(ilass _ _s.^lU • : Book ' ) (^ ^- •7 (X>PYR1GHT D£P08i r Cotton and Cdttbii Oil. COTTON. Planting, Cultivating, Harvesting and Preparation for Market. COTTON SEED OIL MILLS. Organization, Construction and Operation. CATTLE FEEDING. Production of Beef and Dairy Products. Cotton Seed Meal and Hulls as Stock Feed. FERTILIZERS. Manufacture, Manipulation and Uses. FULL INFORMATION FOR INVESTOR, STUDENT AND PRACTICAL MECHANIC. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH ORIGINAL DRAWINGS. By D. A. TOMPKINS, AVTHOR OF Cotton Mill Processes and Calculations; Cotton Mill Commercial Features: American Commerce, Its Expansion; Cotton Values in Textile Fabrics. CHARLOTTE, N. C: Published by the Author. 1901. THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Two Copifcs Received AUG. 1 1901 Copyright enthv CLASS *^XXc. N«. //o ss COPY B 1 Copyright 1901 BY D. A. Tompkins. Presses Observer Printing House, Charlotte, N. C. preface. I was born on a cotton plantation in South Carolina in 1852, and lived on it continuously until 1867. In subse- quent years I was from time to time on the plantation, and thus have been in good contact Vv'ith cotton planting before, during and after the Civil War. I was educated and trained as an engineer. In the pur- suit of my profession, I have designed and had charge of the construction of many cotton mills, cotton seed oil mills, and fertilizer works. This volume, Cotton and Cotton Oil, is based on the experience acquired on the plantation and in the exe>- cution of these various engineering and industrial works. The matter is put in book form as the best means of keep- ing together the valuable results of the work, and for what value the records may be to the present and succeeding generations, who may be interested in these subjects. D. A. Tompkins. Charlotte, N. C. July 15, 1901. Contente. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY.— Origin of cotton planting in United States. History previous to invention of saw gin. Influence of roller gin. Influence of saw gin. Table showing production and price from 1790 to 1900. Mutual influence cot- ton planting and slavery. The Civil War. Cotton planting with free labor. Present magnitude. PART I. COTTON. CHAPTER II. INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN.— First step: \\''ooden cylinder with spikes, by Eli Whitney. Second step: Saw gin, by Hodgen Holmes. Certified copies of patents. Georgia suits for infringement of patent right. Royalties paid Whitney by Southern States. CHAPTER III. PREPARATION OF COTTON FOR THE MARKET WITH SLAVE LABOR.— Early gins. Early gin houses with horse power. The wooden screw press. Improved methods and ma- chines. Hauling bales of cotton 25 miles to market. VI. CHAPTER IV. THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR.— General organization of plantation. Home products and economy. Amusements on the plantation. Com- bination of work and play. The master. The over- seer. The slave. Plantation during the war. Loyalty of the slave to the master and master to slave. CHAPTER V. PREPARATION OF COTTON FOR THE MARKET AS AIODIFIED BY THE ABOLITION OF SLAV- ERY.— White man meets new conditions and adapts himself. Improved machinery. Labor saving inventions. In- creased production. CHAPTER VI. MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY.— History of improvements on gin. Evolution of the gin house. Intermediate stages. Present types. Round bale. Compresses. CHAPTER VII. PLANTING. CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING COTTON.— Preparation of ground Time to plant. Chopping out. Plowing. Fertilizing. Impleiments of culture. Insect enemies. Picking- and harvesting:. Vll. CHAPTER VIII. MARKETING COTTOX.— Ante-bellum factor methods. Post-bellum methods. ^Middle men. Exporting. CHAPTER IX. THE PLAXTATIOX, DURIXG AXD AFTER THE CIVIL WAR.— With slave labor. With emancipated negro labor. Methods of paying laborers. Renters, tenants, crop- pers, day wages. Influence of cotton factories. Influ- ence of cotton oil mills. Xeighboring manufacturing enterprises make farming more attractive. Farm lands increasing in value. PART II. COTTON OIL. CHAPTER X. COTTOX SEED.— Constituent elements, oil, meal, lint, hulls. Micro- scopic study of seed. Varieties and their relative values to oil mills. CHAPTER XI. COTTOX SEED OIL, COMMERCIAL FEATURES.— History of oil milling. Purchasing seed. Uses made of various products. Value of products. Markets for products. Packages for products. Table show- ing quantities and values of products for 30 years. Vlll. CHAPTER XII. COTTON SEED OIL, MECHANICAL FEATURES. AND PROCESSES.— Detailed description of each machine and its opera- tions. Table showing speed and power for each ma- chine. Quality of raw material and its relation to fin- ished products. Mill buildings. How to reduce fire risks by proper construction. CHAPTER XIII. COTTON SEED OIL REFINING.— Chemical considerations. Mechanical considerations. Old methods. Present practice. Variety of finished products. By products. Suitable buildings. vStorage tanks. PART HI. CORRELATED INDUSTRIES. CHAPTER XIV. CATTLE FEEDING.— Early experiments. Government investigations. Growth in the Southwest. Introduction into the South- east. Varieties of cattle for feeding. Markets for fatted cattle. Transportation of cattle. By products. IX. CHAPTER XV. FERTILIZERS.— Composition and uses. Manipulating and mixing on the farm. Raw materials. Manipulating and mixing at small oil mills. Cotton seed meal as a raw material. Experiment station w^ork. CHAPTER XVI. FERTILIZER MANUFACTURE.— Chemical considerations. Mechanical considerations. Machinery. Raw materials. Phosphate rock. Pebble phosphate. Sulphuric acid in its relation to fertili- zers. Manufacture of sulphuric acid. APPENDIX. DOCUMENTS RELATING TO INVENTION OF COTTON GIN. TABLES AND MISCELLANY.— Verbatim court records in cotton gin cases. Theory of cattle feeding. Sundry notes on cattle feeding. Xi9t of HUuetratione- I — Whitney's Original jModel of Gin. 2 — Madison's Certification of Original Gin Patent Sheets. 3 — Whitney's Original Certified Patent Drawing. 4 — Drawing Accompanying the Whitney Substituted Patent. 5 — Drawing Accompanying the Whitney Substituted Patent. 6 — Certification of Whitney Patents. 7 — Certification of Bill of Injunction in Patent Suits. 8 — Certification of Holmes Gin Patent. 9 — Eli W^hitney's Autograph. lo — Whitney's Spike Gin, Intermittent Action. II — Holmes' Saw Gin, Continuous Acticii. 12 — Old Plantation Gin House and Screw. 13 — Old Horse Power for Gin House. 14 — Hauling Cotton to Market. 15 — Steam Power Applied to Old Gin House. 16 — Early Steam Ginnery. The Plantation Home. 1 7 — Spinning \Vheel. 18 — ^Portable Ginnery. 19 — Improved Ginnery. 20 — Roller Gin. 21 — Section of Saw Gin. 22 — Perspective of Saw Gin. 23 — Huller Gin. 24 — Gin Driven from Below. 25 — Improved Ginnery. 26 — Ginnery with Suction Apparatus. 27 — Ginnery with Storage Bins. 28 — Texas Ginnery. 29 — Old Gin House and Screw. Xll. 30 — Modern Screw Cotton Press. 31 — Steam Cotton Press. 32 — Cotton Compress with Knuckle Joints. 2,;^ — Ginnery Compress, Square Bale, 34 — Ginnery Compress, Cylindrical Lap Bale. 35 — Ginnery Compress, End Packed Cylindrical Bale. 36 — Ginnery Compress, End Packed Cylindrical Bale. 2,7 — Ginnery Compress, End Packed Cylindrical Bale. 38 — Ginnery Compress, End Packed Cylindrical Bale. 39 — Three Kinds of Cotton Bales. 40 — Cotton "Square" and Cotton Bloom. 41 — Cotton Bolls. 42 — Cotton Bolls, 43 — Negro and Plow. 44 — Sundry Plow Points, 45 — Sundry Plow Points. 46 — Plow and Hoe. 47 — Fertilizer Distributor and Guano Horn. 48 — Cotton Planting Machine. 49 — Sub-soiling Plow. 50 — Gang Plow for Cultivating Cotton. 51 — Sulky Plow for Cultivating Cotton, 52 — Disc Cultivator for Cotton. 53 — Cotton Stalk Cutter. 54 — Cotton Field at the End of the Day. 55 — Method of Picking Cotton. 56 — Experimental Cotton Picking Machine ; Rear View, 57 — Experimental Cotton Picking Machine; Front View. 58— Cotton Market, 59 — Cotton Sampler's Table. 60 — Cotton Planting Syndicate — Planter, Negro, Mule. 61 — Cotton Seed, Showing How Lint Grows, 62 — Cross Section of Cotton Seed ]\Iagnified 12^ times. 63— General View 150-Ton Oil Mill,' 1S85. 64 — Arrangement of Machinery, 150-Ton Oil Mill, 1885. 65— General View 200-Ton Oil Mill, 1887. 66— General View 100-Ton Oil Mill, 1890. 6/ — Arrangement of Machinery, 40-Ton Oil Mill, 1901. 68 — Right and Left Hand Conveyors. 69 — Wooden Boxes for Conveyors. 70 — Right Angle Conveyor Drive. 71 — Sprocket Chain Elevators. y2 — Sand and Boll Screen. 73 — End Section Sand and Boll Screen. 74 — Section Through Cotton Seed Linter. 75 — General View Cotton Seed Linter. 76 — Linter Room in Oil Mill. yy — Cotton Seed Huller. 78 — Secti(3n Through Huller. 79 — Cotton Seed Huller. 80 — Section Through Huller. 81 — Huller Feeder. 82 — Separating Conveyor. 83 — Diagram Serpentine Drive for Rolls. 84 — Five-High Serpentine Rolls. 85 — Diagram Tandem Drive for Four-High Rolls. 86 — Diagram Tandem Drive for Five-High Rolls. 87 — Four-High Tandem Rolls. 88 — Diagram Tandem Drive with Tightener, Five-High Rolls. 89 — Five-High Geared Rolls. 90 — Heaters with Gang Under Drive. 91 — Heaters with Independent Parallel Lender Drive. 92 — Heaters with Overhead Drive. 93 — Presses, Former and Heaters with Independent Right Angle Drive. 94 — Triple Heaters. 95 — Section Through Triple Heaters. 96 — Steam Cake Former. 97 — Interior of Oil Mill Press Room. 98 — Interior of Oil Mill Press Room. 99 — Oil Press, Showing Valves. 100 — Oil Press in Section, loi — Oil Press, Showing Hydraulic Packing. XIV. I02 — Mold for Making Hydraulic Packing. 103 — Hydraulic Steam Pump. 104 — Hydraulic Accumulators. 105 — Hydraulic Press Valve. 106 — Old Style Automatic Change Valve. 107 — New Style Automatic Change \^alve. 108 — Pump and Press Connections. 109 — Hydraulic Power Pump. no — Cake Cracker. Ill — Attrition Meal Mill. 1 1 2 — General View of Cotton Oil Refinery. 113 — Plan and Section Cotton Oil Refinery. 114 — Cotton Oil Filter Press. 115 — Interior Cattle Shed. 116 — Exterior of Cattle Shed. 117 — Feeding Cattle in the Open. 118— Type of Good Beef Steer. 119 — Type of Scrub Beef Steer. 120 — Type of Good Milk Cow. 121 — ^Type of Good Butter Cow\ 122 — Type of Scrub Cow. 123 — Cycle of Production, Consumption and Land Resto- ration. 124 — Fertilizer Mixer. 125 — General View Sulphuric Acid Chamber. 126 — Plan and Section Sulphuric Acid Chamber. 127 — Section Fertilizer Factory. Two Colored Plates, Showing Different Types of Negroes. Three Colored Plates, Showing Different Stages of Growth of Cotton PlaAt. Map Showing Quarantine Line for Texas or Splenetic Fe- ver in Cattle. CHAPTER I. llntrobuction. For the ancient history of cotton, dating i,ooo years before Christ, the practical man of to-day cares very little. Even the minor details of its introduction into the United States possesses only historical interest and this will be taken up only to illustrate the evolution of the industry. The early colonists naturally experimented on their new found soil with all of the divers seeds that they could ob- tain from all parts of the earth. Thus, cotton became an early experimental crop, beginning in Virginia about the year lOoo, and continuing in all of the Southern latitudes for nearly two hundred years before it came to be seriously regarded as a useful crop. During this epoch a great army oi hand weavers had sprung up in England, and it was becoming a serious problem wdth them to get yarn to weave. In all times and places, wdien there is a serious demand for any invention, the genius of the age soon develops and perfects that invention. In 1767 James Hargreaves in- vented in England the spinning jenny, by which one op- erative could run as many as twenty spindles, instead of one, as theretofore. This w^as successively improved by Arkwright and Crompton in England and others, so that it soon became an easy matter to provide yarn for the hand weavers. After the power loom had been intro- duced by Cartwright also in England in 1785, the world's consumption of all kinds of yarn became immensely in- creased, and thus the demand for raw textile fibres was a constantly growing one. The American colonists took a growing interest in cot- ton production, and made every effort to meet the de- mand from the mother country, and also the new demands ■of the new independent colonies. 2 INTRODUCTION. Ill 1786 Governor Tattnal, of Georgia, received sotiie Sea Island seed from the Bahama Islands, and encouraged its production in the coast region. About the same time, a Airs. Burden, of South Caro- lina, promoted its growth on the sea islands of that State. Several difficulties prevented the rapid spread of cotton culture in those days. Scarcity of labor in the new coun- tiy, for the tedious process of harvesting or "picking- was an important factor; but the prime difficulty was in separating the useful lint from the then useless seed. This work was done entirely by hand until the ancient roller gin was brought over. A. Mr. Duhreuil, oi Louisiana, is said t(j have had one of the first gins of any kind in America. x\ more practical machine seems to have been introduced from the Bahama Islands by Dr. Joseph Eve, of Augusta, Ga., about the same time (1790). He is reported to have been the first to run a gin by power. As the colonists gradually found their way inland, the character of the cotton which they continued to plant, changed from the Sea Island varieties, and began to de- velop a well marked type known as "upland." The seeds of upland cotton were even more difficult to separate than the other varieties, so that, although plantation labor began to be more plentiful l\v the importation of slaves, the growth of cotton could not become an extensive industry until a machine could be perfected fgr the separation of the seeds. As in the invention of other machmery, a crying neces- sity stimulated inventive genius. The roller gin was al- ready in use. and worked well for Sea Island cotton. In 1793, Eli Whitney, then living near Savannah, Ga., in vented a cotton gin, comprising m?ny of the features of the gin now in use for upland cotton. In 1794 he ob- tained his patent. In 1795 Hodgen Holmes, of Augusta. Ga.. invented the saw gin, an improvement on Whitnev's machine. In 1796 he obtained his patent. Thus in the INTRODUCTION. 3 period from 1793 to 1796. the saw i^in Ijecame a standard machine, and an epoch maker in the history of cotton. Tlie first power saw gin, which is to say the first real practical and pro(hictive gin in the world was made l)y Hotlgen Holmes and was run by water power in Fairfield county. South Carolina, by Mr. James Kincaid in 1795. The details of the invention of the saw gin are fully set forth in another chapter. The etTect of this invention upon the cotton production of the country was wonderful. As soon as a few of these machines could be made and put upon the market, it was seen that with the available labor it w^as easy to increase the cotton production many fold. In 1790 the production of cotton w^as ec[uivalent to 3,000 bales of 500 pounds each, and in 1798. about the time the use of saw gins became general, the ])roduction was increased to an equivalent of about 30,000 bales of 500 pounds each. At this time cotton was put up in bales or bags weighing about 225 pounds each. For the pur- pose of comparison, all statistics in this book have been reduced to our present average bale of 500 pounds gross. It soon became apparent that the productiveness of the soil would justify much more cotton planting than the available labor could handle, even wi« h the help of the cot- ton gin. This idea fostered a great importation of negro slaves, and thus the growth of slavery and the increase of the cotton crop were simultaneous, each being sustained by the other. This material result was in opposition to a strong sentiment against slavery*. The cotton crops steadily increased oh this basis, build- ing up and enriching an agricultural ]>opulation wdiich be- came an aristocracy in the Southern United States. The cotton crop had grow^n to 4,000,000 bales in 1861, being mostly produced by the labor of the 4.000,000 slaves. From 1 86 1 to 1865 the Civil War interfered with agricul- tural operations so that the average annual production during that period was reduced to a half million bales. 4 INTRODUCTION. The Civil War resulted in the abolition of slavery. The ill-advised enfranchisement of the slaves who were led by dishonest adventurers, induced a condition of political and industrial disorder. This condition retarded the recovery of the cotton growing- States from the disastrous effects of the war; and hence it required about ten years after the war for the cotton planters to again reach a production of 4,000,000 bales. Since that time, the crop has contin- ually increased, reaching to nearly 10,000,000 bales m 1900. as exhibited by the following table: INTRODUCTION. TABLE I. SHOWING THE PRODUCTION AND PRICE OF COTTON FROM 1790 TO 1900. No Bales Price Per Lb Year 500 Lbs. Gross in New York. 1790 3,000 260 1 791 4,200 26.0 1792 6,300 29.0 ,1793 10,400 32.0 1794 16,700 33.0 1795 16700 36.5 1796 20.800 36.5 1797 22,900 34-0 1798 31-200 39.0 1799 41,600 440 1800 73,000 28.0 1810 177,000' 16.0 ,1820 331.500 170 1830 689,800 lo.o .1840 1,737,700 8.9 .1850 2,085,800 12.3 i860 4,668,900 ii.o 1865 250,000 80.0 ,1870 2,862,300 24.C 1880 5,449,200 12.0 1890 7,311,400 II. 5 1900 9,436,400 8.7 Continued economies in the cost of production, and continued demand for cotton .snoods, together with a great increase of cotton mill building in the cotton pro- ducing States will no doubt lead to still further expansion of the crop to perhaps 15,000,000 within the next decade. Coincident with the upbuilding of the cotton growing 6 INTRODUCTION. industry to such proportions, there has been great ac- tivity in the production of mechanical devices for the preparation and handling of the crop. The separate discussion of these various devices and their influence on the scope and character of cotton pro- duction furnishes the theme for the most of Part I., of this book. TABLE II. SHOWING CHRONOLOGY OF SOME EVENTS RELATING TO COTTON. 1600. — Introduction of cotton into Virginia. 1730. — John W'yatt spins first cottoii by machinery in England. 1738. — John Kay invents the fly shuttle. 1767. — James Hargreaves invents spinning jenny. 1769. — Richard Arkwright invents drawing rolls fnr spinning machine. 1776. — Samuel Crompton invents nuile jenny. 1785. — Edmund Cartwright invents power loom. 1787. — First cotton mill in Beverly. Mass. 1790. — First cotton mill in Pawtucket, R. I. 1794. — Eli Whitney invents cotton gin. 1796. — Hodgen Holmes invents saw gin. 1796. — First cotton mill in Statesburg, S. C. 1813. — First cotton mill in Lincolnton, N. C. Part 1. COTTON. CHAPTER II. Cbc llnvention of the Saw (3in. Much as has been written on the subject of the invention of the saw cotton gin, the question as to the credit for fun- damental ideas, and their development into a commercial machine, seems yet to lack authoritative discussion. It is so easy tO' collate a large amount of matter fron-i writers, who themselves have copied the works of others, purporting to relate history, that it is small wonder that well nigh as many errors as facts should have been frequenc- ly copied and re-copied. This seems to be especially the case in America concerning the cotton gin, on acount of its being an American invention of such note, and of compar- atively recent date. Crude cotton as it is produced in the held, consists of fluffy masses of cotton lint adhering to seeds. It is cal'e(,i in this condition "seed cotton." The varieties of cotton may be divided into twO' general classes; "Upland" and ''Sea Island." This distinction is based mainly on the length of the fibre or "staple" the former having fibres va- rying from f to 1 1 inches and the latter from i-J to 2} inches. The lint of upland cotton adheres very firmh' to the seeds, appearing to grow out of it like w^ool from a sheep's back. The seeds, after being denuded of lint as well as possible, still have a wooll}- appearance. In a great many sub-varieties the seeds are green in color, thus givirg to upland cotton, in general, the name "green-seed cot- ton," as distinguished from Sea Island cotton, whose seeds are black. Sea Island, or long staple cotton does not ad- here so closely to the seeds, and it can be easily pulled off clean, leaving the seeds perfectly smootli. These seeds are vulgarly called "bald-headed seed." A gin is a machine for separating lint cotton from the seed. The word gin is supposed to be a contraction or engine, and the word has been used to indicate a number of lO THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. contrivances for doing work, such as hoisting, etc., on the same reasoning that in England at the present time, the machine in use for carding cotton is known as the card- ing engine. Recent usage, especially in America, has restricted the use of the word engine to mean some prime mover, and the use of the word gin to mean cotton gin. The term cotton, as commercially used in the United States, refers generally to upland cotton, that being the kind mostly produced. When Sea Island Cotton is refen-ed to, it is specially mentioned. In the same way the tenn "gin" is used to designate the saw gin, which is the partic- ular kind in use with upland cotton. The machine used for separating Sea Island cotton from the seed is known as the "roller gin." The saw gin has a saw cylinder, made up of circular saws, spaced by collars on a mandrel or shaft. The saws project into a breast box, through grooves or ribs set close enough together to prevent the passage of seed. The teeth pull the lint through the ribs and leave seed behind. Revolving in an opposite direction to the saw- toothed cylinder, parallel to it, and in a contiguous box, is another cylinder covered with bristles, which brushes the lint out of the teeth and delivers it into a room or into a condenser. The brush cylinder revolves 4 or 5 times as fast as the saw cylinder. The first method of separating lint from the seed was naturally by hand picking. The next method, originating in India about 300 B. C, was by means of rollers, which running closely together, would pull the lint through and leave the seed behind. The roller gin now in use for ginning sea island cotton is a modern development from this India gin. As most of the ancient Eastern cottons were of the black seed varieties, the roller gin was fairly successful, though the seeds would often become cracked between the rollers and pass on through and mix v/ith the lint. The seeds contain considerable water and nitrogenous matter. THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. II SO that those crushed are Hal^le to decay, and thus to give to Hnt cotton prepared in this manner a foul odor. During the War of the American Revolution, and imme- diately thereafter, cotton culture began to receive consi*.:- erable attention in the Southern States. As the coahl country was the first to be settled; and as the valuable Sea Island varieties grew to perfection on that soil, these were first cultivated. They were prepared for market by hand, and by the roller gins, both processes being very slow. The roller gin then in use would clean about 5 times ;.s much cotton per day as could be cleaned by hand. When upland \arieties began to be cultivated further inland where Sea Island would not grow, the roller gir. proved entirely inadequate and unsuitable, so that the ex- tension of cotton growing soon reached its limit. In many cases, it surpassed the limit, and much cotton was wasted for want of being separated from its seed, and made ready for market. In 1792, Eli Whitney of Massachusetts went by boat to Savannah, Ga., from which place he intended to go into the interior as tutor in a private family. On the same boat was traveling Mrs. Nathaniel Greene, the widow of the Ameri- can Revolutionary General, who was returning from a Northern trip to her home at Mulbert y (jrove, near Savan- nah, Ga. On this journey Whitney naturally made the ac- quaintance of Mrs. Greene. Arriving in Savannah, he failed to perfect his arrangement for teaching and accepted an in- vitation from Mrs. Nathaniel Greene to make his home at her house and pursue the study of law. which was his grea; desire. While he was in Mrs. Greene's house he exhibited great talent for mechanics, and made himself useful in that re- spect around the plantation. In the spnng of 1793, some old comrades of General Greene: Majors Brewer, Forsythe and Pendleton, whc lived near Augusta, Ga.. called on Mrs. Greene. In the course of their visit they discussed the troubles of agricul- ture in the upper country, and mentioned the fact th.-'.t 12 THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. much upland cotton could be protitably produced if there were only some machine for separating- the lint f rom the seed. Mrs. Greene proposed that they talk over the mat- ter with young Whitney. The result of that visit was that Whitney was given a room in the basement of the house, and after considerable experimenting, produced a machine that successfully separated the lint from seed. Fig. I is copied fro-m an old print which is said to repre- sent Whitney's original model. This is not an official record, but it is confirmed by compaiison with the patent drawing. Fig. 3. In 1793 Whitney went to New Haven, Conn., to confer with his old friend and patron, Elizur Goodrich and others, in relation to obtaining a patent. The original description in Whitney's own words, accom- panying his petition for patent was filed with Thomas Jef- ferson, Secretary of State at Philadelphia, June 20, 1793. Whitney also made affidavit concerning his invention be- fore Elizur Goodrich, Notary Public, and Alderman of New Haven, Conn., Oct. 28, 1793. A patent was issued to Eli Whitney March 14, 1794, and signed by George Washington, President, Edmund Ran- dolph, Secretary of State and Wm. Bradford, Attorney General. During some litigation over validity of the patent in the United States District Court in Savannah, Georgia, 1804 a copy of the complete patent and specification and drav/- ing was filed with the court. This copy was certified bv James Madison, Secretary of State, April 27, 1804, as shown by Fig. 2. This copy, taken from the records of the Court, is given verbatim in the Appendix, marked Document H. Fig. 3 is a photograph of the drawing, accompanying this cerri- fied patent, and Fig. 6 is the certification of the whole set by the Deputy Clerk of the United States Court. These documents are now on file in the United States Court House, Savannah, Ga., and are believed to be the only authentic records of this patent in existence. The Fig. I Whitney's Original Model. 14 THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. original patent papers tiled in the Patent Office by Whit- ney in 1793, were destroyed by the Patent Office tire in T836. See Appendix, Document IV. As soon as possible after this hre, the authorities made efforts to obtain co])ies of all papers that were destroyed. It so hajjpened. how- ever, that tliey never secured the cercitied copy on record in Savannah, Ga., but they received from some source not shc\\n on the records, on May 2, I'i^i, what purported to be a copy of the Whitney patent. Figs. 4 and 5 are the drawings accompanying the document. The full text of tlie 1841 specification is given in the Appendix, Docum^nu III. It will l)e noticed in comparing this 1841 record with ihe original, that the original specification gives a much more detailed account of the method of constructing the gin, even to the extent of describing and dlust rating the meth- od of cutting the wire which was used for making the spiked teeth in the cylinder, and descri1;)ing in great detail the method of inserting the bristles in the brush, andgi\ing so-me alternate methods; and in all other cases referring to alternate methods, the particular alternate methods are de- scribed. But the very clear and extended s])ecification in the original makes no suggestion of an alternate method of constructing the cylinder, as for example, the use of circu- lar saws. Neither does the original drawing show any suggestion of saws. But the specification of 1841 con- cludes with a paragraph not found in the original, x\z: "There are several modes of making the various parts r.f this machine, which, together with tlieir particular shape and formation are pointed out and explained in a descrip- tion with drawings, attested, as the Act directs, and lodged in the Office of the Secretary of State.'" There is a curious mistake noticeable in the drawing of 1841. Fig. 4, that would surely indicate that Eli Whitney himself ne\-er e\-en saw it; that is, the handle by which the machine is to be turned, is anplied to the brush shaft, instead of the main cvlinder, which is the wav it is described in both 1 6 THE INVENTION OK THE SAW GIN. the authentic and the substituted specilication; and this is the only way it could be made to work in practice. Whitney's authentic specifications say, in describing the brush : "IV. The clearer, C Fig. I, is constructed in the following manner: Take an iron axis, perfectly similar to that described as extending through the cylinder, except that it need not be so large nor fitted tor the application of a winch. Whoever made the drawing for the patent of^ce after the fire, could not have understood the principles of the gin, othervv'ise, this error ui placing the ^vinch (or hand crank) ■could not have occurred. These substituted drawings have some of the features of the authentic patent drawings, besides some features of the gins that were built about 1841. They also embrace a number of features totally at variance with the ])rinciples of Whitney's or any other gin. The substituted drawings show sketches of saws, while there is nothing in the authentic drawings or specifications, even m the most remote way, suggesting the idea of a saw. These peculiar additions, which occur in the substituted documents, were evidently intended to establish a claim for Whitney for the invention of the saw gin, whereas the authentic patent papers amply refute such a claim. The substituted specifications, while being in the main a synopsis of the authentic specifications, omit all reference to drawings, either original or substituted. There were tried in the United States Court, district of Georgia, 27 suits for infringement of the W^hitney gin pat- ent. Among the papers in the evidence introduced in these suits, is a certified copy of a patent for a gin, issued May 12, 1796, to Hodgen Holmes of Augusta, Ga. A certified copy of this patent is given in full in the Ap- pendix, Document VT No drawing accompanies the patent, and the specifica- tions are very meagre. The patent in itself does not in any way describe the fundamental operations of the gin, and does not state whether the teeth are made of wire or cut Fig. 3. Original Certified Patent Drawing. Note that no saws are shown. 7ott^n Qin. S/3hioe£i~^A/0^ /. 3!^cj7teciJ&r./4. /rff4 ■ ^^■./. -^f:^J^ -^^y.-^^. Fig. 4. Drawing Accompanyingr the Substituted Patent. Note that saws are shown on this drawing. 2/J/vae6o—^SA/:ai'S. -j^-^.-^. _^^.-^. iZ-^jf.-^ Fig. 5. Drawing Accompanying Substituted Patent. 20 THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. out of sheet metal in the shape of saws. The model which would demonstrate that, was burned in the Patent Office., and has never been replaced. The records show that Holmes was not a man of collegiate education. It is natu- ral, therefore, that his specifications, which had to he put in the inventor's own language, should not be so clear as that of Whitney, who was a Yale graduate, and who had the assistance of two Yale Professors. (Josiah Stebbins and Elizur Goodrich ) , in the preparation of his papers. It is certain that Holmes was granted a patent, signed by George Washington, President, Timothy Pickering, Secretary of State and Chas. Lee, Attorney General. It is also certain that gins with saw teeth were in use about that time. In a book (Origin, Cultivation and Uses of Cotton) by W. B. Seabrook, President Agricultural Society of South Carolina, published in Charleston in 1844, the au- thor says: "The Holmes machine was set up in the gris: mill of Capt.James Kincaid on Mill Creek in Craven (now Fairfield) County, South Carolina, in J795, and is reported to have been the first of the saw gins used in that State." In the petition for injunction, filed in the United States Court, District of Georgia, by Whitney vs. Arthur Fort and John Powell. March 16. 1804. (For full text see Ap- pendix, Document V.) Defendants are charged with in- fringements beginning 1800. In the petition occurs this language: "And it is also pretended . . . ' that the ma- chine used by them contains in it an miprovement; . . . that is to say, teeth, cut into circular pieces of metal." A great deal of Whitney's correspondence has been pub- lished, in which the invention is discussed; but previous to the letter by his partner Miller to Whitney. Feb. 15. 17Q7, no allusion whatever is made to the saw j^rinciple. In this letter. Miller says:. "It will be best to take the deposition of Goodrich and Stebbins on the subject of ratchet wheels, which may hereafter be rendered useful." The words "ratchet wheels" refer to a description often used in court in describing gin saws. This was on account of the simi- laritv of the gin saw to the thin iron ratchet wheel used on THK INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. 21 tiie end of the wooden cloth roll of a hand loom to hold the cloth taut. The full text of this letter is given in A'jpendix, Docunieiit V II. The only evidence adauced to prove that Whitney invented the saw principle, is the deposition of some Yale College friends of Whitney's in New haven, taken iNov. 7, 1807, fourteen years after the first specifications were writ- ten. These depositions were taken by commission, at whose sittings the defence (though foimaily notified) were not represented. These depositions are now on file among the Court records above mentioned. They are all tj tl.e effect that the saw was in Whitney's mind when he made the invention, although it was not mentioned in the speci- fications. This research and discussion is not intended as an im- peachment, even by insinuation of the characters of the New Haven witnesses, most of whom the records show to be men of importance and integrity; but it seems proper to call attention to the facts: 1. That they testified to matters happening 14 years previously. 2. That there were only two years intervening between the issuance of Whitney's patent describing the spiked cylinder, and the issuance of the Holmes patent for the saw cylinder. 3. That Wliitney himself did at some early date make the gins with saws, and that it would naturally be hard to get the dates exact, after so long a time and at so great a distance. 4. That the memories of these witnesses were amply re- freshed. In support of this last observation is adduced a letter, dated Oct. 15, 1803, from W'hitney to Josiah Steb- bins, one of the witnesses to whom interrogatories were addressed. In this letter, Whitney asks Stebbins to depose as follows: 'T Jos. Stebbins, etc., etc., do testify and declare . . . that in the autumn of 1873 . . • that said Whitney repeatedly told me that he had orig- inally contemplated making a whole row of teeth from one 22 THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. plate or piece of metal. * * * / jiope you zcill be able call to mind the circumstances mentioned above. * *." The full text of this letter is given in Appendix, Docu ment VIII. The fact that the depositions of most of the other witnesses examined were substantially in the lan- guage of this letter written by Whitne}^ to Stebbins, seems to afford reasonable ground for stating that the memories of the other witneFses were similarly refreshed. When the case versus Fort and Powell came up for fimi adjudication, the Court gave a decree for perpetual injunc- tion. Prof. Olmstead cjuotes the text of the decree, in which occurs the following language: "A Mr. Holmes h?.s cut teeth in plates of iron, and passed them over the cylin- der. This is certainly a meritorious miprovement in tlu mechanical process of constructing this machine + + + . Whitney may not be at liberty to use Mr. Holmes' iron plate, but certainly Mr. Holmes' improvement dees not cestroy Mr. Whitney's patent right." The defence in all of the extensive litigation over the patent in Georgia, consists principally in claiming that there was a prior invention. The witnesses mostly relied upon to prove this were Dr. John Cortes Dyampert of Co- lumbia County, Georgia, and Mr. Roger ^McCarthy of Chatham County, Georgia. The former swore he saw a machine "somewhere in the Domains of the King of Prus- sia" la 1773, used for making lint 'n hospitals. McCarth-/ swore he saw something similar in 1790 or 1791. But it developed on cross-examination, and on the introductioi of numerous other witnesses, whose depositions are on file among the Court records, that these n-'achines were on en- tirely difl'erfni principles, and u=ed for other purpose . There were no means of separation other than gravity in au)^ of these machines, and they were all for beating and cleaning lint after seed had l^een removed. It was finally admitted by the defence that Whitnev's invention was new, but that the infringing machines were made before Whitney's model was publicly exhibited, or before it was publiclv announced that be had a patent. U/y/IT^ STATES OF AMERICP>.\ ^^£Kc^^ DIVISION. Y^ SOU THERN DIS TRICT OF GEORO^y' /^ v '^-^^:^:^~~~ Oerkof the Court of the UnOeiZ/StaLes of America., for the Southern District of true cop^ Georgia, do hereby certify that the Writing annexed to this certificate - -■ ^ y/7respectwe onginai^now onS&, and remaining on record in mg offic&y - of To wit m m IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have caused the seal of the said Court to he hereunto affixed, at the CityfC^i^'^^^'^ ef-in the Southern District of Georgia, this /^ day of ^ in the year of oar Lord, one thousand eight hundred and ninety and of the Indfipcndenee of the United States, the one hundred and twentg<^<^'^<^ J^ Cterk. y'^.jZe^./i^ the frame, an such msnjier as to give room for the clearer on one side of »t. flno the Hopper on the otl)er,as ip fig. I.- U.s height, if the machine is worked by hancl snould be about three feet four inches: otherwise it,ma> be Fig. 6. Certification of Whitney Patents, etc., showing few lines of the document attached. Full Text in Appendix, Document II 24 THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. See Fort's answer in W hitney vs. Fort and Powell, LJ. S. Court, District of Georgia, Dec. 17, 1805, Appendix, D( cnment V. There is a widespread allegation that "Whitney was bad- ly treated in the South." This seems to rest on the rumor that his first model was stolen from his shop at Mulberry Grove, Ga., that copies of it were widely made and used without license, that his witnesses failed to appear at tlie trials, that the South Carolina legislature after agreeing to pay him for the patent, afterward rescinded its action; and finally that there was a conspiracy among the cotton planters to invalidate his patent. As to the burglary of Whitney's shop, and stealing of liis models, there is not a word in the voluminous records of evidence in the infringement suits, extending over 13 years. Neither is any mention made of it in his published cori-espondence. This seems conclusive proof that the story is of subsequent and spurious origin. The facts regarding W^hitney's experierxes with the legislature of South Carolina, have been carefully investi- gated, and an abstract of the State House Records on th> subject is given in the Appendix, Document IX. An examination of these papers shows that Dec. 10, 1801, at the close of the session, the legislature passed a bill purchasing the Whitney patent right for the State fcr $50,000, agreeing to pay $20,000 in cash, and the remain- der in three equal annual installments, provided Whitne}' would make "within a reasonable time" two models of his gin, in his very best style, and file them for public inspec- tion in the State capitol, and provided further, that W'hit ney should refund all the amounts previously collected for license in the State. The cash payment was promptlv made. But Whitney did not, within two years comply with either requirement. The legislature in 1803 declared the contract forfeited, and provided for entering suit fo.- the recovery of the first payment. This action brougiit the final fulfillment of the conditions on the part of Whit- ney, in 1804. and then the legislature of 1804 ordered the UNiriW States of America,^ L^"^^^^ DIVISION \^^ SOUTHERN DISrmCT OF GEORGIA) *'a^ Court of the Unitei • Clerk of the tes of Amerioa., for the Southern District of Georgia, d^erebi/ certify that the Writing annexed to this certificate true cop^r*r >rd in my office, ^y /yfr ' yp respect^e ofjginal now onfile, and r^ainin IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto afpxed, at the Cdy. the seal of the said Court to be of in the Southern zz, ^ District of Georgia, this <^r.. day of ^^^^^/^^ in the year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and ninety VP^ and of the Independence of the United Stales, the one hundred, and Qerk. ..I fnventor. tN« pn-ncple <.P which invenKon cons.-.ts ,n ,he a-t of ex- tr«ctin« tHe cotton from the seed by n,«.„s ..i' ^e.h C(Hn(|riic-(ol Fig. 7. Certification cf Bill of Injunction by Deputy Clerk U. S. Court, showing few lines of Document attached. Full Text in Appendix, Document V. 26 THE INVENTION 01'' THE SAW GIN, suit discontinued and reinstated the contract in accord- ance witli which the deferred payments were promptly made. The legislature of North Carolina in December, i8o-'. bought the patent rig'ht for that State, and agreed to pay for it by a special tax of 2 shillings and six pence on eacli saw used in a gin within the State for four years. This tax was properly collected and turned over to the in\'entor. amounting 10 about thirty thousand dollars. Whitney's plan in Georgia, as shown by his letters and other evidence was to own all the gins and gin v\l the 'X)lton made in the country. It is but human .nature *:hat this sort of monopoly should be odious to any community; and when to this is added the fact, (as shown by letters to Whitney in Connecticut, from his part- ner Miller in Georgia^ that Whitney and Miller could noi supply the demand for gins, it seems natural that there .should have been nnich infringement. After the gins were introduced in 1794, there was a large cotton crop made for the next ^^eason, on the presumption that it could be pre- }iared for the market on the new machines. But when the crop was gathered,, and the gins were not forthcoming, many planters had rude gins made in their own blacksmith shops. From this circumstance, arose the rumors that the various workmen who made the gins were the original in- ventors. One of the traditions crediting the invention to Jesse Bui! of Columbia County, Ga , (afterwards of La- Grange, Ga.,) arose from the circumstance of a gin havin::^- 1:.een made for Bull In^ one of his employees, Nathan Lyons. It is said that when the first Whitney gins were in use in the count rv, no one but women were allowed to see them, and that Nathan Lyons, disguised as a woman, saw the gin and copied it. This legendar}^ story has no authentic foundation. The voluminous, evidence in the infringement suits nowhere re- fers to such an incident. Quite a number of legends about the invention of the gin liave no foundation whatever in fact. For example, the ^ '^^^'^r:^^..^ DIVISION ' ^^■ SOUTHERN DISTHICT OF CEORCI/.^ y.. Cx^d^J-r" Clerk of the JCourt of the imitcd States of America, for the Southern District of Georgia, do hereby certify that the Writing annexed to this eertificate ^^ respective original now onfile, and remaining a/^eeord in my office. irae cop '/ IN WITNESS WHEREOF. I Have cause^he seal of the said Court to be of in the Soutliern hereunto affixed, at the City District of Georgia, this in the year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and ninety an(t of the Indeaeudence of the United States, the one hundred and /^Idayoj^.^ tment •lerk. £iici is iiindft ci pci-i't (if thcl•.l^ r.iAi.i'ini..^ Fig. 8. Certification of Holmes' Patent by Deputy Clerk, U. S. Court, showing- few lines of document attached. Full Text ill Appendix, Document VI. 28 THE INVENTION OF THE SAW GIN. pleasant little story about the gin brush being suggested by the lady with her turkey tail fan. Holmes became a successful and prosperous planter. His descendents are numerous in South Carolina and Georgia, and are people of high social standing. The real facts about the cotton gin are : 1. Eli Whitney, of Mass., a graduate of Yale College, invented a cotton gin, consisting of spikes driven in a wooden cylinder, and having a slotted bar through which these spiked teeth passed, and having a brush to clear the spikes. He obtained a patent JVIarch 14, 1794, signed by George Washington, President, Edmund Randolph, Secretary of State, and Wm. Bradford, Attorney General. 2. Hodgen Holmes, of Georgia, a resourceful and prac- tical mechanic, invented an improved gin, using circu- lar saws properly spaced, passing through spaces between ribs. For this invention he obtained a patent May 12, 1796, signed by George W'ashington, President, Timothy Pickering, Secretary of State, and Chas. Lee, Attorney General. 3. Whitney's invention, consisting of a wooden cylinder, carrying annular rows of wire spikes, with a slotted bar and clearing brush was fundamental. 4. The practical application of the fundamental idea was Holmes' invention of the saw gin, which consisted ot a mandrel or shaft cairying collars separating circular saws which pass through narrow spaces between ribs. 5. Whitney went South without money, business experi- ence or mechanical training. He received from the South- ern States the following amounts : From South Carolina $50,000 From North Carolina, (at least) •. . 30,00a From 7enne«see, (about) 10,000 Royalties from Southern States $90,000 6. In Georgia, his firm (Miller & Whitney) attempted to monopolize the ginning business. This brought on long and vexatious litigation, and the object was never successfully accomplished. ^,^^ ^ ^ i V^^^\|^ < o xn > o CHAPTER III. ^be iprcparatton of Cotton for the flDarket Mith Slave Xabor. After the invention of the cotton gin, a plan of struc- ture was soon developed for the storage of cotton, and in which the separation of the cotton from the seed was ac- complished by the new machine. Generally, whoever bought one, built a house in which to place and use it, the house being so arranged as to cover the necessary machinery to operate the gin by power from two or four mules or horses. Accompanying this structure, there was usually a large press, the principal feature of which was a large wooden screw. This press was for packing the lint cotton into bales. The main building, above re- ferred to, was called the gin house. The press, taking its name froim its principal member, was called the screw, (possibly originally screw press). As these structures were developed in the early days oi cotton raising, so their shape and appearance remained, generally speaking, much like the original patterns untii 1875 to 1880. Up to that period it may be said that no improvement of any consequence had been made, and even at that period, few plantations were without the old style gin house and screw; though in many cases the horse power had been supplanted by a small steam engine. The requirements were as follows: 1. A place to store the seed cotton as it was gathered from the field. 2. A suitable place for the operation of the gin. 3. A lint room to receive the cotton as it came from the gin. 4. A lint room to receive the lint cotton for temporary storage while w^aiting to be packed. COTTON WITH SLAVE LABOR. 35 5. A place for the "running gear" or driving apparatus, so located that horse or mule power could be applied and be under shelter. The arrangement most common, and almost uniform, was a one and a half or two story building in which the main part of the the lower story was left without floor or sides, except where the side of the lint room adjoined it, as shown in Fig. 12. It was practically a building set up on wood pillars or columns, braced to make it firm and steady. The gin was placed in the second story, called the gin room; but this was always made large enough to serve as a store room for seed cotton as it was brought in from the field by the pickers. The gin discharged lint cotton into an upper lint room. This lint would be thrown down by hand through a door into a second lint room, adjoining it, and reaching down nearly to the ground. Here it would be trampled down to save room, while waiting to be carried out to the press. In the open space under the gin floor, was a vertical wooden shaft with long levers passing through it at i proper height from the the ground for hitching the mules. On this vertical shaft, above the levers, was a large wooden cog wheel, eight to ten feet in diameter. The cogs were made of hickory, and were mortised into the wooden rim. These meshed with the "wallowers" or "wabblers", set into the circumference of a horizontal shaft, which turned in w^ooden hangers suspended from the beams of the upper floor, as shown in Fig. 13. On this horizontal shaft was a plain wooden pulley six or eight feet in diameter, and from ^vhich, by means of a belt, the gin was driven. On the saw shaft of the gin was an eight- to twelve-inch pulley which received the belt from the driving pulley. It was desired to drive the gin at the rate of 200 to 300 revolutions per minute. These Avooden cog wheels and pulleys, clumsy as they were, were usually preferable to castings, because the first cost was much l^^ss, and the necessarv skill and material were 36 COTTON WITH SLAVE LABOR. both available to keep them in repair, neither the labor nor material costing anything. After the cotton was ginned it became necessary to put it into some kind of a package for the market. In the earlier gin houses there was a circular hole cut through the upper tioor, probably three to tliree and one-half feet in diameter. Through this hole a large sack was sus- pended. The lint cotton was packed into this by hand, making for the market what was called a "bag of cotton. ' (Among old people at the present time, this term survives as a designation for a bale of cotton, of any kind.) Jt afterwards became desirable to make bales 5 to 5^ feet long, about 30 inches thick, and 40 to 48 inches wide, weighing 400 to 500 pounds. This grew to be the stan- dard size and shape of the bale. It was the result of the conditions surrounding the plantation. The body of the wagon, in which the bales must be taken to market, held four of them neatly. When it was desired to haul more than four bales, others could be loaded cross-wise and on top of the four in the body of the wagon; then, still others on top of these, or as shown in Fig. 14. Ten bales was usually the limit of the load for a team of six mules. It was thus that most of the cotton was sent to market. Such a load was rather top-heavy, and the bales were in some cases bound to the wagon by a pole passing over them from front to rear which was tied down at each end by means of ropes, to the body or the frame of the wagon. Topmost of all for long trips, was an arch frame, made ft bent wood and covered with canvass, under which corn, fodder and food was stored for the trip. Much cotton was hauled in loads of this kind a distance of fifty, and even one hundred and fifty miles. From the large plantations two or three such loads would be sent together. No fault was ever found with the size or weight of the bales. It rarely happened that there was less than twice the force at hand to do anything ordinarily required to be done in the way of handling cotton. ]\Iuch O o o X 5 CO o COTTON WITH SUAVE LABOR. 39 of the humanity on a plantation was usually present to help load and ht out the wagons for a trip tO' the market town, and a whole day would frequently be devoted to loading and preparing. The "gear" must be overhauled. (Mules were usually driven in "gear," not harness. A set of gear consists of a collar made of shucks or poplar bark, a pair of hames, a hame-string. two trace chains and a back band.) The wagon cover often required patching and the carpenter and smith must tighten nuts, put in new bolts, and do such other repairs as seemed to them necessary to insure a safe trip. The season of hauling cotton generally brought bad weather, and the heavy travel of the cotton wagons would cause bad roads to be the rule. There was a fellow feeling amongst the wagon- ers on the road, and they helped each other out of mires, up steep hills, and in cases of overturning. Everything being in readiness, an early start was usually made from the plantation. Plenty of extra help was al- ways on hand, and besides the wagoner for each team, and perhaps a couple of helpers for each, several other stout hands would go, three, five and even fifteen miles, and then return home. The delight of the planter's young sons, twelve to six- teen years old, was to be allow-ed to accompany these wagons to market. The trip required three to six days, and even longer. When the sons would go, they would camp out with the negroes, live on the same fare, and often the members of the party would have a Httle "'pos- sum hunt" after camp was struck at night. It was by this sort of contact and fellowship with the negroes that the planter's son acquired that exact knowledge of the negroes' character which qualified him subsequently to control them on the plantation. Much of this fellowship of the planter's son with the negroes would now be consid- ered coarse. Most of his sports of that time were rough, but both these conditions contributed to the stimulation of the spirit of aristocracy. 40 COTTON WlTH SLAVE LABOR. If the mistress or young ladies should go, it was in the heavy carriage peculiar to the time and section. The planter himself would be on horse1)ack or in an open buggy with a servant. The abundance of help to handle them, and these cum- brous trips, in which heavy single bales remained best on the wagons, made the weight, shape and size of the bale which was made under the screw the most desirable, and therefore it was that the screw was designed to make them. The necessary quantity of cotton to make a bale could be packed by the weight of two men into a box with di- mensions equal to the length and thickness of the bale and about nine feet high. To press this down to the forty inches was the work of the screw. A heavy frame was made containing the box as described. See Fig. 29. This frame extended above the box and held a large nut made of four massive blocks of timber firmly pinned to gether. Through this wooden nut passed a large wooden screw, cut out of a log 14 to 16 inches in diameter, and with threads about four inches broad or eight and one- half inches pitch, fitting in similar threads in the nut. To be able to lay out and cut the threads in this screw and nut, and have them fit properly and work well was the test of a plantation mechanic's ability as a mill-wright and carpenter. From the upper end of this screw, long sloping levers extended very nearly to the ground when the screw was down, and to these levers, mules were hitched and driven around to pull the screw up and down in pack- ing the bale. Proper sheds were put about the lower part of the structure, and on the top of the screw and levers, to pro- tect the structure and the operatives from the weather. The screw was entirely separate from the gin house, and the lint cotton had to be carried in hamper baskets, from the lint room to the screw. See Fig. 12. For the purpose of ginning and packing cotton with o U O o 3 O X c O O o Id < o e 44 COTTON WITH SLAVE LABOR. the above facilities and appliances, there were generally reqtiired: Four mules to- operate tjje gin, (two at each lever under the gin house); two drivers under the gin house; in the story above, a ginner to stand at the gin and feed the cotton intO' it properly; a ginner's helper to supply the cotton to the ginner at the gin; a helper to push the lint from the gin into the lint room, and a man or a boy to remove the seed from the f^oor under the gin; two hands to carry cotton from the lint room to the screw; two hands in the box to pack the cotton down to make the box hold a bale; one or two mules to pull the screw and one or two drivers. In all, eleven hands, and fre- .c[uently as many more were "helping" around the gin house and screw on rainy days. If there was a break- down, most of the hands loitered about on piles of cotton or seed, while a few would help the carpenter or black- smith to repair the breaks. To gin and pack two or three bales a day was fair work for the above force. The bales were partially enclosed in jute bagging and bound with rope. From the time of the invention of the gin to the close of the Civil War, when slavery was abolished, there was no demand for methods and appliances other than those above described. Steam power would have brought responsibility with no commensurate advantages from the planter's point of view. The boiler might explode, and it it did, the smallest part of the loss would have been the engine and boiler. Two or more tliousand dollars worth of negroes might be killed, and perhaps many more wounded. This would make large doctor bills, and labor and attention to niu"se them. The special care of the sick was the most particular personal care of the humane planter. Then, too, a steam engine would be getting out of order, repairs w^culd have to be obtained from machine shops, which were few and often far distant. In fact, the planter himself would have to give it some attention, even if he had an ordinary overseer; and the planter had little taste for anything that would re(iuire his attention except the care and government of the humanity on his p^.antation. CHAPTER IV ^be Iplantatiou Before the Mar, Any discussion of Soiitheni plantation conditions before the Civil War, must of necessity, be intimately re- lated to the institution of slavery', and be coupled with the studv of the nesfro himself. -t>' The Negro Slave. Measured by Anglo-Saxon standards, a low type of un- educated negro is one bundle of contradictions. He can sleep more and get along with less sleep, eat more and get along with less to eat than ordinary humanity. In honesty and dishonesty, in strong affections and violent bad passions, in splendid loyalty and savage disloyalty, his moods often moving with rapidity from one extreme to the other in all these human motives, he is governed by his immediate surroundings and influences. It is totally at variance with Anglo-Saxon character to live in absolute subjection and yet love the master. The life on the plantation was one of absolute mastership on one side and of absolute subjection on the other, with the easiest sort of personal intercourse betw^eeu the two, and affection on both sides. In this statement is contained a fundamental differ- ence in the characters of the white man and the negro, which can never be appreciated except by those who have had intimate contact with the negro race. It is the lack of appreciation of this difference which made outside Anglo-Saxon plans of reconstruction bring such confusion instead of order, out of the disorders of the Civil War. The white man loves to control, and loves the person willing to be controlled by him. The negro readily sub- mits to the master hand, admires and even loves it. Left to his ow^n resources and free to act as his mind or emo- 48 THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. tions dictate, no man can foresay what he is liable to do. He may move under the int^uence of high motives and impulses, or of savage passions. All this relates to thv^ slave and to the freedman without education cr training. The so-called race problem is not cue, of the relations of a single white race with a single negro race, but rather one of a number of white races with a number of negro racss. The negro population of the United States is probably as much mixed as the white population. \\ he n the slav^ trade was in full operation, some rf the negroes brought over were absolute savages, while others enjoyed a considerable degree of civilization. The I'est and the worst were pro- bably I. GOO years apart in civilization, whih yet in their home in Africa. The highest types were rerhaos these from the interior of Africa, who had developed a fair civiliz:ition and were seldom enslaved. The lowest type was undoubtedly the West Coast Guinea negro, who was not only a savage, but the lowest type of Cannibal. On the Red Sea shore, near Arabia, there developed tribes of possibly higher civili- zation than those in Central Africa. Amongst the negroes themselves in the South, these differences are known and frequently referred to. The "blue-gum nigger," means the descendant of a west coast Cannibal type, while "the Dinka," is the superior type. Other negroes believe that the bite of a "blue-gum nigger" is deadly poison. The better types have many line qualities of character and sometimes amongst them are individuals of rare intellect, and even princely characteristics of mind and manners. But, as in India, the highest of the princes yield and defer to practical English thought, so in America, the African of high type defers to and promotes the civilization of the white man of composite Caucassian blood, (English, Ger- man, etc.). while the inferior types stand in wholesome awe only of the force with which the white man is known to insist upon as punishment for those wlio violate his civilization. j\Iuch the larger portion of the negroes caught and brought to this country by slave traders were naturally the inferior types. 2 "^ -5 o ^ j; ^:il V- •= "^ k; E ^ C S - ^ fee " Is -c p - ? 5 S :i Q < -^ O Z '^ 1:: I*, '5 It, "Z si H THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. 49 The (lesceiulants of the l)etter types tra\el most, and are servants about hotels and prixate honses, l)oth Xorth and South. The redemi)tion of the negro race from a conchtion of hackwarchiess and nnecinal de\'elopment may be accom- ])hshed ])y education. This is made to api)ear doubtful in many cases, where education has been seen to emphasize in- ■ H 51 <- X ^1 si s < a o {-< •r m ^_l :: o < (ft OS c hJ to * ^ ai S; ^ S to ?: -0 ^ Qi >; ^ c £ < fa ^ ^ rt bt 5 ^ s i: < < X ^ Wi bt z Z X 5 Q ^ ?^^ -5; ,^ ^ i ^ ^ ' 0, X « w w X t2 STORAL NILE.- " dark, with '^ w =1; .0- a bJ5 § 1 PQ X W ^ m ui u < a '5 < St i-T ^ 5 >> 2; ■ ai c .2 )_4 < ,°, '-2 '3 ,- - to u . a* 1 "^ C^ 1 Lj b£ y THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. 5 1 professional duelists, but were essentially the kind of men respected and beloved of humanity. Among' many other changes brought about in the cotton producing area oi the South, is the total disappearance of the sentiment in favor of, or the reason for the tolerance of the duel. One of the most grotesque absurdities of the ])resent day is the fool who poses as being willing to fight a duel, laboring under the delusion that he is imitating his grandfather. The courage of the best type of planter was never manifested in common fighting, and among his worthy descendants, the duel is equally in disrepute. The idea that the ante-bellum cotton planter was indolent, or an indilTerent Inisiness man, or that he was always a spendthrift is totally wrong. On the contrar}-, he was ever on the alert. He was judicial minded, energetic, usually well educated, always well trained in every operation con- nected with the production of standard crops. He suc- ceeded by the same means that are necessary for success now, viz. by better education, better training, more energy and steadiness of i)urpose, than the average of the jjeople who do not succeed so well. The system of agriculture operated 1)y the planter was wonderfully successful. Besides developing the production of cotton to an extent to give the world better, chea])er and more abundant raw material for clothing than ever before enjoyed, he at the same time, and in addition, produced more grain per capita, more meat per capita, and more home supplies, than the people" of any other part of the United States. The methods of organization, and of training the organizations were unsurpassed. Infiuences adverse to ed'.:- cation of labor, and fa\oral)le to the institution of slavery, ultimately destroyed a system that was in otlier respects most excellent, and wonderfully successful. Great improvement in the condition of Southern agricul- ture is being brought about by diversification of cro])s, even in sections that have as yet no manufacturing population. It has been pointed out that the ante-bellum Southern planter of cotton raised practically all his supplies at home. The 52 THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. post-bellum fanner has not been doing this; but he is coming more and more to it, and is prospering in proportion. Al- though population is largely increased in each cotton plant- ing State, none of them (Texas excluded) are even now raising as much corn, meat or wheat as they did in i860. Plantation Profits. The planter who produced cotton with slave lal)Of could always make money. Of cour.'^e, this varied great- ly. Some would make more and some less, and some would fail, without regard to the price of cotton. Even at 4c a pound, a planter who was energetic and had good judgment, could make from 8 to 10 per cent, on his in- vestment. This certainty of profit was entirely due to the fact that the support or living for all the humanity on the plantation was produced on the plantation. The crop was generally laid out on a basis of 25 acres to one good hand and one mule. Oi this land, 10 acres would generally be put in cotton, and 15 in wheat, corn and oats. The most able bodied men on the place were generally the plow hands. About one-half the labor was selected for this purpose. The older men, the strongest women and the youths 011 the place made another force of labor that did the hoeing, handling of the grain, pick- ing the cotton and all miscellaneous work. Of course, the work of the able bodied men was not confined to plowing. In season, some of them did the blacksmithing, clearing land, driving wagons, ginning and hauling cotton to market. In fact, there were no such formulated divisions, such as i^ above indicated, but the work of all the hands was subject to much vari- ation. In much of the work, all kinds of labor took some part; and in such work as hog-killing and sheep-shearing, even the children would like to be about and take a hand. A good planter could operate his ])lantation in such a way as to have practically the entire cotton crop as clear profit. This would, of course, mean that li\'e stock, grain THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. 53 aiul uther products of the plantation, l)eside cotton, would be sold in sufficient (juantity to yield money to buy clothes, sugar, cotfee, molasses and other necessary fam- ily and plantation supplies which could not be raised on the plantation. Extent of Plantations. Some plantations comprised as high as ten to twenty thousand acres of land, and one thousand slaves. These w^ere comparatively few, and the entire investments in such a plantation would have been about one million dollars. On the other hand, there were a great many in- stances of small cotton planters owning ten or less slaves, and 300 or less acres of land. The capital in such cases would not exceed eight to ten thousand dollars. The great bulk of the cotton was produced by planters who owned from 50 to 150 slaves and 2,000 to 5,000 acres of land. It was this great class that made their planta- tion supplies on the plantation, and made cotton growing- a great institution. Taking the average plantation at one hundred slaves and 3,000 acres of land, the equipment w^ould be as fol- low'S: 25 plow hands, 25 miscellaneous hands, 50 w'O'men and children, non-pr((hicers, 25 mules, 4 horses for family and general use, 600 hogs, 25 head cattle, 100 sheep, TO goats. 15 dogs. Chickens. p"uireas, i;eac( cks. turkeys, geese, dticks. etc. Blacksmith shoj), wheelwright a/id other wood-w'ork- ing shop, 20 to 2=^ negro hcnises, gin house and screw'. 54 THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. stables, barns, carriage houses and wagon sheds, and m many instances, a grist and flour mill, and a store. Such an average plantation of jog slaves and 3,000 acres of land, with its equipment, would be worth on an average about $100,000. It would produce about 100 bales of cottou, besides all supplies. Such a plantation, conducted with energy and good judgment, woud easily make $10,000 to $20,000 a year, according to manage- ment and the price of cotton. The query as to a man's wealth was not "how much is he worth?" but "how many negroes does he own?" Some planters were thrifty and economical, and grew richer with great rapidity, while many employed over- seers to look after tlieir estates, and spent the incomes in travel or local extravagance. The Plantation Home. It was the custom for the planter to live on his planta- tiou. Even those who traveled much had a home on the plantation, and spent much time there. The maintenance of the organization of the plantation and labor, and the control of the negroes as slaves, made it practically ne- cessary for the planter and his family to live on the place This left plenty of tnue 011 the hands of each member of the family. In this coudition the plantation home was always a hospitable place. Besides ample time, the host and his family hadabundant service, horses, vehicles, plenty of home raised food, excellent cooks, and plenty of amuse- ment, such as hunting and fishing for the men, and danc- ing for the young people. Even the music was made by a slave who "had learned the ^'iolin. (Negroes were fond of music, and many jf them learned to play different instru- ments.) There was no cumpulsion in such cases — none was ever necessary. The slightest suggestion by a young lady from the "big house," would bring the tender of ser- vices from every one on the place who could play the fid- dle. Besides being fond of music, the negroes were ex- THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. 57 ceedingiy fond of the gayety and finery of dances and other fnnctions. Indeed, whenever the company and the home folks furnished young people enough to make a quad- rille or Virginia reel, the first suggestion of the dance would be apt to come from some negro, who wished to see the fine people and dresses in the rhythmic evolutions. Then, too. fiddling in the big house at night for the young white folks, was an acceptable excuse for being late at work in the morn- ing-. At all entertainments the "field hands" (negroes who had not access to the house as servants or otherwise,) would crowd around the windows and porches to look on. as they were always welcome to do. The pleased expression on the faces of all these, and many other evidences showed t'^at, to them, to watch the dancing or other proceedings was great entertainment. On such occasions, it was not uncommon to see a young lady in the dance, when near a window, divide her atten- tion and conversation between the yoimg man who was her partner, and some negro woman on the otitside. wh.o was one of her slave friends. The publicity of all plantation life was training for the young men, and accustomed them to live in public view as it were, and contributed to make public speakers and statesmen. Previous to about 1845, niost of the negro houses were log cabins, and the houses of many planters were also built of logs. After 1845, most of the houses for botli planter and slave were frame, those for the planter being ustially large and pretentious, while those for the slaves were of about the same character as tenement houses built about the same time for factory operatives in the \orth and East. The log house was usually covered with what were locally known as "boards." These were 2^ to 3 feet long, and about 6 inches wide. They were riven or split out of logs, as shingles are. but were not drawn as shingles were then. 58 THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. ( Shingles were "drawn" smooth and tapering with a "draw- ing knife.") Frame houses were generally covered with shingles. Ceneral Organization. The average well regulated plantation was almost al- ways in the immediate charge of the owner. If the owner was a professional man, lawyer, doctor or preacher, there was generally an overseer. Many planters who were not professional men also had overseers. These overseers hail general charge of the labor. They blew a horn or rang a bell in the morning to call out the negroes to work, and otherwise looked after their labors in detail. The pay of the overseer was usually three to five hundred dollars a year, a house to live in, a good horse to ride, and some part of his living out of the products of the plantation. Tt was he who flogged the slaves, wiien this was considered necessary. There were generally on every plantation a carpenter and millwright, and a blacksmith. Wagons had wood axles and were lubricated with pine tar. This pine tar was made in a "tar kiln." Charcoal was used in the smith shop. This was made in a coal kiln. Collars for mules were made of corn shucks or poplar bark. Hogs, cattle, sheep and goats to make the meat supply were raised on the place. Much cotton and wool was spun at home, and not a little also wo'^en. Frequently wool would be ex- changed with some factory for cloth. The planter's wife would overlook the weaving and tlie making of the negroes' clothes, while most of the wcrk was done by the negro women. Tlanters' wi\'es and daughters combined in a curious way aristocratic ideas and habits with practical capabili- ties. While, as a rule, they rarely worked much, they nevertheless learned every domestic operation and duty, and could direct these with wonder- ful understanding and efficiency. Practically all THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. 6 1 ladies learned to ride horseback, and to handle horses, n:A only easily, but so well as to make it a real pleasure. A young- lady on a plantation would think nothing of having her horse saddled and riding ten miles in an afternoon to pay a visit, riding home the same afternoon. Much of the plantation work was turned into a frolic. In the autunm when the corn w^as gathered, many plant- ers would have it piled on the ground before the doors of the corn cribs, and then give a "corn-shucking.'" Everybody on the place w^ould be at the shucking, as would also negroes from neighboring plantations. Fre- ([uently many white people would be invited, and vvhile these would do no work, both whites and blacks would have a big frolic. The function was generally on a moon- light night. There was liquor, mostly corn whiskey, while the shucking was going en, and a supper afte-rwards. Per- haps a shote or calf would be killed and barbecued. One negro would be selected to get on top of the corn pile and lead in the singing, and the singing was a sort of solo re- frain by this one leader, and some chorus answer by all the others. Meanwhile the white folks would talk politics and hobnob in the big house. When new ground was to be cleared, the home folks cut down the trees, cut of¥ the brush, piled it, and when dry, burned it; and then, to get rid of the heavy logs, laid a plan to get them piled up and burned. Neighbors were again invited to help roll the logs into piles. This was called a "log-rolling," which was a daylight function. The social features of liquor, dinner and politics were about the same as those of the corn-shucking. The term "log-rolling" has been adopted as a political term, meaning: You hclv me, and I'll help you. New houses were freouently necessary for increasing numbers of ne- groes. For erecting the frames of these, "house-raisings" were similarlv gix'en. Amongst the women, quilting ])ar- ties w'ere common. Churches were liberally provided, and both master and 62 THE PLANTATION KKFORK THE WAR. slave attended church with regularity. In the summei-. when crops were "laid by," (work of cultivation finished; there would be, before harvest time, protracted and camp meetings, which would be liberally attended from far and near. Amusements. The amusements ( n the plantation were very numerous. In all of these, the negroes always took an interest, and in many participated. Fox hunting was very popular. Alany planters kept fox hounds, some as many as 25 or 30. It was not uncom- mon for ladies to ride after the iiounds, and occasionally a privileged negro would also be allowed to go. Almost every planter kept one or two pointer or setter dogs and hunted partridges or quail. This was perhaps the most standard sport. Besides the setters, pointers and fox hounds of fine breed, kept by the planter himself, his sons and the n.fgroes gener- ally kei^it up a collection of rabbit dogs, coon dogs and pos- sum dogs. Fishing was common and popular This was done wn'tli pole and line by everybody. The men and boys, white and black, went seining", gigging, grabbling, (hunting fish un- der stones) and muddying. Horse racing, chicken fighting, wrestling and boxing were all popular and perfectly respectable. These sports were conducted with perfect decorum: and as a rule there was little or no betting. Betting was not unusual, how- ever, and sometimes it would run high. House narties and picnics with dancing were frequent amongst the young white people, while barbecues, with po- litical speaking or miscellaneous oratory were indulged in by the older people. The negroes fiddled and danced much. The white boys and negroes hunted rabbits in day time and coons and opossums at night. The life of the planter and his sons was a hardy one and they loved hardy sports. THE PLANTATION BKFORE THE WAR. 65 These anuisenients — l)()th in j.loors and out doors — nsver interfered with the duties or domestic economies of the household or plantation. From Slave to Freedman. , During the Civil War, the cotion i)lantations were practically in charge of the planters' wives, assisted by a few old and decrepit men, and boys under 16 years of age, All other white people had gone to the war. It is the marvel of marvels that in this condition, lasting nearly four years, there was never an outbreak nor a symptom of discontent among the slaves. The negro character itself, the very exact and jjractical knowledge by the planters' wives of the negro character, and the ])ast training of the negro, all contributed to this result. The extent of the trust that was placed in the ne- gro's keeping, and the perfection of its keeping on his part during the war, can never be fully realized or appre- ciated. After the war, when the negro became free and was given the ballot, and when new dominating forces began to appear, the negro soon developed a number of charac- teristics that had been formerly suppressed or were latent. Adventurers came and misled him in politics; and while under the former control and influence he had been tract- able and amiable, under the new ores he became turbu- lent and riotous. Under bad leadership, and with negro votes State and county governments were set up wdiich became more corrupt and debauching than anything that ever existed before under the form of a government. A State militia w'as organized, composed almost entirely of negroes. White people were forbidden to carry arms by laws which were not observed, the "Ku-Klux Klan," which was a wdiite man's protective league, was formed; and it was probably this organization which saved civilization from utter annihilation in the South from 1867 to 1876. 64 THE PLANTATION BEFORE THE WAR. White Supremacy. In 1876 the whites, by great energy, and partly by force of arms, obtained control of the State governments, which were still under the control of the negroes and corrupt whites, and thus ended the semi-anarchistic con- ditions. From 1880 to 1900, the political, social and industrial conditions in the South were vastly improved. Manu- facturing industries in iron, cotton, cotton oil, lumber and other raw materials were establishea and prospered, l)Ut the voting power of the ignorant negroes made them still a disturbing and debasing influence in politics. From 1880 to 1900, practically all the cotton growirig States made laws withdrawing the right of suffrage from the illiterate whites and negroes. This seems to be elim- inating the last adverse influence exerted by the black man in politics, industrial development and progress. CHAPTER V. Zbc preparation of Cotton for tbc flDarhet, as nDoMftct) b\) tbc abolition of Slaverv\ After the Civil War. no quick clianges came about, other than proclaimed and legislated changes. The end of the conflict made the negroes legally free; but they had none of the habits or feelings of free men, and it took time for them to acquire them. The skilled laborers amongst them were naturally the most intelligent, and were the first to reach the point of obtaining definite compensation for labor. The wooden cogs and wallowers of the gin running gear used for transmission of power wore rapidly and required frequent renewal. When these renewals were made by labor that cost nothing, cogs and wallowers were better than cast bevel wheels. But when the labor had to be paid for in money, a demand grew at once for cast bevel wheels. On to the larger wheel, sections of castings were bolted, making of it a large bevel wheel, then a cast bevel pinion was put on the horizontal shaft, the heavy teeth meshing properly with each other. The application oi cast gearing about a gin house was probably the first move in the direction of saving labor. .Labor Saving Devices. It soon became difficult on a farm to command or coax ■enough negroes together to gin a crop of cotton, so de- moralized had they grown with their ideas of freedom. To them, freedom was absolution from work, and liberty to overstep all bounds. This difificulty of obtaining labor was accentuated by the advent of a system of separate farming, in which negroes rented lands on their own ac- count, and only worked enough to make themselves a bare living. 66 PREPARATION OF COTTON FOR MARKET. A spirit of interest began to manifest itself amongst planters in the introduction of appliances tending to reduce the number of hands and other annoyances connected with the preparation of cotton for the market. Wrought band iron rapidly took the place of ropes for binding the bales, both as a matter of economy and for safety from fire. The turbulent times growing out of the entrance of the negro into politics, made important the question of fire risk, which was formerly almost nothing. A mechanical attachment called the feeder, (A Fig. 21) into which the seed cotton could be put from time to tin«e, and which would, with proper adjustments, feed the gin, was now invented and much purchased. This dispensed with the ginner or his helper. Co-incident with the "feeder" came the "condenser," (G Fig. 21) which was an attachment to the gin to catch the lint cotton between two skeleton wire-cloth-bound rollers, delivering it from the gin in the shape of a continuous "bat", instead of like feathers in a gale. This did away with the lint room hand. Next came a compact press capable of pressing a bale by the power of two stout laborers This would be lo- cated in the lint room, or at some point outside, where the cotton could be conveniently pushed directly into the press from where the condenser delivered it. This dis- pensed with the hands to carry cotton from the lint room to the screw, and al=o with the mules and drivers which operated the screw. During all these changes, the negroes were moving slowly towards citizenship. The number of them owning mules was yearly increasing, and the tendency with the planter was to encourage them to rent land and furnish their own live stock; even though purchased on credit from the planter himself. It was thought that the feeling of ownership would result in better care of the stock. But this rendered more difificult the matter of getting together enough stock to do einning. Difficulties came also about the matter of keeping up the repairs about the gin house. PREPARATION OF COTTON FOR MARKET, 67 When a planter would adopt the tenant system — whether at once, or gradually — then he would disown any responsi- bility for furnishing facilities to tenants to prepare cotton for market. Co-operative efforts of the tenants to keep up the gin house and screw would fail of good or satisfac- tory results. Public Ginnery. By general consent it was determined that the best ar- rangement would be for the planter to.buy a steam engine, employ an engineer and the necessary force, and gin for the public for a fixed toll. Sometimes thib would take the form of a traveling outfit, composed of a portable engine on wheels, a gin set up on a wagon, and a hand press which could be quickly put together on the ground near by. This would go from one plantation to another, stopping sometimes at the old gin house, and sometimes going di- rect into the cotton fields. See Fig. 18. These changes may all be said to have forced themselves upon the plantation. They were not the result of any ex- ertion on the part of the planter or the tenant to find bet- ter or cheaper methods. Each feature was introduced as a matter of necessity, not as a preferable way, but as an only way the crop could be prepared for market. The planter thought himself abused, the victim of in- ferior labor, when he found that he must add to his gin- ning facilities. But when he established his rights to charge a toll, or other fair compensation for these facilities, and determined to hire and pay for the labor in and about the gin house, then did he begin to realize that he was nearing the end of one of his worst vexations. These in- dustrial changes were not the only ones that were taking place. Agricultural methods were being similarly revo- lutionized. The plantation tools of 1870 may be said to be the common woc.^d plow stock with a small variety of small iron plow-shares, a common weeding hoe, a scythe, and a wagon. On the same plantation in 1880, one would 68 PREPARATION OF COTTON FOR MARKET. be apt to find modern reapers, sulky plows, cotton plant- ers, elaborately made harrows, mid like implements. From the close of the war tO' the present time, the quantity of commercial fertilizers used, has increased from nothing to enormous proportions. Besides industrial and agricultural changes, a still greater change was in progress, viz: the complete political and social revolution of the entire country. Many a per- sonal conflict between the whites and blacks, reported aa a Ku-Klux or political row, was the result of honest dii-- ferences between employer and employe, upon unsettled business questions, aggravated by political agencies and prejudices. The wonder is, that where such vast changes were transpiring, tlie friction of the changes caused no more extensive trouble, plenty though there was. After some experience with steam power, its applica- tion to the cotton press, as well as to the gin, became common, and from a source of expense, trouble and worry, ginning quickly became a source of satisfaction and profit. This was effected by steam power, improved facilities, and the ordinary application of the principle of compensation for value recei\'ed. The question of ginning began now to receive much intelligent thought. A good steam ginnery came to be as much a standard property as a mill for grinding corn or fllouir. Whoever could attract the most public custom, gin the cheapest, and give the best satisfaction, as to ap- pearance of lint produced out of the same quality of cot- ton, could make the most money. Following these adaptations were well designed modern steam ginneries, well equipped with labor saving devices and appliances. Fig. 19 shows a brick ginnery with spiked belt elevators for handling seed cotton. This was well equipped with overhead water tank, hose and automatic sprinklers for fire protection. About 1885 to 1890 exhaust suction fans began to ap- Fig. 19. Improved Ginnery, 70 PREPARATION OF COTTON FOR MARKET. pear, with which seed cotton could be unloaded from the wagon through a pipe or flue and discharged into the gin feeder, or into bins partitioned off in the gin house. Or, if it was desirable, to hold seed cotton in storage, it was often done in small storage rooms, built apart from the gin house proper. When desired, this cotton would be fed to the gins direct from this outer house, or from a wagon, through a flue connected with this exhaust fan. See Figs. 25 and zy. For disposing of the seed as they come from the gin, spiral steel conveyors were brought into use, ar- ranged to discharge the seed through an opening in the bottom of tliem, or into a customer's wagon outside of the building. The seed, not needed for replanting, were formerly thrown out and allowed to rot and were then used as a fertilizer. They rapidly came to be sold to the cotton seed oil mills at good prices; others were cut up in suitable mills, to increase their fertilizing values, and thus they have assumed the position of a legitimate marketable pro- duct of cotton raising. The Problem of Baling. The most perplexing problem now before those engaged in the manufacture of improved macliinery for the prepa- ration of cotton for the market is the question of baling it. Immense progress has been made in the construction and improvement of railroad facilities in the South. The very long distances it was formerly necessary to haul cot- ton to reach a market, no longer exist, and the construc- tion of new lines is daily decreasing those distances. The product of large plantations is no longer hauled in ten bale loads behind 6-mule teams accompanied by a surplus force of negroes to handle the 500 pound bales. The plantations are cut up and divided. The business of the tenants is separate now and distinct, whether on the same plantation or not. Each tenant must market his own few bales in his one- or two-horse waggon. It would be PREPARATION OF COTTON FOR MARKET. 7 1 a matter of importance to many farmers if the bale was of a size and weight that one man could conveniently handle. The owners of public gins feel, also, the need of improve- ment in the matter of both the j^ress and bale. The operation of handling the cotton to get it in the press box; the necessity still existing for one or two men (or a complicated steam tramper) to tramp it in order to get a good bale; the size of the bale; the fact that pressing is a periodic, and not a continuous operation, and the inadequate and incomplete covering, are all objectionable from every point of view. Continuous presses, such as are used for ha}", ha\-e been used, making smaller and very desirable shaped bales, but the commerce of the country may be said to be based on the old form. Cotton is stored, shipped and sold on commission for so much a bale; and to change the size or shape is to confuse business in all these things. One advantage of these small bales is that the press is .powerful enough to make them sufficiently compact for export, whereas, ordinary plantation or ginnery bales have to be repressed in very heavy machines (called coin- presses) at central points and ports. Other ginnery presses have been devised to make com- pressed bales. One method is by folding a compressed la]j of cotton in layers, and then pressing the bale. Another is by tightly rolling up a compressed lap into a cylindric;d bale. Another is by spirally winding under pressure, and compressing cotton into cylindrical bale.. The most modern of these ginnery presses are designed to make bales as compact, and otherwise even more suitable for commerce, than the enormous and cumbrous compress plants heretofore standing and operating between the ginnery and export markets. CHAPTER. VI. ^bc fll^o^crn Cotton 6in, press an^ 6inneri?. The roller gin for separating lint from seed in Sea Island and other black seed cotton, is of very ancient origin. This machine is not well adapted for ginning the upland cotton of the United States. The Roller Gin. Fig. 20 shows a cross section of a common form of roller gin- Cotton is put into hopper A. It is pushed forward by the reciprocal motion of feeder B, against leather covered roll C. Shover B presses the cotton against the leather covered roll which draws the hbre under the stationary knife E. Beater knife D, in conjunction with stationary knife E, beats the seeds free from lint. Seed fall through grid F. Lint adheres to leather covered roll and passes arouud with it until it is cleared by clearer bar G. There are several improved forms of roller gins, mostly working on the same principle. The perfection of the roller gin has been brought about principally in England, for use in India and Egypt. Many of these gins have been brought to the United States, for use in the Sea Island cotton regions, and some few are now being introduced for long staple semi-upland cotton in the Mississippi Valley. A limited business is done in building these gins in the United States, but the gin busi- ness of the country is in saw gins. The Saw Gin. The original principles of the saw gin as patented b}' Whitney and Holmes remain to the present day the domi- nant features of the most modern cotton ein. ■■ ■■■■■■■^■■■1 ^F" ^ 00 Fig. 20. Roller Gin. 74 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. The most important advances in cotton ginning ma- chinery for the past hundred years consist in modes and material of construction; in the manner of applying the driving power, and in accessory appliances for feeding seed cotton to the gin, and taking the products away. The frame and most of the other parts of the gin were formerly made of wood, while now, the main parts are all of iron or steel. The original conception of the brush remains nearly the same. It formerly consisted of four cross arms, studded with bristles, while now it is a hollow wooden cylinder carrying 25 to 35 rows of bristles. Fig. 21 is a section showing the principal working parts of the gin of to-day. Saw Gin, Fig. 21, Lettering. A — Seed cotton feeder. B — Revolving distributor. C — Interior of breast. D — Saw cylinder. E — Brush. F — Flue to condenser. G — Condenser. Fig. 21. Section of Saw Gin. 76 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. Process. The feeder A may be tilled with seed cotton. It has- means of regulation, and it will feed it with proper speed to the gin. The cotton in the space C is acted on by the saws, which pull off the lint cotton and carry it througti the spaces between the ribs M, while the seed, which can- not pass through, fall out in the front. The brush E clears lint cotton from the teeth of the saws and blows it through the flue F against the perforated drum of the condenser. The air passes through the perforations and the lint is de- Hvered on the outside of the condenser in a thick compact sheet. The pull of the saw teeth on the mass of cotton in the breast, causes it to revolve in the breast in a direction op- posite to the saws. This prevents the saws from exerting a.. too sudden pull on the fibres, and it also serves the pur- pose of bringing fresh lots of cotton into contact with the teeth. It is important to have the breast so shaped that this cotton may revolve with <-he least friction. There have been some patents granted on various anti-friction devices, for the breast, such as rollers in the front, and re- volving heads at the two ends of the breast. The latter has proven to be of permanent merit In the gin invented by Whitney it was necessary that the operation of ginning should be intermittent, ginning one breast full at a time, and then letting out the seed. It transpired, however, that w'hen Holmes constructed a gin with saws, the form of breast was improved; it could make and carry a revolving roll of cotton. The breast could be left a little open at the bottom and. when the seeds were sufificiently cleared of lint by the saws, they would drop loose from the roll, having no longer lint enough to keep themselves engaged in the roll. The Holmes gin works continuously, the seed cotton be- ing fed to it evenly, while the seed drops out as the roll of cotton turns in the breast. MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. 11 Fig. 22 is a general i)ersi)ective view of the Holmes saw gin with feeder and condenser. Fig. 22. Perspective of Saw Gin. Figs. 21 and 22 exhibit practically the same gin as was tised in horse power gin houses shown in Fig. 12, except that feeder and condenser are added. In Fig. 12 the attendant must remain constantly at the gin to evenly feed the cotton to it. A gin without a condenser blows the loose, fluffy cott(jn into a separate room, from which it must be carried out in baskets to the press. The addition of the condenser, as in Figs. 21 and 22, greatly reduces the danger from fire, and enables the machinery to be more compactly arranged Huller Gin. In some sections of the country where the cotton plant grows very large and thick, and ripens fast, the cotton pickers are not careful in picking out the locks of cotton, but mix with the cotton some of the dried bolls, or cells in which it grows. These are locally called "hulls," (though the term is apt to be confused with cotton seed hulls, a product of the oil mill). A special gin has been designed to remove these hulls from the seed cotton, at 78 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. the same time that the seed are removed. This is known as a "huller gin". ''^niw^ Fig. 23. Hnller Gin. Fig. 23 is a section, showing the general construction of the huller gin. The cotton is fed into an outer breast, at the bottom of which is a revolving spiked roller which combs out the hulls, as the saws draw the cotton up into the main or inner breast. From the manner in which the cotton gets into the breast, this gin is also known as an "under-feed sfin." MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. 79 ilodifications of Gins. One maker has made a gin in which the cotton was fed into the end of breast and the roll forced endwise through the breast, the cleaned seed coming out at the other end A linter for oil mills has been made under this same plan. One maker has made a gin with sectional ribs ; that is, with riljs cut in two pieces, the cut being about where the teeth of the saws pass through the ribs and out of the breast box. The size of the gap must, of course, be less than the diameter of a cotton seed. One maker has made a gin without a brush, using a suc- tion fan to clear the saws. Numerous other special features have been tried, but none of these various modifications ha\e had any commercial success. Rating. All the gins are named and rated by their number oi saws. The early gins run by horse power had 45 saws. As the mechanical work on the gins became more perfect, and as steam came to be applied to driving gins, it was found that they could be made to advantage with more saws, so that 60-. 70- and 80-saw gins became common. The most popular size gin at the present time is the 70- saw. Gins are known as right or left hand, according as the driving pulley is on the right or left hand of the machine when standing in front, where the cotton is fed. Most gins have their brushes driven by a belt from the saw shaft, at the opposite end from the main drive. There is an- other method, however, in which the entire mechanism is driven with the main belt from a line shaft underneath, as shown in Fig. 24. Speeds. The speed of old horse power gins was 200 to 250 revo- lutions per minute, according as the mules or horses were driven slow or fast. Power gins are speeded faster, even Fig. 24. Gin Driven from Below. MODERN COTTON GIN, PRP:SS AND GINNERY, 8 I up to 500 revolutions per minute, for the sake of greater production. The quahty of Hnt cotton produced is greatly impaired by high speed. The action of saw teeth at high speed tends to cut the fibres. The fibres are sometimes cut at low speeds, by improper attention to the gin. If the roll of seed cotton becomes obstructed, and fails to properly revolve in the breast, the roll "breaks'': the saws continue to cut through the cotton m the same place and the lint is said to be "gin-cut." A newly sharpened gin will also sometimes cut the fibres. The remedy for this is to fill the breast w'ith seed, close it up, so they will not fall out, put in a quantity of sand and run the gin until the sharp edges have been ground smooth. Wet cotton often gins badly by gumming the saws and by choking and causing fibres to be cut. Sometimes a small quantity of kerosene oil is poured in the breast with the wet cotton, to prevent the gumming. It is necessary in any case when ginning damp cotton, to occasionally stop the gin and clean off the saws. Cotton Handling Devices. One of the most interesting features in the advance of ginning machinery is the means successively adopted for unloading the seed cotton from the wagons of the planters and storing it to wait for the gin, or conveying it directly to the gins. In the old days, when each planter had his own gin house. with one gin, it was a small matter for his numerous slaves to cairy his seed cotton in baskets up to the gin on the second floor. But when the ginnery became a public institution, with many gins, handling ten to fifty bales of lint cotton per day, the subject of getting the seed cotton unloaded from wagons and delivered to the gin. commenced to re- ceive serious attention. Among the first devices used for this purpose, was an endless belt, carrying spikes to pick 82 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRUvSS AND GINNERY, up and elevate the cotton in a manner similar to grain elevators, with cups on belt. Fig. 19 shows a gin house e(|uipped with this style of elevating machinery. This method has now been super- seded by pneumatic systems, in which a large suction fan operates on 12 inch galvanized iron pipes, so arranged ns Fig. 25. Improxed Ginnery. to suck the seed cotton directly from the wagons and de- liver it to the gins or to storage bins. Figs. 25 and 26 and 27 exhibit some forms of this de\'ice. One of the peculiarities of all the industries relying upon crude cotton as a raw material, is that the entire business for the year must be crowded into the short space of time during which the cotton is being harvested. This pecu- liarity becomes more marked, as the business approaches < c o Ul MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. 85 nearer to the cotton plant itself. It reaches the limit in the matter of harvesting or "picking,"' so that all the labor of picking mnst necessarily be done as fast as the cotton matures. Ginning is but one degree removed from this; and, while a small amount of storage is possible on the plan- tation, yet from its great bulk this is unhandy, and the gen- eral practice is to have the cotton ginned as fast as picked. Thus it happens that a public ginnery must be equipped to handle large quantities of cotton at a time, during the picking season of three or four months, notwithstanding it must lie idle most of the other months of the year. In order to. in some measure, distribute the heavy press of business on some days, most ginneries have storage bins, capable of holding one to three bales of seed cotton in each bin. ( This cotton is of course not in bales, but is usually discussed and measured in terms of the lint cotton it will produce.) Fig. 27 shows one arrangement of storage bins. The suction fan can take cotton from a wagon and deliver it into any desired bin; or it may take it from any desired bin and deliver it to the gins. The planter's wagon is usually arranged to hold one bale of seed cotton. He can drive under a suction spout and discharge his load in five to ten minutes. At this rate, about six bales per hour, or 60 to 70 bales per day, may be handled with one suction pipe. The average ginnery in the Southeastern United States has one suc- tion pipe and four to six 70-saw gins, which, when in good order, and running constantly, will gin ten to twelve bales per day each. There are many ginneries in Texas equipped to gin lOO to 200 bales per day. Fig. 28 shows such a ginnery in operation. The suction fans are arranged to deliver the cotton, and distribute it to the gins in a variety of ways, one of the most common being by means of an endless belt, traveling horizontally in a trough over the feeders By this means several gins may be put to work on one lot of cotton MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY, 89 at once, so that the customer usually has but a few mui- utes to wait for the ginning of his load of cotton. The seed from the gins are sometimes removed by spiral conveyors, but more often by air blasts or suction.s. They are usually deposited in an elevated bin, so the cus- tomer may drive under it and receive the seed by gravity. Often the seed aire sold to the ginner, who may be the purchasing agent for an oil mill, or who may have an oil mill in connection with his ginnery. The practice of handling seed by air blast is not to be gen- erally recommended. In the first place, it breaks the seed badly, in turning corners and otherwise. Besides this the blast fills the seed houses with dust and lint. The system of running a whole battery of gins on tht same lot of cotton at once, led to the adoption of a de- sign for delivering the cotton from all the gins into a single condenser, instead of individual con- densers, as formerly This effected a saving of labor, and enabled the cotton to be more rapidly delivered to- the press. Fig. 26 shows a ginnery with several gins delivering into the same condenser. The air created by the numerous gin brushes, is discharged from the coii- denser through a large galvanized iron pipe seen extend- ing through the roof. The condenser delivers its thick bat of cotton directly iruto the press, into which it is sometimes tramped down by the weight of one or two men. It is more usually, however, tramped by means of a "steam tramper,'' whidi is a long steam cylinder, arranged directly over the press, which is, from time to time, made to operate a platen just fitting the press box, thus crowding enough cotton into the box for the principal mechanism to press into a com- pact bale of about 500 pounds. Size and Shape of Bale. The size and shape of the l)ale has passed through many changes, though varying but little from the average Fize 90 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. of 58 inches long, 30 inches thick and 42 to 46 inches wide. This last dimension is the snhject of the greatest variation because this is determined by the amount of cotton put into the press, and by the hardness with which it is packed. Within the last few years, most ginners have united upon a standard for two dimensions, namelv, 54 inches lon.'^' and 24 inches thick. Designs of Presses. The mechanism for operating the cotton press has beeri, and is, of divers kinds. The first press of any gener;d adoption was the large wooden screw, set up outside, and turned by a horse cr mule, as \ariously shown in Figs. 12, 16. 29. Afterwards, the same arrangement was adopted, using an iron screw in place cf wood, with the result of greatly reducing the size. At a later date the screw was arranged with clutches and gearing, so that it could be driven by a belt from steam or water power. One of these presses is exhibited in Fig. 30. Presses are also actuated by hydraulic power. These have a vertical cylinder and plunger, about 10 inches in diameter, and of a leng-th equal to the travel of the press, which is usually about seven feet. The cylinder is under the press box and packs up. A hydraulic pump forces water or oil under the plunger at about 600 pounds pressure per square inch on the plunger. This makes a total pressure on the bale of about 47,000 pounds. vSome presses are actuated by direct steam presssure, as shown in Fig. 31. These have a vertical steam cylinder and piston, about 30 inches in diameter, under the press box. Steam is admitted at boiler pressure of 70 to 100 pounds per square inch. This gix'es a total pressure on the bale of 50,000 to 70.000 pounds. If the bale is t^f the standard size. 24x54 inches, this is equal to 40 to 50 pounds per square inch on the bale. This is the amount necessary to make a bale of the a\'erage density of 14 pounds per cubic foot, as it lea\'es the gin house. C 01 O MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. 93 Nearly all forms of commercial presses may be ar- ranged to pack up or down, to suit the convenience of the gin house. The press shown in Fig. 26 is an up-packing press. It shows one of the latest forms, known as the ''revolving box press." This press has two distinct cotton boxes, revolving around a common centre, so that while a bale is being packed, and secured with ties in one box. the large condenser may be delivering its cotton into the other, so that the operation of ginning and packing arc very nearly continuous. riodern Ginnery. Fig. 26 shows the most advanced design of ginnery now in use in the Southeast for turning out the so-called square bale. To drive the six gins of 70 saws each, with the press and the suction apparatus, requires about 80 horse power, and will gin 60 to 70 bales of cotton per day. It is a model of convenience, but leaves much to be de- sired from the standpoint of fire risk and from the stand- point of the mill engineer. The building should l)e of brick, and should be of the standard factory or slow-burn- ing construction. Ther. should be some provision for dis- posing of the great volumes of dust and lint laden air de- livered from the suction fans. As it is, this air fills the surrounding country with lint and dust. The fans should be arranged to discharge into a fire-proof dust room of ample capacity to allow it to settle and purify, before emerging from a tall brick flue. There are also other methods of disposing of the dust. It would be better to have all the machines consecutivel)- arranged on one floor, and driven from overhead shafting. The storage bins for seed cotton should be separated by brick walls, and the wdiole plant should have ample fire protection apparatus. Arranged in this way the insurance rates would not ex- ceed half of one per cent, per aninun, whereas they now range from 4 to 8 per cent. While the various machines enterins: into the organiza- 94 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. tion of a ginnery have been \ery nuich improved by in- vention and design, the old traditions of having one story below to accommodate the rnnning gear or driv- ing appliances, are -^till preserved. This makes much waste room, and materially increases the fire risk. There would seem to be room for im]Drovement in modifying the forms of some few of the machines, so that there could be an organization of machinery arranged on one floor of a single story building, as is the case with cotton mill machinery. Looking to the accomplishment of the im- proved organization of the machiner)- in a ginning plant, it is desirable to have a press that would stand on the floor and have its parts accessible to a man standing on the same floor, and make a bale of suflicient density for ex- port. The handling machinery and condenser should also stand upon the floor in a similar manner. In the best of the so-called square bale presses, the bales delivered are far from satisfactory. They are not dense enough, the bagging" does not entirely cover the cotton^ and they are not sufticienth- uniform in size and weight. Compress. The density of cotton bales is increased by the "com- press," which is a very heavy special press, costing about $40,000. It is usually operated in seaport cities and in railroad centres to save space in transportation. These are usually down-packing presses made of heavy iron, ana using direct steam pressure. The steam cylinders are 80 to 90 inches in diameter, and they use steam at 100 pounds pressure. This exerts a total pressure of 500,000 to 600,000 pounds, or about 400 pounds per square inch on the bale. This reduces the width of the bale to about 20 inches, and makes it 20x24x54. with a density of about 30 pounds per cubic foot. Fig 32 shows a general view of one form of press. This press has knuckle joints to increase the force of the steam. Fig. 30. Modern Screw Cotton Press. Fig. 31. Steam Cotton Press. 98 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. Ginnery Compress. Within the past ten ytars there has been much new work done in trying to produce a bale at the gin house that would have sul^cient density for export, and also be com- pletely covered with better material than the coarse jute bagging now in common use. Ginnery Compress to Make Square Bales, loo Pounds. Fig". ^T, shows a press that was made the basis of the first effort to revise the shape and weight of the bale, an-I compress it at the ginner}-. This was about 1880. This works somewhat on the order of a common hay press. When this effort was made, neither the commercial nor industrial conditions were favorable to make its in- troduction practicable. Transportation charges, rents, ginning charges, commercial compensations, commis- sions and other transactions in cotton were to a very large extent rated per ]:ale — the bale being the old standard 450 to 500 pound plantation bale. The j:roposed press made the new bale about 18 inches square, weighing about 100 pounds, and having a density < f about 30 pounds to the cubic foot. This is about the usual den- sity of the old standard bales after being compressed. It was proposed to bind these with wire as a hay bale is bound, and then to slip them into :i canvass sack, which could be returned to the ginner by the consumer of tht cotton. This press, the new style of the bale and its cov- ering commended itself to all intelligent people who were connected in any way with the cotton industry. But the difficulties of introducing it to supplant the old form bale, with the usages associated with it, were as great as the difficulty would be of introducing the metric system (notwithstanding its superiorities) into an engineering of- fice which contemplated continuing business with the peo- ple accustomed only to feet and inches. In spite of these difficulties, quite a number of these ginnery compresses were introduced. But it could at that Fig. 32. Cotton Compress with Knuckle Joints. LofC. MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNKRV. lOI time make no hea(hva}- against the inertia of the old system. About 1895, the controlling force of old influ- ences began to relax, and it began to be appreciated that there was needed a more convenient, more compact and better covered bale than the old style plantation bale. Public interest has stimulated the production of a number of l^resses designed lo produce convenient compressed bales at the ginnery. It is not yet apparent that any of these have sur|:assed the press shown in Fig. ^^. Ginnery Compress to Make Folded Lap Square Bales. 5oo Pounds. Among the flrst devices for completing the pressing oi cotton at the ginnery, turning out a bale ready for export, was a machine for pressing the sheet of cotton as it em- erged from the gin condenser. This machine consisted of two rolls, held tightly together as they revolved, (be- tween which the cotton passed), and a folder which re- cei\ed this compressed sheet, and folded it back and forth in the ordinary cotton press. The rolls performed the real compressing, and the ordinary cotton press merely closed up the layers tight and held them until the ties could be secured. The density of this bale was as great as any regularly compressed bale, 25 to 30 pounds per cubic foot; the bale was of the prevailing shape and size, and all the mechanical features seemed to be favorable to the general introduction of this system. But for some reason this system never reached any commercial impor- tance. The fundamental idea, however, of compressing a sheet of cotton between rolls, previous to baling, is suc- cessfully employed in one of the presses now^ in use for the production of the cylindrical, or so-called round bales. I02 MODERN COTTON GIN, rRH;SS AND GINNERY. Ginnery Compress to Hake Cylindrical Lap Bales, 250 Pounds. Fig. 34 shows a cross section of a double continuous press for making cylindrical, or so-called round bales. Lettering. A — Flue leading from gins. B — Wire cloth cylinder. C — Air vent. D — Condensing chamber. EF — Compress rolls. G — Lap rod. H — Lap winding pressure roll. J — Hydraulic pressure cylinder. K — Wide rubber l^ale-supporting apron. L — Tightening roll. M — Reel for bagging. N — Valve board. Process. Cotton comes from the gins through flue A. The air current from the gin brushes, conveying the cotton, es- capes through the wire cloth surface B and passes out the open ends of the cylinder in hood leading to air vent C. The cotton falls into condensing chamber D. From condensing chamber it passes as a condensed sheet between the compress rolls EF. The compressed lap is carried by the bale-supporting apron K to the lap rod G. It is given a start by hand around the lap rod G. The lap winding pressure roll H is then set up by the hydraulic cylinder J. The roll H recedes under press'jre as the bale increases in diameter. As the bale increases it requires more of the apron K Fig. 34. Ginnery Compress, Cylindrical Lap Bale. MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND OINNERY. IO5 to support it. This is compensated for 1)y the rising of the tightening roll L. When bale has become full size, the \alve board N is reversed, changing condensed sheet to companion press, which commences at once to make another bale. t'^ Bagging is led from reel M to the completed bale, robed once around it, cut to length and sewed lengthwise. Then the bale is taken out, lap rod removed and the bagging closed at the ends. The bales from this press are generally 40 inches long, to correspond with wiciti; of lapper in a cotton mill. They are made to weigh about 250 pounds, ha^'e a density of about 30 pounds and are sold b}' samples, taken while the bale is being made. The principal objr^ctfons made to the round lap baL' are. (i) that the fibre is injured by the severe pressure put on the lap as it passes through the pressure rolls, (2) that the centre is so tightly wound that it is diffictilt to open it for use, (3) "false packing," the piu- ting of bad grade cotton in the centre is hard to detect, (4) when used by putting on opener apron and fed direct to picker room machinery as is intended, there is less mixing than is desirable for good cotton mill practice, ( 5 ) wdien piled up in warehouse, the space between bales form objectionable crevices, where fire might occur and be entirely out of reach of fire fighting apparatus; (6) when these bales get wet, the layers tend to become felted and hard, like wood pul]) ; such layers are useless to the spinner. Io6 MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. Ginnery Compress to Make End Packed Cylindrical Bales, 250 Pounds. Figs. 35 and 36 show cross sections of another press for making' cvhnch'ical bales. Lettering. I — Upper part of frame. 2 — Friction roHer. 3 — Frame of revolving baling chamloer. 4 — Tapered portion of revolvmg baling chamber. 5 — Slatted portion of revolving baling chamber. 6 — Head tree to hold slotted plates. 7 — Stationary slotted plates. 8 — Slots in plates. 9 — Pinion to revolve baling chamber. 10 — Core to make hole through bale. II — Hopper for loose cotton. 12 — Feeding fingers.. 13 — Hydraulic ram. 14 — Cap for base of bale. 15 — Severing knives, attached to baling chamber. 16 — Radial slide for knife. 17 — Severing kni\-es, separate from lialing chan_"i- ber. 18 — Knife rods. 19 — Movable bale carrier. 20 — Radial arm for bale carrier. Process. Cotton is piled into hopper 11. Fingers 12 force portions of cotton through slots in plate 7. Cotton in revolving chamber 4 catches the loose cotton and draws it under the plate. The raper in this revolving chaml)er and the pressure of the hydraulic ram from be- low, ]^ack the bale. Fig. 35. Ginnery Compress, End Packed Cylindrical Bale. MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND CxINNERV. IO9 As the loose cotton continues to Ije drawn in, the hiile grows, and passes on into the basket section 5. The bale base on hydraulic lam is forced up against the bale and resists the downward passage with a definite pressure. As bale grows this forces the ram (h^wn. When proper length of bale is made, the bale base 14 engages the knife bar 18 which operates the knives 17 to cut off the l)ale. while knives i 5 support the cotton re- maining in the chamber 5. Ram 13 is lowered out of the way of bale base 14. Bale base 14 is caught on radial arm 20 and swung out of the way, carrying the bale with it. The bale is tied with wire and slipped into a sack and tied. Another bale base is swung into |)osition. Ram is run up to bottom of baling chamber, the knives are withdrawn, and another bale proceeds from the baling chamber. This press makes an acceptal)le bale. The disadvantages of this press are, ( i ) the greai friction on the cotton as it is drawn through and under the slotted plates has a tendency to burn the cotton, or to discolor it by scorching. (2) There must always remain a certain amount of cotton in the press. This makes it inconvenient in public ginneries, where each customer wants his cotton kept sepa- rate, and wants it all, as soon as it is ginned. ( 3 ) Same insurance objections as to round lap bale. (4) Additional insurance objection on account of o'pening length ways (like a "Tack-in-the-box") when wires break, under the action of heat. ( 5) Hardened edges, on account of friction in taper l)ale chamber. no MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY; Ginnery Compress For flaking End Packed Cylindrical Bales, 250 Pounds. Fig's, ^y and 38 show cross sections of still another press for making round Ijales. Lettering. I — Base plate. 2 — Supporting columns. 3 — Annular top frame. 4 — Head tree. 5 — Annular rotating ring with bearings to carry compression rolls. 6 — Bearings of compression rolls. 7 — Neck of compression rolls. 8 — Compression rolls. 9 — Bevel gear to rotate rolls, 10 — Stationary rack on which pinion rolls. II — Anti-friction rollers. 12 — Hopper for cotton. 13 — Core to make hole in bale. 14 — Frame for holding interchangeable baling chambers 15-16 — Split ring and bars. 17 — Hinges. 18 — Latch. 19 — Base of baling chamber. 20 — Hydraulic cylinder. 21 — Annular hydraulic ram to carry baling cham- ber. 22 — Inner hydraulic ram, to press the bale. Process. Inner hydraulic ran: 22 forces base of baling chamber 19 up against rolls 8. Cotton is put in hopper 12. Fig. 37. Ginnery Compress, End Packed Cylindrical Bale. Fig. 38. Ginnen- Compress, End Packed Cylindrical Bale c o o CO o MODERN COTTON GIN, PRESS AND GINNERY. II5 Shaft and pinion 26 and 25 transmit rotary motion to annular ring 5, carrying compression rolls 8. Compression rolls 8 are carried around by rotating ring 5, and are at the same time rotated on their own axes. Cotton is drawn under rolls 8 and compressed against base of baling chamber 19, which is held hard by the hy- draulic pressure, under the inner ram. As the bale grows, inner hydraulic ram is pressed lower, until bale is finished. When bale is finished, rams are lowered out of the way, baling chamber is swung out, bale is tied with wire and put into a sack. Meantime, another baling chamber is swung into the press to receive the next bale. This is a late design of press for making round bales, which is not yet on the market, and whose advantages and disadvantages have not yet been determined. Many efforts are now being made to produce a satisfac- tory press to make, at the ginnery, a bale of sufficient den- sity for export, and at the same time meet the require- ments of the domestic market. The accomplishment of such a result w^ould seem very desirable. Several such machines now being introduced seem to give fair promise of success. CHAPTER VII. Zbc BMantino, Cultivation an^ Ibarvcstino of Cotton. The cotton herein discussed is the upland varieties of Gossypium Herbaceum cuhivated in the Southern United States. Varieties. Without entering- into the history of this plant and 4ts numberless varieties, a few of the best kinds will ^e studied. The method of preparing lands, planting, fer- tilizing, cultivating and ginning will apply equally well to most of the other varieties of upland cotton. The se- lection of the particular variety of cotton adapted to an}- special locality, with its surrounding conditions of cli- mate, weather, soil, labor, etc., caniiOt be predetermined, in the absence of some precedent in that locality. The best that can be done is to select such varieties as have proven best under similar environments, and to finally de- velop the particular habit of plant best suited to that lo- cality, by a process of annually selecting seed and culti- vating. For example, if the ground is very rich and ca- pable of developing large plants with many bolls, a large variety should be selected at the start, and seed should be selected each successive year from the largest and best fruited stalks, at a period of its growth when its fruit is in the most perfect condition. If the ravages of leaf in- sects are to be feared, cotton with a low habit and a min- imum amount of foliage should be selected and bred, ff labor is scarce at any particular season of the year, cotton should be selected which will be ready for the harvest as nearly as possible at other seasons. If labor is abundant and cheap at all seasons of the year, it is, in general more PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. II9 piofitable to cultivate a variety whose maturity will ex- tend over a prolonged period. This necessitates a larger number of successive pickings, but contributes in the end to a larger yield of the plant. On the other hand, if labor is scarce, a variety must be selected that will require the smallest number of separate pickings, thus enabling the laborer to pick a lar;^er quantity per day. As an example of two extremes in this particular, the variety known as "King" produces .^.o per cent, at the first picking and 40 per cent, at the second picking, at dates about two weeks apart. The remaining 20 per cent, has to be gathered in from two to three more pickings. The variety "Texas Oak" appears to give the greatest yield of upland cot- ton, and it yields to per cent at first picking, 40 per cent, at second and 40 per cent, at third. The method above outlined for gradually breeding the special variety adapted to a certain condition, may be termed artificial selection, which is based on the same laws as natural selection. In addition to this, the method of hybridization has been widely and successfully adopte-i in the breeding of cotton varieties. This is accomplished by cutting out the stamens from the flower of one plant and artificially fertilizing the pistil of this flower with the pollen dusted from the stamen of a flower from a plant ci another variety. The flower thus impregnated producs a boll of cotton, whose seeds partake more or less of the characteristics of both parents. The seeds produce a new hybrid variety. This in turn may be hybridized, so that by proper skill, any given characteristic may be accentu- ated to any desired extent. These cotton hybrids, like most other hybrids, are liable to great variation, and great care is necessary, for several generations, to pro- duce a new^ variety which shall remain stable and true to name. Range of Locality. All varieties of cotton may be grown through a wide range of latitude, and various conditiors ci soil and I20 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. vicissitudes of weather, without fertihzing, and with the simplest methods oi culture. This was abundantly dem- onstrated in the Southern United States, on the libera- tion of its slaves. These people were absolutely without education, and totally incapable of thinking or planning' for themselves. They naturally contmued farming as an cccupation, but signally failed in all crops l)ut cotton, which grew in spite of any method or lack of method. But in modern and intelligent cotton farming, the proRt arises from carefully considering ail the details as to va- rieties and farming operations. Habits. Cotton is plants 1 in early spring, and germinates in tlnee or four days. In about one month it begins to pro- duce buds. The buds are developed in a large involucre which, from its shrpe, gi-.es to the bud the local name "square." See Fig. 40A. Aftera-'- other month, when the plant is 10 to 15 inches high, this bud opens and produces a . white flower about i^ inches long, and and about the same diameter. See Fig. 40B. The petals turn pink the second mor-ing aft^r its appearance, and orop off tne third, leaving the small ovary abcut ^r inches in diameter, within the involucre. This ovary is known as the "boll," and grows, after about one month, to full maturity, being then ovoid and about ixi^ inches in diameter. See Fig. 41 A. The plant is then mature, and is about 4 feet high. The boll ripens in from one to two months, turning from a bright green to browai, and. becoming dry, cracks open, separating into about five segments. See Fig. 41 B. • W'thin each of these segments lightly adheres the lint .'cotton sur- rounding the seed, abcut 32 in number. See Fig. 42. These separate cotton segments are called "locks." Cot- ton in this condition is generally called ''seed cotton," as distinguished from "lint cotton." which is the product o bvD 6 w pi C CQ PI.ANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. 1 25 without the seed, being the article known in commerce as "cotton." There are usually about lo.ooo cotton plants per acre. Yield. The average yield under moderate cultivation is about i-io lbs. of seed ccUton per plant, about 1-3 of which is lint, and 2-3 seed. These yields and proportions vary, of course, with variety of cotton and mode of treatment. The long period re'']uired for the growth and maturity of cotton, while rendering inconvenient the growth of other crops on the same land in the same year, possesses the great advantages of enabling the plant to average up in its lifetime, extreme variations in heat, cold, moisture and drought: thus a total failure of the cotton crop is practi- cally impossible. 5oil. Ideal soil for the production of cotton is considered to be fine sandy loam, underlaid with clay; the sand serving to transmit heat and air to the roots, and the clay sub-soil to retain moisture and prevent .caching away of fertilizers. Natural fertility in soil, seems not to be permanent, because, Avithout the annual application of fertilizers, cotton, like all other plants, would, in time, exhaust the land. This time would naturally be longer, the more fertile the soil. But it follows that land which is fertile by nature, is also a land which will conserve artificial fertilizers. Fertilizers. While cotton responds most generously to the appli- cation of fertiHzers, it is not possible to indefinitely in- crease this yield. The limit of increase depends upon the character of the soil. Though in any soil this limit of in- crease may be extended by judicious treatment. The reaching of this limit is analogous to the correct propor- 126 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND .HARVESTING. tions of a mechanical structure like a bridge. There must be the proper materials, they must be properly dis- tributed and of the proper weight. In this condition, any increase in the amount of material used actually de- tracts from the utility of the structure. But it is always possible by readjusring supports, to add new strength by the addition of more material. T-he"pro])er method of proportioning and mixing the in- gredients to produce the desired results, is fully treated in the chapter on Fertilizers. Draft on the Soil. The cotton plant takes less from the soil than most other crops. If the actual elements of nutrition which this plant requires, be annually restored to the soil, cotton may be profitably grown on the same land annually for all time, without any rotation, other than that gained by planting the rows of cotton each year, between the rows of the pre- vious year. Implements for Cultivation. Owing to the low mechanical ability in the class of labor that was heretofore almost universal in cotton farming in the United States, advancement toward scientific and complicated agricultural implements has been exceedingly slow. Nothing but the least complicated implements have maintained their supremacy, those wiiich can be easily re- paired at the plantation blacksmith shop. The motive power was the mule ; the transmission appa- ratus was harness with the least number of parts, made of corn husks, cotton ropes and bands and chains (locally known as "gear") ; the plow was as simple as could be made, with no adjustments save as to the "point"; the guiding hand was the negro. This was a congenial and a harmoni- ous whole, which the natural law of evolution developed as the most profitable engine — the white man being the o o O PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. 1 29 engineer — for the |)r.)diiclic)n of the largest share of the; world's cotton crop. As one after anoiher of social and racial conditions have changed, changes naturally occurred in agricultural implements. As the price of plantation labor materially advanced. lalx)r saving implements naturally came into being, and they were adjusted to suit the conditions. Figure 43 exhibits the common form of plow, as a whole; the iron part, shown bolted on at the extreme bot- tom, being know^n as the "plow "point," and the rest of it as the "plow stock." The point of attachment at the ex- treme right has two divisions; if the draft arrangement is put in the lower divijion, the plow runs shallower, and if in the upper division, deeper. Formerly the entire plov/ stock was made of c^ik. only the point being iron or steel. It is now' the univer.-al practice to make them with the iron foot, as shown The handles are 24 inches apart, and the length of beam 44 inches. The weight is about 40 pounds. Figure 44 shows some of the plow points. No. 3 is the "shovel." It measures 10 inches wide and 12 inches long. It is principally used to run the last or middle furrow in making the "bed." as described in the paragraph on Preparation of Land. No. 4 is the "scooter," or "bull- tongue." It is 4^ ii:ches wide and 12 inches long. It is used to run the first or laying-off furrows in bedding, an-.l to run in many of the subsequent furrows for deepening them. It is also used as a part of a combination shown hereafter. Nos. 5 and 6 are different forms of the sweep. No. 5 is 20 inches wide and 12 inches long. No 6 is 20 inches wide and 12 mches long. The sweep is used in cultivating growing cotton, to kill grass while loosening up the earth to the shallowest possible amount. The sweep is intended to be wide enough from tip to tip to go over in two runs the entire si:)ace between two adjacent cotton rows, running as near each row of jilants as pos- sible not to actuallv cut them. 130 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVEvSTING. In Figure 45, Nos. i and 2 are different forms of the turn plow used for general purposes in breaking up land, and for bedding. No. i is 7^ inches wide and 12 inches long. No. 2 is 7 inches wide and 16 inches long. No. S is another form of sweep, built up of three parts: two sep- arable "wings," and the centre part, which is the scooter shown at No. 4, Figure 44. The three parts are shown in Figure 46 bolted together with the "heel bolt," which is the bolt used to fasten plow points to the plow stock. This bolt has a thumb nut, which can be screwed up bv hand and made tigi.i; by striking with a heavy stick or stone, or any object convenient in the field. The width of this is about the same as other sweeps. The centre piece is put on for a guide to steady the plow in its course. It enters the ground far enough away from the plant not to cut the roots, especially when the plant is young. No. 6, Figure 44, runs shallower, and is a better fc^rm to use as the plant grows older and the roots reach farther. Figure 46 sh(jws another sweep built up of two pieces; the same scooter (No. 4, Fig. 44), for a centr.e, and a flat piece of steel (No. 7) beu't around, to form the wingb. This is about ^ inches thick and 3 inches broad. Built-up sW'Ceps are easier to make and repair than the solid kinds, and they can be made from the ordinary small sizes of bar steel kept around the shop or in stock at the village stores. No. 10 is the hoe used for "chopping out" cot- ton, or killing the ^inperfluous plants, to leave growing plants at a certain distance apart in the row. The blade i.- 7 inches wide and 6 inches long. The handle is 64 inches long. Figure 47 shows two fertilizer distributors; one a tin funnel with long spout, and the other a more advanced form. The funnel is 5 inches wide at the mouth and 42 inches long. It is colloquially known as a "guano horn." A man carries it by means of a rope tied in the two rings, and slung over the shoulder, so that the spout trails in the furrow. He also carries a sack of guano, so placed ^^ .>^^/»rfs l^nj Co P'iG. 4-1 . Sundry Plow Points. :^df^afr/c^i, r^iy (, Fig. 43. Sundry Plcnv Points. PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. I 35 that he can easily take out a cup-full at a time, and throw it in the funnel as uriformly as possible while he walks. The funnel prevents wind from scattering the guano. The machine shown in Figure 47 is pushed by hand so that the wheel folio vvs down the furrow. Guano runs out of the hopper into tlie shaker, which is agitated by means of cams on side of \,heel. The amount distributed may be adjusted by a thumb nut on top. which regulates the distance that shaker hangs from bottom of hopper. The machine is 66 inches long and 24 inches wide l)etween handles, and weighs 40 pounds. Figure 48 is a cotton planter, which makes a small fur- row, drops seed in it at a uniform rate, and covers it. It consists of a hopper, holding about half bushel of seed, supported by two be.ims which meet in front, and diverge to the handles in the rear. In the extreme front, at left of figure, is a plate with holes in it tor attaching the draft arrangement for mule. Directly back of that is a narrow plow arranged to adjust at varying depths to open the seed furrow. Next comes a wooden wheel following in the furrow. A crank is attached to the axis of wheel, which oscillates by means of a connecting rod, a smaill shaft in hopper. This shaft carries long teeth at right angles to it. to agitate the seed and force them out at the open- ing in bottom. This agitation is necessary to make the seed fall out, because the particles of adhering lint cause them to stick together and pack. Behind the seed apert- ure, follows the covering board, attached to the frame of machine by long springs, to compensate for unevenne?s of ground. The machine is about the same size as the ferti- lizer distributor and weighs 60 pounds. Figure 49 is a large sub-soiler, which is but rarely used. Something similar -s in use in parts of Texas for origin- ally breaking up prairie lands and putting them in tilth. It is somewhat larger than the ordinary plow, and on ac- count of the heavy "point," weighs 100 pounds. The plow points for use with this plow are cast steel, made 136 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. separable, so tliat p;;rts most (|uickly worn may be re- placed. Plow points shown in 1^'ignres 44 and 45 were fcjrmerly made of wrought iron, and had the points plaited or "laid,' by welding on narrow- pieces of steel. Bars of iron about 3-8 inches thick and of just the right w^idth for the various plows, were usually bought, along with othet plantation supplies, and the plows were forged at honie. Now, however, it is the custom to buy plows from the implement factories, where they are shaped out of solid steel by special machir.es, and are cheaper and better than the home-made article. In any case it is necessary to liave a blacksmith forge for sharpening plows on the j)lantation. It is esjjecially desirable to ahvays keep sweeps as sharp as possible, to the end that they may not fail to cut all grass and weeds between cotton rows. Preparation of Land. Land which has never been under cultivation lor any crop should be put in readiness for cotton crop in the same general way as for other crops, that is: cleared of all rubbish of whaicve nature, and plowed up, to get the land in good "tilth." Except in the case of prairie lands, where heavy grass covers the ground, this preparation should l)e accom])r:s!ied as late as possible in the spring, just in time to be ready before planting. Some planters make a practice of i)rcparing cotton kinds in the fall for the next s])ring pkniting; but it has I~>een abundantly proven that, (excp]:)t for special reasons hereafter men- tioned) such w'ork. on the average cotton land, is worse than useless, for the reason that it softens the land for the reception of wmter rains, which leach away much natural ])lant food. The prac- tice of fall preparation originated in Northern lati- tudes, where much snow falls, and where deep freezing is f?cilitated. Both of these matters are of recognized value to the land. X X PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. 1 39 All vegetable mntter when properly decomposed, is valuable plant food; therefore if the proposed field is cov- ered with dead grass and roots, it should be plowed under in order that it may decompose and furnish food for the new- cotton crop. This is a matter requiring careful judgment, in estimating whether the expense involved in turning under the particular grass in question will bring a commensurate return as a fertilizer on that particular land. Its value will always be in its nitrogen; and, if the land happens to be already rich in ihat element, as in the ■case of lands in river bottoms and cane brakes, the additional nitrogen is not profitable. When breaking up land, the plowing must be as deep as possible, and done when the ground is in the right condition as to moisture, so that it will not clod. If, from the nature of the land, clods are inevitable, the harrow^ must follow. No crop may be successfully raised in soil where lumps and clods exist to an extent to prevent uniformit}' in jilanting, covering and cultivating. When, by the foregoing operations, the ground is brought into good tilth," the operation of "bedding" is begun. This is the throwir.g up of wide elevated ridges, in the centre and top of which, the seed is to be drilled. The width of these beds is therefore determined by the width decided upon for the cotton rows. The entire field is made up into these alternate beds and "middles" or cen- tre furrows. The w'dth of the cotton rows in the South- ern States of America is by common consent made four feet, while in the Southwestern prairies, and in the Mis- sissippi bottoms, rows are sometimes six feet. The gen- eral rule may l)e stated that rows are to be laid off a dis- tance equal to the average height attained by the plant. The first operation in bedding, is plowing a series of furrows throughout the field, at proper distance apart for the row^s. (say four feet). On hillsides these rows must run in contours, around the hill, in order to keep as near 140 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. level as possiljle, to prevent washing- by heavy rains. Cotton does just aj: well, if not better, on level ground, and whenever possible, fairly level ground should he chcsen. In this case, rows are generally run north and south with an idea to catch the sun more fully between them, and are as straight as they can be plowed. The usual method of laying off rows in the Southeastern States of America is to set up a tall pole (with a piece of cotton or white paper on the top end to make :t visible) at the north- western corner of the held. Start the plow at the south- western corner; but Ijefore proceeding" set up another pole four feet east of starting point, for a target for the return row. Plow straight toward the pole at northwestern corner, driving the mule so that the pole is always visible between his ears, and holding the jjIow steady. At the end of the row (which on level ground may be half a mile long) move the pole eight feet to the east for the next target, and plow souih, towards the pcle set up at the be- ginning. An experienced man can layoff rows l)y this method as straight as if run with a transit. A scooter (4) is the usual plow for this purpose. It does not make a furrow deep enough, but any deep running plow would be difficult to hold in its course with r-ufificient accuracy for spacing off the rows. Another scooter should follow in the same furrow, and make it altogether at least 12 inches deep. In this deep centre furrow should be distributed the fertilizer, of the amount and kind set forth in the chap- ter on fertilizers. It should l^e applied with a ferti- lizer distributor. See Fig. 47. This machine can be ad- justed to evenly del"ver any required amoimt. Otlier plows follow^ each olher on each side of the centre furrow, throwing the soil toward the centre, imtil they reach half the distance to the adjacent row. This half-w^ay line is called the "middle." The plows used in bedding are, first, the scooter(4) ici laying off and sub-soiling in same furrow; then the turn plow (2) on each side, followed by a scooter for deepening, in same furrow. This is repeated' o ..„J ci E O CO o to PLA.NT1NG, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. 1 45 in furrow after furrjw until the ■'middles" are reached. One line is plowed down the middle with a shovel (3). It requires about 1 1 furrows to complete the '"bed,"' which forms a ridge lour feet wide and rising above tlie natural level of ground some six inches, flanked on each side by "middles/" which appear like flat gullies some six inches below natural level. The ridge itself thus ap- pears to be about 12 inches high. The fertilizer is thus buried in the centre of ridge about 18 inches deep. One of the cardinal points is to get deep tilth in order to induce cotton roots to grow deep in the ground. Cotton has a tap root, which will, under favorable conditions, go fovu" feet deep in search of food and moisture. The deeper that ground can be stirred in preparation, the deeper the roots will run, thus obtaining' a firm hold against storms, and providing the plant with moisture during droughts. It might naturally be in- ferred that the deep plowing required, could he obtained with fewer furrowings by using a heavy two-horse plow like that shown in Figure 49. There are condition^- where this might be true. The soil must be very sandy or friable, so that the large rolls of earth, turned up at each furrow, will naturally fall in a finely divided state. The soil must not be too damp, or the large plow will inc^'itably leave lumps, while relatively small plows repeated in the same furrow% as described, will reach as deep, and tend to puherize any kind of soil. If the heavy plow be used, and large clods result while bedding, the evil cannot be remedied with a harrow, as is the case of ordinary breaking up of lands, for the reason that harrowing would destroy the ^hape of the bed. The time required to make beds for cotton, not includ- ing any preliminary process of clearmg the land and put- ting it in "tilth," is based on the average distance walked by a mule while drawing a plow, say 17 miles per day. For row's four feet vx'ide 11 furrows per row, there are 22 miles of furrows per acre, hence one plow can bed .8 146 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. acres per day. The number of irmles and plow hands must be so calculated that all the land designed to be planted in cotton, may be prepared within one month pre\'ious to the date of planting. This limit is arbitrary, but is based on the fact that (within practical limits) the shorter time the beds lie exposed to the weather before receixing seed, the loss chance there is for leachmg away the fertilizers, and ^vM- settling and hardening of the soil. At the rate above mentioned, one plow can bed about 2a .acres per month. This allowance is about the usual prac- tice, and provides f.n- spare time to devote to small food crops generally considered essential in connection with cotton farming. If cotton is to be planted in a field which has just pro- duced a crop of cotton, the laying out of rows is simplified, l)ecause the dd beds serve as markers. The new l^eds are arranged to lie exactly over the old middles, and vice versa. This alhnvs a given strip of land to rest, and to raise cotton alternate years. This i)ractice has the further advantage of allowing the fertilizer furrow to go deeper, as it is already somewhat lower than the top of the bed. Planting. The date of planting cotton varies with the climate and with the seasons, from March loth m Southern Texas to Alay 1st in North Carolina. The theory is to plant as early as it can be safely assumed that there is no danger from frost. The young cotton plant is very easily dam- aged. It will stand consideral)le frost without being ac- tually killed; but it is inevitably stunted, and frequently to such an extent that other cotton planted two weeks later may thrive and produce much better. Cotton has been known to mature a good crop in the State of Georgi-i when planted June i.^t. although the usual date of planting there is April loth. This is mentioned to show the possi- bilities in the case when the weather conditions are just right. But such planting as a rule would only be experi- o "o CO ON -^ 6 I— I PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. I49 mental. Early plaiuing is desirable in order to give the plant time to get a firm hold on the soil, during spring" rains, in order to survive the long summer droughts, (about 100 days) Ui,ual in cotton growing localities. Late planting is generally productive of inferior lint. A shallow furrow, some three inches deep, is opened in the middle of the bed and the seed drilled in and covered one to two inches deep. The earlier that cotton is planted, the more b'ghtly must it be covered, because the ground is colder, anc the seed has less warmth to make it germinate. An implement called the "cotton planter" (Figure 48) is used for the complete operation of opening the furrow, sowing the seed and covering. It is drawn by a mule in the same manner as a plow, and can be ad- justed to distribute seed as thinly or thickly as desired. One man and mule can plant with this implement six to eight acres per day, and it is done with great regularity. Formerly the planting was done by opening places in the bed with a hoe (10) at more or less regular intervals, and dropping a handful of seed into each place, and covering with the hoe. This work was done by women. A good day's work was one acre per day. Four times as much seed w^as used as with the latter method. The result, too, was not so good, some seed being planted deeper than others, so that some plants came up later than others. Although the cotton plants, when mature, never stand less than one foot apart, the intention is to drop with the cotton planter one seed every inch. This is tO' allow for any irregularity in the working of the implement, and for faulty seed. When the plants come up, they are all thin- ned to the required distance, as hereafter described. Seed is so cheap that but little effort is made to econo- mize in the amount planted. When costly, selected seed is used, or when, for other reasons the price is high, the amount sowed may be w ith profit reduced. At the rate of one seed per inch in rows four feet apart. 131,000 seeds are reciuired per acre.. As there are about 150 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. 5,000 seed per pound it requires 2b pounds, or nearly a bushel per acre. As the plants are to finally stand only one-twelfth the planted distance, it is obvious that, under the most economical system used at present, eleven- twelfths, or over 90 per cent, of the seed is wasted. The object in plarting cotton in ridges, as described, is primarily to drain it of surplus water. The plant does not recjuire much water at the surface of the ground. In- cidently, the elevated bed or ridge, gives the roots freer access to heat and air. The "middles'" form a complete drainage system for the field, rendering it impossible for puddles of water to stand in the cotton. Cultivation. Within three to six ciays after planting (depending on weather and on care in planting) the cotton plant ap- pears with two (false) leaves above ground, standing thick in rows. When it attains its third leaf it is three to five inches high, and is two to four weeks old. This is the season for thinning out (called "chopping") to the re- quired distance. This is done with the hoe (10). and the intention is to leave only one stalk in a place. The proper distance for plants to stand in the row has never been defi- nitely fixed, some good planters preferring only 9 inches, while others, equally as successful, contend for twice this distance. It would seem, therefore, under average condi- tions, that the distance apart, within these limits, makes but little difference m the ultimate yield of cotton. The closer the plants stand, the greater the number that may stand on a given area, but (ordinarily) the less yield per plant. Certain conditions of soil and climate, how- ever, seem to produce better at one distance than another. It is well known, for instance, that thick planting superin- duces early maturity, so that, if for reasons of early frost in the autumn, or for fear of some late insect pest, it is de- sired to hasten the maturity of the crop, thick planting would be preferred. On the whole, it would seem bet- Fig. 50. Gang Plow for Culti\atina- Cotton. 152 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. ter practice to leave the plants not more than 12 inches apart, and trust to ]:igh fertilization and cultivation to make each plant produce its maximum. Having- deter- mined upon the desired distance, a hoe must be selected whose width shall be ecjual to that distance, or one-half or one-third of it, so that the chopping may be systematic- ally performed. The average hoe is seven inches wide, and this has been frequently a factor in fixing a distance between plants at 14 inches, so that there would be two chops between the plants. Experienced choppers perform the w^ork with great ac- curacy, and do about two acres per day. A matter of the greatest importance in chopping cotton is to have the hoes sharp, in order to cleanly cut the surpertluous plants, and not tear them out of the ground, to the detriment of the remaining plants. Care must be exercised not to cut the ground too deeply and thus disturb the roots of the young and tender plants. This, in fact, is a point to be insisted upon in every stage of cultivation. Re-Planting. If, after chopping out, any misfortune befalls the plant^^ such as late frost, or the ravages of cut worms, so that many scattering plants die, the first thing to suggest it- self is re-planting the vacant spaces. This must neces- sarily be done by hand, that is, with the hoe. Formerly this was much practiced; but it was in the day when all seeds were originally planted by hand. Thus, re-planting in spots would be cheaper than uprooting the entire crop and replanting all at once. At the present time, this lat- ter is almost universally resorted to, owing to the fact that the entire crop can be re-planted with the cotton planting machine cheaper than planting the missing spots by hand; enough cheaper, in fact, to more than pay for the seed and the expense of chopping out again. Procedure on the above basis developed another important point, whicii has since been applied as a general principle to other crops Fig. 51. Snlky Plow for Cultivating Cotton. 154 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. as well, namely : re-planting a crop produces plants of dif- ferent age from the original planting, and hence in all subsequent cultivation, the operation which is correct at any given time for the first planted crop, is too early for the re-planted crop, and vice versa. If proper judgment is exercised, however, in fixing the date of planting, it is extremely rare that any re-planting is necessary. In the matter of frost, it must not be too hastily assumed that the young plant is killed because it hes withered on the ground. It sometimes happens that apparently dead plants will revive after a frost, under the right condition of weather, and grow to perfect maturity. Plowing. When the plant is about two or three weeks old, the first plowing" for culti\'ation begins. This is generally done with the sweep (6), which is made in a variety of forms, but all havhig for the central idea, a broad and exceedingly shallow cut, not exceeding one-half inch. The object of this plow is to cut ofif grass and weeds grow- ing between the rows, and to break the hard crust on the surface, all without in the slightest degree cutting or dis- turbing the cotton roots. "Deep preparation and shal- low cultivation" musi be the planter's motto. This sort of cultivation produces the efifect of mulching. It keeps the ground more moist then when left to crust over. The crust consists oi numerous capillary tubes which bring up moisture and let it evaporate. Breaking up the crust de- stroys these capillaries. It has become a homely proverb that "two good plowings equal a rain." The sweep is so constructed that two furrows with it will about cover the space between the planted rows. Two furrows per row of cotton, then, is the required amount of plowing for this operation, and one man can plow four acres per day. This same kind of plowing must be repeated about every three wrecks, at times when the weather seems fa- Fig. 52. Disc Cultivator for Cotton. 156 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. vorable, that is, not too wet. Dry weather must never interfere. This intermittent plowing is kept up until the plants are well fruited, say August ist, thus requiring about five plowings, or equal to i;^ days work for one plow per acre. The number of plow^s assigned to this work may be so proportioned on a large farm, that they are just able to plow once around in three weeks, so that when they have finished work at one edge of the farm, the first edge is ready for the second plowing". The sweeps some- time leave a small strip in the iiiddles, which may be plowed out occasionally with a shovel (3), if it appears to be necessary. This is colloquially called "bursting out middles." Hoeing. It is sometimes, tliough seldom, considered profitable to hoe cotton, at intervals between plowings. This is to cultivate the spaces Ijetween plants in the row, for the same purpose as plow'ing between the rows. Great care is necessary in hoeing to avoid damaging the limbs of plants. The hoe mu?t not be raised more than 18 inches from the ground, and it must never strike any part of the plant. It is, under a'* erage conditions, of doubtful profit When cotton is origiiially chopped out, any grass or weeds disposed to germinate in the row are supposed to be kill- ed, along with the surplus cotton plants, and the plowing between rows is mostly suf^cient to keep the entire crop clean. But, at \vhatever cost, the field must be kept clear of foreign vegetation. It is self-evident that all the moisture and plant food consumed by foreign vegetation must be drawn from that designed for the planted crop. "Laying By." After the last plowing, say one month before the cotton begins to open, the crop is said to be "laid by," and re- • quires no more work o^ any description until picking time. 1 Fig. 53. Cotton Stalk Cutter. 158 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. Grass and weeds will grow in the rows to some extent, ])nt as the fruit is already developed, it does not interfere with the crop. All of the work above outlined to bring cotton to the point of harvesting (not including possible extermination of insect enemies) consists of: Bedding and fertilizing ii furrows per row Planting i furrow per row Chopi)ing out, one hoeing. Cultivating (five times) 10 furrows per row Total plowing 22 furrows per row- Total hoeing, i. When rows are four feet apart, the total equivalent time is one man and one m.ule twO' and three-quarter days per acre, one woman (to chop out) one-half day per acre. Improved Methods. The f(jregoing description of the production of a cotton crop is applicable to the most ordinary farming in the sandy soils on the southeastern seaboard. In this region bedding is considered essential, and thus, for the reasons stated, there ])re\ails the laborious system of plowing many furrows with small plows, instead of completing the operation wath fewer and dee])er plow-ings. In many sections of the country, it has been found that except in low-lying fields, where drainage is to be con- sidered, bedding is not necessary, and cotton is planted in drills on the level ground, in the same way as wdieat. This method simplifies man}' of the ()])erations, and conduces to the use of improved implements. In this case, the largest plows (like Fig. 49), may be used for breaking up ground, and if clods result from such plowing, the harrow may be used to pulverize them, with- out fear of spoiling the shape of any beds. The most advanced cotton farmers now use two-horse Q X3 o o I— ( PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. l6l sulky plows for many purposes. For cultivating between the rows, to keep clown weeds and grasses, se\-eral kinds of improved implements are in use. Figure 50 is a gang plow, known as a walking cultivator. A l)etter implement known as a riding culti- vator is shown in Fig. 51. Both of these implements have a tendency to plow too deep for cotton, unless intelligently managed. Fig. 52 shows a disc cultivator that very nearly approaches in action the old fashioned sweep. It wull shear off the weeds and grass without danger of injury to the shallow cotton roots. The discs are arranged to be set at any desired angle. They m.ay also be used as a harrow-, i'hey may be removed and any other kind of plows put in their place. All of these implements are arranged to strad- dle the cotton row^s. Figure 53 is a stalk cutter. It is very valuable for cut- ting up the cotton stalks so they may be plow-ed under. Formerly the stalks were pulled up by the roots and burned, thereby wasting much vegetable matter which should have been returned to the soil. The whole stalks could not be plowed under without making serious obstruction to aft^r- cultivaticn. But if stalks are cut up fine, they may be plowed under to great advantage. The cotton stalks grown on one average acre weigh over half a ton, and contain about 15 pounds of nitrogen. This is nearly as much nitrogen as is usually supplied to an acre of cotton land in a commercial fertilizer. Scientific study of agriculture has done much to improve the condition of farms and farmers. Intelligent attention to improved methods and implements is making the pro- duction of cotton one of the most attractive of pursuits. Picking or Harvesting. The picking or harvesting of cotton is generally com- menced in August in the Southwest, and in September in the Southeast. Generally the crop is picked over three times, at intervals of about one month; occasionallv the 1 62 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. crop is picked over twice; but sometimes four tnues; .n exceptional cases hve tuuts. Alen. women and children engage in the picking. Pickers nsuc.lly carry a sack straj)- ped over their shoulders, into which the cotton is put as picked. The sacks are emptied at end of rows in sheets or in wagons. In the Southeastern States the cost of picking is from 40 to 60 cents per iiiuulred pounds of seed cotton. in Texas the cost ranges from ()0 cents to $1 per hundred pounds. The c|uantity one person can jjick varies greatly with the person. Children as \oung as eight years can pick cotton. Those of an average of 12 vears can pick 20 to 30 pounds jjer da}-. Some adults can pick only 75 pounds per day, v.hile others can ])ick as much as 300. -Most adult pickers can pick from 125 to 150 pounds. Of course, the quantity picked depends to a large extent upon the abundance oi open cotton at the time of picking. The actual work nt j/icking is very light. The liending of the back makes the work arduous. Reckoning one man power as the tqi:ivalent of one-eighth horse power, this amount is expended in harvesting al)out 150 pounds of seed cotton. TV.is is at the rate oi 1.200 poimds per horse power per da\ . It ma\- be estimated that the power as now expended in picking cotton by hand is not more than one-tenth as efhcient as the mechanical power which is now in use tor ginning". The great quantity of labor recpiired to pick the cro]) l)v the j^resent inefficient hand method, limits the (piantitv of cotton that can be produced per cai)it i. The cheajMiess of labor for cotton picking is also an important factor. It is related that experiments in cotton culture have been entirely success- ful in California, but that the high price of labor for pick- ing ($1.50 to $2.50 ]ier day) was prohibitive. Cotton picking it 75 cents per hundred is a cost of about 2| cents ])er pound of lint cotton. This is one-third of the average market ^■ah1e of the lint. '■J tr. o o d PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVP:STING. 1 65 In Texas the cost of picking is sometimes one-half the value of the lint cotton. These proportionate costs of picking, viz: One-third in the Southeast, and one-half ni the Southwest, represent about the Hmit that could be profitably paid in the respective sections. The difference in limits is made by the natural fertility of the soil in the Southwest, whereas it is necessary on the soils of the Southeast to apply large quantities of fertilizers. Referring to the cost of labor in California, ($2.50 per day), it is readily seen that the picking alone would cost 7^ cents per pound of lint cotton. If a machine could be devised, by which the power of a man could be applied with reasonable eiTficiency, he could pick ten times as much as by the present inefficient hand method. Assuming the present wages, this would bring down the cost from ray 2-| cents a pound to ^ cent a pound. If such a machine could be adapted to mule or hor,e power, the cost could be still further reduced, even in con- nection with higher wages. Such a machine would ma- terially increase the cotton producing area, which is now confined to sections w here there is an abundance of cheap labor. The problem is a difficult one. Several machines have been built, but sc far, none have been even approxi- mately successful. Several cotton picker schemes have also been made a basis for selling the stock of companies in cities distant from the cotton growing section, when it was well known by the speculative promoters that tlie machine had no merit. The difTficulties in the way of the invention of a success- ful cotton picker do not appear greater than those that were in the way of ir-venting a reaper and binder, or of a sewing machine. The chief difificulty which seems to stand in the way of a successful machine is that it must pick the cotton which is open, without injuring the plant, or any of the unopened bolls. The production of a successful cotton picking machine would seem to be the most attractive legitimate field now open for inventive talent. l66 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTINCr. TABLE III. SHOWING ESTIMATED VALUE OF A SUCCESS- FUL COTTON PICKING MACHINE. Average value of a lo million bale crop. . . . $300,000,000 Average cost of hand picking at 66 -?-3 cents per 100 pounds per bale 10 Whole cost of hand picking 10 million bales. . 100,000,000 A machine increasing efficiency tenfold would reduce cost of picking 10 million bales to 10,000.000 Saving by cotton picking machine, 10 mil- lion bales (or $9 per bale) 90.000.000 Allow for cost of maintenance of machine and mule at $1 per bale; 10 million bales. . 10,000,000 Estimated net saving ($8 per bale) 80,000.000 Insect Enemies — The Caterpillar. The first pest which became familiar to cotton growers of the United States was the caterpillar or cotton worm (Aletia argillacea). It is a slender bluish worm with small black spots, and sometimes with black stripes down its back. Its average length is one and one-half inch. It is the larva of an clive gray moth measuring one to one and a half inches from tip to tip of wmg. This moth hil)er- nates in the Southern States in rank wire-grass or other sheltering plants. It comes out in the early spring and lives on whatever blossoms it ma\' lind. Only a small per cent, of the moths live throug-h the winter. As soon as cotton plants are one to two inches high they lay eggs on the under side of the leaf, during the night. One moth will lay about 500 eggs. If the weather is warm the eggs will hatch in three lo four days, or if cold, they require sometimes more th?.n a week, and sometimes many of tlie first crop fail altogether. The larva or worm state is ^ -J > OS c O o c u Oh d PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. IJI from one to three weeks, during which period its capacny for destroying cotton leaves is something incredible. At the end of this stage, it spins a web around itseif witi.in a folded leaf, and remains as chrysalis for from lo to 30 days, when it appears as a moth. It begms to lay eggs when from two to four days old, so that the period of reproduc- tion from the birth of one moth tiirough the successive stages to the next moth is about 50 to 60 days. The most im[)roved method of combating the cater- pillar is to poison them with Paris green. The best way tt) apply it is to put it into bags of coarse cotton cloth, about four inches diameter, ten inches long. One of these bags is attached so it will lie horizontally, to each end of a poie about five feet long. A man carries this .crossw'ise on the back of a mule, and rides down a cotton row, gently and regularly jarring the pole, dusting out the poison on twt) adjacent rows at a time. He can poison 15 to 20 acres per day. It is evident that any remedy of whatever nature should be applied during the first generations of the cat- erpillar, while the weather is least favorable for their prop- agation, and before their multiplication. A caterpillar of the first generation produces a motli which lays 500 eggs, whose descendents la) 500 eggs each, so that the fifth generation would, without mishap, number over 60 billion descendants from one caterpillar of the first generation. The BoIl=Worm. Systematic efforts at poisoning, together with the othe,- causes, alluded to, have practically exterminated the cot- ton caterpillar from '.he United States, but another pesc has grown up which, though not yet very formidable, may in the absence of remedial measures, become (|uite troublesome. This is the boll-worm (Heliothis armiger) It is in appearance much the same as the leaf caterpillar, but is subject to much variation in color. It is the larva of a moth, similar in general appearance to the moth of the leaf caterpillar, but with a heavier body, and is also subject 172 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. to considerable variation in color and markinos. Eg fea 'ii> hatch in from two to seven days. It the eggs are laid on the cotton plant, ihe larva travels over the plant, feeding on leaves until it finds a boll or bud, into either of which it will bore. After a time, it will leave the bud or boll in search of another. The fact that the boll-w^orm, unlike the caterpillar, pre- fers other plants ior food, if they are available, renders effective a series of "trap crops." This consists in plant- ing in the cotton field a few rows of corn to mature at different times, and in cutting and destroying this corn at such periods as will catch the successive generations of worms. riexlcan BolUWeevil. The only other pest that seems at the present to be of any importance to the cotton plant, i.-. the Mexican cotton boll weevil (Anthronomus grandis). It is a small grayish beetle about one-quarter inch long. This beetle corres- ponds, in the cycle of propagation, to the moths, previous- ly described. Its larvae, like those of the moths, are the real enemy, but it is generally alluded to as the weevil (and not the worm) because it is most in evidence in the weevil stage, the larvae being mostly hidden in buds and bolls. The weevil hibernates in rubbish on the surface of the ground. On the first warm days of spring they fiy in search of volunteer cotton plants or occasional green, sprigs, that in wet seasons come out on the old cotton stalks left standing from last crop. They feed on the green leaves, and when the buds appear, lay eggs in them. Thus, the first generation or two thrive until planted cot- ton appears, which is at once attacked. As soon as the egg is laid in a bud, and the larva develops, the bud drops on the ground, where the larva finally transforms to chrys- alis, and produces another w-eevil. The total period frcnn weevil to weevil is about 30 days. PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. 175 The weevil seems to have been first noticed in 1862 near Monclova, Mexico, aucl became so numerous there, where cotton was being planted, that the entire venture had to be abandoned. It has appeared in greater or less num- bers wherever cotton has been planted in Mexico. Lately, it has found its way into Texas, where it has done considera])]e damage. It is believed that it cannot thrive in a more northern latitude. As the larvae do their destructive work entirely within bolls and Imds, it is unpossible to poison them by any of the usual means, so that the only hope of combating tnc evil is : (i) To so arrange the conditions of culture that it be- comes dil^cult for tlu-m to hibernate. (2) To destroy the very earliest weevils as they emerg: from winter quarters before they deposit eggs. The first method is considered the proper one, and the second only as supplementary to the first. The first, or cultural method, consists in so cleaning up the old fields after gathering the crop, that there shall be no rubbish in the vicinity in which the weevils may find a place to hibernate. Old stalks sliould be thoroughly pulled up by the roots, or if this is impracticable, the stalks should be plowed up. and m either case, piled and burned. This is to be followed by deep plowing throughout the field, in order to turn under and destroy any stray w^eevils, and at the same time to upturn anv chrysalides which n.ay attempt to hibernate in the ground. This method at the same time destroys the in- sects, and puts the rields in a condition unfavorable to volunteer cotton. The second method is to poison all volunteer cotton, so that the weevil is killed at its first feeding. This may be supplemented by protecting certain small patches of cotton through the winter, and watering it so that it will throw out early green leaves. These leaves are poisoned and all volunteer cotton kept killed down. Poison for this purpose is best applied in a liquid state with a small spraying pump. l-jb PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. Cut Worm. At present, the leist important pest to the cotton plane is the cut worm (Feltia annexa, and others). Conditions might exist, in which this worm might be important. It is the same worm which attacks cabbages and other vegetables, and the damage done is of the same character, viz: cutting off at night the young plant, at the surface of the ground. Heretofore, it has not been found necessary to take any measures against this worm in the cotton fields, but it is recommended if found necessary, that the same methods be employed as in garden culture, namely: the trap system, in which a crop of some early grass is planted and sprayed broadcast with some strong poison, then cut and thrown in bunches throughout the fields before the young plants appear. Classification and Spinning Qualities of Cotton. Most of the elements governing the production of waste in a cotton mill originate with the cotton planter, and increase as they pass on through the hands of the gin- ner and the buyers. The planter often puts in any kind of seed that he happens to ha\'e, and plants early or late, as it suits his convenience. He knows his price is regu- lated in Liver])ool by the average of the American crop, and does not largely depend upon the individual merit of the cotton, so long as it pusses the conventional grading of the local cotton buyer. The same reason that retards individual development of improved cotton grow- ing, influences the planter, making him indifferent about the ginning and the subsequent handling. But the conditions of the cotton market are changing. Liverpool is no longer the sole arbiter. Local mills arc consuming so large a proportion of the local cotton, that the price and the coLditions of sale are being largely ef- fected by them. This gives a magnificent opportunity for mills in cotton growing territory to make liner discrimi- PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. 1 77 nation in the charactei of the cotton they consume, and make the price of each individual lot of cotton commen- surate with the ultimate spinning quality, rather than with the "grades." In the absence of any good system of testing character and strength of individual cotton fibres, the mill must re- ly upon practical spinning tests. These soon show, if carefully observed, that the cotton grown by a careful planter gives better results in the matter of waste, and of breaking strength and general appearance of yarn. If a higher price is paid tor such cotton, and a lower price paid for others, there will arise an emulation among the plani- crs that will most certainly improve the quality of cotton and of mill products. There are many facts aljout cotton that are now well known, but which l:ave been disregarded on account of the market conditions. But these may now reach great prominence if properly stimulated by the mill men. For txample, cotton that is planted late, has not time to ma- ture the fibres, and attain uniformity of strength and smoothness and length. Even when it is planted in time the "top crop" is sometimes stunted by early frosts, and the same bad result is produced. Uniformity in length of staple is of prime importance, even more than length in the abstract. A mill with its machinery adjusted for f inch staple has better results on fibres uniformly x^ inches long than wnth some i | inches long. Uniformity in length, as well as in other characteristics, is most conserved by uniformity in the variety and ma- turity of the seed sown, though also influenced by uni- formity of soil and culture and fertilization. Careful sort- ing of the grades, according to maturity and general ap- pearance, while the cotton is being harvested, is of the up- most importance. And finally, the cotton thus carefully grown and assorted should be as carefully ginned. The average public ginnery is equipped for quantity of out- turn, rather than quality. This is the logical outgrowtli 178 PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. of the system of grading and pricing American cotton in Liverpool, based on the average crop and conditions. The new conditions, by reason of which the local mills have a voice in the price and grading of cotton, should bring about a reform in the matter of g'inning, on the same lines as the reform in raising cotton. Each public ginnery should be equipped with at least one roller gin for handling long- staple and other hue grades of cot- ton. These gins turn out very much less product per day than the standard s:iw gins, and therefore the ginner i.-. entitled to a higher price for the service. Where ordi- nary saw ginning of ordinary cotton is worth $1 per bale, it might be easily worth $4 to $5 per bale, to the owner of fine grades of cotton, to have it ginned slowly, on a ma- chine that would in nc way injure the ([uality. This is, of course, based on the assumption that neighboring cotton mills would learn to appreciate the advantages of handling cotton which has been carefully selected, and carefully treated, at every step. This condition of reform must be brought about by the mutual reactions between the planter, the ginner and the cotton spinner. Even in the event that any given cotton mill is not in a position to itself spin these liner grades, it might pay to buy it, never- theless, and resell tc some other mill in order to encourage the planter to ])roduce better cotton. On the other hand, even if the ]jlanter does not receive as high a price as he thinks right for liis finer cotton, he should encourage the mills to make dis- tinctions, for the sake of finally reaching the point whc^e he can afford to grow the finest grades and demand the highest prices. The seed for ])lanting should l)e carefully selected from the plants which ]:)ro(luce the best lint. They should not l)e taken from the first pickings, so early as to make lia- bility to heat, nor from the last picking, where both fibre and seed are stunted by frost or chilly weather. Seed se- lected at the proper season will produce cotton that will H o o O ON d PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND HARVESTING. l8l spin better, and make less loss, than that grown from seed taken at random. When cotton is planted late, the crop gins badly. The fibre is easily pulled by the gin saws from the seed and is brittle, and hence such lint is full of broken fibres. Such cotton makes a large loss in the picker roim, and the ends break down badly in the spinning room. CHAPTER \ail. nDar[^ctiiu3 Cotton. When cotton was produced on plantations by means of slave labor, preceding i860, it was sold in two ways. Those planting on a small scale loaded the cotton in wagons, carried it to the market town, distances of two to fifty miles from the plantation. The market season wns in the autumn or winter. In this season, .the roads were generally bad; but happily there was at this same season not much other occupation for teams and teamsters, there- fore, the time necessary to make these long trips was nin a matter of consequence. Arriving in the market town, buyers would approach a wagon, learn who the owner was, and enter into negotiations for its purchase. The beginning of the negotiation was to cut through the bag- ging covering the cotton, draw out a sample — a good handful, weighing prcbably a quarter of a pound. The trade might be concluded on the s^^reet, or the trade might be concluded in the buyer's of^ce or counting house. The sample became a perquisite of the buyer and was considered by the planter of no consequence. By keeping all these Sc:mples in a place provided for them, the buyer would sometimes accumulate several bales of cotton in a season. Generally the planter would nego- tiate with a number of buyers before closing a trade, and always sold to the highest bidder. This method of mar- keting the crop was very economical, and always brouglit the highest price. The larger planters followed another system. They would contract with a firm of commission merchants to buy their supplies and sell their cotton. Throughout the year, the planter would write to the commission mer- chant for such supplies as he might need — one or more barrels of sugar, molasses, coffee, rice or such other ar- MARKETIJNG COTTON. 183 tides as he might need. The commission merchant would simply keep an open account against the planter for all these purchases. He would either arrange with the mer- chants from whom he purchased them, for credits, or pay with his own capital, or borrow from bankers. The plan- ter's account, based on the cotton he would ship, was con- sidered a good basis of credit. At the end of the season, the planter would send his cotton to the commission mer- chant, who would sell it, and place the proceeds to the credit of the planter. Some planters w-ould keep good balances with the commission man, and also good bal- ances in the bank; but many of them, after paying the yearly accounts, would spend the balances, and raise a crop the next year on their credit with the commission man. The commission men were, in many cases, men of ample means, but in other cases they were men of scant means, and traded or the credit of the planters they rep- resented. That class of planters who dealt through com- mission merchants made money easily and spent it freely. They often made trips to New^ York, and sometimes to Europe, and would make drafts on the commission man with a free hand. It w-as not infreciuent for the commis- sion man to fail, because of too much confidence in the liberal planter's capacity to pay. During the Civil War the cotton markets were prac- tically closed. Very little cotton was produced. Some little of this was exported in vessels that "ran the block- ade." On many plantations, smal' lots of cotton w^ere stored, and some was suppHed to the Confederate govern- ment. When the w^ar ended, those who happened to have a little cotton on hand, found the cash proceeds an im- mense help in getting; a new^ start in putting in new- crops. The victorious Federal Government confiscated much of the cotton that w-as found immediately after the war. To avoid this, the cotton that w^as held wdien the war ended, was hauled out into the forests, and hid until an opportu- nity could be found to sell it. Thus exposed to the 184 MARKETING COTTON. weather, it was in many cases much damaged before sold; but cotton was high in price, and ic would readily sell :ii spite of the damage. After the abolition of slavery and the end of the war, many cf the old commission firms were reorganized, and many new ones were formed. Cotton was high, and was again an attractive, but precarious basis of credit. Plant- ers devised systems of working negroes for shares of the crop they made. The freedmen had, of course, no money for his living; the commission man, in turn, advanced thesj supplies to the planter, under a contract to have a fixed number of bales of cotton s'hipped to be sold by the com- mission man at $1.50 a bale commission, besides interest at 10 to 30 per cent, on the money value of the supplies delivered. Thus, for the supplies advanced, the commis- sion man received three different compensations: (i) The commission on the cotton to be sold; (2) 10 to 30 per cent, interest; (3) a profit on the supplies shipped, which ranged from 10 to 40 per cent., besides making a charge for insurance, storage and other expenses. The commission man, in turn, borrowed money from the banks or Northern merchants, with which to do th's business. Some of these commission men, or factors, who were careful and exacting, became wealthy, but many of them failed. The risks were very great, because of the disturbed and disorderly political conditions. Many ne- groes would start to grow a crop, and never finish it. The advances made to these would be a total loss. In this way many planters would be unable to pay their debts, and the commission man or factor, would, in turn, lose what he had advanced to the planter. A lien law was passed, by which a planter or merchant at the beginning of a season, could take a mortgage on a crop not yet made, in order to secure advances. Even with liens in force, the tenant or renter would often smug- gle one or more bales of cotton to market, and get away with the proceeds. This system of liens, advances and MARKETING COTTON. 185 sales through commission men has been gradually dimin- ishing. Merchants failed, planters failed and tenants gut such poor results that the whole system grew unpopular and unsatisfactory. Large plantations began to be cut up into farms and sold, and this process is now going on. Railways have been extensively built, and now most farms are within a reasonable distance of a raihvay station where there is a market. There is accumulated capital now\ and the local merchant can extend reasonable credit to the neig'hboring farmer, white or black, and these can sell their own cottcn and cotton seed for cash, and pav their bills to the merchant in cash. The large commission house or factor is now gone. The large plantation is practically passing. It survives now in its original state only among the bottc.m lands of the Mississippi River, Red River and Ouachita River, where the coarsest and most ignorant type of negroes seem to have gathered, and con- tinue to gather. In these fertile, but unhealthy bottoms, large plantations may yet be held together and profitably operated, for some time to come. Texas is being rapidly settled by thrifty white immi- grants on small farms. Some of these farmers come from the East and some from the Northwest, while many are Germans and Swedes, who come direct from Europ;^ The river bottom planters still do business with surviv- ing commission houses and factors in New Orleans. The Texas farmer usually sells his cotton for cash in the near- by market town. The modern farmer, white or black, usually carries his cotton to market, one or two bales at a time, in a one or two horse wagon. Sometimes he will carry about i.ooo pounds cotton seed ciid one bale of cotton in the same wagon. The seeds have now as ready sale for cash as cotton. Many farmers now ask for no credit or advances. Fol- lowed up on modern lines, the cotton farm is a profitable property, and many farmers are not only without need l86 MARKETING COTTON. for advances, but are making and accumulating mone\'. Twelve years ago, the prospects for the cotton farmer seemed gloomy; this is now entirely changed, and the thrifty farmer, near a manufacturing centre, has good credits, and makes good money. Those who still own large tracts of land, finding it un- profitable under the tenant or share systems of working, and observing that neighboring farmers doing their own work with some hired help are prosperous, are perfectly willing to cut up the large tracts into farms, and sell them to good farmers on long credits. CHAPTER IX. Zbc iplantatton Durino an^ after tbe Civil Mar. It has been shown on about what basis of protit the plantation could l)e operated with slave lal)or. Paralyzing Influence of the War. During the Ci\'il War, the cause of which was primarily the differences between the free States and slave States about the institution of slavery, there was practically no cotton raised, except for domestic use and the use of the Confederate government. The able bodied white people went to the war, and the energies of the negroes were ap- plied to the production of food stuffs, clothing and other supplies for the armies. All export and import trade be- tween the cotton growing States and the rest of the world was stopped by means of blockade by the navy of the free States. While the war was begun for the preservation of the union of States, it soon transpired that as strong a motive, if not stronger, among the free States, was th.e abolition of slavery. The conflict became one of gigantic proportions, the enlisted forces on the one side aggregat- ing about 2,600,000. i-nd those of th;--, other about 600,000. Having given practically all its attention to the develop- ment of agriculture, in the period immediately preceding the war, the Southern States, when shut off from com- merce by blockade, found themselves not only without many manufactured articles, but also without many of what are usually considered the necessities of life. There was no adequate supply of sugar, no coffee, no adequate supply of salt, no tea no materials for ladies' dresses, ex- cept homespuns. In slavery times, meat was cured by packing it in salt a few days, and then hanging it over- head in a smoke hoi se. In being smoked it would dry. ibS DURING AND AFTER THE CIVIL WAR. and the salt would fall off. During the war, many a plantation got its s:ilt supply by digging the earth out of the smoke house, purling it in a hopper, pouring through water to leach it out and then boiling out the water to get the residual salt. Parched corn, sassafras, sage, parched oats and o'.htr substitutes for tea and coffee were tried and much used. Home made molasses, in place ot sugar, became geneial, and homespun clothes for fine ladies, the fashion. In all privations, the negroes cheer- fully and loyally participated, and there was never a mur- mur of discontent. At home, on the plantation, the plan- ter always stood for the defence of his negroes. In war he assumed again to do all the fighting for himself and his. The negroes were never called upon to strike a sin- gle blow in the war on the Southern side, and their loyal- ty to the man who was doing the fighting was perfection itself. Subsequent events exhibited that this was a loyal- ty that was not innate in the negro character, but had been developed by the preceding conditions and events. As a result of the war, slavery was abolished, and the seceding Southern States returned into the Union. The Confederate States ceased to be, and the United States, now all free States, became again a single nation, made: up of all the States. Negro Suffrage. Besides bringing the seceding States back into the Un- ion and abolishing slavery, the victors in the conflict also determined to give the right of ballot to the freedmen. In a number of the States, these fieedmen were in the majority. Besides the great political problem thus cre- ated, it was necessary also to take up and formulate some- system of labor. The war had practically swept away all. property, in the slave States, except land, and that was much depreciated by the destruction of the labor system and the want of working capital. Cotton was high ir- price, because of scarcity — for four years none had been- supplied to the markets. p So a; Of) U V I DURING AND AFTER THE CIVIL WAR. IQI Carpet Bag Government. For ten years, even at high prices, no protit was made in growing cotton. For ten years the confusion — pohtir.al, commercial, agricultural and social — was worse than con- founded. Whole legislatures could be suborned for any corrupt purpose, and riots were frequent. The corrupt leader.s of the negroes organized them mto militia companies, and infamous secret political societies, known as the Union League. The v^hites organized rifle companies and the Ku-Klux-Klan, which was a secret organization for resisting the corrupt actions of carpet bag governments. In this period of ten years, and in spite of all this dis- order, the whites md blacks were producing cotton; the white man owning the land and the black man working it. The schemes of work and compensations were various. Sometimes the planter would rent bnd to a negro tenant for a fixed quantity ol lint cotton; sometimes for a propor- tionate part of the crop; and sometimes he would pay the hands agreed wages by the year. The longer the con- fused conditions lasted, the more unreliable the negro be- came as a laborer, although there were notable excep- tions. It was the rule for them to drift into the idea that freedom meant license, and the franchise an asset. New Basis of Compensations. It would be impossible to give even approximately the different experiments in the way of contracts made by the white land-owners with the freedmen. A few are defined as follows : ( I ) The landlord would furnish land and mules, receiv- ing as rent and for use of mules, one-third the crop, the tenant furnishing his own living. Even in this case, the landlord would have to "advance" the supplies for a liv- ing, or guarantee the account with some merchant fnr these supplies. I 192 DURING AND AFTER THE CIVIL WAR. (2) The landlord would furnish the tenant with land, mule and an agreed quantity of supplies, and they would di- vide the crop equal';. . (3) The land-owner would contract with the laborer iur a year, paying about $50 to $100 per year, and furnishin-- supplies as agreed. (4) The land-owner would rent land to a tenant for a fixed quantity of cotton. A farm of 30 acres would rent for about three bales of cotton, or about one bale for ten acres. These rent brles would be worth $30 to $40 each, equivalent to about $3 per acre for land. Although this would represent a good income on land worth $5 to $10 per acre, land was difficult to sell at these prices, because of the precariousnc^^ oi collection. The negro tenants were generally unreliable. /\fter 1876. polit.cal conditions were very much im- proved. The negroes had also acquired some education and some knowledge of what freedom really meant. Those who had fori trly been planters had acquired by experience some knowledge of the freedman, who, by the way, proved to be a totally different person from the slave, even though tlie same individual. Industrial Renaissance. With the restoration of political order, and the estab- lishment of a better understanding between blacks and whites, the retrogressive movement of the last decade changed, and things began to look much better. Cotton seed oil mills caught the attention of those who were progressive. These prospered with negro labor. On the farms, negroes still ol)jected to working und^r overseers. In the oil mills, they made no objection to superintendents and foremen. Cotton mills also began to be built, and these employed white labor exclusively. This gave profitable employ- ment to a class who weie in urgent need of it. These manufactures grew in an increasing ratio, and others were DURING AND AFTER THE CIVIL WAR. 1 93 forninlated and estal;lishe(l. Farmers found that the nev\- factory populations made good markets for the perish- able products of the farm, which before had been worth less. Gradually as these mterests grew, all labor, whiLe and black, became more reliable and more efficient. By the year 1900, there has developed in the Southeast, or Piedmont region, occupation at moderate con^pensatioii for practically all who are willing to work. To show 'ih.e difference in income for an average county in 1880 and 1900, following figures are exhibited: xA.ssuming 10,000 bales of cotton as the crop of an average county, and taking the current prices of to-day as applicable to both, in order to show the comparison at even date, 10,000 bales of cotton at 6 cents would yield $300,000.00. This would represent the income of the people of the country for their cotton crop, when sold as raw cotton. Now this, if manufactured into cloth is worth $1,000,000. Instead of shipping out cotton tO' England and getting back $300,000, the cotton goes to the factory in the county, is made into cloth by home people, is sent say, to China, which sends back $1,000,000.00, thus making a profit to the county of $700,000.00. This assumes, of course, that the laborers live in the county, that the fuel is obtained in the county, (wood or coal), or that the power comes from water. The small supplies ordered from outside amount to very little, and may be omitted. The difference of $700,000 is not of course, all profit to the mills. It goes to pay labor, thus furnishing profitable employment to those who were formerly compelled to idle much of their time; it pays for wood or fuel, that formerly rotted; from the labor it goes to the farmer for food stuffs and to purchases from merchants and others. The ultimate division of this increased income to the county, is exhibited in Table IV. 194 DURING AND AFTER THE CIVII, WAR. TABLE IV. SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PROFITS IN COT- TON MANUFACTURING: To farmers for beef, pork, meal, flour, chickens, eggs, milk, butter, vegetables, fruits and other perishable farm products $250,000 To farmers for wood, labor, drayage and other service 50,000 To merchants for dry goods 100,000 To merchants for groceries 100,000 To stockholders for dividends 100,000 To lawyers, doctors, preachers, etc 50,000 To taxes, good roads, schools and churches . . . 50,000 Total $700,000 Besides living mucli better, all these beneficiaries save something, and at the end of the year, the country is richer instead of poorer. This is by no means the limit of profit that can be brought out of cotton by manufacture. The above is simply the result of converting cotton into plain w^hite and simple colored goods, all comparatively coarse. By special textile education and training, better and higher priced goods may be made. As the quality becomes im- proved, the money l^rought back from the markets of the world would materially increase. Take the crop of North Carolina for one year, as an ex- ample, and it may be made into goods the market value of which are exhibited in Table V*. ♦From " Cotton Values in Textile Fabrics." DURING AJND AFTER THE CIVIL WAR. I95 TABLE V SHOWING THE VALUE OF A NORTH CARO- LINA COTTON CROP OF 500,000 BALES. As cotton at 6 cents per poand. If manufactured. $15,000,000 Duck at 14c per lb $ 35,000,000 15,000,000 Drilling at i6c 40,000,000 15,000,000 Sheeting at i8c 45,000,000 15,000.000 Bleaching at 20c 50,000,000 15.000,000 Tick at 24c 60,000,000 15,000,000 Cheviot at 26c 65,000,000 15,000,000 Denim at 30c 75,000,000 15,000,000 plain Gingham at 34c 85,000,000 15,000,000 Window shade cloth at 34c.. 85,000,000 15,000,000 Madras at 40c 100,000,000 15,000,000 Long Cloth at 70c 175,000,000 15,000,000 Mercerized cloth at $1 250,000,000 15,000,000 Fancy gingham at $1.60 .... 400,000,000 15,000,000 Poplin at $1.80 450,000,000 15,000,000 Emb. ginghams at $2.20 550,000,000 15,000,000 Fancy ginghams at $2.80 .... 700,000,000 15,000,000 Persian lawn at $4.00 1,000,000,000 15.000,000 Embroidery at v$20 5,000,000,000 Cotton Seed Oil Mills. In a similar way, the cotton seed oil mills take cotton seed, which were formerly worthless, and turn them into products having good values. In the cotton growing States, the values gotten out of cotton seed 20 years ago. were all together not over $5,000,000. At the present time the ultimate values reclaimed from cotton seed pro- ducts w\\\ reach nearly or quite $100,000,000. Numerous other industries have developed, and these, all taken to- gether, support a large population, who receive good 196 DURING AND AFTER THE CIVIL WAR. wages, and in turn, buy the perishable farm products. Thus, with these heips, a farmer can make cotton and sell it for 6 cents a pound at a profit, where formerly, without these supplemental markets, he would have lost money. In addition to these influences, that are advantageous to the cotton farmer, the cotton States have been wise and liberal in all legislation about ag;ricultural experiment stations, boards of fertilizer control, agricultural colleges, and other measures that contribute to the farmers' knowl- edge of the science and art of cotton production. While the price of cotton lias been constantly decreasing, and the quantities increasing, all the above influences have been tending to keep its production on a profitable basis. Those farmers who are near the new manufacturing centres, can now produce cotton as cheaply and profitab- ly as the ante-bellum planter could with slave labor. He can sell enough farm products, other than cotton, to cover all cost, and have the cotton as a cltar profit. This natu- rally makes land more valuable; and it is notable that land in the vicinity of all new factories increase in price, with great rapidity, to twice and thrice their former values. Because of slavery before the Civil War, and because of the disorders thereafter, the cotton growing States have not attracted much immigration from the class that wanted to farm. The adverse conditions seem now to- tally gone. In the conditions, now existing in the cot- ton growing States, that land which is near a factory pop- ulation, offers greater attractions to working farmers than the farm lands of any other part of the United States. The old condition of l^eing able to make a cotton crop as a clear profit has returned, and the opportunity is well wathin the reach of a man of very limited means. Advent of the Small Farm. The negro has become again a good and tractable workman, provided be works along with a white man, DURING AND AFTER THE CIVIL WAR. 1 97 and he is now aN-aikiLle as a helper to a good farmer. Land is rapidly increasing in value, and the future is at- tractive, even if the crop of cotton is large and the price cheap. The profits in cotton planting in this new con- dition, are not to be made by planters or landlords who own large tracts of land; but are only available to the thrifty working farmer. By handling a cotton farm on the same plan as the wheat and corn producers of the Northwest, and with negro labor, still cheap, and now be- come very reliable, (wh.en one or two negroes work along with the white man), cotton may be produced with greater economy, and probably with more profit, than ever be- fore in its history. These favorable conditions for the small farmer ha\ e led to the sub-division and sale of many plantations, and this tendency is continuing, thus promoting a multiplicity of small farms. I Part 11. COTTON OIL. ^^ Copyrighted 1901 by 1>. A. TOMPKINS. THE COTTON PLANT AS IT APPEARS IN SEPTEMBER BEFORE FIRST PICKING. CHAPTER X. Cotton Sect). The American cotton plant grows to variable heights. On uplands, and where full grown, it is sometimes not more than 15 to 20 inches high. Generally, on uplands, it is 24 to 48 inches high. On the black prairie lands of Texas, it grows from three to six feet high, and in the rich alluvial Mississippi bottoms, its full heig-ht is five to eight, and sometimes even ten feet. In Southern Texas and Florida cotton begins to open in the early part of August. In much the greater part of the cotton belt, pickmg generally begins about September 1st. One of the colored plates shows a cotton plant as it anpears in September. It is in full vigor of growth, and the bolls are just beginning to open. The leaves are deep green. The blooms are a light yellow^ when they first come out, and l>ecome light pink under the influence of the sun. The plant continues to bloom and fruit throughout the au- tumn, until very chilly nights or frosts check further de- velopment. Another plate shows the plant about November ist, when the chilly nights give to the leaves the color of autumn fo- liage. At a later period, during December, the leaves have become withered and have fallen to the ground, leaving the last of the open bolls with cotton hanging from them ready for the last picking, as show^n by another plate. The immature bo^lls, caught and killed by the frost remain on the stalks or fall to the ground. Half a bale of cotton to the acre is ordinarily good pro- duction. The average of the whole cotton-growins" area is about one bale to three acres. Reckoned at half bale to the acre, the production of seed to the acre would be 202 COTTON SEED. about 500 pounds, or about 16 bushels. The seed from upland cotton weigh 30 to 33 1-3 pounds per bushel, ac- cording to the manner in which the measure is packed or heaped. The legislatures of different States fix the weight of the legal bushel at different figures, varying from 30 to 33 1-3 pounds. Buyers of cotton seed frequently ignore the legal bushel, and buy in a way to give them some advantage, as, for example, in paying for them by the (heavy weight) bushel, and sell- ing- them bv the ton. Fig. 61. Cotton Seed, Showing How Lint Grows. The total cotton crop of the United States is about ten million bales. For every pound of cotton produced, there is an average of two pounds of seed. Therefore the seed from which the cotton for a 500 pound bale is taken, weigh about 1,000 pounds. The seed from the entire crop would be about five million tons. This is half a ton of seed per bale of cotton. American cotton seed are of two kinds, viz: upland, and Sea Island, or black seed. Lint cotton has the appear- ance of growing out of the seed as the human hair grows Copyrighted 1901 ty D. A. TOMPKINS. THE COTTON PLANT AS IT APPEARS IN OCTOBER AND NOVEMBER. I I I I I I 1 I Fig. 62. Cross Section of Cotton Seed Magnified 12^ Times. 204 COTTON SEED. out of the head, or as wool out of a sheep's back. See Fig. 6i. The hnt of upland cotton holds very tenaciously to the seed. In ginning it, the fibres break near the point of at- tachment to seed. This ginning requires a saw gin. The seed from the gin have a fuzzy appearance, and are slightly greenish in color. The lint from Sea Island cotton comes entirely loose from the seed very easily, thus leaving seed smooth and black. These seed are called "Sea Island," or "black seed," or "baldheaded seed." Figure 55 shows the empty boll with the seed cotton which comes out of it. (Cotton is in the picker's hand.) Figure 61 shows the cotton seed, natural size, with all cot- ton removed from the front half, and the cotton fibres more or less straightened out on the middle plane. This figure shows a staple about one inch long. This is a fair average of good upland cotton. Upland cotton grows in all lengths from I inch to i| inches. Mississsippi "Bender" cotton has a fibre i| to if. "Sea islands"grow i-J to 2^ inches, if to 2 inches being the usual lengths for this varietv. Figure 62 is the cross section of a cotton seed magnified 12I diameters. The black spots are oil cells. They seem very scattering, but it must be remembered that those shown are only the ones in the section through which the seed is cut. The centre is a sort of stem, and in germinating the con- voluted matter unfolds to make the beginning of the plant. Nearly all the seed worked in oil mills are upland seed. A ton of these, as they leave the ginnery, and go to the oil mill, are physically composed about as follows after be- ing cleaned : Short lint 75- 'bs Hull 925 lbs Oil (52 gals) 390 lbs Meal 610 lbs 2,000 lbs Copyrighted 1901 bv D. A. TOMPKINS. THE COTTON PLANT AS IT APPEARS IN DECEMBER. NEARLY READY FOR FINAL PICKING. COTTON SEED. 205 A good oil mill gets out of a ton of seed, products about as follows : Short lint 25 lbs Hull 1,000 lbs Oil (40 gals) 300 lbs Meal 675 lbs 2,000 lbs The foregoing estimates do not take into ac- count sand and other foreign matter in seed. This is comparatively small. It varies, with the care in picking and ginning, from i to 5 per cent. It will be observed that the separations are considerably short of perfection. Only about 25 pounds out of 75 pounds of the lint left on the seed can be profitably taken off. After this amount, the remainder is short and worth - jess, and is left to go with the hull. In the processes ot crushing and manipulation, some of the hull and lint gets into meal, thus increasing the weight of the meal. This weight is still furthe. increased by the oil which is left in it. All market towns in the cotton growing States have ."seed agents," in the ginning season. The oil mill com- panies construct seed houses and put up wagon scales at the railway stations. Some companies have 50 to 75 of them. These are small and cheaply constructed ware- houses, capable of holding one to three or four carloads of seed. The mills send out representatives in August to arrange for agents to take charge of their seed houses and scales, and buy seed for them. These agents gener- allv get $1 per ton for compensation. At good seed points, there are sometimes several seed houses, and of course several agents. Some merchants own seed house?, and buy seed on their own account, and sell them to the oil mills afterwards. Ginners also sometimes act as seed 2o6 COTTON SEED. agent for mills, and sometimes buy and sell seed on their own account. In the Piedmont region of the Southeastern States, and adjacent uplands, there will be marketed in a good town, from farm wagons, two to four thousand tons of seed in a season, in i exas, a good market town will sometimes (though rarely,) handle as much as ten thousand tons. The competition of the different local seed buyers is sometimes very keen, to the extent of much excitement It is not uncommon to see two or more young white men — runners for seed agents or buyers — mount the wagon of a negro or white farmer, as he comes from the country into the market town. These press upon the farmer of- fers for the seed. Sometimes the drummers, or runners, even get into persona^ encounters. The oil mill managers are themselves good fighters in the seed markets, and they not infrequently sacrifice business judgment to the pleas- ures of purchasing a larger quantity of seed than some rival manager. Considerable quantities of seed are taken on wagons by farmers or ginners direct to the oil mills, when these are near by. The seed bought in market towns, and there stored in seed houses, are shipped in bulk and in carload lots to the oil mills. They are brought to the warehouse by the farmers. These take cotton to the ginnery, pay for the ginning and baling, and then take the bale of cotton and the seed to market. In Texas, there is r growing tendency for the large gin- neries to buy the seed cotton, and when this is done, the ginner markets both seed and lint. Great care should always be taken to protect seed from exposure to rain, and even from moisture. Slight moisture will cause heating and decay. A very few seed slightly wet or damp, if put into a seed house, will very soon begin to heat. The heating will extend to other seed, and de- cay sets in rapidly with great heat. This heat sometimes becomes so great as to make fire by spontaneous com- COTTON SEED. 207 bustion. Such a fire in the middle of a seed pile, does not break out, as an ordinary fire does, but simply smoulders. It is nevertheless disastrous in its effects on the seed. The oil from seed that have been heated, is not sweet or edible, but must be sold for soap making or other such uses. Seed, when found beginning to heat, are always given im- mediate attention by the good mill manager. They are at once fed to the mill. If there are more than the mill can take care of, they may be shoveled from one place to an- other to cool. This is, of course, expensive. The rule about an oil mill is that wet seed will not be purchased. When, however, a farmer is caught in a slight rain, with a load, the mill man will usually stram the point, buy the seed, and send them at once into the mill to be worked. It is a cjuestion whether water or fire does the greatest damage to seed. For this reason, it has never been de- termined whether tor fire protection a seed house ouglit to be equipped with automatic sprinklers or not. Some large mills work 30,000 to 50,000 tons of seed per year, and have storage for 10,000 to 15,000 tons. With such quantities in the warehouses at one time, the im- portance of having all stored seed perfectly sound and dry will be apparent. The seed from the early part of the season do not keep as well as those of the second and third pickings. The early seed have most sap. On this account early seed are much more liable to heat. For this reason, such of these early seed as are stored, are worked out of the warehouse early, and the space then filled with seed of later growth. The quantity of oil in cotton seed varies greatly. The quantities are different on different soils, and also differ- ent in different seasons. The quality of the oil also varies. Sometimes seed from a certain section will yield, in an average oil mill, 42 grdlons per ton, the oil having a sweet, palatable flavor. Ir. another season, the same soil moy produce a seed that will yield only 35 gallons per ton. and the quality of the oil may not be as good. 2o8 COTTON SEED. It is no rule that large quantity and good flavor go to- gether, nor is it a rule that small yield makes oil of inferior quality. The quantity and flavor soem to depend on in- dependent influences. Experts differ in opinion on these points. Many good oil mill men claim that large yield and good oil are usually found together. Other good mill men claim that a wet season makes seed that giv€ larger yields, hut these seed, because of sap, are more liable to heat and therefore make inferior quality of oil. CHAPTER XL dotton See^ ®iL Ibtstor^ an^ Commercial features. From time immemorial, the praise of the oHve tree has been sung, both in sacred and profane hterature. For centuries before and after the Christian era, it was held, and is still held, in the highest esteem. This high estima- tion in which the olive tree is held, comes undoubtedly from the fact that in its fruit and oil, mankind has hereto- fore obtained more that is useful than from any other plant or tree. It was an olive branch that the dove brought back to Noah in the ark, to give courage and hope to survivors of the flood. The olive branch is well nigh an' universal emblem of peace among all peoples. In ancient times, and in many countries still, olive oil is the principal, and in many cases the only cooking grease. Our Anglo-Saxon habit of using animal fats in its stead, is the exception, and net the rule. In The Arabian Nights, the story goes, that forty thieves were concealed in jars that were supposed to contain oil. Throughout the same ages, the cotton plant has always existed ; but, remarkable as it may seem, its value was never fully understood, until within the past 25 years. The three prime necessities of the human race are: food, clothing and shelter. Towards these, the olive tree fur- nishes its fruit and oil for food, and in a very limited ex- tent its wood for construction. The cotton plant now supplies lint, from whicn clothing for the body, the bed and household (carpets) is made. It supplies oil for cooV:- ing purposes, and for many industrial uses, such as for lamps in mines, and to a limited extent for lubrication, for making soap, glycerine, candles, butter, lard, and for in- numerable other uses. 2IO HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. The cotton seed meal is used for supplying ammonia and other constituents in commercial fertilizers, for cattle food in dairies, for fattening beef, sheep, and for various other purposes. Lately, however, it is being mostly used as a food for cattle and sheep. This is especially the case at dairy farms, and where cattle are being fatted for beef, and at saw mills, where oxen are used to haul logs. In truth, we are suddenly brought to a realization of the fact that the cotton plant gives us more than the olive tree ever gave to mankind. And, by perfecting machinery and methods for the production of useful products from cotton seed, values which have for centuries been un- known, have suddenly been brought to light. The men wdio have been most instrumental in the production of valuable products from cotton seed, have been doing a work not only for themselves, but for the country at large, and for all humanity The First Cotton Seed Oil Mills. The first mill was built at Natchez, Miss., in 1834. A Mr. Martin operated a cotton seed oil mill in New Orleans as far bacK as 1847. ^^^ few other mills were built prior to the Civil War. Immediately after the Civil war of 1860-65, several mills were built, some of wdnch succeeded, and some failed. In 1869 General E. P. Alexander built a cotton seed oil mill at Columbia, S. C. Following this, other mills were built in different parts of the cotton growing area. By 1880, the business of crushing cotton seed had developed into a distinct and entirely legitimate business, but <"he process employed, and everything ])ertaining to the indus- try was held in great secrecy. The oil was founa to be about the same as olive oil, and the cake and meal Nva^ largely exported and used in Eng- land, and on the Continent, for stock food. What was pur- chased in America was principally used as a fertilizer. The oil was used principally as a substitute for, or an adul- CO 00 O o o m o CO HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 2I3 terant of, olive oil, and readily sold in the crude state, at from 50 to 60 cents per gallon. Those mills that were managed with even a rough ap- proximation to ordmary care and business judgment made very large profits. As the business still developed and the price of oil became less, the pork packers discovered that it could be advantageously used with certain beef pro- ducts to make an excellent cooking fat, to take the place of hog lard. Since its adaptation to this use, large and in- creasing quantities have been consumed by concerns that slaughter cattle and dress beef for market. Since about 1880, the consumption of cotton seed oil has been further increased by its use for packing sardines on the coast of Maine, for making butter in America, Holland and else- where, and for numerous other purposes. The Machinery Used. The principal machinery used in early cotton seed oil mills was brought from England. It no doubt comprised such heaters and presses as were used to crush oil from lin- seed, Egyptian cotton seed, and other oil seeds that were produced in or shipped to England. Egyptian cotton seed are black and lintless, very similar to seed from Sea Island cotton in this country. The process of working them was very simple They were first crushed under old fashioned mulling stones, then put in steam jacketed ket- tles with mechanical stirrers, and cooked. The product was dumped from the kettle or heater into a wooden bin, and from the bin it was put into a hydraulic press contain- ing about five boxes, and put under abovit two to three thousand pounds pressure to the square inch, on rams ten to twelve inches in diameter. Upland American seed are not entirely free from lint. On account of the quantity of oil this lint is capable of ab- sorbing, and also on account of the injury which the lint is to the cake as a food stufif, it was important to separate the hull from the meats. This was accomplished by the 214 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. use of a huller, a machine to cut the seed to pieces, and screening out the meats from the hulls, in bolting chests, having the reel clothed with wire cloth. The earlier mills wer^ either built by foreign mechanics, or native Southern mechanics of ante-bellum type, botii of whom were dogntatic, opinionated and incompetent. It commonly required about two years for these to build a mill and get it into successful operation. The costs, profits, processes and all other informati'.n about an oil mill were kept carefully concealed by owners and millwrights or experts. From 1882 to 1884. the subject was first looked into from an engineering point of view. In 1884. there was erected the first cotton seed oil mill ever built from de- signs made by the mcdern type of educated and practical American engineer. Most of the seed worked in the United States are up- land seed. The average physical composition of a ton of these upland seed as received at the oil mill is about as fol- lows: Short lint 7° ^bs Hull 910 lbs Oil (51 gals) 382 lbs Meal.\ . ^ 600 lbs Sand and other foreign matter 38 lbs 2,000 These proportions vary with seasrns, soils, character of ginning and care or conscience of the farmer, ginner or seed agent. By bad ginning there may be 125 pounds of lint left on the seed, and by very good ginning, the seed may be cleared of lint to within 50 pounds. The best possible oil mill is one in which the separation of the above constituents is most nearly complete and put in marketable shape at the least expense per ton. 2l6 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. Process. The process of manufacture in American oil mills un- derwent very little change until about 1880. From that time forward, great improvement has been made in ma- chinery, such as improved hullers, improved linters, steel plate boxes in presses (requiring no hair mats), chilled rolls in place of muller stones, etc, etc. The process now conducted in first-class mills is about as follows : 1. The seed are cleaned of sand. 2. Then cleaned of the other foreign substances, such as bolls, pieces of wooa, etc. 3. They are then carried to the linters, and re-ginned for a part of the short lint. 4. They are then carried to the huller, which cuts them to pieces. 5. Then in a reel the meats are separated from the hulls. 6. The hulls are then taken out, heretofore to the fire room for fuel, but latterly to be sold as cattle feed. 7. The meats are taken to the rolls which crush them, breaking the oil cells. 8. From the rolls, the meats go into heaters, in which they are cooked. 9. From the heaters, meats are taken into the former, where cakes are formed and enclosed in cloth. 10. The cakes are placed in the press and the oil ex- tracted by pressure. 11. The cake remaining in the press is taken out. al- lowel to cool, and may then be cracked and ground into meal. The following tables will exhibit the variety of results from operating various kinds of oil mills, under different conditions. HISTORY AND COMMERCIAU FEATURES. 21'] TABLE VI. SHOWING PRODUCTS AND VALUES OBTAINED FROM ONE TON OF SEED IN THE EARLY OIL MILLS: 1,000 lbs hulls, used as fuel $ .30 775 lbs meal (a 90c 6.98 225 lbs 011=^30 gallons @ 60c 18.00 2,000 lbs seed, giving product worth $25.28 Cost of seed $10.00 Cost of working 5.00 $15.00 Profit $10.28 A mill of this design capable of working 5,000 tons of seed per year, should therefore have made, and often did make, with good management, $50,000 per year. At the present day, meal remains at about the same price shown in the above table. Oil, however, has declin- ed fully half. By improved mills and machinery, the cost per ton of working seed has been much reduced, and the quantity of oil per ton has been increased. Many mills exist that can never be made first-class, ex- cept by entire reconstruction. Of the mills still being built, there is much variation in the quality of the design and workmanship on the machinery. 2l8 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. TABLE VII. SHOWING PRESENT PRODUCT AND VALUES OBTAINED FROM ONE TON OF SEED IN AN OLD OR BADLY CONSTRUCTED OIL MILL, IN A GOOD YEAR. Oil, 39 gals at 30 cents per gal $11.70 Meal, 675 pounds at $1.00 per cwt 6.75 Hull, 950 pounds at $'3. 00 per ton 1.42 Lint, 25 pounds at 3? .75 $20.62 Cost of seed delivered at mill $14.00 Cost of working, bags, barrels, etc 3-5C> Cost of fuel 1. 00 18.50 Profit $2.12 A mill under these circumstances, working 5,000 tons of seed per year, could therefore make a profit of more than $10,000. HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 219 TABLE VIII. SHOWING PRESENT PRODUCTS AND VALUES OBTAINED FROM ONE TON OF SEED IN AN OLD OR BADLY CONSTRUCTED MILL, IN A BAD YEAR. Oil, 35 gals at 20c $7.00 Meal, 675 pounds at 90c per cwt 6.08 Hull, 950 pounds at $3.00 per ton 1.42 Lint, 25 pounds at 3c 75 $15.: D ■Cost of seed delivered at mill $12.00 Cost of working, bags, barrels, etc 3.50 Cost of fuel, per ton i.oo 16.50 Loss $i--5 A mill under these circumstances, working 5,000 tons of vseed per year would lose over $5,000. 220 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. TABLE IX. SHOWING PRESENT PRODUCTS AND VALUES OBTAINED FROM ONE TON OF SEED IN WELL DESIGNED MILL WITH THE BEST MA- CHINERY, IN A GOOD YEAR. Oil, 40 gals at 30c $12.00 Meal, 675 pounds at $1.00 cwt 6.75 Hull, 950 pounds at $4.00 per ton 1.90 Lint, 30 pounds at 3c .90 $21.55 Cost of seed $15.00 Cost of working, bags, etc 3.00 Cost of fuel " 50 $18.50 Profit $3-05 A mill under these circumstances, working 5,000 tons- of seed per year would make a profit of about $15,000. HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 221 TABLE X. SHOWING PRESENT PRODUCTS AND VALUES OBTAINED FROM ONE TON OF SEED IN A WELL DESIGNED MILL WITH THE BEST MA- CHINERY, IN A BAD YEAR. Oil, 40 gals at 20c $8.00 Meal, 675 pounds, at 90c 6.08 Hull, 950 pounds at $4.00 1.90 Lint, 30 pounds at 3c 9^ $16.88 Cost of seed $12.00 Cost of working, bags, etc 3.00 Cost of fuel 50 15.50 Profit $1.38 A mill under these circumstances, working 5.000 tons of seed per year, would make a profit of nearly $7,000 This would be a dividend of 14 per cent, on a capital of $50,000 in the worst year. This shows the value of first- class designs in an oil mill. These figures are all average estimates. There is, or course, great variation in prices at different times, and in prices at different parts of the seed territory. They appiy also to the oil mill business, without supplemental or aux- iliary adjuncts, that are now coming into vogue. As a matter of fact, the best modern concerns in the East comprise in one plant, a ginnery, oil mill, fertilizer works and cotton mill, each department helping the other. In the operation of an oil mill, the personality of the man- ager and his capacity to make quick and accurate decisions on commercial points, has a greater influence on the profits than is the case in most other businesses. 222 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. Hulls for Fuel. Throughout the ei tire South, the use of huhs for fuel has been totahy abandoned, and they are being used as stock food, many mills having added the business of fat- tening cattle for beef. The use of hulls and meal together has been thoroughly demonstrated to be excellent for fat- tening cattle for beef, and also for feeding dairy cattle. These combinations have been, in fact, so perfected in de- sign that several plants have been built to put the seed cotton as a raw material through a complete cycle of oper- ations, as follows : 1. Separating the lint from the seed. 2. Separating the short lint. 3. Separating the hull and meat. 4. Separating the oil and meal. 5. Mixing meal and other ingredients for fertilizer. 6. Feeding hulls and meal to cattle, using the manure as a fertilizer. 7. Spinning and weaving the lint, making yarn and cloth. Thus, taking seed cotton as a raw material, the pro- ducts are taken out that are valuable for clothing and ani- mal food, and what is useless for these purposes is returned to the soil, to make the new crop. Table XL exhibits the value that might be obtained from the seed from ten million bales of cotton, if manu- factured under the ordinary improved processes now in conmion use, and sold at current prices. CO O > "WF" 224 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. TABLE XL SHOWING VALUE OF ORDINARY MANUFAC- TURED PRODUCTS OF COTTON SEED FROM TEN MILLION BALES OF COTTON. 200 million gals oil (40 gals per ton from five million tons) at 30c $60,000,000 Two and a half million tons hulls at $4.00. . 10.000,000 One and two-thirds million tons of meal at $21.00 35,000,000 TOO million pounds lint at 3c 3,000,000 Total $108,000,000 The total seed crop of 1900 as disposed of by ante-bel- lum planters would not have been worth $5,000,000, as against more than $100,000,000, if utilized according to the present known methods of obtaining values out of them. But the values indicated in the above table represent even much less than the possible results. Two and a half million tons of hulls will fatten for mar- ket two and a half njillion heavy beef cattle, or would maintain a proportionate number of dairy cattle. From these cattle come beef, tallow, glue, all dairy products, and still further developed industries. The oil^ besides being used as a cooking oil, gives also glycerine, candles, soap, lard, butter and indefinite other products and industries. Notable as an example of one of the uses to which it goes : The cylinders of the phonograpli are made from the "soap stock" residue in refining cotton oil HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 225 Delinting Machinery. There is a legend in the oil business that there is a for- tune in store for the man who invents a means of cleaning the lint from upland cotton seed so that they have the ap- pearance of Sea Island or Egyptian seed. The country is full of inventors trying to make seed cleaning machines. Most of the workers at the problem have never stopped to ask the question where the fortune would come from, or why it should even be expected that there would be profit in a perfected delinting machine. Many machines have been invented and made^ — quite a number of good ones, but nobody has yet made the fortune. Whenever any evidence is exhibited at all in support of the assertion or idea that a delinting machine would be valuable, the argument is about as follows : The price of seed in America is $10.00 per ton; in England it is quoted about $24.00 per ton Therefore, if a machine could be in- vented to make American seed look like the Egyptian, there would be a fortune it. As a matter of fact, when seed are quoted at $10.00 in this country and $24.00 in England, the meaning of a ton in this country is 2,000 pounds, and in England 2.240 pounds. If this be considered, and there be added to the cost of seed in this country the cost of cleaning, freight to port, ocean freight, handling and commission on the other side, and freight to mill on the other side, it will be found cheaper to work seed in America by the usual American process. The seed from the /American sea island cotton are already clean, and are already near ports in most cases, and yet no important business has ever been developed in shipping them abroad. The reason is, that if they can be purchased at a reasonable price, it pays better to work them in this country than to attempt to ship them. Linting. Much has been said about the value of the lint that is not true. After seed are well linted bv an ordinarv linter. 226 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. what is left is of not much value as fibre or paper stock A good linter gets from 20 to 30 pounds of lint from a ton of seed, when about five tons per day is put through one machine. It is a considerable question whether it is worth the cost to take more than 30 pounds of lint from average seed. Assuming the ability of the linters to get say 30 pounds of lint per ton, the linters may be so arranged as to run the entire seed first through one half the Hnters, getting fifteen pounds per ton, and then run them through the other half, getting fifteen pounds more. The first lint would sell for say 4 cents per pound, making 60 cents per ton. The second lint would bring say 2 cents per pound, making 30 cents per ton, making a total of 90 cents per ton. On the other hand, running the seed through all the linters at one time would give, say 30 pounds of uniform quality, which would sell at about 3 cents per pound, making 90 cents per ton also. The question of profit would depend more on the market to be reached than upon anything in the mill. Storing Cotton Seed. Cotton seed are very perishable, and the danger of heat- ing might be estimated at 10 per cent, of their value. By care, this may be reduced to 5 per cent, or less. A mill having a capacity of 30 tons of seed per 24 hours, and a storage capacity of 1,000 tons of seed, from the 15th of September to the 15th of February, would work about 3,000 tons; allowing for breakdowns and holidays. To work 5,000 tons instead of 3,000 may be accom- plished by increasing storage capacity to the extent of 2,000 tons, making 3.000 instead of 1,000, and using the same machinery; or it may be done by leaving seed storage unchanged, and adding additional machinery to work the 2,000 tons additional seed in the same time. HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 227 By adding storage, there would be the following items of additional expense: 1. LiabiUty of seed to rot or damage. 2. Interest on money invested in 2,000 tons stored seed. 3. Less oil per ton on stored seed than on seed worked fresh. 4. Less price on oil out of stored seed, if in any way heated. 5. Additional labor for working same tonnage for a longer time. 6. Interest on increased warehouse cost. By adding new machinery there would be the following additional expenses and advantages : 1. Interest on value of additional machinery. 2. Repairs on additional machinery. 3. Less cost per ton, because the same force can usually operate the additional machinery and make the increased output in the same time. 4. The meal can be put on the market for the current year, instead of part of it having to be carried over to an- other season. By having ample mill capacity, as against large storage capacity, and working seed practically as fast as received, banking facilities become a much simpler matter, and in all respects the manufacture is facilitated and cheapened. But there is a limit to the profitable capacity of a single mill. It is believed that the most profitable size mill ranges from 25 to 100 tons capacity, according to locality and amount of seed available. Mills larger than this become difficult to manage. One of the difficulties consists in the handling of the large amounts of seed which come by rail, during the short season in which seed are marketed. If larger capacity than 100 tons per day is desired, it is better to build two or more separate mills. It is a good rule in any manufactory to keep on hand the least raw material necessary for regular running, and to sell products about as they are ready for the market. 228 HISTORY AND COMMERICAL FEATURES. To accumulate raw material is to speculate in it, and to hold the products is equally speculative; and a factory is not necessary if speculation is the object. It is best to ac- cept whatever profit there is in manufacture at current market prices of raw material and products, and when current market prices yield no profit, shut down and wait for one or the other of the markets to change. By this plan it is always eas}' to determine what a factory can afiford to pay for raw material. Whenever a mill is not in condition to operate, by be- ing unfinished or otherwise, it is especially dangerous to accumulate seed. If it seems desirable to purchase them, they should be bought and sold as a mercantile transactioti but not held to wait completion of a new mill, or repairs on an old one. Most Profitable Size of Mills. There are two ways in which the cotton oil business may be made to pay. ( i ) Build a large mill in a railroad centre, where it is easy to draw large quantities of seed from a large territory. (2) Build a small mill in a small town, with scant railroad facilities and depend mostly on wagon seed, and depend on home demand for all of the products, except oil. The large mill has to work harder for its supplies of seed, but is not hampered by local com- petition in any one place, because if seed should become too high in one town, it can easily abandon that town and find another one. In the matter of disposing of products; by reason of, hav- ing large quantities to dispose of, the large mill is in good shape to supply to the export market and thus make large sales as easy as small sales. But the advantage which a large mill possesses that out- Aveighs all the others, is that the volume of its business will justify it in employing competent men who will be able to turn out the very highest class products, and who will be able to carry the process very much further than less com- o CO o 6 o CU O 6 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAI^ FEATURES. 23 1 petent men. This would consist in refining the oil, mak- ing ^oap, etc., also in making fertilizers and stock feed. On the other hand, the small mill has distinct advantages of its own. These advantages have become accentuated of late years since the value of meal and hulls for stock feed has become better known. This gives the local mill a local market for all of its products except oil, that is to say, about 85 per cent of the weight of the cotton seed. In the matter of purchasing seed, it has little or no freights to pay, and generally has the co-operation of neighboring farmers. It is sometimes possible to exchange mill products for seed, thus enabling a small mill to ope- rate O'U the minimum amount of capital. These small mills vary in size from 20 to 40 tons of cotton seed per day of 24 hours. They generally consume from 2,000 to 4,000 tons of cotton seed in one season. The large mills in railroad centres have capacities rang- ing from 100 to 150 tons of seed in 24 hours, and consum- ing from 10,000 to 20,000 tons of seed in one season. The small local mill idea is growing in popularity, and some predict that it will finally take possession of the field. But there is ample field for the large central oil mill, pro- vided the business is worked out to a logical extent and more attention paid to producing finer products at higher prices. It may even reach a position where it can purchase the oil from the small local mills, and make much profit by turning this oil into high price products. In all kinds of manufacturing, the cost of raw material forms a smaller and smaller percentage of the value of the mill products, as these mill products become finer in quality. For this reason, variation in the cost of raw ma- terial is of the least consequence to a mill turning out the finest or most finished products. This is exhibited by the following examples: 22,2 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. EXAMPLE (I.) ORDINARY PROCESS. Per cent, of value of products. Cost of seed $12.00 67 Cost of working. . . . 3.00 17 Cost of product. . . .$15.00 84 Value of product — crude oil, meal, hulls $18.00 100 Profit $ 3.00 16 EXAMPLE (2.) AMPLIFIED PROCESS. Per cent, of value of products. Cost of seed $12.00 30 Cost of working- 20.00 50 Cost of product .... $32.00 80 Value of product — butter oil, salad oil, compound lard, butterine. beef ...$40.00 100 Profit $ 8.00 20 It will be seen from the above examples that in the first case a rise in the price of seed means a rise on 67 per cent, of the value of the product, and that a rise of $3 would destroy the profits. But in the second example, a rise in the price of seed only affects 30 per cent, of the value of the product, and a rise of $3 would only cut down the profit from 20 per HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 233 cent, to I2| per cent. It would require a rise of $8 per ton on seed to destroy all the profit. These examples show that refinements in manufacturing depend more on knowledge and skill than upon raw ma- terial. It is believed that there is but little difference in the profits between operating a 100-ton mill in a railroad centre, and operating a 40-ton mill in a small town surrounded by cot- ton plantations. The distinct advantages of each are about offset by distinctive disadvantages. The hundred-ton mill is able to operate on somewhat less exj^ense for labor and fixed charges; but it must pay freights on hulls and meal to the consuming markets. The forty-ton mill operates with somewhat more expense for labor and fixed charges ; but it has practically no freight to pay on seed or hulls and meal. At the present time, there seems to be more profit in operating mills within the limits of 40 to 100 tons capacity than those either smaller or larger. The following table shows complete cost or capital 1 1- vestment necessary for cotton seed oil mills, refineries and cotton ginneries. < ^4 t— I o o o o o X 'lUPfl 'no 'IBIOX 'snBid puB 'asnovajBVl 'suio PBBJS xjs 'Ajsnoto •Xj3ug3>f pnB inw no iBjox •snBjd puB ! AjaniqDBra HB pnB 3ni -pimq 3nip -nibni 'Xj9ng9H ■asnoq jbsim p n B psas poB saaiioa 'iim no iBiox pnn tqSisjj 8 ? 12 a a g th CO m S •w 00 ej snBid puB Ijio apnjD a^Bia o* inw no ni Xa3nii|D -b'k «m6 nv •xjojsBiT a "o "H XaaniqDBjv ■Xid -ans J3JBM. pUB Xt3}l«S H ■» pUBpOBl •sasnoq iBajv poB p a 3 s 'isnoa inw liO 3ciipniD -ni 'sSuipiing ■snoi lit 'sjnoii fSJOjAjlDudBO •" " S gj s 3 S -H W IM N o o in M — > M CO to HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 235 The estimates in table XII. are based on refineries de- signed to turn out a variety of products, such as summer yellow, butter oil, white oils and miners' oils. If it is desired to make winter oils also, the cost would be increased about 50 per cent. If only. summer yellow oil is to be produced, the cost would be about 50 per cent, less than the table. The cost of a crude cotton seed oil mill may be said to be .about $1,000 per ton (of seed in 24 hours) capacity. The cost of refinery of about the character contemplated in Table XII. ranges from $300 to $500 per ton capacity of the crude oil mill. Transportation and Uses of Cotton Oil. The final test of cotton seed oil is edibihty. The high- ■est prices can only be obtained on this basis. When the quality of an oil falls below this, it goes intoi other uses and brings lower prices. In the early days of the business, this oil was looked upon entirely as an adulterant. It was shipped to Italy and France as an adulterant for olive oil, and was shipped to the lard works or "packing houses" of the United States, as an adulterant for lard. These uses still continue, but are growing into more general favor on the merits of the oil itself. There is still some prejudice against it. and justly so when used as an adul- terant. But commerce is becoming accustomed to "com- pound lard," and "lard compound," and other names sug- gestive of the mixed character of the product; and the 'business of making acceptable culinary articles from cot- ton seed oil has become legitimate and desirable. Some of these compounds contain pure hog lard; while some contain none at all, and are advertised as such. It is es- timated that 30 per cent, of the cotton oil produced in the United States is consumed in this manner. Most of the packing houses, where these lard compounds are made, are in the West. This business has recently commenced to grow in the South 236 HISTORY AND COMMhRCIAL FEATURES. Formerly, owing to lack of skill at the oil mills, the oil was shipped in the crude state, to these distant works, where it was first refined and then uiilized. Latterly, the mills have begun refining the oil before shipping, thus making the additional profit. Oil is sold nominally by the gallon, but actually by the pound. The commercial gallon of cotton seed oil, crude or refined, weighs 7^ pounds. When oil is sold, the net weight is divided by 7^ in order to reduce it to gallons. In practice, this would often leave awkward fractions, so the custom is to multiply the weight by 2, and divide by 15, thus leaving any fraction as I5ths. Previous to about 1886, the standard package for both crude and refined cotton oil was second-hand kerosene barrels. These were cleaned with hot steam, until they had no (xlor of kerosene, and were lined with glue to en- sure tightness. If the work of cleaning is properly don-^, this makes an acceptable package. As the business grew, many became careless in cleaning the barrels, and many used varnish barrels and linseed oil barrels. This engen- dered a prejudice agamst all second-hand barrels. At tiie same time, the demand for second-hand kerosene oil bar- rels became greater than the supply, and within a very short while, it became the standard practice to use new barrels. The use of tank errs for domestic shipments has been steadily superseding barrels. Most of the packing houses own large numbers of tank cars, which they send out tO' oil mills for their oil. Most of the large mills also own. tank cars, in which they ship their product, and which they often use for purchasing crude oil from small mills, which are not equipped with refineries. Tank cars for cotton oil generally hold 6,000 to 7,000 gallons, or 45,000 to 52,500 pounds. This is the most convenient way to transport oil of all grades. They are also, to some extent, being used for soap stock, or the residues from refining. Tank cars are provided with coils of pipe on the inside,. o IllV^^■^.A;l■^. v^.v^.^^.v^^,v^■'^,^.v^.^.'^■v^.^.'^.^.^.■^,vv■^,v^.'^,'^.^■^.vvv^.■^.v^.v^,v^.'^.^.v^.^.^^■■^■^^v^,^.^A.vOT^ 238 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. SO arranged that hot steam may be used to thaw out the oil when it is congealed by cold weather. It is import- ant to see that these coils are always in good order, so that no steam may be blown direct into the oil. Oil for export must, of course, be put up in barrels. It is essential that the barrels be first-class, otherwise there will be great loss from leakage under the numerous hand- lings which they undergo. A small amount of oil is now being exported in tank steamships, arranged to carry it in bulk, in compartments. These ships ply between Southern ports of America, where there are large storage tanks, and certain ports of Europe, where there are similar facilities. About 65 per cent, of all the cotton oil produced in the United States is exported. About one-third of this, be- ing the best grades, goes to Holland, for use in making artificial butter, which reaches its perfection in that coun- try. The finest grades of summer yellow oil are known in the trade as "butter oil." Some of the best grades of oil also go to Southern European ports for admixture with olive oil, and also, to some extent, for an edible oil under its own name. South Europeans have always been accustomed to eating olive oil, as other people eat butter, and the poorer classes accept cotton oil as a cheap substitute. Large quantities of mferior grades, being about one-third of all our exports, go to Marseilles and neighboring ports for soap making. Inferior oils are frequently bleached by sulphuric acid at the refineries into "white oil," and used as an illumin- ant, in place of lard oil. The principal use of this oil is for admixture with petroleums of high flashing point, to be burned in miners' lamps. This grade of white cotton oil is generally known as "miners' oil." It should not be confused with prime white oil, which is bleached from first quality summer yellow, by the use of fullers earth, and which is used in compound lard. There are many minor uses for cotton oil, among which HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 239 may be mentioned the packing of sardines and similar fish. It has been frequently tried as an adulterant for lin- seed oil, or as a substitute for it, m painting. The dif- ficulty has always been, that in its natural state, cotton oil will not dry out and leave the paint hard. Numerous processes have been exploited for making it into a drying oil; but none have so far been a commercial success. It has often been tried as a lubricant, but its gummy nature prevents any success in this field, except for the most or- dinary purposes. Several processes have been tried for removing the gum or resin. There have been some lab- oratory experiments, which seem to indicate that a use- ful gum may be extracted and used as a substitute for rubber, while leaving the oil in a condition to use as a lu- bricant, but as yet, these processes have not been com- mercially successful. Transportation and Use of Cotton Seed Meal. When the oil has been extracted by hydraulic presses, there remains the cake. Formerly, when the presses were differently constructed and the processes were somewhat different, this cake was softer than it is at the present time. It was largely exported as cake, and sold for cat- tle food. It was broken into pieces and fed, in connection with other material. In some cases it was ground fine, after being exported, and fed in this condition. It has been found that the finely ground meal mixes more readi- ly, and is more digestible than cake, and so the practice of feeding cake has been nearly abandoned. The Ger- mans were the first to realize the value of fine grinding. From the beginning of the business, very small quantities of cake, and large quantities of meal were exported to Germany, while England and other countries preferred cake. In some cases this preference for cake was caused by the fear of adulteration in meal. Cake was formerly packed into coarse secohd-hand gunny sacks and driven in with a mallet, in order to 240 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. make a firm package. These packages varied in weight, but generally weighed about 200 pounds. Meal for export is ground very fine, and bolted clean. It is generally put up in 100 pound sacks, as one-twenti- eth of a "short ton" 01 2,000 pounds; but for special orders it is sometimes put up in 112 pound sacks, as one-twenti- eth of the "long ton," of 2,240 pounds, and sometimes in no pounds sacks, as 50 kilograms. All meal for domestic trade is put up in 100 pound sacks. The domestic demand was at first entirely as a fertilizer, both for use direct on the soil, and for mixing with other ingredients to make a commercial fertilizer. This de- mand grew to immense proportions in the Southeastern States, where fertilizers were universally used. From 1880 to 1890, about 90 per cent, of the meal made in that sec- tion was used for fertilizer, about 5 per cent, was exported, and the remainder was fed to cattle. In the Southwest, where but little fertilizer was requir- ed, about 75 per cent, of the meal and cake was exported to Europe for cattle feeding, while the remainder was fed to cattle, at home. At the present time, cattle feeding has become such an extensive business, both in the Southeast and Southwest, that of the whole amcunt of meal produced in both sec- tions, about 35 per cent is fed to cattle, about 35 per cent. is used for fertilizers, and the remainder is exported for feed. It has been so clearly demonstrated by experiment stations, and by other practical tests, that the principal value of cotton seed meal Hes in its feeding, rather than its fertilizing qualities, that it is only a matter of time when practically all of the meal will be fed. The fertilizer works are already accommodating themselves to this condition, and are partly substituting other sources of nitrogen for the cotton seed meal. The sacks, in which meal is shipped, consist largely of second hand wheat sacks, made crig^inallv to hold lOG HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. 24 1 pounds of wheat for export from CalifDrnia to the Orient. These sacks are often re-shipped with hnseed to Eastern ports of the United States. When the Hnseed is used, the sacks are cleaned and put up in bales of i,ooo, and sold to cotton oil mills. Fertilizer factories and cattle feeders frecjuently return sacks to the oil mills, to be used again and again. Meal is sold by gross weight, that is, no de- duction is made for the weight of the sacks. It is very diflicult to empty absolutely all the meal from the sacks, and hence the returned sacks are somewdiat heavier than they v^tre at first, so that notwithstanding their damaged condition, necessitating repairs, the oil mills are always willing to allow consumers the full price of new sacks for all those returned. Transportation and Uses of Cotton Seed Hulls. The first use of cotton seed hulls was for fuel to run the oil mills. Mills of forty tons (seed) capacity, and upw^ard, always made enough hulls for a full supply of fuel, even with very ordinary steam plants; with good, econom- ical engines, there was considerable surplus; the larger the mill, the greater the surplus. It soon became a prob- lem to dispose of this large amount of useless product. It was difficult to even give it away. The bulky and light nature of the material, made it difficult of transportation, and so it w^as not of much fuel value to other plants located at a distance from the oil mill. A ton, in its loose state, occupies about 300 cubic feet, and is equal in fuel value to •one-quarter ton of coal, which occupies about ten cubic feet. The use of cotton seed hulls as a cattle food was tried •experimentally in the early days of the oil mill, but its true value, in comparison with other food stuffs was not real- ized until 1885 to 1890. About this time, systematic •cattle feeding commenced, as an adjunct to oil milling in the Southwest. Large herds of Texas cattle were bought ^t low rates, and fed m pens near the mills, and when fat, •shipped to the packing houses. The value of hulls as a 242 HISTORY AND COMMERCIAL FEATURES. cattle food was thus practically demonstrated on a large scale, so that there arose a steady demand for hulls from many sources, all over the cotton growing States. The problem of transportation then began to receive atten- tion. Hulls were at first shipped in Imlk in box cars. By careful tramping, about twelve tons may be loaded into a car. Many hulls are still shipped in this way, some arc put up by machinery into sacks; but the most general method is to pack them into bales about two feet square, weighing about lOO pounds. In this shape, 15 tons may be easily and quickly loaded into a box car. The style of bale now in use is not entirely satisfactory, for the reason that it is only partially covered, and there is great waste in handling. There is a demand for some better method of packing cotton seed hulls for ship- ment. TABLE XIII. SHOWING VALUE AND AMOUNT OF SEED. CRUSHED, AND VALUE OF CRUDE MILL PRODUCTS, 1870 TO 1900. No. of Mills. Toi;s of Seed. Value of Seed. Value of Products. 1870 so 1875 35 1^80 45 lg85 80 ISUO no iMif) 250 I'JOU 400 80,000 150,000 280,000 550,000 1,000,000 1,800,000 1,900,100 $ 640.000 1,500.000 2,800,000 5,500 000 12,000 000 21,600.000 23,800.000 $ 1,500,000 2,yoo.ooo 5,100.000 9,6(10.000 23 hOO.OOO 33,0(10 030 35,000,000 CHAPTER XIL Cotton Sec^ ®il. flDccbanical jfcaturee anb |p.rOCC96C6. The previous chapter onthn^d the !-:chednle of oil mill operations. This chapter will discuss the machines for per- forming these operations. Seed Handling Machinery — Conveyors. Seed are moved horizontally by spiral steel conveyors, shown in Figure 68. Conveyors are right and left hand, as I Fig. 68. Right and Left Hand Conveyors. shown. Either hand conveyor may be made to carry seed in either direction, according to the direction it is made to revolve. It is the best practice to have, as far as possible, all con- veyors of the same size and hand in any one mill, in order to facilitate repairs, and the keeping of spare parts on hand. '/s> -—5 IN.- ^-^\\- c O < o N o l-H 330 MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. Fig. 1 08 shows a high and low pressure pump, piped up to three presses. More presses could be added if desired. A. — Low pressure pump. B. — High pressure pump. C. — Automatic change valve. D. — Side view of automatic change valve. E. H. — Press change valves. F. — Pipe to press. G. — Presses. K. — Discharge pipe to tank. The automatic change valve C (see Fig. 107), is i)ut near pumps. By this plan, only one lire of pipes is re- quired, to go from the automatic change \-alve to as many presses as one set of pumps will supply. Old Style Press. The foregoing system of pressing is of recent origin, hav- ing been first introduced in 1882. Previous to that time, and for several years thereafter, the cooked meats were put by hand into small bags, and folded up into hair mats, and put into the press boxes. This hair mat resembled a large, long book, opening at one end. This mat, with the bag of meats folded within, was about 5 inches thick, so that the press boxes had to be about 6 inches deep. Thus, a jjress could only hold five or six boxes, to keep the top box within reach of a man standing on the floor. The capacity of these presses was about one ton per box per day. The pressure required to press five or six cakes is as much as for twelve or fifteen, so that a mill had to provide much more machinery to get a given ca])acity than by the present system. The former was invented to make a preliminary pressing of the cooked meats, so they would not occupy so much room in the press. The cake delivered by the former is only about i^ inches thick. These are wrapped in cloth, put directly into the press boxes, withrut the use of any o U u CI. GO o 33^ MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. mats, so that by this system about fifteen boxes may be arranged in a press of the same height as the old one. The old system was rapidly abandoned, so that by 1890, not 5 per cent, of the mills were using it. At the present time^ there are a very few mills operating under the old system. Press Cloth. A large item of expense in the operation of an oil mill is the camels' hair press cloth. This expense may easily be made three or four times as great as it should be, if all the conditions are not just right. Proper cooking of the meats is the first consideration for the preservation of press cloth, (as well as for the quantity and quality of the < il). If the moisture and sap is not sufficiently cocked cut of the meats, the press cloth will be badly broken. The speed of the presses is another factor. There is no cbjec- tion to the rapid working of the press up to the point of about 500 pounds pressure per square inch on the ram, which is about the point when oil begins to flow freely. "When the pressure passes this point, the increase cf pres- sure and the movement of presses must be slow enough to let the oil escape through the press cloth without ruptur- ing it. When high pressure (3,500 pounds), alone is used, great care must be taken not to put the pressure on too rapidly. The limit as to maximum pressure is controlled by an automatic regulating valve on the pump, and to prevent putting the high pressure on too quickly the steam throttle in the supply pipe is so arranged as to admit steam very gradually behind the piston. This works fairly well with one to two presses, and if carefully looked after. For more than two presses, it is important to have two pressure pumps, one high pressure (3,500 pounds), and one low pressure (300 pounds), con- nected with each of the presses, through an additional change valve, as previously described. It is not impossible to carry to excess the effort to save MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. 335 press cloth (without regard to other matters). For ex- am])]e, the heaters or presses might be run on so slow a schedule, in the effort to save press cloth, that the loss of capacity of the mill would more than overbalance the sav- ing. Judgment must be used in finding the proper balance between straining the capacity of the mill, at the expense of the press cloth, and keeping dow-n the capacity for the purpose of saving it. When the pressure is released on the presses and they run down, the cakes remaining in the boxes are loosened up by a man behind the press with a short flat bar. The man in front takes out the cakes and piles them on the strip- ping table where another man strips off the press cloths and passes them back to be used again. If the meats have been sufficiently cooked, the cloths strip easily, and without damage. One cloth weighs about three pounds, and costs about $1.50. With good usage, it should stand 600 to 700 pressings. The cost per ton of seed is 12 to 20 cents. Press cloths are mended on a stout sewing machine de- signed for the purpose. Disposition of Oil. As the oil flows from the presses it is caught in a shallow^ trough behind. This trough also incidentally catches a lot of meats and broken cake that fall around the presses. In order to entrap these in the trough and allow only the clear oil to run off, the oil outlet enters the trough near the tO":*. The oil runs off into a tank under the floor. Sometimes there is still another tank under the floor, into which the oil from the first tank runs out from a pipe near the top with the idea of leaving the sediment in the first tank. The oil is pumped out of the second tank to the storage tanks, located wherever convenient on the premises. All the above precautions still do not entirely free the oil from sediment, so that there will be much sediment found in the storage tanks. This sediment contains some water, and in warm weather, it will tend to sour and damage the oil. Hence it is not a 336 MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. good plan to allow crude oil to stand long, in summer, un- less it is pumped off into clean tanks, after standing awhile. If tanks are cleaned out often, before the settlings sour, the settlings may be mixed with the cooked meats and pressed again, so that if carefully attended to, there need not be much waste from settlings. Filtering crude oil through a special filter press is com- ing into limited use. This makes a nice, clear oil, which is somewhat more salable than unfiltered oil. But the pro- cess is a difficult one; the filter becomes so quickly clogged. Some form of gravity filter is the easiest to operate. Such a filter may be easily made by loosely filling a tank with straw, over a false perforated bottom. Where the oil mill has a refinery, the question of filtering is not of so much importance, because the sediment is precipitated in any case, when being refined. Cake Cracker. When the cakes leave the presses, they weigh twelve to fourteen pounds. They are stacked up to air-dry, for twelve to twenty-four hours. Sometimes the cakes are put in racks to dry. They are then put by hand into the cake cracker, which grinds them into pieces about the size of a grain of corn, so that they may be fed to a mill for still finer grinding. This machine must be very strong and durable to crack the very hard cakes. Fig. 1 10 shows one very good form of cake cracker. The crusher rolls are revolved in different directions, at a speed of about 300 revolutions. This machine will handle about one ton of cakes per hour, and will thus be sufficient for an oil mill of 70 to 75 tons (of seed) per day. Heal Mill. The cracked cake is taken to the mill for fine grinding. This may be an ordinary corn or wheat mill, but is prefer- ably a mill with chilled iron plates. Fig. 1 1 1 shows one form of iron plate mill, known as an "attrition mill." 6 MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. 34I The plates revolve in opposite directions at a speed of about 1,500 revolutions per minute. The engraving shows the outer casing removed for the purpose of changing the grind- ing plates. These mills are made in various sizes, from plates 20 inches to 36 inches in diameter. The capacity ranges res- pectively from one to four tons of meal per hour, beirg suitable for oil mills of 30 to 100 tons (of seed) per day. Most mills arrange to grind in 12 hours all the cake that is produced in 24 hours. The above rating is based on this practice. The broken cake is fed to the mill at the top, and the fine meal is delivered under the bottom in the centre. It is possible to grind fine marketable meal with these mills, if they are not crowded too near their ultimate ca- pacity. The domestic demand for meal is not so critical about fineness as the export trade. It is usual in grinding meal for export trade by whatever process, to pass it through screens or bolting chests, to reduce it to a uniform grade^ and free it from hulls and lint. The attrition mill does its work largely by making the par- ticles of cake grind each other. Therefore it is important that the mill have enough feed as well as not too much. An attrition mill, when underfed, will do its wcrk as poorly as when overfed. Some mills have their screening machinery so arranged that the material from the cake cracker is first screened for the recovery of such fine meal as may be possible, before carrying it to the grinding mill. This is an economical process, as it relieves the mill of some duty. The large lumps of cake thrown into the revolving screen have a tendency to break the perforated metal or wire cloth, and on account of the additional repairs thus entailed, the process has not become popular. The screens should be covered with per- forations about I -1 6 to 1-20 inch diameter. The screening is, however, generally all done after the grinding. In some cases, mills grinding for a very critical market have screened 34- MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. as fine as 1-32 inch. Tlie finer the screening,, the more ex- pensive the process, the more power and the more grinding" mills required, because the coarse particles which will not pass through the perforations, have to be reground again and again until they will pass through. For the domestic trade, some mills screen meal through 3-32 perforations, mostly for removing lint cotton which has escaped the linters, and which is attached to the par- ticles of hull, still to be found in the meal. The finer the grinding the more digestible the meal is for stock food. The Germans lay great stress on this point. Most oil mills sack and weigh the meal by hand; but lately some of the larger mills are installing weighirg ma- chines, with great success. It is usual to install the cake-grinding machinery in the oil mill building, and to carry the meal to the meal storage house with a conveyor, and there sack and store it. A mill should have its meal storage separate from the seed storage; otherwise if seed are stored where meal has been, the lint on the seed becomes discolored by the yellow meal, and deteriorated in value. MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. 343 TABLE XV. SHOWING AVERAGE SPEEDS, CAPACITIES AND POWER REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS MACHINES IN A COTTON SEED OIL MILL. MACHINE Sand and Boll Screen Linter Linter Huller Huller Separating Screen . . Rolls Rolls Heater Heater Cake Cracker .... Cake Cracker .... Meal Mill Meal Mill Hull Press ... Speed 20 35t:> 350 900 900 20 180 180 105 105 300 300 1800 1200 400 Capacity in Tons Seed in 24 Hours 40 5 10 40 100 40 40 100 40 100 Capacity in Tons Pro- duct in 12 Hours 25 65 25 65 40 Horse Power 3 4 3 10 25 3 10 30 8 20 5 12 25 50 5 For shafting, add 20 per cent, to power. For conveyors and elevators, add 10 per cent, to power. In some cases in the foregoing table, the machines are given two ratings in capacity and power. In the case of the linters and hullers, the variations may be made by vary- ing the amount of material fed; in the case of the other machines, the variations are due to using different size machines for different capacities desired. The capacities and corresponding power required, may be 344 MECHANICAL FEATURES AND PROCESSES. widely varied according to the way in which the machinery is forced, and according to the general skill in operating the mill as a whole. The usual allowance of power for various size oil mills is 2^ horse power per ton (of seed) capacity per day of 24 hours. CHAPTER XIII. Cotton Sccb ®il IReflnino. Crude cotton oil, in common with most crude vegetable oils, is an intricate mixture of chemical compounds, con- taining more or less impurities in mechanical suspension or solution. The chemical compounds are made up of nearly- neutral bodies formed by the combination of certain acids with certain other bodies having an affinity for the acids. The completeness of the chemical combination between these two classes of bodies constitute the principal element in the value of the oil. The chemical reactions in oils are so intri- cate that the easiest understanding of them may be obtained by analogy with more simple compounds, such as are f 3imed among inorganic substances. For example, sulphate of zinc is formed by the action of sulphuric acid upon zinc. If sufficient zinc is supplied for the quantity of acid present, there will result a perfectly neutral compound, which will show no acid reaction w^iatever ; if, however, the amount of zinc is deficient, the compound will contain "free acid," that is, acid which has not found anything with which to combine. It remains there ready to combine with anything for which it has an affinity, such as an alkali or a metal. If it is desired that the above compound shall be perfectly pure or neutral, the free acid must in some way be eLminated. If zinc is available the most obvious and economical way would be to add just enough zinc to neutralize the free acid, so that the compound would all be pure sulphate of zinc. But if zinc cannot be obtained, some other metal or alkali may be used to neutralize the free acid, provided such a sub- stitute will produce a sulphate which can be separated by pre- cipitation, or otherwise, from the sulphate of zinc desired. Cotton oil is roughly analogous to sulphate of zinc, sul- phuric acid being represented by a mixture of oleic, stearic and palmitic acids, and the metal by a vegetable substance 346 COTTON SEED OIE REEINING. called glycerol. The above mentioned acids belong to a series known as "fatty acids." Upon the complete balancing of the fatty acids with the glycerol, depends the neutrality, and generally speaking, the commercial value of the oil. Fresh crude oil, made from sound seed, will contain fatty acids in excess of the neutral requirement to the extent of ^ to I per cent, of the total weight. The chemical affinity between elements in cotton oil is very much weaker than in inorganic substances, and as crude oil grows older, more and more acid becomes dis-associated or "free." Likewise, when seed become heated, more acid in the contained oil be- comes free. This setting free of fatty acids is one of the causes producing what is known as rancidity in oils. Cotton oil is frequently alluded to as containing i to 2 per cent, of fatty acid, when "free" fatty acid is meant, the entire amount of combined fatty acids in any cotton oil being about 70 per cent. The total contents of fatty acids in oil may be determined by completely saponifying the oil and treating the soap with weak sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid has a greater affinity for glycerol than the fatty acids, and it displaces them and sets them all free, so they can be separated and weighed. Fatty acids do not present any of the ordi- nary features popularly ascribed to acids. Most of them are at ordinary temperatures solid, and they are not sour to the taste, and they do not indicate with litmus paper, as do inorganic acids. In chemical tests for fatty acids, the indicator used is phenolphthalein, a 3'ellow powder dissolved in alcohol. To determine the amount of free fatty acid in any given oil, measure a certain quantity of oil, add a few drops of the indicator and slowly add measured quantities of an alkali of known strength, violently shaking after each addition, until the indicator turns the whole solution a light pink. This shows that the acids have just been neutralized, and the percentage may be calculated from the amount of alkali used. These fatty acids have been mentioned in con- junction because they are chemically quite similar, and all the reactions are about the same. The quantities are usually * t >^ O o -4—' U o o iiMS^.. COTTON SEED OIL REFINING. 349 chemically computed as so much oleic acid. Some of their physical characteristics are different, as for instance, melting points and specific gravities. Oleic, stearic and palmitic acids when in combination, as in cotton oil, make compounds known respectively as olein, stearin and palmitin, which par- take of the characteristics of their respective acids. The first two are the principal constituents of cotton oil. Olein remains liquid at a lower temperature, and is lighter than stearin; hence, as the temperature is lowered, stearin begins to solidify and settle. This is the basis on which their separation is in practice accomplished, as in the manu- facture of winter oils. Crude cotton oil contains, besides free fatty acids, other impurities, such as water, cotton seed meal, mucilaginous matter, and a brown coloring matter, which latter appears to be inherent in the seed, and to occur in solution in the oil. Excepting the free acids and the coloring matter, these impurities may be removed bv filtration or bv settling; or they may be mostly prevented by care in manufacture. Water and mucilaginous matter (mostly albumen) occur naturally in cotton seed, and should be separated from the oil in process of manufacture. In these processes the water is mostly evaporated, while albumen is coagulated and to- gether with the remaining water, is supposed to b^ left in the residue or cake, when the oil is pressed out. Careless- ness in manufacture, or an effort to obtain the last bit of oil in the seed, or to rush the process through in the shortest time, will result in throwing these impurities into the oil. One of the methods for quickening the time in manufacture, is cooking with high pressure steam. It is necessarv to heat the kernels to about 220 degrees Fahrenheit. This may be accomplished by cooking for a long time with steam at 50 pounds pressure (298 degrees F.), or for a short time with steam at 100 pounds (338 degrees F.). The former pro- duces the best oil ; the latter is the cheapest process. The same applies to the degree of hydraulic nressure in the Dresses. Even the coloring matter in the oil is lessened by lower pressure in both cases. 350 COTTON SEED OII^ REElNING. In the development of modern crude oil mills, high pres- sure and quick processes having, from their commercial su- periority, become most common, it is required of the refiner to accept crude oil as it comes, and make the best refined pro- duct. The first requisite is to remove by filtration all the foreign matter in suspension, and, if the oil is to stand for any length of time before refining, remove, by settling and drawing off, any water that it may contain. If crude oil stands for several months without this preliminary atten- tion, the water and particles of meal and gum will sour in the bottom of the tank, and foul gases will rise through the body of the oil, and be partially absorbed. But if the oil is to be refined immediately after it is made, these impurities may be removed in the course of refining. Refining consists in removing free fatty acids, brown coloring matter and any other foreign matter that may exist in crude oil. This gives the product commonly referred to as "summer yellow oil." It should be a light straw color, free from sediment or water, and entirely neutral, (that is, free from either acid or alkali), and nearly tasteless. This condition is referred to in the trade generally as "prime," or, when with but the smallest possible taste, "but- ter oil." The trade definitions are not absolute, but depend upon the individual judgment of the sampler. Large sales should always be made by sample, rather than by definition. As most of the best cotton oil is finally intended for culinary use, it is best judged by tasting. Any oil that is the least offensive to a sensitive taste, no matter what its chemical purity, cannot pass as prime. Caustic soda is the principal chemical used in refining. It is received at the refinery in iron drums, weighing about 700 pounds. The kind known as 74 per cent, is generally used. The purer it can be had, the better it refines. It is sold on a basis of 60 per cent. If it is 74 per cent., the actual cost is 14-60 more than the basis price. The soda is broken up and dissovled in an iron tank. Its solution generates con- siderable heat. Great care should be exercised in handling rr~^i id COTTON SEED Oil, REFlNIxXG. 353 this substance, both while soHd, and while in solution, as it is very dangerous. A small drop of the concentrated solu- tion would make an angry burn on the flesh, or would put out an eye. The dissolving tank is usually located under the floor, so that it is not necessary to lift the heavy drum of soda to get it in the tank. When solution is perfect, it is pumped into the mixing tank located above the refining tank, where water is added to bring it to the required strength. Only the cleanest, purest water should be used, and the solution should be cool (not over 90 degrees) before used. The strength of the solution is measured with a hydrometer with Baume' scale. It is usual to have with the hydrometer, an iron or copper pot, holding about a gallon, and being deep enough to float the instrument. This is dipped full of the solution, and tested from time to time as the water is added. The desired strength and amount to be used must be separately determined for each different lot of crude oil. Theoretically, the amount of alkali required might be determined by finding the amount of free fatty acid present in any particular lot of crude oil under consideration, and calculating the amount of alkali necessary to neutralize it; but practically, this would not be sufficient for the pur- pose of refining, because it is found by experience that an ex- cess is required for the purpose of saponifying a small quantity of the oil after the free acid is neutralized. In sa- ponifying, it catches and carries to the bottom the particles of coloring matter and other floating impurities. For this reason the amount of required alkali is determined by making small refinings in bottles in a water bath, with varying amounts of alkali until a sample of refined oil is produced of the desired color and flavor. The percentage of alkali solution (of the strength used) for that particular lot is as- sumed to be the correct percentage for the entire tank. Within certain limits, the same results may be obtained by using a larger quantity of weak solution or a smaller quantity of strong solution, (the amount of actual caustic soda being about the same in each case). The varying of these ele- 354 COTTON S£EI) on. RKFINING. ments to suit varying lots of crude oil gives scope to the skill of the refiner. Generally a weaker solution is used at the beginning of the cotton oil season, when only new oil is refined, a smaller quantity being also recjuired at that time. As the season advances, a stronger solution is used. With the best quality of new crude, an amount of alkali solution of 6 degrees Baume' strength, equal l)y measure to 4 p^r cent. of the oil to be refined, will be found sufficient ; while later in the season, it may require 15 degrees strength, and 10 per cent in quantity. Crude oil which is not prime ( technically "off oil") may require 15 degrees strength and 20 per cent. in quantity. A 700-pound drum of 74 per cent, caustic soda will make about 700 gallons of solution at 1 5 degrees Baume, or roughly, one gallon to the pound. An iron tank capable of holding about 130 barrels, and having a conical bottom, and some means of agitating the oil, and some means of heating it, is used for refining 100 barrels of crude. This is considered about the best size, a larger quantity not being capable of sufficient agitation and heating, and a smaller quantity not being as profitable. Ths oil is measured and pumped in, and the agitation begins. Then a certain quantity of a solution of caustic soda of a certain strength is gradually delivered from the mixing tank over the top of the refining tank through a perforated pipe, which sprays it uniformly over the surface of the agi- tated oil. It is important that the solution of alkali put mto the oil be evenly distributed in small jets over the surface; other- wise, by reason of its considerably greater specific gravity, it might settle to the bottom of the tank, and thus fail to be thoroughly mixed with the oil, which is the essential point in the whole operation. After the agi- tation with cold alkali solution has proceeded for a sufficient time to insure perfect mixture of oil and al- kali, (say 30 to 40 minutes) the entire mass will have turned almost black. Heat is then applied and the tem- perature generally brought up to 120 or 130 degrees COTTON SEED OIL REFINING. 355 (never in good oil above 140), agitation still proceeding. The heating and agitating are kept up till quantities of dark brown flakes separate, and the n:ass has a curdled ap- pearance. The oil is then dipped up from time to time and filtered through filter paper into successive sample bottles, until one is finally reached which is satisfactory. Or if it is required to produce an oil equal to a given sample, the process may be stopped when the filtered sample from the tank equals that required. It is important to note, in this connection, that a sample kept as a guide for a long time, especially if in a light place, will grow lighter in color, on account of the bleaching action of light. The stearin will also settle out, and the sample will become unreliable. All samples should therefore be kept in a dark place, and should be frecjuently renewed by duplicates taken from fresh oil. W'h.en the process of refining is judged complete, the heat and agitation are discontinued, and the whole allowed to stand until the floating flakes settle with the excess of alkali. This should occur in al:»()Ut three hours, leaving bright yel- low oil in the upper part of the tank. The yellow oil should be drawn off through a large pipe ( say 6 inches in diam- eter), having its end projecting inside the tank with a flex- ible connection, which will enable the refiner to draw off the yellow oil to any given depth, this depth depending upon the thoroughness of settling, and the amount of sediment (which varies with the quality of the crude oil). The yel- low oil drawn from refining tank is delivered into a similar tank below, known as the "finishing tank," where it is heated and agitated again in about the same way, for the purpose of evaporating any entrained water. It is allowed to settle again, and is pumped off through a filter press into storage tanks or into barrels or tank cars for shipment. The filter press removes all sediment, and leaves the oil clear and brilliant. Some refiners now prefer not to use the filter press. They claim that by settling out the impurities by gravity, the oil is made clearer than by the forced filtration. This process 356 COTTON SEED OIL REFINING. necessarily requires more tank room in the refinery than when the filter press is used. If it has been necessary to use xevy strong alkali, or a large quantity of it, the finished oil may still taste of alkali, in which case it is necessary to wash it. This may l^e done in a special washing tank or in the finishing tank, after the sediment has been drawn out through the large gate valve at the lowest point of the conical tank bottom. Agitation is then started in the oil, and 2 to 6 per cent, of clean water put in through perforated pipes at the top ( the same kind as used for distributing alkali in the refining tank). It is some- times advantageous to use salt water for washing oil. It is made about 10 degrees Baume'. The purpose is primarily to make the washing water considerably heavier than the oil, so it will settle off more readily ; but it is also thought to add to the flavor of the oil. The temperature is brought up to about 100 degrees F,, and it is agitated for an hour. Heat and agitation is then stopped and the water allowed to settle for several hours. This water is drawn off at the bot- tom until cloudy oil appears. This cloudy oil contains some water, and is to be put into a small tank and heated and agitated, to drive off the water. The clear oil in the finish- ing tank still contains a little water, which must be drive i off by heat and agitation. The purpose of separating the small quantity of cloudy oil, containing most of the entrained water, is that its water may be more easily expelled than if left with the large lot. Great care is necessary in heating refined oil, especially when mixed with water. Its flavor is easily ruined by heat. It begins to decompose at about 140 degrees F., and should therefore never exceed that tempera- ture, and be kept as much below that as will accomplish the ends required. First class crude oil in the early part of the season may, with sufficient skill, be refined at a temperature below 100 degrees F. In working oil by this cold process, no addi- tional heat is applied in the finishing tank, but the water is driven off by agitation. The oil is required to stand quiet COTTON SEED OIL REFINING. 357 for ten or twelve hours, so that any remaining water may settle out. With a special view to working at lower temperature, it is well to make the finishing tank large in diameter and shal- low, thus presenting the maximum surface for evaporating the entrained water. But the most perfect way to remove the water at low tem- perature would be to use a finishing tank with an air tight cover, supplied with a vacuum pump. By this process, the water is vaporized and removed, and any other bad gases or odors are drawn out. In refining "ofif oils," which are net sold on a basis of flavor, high temperatures do not damage the quality. Off oil is harder to reduce to a light color than prime oil, and, as it is sold on a basis of color only, and, as higher tempera- tures produce brighter colors, it is frequently economical to heat these oils as high as i6o or 170 degrees F. The sediment left in the bottom of refining and finishing tanks is drawn off into a tank below and heated again to separate what oil may have gone down with the sediment. This good oil is skimmed from the top of tank, and the resi- due is drawn off into barrels with large bung holes, and is sold as "soap stock." Soap stock consists of saponified oil, water, free alkali and the dark brown coloring matter derived from crude oil. It is sold to soap makers on the basis of contained fatty acids. Fifty per cent, is the standard, but it usually runs about sixty. This is not "free fatty acid," but is in combination, and can be easily separated from combination for use in soap making. Some refineries utilize their own soap stock, and make crude soaps. Of late years, there has grown up a large de- mand for this product in wool scouring and other establish- ments in this country and in Europe. This adds consider- ably to the profits of a refinery. With sufficient skill, there is no limit to the extent to which this work may be carried, in the way of turning all the products into more and more 35'^ COTTON si':i-;i) on. ki:fining. \'alual)le coinniodities. With the achnixtiire of other greases, the finest t^'rades cf lauiuh-y soa]) ma\- l)e made. A soap-makinj;- adjuiiet to the refinery is also useful in using up off grades of oil when their market ])rice becomes low. Prime crude oil, loses, in being refined to ])rime summer yellow, 5 to 12 per cent., according to age and general quality. Off oils may lose as luuch as 20 per cent. This loss is the difference between crude oil and the resulting re- fined oil, and the percentage is computed on the crude oil su ,- plied. The amount of soap stock deposited is of course greater than the loss in oil, 1)\- an amount ecpial to the alkali solution supplied. The loss in refining is entirely too much in e.xccss of the theoretical i)ossil)ility, and the process is nnich in need of improx-ement. A logical direction in which to proceed would seem to be toward some bleacliing jirocess, but so far. no known bleaching agent except sulphuric acid < r its e piiva- lent, has any effect on crude oil. It is obviously impossi- ble to use sulpluuMc acid in oil intended for culinary use. Summer wliite oil is made from suiumer yellow b\' agitat- ing and heating with fullers earth, and puiupi'ig the agitated mass through a filter press. This filter remo\'es the fullers earth, and delivers fairly white oil, depending for coin;- upon the quality of yellow^ oil used, and quality of fidlers earth, and skill of refiner. Most summer white oil has a taste de- rived from fullers earth, and this was formerly accepted as necessary. Now', however, white oil will not pass as prime, unless almost wa.ter white, and free from taste of fullers earth. In order to prodtice the color now required, it is necessary to refine the yellow oil to a specially liritrht yellow, and to use about 3 per cent., by volume, of fulhrs earth, whereas i to 2 per cent, was formerly considered suf- ficient. This large amount of fullers earth makes the taste more pronounced. Fullers earth is slightly acid to the taste. This acid is now' sometimes neutralized, and the taste destroyed, l)y the addition of i to 2 per cent, of carbon- ate of soda, or, as it is known in the trade, "soda ash." COTTON SEED OIL REFINING. 359 Only the better grades of soda ash should he used for this purpose. The oil, the fullers earth and the soda should all be entirely free from water or moisture. If the filter press is in good order, the white oil should be brilliant, and there should be no appreciable loss of the oil in the operation. This process, tlrough called bleaching, seems to b^ princi- pally a mechanical one, and is not well understood. Pulverized charcoal, especially animal charcoal (or bone black), would do this work of bleaching as well as fullers earth, and leave a better taste in the oil. Its use, however, would cause great risk of fire by spontaneous combustion, which is not attached to the use of fullers earth. Miners' oil is a white oil that is bleached from yellow oil bv the use of sulphuric acid. The demand for this oil is limited, and but few refineries are equipped for making it. The process is conducted in lead-lined tanks. The poorest quality of crude oil may be used for this purpose. It is first refined to a dark yellow, at a small loss, and sulphuric acid bleaches it with but small loss, to any degree of whiteness. This oil is used to mix with petroleum for use in miners' lamps. Winter oils are those which remain licpiid at 32 degrees, F. Ordinary refined oils (summer oils) begin to cloud at 28 to 40 degrees, and become totally congealed at about 30. This cloudiness is caused by congelation of stearin, which turns whiter as it becomes solid. Winter oils are made from summer oils by lowering the temperature just to the point where stearin congeals and olein remains liquid, and separating the two by filtration under i)ressure at that temperature. Winter oils, therefore are principally olein. Winter yellow is considered the best oil for use in cooking, as a substitute for lard. Olein does not decompose at high temperature as readily as stearin, so that in using it for frying, it does not give ofif the disagreeable smell so noticeable with summer oils. The equipment for producing winter oils is quite expen- sive, involving the construction of an ice plant, and, as the 360 COTTON SEED OIE REFINING. demand for the products is limited, few refineries are equip- ped for making them. Every operation around the refinery should be conducted with the greatest cleanliness. Floors should be kept scoured, and all tanks and pipes should be kept clean, inside and outside. Refined oil, when shipped to lard refiners in the West, goes almost exclusively in tank cars. When for export, it is shipped in barrels. When empty tank cars are received, they should be cleaned inside by hand ; and then a steam pipe should be inserted and live steam blown in until entire tank is very hot. This melts down any rancid oil or lard that may adhere. It should then be thoroughly washed out with a hose. A man should go inside and scrub it. He should examine every pipe and joint to see that no leaks exist or are likely to develop on the next trip. A carload of oil is so val- uable that it pays to exercise every precaution to prevent a possibility of leakage. Most cars are provided with a se- ries of coils of pipe inside for the purpose of heating chilled oil with steam. The two ends of the pipe project through the tank, and, if there is no break in the pipe, no oil could leak out; but these pipes frequently jar loose on a journey, so that it is necessary to plug up or cap the ends before ship- ping. Barrels for the shipment of refined oils should be strictly new, made of well seasoned oak with six heavy iron hoops. The head hoops should not extend more than 1-8 inch beyond end of staves, and should be so tight that they canno't be driven more than 1-8 inch below end of staves Barrels should weigh about 70 pounds and hold about 52 gallons. Barrels should be made with the utmost care, from the dryest timber. Even the best barrels will dry out somewhat after being received at the refinery, so that the hoops must be driven tight just before using. After the hoops are driven, the barrels should be lined with silicate of soda, to prevent oil from saturating the wood. Silicate of soda is a soluble glass. It is generally received in barrels. o h- 1 COTTON SEED OIL REFINING. 363 holding about 600 pounds. It is a heavy viscous hqr.id of a creamy color, soluble in water, and becoming hard and glassy when dry. It is put with an equal amount of water into a steam jacketed kettle, holding about 20 gallons. It is boiled, and about a gallon poured hot into each barrel. The bung hole is stopped with a long plug, the barrel is shaken in every direction until the hot liquid reaches every part of the inside. The gas generated will force the liquid through any worm holes or other defects in the barrel, so that they may be discovered and plugged up. The plug is pulled out of the bung hole, the surplus liquid poured out, and the bar- rel laid bung hole down, on an inclined trough, so the drip- pings may return to the kettle. In six hours the barrel is dry, and after being painted and weighed, is ready for use. It requires about a pound of commercial silicate for each barrel. Formerly, barrels were lined with glue by a process similar to the above; but at best, glue is likely in time to attain a bad smell. Again, if a ban el liiud with glue is. heated in any manner to melt out oil in cold weather, the glue will also melt and spoil the oil. For these reasons, in the best refineries, glue is no longer used for the purpose. Some refiners prefer paraffine wax for lining barrels. This is melted and applied in the same way as silicate of soda. No matter what lining is used, care sho.ld be taken not to put hot oil into the barrels. Oil should ne\'er be bar- reled warmer than 80 degrees, or in summer, never above the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. It requires the greatest cr.re to make i): rrels oil tight, even before they are shipped; and when they are load d and unloaded several times, hoops are likely to slip, or leaks de- velop from other causes. Thus it is imperative that not a single barrel should leave the refinery except in perfect order. If a barrel creaks while rolling on the floor, it is in bad order, and should be driven up or emptied. One leaky barrel in a cargo is likely to smear the whole lot and make the hoops greasy and easy to slip. In many fi)reign -countries, barrels are unloaded by sliding endwise down 364 COTTON SEED OIL REFINING. skids. This will cause any loose hoops to slip. Two plans are in current use for holding hoops. One is to drive three small special tacks in front of each hoop, and the other to drive a centre-punch into each hoop at about three points, thus producing under the hoop a small projection which drives into the stave. Neither plan is free from objections; the tacks are apt to work loose and hurt the hands of the men who handle the barrels, while centre-punching makes the hoops very hard to tighten, in case it should become neces- sary. If second hand barrels are used in any case, they should be thoroughly cleaned out with live steam. A trough is pro- vided, across which the barrels may be laid, bung hole down. A series of -l-inch steam pipes should project up from the bottom of the trough, at the proper distance apart, to stick up a few inches into the barrels. Live steam should be blown into them for at least 15 minutes, more or less, according to what the barrels have contained. It is impossible by any ordinary means, to sufficiently clean barrels having been used for varnish, linseed oil, or crude petroleum. Before second hand barrels are filled, each one should be examined inside by the light of a candle attached to a wire and let down through the bung hole. A first class refinery for the production of summer oils, to refine 100 barrels at a time, could turn out 200 to 300 bar- rels per day. The building would be about 30x60, three stories high, with barrel shed 30x60, one story, built to have 120 feet front on railroad siding, giving access to several cars at a time. The equipment would be as follows : One refining tank to hold 130 barrels, with conical bot- tom, with 6-inch gate valve in bottom and 6-inch outlet valve two feet above bottom of cylindrical part of tank. Through the side outlet is inserted a pipe with two elbows inside, arranged to let a connecting pipe be raised and lowered inside, so oil may be drawn from any height. In the bottom is arranged a series of steam pipes to heat the oil. It is preferably constructed of i-inch pipe bent in smooth COTTON SEED OIE REFINING. 365 coils, making about four complete rounds, one above the other against the side, and also two coils on the bottom. It is frequently constructed in square coils with elbows or return bends. This arrangement is harder to clean, because soap stock will adhere and cake on the fittings. Steam is admitted to the coils through a pipe leading down the side from the top, where the admission valve is placed. The ex- haust may go out in the same way, with valve near the ad- mission valve. This is convenient, but not quite so good as to have the exhaust go out at the bottom, so that it may more perfectly drain condensed water from the coils. An ideal refining tank would be made with steam jacket over its entire surface; but this would be more expensive. There are two methods of producing agitation of oil, first by pad- dles, mounted on a vertical shaft standing in centre of tank, run by bevel gearing and a belt; second by a series of per- forated pipes in bottom of tank, through which air is pumped. Either method may produce a perfect agitation and perfect results. Paddles are considerably more trouble to keep in order, and present more surface inside the tank to become foul with soap stock; but there are refiners who claim that they make better oil with this system. The air method has the advantage of carrying away entrained water while passing through oil, especially in the later processes, wdiere oil is washed and dried. There are, besides the refining tank : I finishing tank, of same size and description as refining tank, except that side outlet is unnecessary. I bleaching tank for white oil, same as finishing tank. I 50-barrel tank, same as finishing tank, for sundry pur- poses. I soap stock tank holding 40 barrels, with conical bottom, and steam coil. I plain lo-barrel dissolving tank for alkali. I plain 30-barrel mixing tank for alkali. I plain 60-barrel tank for receiving crude oil which may arrive in barrels. 366 COTTON SEED OIL REFINIXG. Storage tanks for crude and refined oils, to suit circum- stances, say 3 500-barrel crude oil tanks, and 3 500-barrel refined oil tanks. These may be located outside the refinery, about 50 feet away, under a shed; or the tanks themselves may be made with covers. They should be provided with steam coils to melt oil in winter. They should have man- holes, top and bottom, for access in cleaning. Both oil and steam pipes leading to the refinery should be well insulated and laid under ground. I 50- to loo-barrel elevated water tank. I 50-horse power steam boiler with accessories. I filter press with steam pump. I 6x4x6 steam pump for crude oil. I 6x4x6 steam pump for refined oil. I 6x4x6 steam pump for alkali. I 6x4x6 steam pump for water supply. T 7XIOXIO steam air i^ump, if air agitation is u-ed. If mechanical agitation is to be used, i 5-horsi power steam engine must be supplied. But in case an engine has to be supplied at all, it is bettter to have a large engine, say 25 horse power, and substitute for steam pumps, power pumps throughout. In any case, power pumps ar2 more economical with steam, though steam pumps are more con- venient. If it is desired to use power pumps, air agitation may be supplied from a Root blower or other positive blast fan. The refining tank should be placed so its top is three feet above the third floor of the building ; the finishing tank and bleaching tank three feet above second floor ; and soap stock tank with its bottom three feet above first floor, and its top just under the refining tank. The alkali dissolving tank should be under the first floor, and the alkali mixing tank above the refining tank. The crude oil receiving tank should be under the first floor, so that barrels may be rolled over it for emptying oil. All the oil steam pumps may be located together in a pump room on the first floor, and all connected to two sets of manifolds, one for crude and one for COTTON SEED OIE REFINING. 367 refined oil, so that any pump may pump oil from any tank — similar in operation to the switchboard of an electric plant. There should be two entire sets of pipes throughout, one for crude and one for refined oil, both sets being connected to all tanks, so that in emergency one tank may be substi- tuted for another. To avoid mistakes, crude oil pipes should be painted brown, and refined oil pipes yellow. At each turn in the pipes, plugged tees should be used instead of el- bows, so that they may be easily cleaned inside. The refining, finishing and bleaching tanks should be pro- vided with hoods commencing three feet above tank, and terminating in 16 inch galvanized pipes leading out of the building. These carry oiff the gases and steam. Taz bleach- ing tank should be in a separate room, to prevent the fine powdered fullers earth from flying over the refinery. Soap stock should be handled in a separate room from oil, so that the smells and general uncleanliness of the article may not contaminate the oil. If air agitation is used, the air supply must come from out- side the building, where it is clean and pure. In general, all operations must be conducted with the greatest regard for cleanliness. Refined cotton oil is a delicate article, and may be easily damaged by careless handling. Part III. CORRELATED INDUSTRIES. CHAPTER XIV. Cattle ffccMno* Both cotton seed hulls and cotton seed meal are excellent food for cattle, sheep and goats. This fact has developed in the South a business in fattening cattle for the market, and has also very much stimulated the dairy business. The fattening of beef is done to a much larger extent in the Southwestern States than in those of the Southeast. The business is still extending throughout the entire cotton- growing States, and especially where conditions are already favorable to raising stock, as, for example, in the piedmont region. The business has been somewhat retarded by those who, learning of the value of cotton seed hulls and cotton seed meal as a feeding stuff for certain animals, went into the business of cattle feeding without due consideration of ordinary commercial economies. These over-zealous people paid, in many cases, too much for the cattle pur- chased, spent too much money on sheds and appliances, and bought cattle that were too small, of inferior breeds, or that had to be transported a long distance, and perhaps acclimated. There have been cases where cattle feeding was conducted on a spectacular basis, where pens and sheds were located more with relation to public display than to general con- venience and economy. In such cases great expense would be incurred in fitting up waterworks, consisting of boilers, pumping engine, piping, etc. The average practical farmer will understand that the time is not yet come when beef cattle may be kept profitably in stalls with baths at- tached. To make a success of fattening cattle for market or of conducting a dairy farm, there must be good judgment and economy in the purchase of stock and in the conduct of the business. 372 CATTLE FEEDING. While cotton seed ir.eal and hulls may be fed exclusively for the purpose of fattening cattle in from 80 to 100 days, yet en the farm, this commercial material should be re- garded more as supplemental to the great variety of feed- ing stuffs that are naturally and cheaply produced on the farm. In the dair\' business, this mixing of the feeds is even n:ore important than in beef business. This improves both the quantity and the quality of the products, and keeps the cows in better health and spirits. The Southern planter always raised quantities of cattle feed, and previous to the Civil War, even when producing mostly cotton, gave considerable attention to cattle raising. After the War, however, the cattle industry declined in the cotton-growing States until the use of cotton seed nieal and hulls became well known as a cattle feed. It it now being more and more realized that these feedi ig stuffs are of prime importance, and this in turn stimulates the grow- ing of more farm feeding stuff's, in order to improve the cotton industry and produce lietter feed. Thus the busi- ness of feeding cattle on a large scale, both for beef and for dairy purposes has advanced from a very arduous condition to a comparatively easy, as well as profitable one. Beef Cattle In the Southwestern States, the business of fattening cattle for the beef markets on hulls and meal at the oil mills, or near them, has become standard, and is extensi\'ely done. It is probable that half a million animals are an- nually fattened on hulls and meal, and sent to market from the cotton States west of the Mississippi River. East of the river, the business is not so well established, but is growing. Meal is extensively used as a fertilizer, and hulls have also some little value as a fertilizer. \Mien fed to cattle, 80 to 95 per cent, of the fertilizer values may be recovered, and this is done in m.any cases. The original fertilizing values in both meal and hulls which have been fed are nearlv all m G '-3 o h-l CATTLE FEEDING. 375 in the solid and liquid excrement — ai^proximatelv half being in the dung and half in the urine. When feeding cattle in large pens, the liquids are practically lost, and it is dif- ficult to collect the solid excrement and keep it in a man- ner to conserve the fertilizing values. In this way as ordi- narily done, there is saved only about 20 per cent, of the original fertilizing value of the meal and hulls. If, how- ever, the cattle are regularly moved from one large pen to another, and the ground promptly put into cultivation, it is possible to realize 80 to 95 per cent of the original ferti- lizing values. It may also be equally well done if the cattle are carefully stalled, so that by the use of litter and finely cut straw, the liquid may be absorbed and mixed with the solids. The tramping of the cattle helps to compact the manures and prevent loss of ammonia by evaporation. It is very easy to lose large amounts of ammonia by evaporation. This is the most expensive ingredient in any fertilizer, and no pains should be spared to accumulate it from all natural sources and to prevent its waste by evapo- ration or otherwise. It is profitable to mix acid phosphate with stable manure to preserve it. and at the same time to thus produce a valuable farm compost. The proper study of fertilizer values is of utmost importance to the profitable conduct of any kind of cattle feeding. In fattening cattle on cotton seed meal and hulls, the usual practice is to commence with a ration of hulls 18 pounds, meal 3 pounds, (or 6 to i), and quickly increase to hulls 20 pounds, meal 4 pounds (5 to i), and toward the end of the period of 80 to 100 days, increase to hulls 24 pounds, meal 6 pounds (4 to i). This kind of ration and quantity must be governed by circumstances. Some wald cattle from the prairies will not eat the mixture in any proportion whatever, and they have to be starved to it. Other cattle, mostly home-raised, like it from the first ; but they all learn to be very fond of it. Care must be taken not to make the ration too rich in meal at first, for the reason that this tends to make the animals "scour." 376 CATTLE FEEDING. It is generally assumed that an average steer may be fat- tened in fine condition for the market on one ton of hulls and 400 pounds of meal. Figs. 115 and 116 show a form of shed which is some- times used for fattening steers on cotton seed meal and hulls. The steers are chained to stanchions, with their heads to- wards the centre alley or driveway, as shown. They have free access to a continuous trough, containing alternate compartments for water and feed. The water is supplied from the city waterworks or otherwise through float valves, so arranged that the troughs are always full of water. The feed is distributed from wagons, driven down the centre. Fig. 117 shows cattle being fed in open pens. Both methods have been successfully used; but the general opinion prevails that better results obtain when cattle are fed under some kind of shelter. Some successful feeders combine the two plans, and allow the cattle to roam in large pens, and to go under shelter tO' feed. Much depends upon the kind of cattle fed. Texas steers with wide dangerous horns are hard to manage in the open. When left loose they frequently fight among themselves with fatal results. If the ground for the pens is soft or not well drained, they are apt to mire up, and in many ways dissipate the energy in the feed, instead of storing it up as fat. The practice of de-horning is now universally recom- mended, to save room in stalling and shipping, and for general safety in handling. The following estimates show some average results from cattle feeding, with average market values, but under differ- ent conditions : rt u o CATTLE FEEDING. 379 INDIFFERENT STEER.— INDIFFERENT HAND- LING. Cost of steer, 700 lbs @ 3 $21.00 2,000 lbs hulls 4.00 400 lbs meal 4.00 Attendance 6.00 $35.00 Sale of fattened steer, 900 lbs @ 3^0 $31 -50 Loss $3-5o This exhibits about an average condition in many parts of the Southeastern States, where the proper care is not given to the breed of animals nor to its handling before or during feeding. FAIR STEER.— FAIR PREVIOUS HANDLING. Cost of steer. 1,000 lbs @ 2^ $25.00 2,000 lbs hulls 4-00 400 lbs meal 4-oo Attendance and other expenses 6.00 $39.00 Sale of fattened steer, 1,300 lbs @ 3^ $45 -S^ Profit $6.50 This exhibits about an average condition in Texas. 1 380 CATTLE FEEDING. GOOD STEER.— GOOD PREVIOUS HANDLING. Cost of steer, 1,200 lbs (a 3c $36.00 2,400 lbs hulls 4-8> 500 lbs meal S-oa Attendance and other expense 6.20 $52.00 Sale of fattened steer, 1,600 lbs @ 4c $64.00 Profit $i2.oo In all these cases, no account is taken of the fertilizer values that may be practically recovered. This may ht estimated at an average of say $4 \)Qr steer. This credit would bring the example of unprofitable feeding up to a basis of a half dollar profit, besides fair compensation for wages. There have been special cases where "feeders" (those who fatten cattle for market), have made $20.00 and even higher profits per head; but all very high profits are speculative — the result of a rise in price of cattle between the time of purchase and sale. There are cases also, where from $10 to $15 per head have been lost from the same cause. The above estimates all relate to the use of hulls and meal alone for feed. In the Soutliwest, this is the usual prac- tice, and is necessarily so, because at the time when the cat- tle are usually brought in from the prairie pastures, hulls and meal are the only feeding stuffs that are at the same time good enough and cheap enough to prepare beef for the market. In the Southeastern States, the conditions are very different. On mc^st of the farms there is considerable good pasture land ; and on the farms other feeding stuffs are available, such as corn shucks, straw, pea-vines, etc. If the Eastern farmer would make use of all these materials- en U. CATTLE FEEDING. 383 and supplement them with hulls and meal, his results should be even better than those obtained by the Texas ranchman. If, in addition to this economical system of raising and feeding cattle, with home-raised food stuffs, supplemented by hulls and meal, the Southeastern farmer would improve the breed of his stock, there seems no room to doubt that a very large business would develop in the production of cattle and fattening them for market. Indeed, quite a busi- ness is already being successfully done by those who under- stand it. Thus, the production of cotton, and the raising of cattle are businesses that are supplemental each to the other: the cotton furnishing the hulls and meal as feeding stuffs for the growing cattle, while the cattle manure fur- nishes the food, as it were, for the growing cotton. All that is said of cattle feeding is more or less appli- cable to sheep feeding. Hulls and meal have been tried for horses and swine, but not with very satisfactory results. For working oxen, as, for example, at saw mills, there is no better or more economical feed than cotton seed hulls and meal. There is no reliable published data upon which to base estimates of the extent of the cattle and sheep business pre- vious to the Civil War. but those who have had intimate con- tact with the business seem to think that in the days of slavery the South was well adapted to cattle and sheep rais- ing, because the labor could be made efficient. Thus all of the attention necessary to the profitable conduct of this busi- ness in connection with cotton farming could be commanded. But with the emancipated negro labor, it is not possible to realize more than 80 per cent, efficiency of labor, and hence 80 per cent, of the value of the farm feeding stuffs. Thus cotton seed meal and hulls must be brought in to supply this deficiency. But notwithstanding the enforced purchase of this extra material — or even with the purchase of the entire feeds — cattle may be raised with good profit in most of the cotton growing region. 384 CATTLE PEEDING. The best breeds of beef are short-horns a::d Kerefords. Considerable interest has recently developed in the North- Avest in what is called "baby besf." A fine breed of beef calf is fed to fatten from an early age, then sold in a fatted condition at a younger age than usual. The lesult is said to be very tender and excellent beef at even less cost than by the old method of waiting one or two years before com- mencing to fatten. Dairy Cattle. Some experiments in feeding dair}' cattle on cotton seed meal and hulls have erroneously lead to conclusions adverse to the use of these materials for this purpose. These con- clusions were hastily reached in regions where other feeding stufifs were plentiful and cheap, and more agreeable at first to the taste of the cattle. This relates mostly to the use of cotton seed hulls. The feeding \alue of cotton seed meal has now become universally recognized, and it is known that it is one of the very best of feeds, price and results con- sidered. It is, of course, important for every dairyman, who owns a farm, to utilize all the home feeding stuffs; but in the South, it is generally most profitable to supplement them with the cotton seed products. In competing in the markets of the world for beef and dairy products, it seems evident that the South's opportunity lies in the intelligent use of the cotton seed meal and hulls. 13 X CATTLE FEEDING. 387 The following estimates shew a series of results (all ex- pressed in round numbers) obtainable from cne milk cow, under various conditions : ILL BREEDING.— ILL FEEDING.— ILL CARE. Yield per year, milk 2,000 lbs Or butter 100 lbs This would be inferior butter, not bringing over 20 cents per pound, so that the income from butter would be $20. This condition may be said to represent the average of North Carolina. FAIR BREEDING.— FAIR FEEDING.— FAIR CARE. Yield per year, milk 4,000 lbs Or butter 200 lbs This butter would be better, and would sell fcr say 25 cents per pound, making the income from butter $50. This condition about represents the average of New York State. SUPERIOR BREEDING.— SUPERIOR FEEDING.— SUPERIOR CARE. Yield per year, milk 10,000 lbs Or butter 500 lbs This butter would be worth about 30 cents per pound, making the income $150. This represents a good average condition as now existing in Germany. MAXIMUM BREEDING.— MAXIMUM FEEDING.— MAXIMUM CARE. Yield per year, milk i5>oo3 lbs Or butter 7:0 \h.^ This butter at 30 cents per pound would make the income $225. 388 CATTLK FKEDIxNG. The above yields are not l)y any means impossible. They have even been excellecl. There is one record in Germany of a cow weighing i.ioo pounds, producing in one year 17,500 pounds of milk, making 875 pounds of butter. The same conditions which conduce to large yields also tend to make better values for the products. The first es- sential is a good breed for the purpose, the next is proper feed, and the next, but by no means the least important, is proper and intelligent care of the animal. This includes proper housing, kind treatment, and an abundant supply of pure water. The best breed for yield of butter is the Jersey or the Guernsey ; the best for quantity of milk is the Holstein or Ayrshire. These have been specially bred for the purposes mentioned, and may generally be relied ujxin for these re- spective purpose. Profitable Yield. The question as to what is a profitable and what is an un- profitable yield of milk or butter for dairy cows, is neces- sarily one that involves many factors and these factors all vary. The best that can be done in giving a definite answer is to give figures based upon average conditions. The fol- lowing figures give what may be considered average profit- table yields in the localities stated : In North Carolina, 3,000 pounds milk or 150 pounds but- ter per year. In New York State, 4,000 pounds milk or 200 pounds but- ter per year. In Germany, 5,000 pounds milk or 250 pounds butter per year. If these figures are correct, then the return from the cat- tle in North Carolina now is not profitable. With cotton seed hulls and meal as feeding stuffs supple- mented by present farm products, and with good breeding and good care, the German yields might be equaled. If this could be done, then the dairv business in North bJD . '^^^^1 o :^t- ^^1 o % llfl ^ i^.'A'*^^l^^^^l ^ ^$9 fm^M -a 8 o o u !U -t-> m PLh On O I— ( to u o o O o o o Xi ^ m CATTLE FEEDING. 397 Carolina, which is, as a rule, now unprofitable, might be made superior to that of New York State as now conducted, and equal to that of Germany as now conducted. What is here said about the dairy business in North Caro- lina is equally applicable to most of the other cotton-grow- ing States. This entire discussion is based upon the idea that cotton seed meal and hulls make in nearly all parts of the cotton-growing States ample opportunity for profitable business in raising and fattening beef and in producing milk and butter. The climate in the cotton-growing area is very favorable to all forms of cattle business. There must always be a certain amount of warmth supplied to cattle. If the weather is cold, the warmth must be supplied by food, and such food as is adapted to the purpose. Cow Lot Manure. In all dealings with cattle, whether keeping them for beef or for dairy products, provision should be made to utilize the manure. Besides the fertilizing values in cow manure for increasing production, this particular manure has in some way, not understood, the power of improving the length, strength and fineness of the staple of cotton. It is said that in the production of mushrooms, even when all other conditions are favorable, when leaf mould and horss manure is used, the result is indifferent; when using cattle manure, the result is still indifferent; but when the tw^o are mixed, the results in prolific yields, is little less than wonder- ful. So, in some way, not fully understood, cattle manure, when mixed with other manures improves the quality of the cotton fibres produced. The use of commercial or chemi- cal fertilizers alone, as compared with the use of barn-yard manures, (either alone or in combination), tends in some measure to degenerate — or at least not to improve — ths qual- ity of the cotton crop. Chemical fertilizers are clean, and therefore more agreeable to handle. They also contain con- 398 CATTLE FEEDING. centrated plant food, and in many cases are necessary to get large yields, and maintain soil fertility. The development o{ the business of making commercial fertilizers has been of immense advantage to the cotton pro- ducing interests ; but it has also been productive of some harm in making the farmers less careful about saving and utilizing home manures. It is manifestly extravagant to buy commercial fertilizers when heme manures, might, by a little labor, be used for the same result; and this is accen- tuated when it is considered that the cotton produced by home manures tends toward better qualities. It is safe to say that the indefinite use of commercial ferti- lizers would not permanently increase, or even maintain soil fertility. There is an old adage : "Lime and marl without manure, Will make both farm and farmer poor." This applies ecpally as well to any kind of artificial fertili- zer. This view of the matter is not antagonistic to the makers of chemical fertilizers. The prosperous farmer will always want more fertilizers to mix with his home manures than the thriftless farmer will wdio relies entirely on com- mercial fertilizers. Because of these relations of the cow lot manure to the other fertilizers used for the production of cotton the de- velopment of those businesses into which cattle enter — the dairy and beef interests — become at the same time easier and more important. The raising and handling of sheep would seem to be ecjually easy, attractive and profitable, except for the fact that in the rural districts, where cotton is produced, a dog seems to be more popular than a sheep. Considering, ( i ) the values that have been found in cot- ton seed, (2) the application of some of the^e values as stock feed in producing beef and dairy products, (3) the values of the result and manures in producing more cotton, better cotton and more seed, it becomes apparent that there 's { y'a/-^] {c/o//?\ [hi/// ,5 ^fye//er Fig. 123. A Cycle of Production, Consumption and Land Rest(^ration. 400 CATTLE FEEDING. a cycle of operations, out of which come valuable products for the markets — human food, clothing and shelter — while all residual products contribute to continue and even ex- tend the cycle of operations. Based upon these ideas, there has already been built at one point in the South a compre- hensive plant providing for the following operations : 1. Ginning cotton. 2. Operating an oil mill. 3. Operating a cotton mill. 4. Mixing fertilizers. 5. Feeding cattle. With the addition of a cotton farm, the above plant would complete the whole cycle of operations. In this cycle of operations, a number of products are be- ing constantly drawn out for the uses of humanity, and the drafts thus made upon the soil replaced by products brought from the mines or other sources, and prepared chemically to take the place of the withdrawn elements. The failure to save the residual manures, when these mar- ket products are consumed, makes the necessity for the drawing on the outside sources (chemical fertilizers) much greater than it should be. The diagram. Fig. 123, exhibits the working of this cycle. Under a proper system of agriculture it should not be necessary to rely to such a great extent upon the mines and chemical works for restoring fertility to the soils, in re- turn for the drafts made upon it by humanity. On the aver- age farm, these drafts could be returned to the soil many fold if full attention is paid to systems of rotation, including leguminous crops, and full attention to the conservation of decomposing vegetation in fields and wooded lands. Large amounts of this are now annually wasted. The stable and barn yard manures that are now allowed to dissipate could be made to yield large returns, especially when used in con- junction with commercial fertilizers to increase their ag- ricultural values. Tlie question of how much commercial! fertilizer to use in connection with the home manures is one CATTLE FEEDING. 4OI of costs and values of products. Every farmer ought to save more home manure than he now does, and ought alsa to buy more fertihzer than he usually does. The average cot- ton farmer has time and to spare to do the first ; the money he would put into the second would, in combination with the first, make ample return in more yield and finer quality than ever before. It is said that the civilization of any community may be measured by the consumption of sulphuric acid. Meas- ured by this standard, the southeastern United States would probably surpass any other part of the world. That this is not true is well known. Unusual activity in the pro- duction of cotton, and the extension of the fertilizer business to keep pace with it, has caused an abnormal production of sulphuric acid in this section. If other conditions of civili- zation could be brought up to the level of the consumption of this commodity, then the above measure would be correct. This would involve the preservation and use cf home manures to an extent proportional to the commercial ferti- lizers, and would involve the growth of other manufactures and arts up to the point of normally consuming the sulphu- ric acid now manufactured. \\'hen these proportions shall have been adjusted, then it may be said that the civilization of the Southern States of America may be measured by their consumption of sulphuric acid. Domestic Use of Meal and Hulls Outside the Cotton Grow- ing States. The values in cotton seed meal as a stock feed sre sufficient to warrant its shipment to, and profitable use in any part of the United States. Great quantities go to many parts of the United States outside of the cotton-growing area, and its value has become well known, especially in Xew England and other Atlantic coast States. The hull cannot be profitably sent so far, but many of the oil mills prepare a food made up of abcut 5-6ths hulls and I -6th meal, and find extensive sale for this, in sacks, in many 402 CATTLE FEEDING. of the Northern States. The hulls alone are put up in com- pressed bales, and in this form are extensively shipped to adjacent Northern States. Exports. The cotton seed meal is very extensively exported f^r use as cattle feed. Germany takes very large qua tities, in the shape of finely ground meal. Most of what formerly went to England was in form of the cake, as it comes from the prcss. This cake was cracked with a hammer or other suitable in- strument, and the broken pieces fed to the stock. Now the demand is for more meal and less cake. Those familiar with the subject consider the ground meal much the best form for feeding. The hulls are too cheap and bulky to export. Assuming that by the use of cotton seed hulls and meal, a large and profitable business in beef and dairy cattle can be developed, there will naturally ccnie about other businesses supplementary to these, as for example, in hides, horns, tallow, glue, lard, candles, etc. The values of lands would increase, because of demand for pasturage, and of increased crops made by the full use of stable and cow lot manure. Oil mills could be more profit- ably operated, because of the better and nearer markets for their products in hulls and meal. The agricultural experiment stations of the various cotton growing and some other States, have very full data in the shape of bulletins relating to the digestibility of hulls and meal, and to the experimental and theoretical values of these for fattening beef and for the production of milk and butter. These are sent free to any one who may wish to pursue the subject in detail. In the appendix of this book may be found some tables and other literature on this subject, which have been com- piled from these and other sources. CATTLK FEEDING. 403 Splenetic or Texas Fever. Without undertaking to enter into any general discussion of diseases of cattle, it would seem desirable to call attention to Texas fever, with a synopsis of the government regula- tions in the matter of quarantine against this disease. In shipping cattle from the Southern States to Northern markets, across the quarantine line, all quarantine regula- tions must be complied with. This quarantine line runs across the entire United States, reaching at some points well to the southward, and at others far to the north. The map in the back of this book shows, approximately, the present location of this line. The location of the line is frequently changed, and hence this map must not be relied upon to rep- resent the exact line at all times. The United States Bureau of Animal Industry issues new maps from time to time, to- gether with bulletins, containing revised rules for the trans- portation of cattle north across the line. The present rules allow cattle to be shipped North across the line only for immediate slaughter, and even then only under certain regulations, about as follows : All cars or boats carrying such cattle shall bear printed placards with letters i| inches high, stating that the cars or boats contain Southern cattle. All conductors' way bills, etc., must have the same information plainly stamped across the face. No boat carrying Southern cattle shall receive on board any other cattle at the same time. No boat shall receive cattle to transport North across the line to any point not provided with proper pens, etc., to receive them without having to pass over a public highway, unless permission for same is given by the local authorities. All cars and boats used for transportation, after unloading must be cleaned and disinfected with lime and carbolic acid. When cattle are unloaded to be fed or watered in transit, they must be put in pens or yards set apart for infected cattle. . No other cattle are to be admitted to these pens while so occupied. Pens are to be cleaned and disinfected with lime and carbolic acid, after the cattle have been moved. The removed litter and manure is also to be disinfected. CHAPTER XV. jTcrtiliscrs, Before agriculture became anything of a science in the Southern United Slates, the cotton crop was infinitely less important than at the present day. The Agricultu- ral Department of the National Government knew noth- ing of the subject of cotton culture, and the separate States had not then established experiment stations. Nothing was known in a general and systematic way of the theory of cotton planting. Each planter proceeded ac- cording to individual ideas, based on personal experience. Fertilizing cotton w..s done in a desultory way, with the natural materials at hand, principally stable manure. As this material was ent:rely inadequate to the requirements, and as commercial fertilizers were then unknown, the cot- ton plant was never sufftciently nourished. In about 1850, Peruvian guano was first brought to notice as a fer- tilizer. This is a natural guano, formed by the deposits of birds on South American Islands. It was at that time enormously expensiv :, compared with the present intrin- sic value of fertiHze.-s. It was soon discovered that the use of this guano increased the yield of cotton about 100 per cent., and, as the price of cotton was then relatively high, its use was attended wnth gieat profit, and it at- tained extensive popularity for all other agriculture, as well as for cotton planting. This soon exhausted the world's available supply, and chemists began to experi- ment with a view of producing substitutes. They dis- covered that phosphoric acid was the principal ingredient in this manure. At the same time it was experimentally discovered in the course of scientific investigation on the farm, that phosphoric acid was the principal requirement of the cotton plant; but it was also found that there were necessary to the proper nourishment of the cotton plant, nitrogen and potash; hence there was soon developed an 406 FERTILIZERS. immense industry In producing what was first called "ar- tificial fertilizers," all embracing in a more or less empiri- cal proportion, these three ingredients. Of late years, this subject has been reduced to a mathe- matical basis, and the approximate amount of each ingre- dient necessary in the production of the cotton plant Ins been accurately tabulated. The method of disco\^ering these chemicals is obviously (i) to determine what chem- icals are contained in the plant itself; (2) from what source these chemicals may be derived, that is: whether from air, moisture or earth; oiid, since air and moisture, as well as some other properties in the earth are supplied by na- ture; (3) to determine what earth constituents are lacking in certain localities. The determination of the first mat- ter is of universal amplication; the second depends upon local conditions, whiie the third is a matter principally for intelHsrent deduction. > X < o Oh Z H O H H O a w >— I Z K < Z < u 0? ifi fo S^JBJ JO •t' 'C = T spnnoj u S £ spanoj r3 C spunod t- O irt — luao 43,1 spnnod ^- -ji " " ■^ o <;! ^! s x ■1 130 Jsa ^ V"! ?-' f- H X Oi o t« h-t ►*< »!«' ^ spanoj * i ^ s? i u. 09 o H ^ f- •4, F Oi J < 0. . «! en 0. 4^ r^ K s V s l-J m K - 40^ FERTILIZERS. Table XVI. exhibits the respective amounts of phos- phoric acid, nitrogen and potash coj.lained in the several parts of 10,000 cotton plants which produced 300 pounds of lint cotton per acre, which may be taken as a fair aver- age crop, in the Southeastern United States. This bears no exact ratio to tliC amount of these chemicals which should be added to the soil in any particular locaHty, from the fact that nitrogen is largely derived from the air, and that the other elements are contained in a greater or less degree in all soils. Furthermore, the application of any given amount of these chemicals to any particular soil, is no guarantee thai the cotton plant will take them up from that soil in any prejudged proportion. The table is valuable, however, as a basis, and also as exhibiting the amount of fertilizers consumed by each particular di- vision of the plant. It exhibits, for instance, that lint cotton, the principal commercial article for which the plant is grown, actually removes from the soil only 3 per cent, of the total c^mount required by the plant. The seed, which is also in most localities a commercial pro- duct, removes 35 per cent. This shows that it is neces- sary in estimating the commercial value of the seed to take into account the money value of the fertilizing chemi- cals which it carries with it. It also prompts the inquiry, as to what portion of this seed actually covers its com- mercial value, and whether that particular portion in- volves any of the fertilizing chemicals. The principal value of seed to commerce is in its oil, which chemical an- alysis shows does net contain the fertilizing chemicals. It therefore follows, that in the economv of cotton plant- ing, if seed is removed from the soil, arrangements should be made to return the fertilizing elements thereof. It transpires that in the manufacture of cotton seed oil, the fertilizing residue is preserved in cotton seed m°al. and is made available for return to the farm. Its principal value is in its nitrogen; and, as will be hereafter shown, its most economical consumption as a fertilizer is in connection with other ingredients, supplying the other two requisite constitr- ents for fertilizers. FHRTILIZERS. 409 TABLE Xv^II. AMOUNT OF FERTILIZING ELEMENTS NECES- SARY TO BE SUPPLIED TO AVERAGE SOIL IN SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES FOR PRO- DUCTION OF EACH 300 POUNDS OF LINT COTTON PER ACRE. Pounds per acre Phosphoric acid (P 2 O 5) 50 Nitrogen (N) 20 Potash (K 2 O) 15 Rotation and Diversification of Crops. Farming is a business having many different phases, cap- able of correllation, each with all the others. In most prac- tice, the rotation of crops complementary to each other, the production of crops and live stock in a way to make them complementary to each other, and even of bringing the farm in its crop and live stock products into co-relation with the local manufacturing conditions are neglected.* While cotton may be successfully grown indefinitely on the same piece of land, this is only possible by the annual application of some form of fertilizer. In order to make the best and cheapest restoration of the land there should be rotation of the cotton with grain, considerable stock with pasturage and leguminous crops. In the ordinary use of commercial fertilizers on land for cotton, the phosphoric acid tends to accumulate in the soil, while the nitrogen tends to diminish. A grain crop following a cotton crop utilizes plant food in the soil to best advantage: (i) It makes pasture, (2) it fills in with a good crop what would otherwise be a gap in the rotation. * See Cotton Mill, Commercial Features, Chap XV. "Farm and Factory." 4IO FERTILIZERS. Cowpeas and clover draw nitrogen from ths air, storing it on an average lo per cent, in the roots, 40 per cent, in the stems and leaves, and 50 per cent, in the peas. The pea hulls contain practically no nitrogen. When a pea crop is raised, the most value is obtained : ( i ) By cutting the crop for hay, feeding it to cattle and other stock and returning the stock manure to the land, or by pasturing stock on it ; (2) by turn- ing the whole crop under. If the peas are picked off and the plant turned under, about half the nitrogen value of the crop is given to the land. If the crop is mowed and cured for hay, and the roots and residual stems and leaves plowed under, about 25 per cent, of the nitrogen value of the crop is returned to the land. Many farmers ha\-e an idea that nitrogen taken from the air is stored by leguminous crops in the roots, and that the crop may be cut and cured for forage without sacrifice of the nitrogen value of the crop to the land. This is an error. Leguminous crops furnish nitrogen to the soil very much cheaper than it can be procured in any other way. It is practically the only way a cotton farmer can afford to put on enough nitrogen to make profitable crops and keep up his land. Most farmers know this, but don't practice it. Whe i the practice does become general, a revolution in the produc- tion of cotton will have been accomplished. Soil Requirements- Table XVII. exhibits from experimental data, the actual amounts of fertilizing chemicals which should be applied to the soils above alluded to, for the maximum re- sults in the production of the afore-mentioned 300 pounds of lint per acre. This table is based on a soil which, from its nature, could not profitably yield more than the above amount. The table, however, may be used in the same proportions for soils more productive than this. Just the maximum yield of lint cotton, which it may be profitable to force from a given area, must be determined by actual experi- FERTILIZERS. 411 merit on the particular soil in question. If it is found that double the stated yield can be profitably forced, then the quantities shown in Table XVII. must be doubled to produce that yield at the minimum cost. But even the use of this table must be tempered with judgment, as to the general character of the soil, both chemically and physically. It has been found by experiment that the three ingredients, +0 produce the best results, must be ap- plied in a mixture with proper proportions of each. Any ■one of the three may be of benefit to the cotton plant if applied separately, but the three applied as a mixture will produce a result greater than the sum of the results from each of the three applied separately. Having determined that certain amounts of phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash are essential in the complete cotton fertilizer, the question arises as to the best sources from which they m_ay be procured. This question is easily answered in the United States by the various com- peting fertilizer maruifacturers, all of whom manufacture in available forms, fertilizers containing the ingredients in proper proportions. Under the care exercised by Stats boards of control, and agricultural stations, the farmer can- not go far wrong in accepting the commercial fertilizers offered for sale in his own State. It may be well, however, to call attention to the fact that there is some difference in the agricultural value of the fertilizing chemicals, due to ths source from which they are derived. The analyses as pub- lished and branded on the sacks are always careful to differ- entiate the soluble from insoluble phosphoric acid, so that ii this respect, it is easy to select the best. All forms of nitro- gen in commercial fertilizers are soluble, and he ice no differ- ence has been specified in the standard analysis. But there are differences in the rapidity of solution, among the various forms in which nitrogen is supplied. For this reason, it is important for the farmer to ascertain what form of nitrogen he is buying. For example, the nitrogen from nitrate of 5oda is so quickly soluble that it leaches away bef^Te the 412 FERTILIZERS. cotton plant can utilize it all. This is a valuable form of nitrogen for some plants, such as early vegetables, where quick growth is desirable, but is not recommended for cotton. Sulphate of ammonia and dried blood are good sources of nitrogen, though some think not so good as cotton seed meal, which is less readily soluble, and hence is good to give out the nitrogen as the growing plant requires it. Tankage is variable in composition, and solubility, but is apt to be too slow of solution. FERTILIZERS. 4^3 TABLE XVIII. COMMERCIAL SOURCE OF THE FERTILIZING CHEMICALS, SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT. OF ACTIVE PRINCIPLE IN EACH. Phosphoric Nitrogen Potash Equivalent Acid per cent. per cent. per cent per cent. Acid Phosphate . . . 15.00 Boueblack 18.00 Sulphate Ammonia . 20.50 24.89 Nitrate Soda .... 15-75 19.12 Cotton Seed Meal . . 2-75 7.00 1-75 850 Cotton Seed .... 1.30 2.50 I 20 304 Stable Manure , . . •25 .50 ■50 .61 Cotton Hull Ashes . 9.00 22.50 Wood Ashes .... 1-75 6 00 Muriate Potash . . . 50.00 Sulphate Potash . . 50.00 Kainit 12.00 Table XVIII. exhibits these sources, together with the per centage possessed by each. The manner of building up a fertilizer in any given ratio may be easily computed from this table by ^electing the most available sources in any particular locality. The following examples will exhibit more clearly the utility of this table. 4M FERTILIZERS. flaking Fertilizers. To produce a fertilizer containing in a given gross weight : Phosphoric acid 50 lbs. Nitrogen 20 lbs Potash 15 lbs. EXAMl-LE I. Acid phosphate 333 lbs. (x. .15=50 lbs.) Sulphate ammonia 98 lbs. (x. 20.50=20 lbs.) Muriate potash 30 lbs. (x. .50=15 lbs.) Weight of mixture 461 lbs. Entire mixture would analyze: Phosphoric acid 11. 8 per cent Nitrogen (equivalent ammonia 5.2) 4.3 per cent Potash 3-3 per ^ent EXAMPLE 2 Acid phosphate 281 lbs Cotton seed meal 286 lbs Kainit 97 lbs Weight of mixture 664 lbs Entire jnixture would analyze: Phosphoric acid 7-5 P^i" cent Nitrogen (equivalent ammonia 3.6) 3.0 per cent Potash 2.3 per cent FERTILIZERS. 415 Transportation of Fertilizers. It will readily be seen from these examples how an in- finite number of changes may be made, with the com- mercial sources named to produce any desired ratio of fertilizing chemicals. In computing tne ultimate cost of any mixture, the cost of transportation from market to farm assumes considerable importance. It will be seen that in Example i, the .required amount of fertilizing; chemicals is contained in a mixture weighing 461 pounds, while in example 2 a smaller result requires a mixture weighing 664 pounds, nearly 50 per cent, heavier. There- fore, if the transportation per pound were the same in each case, that part of the cost would be 50 per cent, greater in one case than in the other. It follows in gen- eral, that where transportation is of any consequence, the fertilizers having highest percentage of ingredients are most desirable. Table XVIII., while giving the commercial sources of fertilizing chemicals, does not fully indicate the sources in xiature from which these commercial articles originate. It may be of value to briefly refer to some of these ori- ginal sources. Acid phosphate is commonly derived from fossilized rock, found in many places on the sea-coast and some- times in the interior, at places supposed to have been orig- inally covered by the ocean. This lock is believed to be the petrified remains of fishes and other marine animals. This rock is mined, dried and ground into fine powder, and treated with sulphuric acid, which renders the phos- phoric acid soluble. There are other sources of ])hosphoric acid, such as Thomas slag (50 per cent, available) and bone meal (20 per cent, available). It has been abundantly proved by experi- ment that phosphoric acid, to benefit a cotton plant, must be soluble, so that the plant may avail itself of the total amount applied each season. There is current in some localities, a popular idea that the less soluble forms are valu- 4l6 FERTILIZERS. able for their lasting qualities in making the ground perma- nently rich; but such supposition is not sustained by the facts, from a commercial point of view. Nitrate of soda is a natural product, mined in some parts of South America. Cotton seed meal is a by-product in the manufacture of oil from cotton seed. Kainit is a natural product mined in Germany. The names of other items in the table mostly suggest their origin. While the value of fertilizing the cotton plant is an ac- knowledged axiom, it must not be forgotten that the ul- timate value depends upon moisture, natural or artificial. It is impossible for any plant to assimilate any fertilizer in the solid state, and hence it is essential ( i ) that the fertilizer should be soluble, either in water or by action of plant roots in presence of moisture, (2) that there should be moisture sufficient for their solution, (3) that this moisture should not be so abundant as to wash the fertilizers out of the reach of the plants. With the proper understanding of the subject, excellent results in making fertilizers may be attained on the farm, without the use of any machinery Vx'hatever. From Table XVIII. may be selected a list of materials which are the cheapest or most available for the locality. From the analy- sis it is easy to compute the quantities required to produce a fertilizer of any desired composition. These may be thor- oughly mixed by weighing out the ingredients and scattering them in thin layers, one after another in a bin on the floor, and then mixing them all together with a hoe or rake. There is generally a considerable saving to the farmer in thus mixing his own fertilizers. He w^ould save the profit of the fertilizer factory, and in most cases the profits of middle- men, and save something in freight and hauling. At first sight it might seem that the items of transportation would be the same, whether the materials were bought separately or bought ready mixed ; but there are several causes which con- FKRTIUZKRS. 417 tribute to making- a difference. In the first place, the average commercial fertilizer is in dilute form. The average analysis is approximately : Per cent. Pounds per ton Phosphoric acid 9 180 Ammonia ( from nitrogen ) 3 6o Potash 2 40 Total weight of acti\e princi_de. . 14 283 There is no serious fault to be found with this analysis, from the standpoint of plant-food. The best re.~ults in feel- ing plants, (as well as animals), obtain when the actual nutritive ingredients are in dilute form. But it is highly wasteful to pay for freighting and hauling 2,000 pounds, to get 280 pounds of plant food. If it were practicable for the farmer to obtain the 280 pounds in a pure state, he could dilute it with dirt up to 2,000 pounds and have a fertilizer ecjually as good as before, and at the same time save 86 per cent, of the cost of transportation. But the cost per pound of the chemicals is somewhat greater, the more concentra.ed the form, and hence the particular form in which to buy them, is a matter to be considered in each case on th;; basis of the current market values and the cost of trans-^ortation. Most farms in the cotton-growing area are al)le to obtain cotton seed meal from local oil mills, and would thus use that as a cheap source of ammonia. The use of cattle manure in connection with other ingredients, helps in keeping down the cost. If svstematic attention is paid to saving cattle manure, especiallv in cases where cattle raising is made part of the farm programme, there can be almost enough nitrogen pro- duced at hon:e to make all fertilizers. As this is the most expensive item in fertilizers, it is highly important to arrange the whole farming system with reference to this point. The manner of collecting and preservi-g cattle manure 4l8 FERTILIZERS. deserves some consideration. \\'hen cattle are fed in open fields, the manure can be most cheaply utilized by trans- ferring the cattle, and cultivating- the land. If cattle are fed in pens, the manure should be piled into compact masses, and kept moist. The less contact it has with air. the better. Th^ use of cut straw and other litter helps absorb and preserve the liquid manure. If the animals lie on the manure or trample it down, it serves the same good purpose as other- wise compacting it. But in such cases, the manure should be utilized as soon as the animals are removed, or it would become dry and otherwise deteriorate. The mixing of acid phosphate with stable manure serves the double purpose of preserving its qualities, and of making a proper fertilizer. About 2 pounds of acid phosphate per day per head of cattle is a good rough rule. In making any kind of home mixture, the combination of lime or ashes with acid phosphate should be avoided. This would tend to make the phosphoric acid insoluble. The analysis of most commercial fertilizers contains the item "ammonia," while some contain the item "nitrogen" instead. Ammonia is composed of nitrogen 14 pounds, hydrogen, 3 pounds. It is easy in all computations to con- vert one to the other by the use of this proportion. Xitrogen is the element that costs money. The hydrogen is derived from water. A fertilizer said to contain 3 per cent, am- monia, may also' be said to contain ( fourteen-seventeenths of 3) 2.48 per cent, nitrogen, and vice versa. To produce a fertilizer having any given analysis, say : Per cent. Pounds per ton Phosphoric acid 9 180 Ammonia 3 . 60 Potash 2 40 A variety of mixtures might be made, as per examples given below, using the analysis given in Table XVIII. The number of pounds of each ingredient is found by FERTILIZERS. 419 dividing- the amount of chemical required by the percentage composition of the ingredient. If 180 pounds phosphoric acid is required, and the phos- phate contains 15 per cent., the amount of phosphate re- quired is 1 80-f-. 15^1,200 pounds. EXAMPLE I. Acid phosphate ( 180-^.15 ) 1,200 lbs Cotton seed meal ( 60-^.0850 ) 700 lbs Muriate potash ( 40^-. 50) 80 lbs Adulterant 20 lbs 2,000 lbs This table does not give exactly correct results for the reason that cotton seed meal contains (besides ammonia) small amounts of phosphoric acid and potash, which for sim- plicity have in this case been neglected. The adulterant might be omitted, in which case the analy- sis would run higher in all the items. EXAMPLE II. Acid phosphate ( 180-^.15) 1,200 lbs Sulphate ammonia (6o^-.2489) 240 lbs Kainit (40-^.12) 33?> ^bs Adulterant 227 lbs 2.000 lbs 420 FERTILIZERS. EXAMPLE III. Acid phosphate ( i8o^-.i5) 1,200 lbs Sulphate ammonia (60^-. 2489) 240 lbs Muriate potash (40-^.50) 80 lbs Adulterant 480 lbs 2,ooo lbs A popular and cheap mixture is : Acid phosphate 1 200 pounds Cotton seed meal 600 pounds Kainit 200 pounds 2000 pounds According- to the analysis in Table XVIII. the contents of the mixture would be : Phosphoric acid ■ 9.80 per cent Ammonia 2.55 per cent Potash 1.75 per cent All such mixtures as the above, whether home made or from fertilizer factory, are generally known as "manipulated fertilizer," or as "ammoniated fertilizer." Commercial Value. Most of the State governments issue bulletins, from time to time, giving the market value of the fertilizing chemicals, as calculated from the market \'alue of the usual crude materials containing them. Thus if an acid phosphate is sold in the market at $12.00 per ton, and analysis shows it to contain 15 per cent, available phosphoric acid, there would be 300 pounds phosphoric acid sold for $12.00, which would FERTILIZERS. 42 1 make a valuation of phosphoric acid, in tliat shap-e, four cents per pound. The average values assigned to these chemicals are ahout as follows : Phosphoric acid 4c per pound Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia, loc) . . . f2c per pound Potash 4c per pound At these prices, the last mentioned mixture would ccjntain chemicals of the following value : Phosphoric acid, 196 lbs.@4c $ 7.84 Nitrogen, 51 lbs.@i2c 6.12 Potash, 35 lbs.@4c i .40 Total value $15-36 By referring to the bulletin valuations, and examiiiinc; the analysis of any fertilizer, it is easy to calculate the cost of the actual ingredients, and thus determine whether it would pay better to purchase the ready mixed fertilizer at the price asked, or mix an equivalent at home. The "commercial value" must not be too implicitly relied upon as an absolute guide. It should be treated as giving in- formation as to relative values of different fertilizers offered for sale. The "agricultural value" is, of course, the final test, and this must of necessity be determined by actual ex- periments with any given fertilizer for a given cro]:) on a given piece of land. Even tliese experiments are subject to some variation, due to variations in the rainfall and other weather conditions. Mixing Fertilizers at Oil Mills. Cotton seed meal forms an acceptable ingredient oi" mixed fertilizers, and it is, therefore, logical that the oil mill should undertake the mixing of fertilizers as an adjunct to the 422 FERTIUZERS. business, and it has been widely and profitably done. The cotton seed meal may be delivered in bulk by conve^'ors to the mixing room, thus saving the expense of sacking. The mixing machine may be very simple and inexpensive. It has even been profitably done by hand, using a hand screen for sifting out the lumps. A good form of mixer is shown in Figure 124. Fertilizer flixer, Fig. 124 — Lettering. A. — Hopper to receive the ingredients. B. — Elevator belt or chain. C. — Elevator cups. D. — Pulley in elevator head. E. — Pulley in elevator boot. F. — Material going into mixer. , G. — Ribs of revolving reel. H. — Driving gears. J. — Rolls to crush lumps. K. — Knives to scrape rolls. L. — Conveyor to take mixed fertilizer. M. — Spouts to hold bags. N. — Gates to admit the fertilizer to either spout as desired. Process. Have adjacent to the feeding hopper two shallow bins, say 10 feet square and 2 feet deep. Each bin will hold about five tons. Weigh the ingredients into one of the bins, one or two hundred pounds at a time, according to the formula decided upon, making successive layers of each material. When bin is full, shovel the materials out (cutting from top to bottom of layers) into hopper of the machine. Elevator delivers the material into revolving reel, which further mixes and screens it. The uniformly fine mixture is hoppered to the conveyor, which carries it to the bagging spout. The lumpy materials which will not pass through the 424 FERTILIZERS. meshes or perforations, roll out the lower end of screen, and are ground between the rolls, and delivered to the conveyor. While one bin is being worked out, the other is being weighed full. These machines will handle two to four tons of fertilizer per hour, according to size of machine, and according to character of the ingredients used. The reel should run about 20 to 30 revolutions per minute. Generally, all of the ingredients are dry, and are ground fine when received. Kainit is the most troublesome of the ordinary ingredients used. It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere, and be- comes lumpy in damp weather. There are other mixing machines, which are designed to do more or less grinding while mixing. The important difference between mixing fertilizers on the farm for home use, and mixing them in the mill for sale is that in the latter case, the law^s recjuire certain guaranteed analysis, or they fix a minimum percentage of phosphcric acid, ammonia and potash. The actual analysis as guaran- teed by the mill must be branded on each sack sold. These sacks are occasionally sampled and analyzed, wherever found, by the State inspector. Therefore, it is important that all fertilizer plants should frequently analyze the materials they buy and the goods they sell. CHAPTER XVI. Zbc riDanufacturc of fertilisers. The foregoing chapter dealt with the manipulation of certain fertilizer ingredients into definite mixtures, contain- ing known proportions of the fertilizing chemicals. This pre-supposes the existence of these ingredients. The present chapter will discuss the production of some of these ingredients from natural sources of supply. Raw riaterials. Table XVIII. has shown some of the usual sources from which fertilizer factories secure their raw materials. Nitro- gen (or ammonia) is usually taken from cotton seed meal, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, or tank- age and fish scrap. Cotton seed meal is on the market as such. It contains about 7 per cent, nitrogen. Nitrate of soda comes from the nitrate mines of Chili. It is concentrated before shipment, and is about 96 per cent, pure nitrate, equivalent to 16 per cent, nitrogen. Sulphate of ammonia is a by-product from gas works. It contains about 20 per cent, nitrogen. Dried blood is obtained from slaughter houses. It con- tains about 12 per cent, nitrogen (varying from 8 to 16 per cent. ) . Tankage is obtained from slaughter houses. It is variable in composition, consisting of all kinds of waste bones, meat and other offal. It contains about 5 per cent, nitrogen. Fish scrap is the residue from menhaden hsh, w'hen they have been pressed for oil. It contains about 8 per cent, nitrogen. Potash is mostly the product of German mines, generally in the form of sulphate or muriate. Kainit contains about 12 per cent, potash in the form of sulpliate. Sylvinit is a 426 THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. mixture of sulphate and muriate, and contains about 14 per cent potash. There are some concentrated forms of muriate and sul- phate on the market, containing as much as 50 per cent, potash. The fertilizer factories of the United States do not under- take to manufacture nitrogenous or potassic chemicals, but accept them as raw materials as they appear on the markets. All of the materials mentioned are soluble, and thus avail- able as plant-food. Phosphoric acid, however, occurs in Cjuantity only in an insoluble state. Fertilizer factories undertake to convert these raw materials into products con- taining phosphoric acid in a condition that may be taken up by plant life. Phosphoric Acid. Phosphoric acid is generally referred to as ( i ) insoluble (that is, insoluble in water and ammonium citrate, though soluble in strong acids), (2) soluble (that is, soluble in water), (3) reverted, which is soluble, in ammonium cit- rate. The insoluble is of no use to plant life. The soluble is of immediate use: the moisture in the soil dissolves it and carries it to the roots of the plants. The reverted is not solu- ble in water (it is soluble in ammonium citrate), but may nevertheless be taken up by the roots of plants when they find it. Thus the two last forms are useful, and are generally referred to together as "available." The "available" is all that is of value to the farmer. Soluble phosphoric acid may be made from raw bones, containing about 20 to 25 per cent, total ( soluble and in- soluble), of which 5 per cent, is available, or from bone black containing 35 per cent, insoluble. But the common source of supply is phosphate rock. This is mined in South Carolina, containing 25 to 30 per cent, phosphoric acid; in Florida, as land rock phosphate, containing- 30 to 35 per cent., or as pebble phosphate, containing 25 to 30; and in Tennessee, containing about 35 per cent. 03 THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. 429 F'ertilizei" factories recei\e this n ck in l)ulk in cars, and grind it into fine powder, and treat it with strong suli)hnric acid, thus converting the phosphoric acid into the available form, the product being known as acid phosphate, and some- times as super-phosphate, containing about 15 jier cent, available phosphoric acid. The ground rock is treated with its own weight of sulphuric acid, so that rock containing 30 per cent, would produce a mixture containing only 15 per cent. — omitting a small allowance for evaporation. Sulphuric Acid. For the manufacture of acid phosphates, large quantities of sulphuric acid are required. Most of it is water, upon which it is uneconomical to pay freights. It is also danger- ous to ship. Therefore most fertilizer companies manufac- ture sulphuric acid. Figure 125 is a general view of a complete fertilizer plant, showing the sulphuric acid chamber on the left. Figure 126 is a plan and sectional elevation of the acid chamber. On the left, is the furnace for burning the sulphur or pyrites. The gases pass through one of the towers into the leaden cham- bers, where they are mostly condensed, the remaining gases being led to and reclaimed in the other tower. Sulphuric acid may be made from sulphur or from pyrites. The most profitable material from which to make it must be determined from their respective market prices. Nearly all of the sulphur is imported from Sicily. Large quantities of pyrites are imported from Spain and Portugal ; but it is also largely tpined in the United States. There are known good mines in the United States (both sulphur and pyrites) which are not available because of co.^t of mining or transportation. Nearly all sulphuric acid chambers, running in connection with fertilizer factories have their furnaces arranged for burning pyrites. Some of them have furnaces for sulphur also, so that they may change from one to the otlier to suit market changes. 4y> Till'; MANi'KACTrKi'; ()!• i"i;ktii,izkks. Tiio process (il making- acid is siil>staiuially tlu. same, whether hurnin_^- sulphur nr pyrites, the i)riiieipal (hiTerence hein^' in the ctnislructinn nf the I'liniaees. The suli^hur or l)\rites is !)nnie(I in a suitable furnace. The resuhing' gases, nidstlx' sulpluuiius acid iLjas, pass ox'cr heated pots of nitrate 111' scda, whic-h ,<;i\e olT nitrous o-ases. Tlie^c .teases niiiii^le and pass through the (il(i\er tnwcr into Iar;;e lead chambers, into which jets of steam are admitted. Tlicre are two, and sometimes three, lead cli.ambers, into which the gases suc- cessi\el\' pass. The first chaml)er culphuric ricid, which condenses into li(pud form. 'Idle gases which do not condense in the lead cham- bers consist inostl\- of nitrous fumes. These gases are passed to and up the ('lay-l.ussac tower from the bottom, while strong cool sul])huric acid ((x) degrees Baume') is run down fnun the to]). This >ulphuric acid absorl)s the nitre lis gases ;md sa\es them for further use. 'iMiey nre separated fri'iu the acid 1)\' being run down the Glover tower, ihrouL^h which the hot sulpluu' fumes are passing up in mi the furnaces. This contact helps in the |)roduction of more sulphuric acid, rmd makes a com|)lete cycle, in w hich the nitrous gases are used o\-cr and o\er, without being intentionally con- sumed. In ])ractice, liowe\er, a small amount of the gases are actually condensed with the sul])hurie acid, and some escai)es into the air, so that it is necessary tO' constantly su])pl\- fresh nitre, in jxits in the furnaces. An ordinar\ plant for the ])roduction td' 20 to 25 tons of sulphuric acid per da_\- of 24 hours, wnuld have about ^ 'fx 'fx Tlilv MAM'I'ACTrKI", OF I'l-.RT 1 1,1 /IvKS. 433 I 50,orjo cu])ic feci of Icul c]ianil)ers,say 30 feel wide, 20 feel hij^-h, 250 feel lonjr- This is ahoul 7,^00 ciil)ic feel of cliaiii- ber ])er ton capacily (in 24 hours) of sulj^liuric acid. This is ihe lowesl allo\\al)lc liinil f<;r ^of>fl workini^. and iii' re chanil)er s])ace would work heller, '{'here woukl be (jne Gk>\'er lower a])out 9 feel srjuarc and 30 feet hi.t(h, say 2,430 cu]>ic feet, or 120 culjic feel per Ion capacity of sulphunc acid There woukl be one or two Gay-Lussac towers with total space of about 1,500 culiic feet or 75 cubic feet per to!i capacity f;f acid. If it is in one lower, it nu"p;-ht be 7 feet square and 30 feet hij.(h , or if two lowers, 5 feet sfjuare and 30 feet high. The towers are built of limber, or steel frame, and lined first with sheet lead, and then with hard fire bricks, and finally packed full of quartz rock, for the purpose of makin<4- the down-coming acids spread out, and more intimately mix with the up-going gases. The furnaces would vary according to whether sul])!iui or lump pyrites or fine dust pyrites are used. The cliam- bers are made by soldering together large sheets of lead in place. This fjperation is technically known as "learl-burn- ing." The floor of chambers is usually built 4 or 5 feet from the ground, to afTord ojjportunity for detection of leaks. The walls of the chambers are built 4 or 5 feet from the w'alls of the building, so that there may be free access to every part. In some improved forms of chambers, there are cooling columns inserted between the successive chambers, 'i'hcse pass the gases around lead tubes, through which air is made to circulate. This assists the chambers in condensing the gases. Sulphuric acid is pumped to the top of the towers, and elsewhere by the use of compresed air. Ordinary forms of pump would Ije corroded and soon destroyed by the acid. An air compressor forces air into a cast iron drum contain- ing acid (technically known as an "acid tg^' ). This forces the acid out to the point desired. The pressure is released and more acid admitted, and so on. Sometimes the arrange- 434 THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. ment is automatic, so that the pumping goes on contin- uously, without any attention. The theoretical composition of pure sulphuric acid is by weight as follows : Hydrogen 2 pares Sulphur 32 parts Oxygen 64 parts 98 parts Or what is the same thing: Sulphur 32 Oxygen 48 Water 18 98 In practice, however, the nearest approach to the above composition contains more water, as follows : Sulphur 54 Oxygen 64 Water 96 214 According to this last formula, sulphur forms about 2"^ per cent, of the weight of the strongest acid. The strength of acid is generally measured by its specific gravity, as deter- mined by a hydrometer. The Baume' hydrometer is the one generallv in use in this country. The strong acid above men- tioned has a specific gravity of about 1.82, or 66 degrees Baume'. This is known to the trade as "oil of vitriol." The ordinary acid, as made in the acid chamber for use in making fertilizers, has a specific gravity of 1.5, or 50 degrees Baume'. This strength of acid contains 62^ per cent, of theoretical acid, or about 20 per cent, of sulphur. THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. 435 According to the abo\-e calculations, one pound of sulphur should produce about 5 pounds of 50 degree acid. Owing to the losses in the processes, 4^ pounds is good practice. An acid chamber having a capacity of 150.000 cubic feet would burn in a day of 24 hours about 10.000 pounds of sulphur. This would produce about 47,500 pounds of 50 degree acid, or say 24 tons. The cost of operation would be about as follows : 10.000 lbs sulphur (a ic $100.00 300 lbs nitrate soda («: 2c 6.00 i| tons coal (a; $3.50 5.25 Labor (6 men) 6.00 Superintendence 3.00 Insurance and incidentals 4.00 Total cost of 24 tons acid $124.25 Cost per ton about $5.20. When using pyrites instead of sulphur, the cost may generally be reduced. Ordinary American pyrites contains about 42 per cent, of actual sulphur, but only about 40 per cent, can be utilized. In order to make the same 24 tons of acid, it will require the same 10,000 pounds of sulphur, and this requires 25.003 pounds of pyrites, or say 1 1 long tons. The cost of opera- tion would be about as follows : 1 1 long tons pyrites (a $5.00 $55-00 300 lbs. nitrate soda @ 2c 6.00 2 tons coal @ $3.50 7.00 Labor (8 men) 8.00 Superintendence 3.00 Insurance and incidentals 4.50 Total cost of 24 tons acid $83 . 50 Cost per ton about $3.50. 436 THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. The cost of acid chambers of the capacity above men- tioned is for burning sulphur about $25,000, and for burn- ing pyrites about $30,000. Figure 126 shows plan and elevation of a set of sulphuric acid chambers. Making Acid Phosphate. Fig. 127 shows the general arrangement of machinery for grinding phosphate rock and treating it with sulphuric acid for the production of the acid phosphate of commerce. Fertilizer Plant, Fig. 127 — Lettering. A. — Phosphate rock unloaded from cars. B. — Rock crusher. C. — Elevator. , D. — Bins for crushed rock. E. — Spouts to grinding mills. F. — Grinding mills. G. — Conveyor. H. — Elevator to ground rock bins. J. — Ground rock bins. K. — Mixing machine. L. — Sulphuric acid tank. M. — Car to carry away mixed material dumped from mixing machine. Process. Rock is crushed small enough for the grinding mills to re- ceive it. Crushed rock is elevated to bins, to be fed to mills. Mills grind rock to fine powder. The ground rock is stored in bins at top of tower, ready for mixing. Ground rock is weighed into mixing machine. Sulphuric acid is weighed into mixing machine, about same weight as the ground rock. Fig. 127. Fertilizer Factory. 438 THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. Mixing machine stirs them intimately together. Heat and fumes are generated. When mixing is complete, material is dumped into a car running on track to the desired spot in the shed, where it is automatically dumped. Material remains in the dum]j shed and dries until ready to be sacked. Sacking is accomplished in a machine similar to the ferti- lizer mixer, Fig. 124. Finished Fertilizers. Mixed or "manipulated" fertilizers of any dedred formul.i may be made according to the process described in the last chapter. There is another style of mixing that can only be done in a plant where the acid phosphate is actually made. This is known as the "wet mix." Instead of waiting for the acid phosphate to dry and be sacked for mixture with the potash- and ammonia-producing chemicals, these chemicals are elevated to the top of the building into bins near the ground rock bins. When the ground rock is run into the mixer and treated with sulphuric acid, then the ammonia chemicals are added, and finally the potash, and they are all mixed at once, thus being perfectly blended. The product is then run into the car and dumped, as in the case of plain acid phosphate. In making wet mixtures, nitrate of soda should never be used, because in presence of sulphuric acid, nitrogen es- capes. Even in dry mixing, it is not well to use nitrate of soda, because in standing, there is loss of nitrogen, but all other sources of nitrogen may be freely used. Wet mixed fertilizers are much more uniform in analysis than the dry mixed. A fertilizer factory of this description of sufiicient ca- pacity to use the 24 tons of acid in 24 hours, made by the acid chamber described, would use 24 tons of rock, and make about 45 tons of commercial acid phosphate. THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. 439 If the whole product is turned into ammoniated guano, it would make about 75 tons. The cost of such a fertilizer factory would be about $25,000. The whole cost of fertilizer factory and acid chamber for burning pyrites would be $6o,ooo to $75,000. The result of the operations of the entire plant for one day of 24 hours, making ammoniated fertilizer, would be about as follows : Sulphuric acid, 24 tons @ $4.50 $108.00 Phosphate rock. 24 tons @ $6.00 144.00 Cotton seed meal 22^ tons (a $18.00 405.00 Kainit, 7^ tons (a $10.00 75-00 6 tons coal @ $3.50 21.00 Sacks 6o.OD Labor (20 men) 20.00 Superintendence 3.00 Insurance and sundries lo.oo Total cost 75 tons of fertilizer $846.00 This is about $11.30 per ton. In the above table the sul- phuric acid is put in at the cost of manufacture, as shown in a former table. Ammoniated fertilizers usually cost the farmer $20 to $25 per ton. The great difference between manufactin-ing cost, and the cost to consumer is not by any means all profit to the manufacturer. He usually sells to a wholesale dealer, who sometimes guarantees to sell the entire output. These in turn sell to retail dealers, who sell to the farmer, very often on long credit. Thus the apparent profit is divided between the manufacturer and at least two middlemen, be- sides being reduced by interest on the long credit, and by bad debts. Cotton Option. Sometimes fertilizers are sold to farmers on what is known as the "cotton option" plan. The farmer buys the fertilizer 440 THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS. in the spring, payable the next fall, either at a stated price, say $25.00 per ton, or for say 300 pounds of lint cotton, re- gardless of the price. The farmer has the option. He would, of course, pay in cotton instead of money, in case the price of cotton should happen to be (on the arrangement above stated), less than 81-3 cents per pound at the speci- fied date of settlement. This is in the nature of a specula- tion ; but it is a safe one for the farmer, and may be made safe for the fertilizer man if he fixes the option equivalent at such a price that it may be covered by the sale of cotton "futures." APPENDIX. Containing Documents Relating to the Early History of the Saw Gin, and Notes and Tables Relating to Cattle Feeding. APPENDIX. 443 Document I. List of Suits for Infringement and Damages Brouglit by Whitney in United States District Court, Sa= vannah, Ga. Edward Lyons, 1795, non-suit, 1798. Wm. Kennedy & Co., 1795, verdict for defendant. Fred Ballard, 179S, non-suit, 1799. McKinney & Co., 1801, dismissed, 1804. William Clark, ISOl, non-suit, 1803. John Morrison, ISOl, defendant dead. William Byrnes, 1801, non-iSuit, 1S03. John "Walker, 1801, non-suit, 1804. Chas. Giaoiist, 1801, non-suit, 180'3. Isaiah Carter, 1801, non-suit, 1803. Wm. Few, 1801, verdict for defend- ant. Joim Davis, 1801, non-suit, 1803. Sam': Devereux, 1801, not served. Siolomon Marshall, 1801, settled. Arthur Fort, 1801, not served. James Moore, 1801, not served. Ignatius Few, 1801, not served. iSam'l Higginbotham, 1801, non-suit, 1803. Jonathan Embree, ISOl, non-suit, 1S03. •Henry Keebler, 1801, non-suit, 1803. D. W. Easley, 1801, non-suit, ISO'3. Silus Grigg, 1801, not found. Arthur Fort, 1801, non-suit, 1803. Arthur Fort and John Powell, 1804, decree for perpetual injunction, Dec. 19th, 1806. Chas. Gachet, ISOe, verdict for $1,- 500, May 11th, 1808. Isaiah Carter, 1806, verdict for $2,- 000, May 10th, 1808. Wm.. Byrnes, 1807, judgm.ent by de- fault, isn. 444 APPENDIX. Document II. Document III. WHITNEY'S SPIKE GIN THE WHITNEY SUBSTITUTED PATENT. PATENT PAPERS. Certified Copy of the Original Patent Copy of Specifications filed with the Specif cations filed in the Patent Patent Office in 1841, After the Office by Eli Whitney, 1 793=4- Fire. This Purports to be a Re= This paper is now on file in the production of the Original Papers. United States Court House, Savan= It is Printed in Parallel Column, nah, Qa. so it May be Compared With the Authentic Copy. This paper is now on file in the Patent Office at Washington. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. To all to whom these Liet&ers Patent shall come: WHEREAS, Eli Whitney, a citizen of the United States, hath alleged that he has invented a new and useful im- provement in the m'ode of spinning cot- tion, which improvement he sbates has n'ot been known or used Defore hi'S ap- plication; hath made o'a h that he does verily believe !>ha<: he is me true inven- t'Oi or discoverer of the said imiprove- ment; bath paid into the Tre(asury oX the United States the sum of thirty dol- lai's, delivered la riecei'p^> for the same,, and presented a petition to the Secre- tary of State, sig-nifying- a desire of ob- taining an exclusive property in the siaid improvement, and pnaying thai> a patent may be granted: THESE ARE 'THEREFORE to grant, according vo law, to t.he said Eli Whitney, his heirs, administrators or asisigns, flor i«he term of fourteen years from the sixth d'ay of November Isi-st, the full and exclusive right and liberty of making, construct- ing, using, vending to ot«hers to be used, the said hnprovements; a description (NOTE. — Corresponding clause occurs at the end of this paper.) APPENDIX. 445 ORIGINAL PATENT. SUBSTITUTED PATENT. whereof us g-iven in the words of the said Eli Whitney, himsielf, in the sched- ule hereto annexed, and is made a pan of these presents. In bestLmiony whereoiT I have caused these Letters to be made Palent, and the Seal of the United States to be hereiunoo affixed. GIVEN under my hand, at the City of Philadelphia, this fourteenth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand, seven hundred and ninety- four, and of the Independence of the United Soates of America the eigh- teenth. (Seal.) G. WASHINGTON. EDM. RANDOLPH, Secretary of State. City of Philadelphia, to-wit: I do certify that the foiregoing Le'- ters Patent were delivered to me on c>he fourteenth day of March, in the year oif our Lord one thousand, seven hundred and ninety-four, to be exiam- ined; that I have exiamined the same, and find them coniformatiie to law; and I do hereby reou'rn the isaime to the Sec- retary of Stiate -within fifteen days from the date aforesaid, to- wit, on this four- teenth day of Maroh, in &he year afiore- said. WM. BRADFORD, Attorney General of the United Stales. The schedule referred to in these letters patent and making part of the same, containing a description in the words of the said Eli Whitney himself 446 APPENDIX. ORIGINAL PATENT. SUBSTITUTED PATKNT. of an improvement in tlie mode of gin- ning cotton. A description of a new invented cot- A siiort description of tihe machine ton gin, or machine for cleansing and invented by the subscriber for ginning separating cotton from its seeds.] cotton. This machine rrnay oe described undor The principal parts of this machine five divisions, corresponding to its five 'are 1st, the frame: 2d, the cylinder; 3d, principal parts, viz: 1. Frame. 2. The the breastwork; 4th, the clearer and Cylinder. 3. The Breastvork. 4. The 5th, the hopper. Cleaner. 5. The Hopper. 1st. The frame by which the whole 1. The fram.e, by whidh the whole work is supported and kept together, work is supported and kept together, ought to be made of we"J seasoned tim.ber, so that it may be firm and steady, and never becom.e loose in the joints. 'Scantling four inches by three, will perhaps be stuff, of as suita'ble size as any. The frame should be of a square or parallelogramlc form, the is of a square or parallelogramic form width must answer to the length of and proportioned to the other parts as the cylinder and the height and length may be most convenient. m.ay be proportioned as circum.stances shall render convenient. In the di-awing annexed. Fig. 1, is a section of the m.aehine. A represents the cylinder, B the breastwork, C the cleaner and D the hopper. 2. 'The cylinder is of wood; its form 2d. The cylinder is of wood, its forni is perfectly described by its name, and jg perfectly described bv its name, and its dimensions may be from six to nine j^g dimensions may be from six to nine inches diameter, and from two to five inches diameter, and from two to five feet in length. This cylender-cylender is feet in length. The cylinder is placed placed horizontally across the frame, in horizontally across the frame, leaving siuch manner as to give rocm for the room for the clearer on one side, and cleairer on one side of it, and the hopper ^^le hopper on the other. In the cyl- on the other as in Fig. 1. Its height, if the machine is worked by hand should be about three feet four inches; o^ther- wise it may be regulated by conven- APPENDIX. 447 ORIGINAL PATENT. SUBSTITUTED PATENT. ience. In the cylender is fixed an iron axis so large as to turn in tlie lathe without quivering. The axis may pa.ss qu.ite through the cylender or consist incJer is fixed an iron axis which may only of gudgeons, driven wiTh cement paB'S quite through, or aonsiscs onJy jf in each end. There must be a ^houl- gudgeons driven into each end. der at C, Fig. 2, on each side the bear- There are sho'uldeirs on this axis, to ing or box to prevent any horiz'ontil prevent any horizontal variation, and i: variation in the cylinder. The bear- ings of the axis or those parts which rest on the boxes must be rounded in a lathe, so that the centre of the axis may coincide with the centre of the cylender. One end of the axis should extends so far without the fram.e as extend so far wi'hout the frame as to to admit a winch at one end, by which admit the winch, by which it is turned, it is put in motion, and so far at the to be connected with it at C, and so far other end as to receive the whirl by at the other end as to receive t/he whirl which the clearer is turned. The sur- designed for putting the clearer in mo- tion. The brass boxes, in which the axis of the cylender runs, consist' each of two parts, C and -D, Fig. 7. The lower part, D, is sunk into th3 wood of the frame to keep it firm, and rr.ot Ion less and the upper part, C, is kept in its place by two small iron- iron bolts, H;H, headed on the lower end at H. These bolts are inserted into the under side of the rail or scantling of the frame and continued up through both parts of the box. A portion of thfc bo4ts as H, A, should be square, to prevent them from turning. The upper part of the box, C, is screwed dcwn close with a nut on the end 0'! each bolt. At E, is a perforation for conveying oil to the axis. After the cylinder with its axis is fitted and rounded with exactness, the circular face of the cylinder is filled with teeth, 448 APPENDIX. ORIGINAI, PATENT. SUBSTITUTED PATENT. part of its surface i'=- filled with teeth set in annular rows, which are at such set in annular rows. Ine spaces D, E, a distance from eaoh other as to admit F, G, H, Fig. 2, Ijetween the rows a cotton seed to play freely in the of teeth must be so large as to admit a space between them. The space be- cotton seed to turn around freely *n them every way, and ought not vo ne less than seven-sixteenthis of one inch. The spaces K, L, M, N, &c , Fig. 1, bs- tween the teeth, in ihe same row, must 'tween each tooth in the same row, is be. so small as not bo admiit a seed or a so small as not to admit a seed, no.- a •half isee.d. They ought not to exceed half seed to enter it. 'These teeth are one-twelfth of an inch; and I think about one-sixteenth of an inch the best. The teeth a,re miaide and set in the fol- lowing manner: Ta.ke common iron made of stiff iron wire, driven into the v-ire, about No. 12, 13 or 14, dnaw it wood of tihe cylinder. The teeth are about three sizes less, without nealingin order tostiifen ib. Cut it into pieces four or five feet in leni^th and straighten th-eim. Steel wire would perlhaps be best if it were not too expensive. 'Then with a machine, somewhat like ithat used for cutting nails, cut the wire into pieces about one inch long. In the j3ws of this machine at O, Fig. 10, ■are fixed the two pieces of steel D, D, vvhioh are pressed together, as may be observed from the figure, by the opera- tion of a compound lever. These pieces of steel aro sio se(t in, that upoin being pressed together, their approadhing sur- faces, meeit only on one side next to D, D, leaving between tihiem a wedge like opening, which enlarges as the 'distanc3 frcm the plaoe of contaot increases. On the side, D, D, about one inch distant from the place of contact, is fixed .i g-uage. 'The v/ire is inserted on the side opposite D, D, and thrust thUD' to the APPENDIX. 449 ORIGINAL PATENT. SUBSTITUTED PATENT guage. Then on forcing down the lever the wire is separated, leaving that end of Ihe wire ntxt the side D, D, c'Jt smoothly and transversely off, and the end of the other part flattened like a wedge. The fattened end is then thrust forward to the guage and the same op- eiation is repealled. In this manner the teeth are cut of equal length, with one end flattened and the other cut direC-ly olf. Flatting one end of the wire is ben- eficial in two ways: 1. The flatted ends of the teeth are driven into ih? wood with more e'ase and exactness. 2. It prevents them from turning-turning after they are set. To prevent the wires from bending while driving, they .^^e holden with pliers the jaws of which ought to be about half an inch in w-idti\, with a correspondinig transverse g^roove in each jaw. Thus hoMen, the teeth are, with a light ham.meir driven, one by one, into tlhecylender, perpendicular- all inclined the same way and in such ly to its axi.s. Then with a tool, lik? a manner, that the angle included be- a chisel ot co.mmon screw driver each tween the tooth and a tangent drawn tooth is inclined directly towards the from a point into which the tooth is tangent to that po'imt of the circle, intj driven, will be about 55 or 60 degrees, which it is set, till the inclinatibn is The gudgeons of the cylinder run in such that the tooth and itiangent form brass boxes, each of which is in two an aiOgle of aboiut 5'5 or 60 degrees. If parts, one of which is fixed in the wood this inclination be greater, the teeth of the frame and the other is confined ^ill mot take sufficient hold of ithe coc- down upon the axis with screws. ton, if it 'be less there will be more dif- ficutly in disengaging the cotton from the teeth, after it is separated from th? seeds. Wh&n the .eeth are all set they should be cut of tan equal length. In jrder for this, taike a crooked guage. Fig. 8, 450 APPENDIX. ORIGINAL PATENT, SUBSTITUTED PATENT, having two prongs, Q, R, the curvature o' -^-Tiich corre-sponds with that of the cylinder. This gua.ge is merely a cnook- ed foirk, the thickness 'Of whose prongs or tines, as represemted between S and T, Fig. 9, equalizes the length •Dif the teeth, and is applied to tha cylinder, with one tine on each side of an a^nnular row. With a pair of cutting pliers, cut the iteeth 1. :'., 3 and 6, off even with the guag?, then slide italong to 6, 7, S, &c., and so proceed till you have trimmed ail the teeth to an equal length. This done put the cylender into a lathe and ^\"ith a file bring the teeth to a kind of an- gular point, resembling a wii-e flatted and cut obliquely. After the teeih are brought to a proper shape, smooth them with a polishing file and the cyl- ender will be finished. Rem.ark. Though the dimensions of the cylender may be varied at pleasure, yet it is thought ^that those descrilbed are the best, being more easily made and kept in repair, than those of a larger size. The timber should be quarter stuff, i. e., a quarteir of the trunk of the tree, otherwise it will crack in seasoning. It must also be of wood of an equal density, such as beech, maple, black birch, &c. In oak and many other kinds of wood, there are spaces between the grains which are not so hard as the grains them- selves; and the teeth driven into these spaces would not stand sufficiently firm, while the grains are so haffd as to prevent the teeth fro'm being driven without bending. APPENDIX. 451 ORIGINAL PATENT. SUBSTITUTED PATENT. 3. The breast woib, Pig. 2, a^nd B, F/ig. 3d. The breastwork is fixed above 1 and Fig-. 2, is fisied above the cylender the cylinder, parallel and contiguous parallel and contiguous to the same, lo the same. It has transverse grooves It has transverse grooves or openings or openings through which the lowr af 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., through which the rows- teeth pass as the cylinder revolves and rows of teeth pass as the cylender re- it'j use is to obstruct the seeds while vcives: and its use is to o/bsitruct the cotton is carried forward through the seeds 'while the cotton is car- the grooves by the teeth. Tthe thick- ried lor^wiard through the groioves ness of the breastwork is two and half by the teeth. That side of the breast- or three inches and the under side of it work next the cylinder should be made is made of iron or brass, of brass or iron, that it may be the more durable. Its face or surface A, X, Fig. 1, ought to make an angle with the tangent X, Z, less than 50 degrees. A tooth in passing from K up to the breastwork B, fastens itself upon a certain quantity of cotton, which is still connected with its seeds. The seeds being too large to pass through the breastwork are there stopped, while the cotton is forced thro' the groove and disengaged from the seeds. Now if the point of the tooth enters the groove before the root, or that part nt-xt the cylinder it carries through ail which it ha,s collecbed in coiming frc.m K; but if the root of tne tooth enter the groove before the point, part of the cotton fastened on it, will slide off, and this latter case is preferable as it helps to give the cot- ton a rotary motion in the hopper. The thickness of the breastwork, or the distance from A to I, Fig. 1, should be about 2% or 3 inches, in proportion to the length of the cotton. It should be such that the cotton which is carried through by the teeth may be diiscon- 452 APPENDIX. ORIGINAL PATENT. SUBSTITUTED PATENT. nected from-from that which is left in the hopper, before it leaves the grooves, otherwise that which is carried partly through the breastwork will be by the motion of that with which it is con- nected in the hopper become so collect- ed and knotted at I, as to obstruct and bend the teeth.** 'The under part of the breastw^ork • next the cylender, ought, as has before been observed, to be made of iron or brass. It may be cast either in a solid •piece and the openings for the passage of the teeth cut -with a saw and files, or in as many parts as there are spaces between the several rows of teeth in the cylender and in form of Fig. 12, and the pieces set, by means of a shank or tenon, in a groove run- ing lengthwise along the wooden part of the breastwork. The breastwork described, if proper- ly constructed, will it is thought an- swer every valuable purpose. But I shall mention one of a different con- struction which I have used with suc- cess, and is made In the following manner: Form a breastwork of the same shape and dimensions as the one be- fore described, entirely of wood. Place a bar of wood one inch below the cyl- ender and parallel to it, then witlh straps s- tened to the breastwork should divide widthwise into two parts, one of which should pass aJoTngr the lower surface of the breastwork, and the other run up its front. In Fig-. 14, B, is the wooden breastwork. 03, the bar below the cyl- ender, the dotted circle B, B, the cylen- der E, E, the Strap C, the place where the strap divides, and A, A, A, wood screws or nails with whic'h the strap is m^ade fast to the bar and breastwork. 4. The clearer C, Fig. 1, is construct- 4th. 'The clearer is placed horizon- ed in ihe following- manner: Take an tal with and parallel to the cylinder, iron axis perfectly similar to that de- its length is the same as that of the scribed as extending through the cyl- cylinder, and its diameter is propor- ender, except that it need not be so tioned by convenience. There are two, large nor fitted for the application of four or more brushes or rows of bris- a winch. Frame together crosswise ties, fixed in the surface of the clearer at right angles two pieces of timber of in such a manner that the ends of tihe suitable size and of a length about bristles will sweep the surface of the equal to tihe diameter of the cylenders, cylinder. so as t'O make the four arms equial h since the 17t,h of April, 1800, and a considerable time previous thereto, used a machine for the purpose of gin- ning cotton consisting of circular me- tallic plates fastened on a square iron axis, with teeth, cut in the periphery of the plates, and a brush to detach the cotton from the teeth, but he de- nies that the same is in form similar to that of the Patentee, according to the best of his information, having never seen one of the maohinespretend- ed to be invented by Eli Whitney, but whethter there is any or what similarity in principle, he cannot say — because having never seen the machine of the Patentee and not being sufficiently skilled in mechanics he cannot be posi- tive. 'The defendant denies that he hath been requested to desist to use his machine otherwise than by having been sued and harassed and perplexed by the complainants in an action on the common law side of this honora- ble Court, and by the present bill of complaint on the equity side thereof. This defendant denies that his exam- ple has induced a general violation of the rights of the patentees; on the contrary he is inclined to believe that if any infringement has been made on the rights of the patentees that it has been occasioned by the avarice of themselves and agents or some of them. This defendant hath already answered and said that he does not believe the machine for which the patent was obtained is a useful one, and that he doth believe that a ma- chine constructed on similar principles was known in Europe previous to the time of obtaining the said patent. And this defendant also saith. That teeth cut in circular meitallic plates is in his opinion, a very considerable improve- ment. This defendant denies that he hath used his machine in a secret or clandestine manner, but that on the contrary he has never refused any per- APPENDIX. 469 sons the liberty of inspecting or exam- ining his machines, and that his gin- hciuse at all times at which his machine was at work hath been open for the admission of such persons as had business therein or chose to enter thereinto. That the complainants might have well had their action if to (any such they were eniitJed CWhich this defendant doth not admit) against him at common law, and that in truth the said Eli "Whitney, and the said Phineas Miller in his life time insti- tuted a suit on the common law side of this honorable courr for an infringe- ment of their patent, but which they failed to prosecute. That he hath used a machine for cleaning cotton constructed as he hath already de- scribed for seven years or upwards, but he cannot say for the reasons al- ready mentioned, and also on account of not seeing the Letters Patent, whether the said machine used by him is constructed on the same principles as that of the Patentees, and this de- fendant continues to use the same. This defendant is unable to say what quantity of cotton he hath ginned with his machine, as he did not keep any account thereof. That his machine consists of forty-six circles of teeth, and is impelled by water. And this de- fendant denies all and all manner of confederacy and combination where- with he stands charged in and by the said bill of complaint, without that, that there is any other matter or thing material or necessary for this defendant to make answer unto, and not herein and hereby well and suf- ficiently answered unto confessed or avoided, traversed or denied, is true. All of which matters and things this defendant is ready to aver and prove as this honorable court shall direct and award, and humbly prays to be hence dismissed, with his reasonable costs in this behalf most wrongfully sustained. J. HAMriX,. Sol. for Deft. Sixth Circuit Court, District of Geor- gia. Arthur Port being duly sworn maketh oath and saith, that what is contained in the foregoing answer as far as concerns his own act and deed is true of his own knowledge, and that what related to the act and deed of any other person or persons he be- lieves to be true. ARTHUR FORT. iSubscribed by the above named Ar- thur Fort in my presence and sworn to before me this 17th day of Decem- ber, 1805. R. M. STITES, Clerk. E^PDORISEMENT. Sixth Circuit Court. E. Whitney and Executors of Phineas Miller vs. A. Fort and J. Powell. Answer of A. Fort, Filed 19th Debember, 1805. Stites, Clerk. Hamill, (Solicitor. POWEL'S ANSWER. IN THE CIRCUIT COURT OF THE UNITiED STATES, DISTR.ICT OF GEORGIA. Eli Whitney, surviving copartner and executors of Phineas /Miller, com- plainants, vs. Joihn Powell, defendant. In Equity. The answer of John Powell, defend- ant in. the above case. This defendant saving and reserving to himself all and all manner of exceptions to the manifold errors and imperfections in the bill of complaint of said complain- ants, for answer thereunto or unto so much thereof, as he is advised is ma- terial for him to make answer unto, he answereth and saith. That he ad- mits that a patent was obtained by Ell Whitney, one of the complainants, for the invention of a cotton gin, or a ma- chine for cleansing and separating cotton from its seeds, at the time and in the manner set forth in the bill of said complainants, and he admits it to be true that he hath heard and be- lieves the said Eli Whitney did after- 470 APPENDIX. wards transfer and assign to Phineas Miller, now deceased, a moiety of the ©aid invention, and the rights at- tached thereunto, under the patent aforesaid, and he admits it also to be true that, said Phineas Miller did by his last will and testament nominate and appoint Catharine Miller and L/em- uel Kollock, executors thereof. This, defendant also admJts it to be true that, he does hold, use and occupy a machine or gin for cleaning cotton, commonly called a saw gin; that the said gin has a wooden frame, and a breast, made of pieces or straps of iron, placed at such a distance from each other, as to admit the teeth of circular metallic rows to pass through the grooves of said breast, that there is a revolving cylender on wthich at regular disitances from each othier are placed clrculair metallic inon plates, containing teeth, all cut and inclined one way; these teeth pass when re- volving between the slraps or pieces of iron affixed to, or forming the breast, and separate the cotton placed 'within the hopper from its seeds; that it con- tains a brush made of the bristles of hogs, affixed to a cylender revolving in a contrary direction to the one con- taining the circular metallic plates or saws, and detaches the clean cotton from the saws 'Or teeth. The machine is put in motion by a whirl fastened to the axis of the cylinder first men- tioned, round which is a band and propelled by horse. This defendant denies all unlawful "combination with 'Which he stands charged without that, there is any other matter or thing ma- terial or necessary for this defendant to make answer unto and not herein and hereby well and sufficiently an- swered unto, confessed or avoided, tra- versed or denied is true. :S. JONES, Solicitor for Defendant. Jefferson County, ss. John Powell of Louisville, practi- tioner of physic, being duly sworn m.aketh oath and saith that the facts set forth in his foregoing answer is true, so far as the same concerns his o'wn act and deed, and what rests on the knowledge of others, he believes to be true. JNO. POWELL. .Sworn to and subscribed before me 1st May, 1805. M. SHELMAN, J. J. Ct. ENI>ORiSHMEIXT. Bli Whitney and Executors, Miiller vs. A. >Fbrt and J. Powell. Answer of J'ohn Powell. iFiled 6th May, 1805. Stites, Clerk. Arthur i^'ort vs. Miller and Whitney, Case 9. And the said Arthur Fort by Robert Watkins, his attorney, comes and de- fends the wrong and injury, w^hen &c., and saith that he is niot guilty of he premises above charged 'on him aigainst 'he form of the statute ai:oresald as the said Phineas and Eli have above against him complained and of this he puts himself upon the country, &c. WATKINS, Defendants' Attorney. R. M. :STTTE;S, Clerk. 9. A. Fort ads. Miller, &c. Plea filed. Circuit Court, Geoi-gia. D)ECREIE FOR I/NJUNCTION. E,li Whitney, et al, vs. Arthur Fort. Bill for injunction. This cause came on to be heard this 19th day of December, eighteen hun- dred and six, before the Honorable Wm. Johnson and the Honorable Wm. Stephens, on bill, answer, replication, testimony and exhibits, in behalf of the complainants. ■V^'hereupon it is ordered, adjudged and decreed that the injunction prayed for by the complainants in their bill be .granted them and that the same be APPENDIX. 471 made perpetual, and that the defend- Document VI, finl pay the costs of this bill. Dated at Louisville, this 19th day of CERTIFIED COPY OF HODQEN December, A. D., 1806, and in the 31st HOLMES' PATENT FOR year of American Independence. caw r^iM innA WILDIAM JOiHNSOX, JR. i>AW UlIN, 1796. TVM. STEPHENS. jhis paper is now on file in the Uuited EINDORiSEjVTBIXT. States Court House. Savannah, Ga. Georgia 6th Circuit Court. Whitney, c.„^„„|j*:^„*.^„ ^e *i r> * * « u ^ , , . ,, _,,,-, - -_, fcxemphfication of the Patent of Hod- et al, vs. Arthur Fort. Decree for Per- petual Injunction 19lh December, 1806. gen Holmes. Ent. page 13 and 14. STITE'iS, Clerk, rpv, tt •• ^ o^ * The United States of America. X'OTE. The woTds in the various doc- To all to whom these Detters Patent uments which are repeated at inter- vals, thus-thus, are supposed to be the ^^ali come: words which were formerly repeated at Whereas, Hodgen Holmes, a citizen the bottom of the page. The clerk in making the ceiftified copy -muist have '^f the Snate of deorgia, in the United copied these words verbatim. States, hath alleged that he has in- D. A. T. vented a new and useful improvement, to-wit, new machinery called the cot- ton gin, which improvement has not been known, or used before his appli- cation, has made oath that he does verily believe that he is the true in- ventor or discoverer of the said im- provement, has paid into the Treasury of the United States, the sum of thir- ty dollars, delivered a receipt for the same, and presented a petition to the Secretary of State, signifviing a desire of obtaining an exclusive property in the said improvement, and praying that a patent may be granted for that purpose: These are therefore to grant according to law, to the said Hodgen Holmes, his heirs, administrators, or assigns, for the term of fourteen years, from the nineteenth day of the month of Apri'l last past, the full and exclu- sive right and liberty of making, con- structing, using and vending to others to be used the said improvement, a de- scription whereof is given in the words 472 APPENDIX. of the said Hodg-en Holmes hiiniself in lowing manner, iviz: Tbe whole ma- the schedule hereto annexed and is chine Ostianding on the flO'Or) is made of made a part ol these presents. wo'od, six feet, six inches wide, Ave feev In testimony whereof, I have caused long and five feet hig/h, by putting this these letters to be made patent and machine in motion for use of the before the seal of the United States to be mentioned purpose, is to be done by the hereunto affixed. Given under my hand following direction: at the city of Philadelphia, this The cylender frlo^m eight to fourteen- twelfth day of May in the year of our inches in diam^eter, and six feet long LfOrd, one thousand, seven hundred with one row of teeth, to one inch, and ninety-six, and of the Independ- which runs on twb iron gudgeon®, ihe- ence of the United Stales of America feeder from eight to twelve inches li- the twentieth. ameter, with two rows of wireB of one- ,By the President, inch, and six feet long and runs >on two GEORIGE WASHINGTON. iron gudgeons, the brush from seven to TIMOTHY PICKHRING, twelve inches in diameter, and six feet (L. S.) Secretary of State. ion>g, with two iron gudgeons to each City of Philadelphia, lo-wit: cylender, from thnee-quart^ers of an. I do hereby certify that the fore- inch to one inch thick, going Letters Patent were delivered to HODGEN HOLMES. me, on the twelfth day of May, in the Teste, W. Urquhart. .Seaborn Jones, year of our Lord, one thousand, seven Depairtment of State, to- wit: hundred and ninety-six, to be exam- j hereby certify that the foregoinig- ined, that I have examined the same, Letters Patent from the United States and find them comformable to law, ^^ Hodgen Holmes are a tru>e copy of and I do hereby return the same to the ^j^^ original on record in this Deparr- Secretary of State within fifteen days rn,pj,*. from the date aforesaid, to-wit; on ^.^,^^ ^^^^^ my tend and seal of jf- this tweltfh day of May, in the year ^^^ ^^^ twenty-first day of October, aforesaid. CHARLES LEE, ^-g- Attorney General. (ggai.) TTiMOTHT PICKERING. The schedule leferred to in these Let- NOTE. — This document gives Holmes ters Patent and making part .of the a residence in Georgia. Augusta, Ga., same containing a descripiiion in the was the actual place referred to. It appears from other accounts of Holmes VMOrds of the said Hodgen Holmes him- that he sometimes lived in Hamburg, self of an i'mpilovement, to-wit: new S- ^v' which was a town in Edgefield county, on the opposite side of the machinery called the cotton gin. Savannah river from Augusta. This explains why Holmes is frequently re- EXPLANATION OF THE WHOLE ferred to as being from South Caro- MACHINERT. Una. ^, . , . „ , . ^. His legal citizenship was probably This machinery for cleanmg cotton sometimes in Georgia and sometimes from the .seed, can 'be used in the fol- in South Carolina. D. A. T. APPENDIX. 473 Document VII. LETTER FROM PHINTEAS MILLER, OF MULBERRY GROVE, GA., TO HIS PARTNER, ELI WHITNEY, 'NEW HAVEN, CONN., FEBRUARY 15, 1797. This is oopied from "Oorrespondence of Eli Whi'ney, relative to the Inven- tion of the Cotton Gin." By M. B. Haim,m'ond In The Amerioan Historical Review, October, 18i)7. Mulberry Grove, Feb. loth, 1797. DEAR WHITNEY: The mystery of your silenoe is unrav'elled and I am much rejoiced— 'duiing my afb£ence to the upper country your letters of 17 and 27 Nov., the 15th and 20th of Diec. and 6th Jan. came to hiand. Not one of the/se reached here until the latter part of January, the letters by Bontaoee hiad carelessly been retained by the person who brought ohcm. Your advice respecting- the mistake most pr'obiably comimitted by the Rhode Island Factory is agreieable. My anxi- eties on this subject are iCept aiwak'e by the large sum w'e have at stake. Yoti are lalm'ost surprised that my oon- fidence should 'be .shaken; the people here are surprised that it sTiould not be entirely destroyed. I think your advice good respecting keeping a supply of coiton ac New Haven land New York. I have only been prevented frtom pinching necessilies doing this heretofore, and shall proceed a-5 much (as my funds will possibly ad- mit this winter. I h,ave indeed en- deavored to extend my credit to the purchase of 40 or 50 m. weight of cotton at the low price at whidh h is to be had at present— viz: $3.50, and for cash "-2 per hundred. I Wave aU'o set on foot in common with Mr. Rupel a tnaific over the mountains to the distance of three hundred miles by land, which I think will enable us lo vend a few thousand weight of cotton very profitably. (For'tunate have we been in one in- stance among so ismaU a number if misfortunes in saving our cotton and samples of cotton at New York. The repeated disappointments which have yei prevented youir departure for Eng- land have become so frequent that they alm)ost cease to create surprise, and yet tin:: evil arising from the detention 's bj'' no means diminished. I really think, that it will not be best that Nightin- gale should engage with us until some Change in our affairs can be brought about. We require at present his as- sistance and I should wish to make him the most liberal recompense without subjecting him lo our misfortunes, in addition to his own. It will be best to take the deposi- tion of Goodrich and SteWbins on Ihe subject of ratchet wheels which may hereafter be rendered useful. I fear it cannot be had in vime foir our Court which will sit the last of April. The name of the Patentee for the surrepu- tious patent I think is Robert Holmes. The names of our defendants, Kenne- dy and Parker and Edward Lyons. I expected you would have procured and stnt on the copy of the patent which uas to be set 'aside. I shall now write for it myself. The order which was given to Adams for the saw mill crank was sufRcJently correct. I find by his letter that he understood it exactly as was intended — bui the difficulty arose from my omitting to explain the mode of our applying these cranks which did not appear to me necessary. It is now too late to make them— otheirs are pro- cured. With best wishes fljr your early de- parture and wiiih the regards of our family, I am truly your friend, PHINS. MILLER. 474 APPENDIX. Document VIII. LETTER PROM ELI WHTTNEY, NEW HAVEiN, CONN., TO JOSIAH STBBBINS, NE.W MTLPORD, DIS- TRICT OF MAINE, OCT., 15, 1803. This is copied from "HammomJ's Cor- respondence, above cited. New Haven, 15th Oct., 1S03. DEAR STEBBINS: The fates have decre'ed that I .shall be p-erpetually on the wing- and wild gijiose likie, spend my summers in the North and at the ap- proach of winter shape my course Tor the reg-ions of the South. Bui I am 'en unfortunate goose. Instead bf sub- limely touring thro' tihe aerial reg-ions with .a select corps of faithful oompan- ions, I must S'Olely wad'e thro' the mud and dirt a solitary irtaveller. While on my tour the last winter I wrote you several letters tio several of which I have reed, no answer. I wrote you a letter from the city of Washing- ton .almost a year since, in which I gpve you some acoount of Thos. Paine. I feel a little anxious lest this letter may 'hai'e miscarried. I wr'ote you a'.so liast spring- from Savannah (if I recol- lect rlg-htly) requesting some informa- tion relative to my linventlon of the cot- ton machine. I should be gratified lc< krow whether you reed, these letters or mot. I shall start frc^m fhere in fen days for South Carolina in order to be there at the meeting of the legislature of that State and expect bo return in January or February. A multiplicity of avoca- tions has prevented my writing yo'u for some lime past and it has ben sto long delayed that I fear I shall not be able to g-et an answer from you before I Commence my journey. I have still a host of the mO'St unpnin- cipl'ed scoundrels to combat in the Southern .States. I have not nbw leis- ure to g'o into detail but I want to en- quire of you if you cannot give your deposition to the following imptort, (viz:) I, Jos. Stebbins, &c., &c., db tes- tify and declare that I have been intimately acquainted with Eli Whit- ney, orig-inally of Massachusetts, but now of New Haven in the State of Connecticut, lor more than fourteen years. That the said Whitney dom- municated to me his discovery and in- vention of a machine for cleaning- cot- ter from its seed by means of teeth passtng between bars or ribs of a part which he called a breastwork, more than six months before he obtained a patent for said invention 2' That I saw sd. Whitney almost every day thro' the summer and autumn of the year 1793, at which time I was a resident gradu- ate in Yale Oolleg>e. That we had tnany ar.d frequent coniversations on the suHd- ject of mechanics and natural philoso- phy in g'eneral and particularly with reference to his said linveniion. That I transcribed his specifications or de- scription of said machine several times and that he conferred with me r3lati\''e to the various parts of said descrip- tion. And I well remember that said WhiSney repeatedly told me that he oiYgnally contemplated making a whole row of teeth from one plate or piece of metal such as tin plate or sheet iron and that he afterwards had recourse to wires to make the teeth from naces- sity, not having it in his power at that time to pnocure either tin or sheet iron lin Georgia. That in the first draCt of his specification he had mentioned sheet iron as a material out of which the teeth might be made but we concluded it was wholly unnecessary as it did in no way affect the principle of the ma- chine being- only one of a great variety of methods in which the tiee h mig-ht be made and it was struck out. I also recollect that the said Whitney previ- ous to writing a description of his in- vention had contemplated a variety of APPENDIX. 475 methods of making- each of the several parts of the rmachine but it was thought to be wholly immaterial that they should be mention^ed in the de- iscripti'jn, etc., etc. I hope you will be able to call to mind the circumstances menbioned above, not that ihey would be of any importance with an enli'g-hten'ied upright judge. The circumstance of making the teeth jof sheet iro^n is really of no account as it regards the principle and my right; hut as that is the method in which the trespassers make theimachines, they lay greai stress upon it, and if I can Taut prove the truth 'a'bout it, it will stop their mouth on this subject. I haive a se' of the most depraved villains lo cambait and I might lalmost as well gci to hell in search of happiness as ap- ply to a Georgia Court for justice. T fear that I have delayed writiing to you so long that I cannot get an an- swer from you before I leave this, which will be as early as the 2Sth of this montli. But I would thank you to lose no time in writing to m>e and direct to me at Columbia South Carolina- whatever your recollection will enable you to testify to, relative to the early history of my invention. I wish you tj forward to me a deposition signed and sworn to. I am sensible such a de- position will not 'be reed, in a court of law, there being no commission taken out to take the testimony but it will be very useful to me in some important arrangements whiicih I wish to make. I hope it will be convenient for you to write me soon after you receive this as any delay will dprive me of any benefit which I may derive from your deposi- tion. I shall not make any considerable stop before I reach Columbia in So. Carolina, which place I do not mow ex- pect to leave before the 20th of Decem- ber. Write me as imuch and often as you can. I shall have more leasure to write you while traveling than I have had the suni'mer past and you may expect to hear from me oooaisionaMy. My armoury here has got to be a reg- ular establishmbent and priogresses tolerably well, and 1 flatter myself I shall make something handsome by the undertaking. My works have consid- erably excited the public curiosity and are visited by most people who travel thro' this country, this however is not so flattering to my vanity that I d'o not wish to be less thronged with specta- tors. It would really g*ve much sincere pleasure and satisfaction fo see you here and shew what I have been d'oing for three or four years past. Cian jiou not visit us next summer? With best and most affectionate re- gards CO L»aura and ardent wishes for your (own) happiness, I am, have been and (shall be) Your sincere friend, E. WHITXEY. iJosiah Stebbins, Esq. Document IX. ABSTRACT OF LEG-ISUATIVE REC- ORDS, ON FILE IN STATE HOUSE COLUMBIA, S. C, RELATING TO THE PURCHASE BY THE STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA, OF THE PATENT RIGHTS TO THE WHIT- NEY GIN. In the Senate, Dec. 1, 1I8OI, Major John Turner presented a petition from "Sundry Inhabitants of Richland County," praying that the State pur- chase for the free use of i s citizens, the patent right to the machine known as the "saw gin.' In the Senate Dec. 7, ISOl, Dr. Blythe of All Saints, presented a petition to the same eff?c fnom "Sundry Inhabi- tants of Kershaw County." The peti- tions were referred to a joint commit- tee from House and Senate, composed on the part of the Senate: 476 APPENDIX. Major John Turner of Richland Ooun- ty, Col. Joseph Calhoun of Aiblbeville County, Capt. Arthur Simpkins of Edgefield County, land on the part of the House: iMr. 'Taylor, Mr. Peter Porcher, Jr., Dr. Hanscome, General Robt. Ander- son, Mr. John Richardson. The Senate committee reported Dec. 12, 1801: T'hat they have met a committee from the House of Repreisentatrves foir the •purpose appointed and "they have taken into their joint consideratlion the matters contained in said memorials, and havfe had full conference with Mr. Eli Whitney, one of the co-partners of Miller & Whitney, who claim the said patent for the exclusive use of the saw g-in for cleaning the staple of cotion from the seed within the United States. That the said Eli Whitney for himself and the concern of Miller i& Whitney has proposed as the lowest sum they will be willing to take for the patent right within the limit of the State the sum of $50,000. $20,000 to be paid as scion as the said Miller & Whitney shall make a legal transfer of the same lo the State or its agent. $15,000 on Sept. 1st and $15,000 on the ISth day of Sept., which will be in the year 1803." "That taking into eonsid'ei^ation the immense advaniages which have re- sulted, and which will result to this State from this most ingenious and useful discovery, 'as well as the sacri- fices which the inv'e'ntor has made in puTiSuing and perfecting this great un- dertaking, as well also as the certainiy that if the patentees pursue their right against individuals, a much g'reater sum would be likely to accrue to them, perhaps four times the amount at pres- ent, without taking into view the cer- tain increase which will toe made to the number of machines now in use — adding also to these consideraiions the great propriety of preventing the im- mense expense of litigation to our cit- izens on this subject — and that it is be- coming and dignified in the Stale to take by the hand, encourage and foster by its liberality the useful arts. "They therefore resolved, that leave be given to bring in a bill for the purpose of purchasing from Messrs. Miller & Whitney, their patent right to the m'aking, using and vending the sa'V machine within the limits of this State and for compensating them for ihe same. "They further neaotmmend that a tax should be laid on thesaimeniachinesnow in the State to the amount of for every saw or round or row of teeth in the said machines for the purpose of defraying the second installment of the aforesaid purchase to be made; and that it be considered that the tax upon these machines be pledged for the pur- pose of reimbursing the State for the purchase to be made aforesaid." ORDERED that the report be consid'ered on Mon- day next. O'n Dec. 14, 1801, the Senate agreed to the committee report and returned same to com'mittee to hring in a bill in conformity thereto. This bill waa 'Drought in and passed Dee. 16, 1801, and sent to the House. The bill provided that Miller & Vv'hitney should make a legal transfer of the right and title to his patent for the State of South Carolina, and that they should refund to citizens of the State all sums which they had collect- ed therefrom for licenses, and that they should deliver "within a reasonable time" at the State House, tw)o im- pi*oved models of the gin. On making the legal transfer, Mr. Paul Hamilton, Comptroller General of the State, made his warrant on the treasury for the cash payment, $20,000. General Charles Cotesworth Pinkney, of Charleston, was a member of this APPENDIX. 477 Senate. He was one of Whitney's early friends in the South. Another member of this Seinate was Mr. Henry I>a,na Ward, from Orangeburg County. He had been a class-mate of Whianey's at Yale College. In the Senate Nov. 37, 1S02, Oapt. Ar- thur Simpkins of Edgefield County, presented a petition fnom William Fos- ter, T'ayloT, praying that the Stia<:e I'e- fund him the money, $180, which he had paid Miller & Whitney as a license to operate a saw gin. This petition was referred to the same comimittee that re- ported on thie purchase at the preced- ing session, with instiructions to confer with the OoimptroUer, Tliey report Dec. 15, 1802, that ihe Comptroller had not made the second payment on the gin patent, and that he held the money subject to the action of the legislature. TTue petition was granted, and $180 re- funded Mr. Taylor. The regular House committee ap- pointed tio examine the Oo-mptroiller's annual report, say in their repori Dec. 13, 1802, "on the subject of the saw gin that Messrs. Miller & Whitney have noi complied with their contract relat- ing thereto, they highly approve «he conduct of the Comptr'olleir in suspend- ing the payment 'of the second warrant and recammend that he be directed to take measures to compel Messrs. Miller & Whitney to reDumd the money received by them on account of ihe saw gin." On the same date the Senate com- mittee report: "Resolved, thai the legislature ap- prove of the conduct of the Ct>mp- troller, that lie be also directed to in- stitute such suit against the said Miller & Whitney, as may be necessary to try their right to the invention of the ma- chine." The m«mlbers of this commit- tee were Capt. John W^ard of Colleion County, Major Chas. Goodwin, of Win- ston, and Capt. Sam Warren of Santee. When the Comptroller's annual re- port came to the House again, Dec. 1, 1S03, it mentioned the fact that the money was still with/held from Miller & Whitney, and that suits had ben insti- tuted against tWem. This ,paj-i of the ■report was referred to the original saw gin committee. They did not report during that session. At ihe next session, Dec. 6. 1804, Eli Whitney presented a petition tb both House and 'Senate: "Praying thiat the Slate would receive two models of the saw gin and comply with their contract in the purchase of the petitioners' pat- ent right 10 the same." fThis iwas re- ferred to the same saw gin commit- tee. On Dec, 15, 1804, the Senate received t;he report of the joint committee as follows: "On the imost mature deliberation they are of opinion that Milder & Whit- ney, from w'hom the Sta;te of South Caii^olina purchased the patent right for using the saw gin within this State have used reasonable diligienoe to re- fund the money amd notes rieceived uy them from divers citizens and as from several unforeseen occurrences the said Miller & Whitney have heretofore been prevented from refunding the same. They iherefore, recommend that the money and notes aforesaid, be deposit- ed with the Ct-mpLroller General, to ue paid over on demand to the several persons from wholm the same have heen received upon their delivery of the li- cense for whi:;h the said notes of hand were given and said monies paid to the Comptroller Generail, that he be direct- ed to hold the said lidenses subject to the order of the said Whitney; that the excellent and highly improved models now offered by the said Whitney he re- ceived in full satisfaction of ihe stip-- uiations of the contract between the Slate aiid Mill«?r & Whitney, reQative to the same; and that the suit commenced 4/8 APPENDIX. by the State agiaans? the said Mil- ler & Whiitney be discontinured. The joint committee taking- every circum- stance alLeged in the nuemoirial into their serious consideraitton, further rec- ommend that (as the good faith of this Slate is pledged for the payment of the purchase of said patent rig'ht) the con- tract be now fulfilled, a^ in theiir opin- ion it oug-ht to be, according tlo the most strict justice and equity. And laU.hough from the documents ex'hitoited by said Whitney to the committee, they are of the opinion that the said Whit- ney is the true orig^inail inventor of the saw gin; yet, in order to guard the cit- zens from any injury thereafter, the committee recommend that before the remaining balance is paid, the said Whitney be required to give b'ond and security to the Co^mptroller General io indemnlify each and every citizen of South Carolina against the legal claims of all persbns whatsoever, other than the said Miller & Whitney to any pat- e^nt or exc/lusive right to the invention or improvement of the machine for separating cotton from its seeds, com- monly called the saw gin, in the form and uplon the principle which it is now and has heretofore ibeen used in this Slate. On the vote to adopt the report there was a tie vote, 15 to 15. The President of the Senate voted with the (regular members, and so he could not break the tie. The report waS therefore not adopted. On r>ec. 18, the House of Representa- tii\-es "voted to discontinue the suits against Miller & Whitney, and on 19th, iv voted to adopt the committee's re- port. This was reported to the Sen- ate, and they took another vote result- • ing in favor of the measure by 14 to 12. Mr. Whitney signed an indemnity bond on Dec. 27, 1804, to Thomas Dee, then Comptroller General. John Tay- lor, J. M. HoweH and Samuel Green, of Richland County, signed the bond with him. The money was then paid Mr. Whitney in full of the original contract. Document X. EXTRACT FROM MESSAGE RBDiAT- ING TO THE GIN MONOPODY BY GOVERNOR JAMES JACKSON TO LEGISLATURE OF GEORGIA, NOV. 3, 1800. * ill * And hei-ie I request your attention to the patent gin monopoly under the law of the United States, entitled, "An act to extend the privildge of ohtaining patents for useful discoveries and in- ventions to certain persfons therein mentioned and to enlarge and define the penalties for Violating the rights of patents." The operation of this law is t)he pre- vention and cramping of genius as it respects cotton machines, a manifest injury to the community and in many respects a cruel extortibn O'n the gin holders. The two imptortant States of Georgia and South Carolina where this article appears to be becoming the principal staple are made trioutary lo two parsons who have obtained the P'a tents and who demand, as I am in- flormed $200.00 for thie mere liberty of using a ginning machine, in the erec- tion of which the patentees do not ex- pend one farthing and which sum, as they now think their right secured, it is in their power in future licenses to raise to treble that amount from tlie infor- mation given me by a respectable mer- chant of this town, (Louisville, Ga.,) w^hose latter on that subject is marked No. 6. When Miller i& Whitney, the patentees, first distributed the machine o? their construction, they reserved the right of property of it and also two- thirds of the net proceeds of the gin, the expenses of working to be joint between the patentees atnd the ginners, finding however a defect in APPENDIX. 479 the law under which their Da.tent was olbliained they deterimined to sell the machines, tog^ether with their rigrhts vested in them lor $500.00 an(d foir a li- cerse to authorize a person to build and w'ork one at his own expense, $400.00, but findinig, as I suppose, that the defect of the law was g-eneTially un- derstood and that they co.uld g-ei no redress in the courts, they liowered the demanid to the present rate of $300.00 — tihat they miay raise it t^o the former rates is certain, and that they will do it unless public interference is had, there can be little doubt. I am informed from other so'urces that gins have been erected by other persons, w.ho have not taken Miller & Whitney's macihine for a model, but which in .siome small de- gree resemble it, and in improvements, far surpass it, for it has been asserted that Miller's and Whitney's gin did not on trial answer the intended purpose, the rights of these improvemen't how- ever, it appears by the present act, merged in tihe rights of the patentees, ■who it is supposed on th'S lowest calcu- lation will make by it in the two (States $100,000. Monopolies are odious in all countries, but imore particularly tso in a government like ours. The gre'at law meteor, Coke, declared them contrary to the common and fun- damental Law of England, their tenderi- cv certainly to raise the price of the ar- ticle from the exclusive privileige — to render the machine or article worse from the prevention of aompetition and improvemient — and to impoverish poor aitifioers and planters Who are forbid- den from making-, vending or using it without license from the patentees, or in case of doing- sio, are made liable to penalties in &. court of law. The Federal Court docket, it is said is filled with these actions. I ido not doubt the power of Congress to giranc these exclusi)\-e privileg-es for the con- stitution has vested them with it, bat in all cases where they become injuri- ous to the community, 'they ought f> be suppressed, or the parties be paid ^ moderate compensation for the discov- eries from the g'overnment graoiting- the patent. The celebrated Dr. Adam Smith observed that monopolies ar'e supported 'by cruel and oppressive laws, such as is the operation at present ol the law on the subject — its weight lays on the poor industrious mechanic and planter. Congress, however, did not in- tend it so, for when the first law on th's head was passed in February, 1793, a few individuals only cultivated oottDn. and it was not dreamt of as about \o become the great staple of the two Southern States, a staple Mo, which if properly encouraged must take the de- cided lead of any other (bread kind excepted) in the United Staties— the steps proper to be taken to remedy this public grievance you will judge Of— Ibut I should suppose that our sister Sta.e of South Carolina w'o^uHd dheierfully join Georg:iia in any proper apiplioation to Congress on the subject. I am like- wise of opinion that the State of N'orth Carolina and Tennessee must be so far interested as to support such applica- tion — if you think with me, I recom- mend communicatibn with all of them. Document XI. WHIT'NEY'S REPDY TO GOV'ERN- ■OR JACKSON'S LETTER. Copied froim 'The Columbian Museum and Savannah Adjvertizer," Dec. 33, 180O. Tj Governor Jackson: I have read with sensations peculiar to the occasion your ofliciai aittack upon our private ppope(rty, acquired under the patent law of the United States, Ibut we have long doub-ed whether it were proper to ciommunicate these sensations to the public. 48o APPENDIX. 1\ has always appeared to us that che private pursuits of individual indus- try are entitled to the most saereld and inviolable protection of the laws, and that a g>ood cause where private right alone was concerned might suffer tri- vial injuries wiithoub acquiring' theclaim to be presiented toefore the siolemn trib- unal of public opinion. But wihen t.hs iitle to our property is slamidered and political persscudon openly oomtmencsd affainst us under pretence of official duty ^y our chief magistrate, silence on our part miight be supposed t)o sanc- tion the abuse. TIhe urgency of the oase must, thereforie, ibe our apology for meeting your excellency on this grn«a5r<3 os ^ t-" OS 00 *J CO — * t^ -H Ift (?"! O O kft »J^ -M ^1 1^ Ci X OS CO m -o o t~ •! — Ti -j5 — I- fo 01 -f tc o "5 o ■a' =: :o >Q M i;>i M ■* ot ■* ro --o — in ro ci — c! » ^i M o CO -43 a to M o S ;= a So eiiMOs CO -Hco «o«0(Mtoxi-i o •*cO'^ Si CO i--*-^< i-ixmioot>. CO IM'"* ;o rH ooi-* i^roi- ifS-HCO ■* ^H COCl moo T-CM^H 1. c« d > ©SCO O5DOl>0D^H^H-H OOkAGO CO C5 X in •* oo;om^cjiominiftt-->*THaoo5coQooC''!xifl CO'^GO-'flt^irtOS^Ht^inXCCOtO^tOCOCOOttO^"! 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NSOcoo©ss?^»SNg55M.os=gg5Ng^gi£,rtt,N»©i>g-jH;*«. ^rHCOCOlA iH rH O 01 «i t* CO iH »A O 0» OiOO^** CO^ t* O »A CO r-t GO *^ CO 00 ^■ 00 0» l^;oco^*^H'^lO>?o'*co^-•*ooo»rt05"^05oo(^!wtl^-o>r50o■^--^05Gocft^>'T^'«*•^cococ50c ■o..'5 ^2 ^S £ a'SSa 04 b> 9 A ooos v.'O'O p M n I §.s 5||||l ^i 2i s S.5 fcf §lls^i h iiMi DAIRYING AND BREEDING. From Bidlcthi A^o. 24. Alabaina Experiment Statio7i. This bulletin is not intended to make every land-owner and cotton-raiser an exclusive dairyman, nor is it presumed in its presentation to attempt to cover the wide and important field of dairy- ing. Its object is to mainly throw out a few suggestions for the careful consideration of the farmers of the State, as well as to give some practical thoughts and demonstration of facts from our experience as a breeder of Jersey cattle. It is exceedingly unfor- tunate that the masses of our farmers are so -ill-informed on this matter. But few of them read a dairy or stock paper of any sort, hence have no knowledge of many important facts with reference to stock breeding and its management. It is with the hope of instructing this class of farmers that we propose to send out this bul- letin. Let me beg you not to conclude, be- cause you do not own a fine herd of Jersey or other pure bred cattle, that this is of no interest to you. If you own only one cow it will pay you to inform yourself as how best to manage and feed her, and if together with se- curing this information you will pro- cure, at reasonable cost, recently im- proved appliances for butter making, your wife, who generally has the bulk of the work to do in this department, will rise up and call you blessed. So then subscribe at once for some good stock and dairy paper and learn from the practical experience of others how to feed and manage your cows, and the best process of making butter with the least cost and labor. The great majority of farmers of Alabama own from six to eight milch cows, others own many more, and a few none. It is frequently the case that a man milking five cows does not make a pound of butter for sale. The first trouble is, most cotton producers own too many cattle. Sell off all your non-paying and worthless cows, and re-invest this money in more feed (\t you have not already a sufficient quan- tity on hand), a good comfortable stable for the cow, and a few, at least, of the many important dairy imple- ments. An impoi'tant step for the farmer who decides to improve his cat- tle is the purchase of a bull. Grading up your herd in the right way is of the first importance; and do not cherish for one moment the thought that you own in one of your native cows one that is superior to all others for inilk, butter and beef, "a general purpose cow," and propose to raise and use in your herd a bull calf from her. Tou do not own such a cow, nor ever will. If you want butter, buy a Jersey or Guernsey; if milk, Holstein or Ayr- shire; beef, Shorthorn or Hereford. There are other breeds worthy of note. These are used by way of illustration, as they have been bred for a specific purpose for a long time; and the buyer when he gets a representative animal of either breed, knows what he is get- ting before he pays his money. Once in awhile there will appear a phenom- enal butter cow of the milk and beef breeds, or a phenomenal milker of the butter breeds. Pay no attention to this, it is the breed you are after, backed by indisputable performance APPENDIX. 487 "both at the pail and at the churn. There are plenty of reliable breeders of the different breeds that will sell you a bull at a reasonable figure. Fifty dollars will buy a very good bull, oni hundred dollars a much better one. It may be that you cannot afford this outlay, as you have but few cows; in this case your neighbors can join you. Co-operate; use your order, the Alli- ance. First, decide on the breed; next, buy as near home as you can, thus avoiding acclimating fever. If you cannot find what you want in your own State, then go out of It. Get the best. The bull is half the herd, and under no circumstances use a grade. Get your natives in good condition and test each cow by the churn. The cow giving the largest flow of milk does not always make the most but- ter. Quite often the very reverse is true. Continue along to weed out, keeping the best until you breed a model dairy cow. What is a model dairy cow? One of ■medium size, small head, full and placid eyes, neck long, thin and clean, broad hips and back of great breadth at the loins, large, roomy stomacli, short legs, large udder, medium siz'>>d well placed teats, tortuous milk veins. The escutcheons, like the solid color, i;? thought to be desirable by some, but many good deiry cows have first-class ■escutcheons and others equally as good have very poor ones. The cow when well fed should, of course, give a large quantity of good rich milk. Do not be a "stickler" on color or size, or decide to let a cow remain in your herd because she has a good es- cutcheon and pretty horns. If she only weighs 600 pounds, is as black as a crow, and has neither escutcheon or "horns, but yields the butter, keep her. You want the cow that will produce the most butter at the least cost. Beware of in-and-in bresdin?: p rhaps you have already paid dearly for it. With perfect animals on both sides and in the hands of a skillful breeder it may do, but as now practiced, it is ruinous, and why should you in-breed so much? There is no necessity for It. Breed to the winner, and it is not out of place to say that this Experiment Station has been practicing in-and-in breeding for a number of years with a small herd of Jersey cattle, the 11 effects of which can be seen by any practical breeder. The old cows are still the best, and one of the last heif- ers that come in milk young and which is intensely in-bred, had no fore udder at all. The foundation stock is ie- ficient here. The experiment has proven conclusively, both in form and at the churn, that unless you have perfect animals on both sides to start with, and you are skilled, it is best not to undertake it. If you have no barn, and no means to build one, make a shed, plank up the north and west sides, have separ- ate stalls or fastenings for each cow, either stanchion or halter, and do not allow them to run all over your cow pen, as practiced by most farmers. Take your calves away from the cows at four to six weeks old. Feed your cows well. The most costly thing ••n a dairy farm is a poor cow. Milk and feed regularly, make them comfortable (this word implies a great deal), and with kind treatment, they are certain to respond. Feed-tables are sometimes given to show you how much feed to use. Re- member that it requires more than «i maintenance ration, and that you can- not get good results from raw cotton seed and shucks, for instance. Many farmers have asked, "how io you raise your calves?" We practice hei-e the following plan: The first milk from the cow's udder acts as a physic, and the calf should be allowed to take It. When the calf is four days old. 488 APPENDIX. separate it from its mother; after 12 hours of fasting, take a couple of quarts of its mother's milk, warm from the cow, dip the fore and middle fingers into the milk and insert into the calf's mouth. If it is very unruly back into corner of the stable and get straddle of the calf's neck. Repeat this until the calf sucks the fingers. Do not lose your patience. It is certain to throw up its head. Lower it until the mouth comes in contact with the milk in the pail, and when it begins to drink the milk, gradually withdraw the fingers from the mouth. The calf will continue to throw up its head many times, but with patience, repeat the process until tne calf continues to drink the milk after the fingers are withdrawn. It will generally do this at the third or fourth trial. Two quarts of milk three or four times a day is all that it will take for the first three weeks. At the end of this time, add a gill of sweet skimmed milk, heated to blood heat (98 degrees) to each feed, twice per day, and 12 hours apart until the quantity is increased to three quarts. Continue this for ten days, then decrease the new milk one gill ^it feed until no new milk is given; at the same time increase the warm skim- med milk half a pint at a feed until U reaches a gallon. Skim the milk after it sets 12 hours, and always feed it blood warm and while -- is perfectly sweet. The great object in thus chang- ing so gradually from new to skimmed milk, is to avoid the "scours." Bright hay or fodder snould always be acces- sible after a few weeks old. Corn and oats mixed may be put in the feed trough; the calf will soon learn to eat and chew its cud. Keep the calves in a dry, clean stable with plenty of pure water and salt when a few months old. At seven months, take the milk entirely away, and continue to feed and let them run on in good pastures. Breed at 18 months old. We use linseed meal here with the milk to raise our calves. At present the cows at this station are fed at 5:30 a. m., and 4:30 p. m. The first thing in the morning is to clean and sweep the stables. The cows are then fed and groomed, udders brushed carefully, and with a clean rag and bucket of tepid water, washed and wiped dry with a clean towel. The milker is now ready for business, and with clean hands and short finger nails, he goes at his job with both hands quickly and quietly. The millc is weighed from each cow and a record is kept. It is then strained through a wire cloth strainer into a ten-gallon can and carted to the dairy. The de- tails of our method have been given in order to show that good butter-making must begin at the barn. When no experiments are being car- ried on, we feed an ensilage, and one- third each of corn meal, ground oavs and bran, giving what the cows will eat clean. It may be of interest to many farm- ers that we give a short, plain and sim- ple way how we make butter. We have the facilities for making good butter, viz: a good dairy hand-power sepa- rator, cooling creamer, ripening vat, butter worker, print, etc., besides an automatic fermenting can and auto- matic ripening vat, and a good well of pure water, though not cold. After the milk is carried to the daii-y it is run through a hand-power sepa- rator. The cream is at once cooled down to 55 degrees, placed in a creamer, and kept sweet until enough cream is gathered for churning. It is then poured into a cream vat to ripen, kept at a temperature of 70 degrees, and well stirred during the ripening period. As soon as it is slightly acid, it is ready for churning. Cool down to 62 degrees, scald out the churn well, and pour in the cream. When the granules of butter are the size of wheat grains, the churn is stopped and rinsed APPENDIX. 489 down with a gallon of cold water (56 degrees). A few swings of the churn, and the butter-milk is ready to lie drawn off. Wash the butter with about the same quantity of cold water as you have butter-milk; in two washings the water is clear. Tilt the churn to one side and let the butter drain thorough- ly. It is then taken up and placed on a butter tray, weighed and salted, one ounce to the pound. Put on the worker, and work only enough to dis- tribute the salt. Print into one-pound prints, wrap with parafflne paper, and forward to the consumer. When mak- ing butter in this way, we stir the cream. Never mix sweet and sour cream. Ice is necessary in summer. What to do with the milk is an im- portant question, and one you must decide for yourself. There is more money lost by the farmers of Alabama between the milk pail and the churn, through ignorance and carelessness than they are aware of. You fail to get money out of your cows by im- proper feeding and handling, then after you get the milk, a large per cent, is lost by manipulation, by having only few, if any, of the improved dairy im- plements and no dairy proper. This is to be expected. Stop and reflect whether you can afford to do this any longer; you say that a dairy is costly, and it generally is, but this is not the kind that the cotton raisers need. Buy the right sort of dairy goods, and a cheap structure will answer your pu'-- poses. Is not your milk carried now from the "cow-pen" to the house cold, and the cream on top strained into jars and set away to turn. As the weather continues cold, are not the jars trans- ferred from your faulty cellar or shed room to the family room or kitchen, there to remain two, three, and some- times four days? Tour wife tui-ns the jars to the fire often during the day, and the milk will not turn, and all the while it is getting spoiled. She gets disgusted and attempts to churn it, and with a dash churn begins. Gener- ally she knows what to expect. Not having a thermometer, the boiling water is poured in, and something that you call butter is taken out. The fer- menting can and cream ripening vat will do away with this, and if you will visit this station, as you should, we will convince you on this point. A little money expended for dairy goods will furnish you the means for making a good article of butter and will be a great relief to your over-worked wife. The actual cost of feeding will vary in different portions of the State. Each farmer knows what he can grow in the section in which he lives. Bai-- ley, rye, corn, millet, sorghum, peas, cotton seed and in many sections of our State, the clovers and grasses grow to perfection. Those farmer's who intend to increase the number of dairy cattle to 20 or 25 milch cows should by all means build a silo. Corn pea-vine ensilage is the most nu- tritous and cheapest feed we have. Try it. The attention of farmers is called to the following maxims, derived from my own experience and that of other prac- tical dairymen Feed your cows twice per day, at regular intervals, and have pure water and salt always accessible. You do not need a dog to drive up dairy cattle. A dairy cow does not need as much exercise as a trotting horse. A cow with good escutcheon and nothing else should be butchered. A yellow skin we like to see, but it is not always a true index to the colar of the butter. The butter from a pale- skin cow is often yellow. Your "scrub" cows are averaging you not more than 100 to 125 poun.ls of butter per year. You should try to double this yield. The cow likes a variety of food; I 490 APPENDIX. gratify her taste as often as you can. The winter dairy pays best, therefore breed the most of your cows in Decem- ber and January, and they will be fresh in September and October following. Decide on the breed and stick to it. There are many worthless cows in every breed. The cow is a machine for the manu- facture of milk and butter, and the stomach is the bast laboratory in world for this purpose. There are many ways to test the ri h- ness of a cow's milk besides the churn; and every dairyman should have a tester. The farmer can use the churn if he prefers to do so. In ordering your dairy goods, the first thing to put on your list is a thermometer. It is more reliable than your wife's forefinger. One ounce of salt to the pound of but- ter is our rule, but always try to salt to please your customers. It is much better to wash the milk out of the butter while in the churn than to work it out on the worker. It is impossible for you to be too clean, either at the barn or dairy. Keep your milk out of the kitchen; it absorbs all the bad odors and your customers will complain of the flavor. Set aside your old dash churn, and buy a barrel, swing or box churn. Churn your cream when slightly acid, and do not put it off to suit your convenience. Here is where you lose money. Churning temperature, 62 degrees in summer; 64 degrees in winter. If you feed much cotton seed in winter you can get 68 or 70 degrees and it will do no harm. The lower the better. You cannot make a first-class artirle of butter by feeding cotton seed alone. They spoil the flavor. Cotton seed meal, or well steamed cotton seeds, fed in limited quantities in connection with other feed, will do no harm. The farmers of Alabama can have a succession of green crops almost from one end of the year to the other. Add to this, cotton seed meal, raw cotton seed, and hulls, with good ensilage, they can make butter very cheap. Raw cotton seed is like the sweet po- tato, it can be served in many ways. Place a high value on it and learn lo feed it the right way, but never to ex- cess. When the patent butter maker comes around, do not let his persuasive tongue induce you to buy a county right to manufacture his butter. He is a fraud; let him alone. Milk your cows ten months in the year. Rich food will decrease the quantity of milk, but will increase the amount of butter. The dairy business is a renovator, a restorer of worn out hands, and an edu- cator of those who engage in it. THE THEORY OF CATTLE FEEDING The chapters on fertilizers have shown in detail the theory of fertiliz- ing, or the feeding of lands. The chap- ter on cattle feeding has confined itself mostly to the practical facts, without elaborating the theory. A brief con- sideration of the theoretical aspects of the question is here submitted. There is a considerable similarity be- tween feeding lands and feeding cattle. In both cases, the purposes to be ac- complished (by the land or the cattle), must determine the amount and char- acter of the feeding. Certain propor- tions of the fertilizing chemicals are best suited for certain crops, and cer- tain proportions of feeding chemicals are best suited for fattening stock; other proportions for milk production, and still others for work animals. The recognized elements in feeding stuffs are principally (1) protein, (2) APPENDIX. 491 carbohydrates, (3) fat. Other elements are water and ash. Protein contains about 16 per cent, nitrogen, and the nitrogen is the im- portant part from the standpoint of cost. This substance is consumed in the production of blood, muscle, milk, wool, hair, etc. Carbohydrates and fat are fuels, which are consumed by the animal mechanism, primarily to produce warmth and power, and incidentally to «tore up surplus fat. The term "car- bohydrates," as here used, includes the two items discussed in some works as ""nitrogen — free extract," and "crude fibre." Both of these consist of car- bon and hydrogen, and hence, for pur- poses of discussion as feed constituents, they are properly classed as carbohy- drates. The small amount of ash required in a feed is present in small quantities in all feeding stuffs. It is also supplied in salt. Its use in the animal economy is mostly for the building of bone. Different feeding stuffs contain these three different essentials in varying amounts, and in varying degrees of availability or digestibility. In tabulating the proportions of in- gredients, only the digestible portion is considered. But in practice it is neces- sary always to have sufficient bulk, or in other words, the nutritive elements must be sufficiently dilute. For some reason, the process of assimilation goes on better when the animal's stomach is sufficiently distended. On this account, most tables contain an item "dry mat- ter," which, in common with other items, is an indication of the bulki- ness of the feed. While carbohydrates and fat per- form practically the same function as a feed, yet their relative value for this purpose is not the same; and in consid- ering the two together under the same head, it is necessary to make an allow- ance to bring them to the same unit. It has been found by experiment that the value of fat is about 21 times the value of carbohydrates. Hence, in the tables the actual percentage of fat has been multiplied by 24 and added to the carbohydrates. The ratio between this combination and the protein is known as the "nutritive ratio." The following table gives the average percentage composition, and the nutri- tive ratio, and relative feed value of some of the most common feeding stuffs: 492 APPENDIX. TABLE XIX. SHOWING COMPOSITION OF SOME COMMON FEEDING STUFFS. FEED. {I. V « 41 u Per Cent. Digestible. Carbohy- drate and Equiv. Fat i-^ Cotton Seed Meal. Linseed Meal Cow Peas Alfalfa Hay Oats Clover Hay Corn Timothy Hay Corn Stover Cotton Seed Hulls $24.16 21.88 21.20 15.24 17.72 12.84 22.72 14.12 10.16 9.96 92 90 80 92 89 85 89 87 60 90 37 29 19 10 9 6 8 3 1.2 1.6 2.8 4.3 5.9 6.5 9.0 15.7 17.0 70.0 This table is not to be taken as abso- lutely correct for any particular local- ity. It is compiled from a large num- ber of sources, and represents a fair average of the well authenticated re- ports made by the several State ex- periment stations. The column headed "relative feed value per ton," has been computed from average values determined at dif- ferent times by me Connecticut sta- tion, and is 1.60 cents per pound for protein, and 1.40 cents per pound for carbohydrates. This valuation must be taken only as an approximation, and only as of relative importance. The stations all differ on this point. The feeding stuffs have been ar- I'anged in the table with reference to the "nutritive ratio." Cotton seed meal Is seen to possess the lowest or "nar- rowest" ratio, while cotton seed hulls possess the "widest" ratio. This means that cotton seed meal contains more and hulls less protein in proportion to other ingredients than anything else in the table. Hence in mixing a proper ration, the two extremes form a logical coinbination. The Germans have made great study of the science of feeding, and they have developed what is called "feeding standards." By this is meant the PTper nutritive ratios to feed to vari- ous animals to produce certain results. It is sometimes tabulated in a way to show the number of pounds of each, nutritive ingredient that should be sup- plied for each 1,000 pounds of live weight. The following table gives an idea of feeding standards considered about right for various purposes: APPENDIX. 493 TABLE XX. SHOWING FEEDING STANDARDS FOR CERTAIN PURPOSES. ANIMAL. Digestible Nutrients : Pounds per Day, per 1,0.0 lbs. live weight Nutritive Protein. Carbohydrate and Equiv. Fat. Ratio. Ito 3.2 2.8 25 2.5 16.0 15.0 16.3 14.3 5.0 5.4 6.5 5 7 " '■ 6 to 12 months old Milk Cow The use of this table, together with Table XIX., may be illustrated by cal- calculating- a ration for a fattening steer weighing 1,000 pounds. Table XX. requires 2.5 pounds protein. Table XIX. shows cotton seed meal contains 37 per cent protein, hence there will be required (2.5 divided by .37) 6.8 pounds of meal. The table calls for 16.3 pounds of carbohydrates. The meal contains (6.8 multiplied by .44) 3. pounds, hence 13.3 pounds may be supplied by hulls (13.3 divided by .35) 38 pounds and a good ration would be say 7 pounds meal and 38 pounds hulls. On this ration, the steer ought to gain about 3 pounds weight per day. It will be seen from the table that a milk cow requires very nearly the same ration as the fattening steer. With this feed she ought to give about 22 pounrls of milk per day. But the disposition of the fertilizing values that are in the feeds are difffer- ent in the two cases. In the case cf the fattening steer, very little of the nitrogen (in the protein fed) is re- tained. About 95 per cent, of it is voided, (22 in the solid and 73 in the liquid excrement). There is no nitro- gen or protein in the composition of fat meat. On the other hand, the cow uses about 25 per cent, of the actual digestible protein that is fed. Milk is rich in protein. Protein contains all the nitrogen in the feed, and hence the manure from fattening steers is move valuable than from milk cows. GENERAL NOTES ON CATTLE AND FEEDING. LENGTH OF FATTENING PERIOD. The Kansas experiment station found that in fattening steers on grain, the cost per pound for fattening in- creased after two months. Actual practice in feeding cotton seed meal and hulls, throughout the South shows that it is not generally profitable to^ feed steers for fattening longer than three months. AGE OF STEERS FOR FATTENING. All stations agree that the younger the steer, the more rapid the increase of weight, and the less cost per pound for fattening. AMOUNT OF FEED PER 100 POUNDS GAIN IN WEIGHT. The average amount of a balanced ration required under normal condi tions to produce a gain of 100 pounds in live weight, during the fattenin.^ period is about 1,500 pounds. 494 APPENDIX. CHANGE OF DIET. Milk cows relish changes of diet, and they prosper on it, when not too laili- cal. But steers while being fattened will be content with the same diet throughout the period. Any radical change is sure to be detrimental. The Ohio station experimented on chang- ing steers from pasturage to stall feed- ing, and vice versa. The change al- ways reduced the rate of per diem in- crease. PROPORTION OF HULLS AND MEAL. The Texas station claims that th3 proportion of hulls and meal for fat- tening steers should be adjusted on the basis of the costs of these feeds, and that the cost of the hulls in a ration should be the same as the cost of the meal. For example, if meal is $20 per ton and hulls $4 per ton, then the aco- nomical ration should be in the pro- portion of twenty pounds of hulls to four pounds of meal, or five to one. These methods of determining the ration seem arbitrary and artificial, and should not be too implicitly fol- lowed. Experience shows that the best re- sults come from beginning with a wide nutritive ratio, say one pound of meal to six or seven pounds of hulls, and gradually narrowing this ratio to- wards the end of the feeding period to four pounds of hulls to one pound of meal. FEEDING UNDER SHELTER OR IN OPEN YARDS. The Kansas station made a number of experiments to determine the dif- ference between feeding cattle con- fined under shelter and feeding them when given liberty in the yard. Their results were somewhat neg- ative, for they could determine no difference in rate of gain under the two conditions; but they discovered that the cattle which were allowed liberty would consume about 12 per cent, more feed than those, in the stalls. These results should not be accepted as conclusive under all conditions. It depends upon the character of the ani- mals themselves, and upon the char- acter of the ground on which they are allowed to run. If the animals are wild and unruly, and are allowed per- fect liberty of action, there will be much fighting and consequent dam- age and loss of flesh. If the ground Is soft and not properly drained, the ani- mals will bog up and lose considerable flesh, on account of the extra exertion in running over such ground. Unruly animals should always be confined in stalls. Tamer animals might be al- lowed some liberty, but should always be provided with shelter which they can reach when they desire. There are some successful feeders In the Southeastern States, who make an open pen on a dry hillside, and in this pen have a large, cheap barn, entirely open at the bottom, so that the cattle may come and go to the feed troughs which are in this building. The upper story of the building is used for tlie storage of feed. In any and all cases, more care should be given to the saving of the manures. The open yard should be kept continually strewn with cut straw, dry leaves or any other absorptive veg- etable matter. Ihis will absorb «.he urine and will be trampled down, and will help conserve all the fertilizing elements. The money and care ex- pended on operating this kind of a fer- tilizer factory will bring better returns than any other department of farm in- dustry. INDEX. A ACCUMULATOR 318, 321 Acid Phosphate 415 Age for Fattening Steers 493 Air Blast for Handling Seed 89 Agricultural Legislation 196 Alabama Dairying 486 Alexander, B. P 210 Amusements on Plantation 62 Appendix 441 Attrition Mills 33:) Automatic (Change Valve 325, 329 B BALING Cotton 36, 40, 89-115 Improvements 71, 98 Bald Headed Seed 9 Barrels for Oil 236, 360 Battery of Gins 89 Baume Hydrometer 353, 434 Bedding Cotton 139 Beef Cattle 372 Bleaching Oil 358 Bloom of Cotton 117,121 Boll of Cotton 120-123 Boll Worm 171 Bolting Chest 341 Boxes for Conveyor 244 Bradford, Wm 12 Breaking Up Lands 139 Breeds Beef Cattle 384, 385 Milk Cattle 388, 391 Butter Cattle 393 Brewei" 11 Bull, Jesse £6 Bulletin, Alabama 486 Burden, Mrs 2 Burglary, AVhi' ney's Shop 24 Butter Cow 393 Butter Making 486 CAKE Cracker 336, 337 Capacity Oil Mill Machinery 343 Care of Cotton Seed 206 CarpetrBag Government 191 Cartwright 1 Cattle Feeding 371-403, 490, 493 Fever 403 Manure 397, 417 Quarantine 403 Shed 373-377 Caustic Soda 350 Certification of Papers By James Madison 15 Whitney Patent 23 Bill of Injunction 25 Holmes Patent 27 Chain Elevator 247 Change Valve on Press 323-331 Change of Diet 494 Chemical Analysis of Oil 345 Of Cotton Plant 407 Of Fertilizers 414 Of Sulphuric Acid 434 Choke Valve on Press 326 Chronology of Cotton 6 Classification and Spin. Qual. Cot- ton 176-181 Classification of Oil 350 INDEX. Cleaning- Cotton Seed 248 Commercial Value of Fertilizer 420 Commission Firms 183 Compress 99 Comptroller's Statement N. C. 484-485 Composition of Feeding Stuffs 492 Fertilizer 413-414 Soils 406 Cotton Seed 204, 214 Sulphuric Acid 434 Continuous Action Gin 31, 76 Conveyors for Seed 243-246 Condenser for Gin 66, 76, 89 Corn Shucking 61 Cost of Oil Mills 234 Acid Chambers 436 Fertilizer Factories 439 Fertilizers 439 Operating Oil Mills 217-221 Operating Acid Chamber 435 Operating Fert. Factories 439 Picking Cotton 162 Cotton. Baling 92-115 Blooms 117 Compress 94, 99 Confiscation 183 Crops 5 Field 157 Gin (See Gin). Harvesting 162, 165 Market ,173 Mills 192 Option 439 Planting 146-150 Planting Syndicate , 189 Planting Machine 135, 149 Picking 161 Picking Machine 165-169 Production per Acre 201 Sampler's Table 179 Season 85 Stalk Cutter 157 Square 117 Values 193 Varieties 116 Yield 125 Cotton-Seed 201-208 Hulls 222 Huller 261-271 I.inter 254-257 Markets 205 Meal 210, 372 Machinery 243 Mills 193-195 Oil 199 D DAIRY Cattle 384 Dairying and Breeding 486 Decree for Injunction 470 Dehorning Cattle 376 Delinting Machinery 225 Depositions in Gin Suits 21 Diet for Cattle 494 Disc Cultivator 155, 161 Disposition of Cotton Seed Products 228, 335 Documents. I. List of Gin Suits 443 II. Whitney's Original Patent.. 444 III. Whitney's Substituted Pat. 444 IV. Letter About Pat. Office Fire 463 V. Bill of Injunction 463 VI. Holmes' Saw Gin Patent.... 471 VII. Phineas Miller's Letter 473 VIII. Whitney's Letter to Steb- bins 474 IX. Abstract S. C. Records 475 X. Message from Gov. of Ga. 478 INDEX. XI. Whitney's Reply to Gov. of Georgia 479 XII. N. C. Law Taxing Gins.... 483 XIII. List of Taxes Collected, N. C 484-485 Domestic Habits on Plantation.... 54 Market for Hulls and Meal 401 Draft on Soil by Cotton 126 Dried Blood 425 Dubrueil 2 Dueling in the South 50 Dust Room in Gin House 93 Dyampert, John C 22 E EARLY Steam Ginnery 4a Fertilizers 405 Education of Negro 49 Textile 194 Elevators for Seed Cotton 82 For Cotton Seed 246 Equipment of Plantation 53 Cotton Pickers 162 Oil Refinery 365 Eve, Dr. Joseph 2 Extent of Plantations 53 Experimental Cotton Picking Ma- chine 167, 169 Export of Cotton Seed Products, 238, 402 F FATTENING Cattle 371 Period 493 Fatty Acids 346 Feeding— Cattle 371, 494 Under Shelter 494 In Open Pens 381, 494 Stuffs 492 Theory 490 Standards 493 General Notes 493 Feed per 100 lbs. gain 493 Feeder for Cotton Gin 66 Fertilizers 125, 405 Fertilizer Manufacture 414 Distributors 130, 141 Mixer 422, 423 Factory 437 Filter Press 336, 355, 361 Filtering Oil 336 Fire in Patent Office 463 Fire Protection 93, 207 First Cotton Seed Oil Mills 210, 213 Former for Cake 300 Forsythe 11 Fort, Arthur 20, 463 Gang Plow 151, 161 Q GIN -Cut Cotton SI House 32, 33, 83, 86, 93 Driven from Below 80 Monopoly Message 478 Roller 2, 10, 72, 73, 178 Saw 2, 3, 9, 31, 71. 80, 444, 471 Patents 9, 444, 471 Invention 9 Ginnery — Compress 98-115 Glue for Barrels 363 Goodrich, Elizur 12, 20, 460 Governor of Georgia 478 Greene, Mrs Nat 11 Grinding C. S. Meal 341 Grading Oils 35^ H HABIT of Cotton Plant 120, 201 Hargreaves. James 1 Harrow 145 INDEX. Handling Cotton 36, £9, 41 Heating of Cotton Seed 207 Heaters for Oil Mills 284-301 Height of Cotton Plant 201 Holmes. Hodgen 2, 20-22, 30,471 Hoeing Cotton 156 Huller Gin 77 Feeder 273 Knives 263 Hulls For Feed 494 For Fuel 222 Hybridizing Cotton 119 Hydraulic Packing 311, 313 Power Pump 333 Press 309, 312, 313 Steam Pump 314, 319 Valves 323-329 IMMIGRATION 185, 196 Improved Ginnery 69, 82 Condition of Farmers 185 Implements 158-161 Insurance Rates 93 Intermittent Gin 30, 76 Introduction 1 Invention of Saw Gin 9, 441 Industrial Renaissance 192 Insect Enemies of Cotton 166-176 Injunction in Gin Suits 463 Infringement Suits 16, 443 JACKSON, Governor of Ga 478 Jefferson, Thomas 12 K KAINIT 416, 425 Kincaid, Jas 320 Knife Grinder 270 Ku-Klux-Klan 63, 191 L LABOR to Operate Gin 40, 44 System on Plantation 52 Saving on Plantation 65 Late Cotton 181 Large Oil Mills 231 Laying Off Cotton Rows 140 Laying By Crops 156-158 Laws of N. C. on Gins 483 Lee, Charles 20 Leguminous Crops 400 Letter, Miller to Whitney 473 Whitney to Stebbins 474 Whitney to Gov. Jackson 479 Pat. Com. to Tompkins 463 Lien Law 184 Lint Cotton 120, 204 Linting Cotton Seed 225,254' Linter Room 259 List of Gin Suits 443 Local ConsumDtion of Cotton 176 Log Rolling 61 Lyons, Nathan 26 M MACHINERY In Oil Mill 213, 215, 237 MacCarthy Roger 22 Madison, James 12, 15 Manufacturing Fertilizers ..'. 414 Acid Phosphate 436 INDEX. Sulphuric Acid 429 . Oil 209 Marketing Cotton 182-186 Cotton Oil Products 228, 335 Martin 210 Management of Oil Mill 221 Manure from Cattle 375 Master and Slave 50 Meal Mill 336, 339 Message of Gov. of Ga 478 Mexican Boll Worm 172 Miller, Phineas 20, 26,473 Milling Process for Oil 248 Miners' Oil 359 Mixing, Fertilizers 416, 421 Modern Ciinnery 68, 93 Screw Press 95 Oil Mill.... 221 Modification of Gins 79 Mold for Hydraulic Packing 315 N NEGRO As a Slave 47 As a Freeman 65 Suffrage 188 New Orleans Oil Mill 210 Nitrogen 411, 425 Nitrate Soda 416, 425 North Car. Purchase Gin Pat., 483-485 Notes on Cattle Feeding 493 Number of Saws in a Gin 79 o OBJECTION to Round Bales. .. .105, lOi) Occupation on Plantation 58 Oil Mills 195. 211, 215, 223, 229 Press '. 309, 312, 313 Refining 345 Old Plantation Gin House 33, 91 Horse Power 3 1 Olmstead, Prof 22 Olive Tree 209 Olein 349, 359 Opens Pens for Cattle 376, 494 Overseer on Plantation 58 P PATENT Office Fire 14. 463 Drawings 17-19 Paris Green for Insects 171 Paraffine for Barrels 363 Pendleton H Petition for Injunction 20,463 Period for Fattening 493 Peruvian Guano 405 Phosphoric Acid 405, 421 Phenolphthalein 346 Pioneer Oil Mills 210 Pickering, Timothy 20 Picking Cotton 161 Plant Food 13» Planting Cotton 146-150 Plantation Home S'''. 65 During War 63 Tools 67 Plows 126, 147 Plowing Cotton 154-156 Pneumatic Accumulator 318 Cotton Elevator 82-87 Political Revolution 68 Portable Ginnery 59 Potash 425 Powell, John 20, 461 Power, Horse 35^37, 44, 65 Press Baling 66, 71, 90-115 Square Bale 94 Round Bale 102-115 For Linters in Oil Mill 40 For Oil 302, 309, 312, 313 INDEX. Cloth ^ 332 Preparation of Barrels 363 Land 136 Cotton for Market 32 Production of Refinery 364 Production and Price of Cotton 5 Products of Cotton Seed 205 Of Cotton Plant 209 Profits of Plantation 52 Of Cotton Culture 196 Of Cattle Raisine- 379 Profitable Size of Oil Mills 228-233 Yield from Dairy 388 Proportion of Hulls and Meal 494 Public Ginnery 67 Pump and Press Connection 331 Purchase of Gin Patents 475, 483 Pyrites 429 Q QUALITY of Cotton Seed..... 207 Of Oil 207 Quantity of Oil in Seed 207 Quarantine Regulations for Cattle 403 R RANDOLPH, Edmund 12, 445, 462 Range of Locality for Cotton 119 Raw Material for Fertilizers 425 Receiving Seed at Mill 248 Refining Cotton Oil 345 Replanting Cotton 152-154 Restoration of Lands 192 Of Political Order 192 Revolving Box Press 93 Riding Cultivator 153, 155 Right Angle Conveyor Drive 245 Right or Left Hand Gin 79 Roller Gin 2, 10, 72, 178 Rolls for Oil Mill 276 Rotation of Crops 409 Round Bales 102-115 Royalty on Gins 28, 475, 483-486 SAW Gin 2, 3, 9-31, 71-80 Sampling Cotton 182 Oil 350 Sand and Boll Screen 249-253 Scooter Plow 131 Screening C. S. Meal 341 Screw Press 32, 40 Seabrook, W. B 20 Sea Island Cotton 9, 204 Sectional Rib Gin 79 Seed Cotton 120 Seed for Planting 149-150 Seed Magnified 203 Selection of Seed 178 Separating Screen 272 Conveyor 275 Sheep Raising 398 Shelter for Cattle 494 Shipment of Oil 360 Shovel Plow 131 Silicate of Soda 360 Size and Shape of Bales 89 Slave Labor 32, 47 Slave Loyalty 188 Slave Quarters 57 Small Oil Mills 231 Soap Stock 357 Soil for Cotton 125 Soil Requirements 410 Solubility of Fertilizers 415 South Carolina Gin Rights 475 Spectacular Cattle Fattening 371 Speed of Oil Mill Machinery 343 Spinning Jenny 1 Spinning Wheel 55 Spinning Quality of Cotton 176 INDEX. Splenetic Fever 403 Square Bale Ginnei-y Compress 9S Square of Cotton 117, 120 Stalk Cutter 157, 161 Standards for Feeding 493 Stearin 349. 359 Steam Cake Former 303 Steam Ginnery 43, 45. 59, 69, 82, 83, 86, S7, 93 Steam Coils in Tanks 236 Storage of Seed Cotton 85 Of Cotton Seed 206, 226-228 Stebbins, Jos 20, 21 Substituted Patent 444 Sub-Soiling Plow 135, 147 Suction Fan Gin 85 Suits for Infringement 443 Sulphuric Acid 358, 431 Sulphate of Ammonia 412, 425 Sulky Plow 153 1 Summary of Gin Evidence 28 Sweep, Plow 131, 133. 154 System of Agriculture 51 Sylvanit 425 TABLES I. Production and Price of Cot- ton 5 II. Chronology of Cotton 6 III. Estimated Value Cotton Picking Machine 166 IV. Distribution Profits in Cot- ton Manufacturing 194 V. Value of N. C. Cotton Crop if Manufactured 195 VI. Product from 1 ton Seed in Early Oil Mills 217 VII. Product from 1 Ton Seed in Present Oil Mills 218 VIII. Product from 1 Ton Seed in Present Oil Mills 219 IX. Product from 1 Ton Seed in Present Oil Mills 220 X. Product from 1 Ton Seed in Present Oil Mills 221 XI. Value of Seed from Ten Mil- lion Bales Cotton 224 XII. Cost of Oil Mills 234 XIII. Seed Crushed and Value of Products 242 XIV. Speed and Capacity of Conveyor for Seed 246 XV. Speed and Capacity of Oil Mill Machinery 343 XVI. Chem. Analysis Cotton Plant 407 XVII. Quantity Fertilizer Nec- essary 409 XVIII. Commerc'l Sources Fert. Chemicals 413 XIX. Composition of Feeding Stuffs 492 XX. Feeding Standards 493 Tankage 425 Tank Cars 236 Tanks for Oil Mills 335 Tatternall, Gov 2 Tax on Gins 484-485 Tenant System 67, 186, 191 Texas Fever 403 Ginnery 87 Oak Cotton 119 Theory of Cattle Feeding 490 Thermometer for Heaters 287 Thinning Out Cotton 149 Transportation and Uses of Cotton Seed Oil 235 Cotton Seed Meal 239 Cotton Seed Hulls 241 Fertilizers 415 Treatment of Whitney in the South 24 Triple Heater 297-301 Turn Plow 133, 147 Types of Slaves 48 INDEX. Good Beef Steer 385 Scrub Beef Steer 389 Good Milk Cow 391 Good Butter Cow 393 Scrub Milk Cow 395 u UNIFORM Length of Staple 177 Union League 191 Unreliability of Negro 191 Upland Cotton 9, 204 V VALUATION of Products of Plan- tion 54 Value in Cotton Seed 195 Oil Mill Products 232 Hujls and Meal 372 w WASHINGTON, George 12, 20, 445, 462, 472 Washing Oil 356 Walking Cultivator 151. 161 Weight of Cotton Seed 202 Wet Cotton Seed 207 Cotton 81 Mix Fertilizer 438 White Supremacy 64 Whitney, Eli, 2, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 24, 29, 429, 444, 474 Winter Oil 359 Wooden Screw Press 90 Work Required on Cotton 158 TTFLD of Cotton Plant 12» Oil from Seed 214-221 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. (otton Mill Processes and (diculatlons. 312 Pages. 52 Original Illustrations. PRICE, S5.00. This is a book for the Mill Superintendent, the Overseer, and. tha Student who wants to learn the details of the business of running a cotton mill. It is written in simple style, and without the use of algebra. Anyone who understands the simple rules of arithmetic, may easily master it. It is profusely illustrated with original drawings. IRotices of tbc pixee. Cotton Mill Processes and Calculations is in every respect a notable work. * * No man is better qualified to utilize experience and profit by its lessons than Mr. Tompkins. * * From our acquaintance with his remarkable faculty of making- a difficult subject seem clear and simple, we feel safe in predicting- that his book will find ready sale. — Norfolk Landmark. Destined to make its impress, and that for g-ood and usefulness, upon the young men of the South especially. — Raleigh Post. One of the best books ever published in the South. * * A perfect elemen- tary text-book. * * This book may be said to mark a milepost in the industrial history of North Carolina. — Raleigh News and Observer. A book of inestimable value to any and every one engaged in the manufac- ture of cotton. * * Mr. Tompkins has rendered an invaluable service to the cotton manufacturing- industry. * * — Wilniington Star. Nothing more timely in character has appeared in years, and beneficent prac- tical results cannot fail to accrue therefrom. * * While this splendid work is designed chiefly to meet the demands of textile schools, it may also prove of paramount service to every one interested, either directly or indirectly, in the manufacture of cotton. * * Mr. Tompkins writes not from the mercenary impulse of one who merely wants to make mone)'. * * — Atlanta Constitution Mr. Tompkins understands cotton manufacture, and his book will meet a demand that has long been felt in the South. * * It embodies the results of both scientific study and practical experience. — Atlanta Journal. Mr. Tompkins treats cotton manufacturing from a new standpoint, i. e., letting daylight through the whole subject. He has evidently gone to great expense. * * An invaluable work for the 3'oung man learning the mill business, as well as a comprehensive guide to the overseer and superintendent. — Textile Excelsior. Order from D. A. TOMPKINS, Charlotte, N. C. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. (otton Mill (ominerdal MWa 240 Pages. 70 Original Illustrations. PRICE. $5.00. This. is a book for the prospective investor. It discusses in detail all the points that are raised in organizing a new mill. It shows the cost of mills of various kinds. It elaborates the plans for organizing companies and for raising capital. It shows how to keep mill accounts and reports. It shows cost of production for all the common kinds of goods manufactured in the South. It shows how goods are sold by the mills. It gives advice about location and surroundings. It discusses textile education, and shows how a young man should proceed to learn the cotton mill business. It is profusely illustrated with original drawings and fine half-tones made expressly for this work. This book was written as an answer to large numbers of letters, enquir- ing about the steps necessary to organize and build a new mill. There are so many factors which enter into a conscientious answer to the question that nothing short of a book could give a comprehensive answer. '• Cotton Mill Commercial Features " gives the answer in every detail. Order from D. A. TOMPKINS, Charlotte, N. C. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. mmrn mmn ITS EXPANSION. 154 Pages. PRICE, $1.00. J HIS is a collection of addresses and pamphlets relating to the extension ^ of foreign markets for American manufactures. The cotton factories of the United States, and, indeed, most other industries which have reached ^n advanced stage of growth, are now manufacturing more goods than can possibly be consumed in our home markets. It is, therefore, necessary for the maintenance of our present position that we reach out for the markets of the world. How much more necessary is it, when we are continually ■building factories! The nations of the world either progress or go backward. If we are to progress, we must learn to cater to foreign markets. The book is a discussion of the ways and means for accomplishing these ends. All manufacturers should be interested in it. Order from D. A. TOMPKINS, Charlotte, N. C. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. /^a ile fabrki PRICE, $2.50. I HIS is a collection of actual samples of cloth, with descriptive matter ^ and data, showing cost per yard and per pound. These costs are then tabulated in a way to show what the average cotton crop of the State of Xorth Carolina would bring if manufactured into the various kinds of goods shown. When this crop of 500,000 bales was sold as raw cotton, at an average value of 6 cents per pound, the total income to the people of the State from this source was $15,000,000. But now that a large part of this crop is being turned into various manufactured products, it is a matter of interest to speculate on the real possibilities of the case. The cheapest sample shown in this collection is common heavy Duck,, which sells for 14 cents per pound. If the whole 500,000-bale crop were manufactured into this goods and sold at that price, the income would be $35,000,000 instead of $15,000,000. Other samples and figures show that there is an easy possibility of five billion dollars in a half million bale crop, if sufficient skill and industry are brought to bear on the subject. This book does not enter into methods of developing the skill and industry, but merely points out what immense resources are latent in cot- ton. Other books by this author show how the work may be accomplished. Order from D. A. TOMPKINS, Charlotte, N. C. ii^y^. gJJJjRV OF CONGRESS