquered by the Eastern Roman Empire, is here shown as an independent kingdom. The great reduction in area of the Eastern Roman Empire is to be noted. Its strength was sapped by the Fourth Crusade, in 1 204, the subsequent rise to independence of Bulgaria and Serbia in Europe, and the conquests of the Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor in the thirteenth cen- tury. Already the latter had crossed the Hellespont and established themselves in the peninsula of Gallipoli (1357), and soon practically the whole of the remainder of that Empire was to pass under Ottoman control. Nevertheless Constantinople was to remain an outpost of Chris- tian civilization until 1453. In Asia the last Crusading state had fallen with the loss of Acre in 1291. But the Knights Hospitaler (Knights of St. John) had estab- lished themselves in the island of Rhcdes (1310) where they were to make valiant resistance until their expulsion in the sixteenth century (1522). The battle of Angora in Asia Minor (1402) marks the temporary check to the Ottoman growth administered in the victory of the great Timur the Tartar (Tamerlane). In Italy should be noted the growth of Genoa through the acquisi- tion of Corsica and various lands in the Aegean ; and the continued development of Venice, both in Italy and in the East FlRST INSET. This shows the rise of the Swiss Confederation — a testimony on the one hand to the growing weakness of the central power in Germany, and on the other to the vigor of the German people. The TEACHER'S MANUAL 45 three original cantons which united in 1 29 1 to form the Swiss Confedera- tion had been increased, by 1513, through the accession of a number of additional cantons. The practical independence of the Confederation was won by 1 358, though formal acknowledgment of this was withheld until 1 648. The yellow areas on this inset indicate various subject and allied districts, which were more or less closely associated with the Confederation, but not formally incorporated therein until the time of the French Revolution. The dates given on the face of the map are those of union with, or subjection to, the Confederation. SECOND ItfSET. This shows the chief states of Italy which sprang up on the decline of the Empire. The map is designed to show Italy at the time of the Renaissance, and during the great wars of the Reforma- tion between France and the Hapsburg power. The largest state of the peninsula was the kingdom of Naples, or the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, so called from the fact that Sicily was now once more united to Naples, both being under an Aragonese prince. ' The Papal States con- stitute the next largest block; but a considerable portion of this territory was occupied by petty despots who had risen to power in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The efforts of the Popes of this period were largely directed to the reduction of these principalities to papal rule. The Duchy of Milan ranked next in importance; its line of Visconti rulers had ended in 1450, and a new line (the Sforzas) was now in power. Among republics, Venice took chief rank; its terri- tories on the continent and in Dalmatia had recently been considerably increased. The Republic of Florence, the Republic of Genoa, and the Republic of Siena were also important. Florence, indeed, in all that pertains to art, literature, and philosophy, was far and away the most important city of Italy in the time of the Renaissance. The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and the Marquisate of Mantua were minor states, as were also the marquisates of Montferrat and Saluzzo. The Duchy of Savoy, however, was a state of much importance for the future, though in the events of this time it played a subordinate part. Its position on the crest of the Alps, controlling the chief passes leading from France to Italy, gave it an importance which its rulers successfully turned to account. 46 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS QUESTIONS Compare this map with Map 4 and point out the chief changes which have taken place in European geography since the time of the Crusades. What change has taken place in the dominions ruled by England? By France? How has the political geography of Spain changed? Of Italy? Of Germany? What changes had taken place in northeastern Europe? In the Balkan Peninsula? In Asia Minor? Point out the possessions of the Republic of Venice. Of Genoa. Of the House of Hapsburg. Of the House of Luxemburg. Of the House of Anjou. Point out on the first inset the chief lakes which are included in or touch upon the Swiss Confederation. Which of these are drained by the Rhine? WTiich by the Rhone? Point out and name the three original cantons of the Confederation. Do the same for those which were added between 1315 and 1513. Point out and name the chief allied and subject districts. Point out the sites of the chief battles in Swiss history. On the second inset trace the boundaries of each of the chief states of Italy, describing their location with reference to natural features (rivers, lakes, etc.), and naming some of the cities located in each. What small republic is shown completely surrounded by the Papal States? Compare the extent of territory ruled by Venice in 1360 with that in 1 494. What reason does the map show for the attack upon Venice by other states in 1508? Locate the battlefield of Marignano and state the importance of this battle. MAP 8— MEDIEVAL COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES The maps of this series have been designed in the main to illus- trate political and institutional history. It must not be forgotten, how- ever, that in every age industries and commerce are the indispensable foundations upon which civilized states rest, hence some attention must be given to these important aspects of European history. The present map is devoted entirely to this subject. It shows : ( 1 ) the chief mar- kets, fairs, and other centers of trade in medieval Europe; (2) the chief lines of commerce, by land and sea, linking these centers into a com- mon economic life; and (3) the localities in which flourished the linen, woolen, and silk industries. The data here supplied furnish the explanation of the rise to im- portance of many of the great cities of the European world. For example, note the cities whose importance is due to their location upon the lines of traffic between Italy and Germany. If Venice and Genoa owe much of their importance to the water routes to the east controlled by them, they are indebted equally to the outlets which they possessed to the markets of Germany and of France. From Venice one impor- tant route led up the Adige and through the Brenner Pass to Germany — enriching with its commerce, in the one direction, Ulm and Strass- burg; in another Nuremburg, Leipzig, Magdeburg, and Hamburg. Similarly, from Genoa led routes which touched successively Milan, Lyons, Paris, and the cities of the Netherlands, and Basel and the Rhine towns. Owing to inevitable changes in the lines of commerce, many cen- ters formerly important in a commercial way are no longer so. Thus, in England, Stourbridge, Winchester, and Boston, which were once seats of important fairs, are now of little consequence. In the north of Europe we have the widespread area of the Hanse- atic League, which at its height numbered more than seventy members, stretching from London on the west to Novgorod on the east, and from Bergen on the north to Leipzig and Cracow on the south. It is not too 47 48 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS much to say that in this vast area the Hanseatic League in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was a chief agency of commerce and civilization. The sea routes of Venice and Genoa possess special interest. Both cities carried on a flourishing trade with India and China from which came the silks and spices so much prized by Western Europe. Venice controlled the route by way of Alexandria and the Isthmus of Suez, while Genoa relied chiefly upon the route through Syrian ports. Both cities also used the route via Constantinople. The Ottoman Turks practically cut off Genoa's main line in the fourteenth century and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 cut off Genoa's remain- ing route. It was no accident, therefore, that the Genoese, among whom must be numbered Christopher Columbus, were more interested than the Venetians in opening up ocean routes to the Far East, to compen- sate for the loss of their overland traffic. On the other hand, the develop- ment of Atlantic routes to England and the Netherlands contributed to that improvement of the art of navigation which was no less indis- pensable to the discovery of the New World. In these two ways may be shown an important connection between medieval commerce and the geographical discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries which aided in ending the medieval period. Closely connected with commerce are manufactures; of these the chief, in the Middle Ages — so far as relates to distant trade — were the textiles. On this map are shown the chief areas engaged in the manufacture of linens, woolens, and silk. The areas engaged in the commercial manufacture of linens were widespread; the industry centered, however, chiefly in northern France and the southern Nether- lands. The raising of the silk worm and the manufacture of silk bad spread in the Middle Ages from Syria and Egypt to .Constantinople and Greece, and had become firmly established in certain regions of Sicily, Naples, Tuscany, and about Milan and Genoa. In France and in Spain there were also flourishing centers of this industry. More important, however, than either linens or silks for the commerce of the Middle Ages were woolens. The best wool was produced at this time in Eng- land, and there, in the old East Anglia, in Lincolnshire, and about Bristol, arose woolen manufactures of important extent. The most flourishing manufactures of wool, however, were to be found in the TEACHER'S MANUAL 49 Netherlands. It is not too much to say that the great prosperity of the Flemish towns, which made them the wonder of the later Middle Ages, was based primarily upon the woolen manufactures. The area of this manufacture is shown upon the map, together with the localities in France where also, though to a less extent, it flourished. It should also be noted that the prosperity of Florence, which played so important a part in Italy in the time of the Renaissance, was largely due to the wealth gained by its manufactures of wool and silk. In conclusion it may be said that commercial and industrial activity of the Middle Ages had these important results: (1) It increased wealth and promoted material well-being. (2) It broke down the extreme isolation which separated village from village, district . from district, and country from country. (3) It promoted city life, with its resulting aggregation of population and the stimulus of mind and spirit. (4) It aided the townsmen to win their independence from their feudal lords, and contributed to the development of democracy and the rise of the Third Estate. (5) It constituted one of the chief solvents of the Middle Ages, aiding in the break-up of the feudal system and of the dominance of scholastic theology, and contributing more perhaps than any other single factor to the rise of the freer modes of life and thought of modern times. QUESTIONS Point out on the map the chief areas of woolen manufactures and name the chief centers. Of cotton manufactures. Of the silk industry. What were the regions included within the sphere of the Hanseatic League? Point out and name the extreme points included within the area. What were the chief centers of the League? Its chief foreign offices? What were the chief markets and fairs of England? Of France? Of Spain? Of Germany? Of Russia? Of Italy? Trace and describe the chief land routes leading from Italy to Germany, indi- cating the cities which lay along each. Trace on the map the chief sea routes of Venice. Of Genoa. What goods would be likely to pass along each of these routes? What does the map show with refer- ence to the development of industry and commerce in Eastern Europe as compared with. Western Europe? MAP 9— EUROPE AT THE TIME OF CHARLES V ( 1 5 1 9) This map is the first of the series which depicts Modern Europe. Owing to the necessity of including the Russian lands in it and in later maps of Europe, it is no longer possible to print on the map the exten- sive insets which are a feature of the earlier ones. The chief features of the history of this period are summed up by a scholarly French writer as follows: "The first half of the sixteenth century saw the spread of the Renaissance and the beginnings of the Reformation; but at the very moment that this double revolution inaugurated a new era in central and western Europe, the political geography of the continent was menaced with a brusque return to the Middle Ages. On the one hand, a new Mohammedan invasion had defeated the Christian world, this time on the Danube; on the other, Charles V — king of Spain and Naples, master of the Netherlands, of Franche Comte, of the hereditary dominions of the Austrian house. Emperor-elect of the Holy Roman Empire — might be accused of aspir- ing to universal monarchy. The political history of Europe for a half century is summed up in the efforts made to arrest the progress of the Turks, and to restrain the power of the new Charlemagne." (Schrader, Atlas de Geographic Historique, Map No. 31.) From his maternal grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella, young Charles V had received united Spain, freed from the last remnant of Mohammedan rule by the conquest of Granada in 1 492 ; from them also he received the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Sicily and Naples. In right of his paternal grandmother, Mary of Burgundy, he received the greater part of the Burgundian lands — the Franche Comte, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands. From his paternal grandfather Maximilian, he inherited the Hapsburg lands in Germany, together with that political support which insured his election ai the early age of nineteen to the office of Emperor. The dominance in Europe which he thus secured was further strengthened by the vast territories in North, Central and 50 TEACHER'S MANUAL 51 South America — rich in mines of gold and silver and in possibilities of trade and colonization — which accrued to Spain as the result of the memorable discoveries of Columbus and his Spanish successors. It was a World Empire without counterpart in history. The use of a single color (buff) for all of the hereditary lands of Charles V, serves to mark clearly their extent and strategic importance. In addition it should be noted that Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, which in 1519 were still ruled by a king of the Angevin house, passed in large part to Charles' brother, Ferdinand, following the victory of the Ottoman Turks at Mohacs in 1526. Mr. Ramsey Muir (Atlas, p. xii) draws attention, however, to the following drawbacks to Charles' position? "(1) Charles' dominions were so scattered that the communications between them were in every case dependent upon his enemies; (2) while they threatened to surround France, they also lay exposed to the attacks of that consolidated power, with which he waged continual war; (3) in the East he was exposed to danger from the Turks, and had to face the formidable power of Solyman the Magnificent; (4) in Italy his position was such as to alarm the Papacy as much as the Empire of the Hohenstaufen had done; (5) in Germany he had to count upon the jealousy of all the smaller princes, and especially had to deal with the Reformation, a movement of which these princes made use for their own purposes. Thus, despite all his resources, patience and skill, he failed to consolidate his power in Germany and Italy, and left these countries even more deeply divided than before." On another map (Map 1 0) is shown the internal geography of Germany at the time of the Reformation. Here we need merely note the indication on this map of the chief German states aside from the Hapsburg lands — Saxony, Bavaria, Brandenburg. For all details relat- ing to the German Reformation it will be more convenient to turn to the special map already referred to. A fact of much importance to the German Reformation is indi- cated on this map, namely, the advance of the Turkish frontier almost to the borders of Germany, following the battle of Mohacs. In part it was the existence of this very real menace to the independent existence of Germany that accounts for the long delay of Charles V (to 1 546) in attempting forcibly to put down Protestantism. In part this is to be 52 El'ROPEAX HISTORY MAPS accounted for also by his preoccupation with affairs in Spain and with the protracted Italian wars precipitated by France for the control of Naples and the Duchy of Milan. The route of the Great Armada in 1588 is also shown upon this map. Although this falls in the reign of Charles' son and successor, Philip II, it constitutes a part of the Reformation struggles. France is here shown at last wholly freed from English rule except at Calais, which England continued to hold until 1558. Avignon, however, was a possession of the Papacy until the time of the French Revolution; while the nearby principality of Orange was under imperial suzerainty. The areas marked blue in France were the territories held in the latter part of the sixteenth century b\ Henry IV of Bourbon, the great Protestant champion in the Huguenot wars. Roussillon, which had passed to Aragon in 1493, was not finally recovered by France until 1 659. On the other hand, that part of Xavarre which lies south of the Pyrenees had been conquered by Aragon in 1513 and is here shown as a part of the Spanish dominions. In the Scandinavian lands the separation of Sweden from Den- mark and Norway, through the revolt of Gustavus Vasa (1523), is a feature of the time closely connected with the Reformation movement. In the same way the secularization of the lands of the Teutonic Knights in 1 525 was a result of the acceptance of Protestantism. Ruled first by a younger branch of the Hohenzollern House, we shall find this terri- tory later annexed to Brandenburg under the name of East Prussia. The remaining territories of the Crusading Knights of the Baltic passed to the countries indicated on the map — Esthonia to Sweden in 1561, and Livonia and Courland to Poland in the same year. Russia as yet plays little part in European affairs. It is cut off from the Baltic by Sweden, and from the Black Sea by Poland and by the Khanate of the Crimea, the latter a tributary territory to the Ottoman Turks. The three khanates here shown — Crimea, Kazan, and Astrakhan — are frag- ments of the Empire of the Golden Horde of the Tartars, which held Russia in subjection from 1241 to 1480. South of the Caucasus Moun- tains, and stretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian and southward to the Persian Gulf, are shown the lands of Shah Ishmail, the greatest o ( the Persian rulers. TEACHERS MANUAL 53 Another center of political interest in Europe in the sixteenth cen- tury was Italy, a more detailed map of which is shown on Map 7. This was the scene, since 1 494, of the struggles between France on the one side and Spain and Austria on the other, which for three cen- turies were to fill European history with wars and diplomatic intrigues. In conclusion it may be said that the outstanding features of this map are the existence of the great consolidated states in the west and east of Europe. These had assumed form and acquired strength at the close of the Middle Ages; and now, amid the ferment of thought and life caused by the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the discov- ery of the New World, they were launching into a series of wars for, religious dominance and national and dynastic aggrandizement. QUESTIONS Compare the political geography of Spain as shown on this map with that on Map 7. What additional Mediterranean lands have been gained since the date of that map? Point out the territories which belonged by inheritance to Charles V, and indicate from whom the in- heritance came. What additional right of rule was given him in 1519? What territories did he rule which are not shown on the map? What additional territories in Europe did the Hapsburgs rule after 1526? Compare the extent of the Hapsburg rule in Europe after 1 526 with that of Charlemagne (see Map 2). Which was the greater? Point out on the map the territories in Italy for which Charles V and Francis I of France were contending. Locate the battlefield of Pavia, and state the importance of the battle. What significant change does this map show in the Balkan Peninsula from the map for 1 360 (Map 7) ? Compare the extent of the Ottoman Empire after 1 526 with that of the other states shown on the map. What part does this menace play in the history of Europe in the sixteenth century? Compare the extent of Poland with that of other European states. Why is her part in the history of this time not commensurate with the extent of her territory? What effect does the Reformation have upon the territory of the Teu- tonic Knights? Upon that of the Knights of the Sword? Upon the Scandinavian lands? Trace the course of the Spanish Armada, stating the significance of each of the dates given on the route. MAP 1 0— GERMANY AT THE TIME OF THE REFORMATION (1547) Main Map. A comparison of this map with Map 3 will show how greatly in the course of five centuries the political geography of Germany had changed. In the tenth and eleventh centuries Germany consisted of some six or eight great stem-duchies, with a fringe of important border marches to the east. The present map shows an almost inextricable tangle of a few considerable states, set in a net work of hundreds of petty princi- palities. The names Srvabia and Franconia have disappeared from the map. Saxony has shifted to the southeast, and its old site is occupied in part by a new state, that of Brunswicfy. Lower Lorraine has been absorbed in the main into the Netherlands, while Upper Lorraine has shrunk considerably on its eastern side. Bavaria alone occupies the same position which it held in the tenth and eleventh centuries ; it still remained, as it remains today, one of the leading states of Germany. Branden- burg appears as an outgrowth of the old Saxon North March, while Austria appears where formerly the Bavarian East March had been. Among the states of the second rank shown on the map, we should notice the Palatinate of the Rhine, with its dependency the Upper Pala- tinate (the former Nordgau of Bavaria), and Hesse; the first and the last arose through the disintegration of the old Duchy of Franconia. In Swabia, Wurttemberg and Baden are the chief newcomers. The bright red spots on the map show the areas ruled by imperial cities — that is, by self-governing towns which owed allegiance to no lord below the Emperor. The purple areas are those of the ecclesiastical states — that is, of bishops and abbots who ruled their lands as sovereign princes. The lands marked light buff and dark buff on this map were ruled by the Hapshurgs. The light buff shows the lands of Charles V. In addition to the Netherlands, Luxemburg, and Franche Comte, he ruled 54 TEACHERS MANUAL 55 Spain, Naples and Sicily, Milan, and vast areas of the New World; moreover he held the headship of Germany as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The dark buff shows the areas ruled by Charles' younger brother, Ferdinand. Charles had assigned to him the hered tary lands of their grandfather Maximilian, and these Ferdinand had in- creased through the acquisition by marriage of Bohemia, Silesia, and portions of Hungary. The dominance of the House of Hapsburg in the period of the Reformation is a fact of first importance in the history of that time. (See description of Map 9.) Prussia, the region shown on former maps as under the rule of the Teutonic Knights, is indicated on this map with a border of the same color as that given Brandenburg. The reason is that in 1 525 this Order was dissolved, and its lands converted into a secular duchy under its Grand Master, who at this time was a Hohenzollern. Later this district passed by inheritance to the elder branch of the house of Hohen- zollern, which since 1415 had already ruled Brandenburg. The reduction of Germany to this jumbled chaos of principalities was the result of a number of disintegrating influences : ( 1 ) the cen- trifugal force of feudalism, which here had full swing; (2) the elective character of the monarchy, weakening all effective central power; (3) the long struggles between Church and State, in which (as a Papal legate said) Pope and Emperor alike became "mere names in a story, or heads in a picture;" and (4) the unwise policy which led German kings to sacrifice the substance of power in Germany in order to grasp at its shadow in Italy. There were compensations, however, in this situation. If Germany at the time of the Reformation had been a con- solidated monarchy, like England or France, it is more than likely that Protestantism would have been crushed out before it could take root and establish itself. As it was, the practically sovereign nature of the German states enabled the rulers of Electoral Saxony, Hesse, Branden- burg, etc., who favored the Reformation, to defy the Edict of Worms, and to give shelter to Lutheranism until it could grow to such extent that it was too strong to be uprooted. INSET. This inset shows on a larger scale the Saxon lands as they existed at the outbreak of the Reformation. By a division dating 56 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS from 1 483, these lands were divided between an Ernestine and an Albertine line, representing the descendants of two brothers. The Ernestine line was the elder and to it belonged the electoral dignity; it was this portion of Saxony which was ruled by the Elector Frederick, and it was here, at Wittenberg, that the Lutheran Reformation arose and flourished. Albertine or Ducal Saxony, on the other hand, was ruled by Luther's opponent, Duke George, in whose dominions the famous Leipzig disputation was held. After the death of Duke George, Ducal Saxony also became Protestant, but the jealousy of the Albertine for the Ernestine line con- tinued. As a result Maurice of Ducal Saxony led the attack in the Schmah\aldic War, in 1 547, against his Ernestine relative. Maurice's reward was the transfer to him of the electoral dignity, together with a considerable portion of the Ernestine territories. The situation thus created is shown on the main map. QUESTIONS Point out upon the map Electoral Saxony, Ducal Saxony, Ba- varia, Brandenburg, Hesse, Wiirttemberg, the Palatinate, Baden. Point out and name the Hapsburg territories directly ruled by Charles V (light buff). Those ruled by his brother Ferdinand (dark buff). Ap- proximately hew large a part of Germany was included in the ecclesiasti- cal states? Point out the location of these ecclesiastical centers: Mainz, Cologne, Treves, Worms, Spires, Magdeburg. Point out the follow- ing places and tell for what each is memorable: Eisleben, Eisenach, Erfurt, Wittenberg, Leipzig, Augsburg, Schmalkalden, Miihlhausen, Breitenfeld. Locate the three bishoprics Verdun, Metz, and Toul, and tell what change took place in their control in 1552. Compare Albertine and Ernestine Saxony on the inset and on the main map, and state the changes which took place with reference to these territories in 1547. Point out the chief places connected with the Thirty Years' War. MAP 1 1— TUDOR AND STUART ENGLAND With this sheet we again turn to the history of England. FlRST Map. This map shows the county organization of Eng- land and Wales as it was completed in the time of Henry VIII — a territorial organization which exists practically unchanged to the present time. Note that divides rather than rivers form most of the county boundaries. "The Thames is unique among the greater English rivers in being a boundary between counties almost from its source to its mouth. This exceptional frontier is a monument to the time when a fortified London denied the Thames road to the Anglo-Saxons, who else- where advanced up the streams and their tributaries, placing their boundaries rather on the water partings than along the waterways." (Mackinder, Britain and the British Seas, p. 202.) On this map are also shown the bishoprics and archbishoprics as they existed after the new creations by Henry VIII, together with the chief historical sites of the Tudor period. It should be noted that the chief battles and other places of historical interest since the accession of the House of Lancaster, in 1 399, are here indicated. FlRST INSET. The inset to this map shows the division between the ecclesiastical province of Canterbury and that of York, together with the limits of the several dioceses of England and Wales. It is not pos- sible to insert the names of these on the face of the map, but by finding the corresponding bishopric symbol on the main map, and noting the name attached, practically every diocese can be identified. The special feature of the map is the location of the chief monasteries existing before the dissolutions of Henry VIII. The total number of monasteries at this period was nearly nine hundred; hence, it was not found practicable to indicate on a map of such small scale so large a number of religious houses. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the map will be of some value as indicating the large number of such establishments and their wide distribution. 57 58 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS SECOND Map. This deals with the great Civil War between Crown and Parliament in the seventeenth century. The main map shows the districts held for King and Parliament respectively on May 1 , 1 643, or roughly at the beginning of the war. It will be noted that the eastern and southern parts of the island — in general the regions which lay to the southeast of a line drawn from Hull to Gloucester, and which were the richest and most populous parts of England — together with the chief ports and river mouths controlling commerce with the continent, were in the hands of Parliament. When to these advantages are added the control of the constitutional machinery of government, the taxing power, and the chief naval arsenals, the pre- ponderance of advantage on the side of Parliament is clearly seen. The chief Royalist and Parliamentary strongholds are indicated by special symbols. The black shaded line marks the limits of the East- ern Association in which Cromwell first organized his famous Ironsides. On this main map are indicated the sites and dates of the principal battles for the whole war. SECOND INSET. The inset to this map shows the distribution of territory between King and Parliament on November 23, 1644, fol- lowing the decisive Parliamentary victory at Marston Moor. The yel- low border given to Scotland in this inset indicates the alliance con- tracted by Parliament with the King's Scottish subjects in the Solemn League and Covenant (Sept. 25, 1643). The growing strength of Parliament is clearly indicated in this map, and its ultimate victory fore- shadowed. It should be noted, however, that within the Parliamentary territory were many isolated towns and castles which held out for the King, and whose reduction was to protract the conquest even after the overthrow of the King's army at Naseby (1645). QUESTIONS Point out and name the counties of England which He on the east- ern coast. On the southern coast. On the Bristol Channel. Those which border Wales. Those which touch the Irish Sea. Those which are wholly inland. How many counties in all are there in England? TEACHERS MANUAL 59 Which is the largest country? The smallest? What relationship seems to exist between the size of certain counties and the river basins that they occupy? Point out the two archbishoprics. Locate London, Ox- ford, Cambridge, Winchester, Bristol, Gloucester, Chester, Derby, Warwick, Plymouth, Hull, Dover. Point out the chief battle sites of the Wars of the Roses. Some places connected with the history of Henry VIII. Of Elizabeth. Point out Kenilworth Castle. What facts do you associate with it? Compare the second map on this sheet with the first map, and state which counties in the main held for Parliament on May 1 , 1 643, and which for the King. What geographical advantages were possessed by Parliament over the King? What changes in territory are shown in the inset for November 23, 1644? Point out on the map the chief battle sites and points of historical interest for the Civil War. MAP 12— EUROPE IN 1648 Main Map. This map shows the territorial situation created by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which closed the pericd of religious warfare ushered in by the Reformation, and brought peace to distracted Europe. These territorial settlements remained practically undisturbed almost to the French Revolution. The gains made by each of the chief countries are indicated on the map by a darker shade of coloring. Thus ( 1 ) France gained the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Ver- dun, together with a great part of Alsace. She thus began that process of advance on the northeast at the expense of the Empire, which for more than a hundred years was to keep Europe in turmoil. (2) Sweden, as a result of her intervention in the war under her hero King Gustavus Adolphus, gained Western Pomerania and the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden at the mouth of the Elbe. In addi- tion she had in this same period acquired Ingria from Russia and Es- thonia and Livonia from Poland. These possessions, with the posses- sion of Finland, gave her command of both shores of the Baltic, and raised her to the rank of one of the Great Powers of Europe. (3) Brandenburg acquired in the treaties of Westphalia Eastern Pomerania, together with the archbishopric of Magdeburg. She had also acquired in this period portions of the Cleves-Julich lands in the neighborhood of the Rhine, and had succeeded by inheritance to the duchy of East Prussia, the lands of the former Order of Teutonic Knights. There was thus begun that process of territorial expansion, eastward and westward, which ultimately gave to Brandenburg-Prussia the greater part of northern Germany, and made it the ruling power in the modern German Empire. (4) Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate (the former Nord- gau) together with the electoral vote which formerly had belonged to the Palatinate of the Rhine. 60 TEACHER'S MANUAL 61 (5) Saxony acquired the greater part of Lusatia, which formerly had been a part of the Austrian dominions. (6) The United Netherlands, which had revolted from Spain in 1562, and had formed a federal republic after 1576, had their in- dependence formerly recognized and are henceforth excluded from the Empire. The Spanish Netherlands, which remained Catholic and had returned to their Spanish allegiance, remained within the Empire. (7) The independence of the Swiss Confederation was at last wholly recognized. (For the growth of this Confederation see Map 7.) Attention should be called to the broken black line which marks the campaigns of Custavus Adolphus from his first invasion of Germany in 1 63 1 to his death in the battle of Lutzen in 1 632. The wide extent of the Hapsburg lands in Europe under its two branches continues to be a fact of first importance. Its power, however, was greater in seeming than in reality. Spain had already entered upon its decline, while Austria was still seriously threatened by the Turk and her territories were racially much divided. Thus, as events were to prove, the Hapsburg powers were no longer able to cope with France, whose ascendancy now begins. It is in Eastern Europe that future changes in the map were to be most marked. In 1 648 the Ottoman Empire and Poland were still at their maximum extent, while Sweden shut Russia out from all contact with the Baltic and with western Europe. Succeeding maps, especially No. 13, will show how this situation was altered in the course of. the next century and a half. The historian Freeman, in his Historical Geography of Europe (pp. 209-10) sums up the geographical changes of the seventeenth cen- tury in these words: "The seventeenth century is marked in German history by the results of the Thirty Years' War and of other changes. Its most important geographical result was to carry on the process which had begun with the Austrian house, the growth of powers holding lands both within and without the Empire. Thus, besides the union of the Hungarian kingdom with the Austrian archduchy, the King of Sweden now held lands as a prince of the Empire, and the same result was brought about in another way by the union of the Electorate of Brandenburg with the Duchy of Prussia. This, and other accessions of territory, now 62 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS made Brandenburg as distinctly the first power of northern Germany as Austria was of southern Germany, and in the eighteenth century the rivalry of these two powers becomes the chief center, not only of Ger- man but of European politics. The union of the Electorate of Hanover under the same sovereign with the Kingdom of Great Britain further increased the number of princes ruling both within Germany and with- out." INSET. This inset shows the territorial acquisitions made by Louis XIV during the course of his long reign (1643-1715). These in- clude, in addition to the gains made in the treaties of Westphalia, the acquisition of a portion of the Spanish Netherlands, the Franche Comte, and the County of Roussillon, all won from Span. In addition there was an extension of the territorial sway of France in Lorraine at the expense of the Empire, which is difficult to represent because of its scattered and piecemeal character. The net result was a great stride toward the attainment of what was regarded as France's natural boundary on the northeast, namely the Rhine. The conflict for this region may be looked upon as a continuation of a contest between France and Germany which dates from the Partition of Verdun (843), and which has its part in the Great War of 1914. QUESTIONS Follow with the pointer on the map and describe the course of Gustavus Adolphus from his landing in Germany till his death. Point out the territorial gains, in the Peace of Westphalia, of Sweden. Of Brandenburg. Of Bavaria. Of Saxony. Of France. What changes did that peace make in the boundaries of the Empire? Point out the different groups of territory now ruled by Brandenburg. The lands of the Austrian Hapsburgs. Of the Spanish Hapsburgs. Why is Scot- land on this map given the same color as England? Compare the area of Poland with that of the Holy Roman Empire. Compare the area of the Ottoman Empire with that of the Holy Roman Empire. What island in the Eastern Mediterranean was still under Christian rule? MAP 1 3— EUROPE IN 1 740 (With the Partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795) Main Map. This map embodies the results of the complicated wars and diplomatic struggles of the first half of the eighteenth century. That century began with the War of the Spanish Succession ( 1 70 1 - 1713), and saw an almost continuous series of contests, the chief of which were the War of the Austrian Succession (1 740-48), the Seven Years' War (1 756-63), and the wars growing out of the French Rev- olution. The situation primarily depicted on this map is that established by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), together with the supplementary negotiations and wars down to the opening in 1 740 of the great con- test betv/een Prussia and Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession. By the Treaty of Utrecht, and supplementary conventions, the following changes were made in Europe's political divisions: (1) A French (Bourbon) prince was seated on the throne of Spain with sovereignty also over the Spanish colonies. (2) The remainder of the dominions in Europe of the Spanish Hapsburgs — the Spanish Netherlands, the Duchy of Milan, and the Kingdom of the Txoo Sicilies — were given to Austria. (3) France was permitted to retain Alsace, including the city of Strassburg. (4) The Duke of Savoy received a portion of the Duchy of Milan together with the island of Sardinia; thenceforth, he bears the title of King of Sardinia. (5) The title King of Prussia, granted by the Emperor to the Elector of Brandenburg in 1 701, is recognized. (6) An unsuccessful claimant to the Polish throne (Stanislaus Lesczinski) received the Duchy of Lorraine by way of compensation (1 738) ; upon his death in 1 766 this passed to France. (7) The former Duke of Lorraine, Francis, received as indemni- fication the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, whose throne became vacant in 63 64 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS 1 737. He also married Maria Theresa, the heiress of the Austrian Hapsburg dominions, thus linking the fortunes of Tuscany with that house. (8) England retained Gibraltar and Minorca in Europe, and received Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay territory, and certain other pos- sessions in the New World, together with important trading concessions in the Spanish colonies. The net result of these changes may be summed up as follows: ( 1 ) France acquired beyond all question the position of the leading nation in Europe. (2) England was launched on that career of colonial and commercial ascendancy which made her the most prosperous coun- try in the world. (3) The dismemberment of The Empire continued, but more and more Prussia and Austria emerge as rivals for leadership in its affairs. By the Peace of Nystadt ( 1 72 1 ) , which concluded the North- ern War between Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Poland, etc., Russia ac- quired Esthonia and Livonia and so secured that outlet to the Baltic Sea which was an object of Peter the Great's policy. The chief result of the War of the Austrian Succession ( 1 740- 48) and the Seven Years' War (1756-63) was the acquisition by Frederick the Great of Prussia of the Hapsburg province of Silesia, which is here shown with a border of the Prussian color. A more im- portant result, outside of Europe, was the conquest by England of Canada, and her triumph over the French in India, which established the British Empire (see Map 14). This map shows also the three successive partitions of Poland, in 1 772, 1 793, and 1 795. The weakness and anarchy of that great kingdom made it an easy prey to its powerful and unscrupulous neigh- bors. Frederick the Great had long planned to secure the lands about Danzig which separated the territory of the former Teutonic Knights from Brandenburg; and it was not difficult to persuade Catherine II of Russia, and the Emperor Joseph II of the Hapsburg House, to agree to his infamous proposals. The first partition in 1 772 robbed Poland of about a third of its territory and half of its inhabitants; the regions taken are those marked on the map with that date. In the second par- tition, that of 1 793, Austria was ignored. The third partition, in TEACHER'S MANUAL 65 1 795, was shared in by the three powers alike, and consummated the "vast national crime" of Poland's extinction. The territories received by each of the three countries — Prussia, Russia, and Austria — are marked with the letters P, R, and A respectively; in addition, a band of color indicates the total extent of the territories acquired by each. Although Poland was thus extinguished, the Poles have never become reconciled to the rule of their new masters, and frequent re- volts and passive resistance have been the result. In the Great War of 1914 both sides promised the Poles a reconstitution of their kingdom, without however committing themselves as to the degree of independ- ence which was to be enjoyed. Aside from the extinction of Poland, foreshadowed on this map, the chief changes in the boundaries of Eastern Europe which are here depicted concern Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The latter re- mained at the wide extent shown on Map 1 2 until about 1 683. After that date followed a decline, with the result that by 1718 Hungary had expanded southward to the rivers Save and Danube and the Tran- sylvanian Alps, which are here shown as the boundary between the two countries. By way of compensation, however, the Ottoman Em- pire had expanded in the region east of the Black Sea and north of the Caucasus — a poor compensation for the loss of the fertile Hungarian Plain. Thenceforth, the Turkish power ceased to be a menace to Europe. The steps in its decline and in the creation of new Christian states in the Balkan Peninsula are the theme of Map 21. INSET. This is designed to show Paris as it was during the French Revolution. The area colored pink is that of the city of Paris. The chief places connected with the Revolution — such as the Bastille, the Hotel de Ville, the Temple, the Palais Royal, the Jacobin Club, and the Tuileries — are all plainly shown. QUESTIONS Point out and name the territories which were under rulers of the House of Bourbon. Under the House of Hapsburg- Lorraine. What increase is there in the territory of Brandenburg-Prussia since 1648? 66 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS What further increases, indicated on the map, were to take place be- fore the eighteenth century came to an end? What increases for Rus- sia? For Austria? What territories had Sweden lost since 1648? What changes in the possessions of Venice? Of Savoy? MAP 14— DISCOVERIES AND COLONIZATION TO 1763 Main Map. This map is designed to show the earlier stages in that process of the Europeanization of the world which is one of the marked features of modern times. The routes of discovery include the following : ( 1 ) The jour- ney of Marco Polo overland to China in 1271 and his return in 1295 — a journey which had so much to do with making known to Europe these distant lands, and with arousing that interest in them which con- tributed to the discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama. (2) For Columbus his first and most important voyage alone is shown. As there were no watches in those days it was difficult to determine longitude at sea. Columbus therefore sailed into what he thought was the latitude of Cipango (Japan) and thence proceeded westward. In this course he was helped greatly by the trade winds, of whose existence he had not previously known. On his return voyage he first sought the latitude of Palos, and so was helped back by the westerly winds. The bend in the outward voyage indicates where Columbus' compass began to point east of north instead of west of north. (3) Both voyages of John Cabot are here indicated — the one revealing the coasts of Labra- dor and Newfoundland, the other establishing the English claim to the coasts of New England and the Middle States. (4) The broken black line indicates the voyage of Vasco da Gama around the Cape of Good Hope to India — in many respects the most difficult and notable voyage of the fifteenth century. (5) Magellan s route (1519-22) marks the first circumnavigation of the globe, which also laid the basis for Spain's acquisition of the Philippines. (6) Drake s voyage (1577-80) is mem- orable not merely as a phase of England's struggle with Spain, and as the first English circumnavigation of the globe, but also as laying a basis for the English claim to the Pacific Northwest. (7) Finally Coops first voyage (1768-71) not merely revealed for the first time many of the islands of the Pacific, but is the basis of the English acquisi- tion of New Zealand and Australia. 67 68 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS • The new regions of the world revealed by these and other voyages were soon occupied by the leading European powers. The result was the establishment of a series of colonial empires. Civilization and Christianity — together with European trade and . the wars and rivalries of European states — spread over the globe. In these conflicts Great Britain, by virtue of her sea power and the colonizing genius of her people, proved most successful. Her chief antagonist was France, and from the standpoint of these two powers the chief interest of the pro- longed wars from 1689 to 1815 is the struggle for sea power and co- lonial dominion. This map shows the situation as it existed at the time of the Treaty of Paris in 1 763, which closed the Seven Years' War. ( 1 ) To England's thirteen colonies in North America there was now added Canada from France, and Florida from Spain (the latter, however, returned to Spain in 1783). France was thus cast entirely out of North America and the English colonies were free to expand westward to the Mississippi. At the same time the English influence in India was made paramount as against that of France, and the basis laid for her great Empire there. (2) Spain, which had played the chief part in the discovery of the New World, profited most in the extent of the territory occupied. By 1 763 the greater part of South America and of Central America, together with all of Mexico and that portion of the United States which lies west of the Mississippi were in her hands; she also possessed the greater part of the West Indies, and the Philippines in the East. (3) Portugal had secured Brazil, together with important dis- tricts on the east and west coasts of Africa. (4) The Dutch (United Netherlands) had secured what was, from the standpoint of trade, perhaps the richest portion of the new lands, namely, the islands of the East Indies from which came the spices so highly prized by Europe. In addition they had established them- selves at the Cape of Good Hope, and so controlled the chief ocean route to India. They had also established on the northern coast of South America their colony of Guiana, which they still retain, and also Ceylon at the southern extremity of India. (5) France retained of her former considerable empire only the western portion of the island of Haiti, together with certain other TEACHER'S MANUAL 69 possessions in the West Indies; her colony of French Guiana on the northern coast of South America; and some small trading stations on the west coast of Africa. With inconceivable folly she had wasted her resources on the continent of Europe in the wars between Austria and Prussia, while England, with greater foresight, laid the founda- tion for an empire "on which the sun never sets." INSETS. The first inset shows on a larger scale the West Indies as they existed after the Peace of Paris in 1 763. The Spanish pos- sessions included Cuba, the eastern part of Haiti (Hispaniola), and Porto Rico. Great Britain possessed the Bahamas, Jamaica, Barbados, and a number of minor islands, together with certain rights on the main- land in British Honduras. France held the western half of Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and a number of smaller islands. The second inset shows India under Clive and Hastings (1755- 1785). The yellow portions of the map show the remnants of the great Mogul Empire which had been founded in the first part of the sixteenth century, but had fallen to pieces after 1 707. The chief na- tive power to arise after that date, and the most dangerous foe of the British in India, was the Marattas, the area of whose confederacy is indicated on the map. The chief posts of the British East India Com- pany, which was England's representative in these regions until 1 859, were Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta, the latter the scene of the Black Hole atrocity of 1 756. Pondicherry had been one of the chief posts of the French, while Goa remained a Portugese possession. The areas colored pink were those in which the British East India Company exer- cised the chief rights of government in this period ; in addition its governors frequently interfered in the affairs of the native states to the financial profit of the Company and the governors. There was much oppres- sion and corruption in the operations of the East India Company, but on the whole its influence tended to bring order out of chaos and ulti- mately made for the peace and prosperity of the land. 70 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS QUESTIONS Point out on the map the routes of Marco Polo, and tell what you can of his journey. Was the first voyage of Columbus or that of Vasco da Gama the more difficult? Why? What coasts were revealed by the voyages of John Cabot? What lands were revealed by Drake's voyage? By Captain Cook's voyages? Trace the course of Magel- lan's expedition. Point out on the map the regions in which the French fought the English in the Seven Years' War. ' Indicate on the inset map of India the chief historical events in the struggle in that land. Point out the changes in territory made by the Peace of Paris, 1763. Indicate the colonial possessions of each of the European powers after that date. MAP 15— EUROPE AT THE TIME OF NAPOLEON, 1810 Main Map. No series of maps can show all the kaleidoscopic changes in the political geography of Europe effected in the meteoric career of Napoleon. The stage selected for representation here is that of the Napoleonic Empire at its height. The French Revolution which began in 1 789 had resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy, in 1 792, and the establishment of a republic. Napoleon's victorious campaign in Italy, in 1 796-97, together with his expedition to Egypt in 1 798, had given him the prestige and power which enabled him, in 1 799, to overthrow the Directory and establish the Consulate, under which he became practically the master of France. In 1804 he then established the French Empire, placing the crown upon his own head. The victories of Austerlitz (1805) and Jena ( 1 806) reduced Austria and Prussia to submission, and almost all the rest of Europe came into dependent alliance with the Emperor. The map for 1810 shows (1) the territory directly ruled by Napoleon. This is colored dark green and includes, in addition to France itself, the following: Rome, Tuscany, and Piedmont-Savoy in Italy; the Austrian and the Dutch Netherlands, with a strip of Ger- man territory which included the important commercial cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and hubec\, and extended through to the Baltic Sea; and finally the Illyrian Provinces of Austria on the Adriatic. The map shows also (2) the states in close dependence upon Napoleon: Spain, under his brother Joseph; the Kingdom of Westphalia under his brother Jerome; (his brother Louis, who had been King of Holland, 1806-10, had forfeited that throne) ; the Kingdom of Naples under his brother-in- law Murat; the Kingdom of Italy, under his stepson Eugene as viceroy; Switzerland, increased to include nineteen cantons; the Confederation of the Rhine, under Napoleon himself as president; and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, formed of portions of the former Kingdom of Poland taken from Austria and Prussia. Finally the map shows (3) 71 72 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS the territories allied with Napoleon: Denmark an d Norway, the King- dom of Prussia, and the Austrian Empire. The Russian Empire, which by the treaty of Tilsit (1807) en- tered into alliance with Napoleon, is here shown as outside the range of Napoleon's influence, owing to causes of friction growing out of Na- poleon's attempt to enforce the so-called Continental System. The great expansion of Russia since the date of the last map is to be noted. This was the work primarily of Peter the Great and Catherine II. Sweden, although under the rule of Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's marshals, as Crown Prince, was practically outside the range of his influence. Portugal was a battlefield between Napoleon's armies and those of England under Wellington (the Peninsular War, 1808-14). England alone was at this time in actual hostilities with the French Emperor, but her control of the seas kept Sicily and Sardinia out of French control and enabled her to maintain the conflict with France in Portugal. Napoleon's reorganization of Germany, culminating in his crea- tion of the Confederation of the Rhine, was one of his most important works. Since the Thirty Years' War, Germany had been a horde of separate states, large and small, lay and ecclesiastical. These included (1) the two great states, Austria and Prussia; (2) about thirty mid- dling states, including Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Saxony, and Baden; (3) about two hundred and fifty petty states, many of them ruled by a bishop or abbot, and frequently comprising less than twelve square miles in area; and (4) about fifteen hundred "knights of the empire," whose territories averaged less than three square miles each. Napoleon began his reorganization of Germany in the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), which advanced the boundary of France to the Rhine and wiped out a hundred and twelve German states which lay west of the Rhine. The larger German states, Prussia, Bavaria, etc., which lost territories here were compensated for their losses by cessions of lands in other parts of Germany; at the same time they were encouraged to absorb the territories of the knights, towns, and petty principalities within their borders. The ecclesiastical states practically disappear, and the number of states which survived was reduced to about fifty. The Con- TEACHER'S MANUAL 73 federation of the Rhine fell with Napoleon in 1814. The other changes survived Napoleon's downfall; they immensely simplified the political geography of Germany, and encouraged the rise of German national feeling. INSET. Napoleon's disastrous expedition to Moscow in 1812 (the route of which is shown on the main map) may be taken as the beginning of his downfall. There followed the uprising of Germany in 1813, the successful completion of the Peninsular War in 1814, the invasion of France and Napoleon's exile to the little island of Elba, his return in 1815, and his final overthrow at Waterloo. The plan of the battle of Waterloo, which is shown in this inset, includes the whole region from Mons and Namur to Brussels, over which the Anglo-Dutch troops under Wellington and the Prussians under Blucher were scattered. Napoleon planned to take them by surprise, before they could concentrate their forces, and in this he succeeded. On June 1 5 he suddenly crossed the Belgian frontier and attacked Charleroi, which he took from the Prussians. His plan was to drive his army as a wedge between Blucher and Wellington, and then to deal with each of his enemies separately. On June 1 6 he defeated Blucher at Ligny, while Ney attacked the British at Quatre Bras. Napoleon ordered one of his generals, Grouchy, to follow Blucher, who was ex- pected to retreat upon Namur; he himself joined Ney on the 1 7th and followed the British who had retreated on the road leading to Brussels and were concentrating about the crossroads of Mt. St. Jean, in front of the village of Waterloo, from which the great battle takes its name. There the battle opened about midday on June 1 8. Wellington relied on aid promised by Blucher, who instead of falling back on Namur had turned northward along a series of farm roads and was now at Wavre; this, however, owing to the slackness of Grouchy, was unknown to Napoleon. Instead of maneuvering, Napoleon decided upon a frontal attack on the English position about La Haye Sainte. Three times the desperate charges of Napoleon's cavalry were repelled by the "thin red line" of Wellington's troops, supported by his artillery. Bliicher's Prussians, meanwhile, were coming into view, though their advance was delayed by the muddiness of the roads, due to heavy rains 74 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS on the preceding day. About 4:30 they attacked the French army at Plancenoit. Thenceforth Napoleon had to face an attack upon his left flank, while still engaged with Wellington in front. About 7 o'clock the French Emperor made his last desperate effort by hurling against Wellington the forces of his Guard. It was in vain. An advance of the British and Prussians then speedily turned the French defeat into a rout. Napoleon had staked his all upon the outcome of this battle, and his defeat was followed by his second abdication and exile to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic. QUESTIONS Point out on the map the territory ruled directly by Napoleon; the states in close dependence on him; the territories allied with Na- poleon; the states entirely outside the range of his influence. What territories directly ruled by Napoleon were not a part of France in 1 740 ? What new European states appear on this map which were wanting on the earlier map? Point out some of the places connected with Napoleon's campaign of 1 796-97. With his Egyptian expedition. With his campaign of 1805. With that of 1806. Point out some places prominent in the Peninsular War. Describe Napoleon's Mos- cow campaign, tracing the route on the map. Describe the battle of Waterloo, showing the locations on the inset map. MAP 16— EUROPE AFTER 1815 Main Map. This map shows Europe as reconstructed by the Congress of Vienna. ( 1 ) France was given practically the boundaries she had in 1 790 ; she was thus allowed to keep Avignon, taken from the Papacy, and certain other minor conquests made early in the Revolution. The Bourbon royal line was restored under Louis XVIII. (2) The old dynasties were restored also in Spain, Tuscany, Naples, and other smaller states in Italy, together with the temporal power of the Pope in the Papal States. (3) Piedmont and Savoy were restored to the King of Sardinia, who was also given the old republic of Genoa. (4) Lombard}) and Venetia, together with the Illyrian Provinces, were an- nexed to the Austrian Empire. (5) Prussia was greatly enlarged at the expense partly of the Kingdom of Saxony, but chiefly through the secularization of ecclesiastical states in the Rhine region. (6) Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden retained the territories and increased dignities conferred upon their rulers by Napoleon. (7) A new German Con- federation was established, consisting of thirty-eight states, to take the place of the old Holy Roman Empire dissolved in 1 806 ; its practical weakness, however, was such as to make it a mockery. (8) Switzer- land, enlarged to twenty-two cantons by the addition of Geneva, Neucha- tel, and another small district, was continued as a federal republic. (9) Belgium and Holland were united in the unstable Kingdom of the Netherlands, a union which lasted until the secession of Belgium in 1830- 31. (10) With similar disregard to national feeling, Sweden and Norway were united in a single kingdom. (11) Russia was allowed to keep Finland, annexed in the course of the wars with Sweden, and the greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw; Bessarabia, taken from Turkey in 1812, also remained in her hands. (12) Cracow be- came a free state, under the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prus- sia — a condition which lasted until its absorption by Austria in 1 846. (13) The Ionian Islands, which had been taken from France in the 75 76 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS course of the wars, were placed under British suzerainty, where they remained until their cession to the later Kingdom of Greece in 1863- 64. (14) Hanover, enlarged by the addition of East Friesland and raised to the rank of a kingdom, was restored to- the King of England, its former ruler, and remained connected with that crown until the acces- sion of Queen Victoria in 1837. (15) The only lands won directly for English rule in Europe, in addition to the Ionian Islands, were the islands of Malta and Helgoland; outside of Europe she profited by the acquisition of Cape of Good Hope and various scattered island posses- sions taken from the Dutch and French. The great reduction in number of the German states, carried out under Napoleon's influence (see notes on Map 15), was preserved in the reorganization by the Congress of Vienna. This was an indispensa- ble step to the creation of the modern unified Germany, which was to come later in the nineteenth century. In the main, however, the deci- sions of the Congress of Vienna were opposed to the principles of nation- ality and popular sovereignty. It sought to bolster up absolutism and the old regime, and the influence of its arrangements was to retard the movements toward democracy and national unity to which the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century was inevitably tending. The main- tenance of the treaties of Vienna, therefore, is for the next thirty years the object of the absolutist powers, while their overthrow, in part at least, is the end to which is directed the efforts of the Liberal parties of Europe. The territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna, there- fore, constitute the starting point of nineteenth century history, and have important connections even with the movements leading to the Great War of 1914. INSET. This illustrates the siege of Sebastopol, the chief event in the Crimean War of 1854-56 between Russia on the one side and Turkey, Great Britain, France, and Sardinia, on the other. The plan shows the site of Sebastopol and its fortifications, the British and French lines of siege, the locations of Balaclava and Inkerman, which played their part in the conflict, and the scene of the "charge of the light bri- gade" and of the heavy brigade immortalized in Tennyson's verse. TEACHERS MANUAL 77 QUESTIONS Compare the area of France on this map with that for 1 740. Com- pare Prussia as shown on this map with that for 181 0. Compare Sax- ony on this map with that for 1 740. Do the same for Russia. Point out on the map the changes made by the Congress of Vienna in the Scandinavian lands. In the Netherlands. Compare Italy on this map with that for 1 740. What region included in the Holy Roman Em- pire in 1 740 is excluded from the German Confederation on this map? MAP 17— THE BRITISH ISLES The four small maps on this sheet show certain historical phases of Scotland and Ireland respectively, prior to the nineteenth century. ( 1 ) The first map of Scotland shows the location of the prin- cipal Highland clans and Lowland families, together with the line which roughly separates the Highlands from the Lowlands. Many Americans of Scottish descent will be interested, no doubt, in seeing the Old Coun- try locations of their ancestors. (2) The second map of Scotland is intended to illustrate chiefly the Jacobite uprising of 1 745. It shows the voyage of the Young Pre- tender, Charles Stuart, from France to the Highlands, and his line of march through Scotland into England, and back again from Derby to the final overthrow of his cause at Culloden in 1 746. It is to be re- gretted that it is impossible to show upon the map the romantic wan- derings of this young prince after the collapse of his cause and before his final escape to the continent. On this map are indicated the sites of the chief battles, not merely of this period, but those of earlier date. The physical features of Scotland can best be seen on the large map. (3) The first map of Ireland presents the location of the chief clans and families of that island. The sloping names in capitals and "lower case" are those of Irish (Celtic) clans; those entirely in capital letters of the same style represent Norman families settled in Ireland. This map also shows the area included within the "Pale" about 1 51 5 — that is, the area directly ruled by the English governors in Ireland. The names in heavy upright capitals are those of the four chief provinces into which the island was divided. (4) The second map, representing Ireland in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is designed especially to show the area of English confiscations of land and colonization thereon. The buff areas show the localities confiscated and "planted" in the time of the Tudors, espe- cially under Elizabeth and Mary. The pink represents the great planta- 78 TEACHER'S MANUAL 79 tion of Ulster and subordinate regions by James I of the House of Stuart. The Pale as it existed in 1 64 1 , at the time of the great Irish rebellion, is colored purple. The lands allotted by Cromwell, at a later date, to English soldiers and adventurers included the whole of Ulster, Leinster, and Munster, together with certain portions of Con- naught. Large Map. This is the only separate map of the British Isles in the series. It is useful, therefore, as showing the general relations of England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and the outlying islands; it should not be forgotten however that the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney) which lie off the coast of France, have also been under English rule ever since the Norman Conquest ( 1 066) . The main purpose of this map is to show the redistribution of Par- liamentary representation effected by the great Parliamentary Reform Act of 1832. (The outlines of the counties are shown on this map; for the names of the English counties see Map 11.) Prior to 1 832 every county in England (except Yorkshire, which since 1 82 1 had four seats) and Ireland sent two members to the British House of Commons. Wales sent one from each county, and Scotland one (certain Scottish counties alternated in the right to return members). The Reform Act of 1 832 gave to each county in England and Wales a representation roughly proportionate to its population, the number of representatives so given being shown by the figures on the face of the map. Ireland continued to send two representatives from each county, and Scotland one from each county, except that certain small counties were represented jointly. More important than the changes in the representation of the coun- ties were the changes in the representation of the boroughs. Prior to the Reform Act of 1832 every English city and borough returned two members, with the following exceptions: Monmouth, Abingdon, Ban- bury, Higham Ferrers, and Bewdley, returned one member each; and London returned four members. The two great evils in the representa- tion of the boroughs were : ( 1 ) the large number of insignificant places in the south and west of England which sent representatives; and (2) the lack of representation of the great manufacturing centers which had 80 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS arisen in the northern half of England as a result of the Industrial Revo- lution. The former were what were known as "rotten" or "pocket" boroughs. One of the purposes of the Reform Act was to redress these inequalities in representation. The specific changes made are indicated on the map by the use of separate symbols to show: (1) The bor- oughs which returned two members before 1 832 and kept their represen- tation unchanged after that date. (2) Those which returned one mem- ber before and after 1832. (3) The "rotten boroughs" which had returned two members before 1 832 and were now totally disfranchised. The great number of these in Cornwall and Devonshire should be noted. (4) Those which formerly had returned two members but were now reduced to one. (The foregoing symbols, which with the exception of the first two indicate total or partial disfranchisement, are in solid black ; together with the next group, these symbols indicate the boroughs which were represented before 1832.) (5) Boroughs whose representation was increased from one member to two. (6) Those hitherto without separate representation which were now given two seats. (7) Those hitherto unrepresented which were given one seat each. (The last three groups are shown by lightface symbols.) The "City" of London — that is, the financial and business sec- tion of the metropolis, corresponding to the medieval London shown on Map 3 — continued to return its four members. In addition, West- minster continued to return two members; and five new constituencies, each returning two members, were erected in the metropolis. Attention should be drawn to the fact, as shown upon the map, that Cambridge University and Oxford University continued to return two members to Parliament, in addition to the two returned respectively by the boroughs of Cambridge and Oxford. In Scotland a complicated arrangement was continued by which a number of small boroughs were grouped together, each group return- ing one member to the British Parliament. Boroughs so grouped are joined by lines on the map. The same is true of boroughs similarly linked in Wales. The total number of members from England (including county, bor- ough, and university) was 471, from Wales 29, from Scotland 53, from Ireland 1 05 ; making a total membership of 658. TEACHER'S MANUAL 81 The changes made in the franchise, or right of voting for members, which were even more important from the standpoint of democracy and progress than the changes in representation, can not be represented on any map. Subsequent reform acts, especially those of 1867, 1884, and 1885, still further altered both the distribution of parliamentary representation and the right of franchise. QUESTIONS What family names represented in your school can be traced back to Scottish clans shown on this map? What ones to Irish clans? What ones to Norman families in Ireland? Tell the story of the invasion of the Young Pretender in 1 745, tracing his route on the map. Point out the four territorial divisions of Ireland. Tell what the Pale was and compare its extent in 1515 with that in 1 641 . What do the "pl an " tations" shown on this map tell us as to one of the chief grievances of Ireland? What important battles have taken place in Scotland? What ones in Ireland? Point out each of these on the map. Compare the area and location of each of the four chief divisions of the British Isles. Where do most of the English boroughs lie which lost one member or were totally disfranchised in 1832? What is the explanation? Where are the ones which were enfranchised with one or two mem- bers? How do you account for this? MAP 18— INDUSTRIAL ENGLAND The first of the two maps here presented shows the distribution of population in England about 1 700, while the second represents the population densities of 1916. A comparison of the two maps shows graphically the effect upon population of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England about 1 750, and which has gone on in ever increasing measure to the present time. The densely populated regions in 1 700 coincided with the areas of rich soil — areas underlain with limestone or chalk. Britain would soon have reached her limit of population if she had relied upon agriculture alone. But the Industrial Revolution, by substituting machine labor for hand labor, enormously increased her manufactures of wool, cotton, iron, pottery, etc., and gave her surplus manufactured goods to exchange for food products and raw materials of other countries. Thus it be- came possible for her to support an almost limitless population, so long as she could find markets for her manufactured goods and her control of the sea enabled her to import the needed supplies. In the large map for 1 9 1 6 we note this great increase in popula- tion. The strictly agricultural areas have changed but little, while the areas of dense population coincide very closely with the coal areas as shown by the inset to the first map. The invention of the steam engine to drive the new machines for spinning and weaving made it possible to utilize the vast stores of energy of past ages in the form of coal, which constitute so large a part of the natural wealth of Great Britain. It proved to be easier on the whole to move to the coal areas the supplies of raw materials for manufacturing than to move the bulky coal. This in part accounts for the concentration of the industrial populations about these coal areas. As in our modern cities the produce commission houses, tend to gather together in certain streets, and other industries group themselves in other localities, so in Great Britain the woolen and other industries 82 TEACHERS MANUAL 83 tended to gather about certain cities, or districts, or coal areas. Thus the coal area on the eastern flank of the Pennine chain may roughly be considered a woolen area, with Leeds as its chief center. The west Pennine slope has a moister climate favorable to the working of the longer staple of cotton, so this is utilized for the manufacture of cotton cloth, centering about Manchester. The coal at the south end of the Pennine is utilized chiefly in iron manufactures, the center of this industry being Birmingham. Even before the Industrial Revolution, while iron was still smelted with charcoal, there was a considerable iron manufac- ture here, owing to the presence of the large forest of Nottingham (shown on Map 5). The coal of the Newcastle district is used chiefly to supply the city of London, as it is conveniently located for water transportation. Newcastle is noted as a center of machine manufacture and its coal is used also to supply the merchant marine and for export. The coal of the South Wales district, which is the best in the British Isles, is used largely for the navy, for the merchant marine, and for export. There is also considerable iron manufacture in this region. In 1 700 industry was not nearly so localized as is shown by the later map. Thus the map for 1 700 shows the word "woolens" ap- pearing in about a dozen places. This is owing to the fact that, be- fore the Industrial Revolution, all industry was on what has been called the "domestic system" ; that is, there was no power-driven machinery and no concentration of workers in factories. Instead, the spinning, weaving, and like industries were carried on in cottages by workers who, in the main, owned their own tools, worked up material which they themselves had purchased, and who supported themselves in part at least from the cultivation of small tracts of land connected with their cottages. Problems of capital, labor, and unemployment, as well as those which arise from the modern congestion of labor in industrial centers, were thus alike absent. The industries which prevailed were largely of the textile variety, and were scattered here and there about England; about Norwich, however, was an important region of woolen manu- facture which has given to us the name "worsted" from the little town of Worstead where it centered. The inset map for 1916 shows how greatly the centers of manufacture have shifted from these early domes- tic sites. The separate colors and symbols used on this inset show not 84 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS merely the present day centers of woolen, cotton, and silk manufacture, but also the chief sites of the machinery trades and shipbuilding. Another feature of interest in these maps is the development of routes of communication. In 1 700 the roads of England were in a wretched condition, and at certain times of the year travel by carriage or heavy cartage was practically impossible. Such roads as still existed were very largely the remains of the old Roman roads; the map shows by heavier lines the portions of the roads in use which were of Roman foundation. (A comparison of this map with Map 5A showing the Roman reads in the Saxon period will be instructive.) Improvements of importance were made in the second half of the nineteenth century through the institution of turnpike roads, and the development of better methods of road building by MacAdam (from whose name has come the term "macadamized") and Telford. The great development in means of communicaticn came only after the second quarter of the nine- teenth century through the introduction of steam railroads. The map for 1916 shows clearly how the chief railroad systems of Great Britain follow the lines of the old highways, which in turn were a continua- tion of the Roman system of roads. The importance of this industrial development of England should be emphasized. It was this which gave England its surplus of products seeking markets, which in turn stimulated shipping and contributed to the development of that great colonial empire "on which the sun never sets." To protect shipping and colonies, as well as to defend its island kingdom, Great Britain was obliged to become a great naval power, the greatest the world has ever seen. Finally, it was the wealth derived from its manufactures and commerce which enabled Great Britain in the wars with Revolutionary and Napoleonic France to become the pay- master of successive coalitions, and so to free Europe from the tyranny of Napoleonic dictation. Similarly, it is Great Britain's wealth, de- rived from industry and commerce, and the strength of her navy, which enable her to play her part in the Great War of 1914. TEACHER'S MANUAL 85 QUESTIONS Point out on the map for 1 700 the areas having more than 1 28 inhabitants to the square mile. Do most of these lie north or south of a line drawn from the Wash to the mouth of the Severn? Compare the distribution of population on the map for 1916. What industry explains the density of population about Newcastle, as shown on the map for 1700? About Leeds? Bury and Rochdale? Wigan? Bir- mingham? Norwich? Leicester? What explanation can you give for the density of population about London? In the valley of the Thames? About Bath? About Southampton and Portsmouth? Point out the connection between the coal areas and the centers of densest population as shown on the map for 1916. Compare the rail- way routes as shown on this map with the roads as shown on the map for 1 700. Point out the chief centers of the woolen industry in 1916; cotton; machinery; shipbuilding. Do you see any connection between the shift in population and the demand for parliamentary reform referred to in Map 17? MAP 19— MODERN ITALY The first of the two maps here presented shows the unification of Italy from 1815 to 1870; the second portrays the distribution of popula- tion densities as they existed in 1916, with their industrial implications. FlRST Map. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, restored in the main the old state system, with the former dynasties, and gave Italy the boundaries indicated upon the map. The leading states were : ( 1 ) the Kingdom of Sardinia, including Piedmont, Genoa, Nice, and Savoy ; (2) Lombard}? and Venetia, which were provinces of the Austrian Em- pire; (3) the Duchies of Parma and Modena; (4) the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, under a Hapsburg prince; (5) the Papal States, including the Romagna and the regions about Ancona and Rome; and (6) the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, under a Bourbon king. Their brief experience of unity and enlightened rule under Napoleon had whetted the appetite of Italians for national union and constitutional govern- ment. The attempted revolutions of 1 82 1 -22, of 1 830, and of 1 848-49, however, were put down by French and Austrian intervention. Sardinia-Piedmont alone preserved the constitution which it had gained in the course of these struggles, and the patriotic part played by its sov- ereigns made it the natural center about which unification should take place. The steps in that unification are indicated by the coloring of the map. (1) Through successful war with Austria, in 1859 — a war in which Napoleon III of France lent indispensable support — Sardinia annexed Lombard}). The price of the aid furnished by Napoleon III was the cession to France of Nice and Savoy, the regions barred with green on the map. (2) Revolutions meanwhile had broken out in the regions marked purple on the map — Parma, Modena, Romagna, and Tuscany — and, against the will of Napoleon III, Sardinia accepted the sovereignty of these regions proffered by the inhabitants in May, 86 TEACHERS MANUAL 87 1860. (3) The regions colored pink are those annexed to Sardinia in November, 1 860. The northern section, like Romagna, was formerly a part of the Papal States and had been freed from Papal rule by the forces of King Victor Emmanuel. The Kingdom of the Trvo Sicilies, annexed at the same time, was won for Sardinia through the brilliant campaign of Garibaldi's filibustering expedition of "redshirts," and the support subsequently given by the Sardinian government. (4) Venetia was won through alliance with Prussia at the time of the latter's Seven Weeks' War with Austria, in 1 866 ; this acquisition is colored buff. (5) Finally, upon the withdrawal of the French troops from Rome, in 1870, at the time of the Franco-German War, the last remnant of the Papal States, colored a reddish green, was acquired. (6) There still remained outside of the new Kingdom of Italy thus formed, the regions barred with red upon the map and styled by Italians Italia Irre- denta, or unredeemed Italy. The participation of Italy in the War of 1914 was largely to acquire these districts. The little republic of San Marino also still maintains its independence and is technically outside the Kingdom of Italy; but this creates no difficulties. To the five existing Great Powers of Europe — Britain, France, Germany, Austria, and Russia — there was thus added a sixth, the King- dom of Italy. Its creation was one of the outstanding events of the nineteenth century. The statesman whose genius brought about this uni- fication was Cavour, the prime minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. . He did not live, however, to see the completion of this work, for he died in 1861. Second Map. The population map of Italy in 1916 shows how largely the distribution of population in this country is affected by geo- graphical conditions. The rich agricultural plain of the Po Valley, the coastal land along the Adriatic, Tuscany, the Campania, Apulia, and certain reg'ons in Sicily, owe their density of population to the fer- tility of the soil and the favorable climatic conditions which render pos- sible the cultivation of the vine, the olive, the orange and lemon, and the silkworm. The chief centers of manufacture, especially of textiles and art products, are about Milan, Turin, Florence, and Naples. The late development of the Industrial Revolution in Italy meant comparative 88 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS poverty for that kingdom, This in turn necessitated high taxes to sup- port the necessary armaments and public improvements, including educa- tion; and the high taxes in turn contribute to industrial unrest, and to- gether with the overcrowded condition of the peninsula have led to the Italian emigration to the United States. QUESTIONS Name and bound the independent states of Italy as they existed in 1815. What territories in Italy were ruled by Austria? Point out the railroads which existed in 1859. How would these, assist the King of Sardinia in making war on Austria? Point out the territory ruled by Victor Emmanuel prior to 1859. What territory did he gain in 1859? Locate the battles of Magenta and Solferino. What territories did he gain in May, 1860? How were these acquired? What territories did he cede to France? What territories were gained by Victor Emmanuel in November, 1860? How were these acquired? What territories were acquired in 1866? In 1870? What territories claimed by Italy were still "unredeemed" from Austrian rule? Where were the greatest population densities in Italy in 1916? What is the explanation of the concentration of population in these re- gions? Compare the railroad system of 1916 with that of 1 859. What are some of the Alpine passes through which these railroads find outlets? Which of the Italian railroads follow the lines of ancient Roman roads? What explanation can you give for this? MAP 20— MODERN GERMANY MAIN Map. The development of a united Germany through the founding of the modern German Empire, in 1871, is an even more striking feature of nineteenth century history than the unification of Italy. The German Confederation which was established by the Con- gress of Vienna (1815) was so feeble as to be almost a laughing stock. Three features of the German situation, however, contained promise of better things. ( 1 ) The old Holy Roman Empire, which for genera- tions, as Voltaire had wittily said, was "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire," had disappeared from the map in 1 806, with the abdi- cation of the last Emperor, Francis II, who thenceforth reigned as Em- peror of Austria. (2) Through the policy of Napoleon and the greed of German princes, the chaos of petty German states, lay and ecclesiasti- cal, had been reduced in number to thirty-eight. This end was attained through the extinction of the ecclesiastical states and the absorption by the larger states of their petty neighbors (see notes to Map 15). The problem of German unity, which seemed so insuperable in earlier days, was thus greatly simplified. (3) Prussia, in spite of her crushing de- feat by Napoleon at Jena and her dismemberment in the treaty of Tilsit (1807), emerged from the Congress of Vienna with her territory con- siderably augmented, and was prepared to battle with Austria for Ger- man ascendancy. The areas colored light purple on the map indicate the extent of Prussia in 1815. The abortive attempt in 1 848-9 to achieve German unity under the crown, of Prussia failed through the weakness of the Prussian king and Austria's truculent opposition. A customs union (Zollverein) , how- ever, under Prussian headship united practically all of Germany out- side Austria in ties of economic interest, which insensibly paved the way for political union; and Bismarck's stronghanded measures prepared in 89 90 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS Prussia the military strength which should enable her to cope with Aus- tria. In the Seven Weeks' War of 1 866, Austria was crushingly defeated. Although no territory was taken from Austria, the German states which had sided with her in the war (Hanover, Hesse-Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort) were annexed to Prussia, together with Schlesrvig and Holstein, which Austria and Prussia had jointly wrested from Denmark in 1 864. These lands, colored pink on the map, rounded out Prussia's dominions and enabled her to establish in 1 866 the North German Confederation whose boundaries are shown by the broken red line on the map. The final step in the unification of Germany, with Austria left out, came in 1871, through the Franco-German war, which was so unscrupulously provoked by Bismarck's policy of "blood and iron." On January 18, 1871, in the French royal palace, at Versailles, there was then proclaimed the new German Empire under the King of Prussia as hereditary German Emperor. The Peace of Frankfort, which ended the war with France, annexed to the new Empire the territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The area of the new Empire is indicated on the map by surface coloring, and by the heavy red line (partly broken and partly solid). It included twenty-five sovereign states as follows: Kingdoms — Prus- sia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurttemberg. Grand duchies — Baden, Hesse, Mecfylenburg-Schiverin, Meckelburg-Sirelitz, Saxe-Weimar, and Oldenburg. Duchies — Brunswick, Saxe-M e'mingen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Cotha, and Anhalt. Principalities — Schrvarzburg-Son- dershausen, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Waldeck, Reuss (Elder Line), Reuss (Younger Line), Schaumburg-Lippe, and Lippe. Free towns — Lubeck, Bremen, and Hamburg. Imperial land — Alsace-Lorraine. Eleven of the above states are not named on the map, owing to their small size. The territorial extent of the Empire remained unchanged down to the War of 1914. Prussia exercised an overwhelming pre- ponderance in the government of the Empire by her possession of 1 7 out of the 61 votes in the upper house (Bundesrath) and 236 out of the 397 in the lower house (Reichstag) . The enormous increase in political and military power of Germany under the Empire is one of the striking features of the second half of the nineteenth century, and one which led directly to the European War of 1914. TEACHER'S MANUAL 91 Other Features of the Map. The map shows Belgium and Holland united in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, a situation which continued until 1831. The blue portion of Switzerland is the district of Neuchatel, which was held by Prussia as a member of the Swiss Confed- eration from 1707 to 1857. The small area inclosed by red lines on the upper Rhine and bordering Switzerland on the east is the little Prin- cipality of Liechtenstein. This was apparently forgotten at the Congress of Vienna ; it was not included in the German Confederation, nor has it been incorporated with any other state, so it must be looked upon as absolutely independent. In accordance with this position it issued its separate declaration of neutrality in the War of 1914. INSET. Equally notable with increase in political and military power was Germany's rapid increase in population, in industries and commerce, and in wealth, which made that military and political power possible. In part, this economic development was founded upon the enormous indem- nity of one billion dollars which Germany extorted from defeated France. In part, also, it was based upon the rich mines of iron and coal which underlay the annexed territory of Alsace-Lorraine, and certain regions in Rhenish Prussia. The natural industry and capacity of the German people, together with wise measures of the German government, were also factors in this unparalleled development. The inset to this map shows the distribution of population in Ger- many and Central Europe at the end of the first decade of the twentieth -century. It is not possible to show upon this map by separate symbols the localization of the different industries. In general, however, it may be said that the chief seats of the iron manufacture are in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria, and Saxony. Cotton goods are largely pro- duced in Baden, Bavaria, Alsace-Lorraine, and Wurttemberg; wh : le woolens are manufactured in Saxony and the Rhine province, and silks in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace, and Baden. Glass and porcelain are among the productions of Bavaria, while chemicals are largely produced in the Prussian province of Saxony. This map also shows the great concentration of population in Belgium, due to its successful prosecution of manufactures of iron, wool- ens, cottons, and laces, and also to its rich mines of coal and its quarries 92 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS of marble, granite, and slate. The economic wealth of Belgium and northern France was one of the motives for the occupation of these regions by Germany in the Great War of 1914. QUESTIONS Compare the boundaries of the German Empire, as shown on this map, with those of the North German Confederation of 1 866. What states included in the former were excluded from the latter? Compare the boundaries of the German Confederation of 1815 (see Map 16) with that of the Empire as here shown. What is the chief difference you note? Point out and name the chief states of the modern German Empire. How does the area of Prussia compare with that of the rest of Germany? Point out and name an important city in each of the leading German states, telling, if you can, why it is important. Point out the territory taken by Prussia from Denmark in 1 864. Do the same for the annexations she made in 1 866. What territory was taken by Germany from France in 1871 ? What island ceded to Germany by Great Britain in 1890 was an important naval station in the War of 1914? Point out the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. What part did it play in the War of 1914? Point out the centers of greatest population density in Central Europe in 1914, and tell what you can of the industrial reasons for this development. What is the explanation of the dense population in the Rhine Valley north of Cologne? In Belgium? South of Leipzig? MAP 21— THE BALKAN STATES The two maps on this sheet show, respectively, the Balkan States from 1683 to 1877, and the Balkan States from 1878 to 1914. FlRST Map. The heavy red line shows the Turkish Empire in Europe as it was in 1 683, when the Ottoman power was at its height. The Turkish territories then stretched from beyond Budapest on the Dan- ube, the Carpathians, and the head waters of the Bug River, to the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Ionian Sea. Except for Dalmatia, which was subject to the Venetian Republic, and Montenegro, which was semi- independent, the whole of this territory was under the rule of the Turkish sultan. The territories which were freed from Turkish rule before 1878 are here indicated, and the date of liberation of each district is given upon the map. The districts colored yellow were acquired by Russia; those colored dark buff, by Austria (Dalmatia was acquired not from Turkey, but from Venice)*; while Serbia, Greece, and Roumania, became inde- pendent or semi-independent states at the dates indicated. The Ionian Islands belonged to Venice to 1797; from 1797 to 1809, they were under French rule; then Great Britain ruled them from 1809 to 1864, when she voluntarily transferred them to the Kingdom of Greece. The broken red line on this map shows the area which Russia, by the Treaty of San Stefano, attempted to secure in 1878 for Bulgaria. The interven- tion, however, of Great Britain and Austria and the support given them by Prussia, led to the revision of this treaty in the Congress of Berlin (1878), with the result that Bulgaria was given the much smaller area shown on the second map. SECOND Map. The starting point of this map is the boundaries created by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, following the successful war waged by Russia against Turkey in behalf of the Christian populations of the Balkans. The boundaries of the Balkan states in that treaty, where they differ from existing boundaries, are shown by broken red lines. In general, the conditions created by the Treaty of Berlin remained 93 94 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS with little change until the Balkan wars of 1912-13. The additions of territory to the several states made between 1878 and 1914 are shown by darker shades of the color used for each country, while the new boundaries, as they existed at the close of this period, are shown by the lines of dashes and crosses printed in red. Thus ( 1 ) the boundary of Greece was pushed northward to include Macedonia, while at the same time Crete, Chios, Mitylene, and other islands in the Aegean, were annexed to it. (2) Serbia received a great extension to the south, nearly doubling its area, and recovering for this kingdom a large portion of the territory formerly ruled by its great king, Stephen Dushan, in the fourteenth century (see Map 7). (3) Bulgaria, which had annexed Eastern Roumelia in 1885, and had become an independent kingdom in 1 908, at the time of the Turkish Revolution, received an outlet to the Aegean, together with other additions which gave it almost as large an extent as that proposed by the Treaty of San Stefano. (4) On the other hand, Bulgaria was obliged to cede to Roumania the district from Silis- tria to the Black Sea, thus completing Roumania's acquisition of the Dobrudja, which had begun in 1878, when Russia took from her her share of Bessarabia. (5) Montenegro, which had been completely independent since 1878, was enlarged by a slice of territory to the east; the jealousy of Austria and Italy, however, prevented her securing Scutari. (6) Albania, with its disunited and barbarous mountain tribes, was set up as an independent principality under a German prince. This territory, so necessary to Serbia as a means of affording her an outlet to the sea, was withheld from her through the jealous interference of Austria and Italy. (7) Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had been rescued from Turkish misgovernment by Russia's arms in 1877, had been placed by the Congress of Berlin under Austrian occupation. Aus- tria seized the opportunity offered by the disorders in the Turkish Empire, and the preoccupation of the other Powers, to declare in 1 908 that she would no longer be bound by her promises, and, with German support, calmly annexed these districts to the Austrian crown. (8) By the treaties of 1913 the only land left to the Turkish Empire in Europe was the small district enclosed by a line which ran from the mouth of the Maritza river to near Adrianople, and thence eastward to the Black Sea. It is not too much to say that the rivalries of the Great Powers for TEACHERS MANUAL 95 territory and prestige in the Balkan Peninsula were one of the chief causes of the great European War which broke out in 1914. Russia, as the leading Slav state and the protector of the Greek Christians, had inter- fered single-handed in their defense in 1 828, to set Greece free, and again in 1877, to liberate the oppressed Christians of Bulgaria, Serbia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina. She naturally claimed, therefore, the role of pro- tector of the new Christian States. Austria, however, ever since her exclusion from reorganized Germany in 1 866, had looked to the Balkan Peninsula for compensation, and cherished plans for expansion to the Aegean Sea. In these plans she had the encouragement and the active support of the German Empire. Italy also had its interest in the Balkan Peninsula, which lay less than sixty miles across the Strait of Otranto from the heel of Italy. Great Britain and France cherished no terri- torial ambitions in these regions; but Great Britain feared a Russian ad- vance on Constantinople, which would give her an outlet to the eastern Mediterranean, and thus permit her to challenge the security of Britain's communications by means of the Suez Canal with her Indian pos- sessions. Here was a tangle of interests, real and imaginary, which was almost impossible of peaceable solution. There is nothing strange, therefore, in the fact that it was in the uneasy lands of the Balkans that the spark was applied to the magazine which resulted in the Great War of 1914. QUESTIONS Point out (on the first map) the extreme boundaries of Turkey in Europe in 1683. Point out the territory lost to Russia by 1877, stating the dates. Do the same for Austria. Indicate the independent and semi-independent states arising on Turkish territory before 1877, giving dates. Trace the boundary of remaining Turkish territory in 1877. On the second map show the boundaries of Bulgaria as actually established in 1878. Compare (on the first map) the boundaries as proposed by Russia in the Treaty of San Stefano. What gains did Russia make in 1878? Roumania? Serbia? What change in the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina in that year? What additions in territory did Greece receive subsequent to 1878? Point out the terri- torial changes made by the Balkan wars in 1913. Trace the boundaries of each Balkan state as it existed in 1914. MAP 22— THE WORLD IN 1914 MAIN Map. This shows the world as it existed on the eve of the Great World War. A comparison with Map 1 4 will show how greatly the process of Europeanizing the world had progressed since 1 763. ( 1 ) The thirteen British colonies, now the United States, have achieved their independence, expanded to the Pacific, and annexed Alaska and the Philippine Islands, together with certain other smaller possessions not here indicated, the district lying on each side of the Panama Canal being one of these. (2) The British Empire has grown through the expansion of Canada to the Pacific, the colonization of Australia and New Zea- land, the development of British rule in India and neighboring Asiatic lands, and the establishment of numerous and extensive colonies and dependencies in Africa ; the union of the chief of the latter by means of a railway stretching from Cape Town on the south to Cairo on the north was well under way. (3) The Dutch colonies remain much as they had been in 1 763, except that Cape Colony and Ceylon were lost to Great Britain during the Napoleonic wars. (4) Portugal still main- tained a precarious hold on her colonies in southern Africa, but had lost Brazil, which was now an independent republic. (5) The once vast colonial empire of Spain, however, had now almost totally disappeared through the successful revolt of her Central and South American colonies, the liberation of Cuba by the United States, and the annexation by the latter power of Porto Rico and the Philippines. (6) France had gained a new colonial Empire in Africa, in Madagascar, and in Indo-China. (7) Belgium had acquired the former Congo Free State, which her canny king, Leopold II, had set up as a personal possession in 1883, following the discovery of the Congo river by the Anglo-American explorer, Stanley. (8) Italy, too, had embarked upon a career of colonial expansion; first in Eritrea and Somaliland on the African side of the Gulf of Aden, and subsequently through the conquest from Turkey, in 1912-13, of Tripoli, bordering upon the Mediterranean. 96 TEACHER'S MANUAL 97 (9) Finally, Germany, seeking to find an outlet for her rapidly growing population and trade, had begun the acquisition of a colonial empire — in the Kamerun, German Southwest Africa, German East Africa, etc., and in various islands of the Pacific. It was the British occupation of Egypt in 1881, and the German seizure of Kamerun in 1884, which precipitated the scramble among European powers for African territory. Thenceforth, increasing tension entered into the relations of the European Powers. The American War with Spain in 1 898, the conquest of the Boer republics (the Transvaal and the Orange Free State) in 1899-1901, and the friction between Germany and France over Morocco (1905-1 1 ), added to the increasing rivalry and hostility between the Great Powers, and had their part in producing the War of 1914. Other features shown by the main map are the expansion of the Russian Empire in Asia, and the construction of the great Trans-Siberian railway (completed in 1902); the partial partition of Persia between Russia and Great Britain (1907); the formation of the Republic of China (1912); and the expansion of Japan, through the conquest of Formosa from China (1895) and the occupation of Korea (Chosen) as a result of her successful war with Russia in 1904-05. INSETS. The first inset shows India in 1858, at the time of the great Sepoy rebellion. A comparison of this map with the second inset on Map 14 is instructive. The increased area colored pink shows the extent to which territories had been brought under the direct rule of the East India Company by 1805. The regions colored huff are those added to the dominions of the Company between 1 805 and 1 858. The areas colored yellow represent dependent states. The causes of the Mutiny are to be found, first, in this rapid extension of British rule; sec- ond, in the progress being made by railways, telegraphic lines, and other European improvements; and third, in various needless affronts offered to the religious susceptibilities of Hindus and Mohammedans alike. The chief sites connected with the history of the revolt, including Meerut, Lucknow, Cawnpore, Delhi, and Lahore, are shown. Following the quelling of the Mutiny, the rule of India was at last transferred from the East India Company to the British government; and the lesson taught 98 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS the British led to such changes in policy that in the Great War of 1914 India remained loyal to its British rulers. The areas in India directly ruled by the British and those left to the rule of dependent states remain today much as is shown upon this map; outside of India proper, how- ever, as is evidenced by the main map, there has taken place a very considerable extension of British rule. The second inset illustrates the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. It shows the relative positions of Japan, Russia, China, and Korea, as they existed before the war, together with the ports occupied by the European Powers after they had forced Japan to relinquish Port Arthur in 1895. These include Kiaochow, seized by Germany in 1897; Port Arthur, seized by Russia in 1898; and Wei-hai-wei, taken in self defense by the British in 1 898. The chief causes of the war, aside from Japan's resentment at the interference of the European Powers, were Russia's continued occupation of Chinese Manchuria, and Russian and Japanese rivalry for the exploitation and control of Korea. The chief centers of the war were the river Yalu, which separates Korea from Manchuria; Port Arthur and Dalny; Mukden and Harbin; and the Sea of Japan, which was the scene of Admiral Togo's great victory over the Russian fleet. The territorial results of the war are shown upon the main map. QUESTIONS Point out and describe the colonial possessions of each of the European Powers as they existed in 1914, telling what you can of (1) the time and circumstances of their acquisition, (2) the character of their government, (3) their value to the mother country. Point out the "Bagdad Railway." How did it contribute to bring on the War of 1914? Point out other regions in which rivalry of the European Powers contributed to the war. MAP 23— EUROPE IN 1914 MAIN Map. This map shows Europe at the outbreak of the Great War, and also gathers up the territorial changes made since 1815. It should be compared with the map for that date (Map 16). The following changes should be noted: (1) Belgium and the Netherlands, which had been united under a single rule in 1815, had been separated since 1831. (2) Norway and Sweden, which also were united in 1815, separated in 1905 through the secession of Nor- way. (3) France, which was a monarchy in 1815, had become a republic in 1870. Its territory was increased on the southeast through the annexation of Savoy and Nice from Sardinia-Piedmont in 1 860 ; and decreased further north by the cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Ger- many in 1871. (4) Germany, which was united with a portion of the Austrian lands under the German Confederation in 1815, now consti- tutes a separate empire, smaller in extent on the south, but enlarged to the northeast and the north, and very much more powerful than was ever the case with the German Confederation. (5) The Austrian lands now constitute (since 1867) the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. These lands are decreased on the one side through the loss of Lombardy and Venetia, but are increased toward the southeast through the annexation of Bosnia (1908). (6) Italy, which was a mere "geographical expres- sion" in 1815, divided up among a half dozen separate states, now constitutes a single monarchy, which includes the whole of the peninsula from the Alps to the Strait of Messina, together with the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. The little republic of San Marino alone inter- rupts this complete political union. (7) Spain remains practically un- changed, so far as its European possessions are concerned, but it has gained a small strip of the African shore by way of some slight compensa- tion for the loss of its colonial empire. (8) Portugal is unchanged, except that it is a republic (since 1910) instead of a monarchy. (9) Russia shows almost the same area in Europe as in 1815; its only gain 99 100 EUROPEAN HISTORY MAPS is a small district lying north of the mouth of the Danube, which was acquired from Roumania in 1878, and certain annexations at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea, made from Turkey at the same time. ( 1 0) The Balkan Peninsula presents a very different aspect from that of 1815, since here we see the rise of the new Christian states — Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, Montenegro, and Albania (see Map 21). The Mediterranean coast of Africa likewise shows a great change from 1815. (1) Egypt, through revolt from Turkey, had become a self-governing Turkish province under its hereditary Khedive; the dis- orders of this government, however, forced Britain and France to inter- fere, and since 1882 it was under British occupation, without, how- ever, overthrowing the khedival government. (2) Algeria and Tunis were conquered from Turkey by France, the one in 1 834 and the other in 1881 ; French colonization made rapid progress, and these regions in 1914 were reckoned integral parts of the French Republic. (3) Tripoli was taken from Turkey by Italy in 1912-13; it still remained but half subdued in 1914. (4) Morocco maintained its separate line of rulers, but for more than a decade it had gradually been coming under the influence of France and of Spain, who finally reached a partition agreement in 1912. This recovery of the northern coast of Africa for Christian rule and European civilization, after more than a thousand years of Mohammedan rule and barbarism, was one of the achievements of the nineteenth century which should not be forgotten. Note the appearance upon this map of the Suez Canal (1869) and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal (1895; see also Map 20). 'The Kiel (Kaiser Wilhelm) Canal greatly increases the practical naval strength of Germany. . . . The cutting of the Isthmus of Suez has almost revolutionized one-half of ocean commerce, and has modified profoundly many political conditions which depend on geographical facts." (George, Relations of Geography and History, p. 15.) Compare the importance of the Panama Canal (1913), shown on Map 22. INSET. The inset to this map illustrates the Siege of Paris in 1870-71. The area of the city, with its walls, is here shown, together with the German lines established for its siege, which lasted from Sep- tember 19, 1870, to January 28, 1871. The downfall of Paris marks TEACHER'S MANUAL 101 the final overthrow of the French cause and the triumph of Germany in the war. The chief places in the environs of Paris are shown, to make more intelligible the accounts of the military operations. QUESTIONS Bound each of the European countries as it existed in 1914. Point out the changes which had taken place since 1815. What special guar- antees protected Belgium and Switzerland? What reason, growing out of Germany's location and boundaries, could be alleged for her militaristic policy ? Point out the three states which constituted the Triple Alliance. The three which made up the Triple Entente. What is the quickest way to go from London to Port Said? From Paris to St. Petersburg? From Hamburg to Constantinople? How far was the Bagdad Railway constructed in 1914? INDEX Abbassids, 20 Acre, fall of, 44 Adrianople, 94; battle of, 15 Africa, northern, Mohammedans in, 20; in 1914, 100 Africa, partition of, 97 Agincourt, battle of, 41 Alamannians, 19, 24 Alaska, 96 Alaric, 15 Albania, 32; principality, 94 Albigensian Crusade, 40 Alderney, island of, 79 Alexandria, 48 Alfred, king, 34-5 Algeria, conquered by France, 100 Almoravids, 30 Alsace-Lorraine, 21; gained by France, 60, 63 ; taken from France by Germany, 90; imperial land, 90; industries of, 91. Ancona, 86 Angora, battle of, 44 Angles, in Britain, 16, 20, 33. See also Saxons. Anhalt, Duchy of, 90 Anjou, County of, 39, 40 Anjou, French House of, 43, 51 Antioch, Principality of, 31 Acquitaine, Duchy of, 39, 41 Arabia, under Mohammed, 30 Aragon, House of, 43, 45 Aragon, Kingdom of, 30, 43-4 Aries, Kingdom of, 25 Armada, the Great, 52 Armenia, Mohammedan conquest of, 30 Astrakhan, Khanate of, 52 Asturias, Kingdom of, 20 Attila, 16, 19 Augustine, missionary, 34 Austerlitz, battle of, 71 Austria, March of, 25; in 16th cen- tury, 54 ; threatened by Turks, 61 ; war over succession, 63 ; chief power of southern Germany, 62, 64; gains in 18th century, 63; helps partition Poland, 64-5 ; loses parts of Poland, 71 ; made Austri- an Empire, 72, 89; absorbs Cra- cow, 75; driven out of Italy, 86-7, 99 ; Seven Weeks 7 War with Prus- sia, 87, 90; gains from Turkey, 94; Balkan policy of, 94-5 ; forms Dual Monarchy, 99 ; annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, 99 Austria-Hungary, Dual Monarchy of, 99 Austrian Succession, war of, 63 Avignon, 52; gained by France, 75 Baden, Grand Duchy of, 75, 90; in- dustries of, 91 Bagdad, 20; Caliphate of, 30; rail- way, 98 Bahamas, islands, 69 Balearic Islands, 50 Balkan States, 1683-1878, 93; after 1878, 93-5; wars of, 1912-13, 94; part in causing War of 1914, 94-5 ; in 1914, 100 Barbados, 69 Barcelona, County of, 31 Basel, 47 Bavaria, 43, 51; Stem Duchy, 24; in 16th century, 54; gains in 1648, 60; gains through Napoleon, 72; after 1815, 75; Kingdom, 90; in- dustries of, 91 Bavarian East March, 25 Belgium, united to Holland, 75; se- cedes, 75, 91, 99; industries of, 91-2; Congo Colony of, 96 Benevento, Duchy of, 21 Berlin, Congress of, 93 Bernadotte, Prince, 72 Bernicia, 33 Bessarabia, 94 Birmingham (Eng.) 83 Bismarck, Prussian minister, 89-90 Blois, County of, 40 Bllicher, Prussian commander, 73-4 103 104 INDEX Boer republics, 97 Bohemia, 25; acquired by Haps- burgs, 51, 55 Bombay, British in, 69 Bonaparte, Jerome, 71 Bonaparte, Joseph, 71 Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 71 Bonaparte, Napoleon (see Napoleon I) Bosnia, 43; annexed by Austria, 94 Bourbon, County of, 40 Bourbon, House of, 52, 63, 75, 86 Brandenburg, March of, 25, 43, 51; in 16th century, 54; acquired by Hohenzollerns, 55; gains in 1648, 60; chief power of northern Ger- many, 62. See also Prussia. Brazil, 68, 96 Bremen, 60, 71, 90 Brenner Pass, 47 Bretigny, Peace of, 41, 44 Britain, 16. See also Great Britain British Empire, founded, 64; growth of, 96 British Isles, 78-81 Brunswick, 54, 90 Bryce, James, quoted, 25, 43 Bulgarians, first Kingdom of, 31; second Kingdom of, 44; in 1878, 93; independent, 94; enlarged, 94; cessions to Eoumania, 94 Bundesrath, German, 90 Burgundian lands, under Charles V, 50 Burgundians, 16, 17, 19 Burgundy, various meanings of, 25; Kingdom of, 22, 25-6, 41; ab- sorbed by France, 43; French Duchy of, 26, 40, 41; Free Coun- ty of (Franche Comte), 50, 54, 62 Cabot, John, voyages of, 67 Cairo, Caliphate of, 30 Calcutta, British in, 69; Black Hole of, 69 Calmar, Union of, 44 Cambridge University, Parliamentary representation of, 80 Campo Formio, Treaty of, 72 Canada, gained by Great Britain, 64 Canterbury, 34; Province of, 57 Canute, King, 35 Cape of Good Hope, 67, 68; gained by Great Britain, 76, 96 Carinthia, Duchy of, 25 Carniola, 25 Castile, County of, 30; Kingdom, 44 Castles, erected by William the Con- queror, 37 Catharine II, of Bussia, 64, 72 Cavour, unifies Italy, 87 Celts, in Britain, 34, 35 Central Europe, population densi- ties of, 91 Ceylon, held by Dutch, 68 ; gained by British, 96 Champagne, County of, 40 Channel Islands, 79 Charlemagne, 19, 20, 22, 25 ; crowned Emperor, 20; partition of his Em- pire, 20-21 Charles Martel, 20 Charles the Bald, Emperor, 21 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, 41 Charles I, of England, 58 Charles IV, Emperor, 25, 43 Charles V, Emperor, 50-2 Charles VII, of France, 41 China, visited by Marco Polo, 67; commerce with in Middle Ages, 48; war with Japan, 97; Repub- lic, 97 Chios, island of, 94 Christianity, spread of, 17, 23, 25, 68; Catholic, 34; Roman intro- duced to England, 34 Cinque Ports, 37 Cities, medieval, 47-49; imperial in 16th century, 54 Civil War, English, 58 Cleves-Julich lands, gains of Brand- enburg in, 60 Coal areas, in Great Britain, 82-3 ; of Alsace-Lorraine and Ehenish Prus- sia, 91 Columbus, voyages of, 48, 51, 67 Commerce, medieval, 47-9; develop- ment of Atlantic routes, 48 Confederation of the Rhine, 71, 73 Congo Free State, 96 Connaught, 79 Conrad II, Emperor, 26 Constantinople, position of, 15; fall of, 44, 48 Cook, Captain James, voyages of, 67 INDEX 105 Cordova, Caliphate of, 20 Corsica, 44 Cotton industry, in Great Britain, 83; in Germany, 91 Courland, 52 Cracow, 47; made free state (till 1846), 75 Croatia, 31 Crete, 32, 94 Crimea, Khanate of, 52 Crimean "War, 76 Cromwell, Oliver, 58, 79 Crusades, 30-2; Albigensian, 40 Cuba, held by Spain, 69; liberated, 96 Culloden, battle of, 78 Dalmatia, acquired by Venice, 45 ; in 1863, 93 Danelaw, 35 Danes, in England, 34-5 Dauphine, 41 Deira, 33 Denmark, 44; in union with Nor- way, 71; loses Schleswig-Holstein, 90 Dobrudja, 94 Domain, French royal, 40 Domestic system of manufactures, 83 Drake, Sir Francis, 67 Ducal Saxony, 56 East Anglia, Kingdom of, 33 East Goths, 16, 17, 19 Eastern Association, 58 Eastern Eoman Empire, in 395 A. D., 15; small effect of Teutonic inva- sions, 17; Mohammedan conquests in, 19; rule over Venice, 21; after First Crusade, 32, 44 Eastern Eoumelia, 94 East India Company (British), 69, 97 East Prussia, origin, 52 Ecclesiastical states, 54, 72 Edward the Confessor, 35, 36 Edward I, of England, 39 Edward III, of England, 41 Edessa, County of, 31 Eleanor of Acquitaine, 39 Egypt, Mohammedan conquest of, 30; British occupation of, 97, 100 Elba, island of, 73 Electoral Saxony, 56 England, Eoman roads in, 33; under the Saxons, 33-5; Norman con- quest of, 30, 35-37; in the Middle Ages, 39-40 ; medieval fairs in, 47 ; under Tudors and Stuarts, 57-8; industries in 1700, 82-4; in 1916, 82-4 Epirus, 32 Eritrea, gained by Italy, 96 Essex, Kingdom of, 33 Europe, in time of Barbarian inva- sions, 15-16; about 476, 16-7; in 526, 17; in 565, 19; in 568, 19; in time of Charlemagne, 19-21; at First Crusade, 30-1; in 1360, 43- 44; in 1519, 50-3; in 1648, 60-2; in 1740, 63-5; in 1810, 71-3; after 1815, 75-6; in 1914, 99-100 Europeanization of world, 67, 96-7 Factory system, 83 Fairs, medieval, 47 Ferdinand I, Emperor, 51, 55 Ferdinand of Aragon, 50 Ferrara, Duchy of, 45 Finland, under Sweden, 60; annexed to Eussia, 75 First Crusade, results of, 31 Flanders, County of, 40; manufac- tures of, 49 Florence, Eepublic of, 45, 49 Florida, held by Great Britain, 68 Formosa, gained by Japan, 97 Fourth Crusade, results of, 32 France, in 1097, 30; English pos- sessions in, 40, 41; in 16tn cen- tury, 52 ; gains in 1648, 60 ; ascen- dancy begun, 61, 64; gains Al- sace and Lorraine, 63; conflict with Great Britain for colonial dominion, 68; cast out of North America, 68; colonies in 1763, 68, 69; in 1815, 75; aids unification of Italy, 86-7; colonies of, 96; Eepublic of, 99; Savoy and Nice gained, 99; Alsace-Lorraine lost, 99; gains Algeria and Tunis, 100 Franche Comte, under Charles V, 50, 54; gained by France, 62 Francis II, last Holy Eoman Em- peror, 89 Franco-German War, 87, 90 Franconia, Stem Duchy, 23, 54 Frankfort, annexed by Prussia, 90 106 INDEX Frankfort, Peace of, 90 Franks, 16, 17, 19, 20-21, 23 Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor, 27 Frederick II, Emperor, 27 Frederick II, the Great, King of Prussia, 61 Freeman, E. A., quoted, 17, 61 French Kevolution, of 1789, 65, 71 French Kevolution, wars of, 63 Friesland, 24 Gallipoli, 44 Gama, Vasco da, voyage of, 67 Genoa, growth of, 44, 45; commerce in Middle Ages, 47-8; gained by King of Sardinia, 75, 86 Geoffrey of Anjou, 39 Geography and history, 4 Geographical discoveries, of 15-16 centuries, 48 George, H. B., quoted, 4, 24, 100 George, Duke of Saxony, 56 Geneva, annexed to Swiss Confedera- tion, 75 German East Africa, 97 German Southwest Africa, 97 Germany, Stem Duchies in, 22-4; eastward expansion of, 25; union with Italy in' the Middle Ages, 26; under Charles V, 51, 54-56; disin- tegrating influences in, 55; effect of Eeformation, 55; reorganized by Napoleon, 72-3; uprising in 1813, 73; Confederation of 1815, 75, 76, 89; Kevolution of 1848-9, 89 ; Prussian Zollverein, 89 ; Aus- tria expelled from, 90 ; war with France, 90; Empire formed, 90, 99 ; states of, 90 ; Prussia controls, 90; industries and population of, 91; Balkan policy of, 95; colonies of, 96 Gibraltar, gained by Great Britain, 64 Godwine, Earl, 35 Golden Bull, 43 Golden Horde of Tartars, 52 Goa, Portuguese in, 69 Granada, Kingdom of, 44; conquest of, 50 Great Britain, connection with Han- over, 62; gains in 1713, 64; gains Canada and India, 64, 68; colon- ies in 1763, 68, 69; in 1810, 72; gains in 1815, 76; industries, 82-4; colonial empire of, 84; and Ionian Islands, 93; occupies Egypt, 97; conquers Transvaal and Orange Free State, 97; rule in India, 97-8 Greece, gains independence, 93, 95; enlarged, 94; Gregory VII, Pope, 27 Guadeloupe, 69 Guernsey, island of, 79 Guiana, Dutch, 68 Guiana, French, 69 Gustavus Adolphus, campaigns of, 61 Guthrum, Danish king, 34 Haiti, 68, 69 Hamburg, 47, 71, 90 Hanover, Electorate of, connection with Great Britain, 62; made Kingdom, 76; given East Fries- land, 76; separated from Great Britain, 76; annexed by Prussia, 90 Hapsburg, House, 24, 25, 43, 55; lands under Charles V, 50; lands in 16th century, 54; losses in 1648, 61; two branches, in 1648, 61; ex- tinction of Spanish branch, 63; growth of Austrian, 64 Helgoland, gained by Great Brit- ain, 76; surrendered to Germany, 92 Henry I, the Fowler, 23 Henry II, of England, 39-40 Henry IV, Emperor, 27 Henry IV, of France, 52 Henry V, of England, 41 Herzegovina, annexed by Austria, 94 Hesse, rise of, 54; Grand Duchy of, 90 Hesse-Nassau, annexed by Prussia, 90 Hanseatic League, 47-8 Harold, of England, 36 Harold Hardrada, 36 Hispaniola (see Haiti) Hohenstaufen House, 24; in South- ern Italy, 43 Hohenzollern House, 24, 43, 52, 55 Holland, 24 ; Kingdom of, 71 ; united with Belgium, 75; separated from Belgium, 91; colonies of, 96 Holstein, annexed by Prussia, 90 INDEX 107 Holy Eoman Empire, 22-7, 31, 41; conflict with Papacy, 27; in 14th century, 43; under Charles V, 55; dismemberment of, 60, 61, 62, 64; dissolved in 1806, 75; Voltaire on, 89 Honduras, British, 69 Hospitaler, Knights, 44 Hudson's Bay territory, gained by Great Britain, 64 Hugh Capet, 40 Hundred Years' War, 40, 44 Hungary, formation of, 31; King- dom of, 43; passes to Haps- burgs, 51, 55; recovery from Turks, 65; forms Dual Monarchy with Austria, 99 Huns, 15, 16 Illyrian Provinces, 71, 75 India, commerce with in Middle Ages, 48; visited by Vasco da Gama, 67; British triumph in, 64, 68 ; under Clive and Hastings, 69 ; growth of British rule in, 96; Mu- tiny in, 97*8 Indo-China, French in, 96 Industrial Revolution, 82 Industries, medieval, 47-9 Ingria, 60 Investiture conflict, 27 Iona, island of, 34 Ionian Islands, under British suzer- ainty, 1815-64, 76, 93 "Iron Crown" of Italy, 26 Iron deposits, of Alsace-Lorraine, 91 ; of Belgium, 91 Iron manufactures, of Great Brit- ain, 83 ; of Germany and Belgium, 91 Ireland, subjected by Henry II, 39; Celtic clans and Norman families, 78; the "Pale" in 1515, 78; in 1641, 79; Tudor and Stuart plan- tations in, 78-9; Parliamentary reform in, 79-80 Isabella of Castile, 50 Ishmail, Shah, 52 Italy, Kingdom of (Charlemagne's) 26; in Holy Boman Empire, 26; Southern Italy, 19, 22, 31 ; in 14th century, 48; in 15th century, 45; Charles V and, 50-2; in 16th cen- tury, 53; Kingdom of, under Na- poleon, 71; War of 1859 in, 86; unification of, 86-7, 99; popula- tion densities of (1916), 87-8; un- redeemed portions of, 87; Balkan policy of, 94-5; colonies of, 96 Italia Irredenta, 87 Jamaica, 69 James I, King of England, 79 Japan, gains Formosa and Korea, 97 ; war with Russia, 98 Jena, battle of, 71, 89 Jersey, island of, 31 Joan of Arc, 41 John of England, 40 Joseph II, Emperor, 64 Justinian, Emperor, 19 Jutes, in Britain, 33 Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, 100 Kamerun, German colony, 97 Kazan, Khanate of, 52 Kent, Kingdom of, 33 Kiaochow, seized by Germany, 98 Kiel Canal, 100 King of the Romans, title of Em- peror-elect of Holy Roman Em- pire, 22 Knights Hospitaler, 44 Korea, gained by Japan, 97, 98 Lancaster, House of, 57 Languedoc, 40 Latin Empire of Constantinople, 32 Leeds (Eng.) 83 Leinster, 79 Leipzig, 47, 56 Leopold II, of Belgium, 96 Lesczinski, Stanislaus, 63 Liechtenstein, Principality of, 91 Ligny, battle of, 73 Lindisfarne, island of, 34 Linen industry, in Middle Ages, 48 Lippe, Principality of, 90 Lithuania, gained to Poland, 44 Livonia, 52; gained by Sweden, 60; to Russia, 64 Lombard League, 27 Lombards, 19, 20, 21, 26 Lombardy, 43 ; annexed to Austria, 75; annexed to Sardinia-Piedmont, 86 London, under Romans, 33; med- ieval, 28, 47; "city" of, 80, 83 108 INDEX Leo IV, Pope, 27 Leon, Kingdom of, 30 Leonine City, 27 Lorraine, Upper and Lower, 24; Lower, 54; Upper in 16th cen- tury, 54; French gains in, 62; passes to France, 63; part taken by Germany, 99 Lothair, Emperor, 21 Louis the German, 21 Louis VII, of France, 39 Louis XIV, of France, gains of, 62 Louis XVIII, King of France, 75 Liibeck, free town, 90; under Na- poleon, 71 Liitzen, battle of, 61 Lusatia, gained by Saxony, 61 Luxemburg, 54; under Charles V, 50 Luxemburg, House of, 43 Lyons, 47 McAdam, road builder, 84 Mackinder, H. J., quoted, 57 Madras, British in, 69 Madagascar, gained by France, 96 Magdeburg, 47; gained by Branden- burg, 60 Magellan, voyages of, 67 Maine, County of, 39, 40 Manchester, (Eng.), 83 Manchuria, Chinese, Eussian occupa- tion of, 98 Mantua, Marquisate of, 45 Manufactures, medieval, 48-9; Ital- ian, 87; British, 83; German, 91 Marattas, Confederacy of, 69 "Marches," German, 25 Maria Theresa, Queen, 64 Martinique, 69 Mary of Burgundy, 50 Maurice of Saxony, 56 Maximilian I, Emperor, 50 Mercia, Kingdom of, 33 Mecklenburg- Schwerin, Grand Duchy of, 90 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Grand Duchy of, 90 Metz, gained by France, 60 Mexico, held by Spain, 68 Milan, city of, 47, 87 Milan, Duchy of, 45 ; gained by Aus- tria, 63. See also Lombardy Minorca, gained by Great Britain, 64 Mitylene, island of, 94 Modena, Duchy of, 45; annexed to Sardinia-Piedmont, 86 Moesia, 15 Mogul Empire, 69 Mohacs, battle of, 51 Mohammed, 20 Mohammedans, conquests of, 19, 20, 30; in Spain, 44 Moldavia, 43 Monasteries, dissolved by Henry VIII, 57 Montenegro, in 1683, 93; indepen- dent, 94; enlarged, 94 Montferrat, Marquisate of, 45 Moravia, 25; passes to Hapsburgs, 51 Morocco, rivalry over, 97; in 1914, 100 Moscow, Napoleon's expedition to, 73 Muir, Ramsey, quoted, 51 Munster, 79 Murat, Joachim, King of Naples, 71 Mutiny, in India, 97 Naples, Kingdom of, 26, 43, 75, 87; united with Sicily, 45; under Charles V, 50; after 1815, 75; united to Kingdom of Italy, 87 Napoleon I, 86, 89; Europe under, 71-4 Napoleon III, 86 Naseby, battle of, 58 Navarre, Kingdom of, 30, 44, 52 Negropont, 32 Netherlands, 47, 50; under Charles V, 50, 54; woolen manufactures in Middle Ages, 49; divided in 1648, 61; Kingdom of, 1815-30, 75 Netherlands, Austrian, after 1713, 63; French gains in, 62; under Napoleon I, 71 Netherlands, Dutch (United), inde- pendence gained, 61; colonies of, 68; under Napoleon I, 71; King- dom after 1815, 91;- separation of Belgium from, 99 Netherlands, Spanish, in 1648, 61; French gains in, 62; given to Aus- tria, 63. (See also Belgium) Neuchatel, 91; added to Swiss Con- federation, 75 INDEX 109 Newfoundland, gained by Great Britain, 64 New Zealand, 96; acquired by Great Britain, 67 Nieaea, Empire of, 32 Nice, ceded to France, 86 Noricum, 15 Normandy, Duchy of, 30, 39, 40 Normans, in Southern Italy, 26-7, 31, 43 North German Confederation, 90 Northumbria, Kingdom of, 33 North Wales, 34, 39 Norway, in Union of Calmar, 44; in union with Denmark, 71; united with Sweden, 75; secedes, 99 Norwich (Eng.), 83 Nottingham Forest, 83 Novgorod, 47 Nuremburg, 47 Nystadt, Peace of, 64 Odoacer, 16, 17 Off a 'a Dyke, 34 Oldenburg, Grand Duchy of, 90 Ommiads, 20 Orange Free State, 97 Orange, Principality of, 52 Otto I, Emperor, 22, 26 Oxford University, Parliamentary representation of, 80 Palatinate of Ehine, 54, 60 Palatinate, Upper, 54, 60 Palatine earldoms, in England, 36 Panama Canal, 100 Pannonia, 15, 16, 19 Papal States, 26, 27, 31 ; in 15th cen- tury; restored in 1815, 75; after 1815, 86; annexed to Kingdom of Italy, 87 Papacy, 22, 26, 51; suzerainty over Naples and Sicily, 26; conflicts with medieval Empire, 27 Paris, 47 ; during French Eevolution, 65; siege of (1870-71), 100-1 Paris, Peace of (1763), 68-9 Parliament, in English Civil "War, 58 Parliamentary Eeform Act of 1832, 79-80; of 1867 and of 1884-5, 81 Parma, annexed to Sardinia-Pied- mont, 86 Partition of Verdun, 21, 22, 26, 40, 62 Peninsular War, 72, 73 Pennine chain, 83 Persia, Mohammendan conquest of, 30 ; under Shah Ishmail, 52 ; Eussia and. Great Britain in, 97 Peter the Great, of Kussia, 64, 72 Philip Augustus, of France, 40 Philip II, King of Spain, 52 Philippine Islands, acquired by Spain, 67, 68; gained by United States, 96 Picts, 34, 37 Piedmont, 75, 86. See also Savoy, Sardinia Plantagenet, House of, 39 Poitou, County of, 40 Poland, formation of, 31; annexa- tion of Lithuania to, 44; losses in 1648, 60, 61; partitions of, 64-5; promises to in War of 1914, 65 Polo, Marco, 67 Pomerania, 31, 43; Eastern, gained by Brandenburg, 60; Western, gained by Sweden, 60 Pondicherry, French in, 69 Port Arthur, Eussians in, 98 Porto Eico, held by Spain, 69; an- nexed to United States, 96 Portugal, County of, 30; Kingdom of, 44; colonies in 1763, 68; in 1810, 72; colonies of in. 1914, 96; Eepublic, 99 Provence, 43 Prussia, Teutonic Knights in, 43; secularized, 55; growth of, 60; East Prussia joined to Branden- burg, 60; becomes kingdom, 63; partitions Poland, 64-5; leader- ship in Germany, 64; loses parts of Poland, 71; gains through Napoleon 's reorganizations, 72 ; after Jena, 71, 89; gains in 1815, 89; founds Z Oliver ein, 89; Bis- marck's measures, 89; defeats Austria, 90; gains in 1866, 90; defeats France, 90; preponder- ance in new Empire, 90; held Neuchatel, 91 Quatre Bras, battle of, 73 Eaetia, 15 Eailroads, in Great Britain, 84 110 INDEX Beforniation. German, 50, 51, 53, 54-6 Reichstag, German, 90 Eenaissance in Italy, 45, 49, 50, 53; Eome in. 27-8 Khenish Prussia, industries of, 91 Eeuss (Elder Line), Principality of. 90 Eeuss (Younger Line), Principality of, 90 Bhodes. Island of. 32, 44 Bhine, Confederation of the, 71 Boads, Eoman. 33, 84; in Middle Ages. 47 ; in Great Britain, 84 Romagna, the, 86, 87 Eoman Empire, in 375 A. D., 15. See also Eastern Eoman Empire and Western Eoman Empire Eoman Wall, in Britain, 34 Eome, 15, 86, 57: in Middle Ages, 27-8; imder Napoleon, 71 Eoumania, gains independence, 93 Eoussillon, County of, 52 ; gained by Prance, 62 Eoutes, commercial, in the Middle Ages, 47-8 Russia, formation of. 31; before 17th century. 52: in 164S. 60, 61; gains in 1721. 64: partitions Poland. 64-5; in 1810, 72: gains Finland. 75 : and Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 75: and Bessarabia, 75; wars with Turkey. 93. 95; gains from Turkey. 93 : Balkan policy, 94-5; expansion in Asia. 97; war with Japan. 98; in 1914. 99-100; Eusso-Japanese War, 98 St. Angelo, castle of, 28 St. John. Knights of, 44 St. Helena. Xapoleon*s exile to, 73 St. Peter "s. old basilica of, 27 San Marino, Eepublic of, 87 San Stefano, Treaty of, 93, 94 Saladin. Empire of, 31 Salian line of Emperors, 23 Saluzzo. Marquisate of. 45 Saracens. See Mohammedans Sardinia, 19: under Charles V, 50; annexed to Savov. and made king- dom, 63; in 1810. 72; Kingdom of after 1815, 86; unites Italy, 86-7 Sayoy, Duchy of, 45: under Xa- poleon, 71; after 1815, 75; Duke of. becomes King of Sardinia, 63; ceded to France. 86 Saxe-Altenburg, Duchy of, 90 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Duchy of, 90 Saxe-Meiiiingen. Duchy of, 90 Saxon Xorth March, 25 Saxons in Britain. 16. 17, 20, 33-5 Saxons (in Germany;, 20 Saxony, Stem Duchy, 23, 51 ; shift of name. 24 : in 16th century, 54, 55-6: Ernestine, 56 ; Albertine, 56 ; gains in 1648, 61; gains in 1815, 75: Kingdom of, 90; industries in, 91 Saxony. Prussian, industries of, 91 Schaumburg-Lippe, Principality of, 90 Schleswig. annexed by Prussia, 90 Schmalkaldic War, 56 Sehwarzburg-Budolstadt, Principal- ity of, 90 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Princi- pality of, 90 Scotland, formation of, 37; aids Par- liamentarians in English Civil War, 58 : Highland clans and Low- land families in, 78: Jacobite ris- ing of, 1745. 78: Parliamentary reform in. 79-80 Scots, 34. 37 Scutari (Albania), 94 Sebastopol, siege of, 76 Sepoy rebellion, 97 Serbia, formation of, 31 ; under Stephen Dushan, 44; gains inde- pendence. 93 ; enlarged, 94 Seyen Weeks ' War, 87, 90 Seyen Years' War, 63, 64, 68-9 Sforzas, Dukes of Milan, 45 Sicily, 19, 26: Kingdom of, 43; united to Xaples, 45; under Charles V. 50 ; in 1810, 72 Siena, Eepublic of, 45 Silesia, 43 : acquired by Hapsburgs, 50. oo ; gained by Prussia, 64 Silistria,' 94 Silk industry, in Middle Ages, 48 ; in Great Britain, 84 Slayic peoples, in 800, 19, 20, 25 Solemn League and Coyenant, 58 Solyman the Magnificent, 51 Somaliland, Italians in, 96 South America, 96 INDEX 111 Southern Italy, 26-7. See also Na- ples and Sicily Spain, Mohammedans in, 20; growth of Christian states in, 30; united under Ferdinand and Isabella, 50; American possessions, 50-51; de- cline of, 61; loses United (Dutch) Netherlands, 61; other losses, 62; war over succession, 63; French (Bourbon) prince secures throne, 63 ; colonies in 1763, 68, 69 ; under Joseph Bonaparte, 71; after 1815, 75; present colonies of, 96; war with United States, 97; in 1911, 99 Spanish March, 20, 10 Stanley, Henry M., 96 States, rise of consolidated, 52 Stem Duchies, break up of, 51 Stephen Dushan, 11, 91 Stourbridge, fair at, 47 Strassburg, 17; gained by France, 63 Strassburg oaths, 21 Strathclyde, 31 Stuart, House of, 78, 79 Styria, 25 Sueves, 16, 17 Suez Canal, 95, 100 Sussex, Kingdom of, 33 Swabia, Duchy, 23-1, 54 Sweden, Kingdom of, 44; revolt from Denmark, 52; gains in 1648, 60 ; in 1810, 72 ; united with Nor- way, 75; separated, 99 Swiss Confederation, 44-5; in 1648, 61 ; increased to nineteen cantons, 71; to twenty-two cantons, 75 Syagrius, 16 Syria, Mohammedan conquest of, 30 Tamerlane, 14 Telford, road builder, 84 Teutonic Knights, Order of, 43 ; secularization of lands, 52; dis- solution of, 55 Theodoric the East Goth, 17, 19 Thirty Years ' War, 61 Thuringia, 19, 23 Tilsit, Treaty of, 89 Timur, the Tartar, 44 Toul, gained by France, 60 Toulouse, County of, 40 Tours, battle of, 20 Touraine, Coimty of, 39, 40 Trans-Siberian Eailway, 97 Transvaal, 97 Trebizond, Empire of, 32 Tripoli, crusading County of, 31 Tripoli (Africa), won bv Italy, 96, 100 Troves, treaty of, 41 Tunis, annexed by France, 100 Turin, 87 Turkish Empire, in 1683, 93; losses of, 75, 93; war of Bussia with (1877-8), 93; after Treaty of Ber- lin, 93; Eevolution in, 94; loses Tripoli, 96; following treaties of 1913, 94 Turks, Ottoman, rise of, 44, 48; con- quests of, 50, 51; in 17th century, 61 ; decline after 1683, 65 Turks, Seljuks, 30 Tuscany, Duchy of, 26, 43 ; given to Francis of Lorraine, 63 : under Napoleon, 71; after 1815, 75; makes part of Kingdom of Italy, 86 Two Sicilies, Kingdom of, -^5 ; gained by Austria, 63 ; after 1S15, 86; part of Kingdom of Italy, 87 Tynedale, 37 Ulster, 79 United Netherlands. See Nether- lands, United United States, 96; war with Spain, 97 Urban VIII, Pope, 27 Utrecht, Peace of, 63 ; results of, 61 Vandals, 16, 17, 19 Vasa, Gustavus, 52 Vatican, 27. Venice, rule in Crete, etc., 32; devel- opment of, 44; in 15th century, 45; commerce of in Middle Ages, 47-8; annexed to Austria, 75; after 1815, 86; annexed to King- dom of Italy, 87; rules Dalmatia, 1683, 93; rules Ionian Islands, 93 Verden, gained by Sweden, 60 Verdun, Partition of, 21, 22, 26, 40, 62; gained by France, 60 Vermandois, County of, 40 Verona, March of, 26 Victor Emmanuel II, unifies Italy, 87 112 INDEX Victoria, Queen, 76 Vienna, Congress of, 75-6, 86, 89, 91 Visconti, Dukes of Milan, 45 Voltaire, quoted, 22 Waldeck, Principality of, 90 Wales, Parliamentary representation of, 79, 80 Wallachia, 43 War of Austrian Succession, 63, 64 War, Northern, 64; Spanish Succes- sion, 63; Seven Years', 63, 64; French Eevolution, 63; Thirty Years' War, 61; of 1859, 86; of 1914, 21, 62, 76, 84, 87, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, 71 Waterloo, battle of, 73-4 Watling Street, 34-35 Wei-hai-wei, taken by British, 98 Wellington, Duke of, 72, 73-4 Wessex, Kingdom of, 33 West Goths, 15, 16, 17 West Indies, 68, 69 West Wales, 34, 37 Westphalia, Peace of, 60-61 Western Eoman Empire, in 393 B. C, 15; fall of, 16; revived by Charlemagne, 20. See also Holy Eoman Empire Westphalia, Kingdom of, 71 Whitby, Synod of, 34 William, Duke of Normandy, con- quers England, 36 Wittelsbach, House of, 43 Wittenberg, 56 Woolen industry, in Middle Ages, 48; in Great Britain, 83 Worms, Edict of, 55 Worstead (Eng.), 83 Wiirttemberg, rise of, 54; after 1815, 75; Kingdom of, 90; indus- tries of, 91 York, Province of, 57 Young Pretender, route of, 78 Zollverein, German, 89 Zuider Zee, 24-5