Class" r ' ' ' J " Book L / GREEK GRAMMAR, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN V. CHRISTIAN FRED, ROST. AN APPENDIX ON GREEK VERSIFICATION, LONDON: WHITTAKER, TREACHER, AND ARNOT, AVE-MARIA LANE. 1829, ^4- LONDON : PRINTED BY R. GILBERT, st. John's square. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGE §. 1. Grammar. — Language in general 1 §. 2. Dialects of the Greek Language • 3 I. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. Character 's, Pronunciation, and division of the letters. §. 3. Greek characters of writing 9 §. 4. Pronunciation of the letters ••• 10 §. 5. Division of the consonants • 12 §. 6. Division of the vowels. — Diphthongs 14 CHAPTER II. Investigation of points which are to be observed in reading. 7. Breathings • 17 8. Prosody • • 18 9. Nature and signs of the accents 45 1 0. Position of the accents • 47 11. Change of the accents 52 12. Recession of the accent, &c. 54, 1 3. Marks of reading • • . 57 1 4. Division of syllables • 58 A % iv CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Change of the letters. PAGE §. 15. General rules upon the change of consonants 60 §. 16. Change of mutes before p. • * 66 §, 17. — _ — before a • ib. §. IS. • of v 67 §. 19. Transposition and reduplication of consonants • • • • 68 §. 20. Change of vowels • • • » • • • 70 §. 21. Contraction >•• •• 73 §. 22. Crasis — Synezesis — Elision — Aphaeresis, and ap- pended v ♦....» ., 76 CHAPTER IV. Developement and illustration of the parts of speech. $}. 23. General definition of the different kinds of words* • 81 §. 24. The noun, and the kinds of words connected therewith 82 §. 25. Verb • 83 §. 26. Adverb '• • • • ib. §. 27. Particles • • 84 k. 28. Interjection • • 85 CHAPTER V. The Nouriy according to all its parts. A. Substantive. Gender ••••••...... 86 Declension • • • « ••*• 88 Declension of the article •••••••• 89 First declension .......... 90 Second declension • 99 Contracted second declension • • • 104 Attic declension ••••••• 106 §. 29. t' 30. §« 31. §. 32. ^. 33. !• 34. §. U. CONTENTS. v PAGE V 36. Gender in the third declension • • 107 §. 37. Accent in the third declension 109 §. 38. Inflexion of the third declension 113 §. 39. Synopsis of all the terminations of nominatives of the third declension, with the formation of the genitives • 115 §. 40. Paradigms to the third declension ••'••• 123 ^. 41 — 45. Contracted third declension • • • • « . • 130 §. 46. Anomalous substantives of the third declension* • • • 137 §. 47. Irregular and defective declension • 139 B. Adjectives and Participles. §. 48. Peculiarities of the adjective <»••• • 145 §. 49*. Terminations of adjectives • 154 §. 49 b . Declension of adjectives •••••• 159 §. 50. Participles 1 65 §. 51 — 54. Degrees of comparison • • 166 CHAPTER VI. §. 55. and 56. Of numerals 176 CHAPTER VII. Pronouns. §. 57- and 58. Division and declension of pronouns •••• 181 §. 59. Correlatives • • 188 §. 60. Lengthened forms of pronouns 190 CHAPTER VIII. The Verb, according to all its parts. §. 61. Idea and properties of the verb 191 §. 62. Conjugation 194 §. 63. The constituent parts of verbal forms 195 §. 64. Verbal terminations, and their annexation to the root 196 §. 65—68. Doctrine of the augment .... , 198 §. 69. Root and characteristic of verbs. ...»...* 209 vi CONTENTS. FAQS §. 70. Discovery of the root 210 §. 71. Classes of verbs ino> . 213 §. 72. Affinity of the tenses to each other 220 §. 73 a . Peculiarities in the formation of single tenses .... 221 §. 73 b . Paradigms , 226 §. 74. Use of verbal forms ; • 232 §. 75. Properties of -the different dialects ', 233 §; 76.- Position and*change of the accent in verbal forms. . 245 §. 77. Oontracted conjugation in w 247 §. 78—80. Conjugation in /«. . 265 §.81. Verbal adjectives. „ 284 §. 82. Cause of anomaly in verbs 285 §. 83. Defective verbs 289 §. 84. Catalogue of irregular and defective verbs , « . 290 CHAPTER IX. §. 85. Lesser parts of speech. . 330 §. 86. Formation of adverbs 331 §. 87. Degrees of comparison of adverbs 335 §. 88. Prepositions, conjunctions, interjections 336 APPENDIX. §. 89—95. On the formation of Greek words. ,«.•••••• 338 II. SYNTAX. §. 96. Introduction 347 CHAPTER I. Nouns by themselves, and in combination with other nominal forms. §. 97. Preliminary remark .-. • . 348 §. 98. Use of the article . , . 349 f.' 99. Peculiarities in the use of pronouns ............ 355 10 CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER II. Noun in combination with the verb, and with other words, upon which it appears as dependent. PAGE §. 100. Combination of the subject with the predicate and copula « • • 364 §. 101. Apposition 369 §. 102. Object . . . . 370 §. 103. Illustration of the relations designated by the cases 371 §. 104. Use of the accusative S73 §. 105. and 106. Use of the dative -.. 384 §. 107—110. Use of the genitive 392 §. 110 b . Observations on the use of the oblique cases. ... 414? CHAPTER III. The Verb, according to all its parts. §. 111. Kinds of verbs 416 §. 112. Passive ib. §. 113.andll4. Middle 419 §. 115. General observations upon certain verbs 425 §. 116. and 117. Signification and use of the tenses.,., .. 428 §. 118. Idea of the different modes 439 §. 119. Use of the indicative, conjunctive, and optative in simple propositions 440 §. 120 — 123. Use of the indicative, conjunctive, and op- tative in dependent propositions 443 §. 124. Imperative 467 §. 125. Simple use of the infinitive 469 §. 126. Accusative with the infinitive 476 §. 127. Attraction in the infinitive* • • • 479 CHAPTER IV. Use of the Participle and of the Cases absolute. §• 128. Participle in general • • 483 §. 129. Participle in dependent propositions* • • • • • ib. viii CONTENTS. PAGE § s ISO. Participle in intermediate propositions* • ........ 489 §. 131. Cases absolute • • 493 CHAPTER V. On the use of Particles. §. 13£. Idea and division of the particles •• - 498 §. 138. ye, Tcp, h) * 499 §. 134. jccu'j re, fxivi Bi •» 501 §. 1 85. Negatives **<>* * 506 APPENDIX. On Greek versification *... ... 513 Index— Greek and English • • • •• * 444 Page ERRATA, 2, line 26, for diaXjf/crof read didXeicroi 32, — 10, — Xapog — Xapdf 42, — 3, — . x°pv vr l — Kopvvr] 44, — 18, — Trvyr) — . -Kvyi] ib. — 19, • — vyrj ■ — v\t] 77, — 7, — ovfiog • — ovfxog 126, — 8, — 7]S — n? 202, — 25 ; , 26, — the augment — no augment 23G, — 21, — of ! \u)vzq, to 'lam/cov) chiefly extended them- selves. Each of these tribes cultivated an inde- pendent and peculiar character in language, as well as in manners and mode of life, and after DIALECTS. O their names we denominate the two principal dia- lects, the Doric (fi Atopic, Ao>pt/o7 cmAa/croe) and the IoniC (J) lac, 'ItJViKrj SiaAe/croc). 4. The Dorians, the most powerful of the Hel- lenic tribes, preserved their dialect, which was widely diffused as the common language in Hellas Proper and the colonies, pure from foreign inter- mixture, but did little for the particular advance- ment of their language. Hence the Doric dialect exhibits the most harshness in its forms of words, and a flatness of tone, from the frequent use of the dull sound A (7rXar£ta<7juoe). Besides this dia- lect, the Aeolic also (rj 'AioA/c, AloXucri SiaAt/crot;) was formed according to the model of antiquity, and had many peculiarities in common with the Doric, whence it was considered as a refined collateral form of the same, cultivated particularly for the use of the poets. Note 4. The Doric and Aeolic dialects became and continued to be the language of lyric and bucolic poetry. The character of the Doric is most purely expressed in the odes of Pindar ; while those of Alcaeus, Sappho, and Corinna, exhibit rather the Aeolic mode. The Doric is purer in the idyls of Theocritus. In the lyric parts of the Attic tragedies also an approach to the sound of the Doric dialect has been preserved. Fragments of the Pythagorean philosophy furnish the only specimens of Doric prose. Note 5. Besides these, several dialects sprung up in the mouth of the people, as individual varieties of the generally diffused Doric dialect. But their peculiar character is, for the most part, known only from insulated expressions and short sentences, which are adduced in historians and comic poets. The most celebrated and extensive of them are the Laconic, Boeotic, and Thessalic dialects, and next to these the Sicilic. 5. The lonians, driven from their settlements by the Dorians, betook themselves principally to INTRODUCTION. Attica, and, when that barren country was un- able to support the multitude of inhabitants, to the opposite coast of Asia. Under the mild cli- mate of Lesser Asia, the form of their language became mild and soft, and nearly allied to the Epic. Thus was developed the Ionic dialect, whose principal character is a softness of expression, ac- quired from the frequency of vowels and the so- lution of harsh syllables by interposed sounds. Herodotus and Hippocrates wrote in this dialect. Note 6. The numerous peculiarities common to the Ionic with the Epic dialect have occasioned the latter also to be deno- minated Ionic : although with this distinction, that the appellation of Old Ionic is given to the Epic ; but to the Ionic that of New Ionic, 6. The language of the lonians, who remained behind in Attica, proceeded differently in its formation ; and hence arose a new dialect, the Attic, which observed an intermediate course be- tween the Doric harshness and Ionic softness, adopting a perfect rotundity in its forms of words, and the greatest pliancy in their construction. The political consequence and the high pitch of intellectual culture to which Athens arrived gave a wide circulation to this dialect ; and the consi- derable number of eminent writings which are composed in it, and have been preserved, deter- mine it for the ground-work in the study of Greek literature. Note 7. The most celebrated works written in the flourish- ing period of the Attic language and culture are, the historical books of Thucydides, the historical and philosophical writings of Xenophon, the philosophical books of Plato, and the orations DIALECTS. 7 of Demosthenes, Lysias, Isocrates, Aeschines, &c. ; besides the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes. 7. That peculiarity, which the single Grecian states had preserved in language and manners, disappeared with the general decline of their free- dom. Athens, however, for a long time continued the chief seat of liberal information ; and the Attic dialect, as the purest and most widely diffused, became the court language of the now ruling Ma- cedonians, and by degrees the general language of writing and of the people. Hence it neces- sarily followed, that much of the old peculiarity of this dialect was sacrificed, and many innovations introduced in expression and inflexion. This lan- guage, formed on the basis of the Attic dialect, is comprehended under the name of the general or Hellenic dialect (rj koivyi or 'EXXqvi/ci) SiaXe/croe). The authors of this period, however, endeavoured to exhibit the Attic dialect pure and uncorrupted, according to the early models, although many peculiarities of more modern times are inter- spersed in their writings ; hence their style has received the appellation of the later Attic. Note 8. Writers of this class are, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Pausanias, Apollodorus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Strabo, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Lucian, Aelian, Arrian, &c. 8. In Macedonia the Greek language was min- gled with much foreign alloy ; and, thus corrupted, it spread itself, with the extension of the Macedo- nian empire, over other barbaric nations.— Ma- cedonic dialect. Alexandria, in Egypt, was the 8 INTRODUCTION. colony of liberal information under the Mace- donian rulers ; there a circle of learned men assembled together, and made it their chief study to preserve the purity of the genuine Attic dialect by rejecting all modern accessions, although their style also fell short of the ancient models. But the Greek language underwent a peculiar refor- mation by the translators of the Old and the authors of the New Testament, who designated, by Greek expressions, things of oriental concep- tion and application. As this style occurs only in the Scriptures and some Christian writers, it may be called the ecclesiastical dialect. 9. By degrees the old Greek language, under the influence of various causes, so far degenerated in the mouth of the people, and was deformed by so much heterogeneous admixture, that it gave rise to the new Greek, which has almost entirely ex- changed the primitive character of the old for that of more modern tongues, and still continues in an- cient Greece as the language of the country. The writers of later times, however, constantly endea- voured in their works to preserve the pure Greek language, for which the Attics of the flourishing period served them as models. FIRST PART. ETYMOLOGY CHAPTER I. Characters, Pronunciation, and Division of the Letters, *■+■**■*•*■+ *-r^*^*+-*-* *■ %z. GREEK CHARACTERS OF WRITING r A, a, "AAtf>a, Alpha, a. b, p, e, Brira, Beta, b. r, y , r, YafXfia, Gamma, g- A, 8, AtXra, Delta, d. E, e, *E \fl\6v, E psilon, e. 1,1, ZrjTa, Zeta, z. H, n, *Hra, Eta, e, ee 9, 9, 0, Brira, Theta, th. I,«, Iwra, Iota, i. K, K, Ka7T7ra, Kappa, k, c. A,X, Aa|u(3Sa, Lambda, 1. M, ^ Mv, Mu, m. N, v, Nv, Nu, n. B,J, St, Xi, X. O, o, *0 jUlKpOV, Omicron, o, ft,*, n? ? Pi, P> 10 ETYMOLOGY. p, p, 'PlO, Rho, r. 2, (t, g, Xiypa, Sigma, s. T, r, 1, Tav, Tau, t. Y, v, Y \pi\ov, U psilon, u. <&, 4>, X> Xt, Chi, ch. % 1, *r, Psi, ps. Q, h), Q jLiiya. mega, O, 00 Note 1. The given two-fold mode of writing some consonants is used arbitrarily, except in the case of sigma. a stands only at the beginning or in the middle ; g only at the end of a word, or in compounds at the end of a syllable, e. g. Svgtvx>ISi 7rpoc^tpw, on the contrary tcktg-u}. Note 2. To promote expedition in writing, recourse was had to the union of such letters as frequently occur next each other into one character. Hence arose a variety of abbreviations, which were transferred from the Greek manuscripts into the earliest editions ; but gradually declined in use, and in the late editions have wholly disappeared. §4. PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS. 1. The chief difficulty is experienced in deter- mining the pronunciation of the vowels, particu- larly of diphthongs formed by the union of two vowels, because these vary their sound according to the difference of periods or dialects. To this change the obscure sounds a and o, and the clear t and £, are least subject, because the simple and determinate tone with which they are pronounced admits of no approximation to that of any other. PRONUNCIATION. 11- The remaining vowels and diphthongs, however, were variously pronounced, and principles for each mode of pronunciation advanced and de- fended. This took place on the revival of the sciences in the sixteenth century, particularly between Erasmus and Reuchlin, according to whom the two modes of pronunciation have been designated by the terms Erasmian and Reuchlinian. Note. The Erasmian pronunciation proceeds upon the prin- ciple that every simple vowel ought to be pronounced with a peculiar sound ; but every diphthong by a mixed sound, in which the two fundamental vowels are heard as distinctly as possible. Hence, although it fails in many points to give the true pronunciation of the ancient Greeks, it, nevertheless, is adapted, by its perspicuity and definiteness, for the purposes of instruction, and with much propriety has now been universally introduced. According to the pronunciation of Reuchlin, r\ sounds as long t, at as ai (in the English word pain J, the sounds ei, oi, and vi 9 like i, are pronounced as i (in the English machine J 9 and v, after a and e, as/. This mode of pronunciation, although supported by the modern Greek, offends against perspicuity by confounding different letters in the same sound, and is therefore less suitable for instruction. 2. For the correct pronunciation of single con- sonants, the following must be observed : y before another y, and before k, ^, $, is a gut- tural and nasal sound at the same time, and to be pronounced like n in the words sing, s'mk, and the like ; thus, ayysXoc (angelos), avyKowr) (syncope), tyX og (en-chos), XapuyS (larynx). I is not to be pronounced as sharp as our (the German) z (resembling ts), but like a soft d pass- ing gently into the sound s. r\ forms the long sound for a as well as for e. According to this, therefore, it ought sometimes 12 ETYMOLOGY. to be pronounced like ee, sometimes like at (re- sembling long a in cane) ; it seems, however, that, in the pronunciation of it by the Greeks, the clearer tone was always made to predominate, and consequently that it should be pronounced throughout like our ee; e. g. S//o? (dikee). 3, a t with a strong breathing, resembles in sound the lisping th of the English in the word thick. i is invariably a vowel, and must never be pro- nounced like our j ; e. g. iafifiog (i-ambos), 'Imvikoq (i-onikos). k sounds before all vowels like the English k. n must never be pronounced with a hissing sound, like the Latin ti, when followed by a vowel ; but the t sound ought to be heard purely ; e. g. AlyvwTiot (Aigyptioi, not Aigypshioi). (?X is always to be uttered separately, like the English sch in school, not in schism ; e. g. ioyui (es-cho). §5. DIVISION OF THE CONSONANTS. 1. According to their nature, the letters are resolved into two classes : (a) vowels, which afford a complete and distinct sound of themselves ; and (b) consonants, which afford a complete and dis- tinct sound only in combination with a vowel. CONSONANTS. 13 2. Each of these two classes of letters is again resolved into several subdivisions. The conso- nants are distinguished : i. According to the organ chiefly employed in their pronunciation, into (a) labials (labiales) — /3, ir, , p. (b) linguals (linguales)— $, S, r, X, v, p, a. (c) palatines (palatinae)— -y, k, ^. ii. According to certain peculiarities evinced in their pronunciation, into (a) semivowels (semivocales), whose sound can be pretty distinctly perceived without the acces- sion of a vowel. These are X, p, v, p, and a, whereof the four first, X, /u, v, and p, have also the particular denomination of liquids (liquidae), be- cause in pronunciation they easily flow into other sounds. (b) mutes, (mutae), whereof no distinct sound can be produced without an acceding vowel. These, again, are resolved into three subdivisions, and that in a two-fold respect. They are allied together, namely, (a) according to their fundaynen- tal sounds, as P sounds 7r, j3, <£- — K sounds k, y, % — and T sounds r, S, S; (|3) according to the man- ner of pronunciation, being pronounced either sharp and without the mixture of a breathing, or with a rough breathing, or with a softened breath- ing. Hereto refer the appellations tenues (i//iXa, unaspirated), ?r, k, t. aspiratae ( $• 14 ETYMOLOGY. mediae (^a, middle, pronounced with a soften- ed breathing), j3, y, 8. in. To these simple consonants are joined the double consonants : Z, formed from cV or (to\ £, — y<7, kg, ya> ^ „-*.,- |3 w » mow a 7, v, 2. The vowels are combined in a variety of ways, two and two together, into one sound, and hence are formed the diphthongs. If we wish to VOWELS.— DIPHTHONGS. 1 5 pronounce these correctly, we must accustom our- selves, as much as possible, to cause both vowels to be heard combined in one sound. They are the following : — ai to be pronounced ai. « . — _ __ ei. 01 — „_ oi. vi . ui (v pronounced long, and echoed by t short). Note 2. From remarking that the Latins use ae for the Greek at and oe for oi, the inference has been drawn that these sounds must correspond with the German a and o. On the contrary, however, it is to be observed, that the Latins did not pronounce ae and oe with a sound as independent as that of our (the Ger- man) a and o, but caused the component parts of which these are formed to be heard more distinctly, so that the fundamental sounds a and o were heard with the echo of e, as, in the Greek diphthongs a and o, with the echo of i ; by which, indeed, the sounds of the two approximated very nearly to each other. Note 3. ov, as an indication of the long u, is a diphthong in respect to composition only, not to sound. For in Greek the short u had no appropriate character, and its sound was repre- sented in many cases by o, in others by v. When the long sound of this kind was required to be expressed, those two characters were united, and hence arose the form ov. Note 4. wv is a diphthong occurring only in the Ionic dialect. In its accurate pronunciation, the long O sound must precede and be echoed by a short u. 3. From those proper we yet distinguish in the Greek language three improper diphthongs, viz. the vowels a, rj, to, with a subscript t, thus — a, y, 2 16 ETYMOLOGY. w. Originally, these sounds were closely allied to m, a, ot, and only so distinguished, that, in the latter, a, t, and o, were sounded of the same length with the i ; while, in the former, the long sound of a, e, and 6, preceded, and the i merely followed as a short echo. This accurate pro- nunciation, however, appears to have been lost at an early period even among the Greeks, them- selves, and therefore at present we pronounce «, y t to, in the same way as a, r?, a>; and the underwritten iota serves as a mere grammatical sign for determining the derivation and for dis- tinguishing the forms. Note 5. Originally the t, even in these improper diphthongs, was written by the side of the other sound, and in the use of capitals this practice still obtains : thus we write #£r?e, buf'At^c (lower world) ; Vi but '£tc<^ (song), &c. BREATHINGS. 17 CHAPTER II. Investigation of Points, which are to be observed in Reading. §7. BREATHINGS. 1. Every vowel or diphthong, which is pro- nounced without a letter preceding it, is necessa- rily connected with a breathing, (spiritus, irvcu/ua). This is either smooth or rough, and consequently every word beginning with a vowel or diphthong must be pronounced with one of these two breathings. 2. The signs made use of for these breathings are, for the rough ( € ) (irvzvpa , in the middle, with the spir, lenis and spir. asper — pp ; because the sound of this consonant cannot be produced without an audible breathing. Note. Originally, the rough breathing had alone a sign, namely, H, but the smooth remained unmarked. Afterwards, that sign was divided into two halves, and the first half I used to denote the spir, asper ; the second -i the spir, lenis. By a subsequent abbreviation of these two were formed |_ an ^ J which finally changed into ( ' ) and ( * ), the signs now in use. P R O S O D Y 1. Prosody is the doctrine of the quantity of syllables. 2. Every syllable requires, according to its pe- culiar nature, a longer or shorter time for its pro- nunciation ; that is, it is either long (jiaizpa, longa), or short (j3pa^«a, brevis). Note. As a measure for the short syllable, it is usual to take the least possible portion of time, in which a sound can be ut- tered ; the double of this time gives the measure of the long. MEASURE. OF SYLLABLES. 19 3 Intermediate between the long and short stand those syllables which, from their nature, are neither decidedly long nor short. Such a syl- lable of undetermined measure is called arbitrary, or doubtful, (koiv/j, anceps). 4. The signs used in grammar for the measure of syllables are, a straight line (~) over the vowel for the long; a semicircle ( w ) for the short; and the union of these two (") for the undetermined measure. 5. If the measure of a syllable depends partly and principally upon the nature of the vowels, the syllable is long or short by nature ; but if upon the combination of the vowels with conso- nants, it is long or short by position. 6. The natural measure of a syllable can be de- termined from a knowledge of the measure of the vowels (see § 6). Hence arise the following rules : (a) A syllable, in which one of the long vowels y) or w stands, is long ; e. g. yvwpn rjpwc. (b) Every syllable is long, which contains a diphthong, whether proper or improper (see § 6.) ; €. g. euSuc, koivoq, aioyjpoQy a$u), Aoxuv. (c) Every combination of two vowels into one sound renders the syllable naturally long ; e. g. a.K(s)v for azKWV, Ipog for Itpog, OTayvq for arayvtQ OX ara-^vag. (d) A syllable containing one of the short vowels £ or o, is short, if the short vowel is fol- lowed by another* vowel, or by a simple conso- nant ; e. g. pXoc> Seoc. c2 20 PROSODY. Nole. Exceptions from these fundamental rules, allowed to the poets for the formation of verse, belong to the metrical art, and are therefore omitted here. 7. But a syllable with a short vowel becomes long by position ; that is, when the short vowel is. followed by a double consonant, or by two or three consonants ; e. g. roajri^a, t£w, tyov, op-yri, Exception. A syllable, whose vowel is short, is not made long by a mute with a liquid ; that is, when the short vowel is followed by two conso- nants, of which the first is a mute (see §5. 2. b), « W 4> and the second a liquid ; e.g. ntTrXog, tUvov, wqtjlioq, QK^irf, /3orpi>£. Note. When one of the three doubtful vowels, a, t, v t pre- cedes a mute with a liquid, it must first be decided whether this is of itself long or short ; since it is evident that a vowel of itself long cannot become short before a mute with a liquid. Hence, e. g. £Trd$\ov (from a$\ov instead of ae$\or), fxr/vvrpov, and the like, remain long. 8. But the given exception is again subject to several limitations, and a mute with a liquid forms a true position. (a) when the mute and liquid meet together in compounds ; e.g. kXaVw (from e/c and XaVw). (b) when a middle letter, j3, y, or $, is followed by one of the three liquids X, p, v. Thus, the short vowel is lengthened, e. v g. in XtXi-y/icu, /3i'gXoc, euo Note. The old Epic writers generally use those syllables, in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with a liquid, as long. They shorten them only in words that cannot otherwise be adapted to the measure of the verse, particularly where mtites, MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 21 with the exception of y, are succeeded by p, as also before k\ 9 ■ttX, rX, and %X. With the Attics, on the contrary, such syllables (excepting the cases adduced above under b) are almost invari- ably short. 9. In determining the right measure of syllables in Greek words, the chief difficulty is occasioned by the doubtful vowels a, i, and v, which of them- selves are of undetermined measure. It must be observed generally respecting them, that in a de- finite word the measure of the doubtful letter is also definite, consequently either only long or only short ; moreover, that the usual measure of a syllable is short, and must be assumed as such in all cases where it is not known to be long from other laws. 10. In order to give a complete and clear synop- sis of the several cases, in which the doubtful vowels are used long, regard must first be paid to that syllable of a word in which the doubtful vowel occurs. We commence herein with the final syllable, and pass on from it to the penulti- mate and antepenultimate. Next, to investigate the particulars more accurately, we distinguish between the different classes of words, and speak first of the length of doubtful vowels in declen- sion ; then in conjugation and indeclinables. Fi- nally, when several cases follow one common analogy, they are comprehended under a general rule ; on the other hand, those words, in which the doubtful vowel is long contrary to the analogy obtaining in similar ones, are singly and com- pletely enumerated. 1 1 . But as the position. of the accent determines 22 PROSODY. in many instances the measure of doubtful vowels, we must premise thereon the following general rules : (a) every doubtful vowel, which is marked with a circumflex, is by nature long ; e. g. Xaag, Igoq, (b) if an acute accent stands on the penultimate of polysyllabic words, which have a doubtful vowel in the final syllable, the doubtful vowel is long ; e. g. /BacrtAaa, cro^ta. (c) if a circumflex stands on the penultimate, or an acute on the antepenultimate, the doubtful vowel in the final syllable is short ; e. g. x^ u «> (d) in like manner, the doubtful vowel in the penultimate is short, if it have an acute, and the final syllable be also short ; e. g\ 7roAAa/ac, t'ktiq, kXvgiq* 12. All the rest are classed together in the fol- lowing synopsis, according to the single letters a, i, v. Beginning with a, the cases are first enu- merated, in which this vowel is used long in the different syllables of words. FIRST SECTION. Long a in Greek Words. A. Long a in the final syllable. The terminations, whose quantity is here to be determined, are «, «v, ap, and ac MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 23 I. The termination a. 1. The termination a in the nominative of the first declension, is long (a) invariably in words accented upon the last syllable, and generally in those which have an acute upon the penultimate ; e. g. \xva, irapua, X^pa. Those, on the contrary, which have an acute on the antepenultimate, or a circumflex on the penultimate, are without exception short ; as, fxepijuva, &C. (b) a is also long in the following terminations of words of the first declension : (a) without ex- ception in aa, ea, oa, va, and am ; €. g. eXaa, 7rreXea, Sea, 7roa, oW, Kapva, aXwa : (/3) with the exceptions noticed below, it is long also in aia, ua, m, oia, and pa', 6.g. yaXyvaia, Xda, Trai^ua, (piXici^ ayia, ^poia, aXXoia, avpa, yjopa, yjjtiEpa. Exceptions : Of words in aia, all dissyllables, and some polysyllabic proper names, are short in the final syllable ; e. g. yala, LtXaraia. Of those in ua we must observe, in the first place, that sub- stantives formed from verbs in evoj, when they are appellatives of persons, shorten the final vowel ; but that the same, when they denote an action or thing, are long ; e. g. fiaaiXua (a queen), but fiamXua (a kingdom). Also, most substantives in ua, formed from adjectives in ik, have the final a short ; e. g. a/cmjSaa, aX*$aa, &c. : this rule, how- ever, applies only to the Attic and general lan- guage, as Homer uses such substantives long, and consequently, instead of aXffiem, forms aXifehi. 24 PROSODY. Also feminlnes in a« of adjectives in uc, have al- ways the short vowel ; e. g. jXvkvq, yXvKtid, %Xvq, %\ua, rifxiavq, rifiiaeia. Likewise, all polysyllables accented on the antepenultimate, e. g. Trava/caa, TTtXua, Kopuvtia, &c. Of words in ia, feminine ap- pellatives in rpia shorten the final a, as iroi^rpid (a poetess), ooyjiarpia (a female dancer) ; and besides these, only the adjectives out, pid, ttotvm, and the two substantives Actum and UaXvfivid. Of those in ota, compounds which are derived from substan- tives in ovq have the a short ; e. g. wvoid (from voug), TraXippoia. (from povq), &c. With the Epic writers these also are generally lengthened, and take i) instead of a, excepting, however, those in /3oia (from |3ovc), which always preserve the short «, as Eu£om, and the like. Of words in via, oxy- tones only are long, as prirpvid ; all others take the circumflex on the penultimate, or the acute on the antepenultimate, and are consequently short. Of words in oa, those which are accented with the acute on the iinai or penultimate syllable are long, all others short. Also dissyllabic proper names, having pp in the middle, and the accent on the penultimate, are short ; e. g. Uvppd. (c) the final a is long, of proper names in Set and St* , and of some in Xa and pa ; e. g. A/joa, iAopj\a, Aiarijua. (d) lastly, as single examples of the long a are to be noticed the two words aXaXd and /, is al- ways long; e.g. $apd instead of fo'jpti. 2. In the remaining cases of the first declension MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 25 which end with a, the a is long in the Doric genitive termination, (see § 32, Note 4) ; also in the dative sing, in a, and in the nom. and accus. dual. The quantity of the vocative is regulated by that of the nominative ; but in words whose nom. ends with aq or j?c, a in the vocative is short, (see § 32, obs. 1). 3. As a termination of the second declension, a is always short, except in the plural of contracted neuters ; e. g. oara instead of harka, \pvaa instead of ^pvaia. 4. a is also short in the termination of the third declension, with the following exceptions : (a) the word Kapa (a head) — (b) the accus. sing, in a* of words in wq ; e. g. hpia (from lepzvq) : also the accus. sing, when formed by contraction from ™ } which always happens with words in >ic, having a vowel preceding their termination ; e. g. vym in- stead of vyda (from vyirio) — (c) the neut. plur. of words in aq, gen. aoq, and of some in oq with an e preceding, as being formed by contraction from aa and sa ; e. g. Ktpa instead of Ktpaa (from tcepaq), K\ta instead of K\&a (from K\toq). Yet the Epic writers use the first of these frequently, and the lat- ter usually, as short — (d)the dat. sing, of neuters in «t;, gen. aoq ; e, g. ynpa instead of yvpai (from yr'ipaq). 5. Of adverbs with a long in the final syllable, are to be adduced only XaSpa, Kpvtya, and iravra, besides all those which, taken from datives of the first declension, terminate in a, and consequently, by reason of the improper diphthong, are natu- rally long ; e.g. hipvaia, tela. In all other adverbs, 26 PROSODY. as well as in numerals and prepositions, the ter- mination a is always short. 6. Also as a verbal termination, a is long only when formed by contraction ; e. g. yi\a instead of ylAae, ytXo instead of yzXau. In all other cases it is invariably short. II, Termination av. 1. In the first declension, the termination av of accusatives sing, is long in those words which have a long in their nom., consequently in all end- ing with a, (which have been given above under I. L), and in those in ag ; e. g. yjopav, Xuav, tyiklav, also veaviav (from vtaviaq), TlvSayopav, &C. But it the nominative ends in a short, as is the case with all words of this termination not adduced above, then the accus. also has av short; e. g. aXifiuav, &e. The Doric termination av of genitives plur. (see § 32, obs. c.) is long ; e. g. Nv/ucpav instead of l^VjU(j>U)V. 2. Asa nominative termination of the third de- clension, av is long only in masculines ; e. g. iraidv, and in the single neut. wav. 3. Adverbs ending in av have a short, with the exception of ayav, Xiav, Tr&pav. 4. av, as a verbal termination also, is always short, except in the infin. of verbs in aw, where a is formed by contraction from au and is usually written with the i subscript ; e. g. yeXav, or ycXav. This termination remains long even when it is lengthened in Epic into aav, e. g. uvrmav, or avnaav. MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 27 III. Termination ap. The final ap, which occurs only in the third de- clension, is short, except in monosyllables, as $ap. In psap (a well), the lengthen- ing of a is peculiar to the Attics; the Epics, on the contrary, use it short. IV. Termination ag. 1. As a nominative termination of the first de- clension, ac is long, if preceded by a vowel or p ; e. g. ragtag, IlvSayopag, and in those which have a in the gen. (see § 32, Note 4). In the accus. plural of the first declension it is always long. 2. In the third declension, a is long in (a) words in ag, gen. uvrog, e. g. yiyag, Ifxag, and all participles of this termination — (b) the two adjectives ^\ag and ra\ag — (c) compound adjectives in /code, gen. KpaTog ; e. g. yaXicoKpag, and the like. Note. Accusatives plural of the third declension have the a al- ways short ; e. g. SiopctKag, MaKecovag, &c. Only in eag of subst. in evg it is long ; e. g. lepidg (from upevg), i7nria.g (from linvevg). 3. ac is always short in the final syllabled verbal forms, except where it is produced by con- traction ; e. g. lyeXag for kyiXaeg. Participles in ag have already been stated, in the preceding propo- sition, to be long. B. Long a of penultimate syllables in declen- sion and conjugation. 1. In the first declension, Doric and poetic ge- nitives in ao and «wv have a long ; e. g. 'Arpa'Sao, 28 PROSOD r . Traptidwv, Szdwv, &c. Also fern, participles in dva from maSC. in ag ; e. g. yeXaadaa. 2. Before the casal termination of the third de- clension, a is long (a) in the oblique cases of subst. in av, gen. avog ; 6, g. 7raiav 9 iraiavoq, Aicapvav, avog, &C (b) in the oblique cases of many words in a§, namely, (a) monosyllabic masc, and the fern. pa% ; €, g. Bpa£, OpaKog, (3\a!~, fiXaKog, pa^, payog — (|3) dissyllabic masc. in «£, if the preceding syllable is by nature long, and all polysyllables with this ending ; e. g, So>oa£, aKog, oia^, aKog, Gvpfyafi, aKog, opOlaZ, aKog, ikpa'i, aKog — (y) all masc. words of re- proach and diminutives which take a vowel before a'i, ; e. g. vka'i, aKog (a youth), (pXva%, aKog (a prat- tler)—^) the following single words : iraaaai, GTOfxfya't, fyhaZ,, $6pra%, all having aKog in the ge- nitive. Note 1. Of words in a£, all feminines 'and the dissyllabic masc. whose penultimate is not long by nature, keep a short before the casal termination ; e. g. >/ ora£, errdyog, // av\aE, uvXcikoc o (j)v\at>, aKoc. Note 2. Yet these rules do not obtain free from all exception, as some dissyllabic masc. in a£, whose penultimate is not long by nature but by position, also retain the long vowel in the oblique cases. Thus, kovcu^ K6pBa£, iropira'H,, all form in the gen. vlkoq. On the contrary, a is sometimes short in others, which have the penultimate by nature long ; e. g. 6 XelfiaE,, a/coc. (c) Of words in ag, the oblique cases retain the long vowel in o Kpag, gen. Kpdrog (a head), and o Xag, gen. \aog or \dog (a stone) ; also in com- pound adjectives in Kpag, gen. Kparog, as ^aX^o/cpccc, gen. ytiXKOKparoc,, MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 29 (d) those in ag, gen. avrog, have a long in the dat. plural only ; e. g, i/ua ; e. g, eirepava (from irepaivuf), vypava (from vypaiv(o)* Comp. §7\, Note 5. (b) in the perf. 2, where the a is retained un- changed ; e. g. iaya (from ayvvf.ii), edSa (from avdavuf), KtKpaya (from /cpa£w). Note. An exception from this rule is found in the Epic forms of the perf. 2. of verbs pure, which have the a always short ; e. g. (3e£aa, ye'yaa, fiijxda, (c) Of words in avw, only iKavio (I come), is al- ways long in the penultimate ; Kiyavu> (I find) and (j)%vix) (I anticipate) have the a long with the Epic writers, but are used short by the Attics. All others of this termination are short. (d) In verbs in aw, a is long when the preceding syllable is long, and short when it is short ; e. g. ireivduj, $i\pdii) } opdw, yeXdii), yaXdb). Also it is long ill the two Attic forms kcho (Iburn) and kXclm (I weep) instead of Ka'uo and /cAcuw. Respecting the quan- tity of a, when it remains unchanged in the future and derivative tenses of verbs in iuo, see $ 77, Note 2, a. 30 PROSODY. C. Long a in the middle syllables of derivative words. 1. In derivative words a is usually long, when followed by a vowel ; namely, (a) in adjectives derived from verbs in ao> ; e.g. in all in arig, as Swarig, ayjpahg, Sec. (b) in substantives in awv, gen. aovoq or awog ; e.g. OTrawv, IToffaSawv, &C. 2. Before consonants in derivative words, a is long (a) in substantives and adjectives terminating in ajua, aaig, ciTijg, arrjpiog, ariKog, arog, aaifioq, and de- rived from verbs in aw, which have a long in the derivative tenses, (see } 77, Note 2. a.) ; e.g. ^skafxa. Scarce, Searog, oparog, 'icurig, Sripaaifiog, XripariKog. Note. On the contrary, derivatives of this kind retain the short a when they come from verbs in a£w, dtranu, and a^cu, and from such in aa> as have the a short in derivative tenses (see § 77, Note 2. a.); e. g. epydrtjg (from ipyd^ofiai), xXdaig (from TrXda-ffoj), Svvdroq (from hvvajiai), ZXdrrjp (from eXdu), future IXacrw). (b) in proper names in amg, which are either derived from substantives in a, or formed inde- pendently, as 27rapnar?7C, Tsyearjjc, Ev^parrjg, &C. Note. Except, as short, the compounds of this kind, formed from verbal roots, as 2w/cpaV*?£, and all terminating in fidrrjg and (j)drr]g, as also the following single words : TaXaTTjg, AaXfid- rr]g, 2a/m'r??£, &C. (c) in proper names in avog, which are accented on the final syllable ; e. g. 'Ao-iavoc, Tepnavog, Sec. Note. On the contrary, proparoxytones of this termination have the short a, as Zkdvog, Adpddvog, &c. MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 31 (d) in compounds ending in avwp, avopia, and Kpavog, and in those beginning with /capa, Kspa, and Kpea, (from Kapa, KEpag, and Kpeag); e.g. Biavwp, Tpttcpavog, KapaSoKEW, tczparofAog, Kpeavo/doc. (e) in compounds derived from the verbal roots uy and aS (ayw, I lead, aywixi, I break, avSavu), I please) ; €. g. \oyjayog, Kvvayhrjg, vavaysiv, vavayia, ai)%§t}Q, ottclIoq, and others of this kind. (f) As single derivative words, with long a in mid- dle syllables, the following also must be observed : a/CjOaroc, aviapog, Siaicovog, veaviag (with the Words belonging to these last two), mayuv, oivairi, riapa, (paXapoQj (j>\vapog 9 and the derivatives thereof. Also the proper names :" 'A/mo-ic," 'Avairog," ' Aparog, Osavw, 'lao-wv, Mi^piSar^c, TlplairoQ, ^rv^aXog, ^,vpa- Koaai and 'EvpaKocriog, <$>apcra\og. D. Long a in the first syllable of Greek words. In the first syllable of primitive words, a is to be considered long in the following cases : (1) dissyllabic substantives in aog, as, Adoc? vaoq, and all derivatives thereof, as MtvtXaoq, AaOjue&wv, Aaoav6g, and the derhiatives thereof. Note. The same rule respecting quantity is also given for dissyllabic oxytones in dXoQ ; although of this termination, be- sides SdXog (a firebrand), which has the a long, we find only kciXoq (beautiful), which the Epic writers use almost invariably long, but the Attics short. 32 PROSODY. (3) The following are to be observed as single examples of a long in the initial syllable : ay/f (a shore, to be distinguished from ay) h sur- prise), ai'ip, and all its derivatives beginning with «£/>...; aeroc and its Compounds, akvaoq, atSiOQ, 'a&aXfjQ, mKYi, and ai£, together with all its com- pounds in ai£ ; a/iTjrrio*, afiqrocj, ap?jr>ip, «r»j, with arfipiog and ar^poc, aSavaroc, aKa/iiaTogy &ayvc; $oa7T£r*?c, /ca€a£, /caoa€oe, Kapig, Xaoivog (fat), Xaaivog (afisll), Xapog (sweet), 7rpayog, besides all its derivatives and compounds, as, e. g. Evirpayia, and generally also (frapog, with its compounds. Note 1. It is evident that a, when used in Doric for rj, is long ; e. g. Mfiog and its compounds, as ApxiBdjiog, &c. Several such forms, however, have passed also into the Attic and common language, and are therefore always long ; e, g. pySioG (ion, pr)'ihoe), pdrpa (ion. fpyjrpTi), and others. Note 2. That a is long in forms where it arises by contrac- tion, or has i subscript, is already known from the general rules (see at the beginning of this §, under 6. b and c) ; e> g. ukojv in- stead Of diKb)V, ^^OVJ(pQ, &c. SECOND SECTION. Long 7 in Greek Words. A. Long 7 in the final syllable. I. Termination 7, when not followed „by conso- nants. (1 ) In declension, the termination i is long only in the Tonic form of the dat sing, of subst. in «c, MEASURE OF SYLLABLES, 33 where « is contracted from a ; e. g. akolrl instead of clkoItu (comp. § 43, Note 2). 2. i is also long when appended to demonstra- tive pronouns (see § 60, 1) and some adverbs, to enforce their signification ; e. g\ ovto&i, wvl, &c. Note. In those adverbs also, which are formed, by means of the termination i, from adjectives in og, i is sometimes used long ; as, however, in other passages of the poets, such adverbs are de- cidedly short, and the manuscripts fluctuate in the use of the terminations i and ei, it appears more proper, in all cases where the final syllable of these adverbs is long, to prefer the full ending, «. II. Termination iv. The termination w is only to be considered as long when it is a collateral form of the termination *c, gen. Ivoq ; e. g. $e\$Lv, $e\apKtg y yzipig, iprityig. Note. The poets, nevertheless, allow themselves the shorten- ing of i in some of these ; while, on the other hand, a great many, 34 PROSODY. which have not been enumerated here, are occasionally used by them as long. Others are long with the Ionians, and short with the Attics ; e. g. /3\£0apt'e, Kapig, Kepafiie, TrXoKajilg, pa^aWe. 2. The termination «c is also long when used by the Ionians in the nom. and accus. plur. of words in ic, instead of ug and tag ; e. g. ZikoItIq in- stead of aKolnsg or aKoiTiag. (Comp. § 43. Note 2.) B, Long i in the penultimate. 1. Of words in i£, the oblique cases have i long in (a) monosyllables, as $oi£, ^pl/coc, «£, ikqq, #S, ■fiyoq— (b) dissyllables, whose penultimate is long in the nom., as ai'£, aitcoq (a rushing), 7T£oo\$, Ikoc, tIttiS, lyoc. Except x°~ lvl %> mogi an( ^ those which have a X in the middle, as, rjAi£, Sjcoc. 2. Of words in ec, all, whose nominative ending *c has been given as long, retain t long in the oblique cases; seethe preceding, A. III. 1. 3. Of those in vp, i is long in the oblique cases of monosyllables; e. g. Soty, %fnr6q. But Aty, Xipog, and vfy, vl(p6q, are excepted. 4. In comparatives in iwv, neut. cov, with the Attics i is, almost without exception, long, in Homer always short, and with later Epic writers sometimes short and sometimes long. 5. Respecting the quantity of i, in the penulti- mate syllables of verbal forms, the following rules obtain : (a) verbs in iv$tVw, the Epic writers use 4 long, the Attics short. (b) Of verbs in iw, polysyllables always, and dissyllables generally, have i long, as, /cvXiw, kovim, wvIg), 7ro/w. Exceptions are aiw (I perceive), eaSla), (I eat), pavTiiv (I scourge) ; and the collateral forms of verbs in i£w, as aria) of 7. In most dissyllables its quantity is arbitrary. (c) in verbs mute, whose monosyllabic root be- gins with two consonants, i is long ; e. g. |3pi$w, SA/pw, TTvlyii), rpi/3(u. (d) most verbs contract, of a dissyllabic root, have i long in the initial, and polysyllables also in the middle syllable ; e. g. jSIvlw, KivLa), SIj)aw, /Jvlw, viyad), alyao), rifiab), $7/iow, and Others ; SO also ay~iv£(*) f a/cpij3ow, eXivvo), Note. On the contrary, t is short in the radical syllable of those verbs contract which are derived from short primitives, as, dBtici, which retain <*> in the gen., have i short ; e. g. Kpov'uov, gen. Kpoviuvo? and Koo- VWVOQ. •(c) proparoxytones in {Xoc and i\ov have i long ; €. g, o/mXoq, apyiXoq, tt&iXov* (d) in properispomes in tvoq also it is long, as, IktIvoq, &c; besides in the following proparoxy- tones : KafxivoQ, vaylvov, Kvpuvov, ciXivov, and the two oxytones yaXivoq and kfivoq. In adjectives of this termination it is short, except oirupivoq, f-izToniapivoq, jMGrififipivoq, and op^pivoc, in which it varies its quantity to suit the nature of the verse. (e) polysyllabic substantives in ivn and iva have i long ; e. g. ^wrivn, a&vtj, tpyaaTivr), A'/ylvd. From these uXamvri is excepted. (f) lastly, i is long in words in irrjq and me, and in proper names in irn ; e. g. oTr\lrr\q, teyyvrnq, wo- AiVic, 'Ai6g (a bow), which has the short vowel. 2. Also dissyllabic diminutives in a£ take i long in the radical syllable, as is apparent from the accent ; e. g. wXifxa^, 7n3a£, &c. Note. In other dissyllabic substantives also, with the ending oq, the long t in the radical syllable is evident from the accent, as aTirog, /3p7vOf, fTtcrog, gt~kj)oq, and the like. But in dissyllabic forms of nouns not ending in oe, t in the radical syllable, when followed by a simple fx, is generally long, as in /^ot'/xr/, rip/, ^pCfjLvg. Only substantives formed from short verbal roots in //a retain the i short, as, tcXi/ia, 3. The quantity of i in verbal roots is deter- mined above, under B. 5. a— d. 4. As single words with i long in the initial syllable, the following are principally to be ad- duced : laofiai, and its derivatives, as larpog, &c. i&vt;, iXaog, tArj, iXvg, ijmtpog, ivwv s Sivrj, kXivt], vikyi, oyt/Arj, Xiroc, /ui/cooc, jMiikoixai, and its derivatives, yjX ioi, and the proper names, "I/capoc, "Ivayog, Slcwv, Yipvv%iog K TiTvpog, with some others. 38 PROSODY. THIRD SECTION. Long v in Greek Words. A. Long v in the final syllable. L Termination u, when not followed by Con- sonants. L As a declensional termination, v is always short, except in monosyllabic names of letters, as, fxv, and in the word ypv. Also in vocatives of words in vq, whose nominative is long, v remains long; see below, III. 1. 2. Adverbs in v are short, except avracpv, which occurs both long and short 3. As a conj ligation al termination, v is long in the 3 pers. sing* imperf, and aor. 2. of verbs in vfxi ; e, g* £$u, i$v. II . Termination w. 1. As a termination of nominatives, w is long; €. g, flOGGVV, 2. Also, as a termination of accusatives, it is long in those words in uc, whose final syllable is long in the nominative; see below, III. 1. 3. In conjugation, w is long as a termination of the imperf. and aor. 2. of verbs in v/m ; e. g. ityvv* III. Termination vq. 1. vq, as a nominative termination, is long (a) in monosyllables, as Spue, /we; (b) in polysyllabic MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 39 oxy tones, which take vog, in the gen. ; e. g. ix&>c, &i]tvq, &c. ; (c) in the two subst. dayvg, gen. vSog, and KwpvQ, gen. v%g ; (d) in participles of this ter- mination, e.g. ZzvyvvQ, Sukvvq, &C. 2. As the termination of the nom. and ace. plur. vg is long, being formed by contraction from veq and vaq ; e. g. 6pvg instead of ofypvtg and 6vg. B. Long v in the penultimate syllable. 1. In nouns, v is long before the casal termina- tion : (a) in words in w, gen. vvog, as juocro-uv, gen. f — fioaavvoq. (b) in dissyllabic words in v$, whose penulti- mate syllable is long by nature, and which take k in the genitive, as, Krtpv^, KrjpvKog ; $oi$v%, vKog. Of dissyllables, whose penultimate syllable is length- ened by position, j3o^j3v£, vicog, and kokkvZ, vyog, only have v long before the casal termination. (c) of those in v\p, monosyllables only have v long in the derivative cases ; e. g. yfy, yvirog. (d) of Words in vg, only Sayvg, v$og, and Kwpvg, v%g, retain the long vowel in the derivative cases. 2. The following cases of the lengthening of v are to be observed in conjugation : (a) verbs in ww and vpw have long v in the pres. and imperf. and in the aor. 1. act. and mid.; in all the remaining forms of these verbs, which, how- ever, are of rare occurrence, the vowel is short ; 40 PROSODY, e.g. fipaSvvu), imperf. £j3pa&jivov, fut* ftpalvvk} -y (j>vpit) 9 imperf. i$v-pov. (b) to determine with accuracy the quantity of v in verbs in vw, they must be distinguished into different classes : i (a) in verbs in £w, whose root is monosyllabic, v in the pres. and imperf. is used arbitrarily ; c. g« Xv(*3 and Xvw 9 ^w and^uw. Only %& (I storm, to be distinguished from %w, I offer), ^w (I polish), and Tpvu) (I waste by rubbing), have always v long ; on the other hand, in j%w (I overflow), and kXvw (I hear), v is always short. In the fut. and aoi\ the v of these verbs is always long ; e. g. Xvacj y iXvira, fww, tyvaa. Except from this rule |3Auw (I bubble), kvw (I kiss), fiv& (I wink), and tttuoi (I spit), which have v short in the fut. and apr., thus, /3Xfeo>, kvgu), jiWGh}, itTvab), Also in the perf, and pluperf. act. and fut. 3. pass, v is usually long ; on the contrary, in all the remaining derivative tenses, invariably short ; e. g. Iklma, irtyvKa ; on the contrary, also, AtAu/ca, and, without exception,, zXvSqv, XiXvfuai ; Tr^irvvfiivoq is the only example of v in the perf. pass. (0) in verbs in uw, whose root is polysyllabic^ the quantity of v is determined according to the nature of the preceding syllable; thus, if the syllable preceding v is long, v is arbitrary in the pres* and imperf., but invariably long in the deri- vative tenses ; e. g. kwXvw and jcojAuw, fut. kwAiW, aor. pass. l/cwAu^v, &c; As exceptions are to be observed aprmo (I order), JXkvw (I draw), and MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 41 ivrvu) (I prepare), of which the first is used short with the Epic writers, and long with the trage- dians ; the second always short in the derivative tenses with the tragedians, but sometimes long with the Epic writers, and the third without ex- ception short. On the contrary, if the syllable before v is short, v also remains short i& the derivative tenses ; e. g\ avvw 3 p&vw, ravva), fut. avuaoj, fx&vcrii), ravvaiOy &C. (7) in verbs in vm, which have a collateral form in vfii, v is short ; e. g. Sukvvoj and ^//c^u^t, vpvvw and opvvjuu, &c. (c) In verbs in vpi, v is long in the sing, of the pres. and imperf. act, and in all numbers of the aor. 2. act. It is also long in the opt.* when this is formed by the mere annexation of m* and p?v to the root, because v in that case stands for vi ; e. g. tK^vfAzv, Horn. II. 16, 99 ; Sa/vuro, Horn. II. 24,665. The imperat. aor. 2. also, formed with the termi- nation Si, has v long; e.g.icXvSi; but shortens it when the reduplication accedes ; e. g. kUXvSi, Kt/cAurc. The length of v in the participial termination vg has been observed above, III. 1. d. ; and this is fol- lowed by the fern, in vaa, as appears also from the accent. Nate. That the 3d pers. plur. pres. also, when vaai is con- tracted into v Tctfivvr], and ropvvr}, are used long only with the Attics, but mostly short with Epic writers ; and odvvr) is always short. (b) in trisyllabic or polysyllabic words in woq, when or does not precede this termination ; e. g. POXVVOQ, KlV^VVOQy XajVVOg, tvfevVOQ. Note. Except the compounds in yv vog, formed from yvvti, (a woman), which always have v short ; e. g. dv^poyv 'voq. (c) in polysyllabic subst. in vpa, v is long in proparoxy tones, as ayicvpa, ytyvpa, oXvpa, and in KoWvpa ; otherwise always short, as Xvpa, and the like. (d) v is long in adjectives in vpoe, when the pre- ceding syllable is likewise long ; and short, on the contrary, when the preceding syllable is short ; e. g. layypoc, oilvpoq \ Oil the Contrary, Xafxvpog, oyv- pog, and the like. Note, v in aXfivpog is used long by the Attics, but short by the Epic writers. (e) v is long in masc. of the first declension in vrriQ, as TTptafivrrig, &C. (f) in the termination uroc, v is long only in tri- syllabic subst., whose first syllable is likewise long, as KiDKvrog, and the like ; and in compound adj. in SaKpvrog and Tpvrog (from dcucpvu) and Tpuuj), as aSaicpvTog, aTpvTog, and the like. (g) v is long in adverbs in voW, as wpvSov. (h) besides these, observe also the following individual words with long v in the middle syl- lables : MEASURE OF SYLLABLES. 43 apapvyfi, tu-yrj, oXoXvyv, and oXoXvywv, together With afivfibiv, avTT], and avT&u) ; also, EiXi><£a£w, eiXvog, iXvog, lyvvt], epvKWj KtXj(j>og, XavXov, okvXov, &c. From this £vXov forms an exception. (2.) v is long in dissyllabic oxy tones in vXog, vfiog, and vvog ; as yyXog, Sv/mog, Kpvfxog 9 %vvog, &C Except 7rXvv6g, which always has v short. 3. v is long in dissyllabic paroxytones in vptj and vvi], as Xv^, ZvfiYi, fivvt], 4. In neuters in vfia, derived from verbs in vw, the quantity is regulated by the radical form (see above, B. 2. b). In dissyllables of this kind, the quantity is shown by the accent, as Kvfxa, but nXvfxa. The polysyllables are mostly long, as aprvp.a, cXujua, uXv/ma, tdpvixa. 5. In dissyllabic neuters in o^ the quantity of v is likewise determined by the accent ; most of them are long, as ipvypg, Kv$og, GKVTog ; but some short, as arvyog, rpvtyog* 6. The quantity of v in verbs in vu> has been treated of above (B. 2. b), and in verbs in vvio and vpu) (B. 2. a). It only remains, therefore, that we consider the case where u appears in the ra- 44 PROSODY. dical syllable of mute and contract verbs, and to this apply the following rules : (a) in verbs mute of a monosyllabic root, v is, always long ; e. g. ipvyu, fipvyu, tvu), &c. rXv^w alone has v short (b) in verbs contract v is long when the verb is formed from a long primitive, as Kvpou) (from Kvpog), Xvneo) (from \vtty}), Sv/Lioojuai (from Sv/ucoq), &c. On the contrary, v is short in those in £&>, which exist only as a collateral form to a verb liquid, as kv|>em tO KVpU), Note. It is of course to be understood, that those formed from short roots retain the short vowelj as, e. g. gtv yiut (from trrvyog). 7. Of individual words with long v in the radi- cal syllable, we must observe the following ; yvpog, SvXctKoq, Kv(pog, Xv7rn s jnvs\og 9 /mvicau), jmvpaiva 9 fxvuv, Trvyrj, TrutXog, irwrirj, irvog, ttvqoq, gvicov, crvpiy^ vXri, (of Atrides), &c. (b) the same holds of the syllables m and vi as terminations in declension and conjugation : hence we properly accentuate TpanzZai (tables), Xkyzrai (it is said), iXafyoi (stags). The termination of the 3d pers. sing, opt., however, again forms an ex- ception to this, and obtains as long in reference to the accent. We are, therefore, to accentuate SKfytpoi, not £K(j>epoi (from iicS) ; viKrivai, not viKtiGat as Opt. of viKaw)* OF ACCENTS. 49 . Note I. From these fundamental rules numerous exceptions are found in Greek, so that it is extremely difficult, and in many cases even impossible, to adduce definite and adequate general rules for the position of the accent. Hence particular rules must be subjoined for the several classes of words, as will be done below in the declensions and conjugations; see § 32. 4. to the end— § 33. 2. to the end— § 37.— § 48.— J 76. 5. Some small words are so unimportant of themselves, that in discourse they almost unite their sound with the following word, and there- fore remain unaccented. These are the forms o, vi, 6t, ai, of the article, besides the prepositions sic or ee, *v or uv (in), e/c or c£ (out of), the conjunc- tions a (if), uyc (as, since, that), and the negative ou, oi>/c, oi>x (not). They are called urova (toneless) or Trpo/cAinfca (proclitic). Some of them, on a change of signification or position, receive the acute, viz. (1) the adduced forms of the article, when used as relative pronouns ; (2) log, when it either stands for ovTwg (so), or, in the significa- tion as, is placed after the chief word ; e. g. kcocol tog, as cowards ; (3) ov or ovk, when it directly denies without an additional word, like the Eng- lish no, or is placed after the word which it negatives. B. Sign of the Accent, according to the Nature oj the Syllables. If the syllable, on which the tone rests, is known, the question then is, with what sign it is to be accented. Concerning this the following rules obtain : 1. The acute can stand on each of the three last E 50 PROSODY. syllables; e.g. mkqq (bad), ?roAtt;(a town), avSoa>7roc (a man) ; but on the third syllable from the end only when the last syllable is by nature short ; thus, €. g. avSpwTrov, avSpa>7T( t tf, avSpwiroiQ, although the nom. is marked avSpwTroc Note 2. For the double exception to the rule, that the acute can stand on the antepenultimate in case only of a short final syllable, see above, A. 4. 2. The circumflex can only stand on a syllable by nature long, and only on the final or penulti- mate syllable, but never on the penultimate un- less the final syllable is by nature short ; e. g. Ilepc/cXric, kclkov (of evil), x^P ^ (space), AaVe (leave), on the contrary AaVav (to leave) ; yet Xetyw, x^P m (according to A. 4. exception b). 3. The grave (comp. above, § 9. Note 1.) appears only on the last syllable of words standing in a continued discourse, as a sign of the softened tone of the acute ; e. g. avrip (a man), ayaSog (brave) ; but in connected discourse avrip aya%6g ov 4>a)y£i (a brave man fleeth not away). Note 3. The intimate connexion of discourse, which would be interrupted by the sharpened pronunciation of the acute on the final syllable of a word, alone renders necessary the transi- tion of the acute into the gravis. This change, therefore, must not take place before one of the greater signs of interpunction (period and colon) ; nor even before a comma, when it indicates a really distinct member of a proposition (as, e. g. subjoined defini- tions of time, conditions, reasons). But we also use the comma, jn assigning nearer definitions and predicates, before relatives and before expositive or intentional particles, where evidently the internal connexion of the discourse must not be interrupted ; and in this case, in Greek, the sign of the acute must not be placed on the final syllable before the comma. Thus it is proper to write : ri M, rjv ^prjfjLara iroWa i\rf tiq ; and in like manner ol fiev dyaSot, OF ACCENTS. 51 01 c)£ kcucoi (because here is a perceptible caasura in the dis- course) ; but Trarijp, og edwKe, and eXeye ttoXXci, TZTvtyLvdl, TV)o ; Ki6q, from kiq (see below concerning the position of the accent in the third declension, § 37). (c) if, in the change of the word, the final syl- lable, which was before short, becomes long ; e. g. avSpw7rou, from av^pwiroq ; krLpov, from ertpoq ; Trpayjuorwv, from irpayfia (see § 10. B. 1). How should I accentuate aio^ari, o-oty/arwv, from aw/Lia ? Kopaicwv, from KopatZ, ? f^iXfgffOrjv from, (j>iXUo (I love) ? kektSw and KacrSwv, from Ku/nai (I lie) ? f/SouXfaro, from ftovXofiai (I will) ? 3. The accent is drawn back towards the be- ginning of the word. This takes place (a) if the word receives additions at the begin- ning, or the cause is removed which held the ac- cent on the penultimate syllable (comp. § 10. A. 3) ; * e.g. ZTVWTOV, ETV7TTE, froill TVTTTd) (I beat) \ WdlStVE, from iraiStvo) (I educate); a<£{Xoc (friendless), from i\oq 54 PROSODY. (a friend) ; gvvqSoq (a congress), from o&>c (a way, going). (b) if in dissyllabic words the final syllable, which should bear the accent, is dropped on ac- count of a succeeding vowel ; e. g. tffi eyu (for ri/jLi) 9 ttoXX iiraSlov (for TroAAa), Sav lr\rjv (for $£iva). Exception. Prepositions and particles, when the accented final vowel is dropped, remain un- accented ; e. g, fV avTov (for tVi), Trap* hfioi (for Trapa)) aXX' tyw (for aXAa), ou$ oX/yov (for ouSs). How must I accentuate Itvtttov, from tvtttu 1 Itywyov, from (javyix) ? ttyiXeov, l^eXcovro, i\zo)fi&la, from tjuXet*) 1 /3i/3ouX£V(j^£ and fiov\zvz<&wv y from fiovXtvu 1 § 12. RECESSION OF THE ACCENT TO A PRECEDING WORD. 1. Several small words unite themselves so closely in respect to sense with the preceding word, that they must be blended with it, as it were, in pronunciation. For this reason they throw back their accent on the preceding word, and hence derive the name enclitics (}i6pia i-y/cXtrt/ca). 2. Such enclitics are : the indefinite pronoun At; r\ through all the cases ; the oblique cases of the personal pronouns fiov or ^v f pot, \xk> gov or otv, aoi, gz, oi) or k-o, and iStv, ot, f, /HIV, vtv, £, atywt, Gigi or gQigiv, and iag, atyia ; together with the pres. indie, of ufii and but the accentuation of that preceding word de- cides whether this accent must be expressed or not. Concerning this, the following rules are to be observed : (a) if the preceding word is accented on the final syllable (oxytone or perispome), or is marked with the acute on the penultimate (paroxytone), the enclitic loses its accent without further change of the preceding word ; yet it is evident that the grave becomes an acute, because, pro- perly, the enclitic unites itself immediately to the preceding word, and the accent syllable is there- fore no longer to be considered as standing at the end of the word. Thus we write avr\p ng (as it were avrjarie), ayaSog re KaXog re, i\(l) o"£, fxa£lr}Twv Tivd)V } avSpa tc, i\og /ulov. Exception. In the last case, when the preced- ing word has an acute on the penultimate syl- lable, dissyllabic enclitics retain their proper ac- cent ; e. g. y\V \6yOQ 7T0T£ kvaVTIOQ £ ; e, g. roaocii (from roVor), tov&cS* (from MARKS OF READING. 57 rococ). And this accent thus retains itself regu- larly through all the cases and forms : conse- quently roff/jSe, rotroiOE, rocrovgSz ; but Too-ouck, roawSt, ToaySe, togou^ (according to § 10. B. 5). § 13. MARKS OF READING. 1. For a period and comma, the same signs are used by the Greeks as by us ; the colon and semi- colon are designated by a point above the line ; e. g. £TV(j>\a)\6g el/mi. A sign of interro- gation has this form ( ; ), and, although no sign of exclamation occurs in the older editions, yet, after prepositions of feeling and interjections, it is well to put the one in use amongst us ; e. g. w /not, twv Trapovrwv /ca/cwv ! zu ! 2. Diastole, or hyperdiastole, has the same sign with the comma, and is used in certain small compound words, to distinguish them from others ; e, g. o,™ (whatever, from o(mg), o,™ (which also, from oc and rf), for distinction from on (that) and ore (since) ; a method, however, at- tended with less interruption, and, at the same time, equally perspicuous, is simply to write the syllables of such words separate, and without the inserted mark, thus ; o ™ and o re instead of o,™ and o,t£, which some editors have lately even adopted. 58 PROSODY. 3. Sign sof separation are put when two collid- ing vowels should not be read as a diphthong, but separate ; e. g. aiSrjg (a-ides), npavg (pra-us). 4. An apostrophe ( ' ) is used when a short vowel is dropped at the end of a word, because the following word begins with a vowel ; e. g. W £jU£ (for ETTc), CLTT tKUVOV (for O.TTO £/c). § 14. DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. 1. If a Greek word is to be resolved into its single syllables, or one or more syllables detached from the whole word, the rule obtains chiefly, that a syllable in general ends with a vowel, and the following one begins with a consonant. 2. For a consonant which cannot stand at the end of an entire genuine Greek word, must not stand at the end of a syllable. But a Greek word terminating with a consonant can only terminate in K y v, p, a (£, %p) ; consequently, all other conso- nants which occur in the middle of a word must not be referred to the preceding, but to the fol- lowing syllable; e. g. £-/3So-^oe, o-y$o-oc, Tu-7rrw, Xl-Xc-* y/xat, Ka-^ioc, Tv-ipw^ rv-%ug 9 and even £-o£Aoc? 3. This rule, however, is subject to several ex- ceptions, which must be particularly noticed : (a) of two like consonants standing next each other, one is referred to the preceding, the other DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. 59 to the following syllable ; e. g. aX-Aoe, afx-poq, ey-yvg, iraTr-iroq, irpaT-ru), £ \OQ 9 2a7r-^w, tear-Save. 4. In compound words, syllables are divided according to their composition; wherein, however, it is to be observed, that the consonant of the prefixed word, if a short vowel has been omitted, is referred to the succeeding vowel of the root ; C g. irpoq-fykpb), Ev-imviov, irpoq-Taaab), ovv-tK-Seyo/nai, €$-rjyrj(Tie ; on the Contrary, ira-peyo) (from napa), a-vkyb) (from ava), h-iripyofiai (from kiri). In like manner, also : a-^' ov (from ano), £-' w from knl). 60 PROSODY, CHAPTER III. CHANGE OF THE LETTERS. 4 15. The Greeks were guided in the structure of their language by the laws of harmony, perspicuity, and ease of pronunciation. But, to secure these re- quisites, it was necessary, in the derivation of words and forms, partly to avoid the concurrence either of too many consonants, or of those which could not easily be pronounced together, and partly the succession of several vowels, each of which required a distinct and separate pronuncia- tion. This led to the introduction of numerous changes, determined according to certain rules, and essential to be known by every one who is anxious not to experience perpetual difficulties in the development and representation of Greek words. General Rules upon the Change of Consonants. 1. To be able to comprehend these changes, it is necessary perfectly to understand the division of consonants (§ 5). 2. In reference to that division, the following general rules chiefly obtain : A. Consonants which are pronounced with the CHANGE OF THE LETTERS. 61 same organ, or possess the same property, are frequently interchanged with each other. Examples to this rule are afforded in the obser- vation of the different dialects, although mostly not in an universal and complete analogy, but only in individual cases. Hence we form two classes thereof, and specify, in the first, those cases of the change of consonants which occur either generally, or at least very frequently, in different dialects; but, in the second, those which are established only in individual examples. (a) Usual change of kindred consonants in dif- ferent dialects. («) Instead of the Ionic era, the Attic dialect has frequently it. Ionic. Attic. Examples. 7rprj, y k y), which has the same property with it. Hence, in the formation of Greek words, we must change T£rptj3rai into TETpiTTTai. ykypafyrai ■ — yiypairrai, pcnrSog — pafiSog. £7riypa(j>$T}v - — £7rryoa|3o^v. Tpif3%f]r,/.d) and Tt&va&i (die, from Sv/?<7/cw) prove, but holds merely of the imperat. aor. l.pass. ; for the forms tISzti and Sen (from n%pi) exist in grammar alone as schemes of a possible formation. Note 5. Attention must be paid particularly to the verbs rpityio (I nurture), rptx^ (I run), and rvtpio (I singe), (produced from $ps), whose simple form has already expe- rienced the change of the first aspirata, which must again appear as an aspirata when in the derivative forms the second one is omitted ; e. g. in the future of those verbs, $pe\pco, Spefyfiai, Svipw, as also in the words derived from it ; e. g. $ pip pa, but rpo(j}ri. Note G. In the words 3"pi| (hair), SctTrrw (I bury), and Spvrrritj (I break in pieces), the second aspirata has already been omitted in the simple form, and consequently the first remains. But on the second aspirata again appearing in the derivative forms, the first must vanish ; e. g. rpixvQt erdywv. E. When the rough breathing meets with a tenuis, it changes the same into an aspirata, not only in composition, but even in accidental concur- rence ; €. g. ifodog (from kirl and ococ), SsyjifjitpoQ (from Zttca and r^iEoa), k r)p,tpav (for £7T* rifiEpav), aty ow (for air ov), ou% wg (for ovk). Note 7. The Ionic dialect retains the tenuis unchanged in both cases; e.g. obtc o>q, Ka-iivat (Att. KaSuuai, from Kara and livai), Itt f)/Jiipay, &c. Note 8. On the other hand, in some compounds the tenuis is changed into the aspirata, even when it falls merely into the same syllable with the rough breathing, although a letter still inter- venes between them. Examples of this kind are Sotpdnov (for ro ifidnov), (ppoipiov (contracted from tt pool /iiov), tioovdog (formed from rcpo and vhoc^reSpiTnrov (from rerpo,for rerrupa, and 'tTriroi;). 66 ETYMOLOGY. § 16. CHANGE OF MUTES BEFORE p IN THE MIDDLE OF WORDS. 1. /3, 7T, (j>, immediately preceding /u, are changed into ^u. For TZTpifi/nai, r£ru7Tjuai, yiypa^/uai, Write TeTpifxjuiai, rervfifiai, -yeypa/i/icu. 2. k and %, immediately before p, are changed into y. For c)£§o/Cjuat, AsAe^ai, Write §£§oyjj,aij XeXzyjiai. Note 1. This rule, however, is by no means invariably ob- served in the formation of independent Greek words, as appears from cLKfii) (a point), reoxpoQ (new), and the like ; and even in derivative forms it is sometimes neglected, as in the Homeric aKa^fiivoQ (sharpened, from an assumed root cfca^aj). 3. 8, &, r, and I, immediately before fx, are changed into a. For ^fyta, 7rf7T€t%tat, rjWTjj,ai 9 ;/>r/0t£)ua, Write aafia, 7r€7r£i(7jiiai, rjvtKXjuai, ifjr\$iGfxa. Note 2. The Epic and Ionic dialects present frequent devia- tions from this rule ; e. g. ofyu/ (smell), ISpey (we know), and the like. § 17. CHANGE OF MUTES BEFORE * 1. |3, it, f, are united with a into the double consonant ^. CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 67 Pot* Tpl(3&U)j TVTTGIO, ypCKJXZWy write rpiipw, r'viptef ypaipio. 2. y, k, x, are united with a into the double consonant $. For Aeyorw, 7tX£/C(T6l>, TSv^&OfAai, write \lt,iti f wXe^oj, rtv^ofiau Exception, k of the preposition e/c remains un- changed before ), Gvyyaipii), Gvyiaivio (from avv). 3. If v concurs with a liquid, it is changed into the Same ; e. g. for GvvXoyito), zvpivo), GWp'nrTU), Write avWoyi'Cw, mfxzvW) Gvpplwroj. 4. N is always rejected before I, and likewise before a in the derivation of forms in declension and conjugation, as well as in the formation of compounds, when a is also followed by a conso- nant ; e. g, evSai/LiOGi for tvZaifxovGi, a'uoGi for auovGi, GvZyyia for avv'Cvyia, GVGTV)fxa for GvvGrr]{xa, Note. 2, The preposition kv before a and '( remains through- out unchanged (evaeiio, ev^io^iai); and the preposition avv before a, which is followed by a vowel, changes v into a ; e. g. avaanla, avaaeiu (from avv). Note 3. In compounds the Epic dialect also retains v before o-, when dv. abbreviated for dvd s forms the composition ; e. g» av~ orot'c (for aVaarac), ava^eSeeiv (for avaayeShiv). \ 19. TRANSPOSITION AND REDUPLICATION OF CONSONANTS. 1. The transposition of the consonants of a word consists in placing a liquid, which was sepa- rated by a vowel from a preceding or following mute, immediately next the mute. In the general language, examples of this transposition are found chiefly in the formation of single words only ; e. g* ?&vr\Ka (from %av, transp. Sva), £7roa%p (from the CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. 69 root 7TEp£, transp. TrptS, and by change of sound 7rpa$). For the sake of verse, however, more fre- quent use is made of it in the Epic dialects and with the poets; e. g. KpaSlr] for Kap$ia (heart), arapiroQ for arpairoc (a footpath), fiaaSiGTOq for j3pa- Slgtos (superl. of j3pa§uc, slow) ; yet even here the usage is not arbitrary, but confined to certain cases, the knowledge of which must be obtained by observation. 2. The reduplication of consonants for sharpen- ing a syllable is mostly confined to the semi- vowels X, /u, v, p, a, and owes its frequent applica- tion principally to. the Epic dialect. In the ge- neral language must be observed the reduplication of p at the beginning of roots, when it is preceded by a short vowel, in the annexation of the aug- ment, and in the formation of compounds ; e. g. IppiTTTov (imperf. of ptVrw, I throw), airoppnToq (for- bidden, from euro and p«), &c. The following cases are chiefly to be remarked out of the Epic dialect : (a) the reduplication of a is the most frequent, occurring (a) in the termination at of nouns, and in the terminations of futures and aorists beginning with a- ; e.g. peXkam (Alt. jStAeo-i, from /3fXoc 5 an arrow), ira'&taat (Att. iraiGL, from Trace, a child), K€- £>ct(TLvoq, evEKa, fpwraw, vogoq, fiovoq, ' OXvfxiTog, Kopog. Ion. dial, £avoe, uveica, apa>raa>j vovaoq } fxovvog, Ov\vp,Trog , tcovpoq. Note 1. This change is limited in the Ionic dialect to but a small number of words besides those adduced. It occurs more frequently in the Epic dialect, where not only forms like elv and V7retp (for kv and virip) appear, but the change of e into el is al- lowed also before a vowel in almost all cases where the measure of the verse requires it ; e. g, elapivog for laptvog, eiojq for euig, UTTSlOQ for a hand), ettit^Seoq and teXeoq for ETnrrjhiog and teXeioq, r/tJia for i]$E~ia (fern, of fjdvg, plea- sant), JcpeWwv, fjii^wv, and a.TrooE'la.crS'ai, for vLpdaa^v, fiEi^ioi', dTtolEi'iarx^ai. In the terminations Eiog, eta, etov, e is frequent- ly changed into 77, so that they become rjiog, r/Va, rjiov ; e. g. ci\rj^r]irj for a\//Seta, %a\KTj'iov for ^a'X/cetoi/, &C (2) In the word Sav^a (wonder) and its deriva- tives, as also in reflexive pronouns, the Ionic dialect frequently uses wu instead of the diph- thong av ; e. g. Swufia&o for %av[ia'CL?, unchanged ; e. g. vdfxa (a fluid), /xaX- Xov (more), as Ionic, and $i)p (a beast), TrtiXog (clay), firj (not), as Doric forms. Generally, 7? remains unchanged with the Dorians when it is produced by the lengthening of e ; e. g. Troo/ow (from rroiibf, I make), Xi/xi/v (a harbour, gen. Xifiivog}. (4) Instead of ov, when it is formed by contrac- tion from to, the lonians use cu ; e. g. for avkyov, TTOlOl^UEVOe, I 1011. CCV£V£U, TTOlZVjiltVOC;. (5) The Doric dialect has frequently w for ov, and, if an oavo£, SwXoc, Motcra, rvirroiaa. (6) Iii the Ionic and Attic dialects, the vowels g and a frequently interchange with each other ; so that the lonians take a where the Attics have £, and reversely ; e. g. Att. rtpw (I cut), fdye%c (greatness) ; Ion. ra fxvuy^dy a%g: on the contrary. CONTRACTION. 73 Att. (3apa%pov (ail abyss), riaGapa (four), vaXog (glass) ; Ion. ptptZpov, reaaepa, veXoq. (7) When a or y precedes o, the Ionians, and in declensional terminations the Attics also, change o into (i), and a or y into e; e. g. -^pao^ai (I use), opao) (I see) ; Ion. yjoiw^ai, opiio ; besides \a6q (a people), vaoc, or, Ion. vnog (of a ship), iXaoq (propi- tlOlls) ; Att. Acwc, vcwe, i'Afaic. § 21. CONTRACTION, 1. The principal and most important changes which take place with Greek vowels are super- induced by the concurrence of several of them with each other ; for two or more colliding vowels, whereof each is to be heard singly, occa- sion harshness and dissonance of pronunciation. Hence, in the formation of words, the Greeks were solicitous to avoid the accumulation of vowels. 2. The most usual means made use of for this purpose is the contraction of two or more vowels into one long vowel or diphthong — ((jwaipwig) . 3. The short vowels, however, are not always changed into the kindred long vowel ; but here a law of language obtains, which may be compre- hended under the following rules : (a) Two vowels which together form a diph- 74 ETYMOLOGY, thong are changed into this in contraction. Thus we contract a "into u ; e.g. avSei — ■ avSee. 01 - — 01 ; — vx ot °~~ ^X ** So also with the improper diphthongs : ai into a ; e. g. KEpai — tcepa. i\i — • y ; — Oprjiaaa « — Opyaaa. uyi - — tp ; — Xw'Ctjv — \w(t)V. (b) Two vowels which do not form a diphthong are changed into a kindred long sound, za becomes n ; e, g. Ttlyta — rei^iy. ££ - — > £1 j • i\ei. «to, aw, and aov oa and o?i S - I a Siairaofiai • — TrXctpaou — ■ atcoa ■ — ■ ^tarwfjLai. TrXavw. c _ Op§6r)T£ — — obSwre. oo") ttXooc J — — TfXoVC, OD^OOfXcV ' — opdovyusv. OE >OU 7fXo£ ; — - ttXou ? OO^OE OQZlOV. £0 J avzzoq ? — — aV^OUf;,, TTOUOjulEVOg' — iroiovfizvog Note 1. The lonians, when they adopt contraction, unite eo and eov generally, and sometimes also go and oe into £u ; e. g. woiei)f.LEvo£ and 7roiev for 7roiou — edacaUv for educaiov, formed from idiKciioe. Note 2. The Dorians frequently contract ao and aw into a> particularly in the casal terminations of the first and third de- clensions, as will be shewn in the proper place. (c) a, c, v, when they are short, absorb a suc- ceeding short vowel, and then become long. ct£ becomes d ; a —r- i ; v& 7TOIOV. a — ■ ayaTrats) — ayaTrw, \aa OpZld, opZQOVGl — -OpZOVGt, Tt\oOI — -TtXoU (e) A vowel before a diphthong compounded with i is contracted in the usual manner with the first vowel of the diphthong ; and, if the nature of the contraction admits (s. § 6. 3.), the c is sub- scribed ; e» g. sat and ££ai become ??, e. g, Tpirrsai — ruTrrr?, £7riSufil- £Ol — kTr&vfjiy. au and ay become a, e. g. ayawaei — ayaira 9 ayaway — ay aira-y aeid(x) — aica). aot becomes w, e, g. aoiSri-— yS»j, ayairaoijai — aya- Trwfii ; on the contrary, o« becomes ov or of, 6. g, opdoav — op^ovv? oo^oec — oo^of. Note 3. In general it may be assumed, that, with certain limi- tations, which will be defined in declension and conjugation, the Attics apply the rules of contraction here adduced in almost all instances of the concurrence of the specified vowels. On the con- trary, contraction is more rare in the Epic dialect, as will also be more particularly shown in declension and conjugation ; but its chief uncertainty and fluctuation is in the Ionic, which, on the one hand, divides into two vowels such long sounds as never ap- pear resolved with the Attics, and admits even of the collision of three vowels, each to be independent in the pronunciation ; while, on the other, it also adopts contraction in words where the gene- ral language never allowed it ; as, e. g. ttXevveq for ttXeoveq, ejitaaa for efioTjaa, ervevdica for epvevorjita, &c. Examples of the sepa- ration of sounds, which always appear joined in the Attic, are oiofiaif 7rcu'c, fiaXeeiv, IvirXoKafiog, for owfxai (I suppose), rral'g (a child), fiaXtiv (to throw), ivirkoKOLfxoQ (fair-tressed). 70 ETYMOLOGY. Note 4. The accent must frequently be changed in contrac- tion, but always according to the rules given in § 1 1. For greater facility, the following must be attended to : (a) if neither of the two syllables to be contracted lias the accent, the contraction does not receive it ; e. g. ao^rj — w'cj/, k(bi\eov- — k^'Ckovv : (b) but, if one of them has the accent, it then remains on the contraction, and undergoes the usual changes, as is clear from the above exam- ples; e. g. tt\6oq — 7t\ovq, Biairuo>jat — ciaira>f.iai, ^dilior — Xwwv. If the blended sound formed by contraction falls into the final syl- lable of the word, it takes the circumflex when the first, but the acute when the last, of the contracted syllables was accented ; e. g. TLfxdei — rifici, karawQ — tarojc. § 22, CEASIS.— SYNEZESIS— ELISION, APHAERESIS, AND APPENDED v. Two vowels^ also, which stand one at the end and the other at the beginning of two successive words, occasion difficulty and dissonance in pro- nunciation (hiatus). To avoid this, the Greeks make use of the following means : 1. Crasis {k^clgiq), the union of two such vowels into one blended sound. Herein the assigned rules of contraction (§21.) are generally observed. Thus we unite (a) a a, at a, a e, and at e, into a ; C.g. rafta, Ta\\a } Kav, rav^iKa, ayu), Kayu), kclku,, Kara, for ra kfxa^Ta aXX« ? Kai av, ra EvScjca, a syto, Kal sku, Kal dra. (b) o £, o o, and ot c, into ou ; e. g. TovvavTiov> tovvq- fMiy ovfiGi, for to Evavriov, To ovojia, ol ejuoL (c) o t into ot ; e. g. %^« rtov ^ or ™ Ipanov (comp, § 15. NoteS). CRASIS.-SYNEZESIS, &c. 77 (d) a) 01 into 10 ; £. g. eyio/J.ai 9 tyioda, for £-yw oifiai, syu) oica. Note 1. If a crasis occurs with the article, the vowel of the genitive, dative, and accusative forms is dropped, and when a follows, even 6 and ol disappear ; e.g. rdvdpog, TcivBpi, ravrd, ravrov, dvfip, for rov dpcpog, rw dvcipi, ret avrd, rov avrov, 6 dvijp ; on the contrary, ovpog, obfiol, fyu?/, for 6 k^iog, ol e/jloi, y Efir]. In the Ionic dialect, however, o and oi of the article are united with a succeeding a into w ; e. g. dtvyp, wvSpwKoi, r for 6 aVr;p, en aV<9"pw7rot, ro d\r}$£e. Note 2. When crasis is formed with the particle ical before el, elg, and ovk, and before words beginning with ev, at entirely va- nishes ; e. g. kovk, icel, Kecg, KEvcaifiwVi for kcCi ovtc, kcu £t, teat etc;, /ecu evdat/Jiuv. In other cases, where at forms a blended sound with the succeeding vowel, k is changed into x? if the initial vowel of the succeeding word had the rough breathing (§ 15. Note 8.); e. g. x^s X^ aa i f° r KaL °> f:a ^ ^ c^a • Note 3. The remarkable forms drepog, Sclrepov, Sdrepov, Xrepoi, for 6 erepog, rov eripov, ol erepot, appear as regular cases of crasis, from the observation that, besides erepog, the form drepog existed also in the ancient language. Note 4. Over the blended sound formed by crasis, a sign is placed which resembles the smooth breathing, and is denominated coronis, (Kopwvig). When it coincides with the breathing, it must be omitted. 2. Synezesis (ovvlZnaiQ), the union in pronuncia- tion of two vowels written separate. It is, pro- perly, nothing more than a crasis not designated in writing, but left to the will of the reader, and occurs with the Attics in the combination only of certain words, particularly in fn) oh, rj oh, £7r£t oh, £-yu> ou, and firj uBivai. In the Epic dialect, how- ever, it is very frequent, not only in the combina- tion of two words, whereof one begins and the other ends with a long vowel, but also in the middle of words, particularly with £ before a long vowel ; e. g. nrj|Ai7tajcW '&yi\y)OQ, Hom. II. I. 1. ypverko a\va 78 ETYMOLOGY. vKyWrpu), II. I. 15 ; but also with e before shorts ; e, g, a, fiaX av, y ou§ev, for ctAAa eyu), apa ovv, aha £p(*)Tac; 9 \va t)V f fiaXa kv 9 y\ ou$ev. (c) in the pronoun forms tovto, ravra, Tiva, £fxe, Y)fM kyhs, oiSa on, oio3a apa* (e) in the plural termination a of neuters, the CRASIS.— SYNEZESXS, &c. 79 verbal terminations e and o, and with the poets generally in all terminations with a short vowel ; €. g, tcaic zpya, ykvoir hv, for Kaica eoya, jzvoito av. Note 5, The elision of at of the verbal terminations fiat, cat, rat, is more rare even with the poets ; e. g. tpx ^' ^X 7aip£(nc), the rejection of a short vowel at the beginning of a word, when the pre- ceding word ends with a long sound. Under this are classed cases like ttov 'cmv (for irov iariv), c5 'vati (for w ava'C), firj \ (for firj £/c), firj 'yaSog (for firj aya%6q), and the like, which, however, can all be read and written as belonging to crasis and synizesis. Hence it appears unnecessary to se- parate them in this manner from the similar cases already adduced. 5. Appended v Q(j>b\kv(jtik6v). This is affixed to the third person of the verb, ending in £ or t, and to the dative plur. in m 9 when they are fol- lowed by a word which begins with a vowel ; e.g. Irvipsv lui (for etu^s), alvovcnv uvtqv (for aivovtri), iraaiv 2 80 ETYMOLOGY. UTrtv zkuvoq (for 7ra 'OXv/uLTTLamv (at Olympia). Note 9. The circumstance of v being affixed to the assigned forms of words, also at the end of prepositions, and, among the poets, even before consonants in the middle of discourse, while others again with the same terminations (namely e and t) can never receive it, appears to prove that the v e(J)e\kv(ttik6v was not an accidental appendage, but the original full-sounding form of the word, which, to avoid harshness, was gradually softened before a succeeding consonant by the rejection of v. The Ionic dialect, which delights in the accumulation of vowels, generally neglects the v J^eXn/ort/cov, even when a vowel follows. Note 10. As a more moveable appendage in use only before vowels, must be considered the final q in the words ovrtog (so), a^ptc, and ^xpie ( unt il), which before consonants become ovru), o-X9 L -> an( l H-^XP lt With the Ionians this is also the case in the termination of numeral adverbs, ukiq^ which before consonants is frequently written a/a. DEVELOP. &c. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 81 CHAPTER IV. Development and Illustration of the Parts of Speech, §23. GENERAL DEFINITION OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WORDS. 1. Tme end of language (according to § 1. 2.) is the expression of human ideas or thoughts. Now every idea has for its foundation an object, to which the attention is directed, and a relation or condition, in which the object is conceived to exist. Words, which are used for the designa- tion of an object, are called nouns (ovo^ara, no- mina, names) ; but those, which express a relation or condition of the object, verbs (py^iara, verba,) declarations. 2. Relations and conditions are either assigned generally and without nearer definition, or ac- companied with nearer definitions and more par- ticular references to other things. Words, which assign the nearer definitions and particular re- ferences of general relations, are termed particles (juopia, particulae). 3. Thus we deduce three principal classes of words ; nouns, verbs and particles. 82 ETYMOLOGY §24. THE NOUN, AND THE KINDS OF WORDS CON- NECTED THEREWITH. 1. A noun contains either the name of an ex- isting independent object, and is called a noun substantive (ovofia ovgiclgtikov, nomen substanti- vum), or the name of a property, found in an object, and is called a noun adjective (ovofjia 57rt^rov, nomen adjectivum). Note. Substantives are again resolved, according to the idea they convey, into different classes. Thus a substantive serves either to denote (a) an individual object only, as, Greece, Rome, the Danube, Cyrus, — a noun substantive proper, (proper name) ; or (b) a whole species of objects, as, man, bird, beast, fish, — a noun substantive common or appellative ; or (c) a mere idea, wherein something is conceived as an object, which properly is not possessed of real existence, as, beauty, form, life, goodness, — a noun substantive derivate. 2. An adjective indicates a property simply as a property ; but, if the word denoting property is also to assign the time when this exists in the object, use is then made of the participle (pvopa ju£to"£ik6v, participium) ; thus, loving, beloved, suf- fering, suffered. 3. When several actions or relations are pre- dicated of one object, in every new predication it would be necessary to repeat the name of this object, and hence tautology, prolixity, and even indistinctness of speech, would be unavoidable. To obviate this fault, language adopts the use of pronouns (pronomina), which are applied as the DEVELOP. &c. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 83 representatives of substantives ; thus, instead of saying, — Caius went to the wars ; Caius was wounded ; a sickness then befel Caius ; the sick- ness deprived Caius of the strength of Caius, and Caius returned afflicted to the home of Caius — - by the employment of pronouns, we say ; — Caius went to the wars ; he was wounded ; a sickness then befel him, which deprived him of his strength, and he returned afflicted to his home. §25. VERB. A verb serves either simply to denote that, a property exists in an object (verbum substan- tivum, verb substantive) ; e\ g. the tree is green, the fruit becomes ripe, the animal ivas alive;— or, it at the same time aiso includes the property ; e. g. the fruit ripens, the animal lived, Caius strikes. ADVERB. The property, which is designated generally in an adjective or verb, can in various ways be more nearly denned and represented as parti- cular. This nearer definition of a property is c; 2 84 ETYMOLOGY. given by the adverb ' (empprifia) ; e. g: the tree is very high, the bird sings beautifully, the loudly roaring lion, the quick destroying arrow. § 27. PARTICLES. All words, whose use serves to define the relation of single words and of whole proposi- tions to each other, or to impart connexion, power, and life to discourse, are comprehended under the general appellation of particles (jiopia). We here enumerate two kinds of them. LA preposition (wpoSemg), which indicates that one object is dependent upon another, and defines the manner of that dependence ; e. g. I go a walking with my father ; I am by thee, stand near thee, depart/Wwz thee ; the tree stands on the hill, beside the fountain, before the house. 2. A conjunction (dwcWjuoc), which connects propositions together, and assigns the relation existing between them ; e. g\ for — thy mother was with me, thy father was with me, — we say ■ — thy mother and thy father were with me; — for — the man wishes to become clever, the man wishes to become useful, he must learn some- thing, — we say — if the man- wishes to become clever and useful, he must learn something. DEVELOP. &c. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 85 §28. INTERJECTION. Interjections are sounds uttered under the in- fluence of violent feelings,, (grief, joy, surprise, terror, &c.) to indicate the existence of those feelings within us. Hence they are not to be considered as single words, but as complete ex- pressions of the language of feeling ; e. g* alas ! ah ! oh ! fy ! woe ! heavens ! 86 ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER V, The Noun according to all its Paris. A. SUBSTANTIVE. § 29. GENDER. 1. All languages observe in the appellations of objects a certain division, with respect to sex or gender. Thus many objects belong by nature either to the masculine (masculinum) or the fe- minine gender (femininum). This has been trans- ferred to other things wherein no natural sex is apparent, and hence nouns are classed according to these two genders. But objects which can- not conveniently rank under either of the two are said to be generis neutrius, of the neuter or neither gender, 2. To which of these three divisions a noun belongs is known (1) By the signification of the word ; whereon the following rules obtain : (a) the names of men, and of all creatures which are male by nature, are of the masculine gender ; e. g. Sw^ariic, 'Epjurjc, avhp (a man), "ipwg (a hero), w^o^rnq (a prophet), aXtKrwp (a cock). Note 1. The names of months and of most rivers are pro- perly adjectives, and therefore of the masculine gender, because 6 p\v (a month), and 6 ttotouoc (a river) 5 are to be understood, GENDER. 87 (b) the names of women, and of all creatures which are female by nature, are feminine ; e. g\ 'AairaGia, 'AtypoSiTr), yvvrj (a Woman), pyTrip (a mother), %yarr?p (a daughter), 'oXzictoqiq (a hen). Note 2. The names of countries, islands, towns, and trees, are for the most part of the feminine gender. (c) the names of letters, infinitives and all words considered in respect to their letters and not to their signification, are neuter ; to a\ to yvvn (the word yvvi)). (d) appellatives of persons, which are used of males as well as females, must also be of both genders, or of the common gender (generis com- munis) ; e. g. o, 7i, %£oq (a God, Goddess) ; 6, n, iraiQ (a boy, girl) ; o, 17, v\a£ (a watch). Note 3. The same obtains also of the names of animals, when one appellation serves for both sexes ; e. g. 6, »/, (dovq (a bull, cow) ; 6, ?/, dpKTOQ (a bear, she-bear). Frequently, however, the appellation used for both male and female has only one definite gender, either masculine or feminine. This is called epicene, genus epicoenum (iniKoivov), and the natural sex is indicated by the addition of the adjectives dpprjp (male), and SijXvg (female) ; e. g. h\(plp 6 SrjXvQ (the female dolphin), Xayiog 6 SijXvg (the fe- male hare), a\w7rr?£ rj dpprjv (the male of the fox), ^eXt^wj/ rj dpprjv (the male of the swallow). But, when the names of animals represent the mere idea of species without any regard to distinction of sex, one definite gender only is always used, even of those which are common ; e. g. *? a'\w7r??£ (a fox), eu Ka'//?7\oi (camels), at apxroi (bears), 6 kvwv (a dog), but // kvcov (a bitch or a trained dog). (2) Generally the gender is known by the termination of the word, as taught in the de- clensions. 88 ETYMOLOGY, 4 30. DECLENSION, 1. A noun indicates an object as an idea by itself, without further reference and connexion with others; but, if this enter into a relation with other objects, the noun must assume a form by which such relation is expressed. This is done by varying the final syllable of the word, and this variation we term declension* 2. The Greeks varied a word in a fourfold manner, and hence arose four cases : genitive, dative, accusative, vocative ; at the top of which it is usual to place the nominative, although properly this is not a case, but merely the original form of the word. They have, therefore, one case fewer than the Latins, namely, the ablative. 3. The declension of a word defines also whether only one, or two, or several objects are to be indicated by it, and this is called number. It is the singular number when the discourse is of only one, the dual when of two, and the plural when of several objects. The Greeks have, there- fore, one number more than the Latins, namely, the dual, which, however, is incomplete, possess- ing only two forms, whereof one obtains for the nominative, accusative, and vocative, and the other for the genitive and dative. 4. As nouns have not of themselves the same termination, the necessary changes therefore 3 DECLENSION OF THE ARTICLE. S3 cannot be effected in them according to the same form. Hence arise different declensions, which in Greek are three. § 31. DECLENSION OF THE ARTICLE. As the Greek article occurs so frequently in connexion with substantives, we place its de- clension here before that of the latter, although, according to its own nature, it belongs to the class of pronouns, and is therefore to be treated of subsequently. Singular. Nom. o, t/, to, the. Gen. tov, rf)c, tov, of the. Dat. rw, rrj, Tu>, to the. Ace. t6v, ti\v, to, the. Dual. Nom. and Ace. ™, tu, tw, the two, Gen. and Dat. toIv, toiv, rolv, of or to the two. Plural. Nom. o\ s at, tcl, the. Gen. tiov, of the. Dat. roiq, Taig, roig, -to the* Acc. tov*;, Tag, to., the= 90 ETYMOLOGY. § 32. FIRST DECLENSION. 1. The first declension has four terminations, of which « and r? are of the fern, and ag and rig of the masc. gender. Terminations. Singular. Norn. ag vc> Gen. ag vg v^^-v^*^ ov (ao, w, to>). Dat. a y Ace. av t)v av yv. VoC. a ij a JjOra* Dual. Nom.Ace.&Voc. «. Gen. and Dat. mv. Plural. Nom. ai. Gen, wv (awv, €0>v). Dat. aig (aiai, yen, yg). ACC. ag. VoC. at. 2. The nominative termination a occurs only when preceded by a vowel, or p, & 3 v, S, S, or two consonants, or a double consonant If a vowel FIRST DECLENSION. 91 precedes, then a in the termination is an « pure (7. e. it is pronounced by itself, without the mixture of another sound, since it forms a distinct sylla- ble), and remains in all the cases of the singular. The same takes place in the termination pa. But the rest retain a only in the accusative and voca- tive, the genitive and dative adopting »?. Note 1. This retention of a through all the cases of the sin- gular is observed also in some words which have d long in the nominative, although not terminating either in a pure or pa. Such are dXaXd (a battle-shout), vKarMXa (the catch of a trap), and some proper names, as 'Avdpojiida, Aion/xa, A^a, QiXo/miiXd. 3. In the dual and plural all the four termina- tions coincide. Position of the Accent in Words of the first Declension. 4. In placing the accent both in this and the following declension, two general rules are to be observed ; namely, (a) primitive words, formed with a simple ter- mination from a simple and unchanged root, have their accent on the radical syllable (according to § 10. A. 2.); on the contrary, derivatives, which are formed from a root either by the addition of several letters, or by the change of the vowel, have the accent on the termination (according to $ 10. A. 3.) ; e. g. primitives, /3Aa/3-)7 (a hurt), S//c-?? (jus- tice), KOfx-r] (hair), viK-r) (victory), tv^-v (fortune) ; derivatives, ypa/i/4ij (a line, from ypa%pa (destruction, from $%>, (j)%up), ayopa (a market, from ayep, a yap), (j>opa (a load, from (j>ep). Note 2. As the major part of words terminating in rj consist of derivatives, their most usual accentuation is therefore on the final syllable. The same has been transferred to a great num- ber even of simple substantives of this termination ; e. g. ev^-y) (a wish), (jovX-r) (advice), ap^-V (rule), Qtovri (a voice). On the contrary, all substantives with the termination vvr\ are ac- cented on the penultimate ; e. g. evtypoavvq (mirth). (b) of derivative substantives terminating in ua and ia, those which signify a concrete (i. e. an object or a person) receive the accent on the ter- mination, but those which signify an abstract (i. e. an action, a state, or an idea) receive it on the penultimate or antepenultimate according to the nature of the final syllable ; e. g. concretes, napua (a cheek), koXui (a nest), arpana (an army) ; ab- stracts, (with a long final syllable, comp. § 8. First Sect. I. 1.), ayyeXla (a message), oofyla (wisdom), SovXaa (slavery) ; but with a short final syllable {comp. as above), akrfcua (truth), zvazfiua (piety). Exceptions : feminine appellatives in rpia, de- rived from masculines in r*?p and r^c, although they are concretes, have the accent on the ante- penultimate ; e. g. vfyavrpia (a female weaver), Troirirpia (a poetess). The remaining rules for the position of the accent must be given according to the several terminations. (1) Accent in the termination a, (a) substantives, having an a or v or a double FIRST DECLENSION. 93 consonant or two consonants before the termi- nation a, are, when dissyllabic, accented on the penultimate, when polysyllabic on the antepenul- timate syllable ; e. g. cava (a share), a/mwa (a de- fence), pita (a root), afxa^a (a waggon), Stya (thirst), SaXa<7 ^p i(Tr£ p a (the left, from apia- Tspog) ; on the contrary, avpa (air), Svpa (a door), apovpa (a field), yupa (a country), jxoipa (a share), njuspa (day), payaipa (a sword), teipa (a trial). (y) of substantives in which the a is preceded by a vowel, those in em and m have been already discussed under (b). For the rest the following rules obtain : Substantives with the termination aa and w, and polysyllables in aid, are paroxytone ; e.g. e\aa (an olive), TrrcXta (an elm), yaXrivala (a calm). On the contrary, all dissyllables in ma are pro- peris pome ; e. g. yala (earth), ypala (an old wo- man). Exceptions : ytvw (birth), and &a (a Goddess), are oxytone. Substantives in oa are usually paroxytone, but 94 ETYMOLOGY. those in oia oxytone; e. g, noa and irom (grass), X?° a an( i X? 01 ® (skin). Exceptions : oroa (a porch) is oxytoiib ; Tpola paroxytone ; and the compounds in /3oia, TrAoia, voia, and 7rXota, are proparoxytone. Substantives in va are paroxytone, dissyllables in via properispome, and polysyllables in via ge- nerally proparoxytone ; e. g. tcapva (a nut-tree), mKva (a gourd), fivla (a fly), aywa (a street). Exceptions : ayvia and opyum are in the Attic dialect oxytone, in Homer proparoxytone, and fii)T^via (a step-mother) is always oxytone. (2) Accent in the termination »?. See above (a) and Note 2. (3) Accent in the termination ag. Substantives of this termination are paroxytone, with the ex- ception of some proper names, which are oxytone ; 6. g. rafilag (a Steward), Alveiag, &c. (4) Accent in the termination ng. (a) Substantives formed from a simple root with the mere termination rjg, besides derivatives from verbs with the terminations iruXriQ, perprjc, wvtiq, and rptj3*jc, and all those formed from proper names with the termination ^g (ISrjg, uStig, aSrjg), are paroxytone ; e. g. aSoXeaxyg ( a prattler), rm~ ripapyriQ (a ship-cap tain), m^ottwXijc (a dealer in ointment), ym^r^g (a land-surveyor), reX^wg (a farmer of customs), irai$0Tpl(5riQ (a wrestling-mas- ter), 'ArpeiStje, &c. (b) Substantives derived from verbs, with the termination t»?c, are chiefly oxytone ; e. g. ironn^g (a poet), f.ia%TYjg (a scholar). FIRST DECLENSION. 95 „ Exceptions : (a) In many substantives so formed, the substantive idea appears so pure and independent, that they have been regarded as original substantives, and accordingly pronounced as paroxytone ; e. g. KXe-n-rvg (a thief), -n-XaaTm (a modeller), &c. (b) All substantives in t^q, not derived from verbs, are paroxytone ; e. g. to^ottiq (an archer, from ro£ov), 7roX/rr?c (a citizen, from ttoAcc), ItpyaTYiQ (a workman, from ipyov), &c. Changes of the Accent. 5. The change of the accent in words of the first declension is determined by the following rules : (a) the gen. plur. has always a circumflex on the final syllable (comp. below, obs. 3. c). The genitives y^^arwv (from xpW*?c, an usurer), atyvuv (from a(j>vr) f anchovy), which are distinguished by their accent from the similarly sounding forms of the words xpriarog (useful), and a^c (misshapen), together with etw'kjjv (from ena-lai, trade-winds), make the only exceptions. (b) the ace. and voc. sing, besides the nom. and voc. plur. retain the accentuation of the nom. sing. From this the voc. ^crTrora, of (Worrjc, is alone excepted. (c) in the gen. and dat. plur. of all numbers (with the exceptions given under a) oxytones pass into perispomes, properispomes and pro- paroxytones into paroxytones, but paroxytones remain unchanged. (d) in the nom. and ace. dual, and in the ace. plur. oxytones and paroxytones retain their ac- 96 ETYMOLOGY. cent unchanged ; but properispomes and propar- oxytones pass into paroxytones. Note 3. The gen. plur. feminine of adjectives of three termi- nations is invariably formed like the masculine ; e. g. haibtv (from oo-tof; and data), &c. E xampl Sing. es. >h a market. 7), a root. $, a Muse. Norn. ayopa pita M.ovaa Gen. ayopag ptlvQ Mouk Dat. ayopa pity Moi/(Ti? Ace. ayopav plXjOLV Wlovaav Voc. ayopa Dual ptla MoDffa Nom. &Acc. ayopa pita Movaa Gen. & Dat. ayopaiv Plur. piCaiv Moi'ffatv Nom. ■i t ayopai piL,ai Movaai Gen. ayoptov ptt,h)V Mou/rwv Dat. ayopaig piCaiq Moderate Ace. ayopag pi'Cag MoWac Voc. ayopai Sing. piCjai Moudat. >/, a voice. 6, a citizen. 6, a youth. o, a prattler. Nom (p(i)Vlf ttoXitiiq vzaviag aSoXiayyg Gen. i, the annexation of which to the root formed the gen. and dat. of feminines in the first declension ; e. g. zvvr)$i or £vvr}(f>iv for tvvm, besides jSi'^i for fitr} (from j3/a), &c. § 33. SECOND DECLENSION. 1. The second declension has two terminations, og and ov. Words with the termination oc are for the most part masculine, but partly also femi- nine ; all in ov are neuter. Note. In the considerable number of feminine substantives in og, neither adequate general rules for determining the gender can be assigned, nor the individual words themselves completely enumerated. The following observations, however, may serve as an introduction to the accurate determination of the gender : (a) names of countries, islands, towns, and trees, are feminine, according to the general rule (§29. Note 2). As exceptions must be adduced 6 kpiveog (a wild fig-tree), 6 nipaaog (a cherry- tree), and a few others. On the contrary, it is to be remarked, that, together with the names of trees, the appellations also of many ^plants, and of the fruits and productions obtained from them, are feminine ; e. g. y fiufiXog (the papyrus), y (jtfiXog and y SeXrog (a book, made of that material), >/ fivaaog (linen), y ftdXavog (an acorn), y pdcbavog (radish), >/ pdj3cog and y 6g (a brother), $z6g (God), vaog (a temple), \a6g (a people), ^(Dfioq (an altar), icpiog (a ram), vlog (a son), %fx6g (heart), aoifyioc (number), ocp^aXfiog (an eye), irora- fxog (a river), and others, whose proper accen- tuation must be learnt by practice and from lexicons. (b) words of similar sound, but of different import, were sought to be distinguished by the accent ; e. g. fiiog and (5i6g (life and a bow), S^ioc and St?juoc (a people and the omentum), v6/mog and vofiog (a law and a pasture), fiporog and (3p6rog, (a mortal and blood), and some others. (c) of the terminations of diminutives, those in idKog are always accented on the penultimate, those in apiov, tcW, uXXtov, and v$iov, on the antepenultimate ; of those in wv 3 on the con- trary, such as consist of three short or of more than three syllables are accented on the ante- penulimate, but trisyllables with a long initial syllable on the penultimate ; e. g. iraidiov and tzkviov (a little child) ; on the contrary, fiopiov (a particle). U&v (a plain), which, according to 102 ETYMOLOGY. this rule, should be proparoxytone, forms the only exception. Note 3. Respecting the single instances where trisyllabic and polysyllabic words are accented on the penultimate, as irapSevog (a virgin), wfjuplog (a bridegroom), no rule can be given, but they are left to individual observation. One class, however, of words so accented, are treated of below, (§ 48. A. 1 .) as originally belonging to adjectives. Changes of the Accent. 3. The change of the accent in the inflexion of words of this declension is determined by the following rules : (a) paroxytones retain their accent unchanged through all the cases . (b) in the gen. and dat. of all numbers, oxy tones become perispome, but properispomes and pro- paroxy tones paroxytone ; e. g. fiwfxov, /Bw^w, j3w/uoty, (3i*)[liwv, j3o>juoi£ from f^Mfxog— -yjopov, %w£>w, &c. from ^wooc, — avzpd)7ri)v 9 civSowttw, &C. from av3p(i)7T0Q. Terminations. Sing. Nom. OQ Gen. ou(E* Dat. 10 c Ace. ov Voc. g or og Dual. Norn. and Ace. w Gen and Dat. oiv (Ei ov Oil SECOND DECLENSION. 10 Plur. Norn. 01 a Gen. d)V Dat. oig (oiai) Ace. OVQ (Dor. (*)g) a Voc. Ol a Examples. Sing. o, a speech. fj, an island. ?/, a road. 70, a garment N. Xoyog vrjeroc o§6g ijucltiov G. \oyov vr\GOv oSou 1/j.arlov D. X6yu> vr\aii) 6ow i/mariio A. \oyov VT](JOV oSov IfXCLTlOV V. XoyeSiXoyog vrideSc VYjGOg 0§£ & oooc Dual. ifianov N.A.&V.Xo 7 « vyigoj oSw IfACLTHi} G. & D. Xoyoiv vriaoiv odoiv Plur. ijuanoiv N. \oyoi VUGOl oSot ifxana G. \6ylXs ? and w lXog* 104 ETYMOLOGY. (2) Difference in the dialects. (a) for the gen. sing, oo must be assumed as a primitive termination, whence by contraction was formed the usual termination ov, instead of which the Epic writers frequently use oio, but the Dorians to ; e. g. noia/ioio (Ep.) and rfpiajuw (Dor.) for UpiajuLQv. (b) the dual termination oiv becomes in Epic always dissyllabic, ouv ; e. g. wpouv for wfxoiv. (c) the original termination of the dat. plur. in oifft is still usual in the Epic and Ionic dialects, and with the poets : in Epic, however, the cur- tailed oiq also is of very frequent occurrence. (d) Doric writers form the ace. plur. with the termination a>c, which the poets sometimes shorten into oc. (e) the appended syllable $iv or $i is used by Epic writers for forming the gen. and dat. more frequently in this than in the first declension; examples even occur where it forms the accusa- tive ; €. g. £/c 7raGiv (for ^£(I>v and Seals), £7rl ck£ioi (for § 34. CONTRACTION. Words which have a short vowel (t oro) before the terminations oc and ov are usually contracted according to the general rules (§ 21.), except SECOND DECLENSION. 105 that the neuter termination a of the plur. ab- sorbs the preceding s or o, and thereby becomes long. Sing. 6, navigation. to, a bone N. w\oog rrXovg OGTZOV OGTOVV G. ttXoov 7rXoV > / OGTZOV ogtov D. ttXoo) ttXio ogtsoj OGTtO A. ttXoov ttXovv OOTfOV OGTOVV V. 7rXo£ ttXov Dual. oorcov OGTOVV N. A.&V. ttAo'w ttXu) OGTEto) ocrrw G. & D. ttXqoiv ttXoiv Plur. OGTZOIV O(7T0n/ N. 7rXoOl ttXo! oGTea oara G. 7tXoWV ttXwv OGT£to)V OGTUJV D. nXooig ttXoiq oarioig OGTolg A. 7TAOOVQ irXovg oaria OGTOL V. 7rXoOl ttXol OGTta OGTO. Note 1 . The Epic dialect allows contraction only in the word voog — vovq (intellect) ; the rest retain their open form, and those in eog and iov are adapted to the verse either by lengthening s into et, (see § 20. Note 1.) as x^ K ^og for xd\Keoe, or by syni- zesis, (§ 22. 2.) Note 2. The following cases are to be observed as deviating from the rules of accentuation : (a) the contracted form of the dual in w is marked with the acute, although according to the rule it should be circumflexed ; e. g. vom—vio. — (b) adjectives in eog, which are proparoxytone in their open form, receive after contraction a circumflex on the final syllable ; e. g. xpvvwc- XpvcrovQ (golden), x^^og-x^X^ovg (brazen). The same change occurs also in Kdveov-tcavovv (a basket). — (c) compounds formed from monosyllables, vovg, irkovg, and the like, retain the accent unchanged on the penultimate ; e. g. avovg (senseless), gen. avov 9 dat. avw (contracted from dvoov, dvoy), &c. 106 ETYMOLOGY, § 35. ATTIC DECLENSION. Some words of this declension have a long in- stead of a short vowel for the nominative, and con- sequently terminate in wg, wv. These preserve to through all the cases, and, in those wherein ae or w occurs in the common declension, accompany it with an iota subscript. Sing. o, a people. ro, a hall . N. Xcwc avwycwu G. Xeo» av avV Plur. avojyeoiv N. Xsw av in the ace. sing, besides the usual termination u)v ; e. g. fi euig (dawn), ace. tyiv 'ioj, together with several proper names and some adjectives. Note 2. The number of words inflected in this manner is in- considerable, and several of them have yet another form, which THIRD DECLENSION. 107 belongs to the common second or to the third declension ; e. g. for Xewg, also Xaoe, /caXwg (a rope), gen. icdXco and icaXwog. Note 3. As examples of irregularity in the position of the accent, it must be observed ; (a) that polysyllabic proparoxytones in eiog and euv retain the accent unchanged through all the cases (see § 10. Note 4) ; (b) that oxytones retain the acute even in the gen. sing., although from the natural quantity of the termina- tion, they should be circumflexed ; e.g. Xew, gen. of Xewq. THIRD DECLENSION. § 36. Gender. Since the terminations of this declension are so numerous, and it is rare that any single one be- longs exclusively to one gender, no perfectly certain and adequate rules for gender can there- fore be given. The observation of individual cases, however, will be facilitated by attending generally to the following. (1) To masculines belong : (a) without exception words in av (long a), ag, (gen. avroQ and avog), £vg and w. (b) the most part of words in j?v, rip, rig (gen. rjroc), up, ovg, vp, wv (gen. tovog and ovrog), wo and wg (gen. u)Tog and woe). Exceptions * : (1) w— r) § 29. 108 ETYMOLOGY. as feminine — and all contracts from tap, which are neuter, as to yp, spring, to Acf/p, the heart, to errip, tallow. (3) vq— all derivative substantives in otiiq and vtw are feminine, as also i) £p — the neuters iXBiop, a wish, tXwp, booty, TriXwp, a monster, otcwo, filth, TEK/uwp, a boundary, v$ujp, water. (9) wg — ro (j>wg, light, y dug, a gift. (2) To feminines belong : (a) without exception words in avq, w, and wg (gen. ooc). (b) the most part of words in ag (gen. aSog), ug, iv and ig, vg a'nd wv (gen. ovog). Exceptions : (1) all substantives in ag are fe- minine, but adjectives of this termination are Common ; e. g. o, y, $vyag (fugitive), o, y, Xoyag (select). (2) ug — o /era's, a comb. (3) iv and ig— o Kig, a wood-worm, o $eX water for washing. (4) To neuters belong : (a) all words terminating in a, av (short a), c, tv, eq, ov, op, oq, and v. (b) the terminations «p and aq (gen. aroq and aoc), with the exception of o T/>a£>, a starling, and o \aq, a stone. § 37. CONCERNING THE ACCENT IN THE THIRD DECLENSION. A. Position of the Accent. In determining the accented syllable, mono- syllabic words in this declension must be dis- tinguished from polysyllables, and again in poly- syllables regard must be paid to the difference of gender. With reference to this distinction the following rules obtain : (1) All monosyllabic words, excepting those which terminate in q and form the accusative in v, are oxytone ; e. g. piv, %o, plq, kXwv, (all with the ace. a) ; on the contrary, fxvq, and i»Q in feminines, and in the masculines o evpug (mould), o tSpwg (sweat), 6 rawc (a peacock). On the contrary, of feminines, r) aXwg (a thrashing-floor), THIRD DECLENSION. Ill 11 cwc (dawn), and v yaXug (a sister-in-law), are excepted. Note 2. The numerous feminine appellatives in iq which are derived from masculine appellations retain the accent on that syllable whereon it stood in the masculine ; e. g. avXi]rpig (a female flute-player, from avXr^riip), haTrorig (a mistress, from SeaTcorriQ), 27rapridrt£ (from STraprtaVrye). But if the masculine is proparoxytone, the feminine derived from it becomes oxytone ; e. g. aix^ctX(i)Ti£ (a female captive, from al-^fidXiorog). (j3) the termination vg comprises merely oxy- tones, excepting o j3orouc (a bunch of grapes), o Spriwg (a foot-stool), rj yewg (a jaw-bone), f) irvg (a margin, circumference), h Kopvg (a helmet), 17 kiojulvq (a bundle), o vUvg (a corpse), o wtXeicvg (a hatchet), /? irr\yyq (a cubit), r\ irirvg (a pine), 6 tto£(t/3uc (an ambassador), o ora^uc(an ear of corn), % ^Xvg (a tortoise), and proper names, as T6?rvg, <£>6pKvg, &C. (7) all feminines of the termination i»v are oxytone, except rj yk^wv (penny-royal), and 17 fxy]K(jjv (a poppy) ; on the contrary, masculines of this termination are paroxytone, with the ex- ception, however, of many proper names, as HarfXayuv, MaKzSujv, and the like, besides those words which denote a place wherein something is found in abundance, or of particular size and extent, as v (a leader), icTjSejuwv (a guardian), kuvwv (a plumb-rule), \ufxwv (a meadow), &c. 112 ETYMOLOGY. Note S. The remaining terminations of this declension, not adduced here, are never oxytone, excepting a few single cases, as r/ Trorfjg (drink), rj ^rj'iorijQ (battle), which are constantly oxy- tone, and ppaSvrriQ (slowness), aSporrig (thickness), wherein the accentuation is uncertain. In like manner the oxytones 6 a^wp (a pustule), and 6 ix&p (lymph), are to be noticed as exceptions from the general rule. B. Changes of the Accent. (1) In monosyllabic words the gen. and dat. of all numbers are accented on the termination ; e. g. Sripog, Sripi, Sriptov ; on the contrary, %pa, %peg, Srjoac (from %p). Exceptions. The gen. plur. SacW, ^wwv,Swwv, TTctuW, Tpwwv, (puSwv, (j>(ot(jjv 9 and wrwv, are paroxy- tone. Monosyllabic participles through all the cases retain the accent on the root; e. g. Qvq, gen. vvtoq ; tl)v, gen. ovroc, &c. The word nag has its gen. and dat. plur. accented on the penultimate, thus, TravrtJVf wacn* Note 4. The analogy of monosyllables is followed in the ac- centuation of the gen. and dat. by those words also, which throw out their accent syllable ; e. g. from ctw^, kvvoq, kwi, Kvviov, Kvai — from yvin), yvvaacoe, yvvaiKi, &c. Respecting the synco- pised forms in rjp, see particularly § 40. Note 3. Note 5. When the Epic dialect forms the dat. plur. of mono- syllabic words with the termination earn, the accent remains, in this case, on the radical syllable ; e, g. from ttcu£, dat. plur. natal and TralSeo-ffi. (2) Of polysyllabic words, oxytones retain their accent unchanged in its position through all the cases ; e. g. ^XtSwv, ^cAiSovoc, xeAiSovi, ^AiSova, ^tXt^ovwv, &c. Properispomes become proparoxy- tone in the gen. and dat. sing., and in the nom. 1 INFLEXION OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 113 dat. and ace. plur. ; but, on account of the long final syllable, paroxytone in the gen. dual and plur. ; e. g. Trpay/ua, Trpayuaroc, irpayfiaTi, TrpaypaTa, TrpayfiuTMv. In proparoxytones, the gen. dual and plur. receive the acute accent on the penulti- mate; C. g. SiXmp, SsXzarwv. § 38. (37.) INFLEXION OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 1. As an external distinction of this from the two preceding declensions, it must be observed, that the nominative of the two first has a deter- minate casal termination, which is merely varied in the remaining cases ; while, in the third de- clension, on the contrary, separate casal termina- tions are affixed to the nominative, and the word is thereby increased by a syllable. The following- are the casal terminations of the third declension : Sing. ' Dual. Plur. N. — N. A. and V. £ . N. *c, neut. a. G. oc. G. and D. oiv. G. wv. D. i; D. «■. A. a Or v. A. oc, — - a. V. frequently as the nom. V. zq, — «. 2. These terminations are affixed to the pri- mitive form of the word, which is called the root. But. this root has remained unchanged in only 114 ETYMOLOGY. few words, as an endeavour to attain euphony and the custom of pronouncing an independent word with a full tone on the final syllable, and in such a manner that it may be easily and clearly distinguished from other words in the sentence, have given rise to various alterations of the root for the formation of the nominative. 3. The most usual changes by which the nomi- native has been formed from the root are as fol- low : (a) to the final syllable an g has been affixed (which, where it occurs at the end of the nomina- tive, is to be considered an appendage), or a T sound (S, S, r) has changed into g, to lighten and give rotundity to the pronunciation ; (b) a r at the end has been dropped without further change ; (c) an c has been affixed, and v (according to § 18. 4) or even vr (§ 17. Note), before it dropped ; (d) the original short vowel in the final syllable has passed into its corresponding long one, £ into v) 3 o into a). 4. By an attention to these given changes must the simple root to every nominative form be dis- covered, and according to it the declension of the word determined. But, as this cannot be done in a perspicuous and adequate manner, it is necessary that not only the nominative of a word, accord- ing to this declension, but the genitive also should be impressed on the memory ; and, to facilitate this, we here give a complete synopsis of all the terminations of this declension, with an accurate determination and distinction of the different ge- nitives* In placing the paradigms," however, we divide all the terminations, according;* to an ex- TERMINATIONS OF THE TH B . DECLENSION. 115 ternal resemblance or dissimilarity in the forma- tion of cases, into two principal sections; (1) nouns in which the casal termination is affixed to an unchanged, and (2) nouns in which the casal termination is affixed to a changed nominative. {39. SYNOPSIS OF ALL THE TERMINATIONS OF NO- MINATIVES IN THE THIRD DECLENSION, WITH THE FORMATION OF THE GENITIVES. I. The termination a has, in the genitive, in- variably GLTOQ. II. ate has in the gen. (1) aiSog in o, rj -n-mg (a child), and the compounds formed therefrom, as awaig (childless), &c. ; (2) aiTog in h <$aig (a repast), and to araig (dough). III. av has in the gen. (J) avog in all substan- tives of this termination, and in the neuter of ad- jectives ; e.g. p£\av, avog (black) ; (2) avrog in the neuter of participles ; e. g. So^av, avrog (resolved). IV. up has in the gen. (1) apog in substantives of the masc. and fem. gender, with the exception of r} Sapap, gen. SapapTog (a wife). — (2) arog in sub- stantives of the neut. gender^ with the exception of tap (spring), vLscrap (nectar), aXicap (a defence), uXap (a shelter), Sevap (the palm of the hand), vu>Kap (laziness), and v^eap (mistletoe), which, al- though neuter, take apog in the genitive. t 2 116 ETYMOLOGY. V. ag has in the gen. (1) a$og in substantives of the fern. gen. and in adjectives that are common ; e. g. o, i) } fyofiag (running); (2) arog and aog in neuter substantives. The usual genitive termina- tion for these is arog, which, however, frequently passes into aog by dropping the r, and is then con- tracted (see § 45). Only few words have origi- nally the genitive in aog without r, as Swag, $£7raog (a cup), and aaXag, aiXaog (light) ; (3) avrog in masc. substantives and participles of this termination ; e. g. yptyag, avrog (having written) ; (4) avog in the adjectives imtXag (black), and raXag (miserable). VL avg has in the gen. aog, in the ace. aw ; comp. § 43* ypavg, and § 46. vavg. VII. up has in the gen. upog. VIII. ug has in the gen. evrog, and, when ijoro precedes the termination, admits of contraction : KTug, gen. Krevog (a comb), and /cX«c, gen. /cAaSoc (a key), are excepted. IX. cv occurs only in the neuter of participles and adjectives, and has in the gen. cvroc, with the exception of the two adjectives appw, neut. of ap- pw, (masc), and repsv, neut. of rkpnv (tender), which have evog in the genitive. X. ££> used only as the neuter of adjectives in K)q y has in the gen. eog, contr. ovg. XL evg has, in the Attic, gen. eug, but in the Epic and Ionic nog and eog, XIL rj occurs only in to tcapn, gen. KaprjTog (a head). XIIL nv has in the gen. (1) nvog in monosylla- bic substantives and the adjectives derived from TERMINATIONS OF THE TIP. DECLENSION. 117 them, but in only few polysyllabic substantives ; (2) evog in almost all polysyllabic nouns of this termination. XIV. vp has in the gen. (1) ypog in monosyllabic substantives, and in all derivatives with the ter- mination rvp ; (2) epog in polysyllabic substantives not comprehended under the above-named. Con- cerning such of them as drop £ in some cases, see § 40. Note 2. XV. rjg has in the gen. (1) nrog in substantives of this termination, besides adjectives of one ter- mination, particularly all compounds in fiXr)g, Spic, %vi)g, and K^g; (2) tog, contr. ovg, in all adjectives of two terminations in rjg, neut. eg, and proper names which end in KXr)g, Kparrjg, p$r/c, irubng, and crZevrjg, XVI. t has in the gen. (1) irog in jmeXi (honey), and the compounds formed from it ; (2) tog in the remaining substantives of this termination. XVII. iv, see XIX. (5.) XVIII. ivg occurs only in i) zXfuvg, gen. eXpivSog (a worm) ; dat. plur. tXfiivm. XIX. ig has in the gen. (1) coc, with the Attics, in only few substantives and adjectives, as 6 Kig (a wood-worm), i) Kovig(dusi), i) oig (a sheep), o Xorpic (a hired servant), o yaarpig (a glutton), i) Xaicng (a pestle for pounding), i) Tropng (a cow), 6 noaig (a husband), i) fxi\vig (anger), i) Tpoing (a ship's keel), o, 17, 'ISpig (experienced) ; but with the Ionians fre- quently, comp. below 6 ; (2) i^og in the greater part of substantives not having a before the termi- nation ie ; (3) irog in r) %apig (grace, thanks), and 118 ETYMOLOGY. its compounds. Also of rj St/nig (right), is ad- duced the gen. ^jllitoc, for which, however, S^kxtoc usually occurs ; (4) "i%g in o, i), opvig (a bird), rj ^pfitg (a string), v ay\lg (a seed in a head of garlic), 7) SlWig (a kind of wasp) ; (5) Ivog in the following substantives, which, besides the termination ig, have partly w also in the nominative : o SeX^/c (a dolphin), 7} ascrig (a ray), rj pig (the nose), o and ?/ % (a heap, coast), i? & (a nerve), r) -yXor^c (a point), o iKTie or J/ctcv (a kite), r) tpfiig (a bed-post), h pnywg (a breaker), o rsXpc (mud), v ang (a saying), n Qpomg (judg- ment). In the Epic and Ionic dialects, these 1 TERMINATIONS OF THE TH D . DECLENSION. 119 words have toe or eog in the genitive. Respecting the ace. of the termination ig, see below, Note 1. XX. ov has in the gen. (1) ovog in the neut. of adjectives ; (2) ovrog in the neut. of participles. XXI. op has in the gen. opoc. XXII. og has in the gen. (1) a>c, contr. ouc, in all substantives of this termination; (2) orcein the neut. of participles ; e. g. uicog, uKorog (probable). XXIII. ouc has in the gen. (I) o$og, in o irovg (a foot), and its compounds, as reTpairovg (four- footed), &c. ; (2) ovTog, in 6 o$ovg (a tooth), and its compounds, together with all participles of this termination ; e. g. Sigovg, $6vrog (giving) ; (3) oog, and in the ace. ouv, in d, rj (5ovg (an ox), 6 povg, (sumach), and some other monosyllabic substan- tives, which are usually formed according to the second contracted declension ; (4) owrog, in o TrXa- kovc (a cake), besides names of towns with this ending, as Mvovg, &c, and all adjectives contracted from oae, as imeXirovg, gen. /usXirovvrog (honied). XXIV. v has in the gen. (1) vog in substantives of this termination, except to aarv (a city), gen. aGTEog, contr. aGTovg ; (2) wg (without contraction) in neut. adjectives ; e. g. svpvg, neut. tvpv, gen. £i>p£oc (wide). XXV. w has in the gen. (1) wog in the sub- stantive, o illqgvv, Zvog (a tower) ; (2) wrog in neut. participles ; e. g. fw, gen. tyvvrog (grown). XXVI. wg occurs only in the proper name 17- pwg, gen. TlpvvSoQ. XXVII. up has in the gen. vpoc. XXVIIL vg has in the gen. (1) uog'm most kffo- 120 ETYMOLOGY, stantives of this termination ; (2) vdog in o kV^Xvc (a foreigner), h Sayvg, vdog (a wax-puppet), jj x* a ~ fivg (a mantle), and v KpoKvg (a flock) ; (3) v%g in % Kopvg (a helmet), o Kwixvg, v%g (a bunch) ; (4) ewe in o naXtKvg (an axe), ^ nriyvg (a Cubit), o 7rp€<7/3vc (an ambassador) ; (5) toe in adjectives of this ter- mination ; (6) vvrog in participles of this termina- tion. Respecting the ace. of the termination vg, see below, Note 1. XXIX. to has in the gen oog, contr. ovc. XXX. o)v has in the gen. (1) wvog in monosyl- labic substantives and in polysyllables of the mas. gen., whose nominative is accented on the final syllable; together with the following individual words : -h aXw (a thrashing-floor), v (5Xr}^wv or yXfi- X^v (penny-royal), o SoXuv (a hidden dagger), o icr}\u)v (the lever of a well), o k6kku>v (a pomegranate kernel), o Kporw (palma- Chris ti), 6 jcw&ov (a bell), o kw%u)v (a mug), o Kvcjxov (a crooked piece of wood), ?! firiKwv (a poppy), o Aci/ctov (a Lacedemonian), o pwSwv (a nostril), o cnraSwv (an eunuch), and 6 rp/j3tov (a worn-out mantle). On the contrary, some oxy- tone masculines have ovog in the genitive, and are therefore to be considered as exceptions from the general rule ; e. g\ o riytnuv (a leader), o kyj^wv (a guardian), o aAa/crpvwv (a cock), b kclvwv (a rule), o UafyXayuv, o Mara&ov. (2) ovoe in masc. substan- tives, whose nominative has the acute on the pen- ultimate, with the exception of those already enumerated under (1), besides all feminines having the acute on the final syllable of the nominative, and all adjectives of two terminations in w, neut. TERMINATIONS OF THE TIP. DECLENSION. 121 ov ; (3) ovroq in all participles, together with the adjectives kuv (willing), and clkiov (unwilling) ; and in some substantives, as 6 yfyuv (an old man), o §paKd)v (a dragon), o Xewv (a lion), o %pcnrt*)v (a ser- vant), 6 'Kykpiov, o kvmSwv (the projecting tooth of a hunting-spear), o aicwv (a javelin), o ri vwv (a tendon). XXXI. up has in the gen. (1) wpog in mono- syllabic substantives, and in 6 fx^rojo (an adviser), to TrtXwp (a monster) ; (2) opog in polysyllabic sub- stantives. XXXII. wg has in the gen. (1) uog in o fyiwc and vwoSjuutg (a slave), o Sw'c (a jackal), 6 Trarpug and 6 juiirpo>c(an uncle); (2)ooc, contr.ouc, in substantives of the fern. gen. ; (3) wroc in substantives of the masc. and neut. gen., and in compound adjectives with the termination fipwg or %P^ '■> (4) or °c in par- ticiples of this termination ; e. g. t&vtikwq, kotoq (dead). XXXIII. The terminations $ and \p have an g annexed to the root, which, in the formation of cases, must be again thrown out ; hence, words in £ take for the gen. Kog, yog, or yog ; and those in \p, Trog, flog, or (pog : the tenuis, however, occurs most frequently, so that Kog is the usual genitive termination for words in £, and wog for those in $. It is yet particularly to be observed, that those, which have y before £ in the nomina- tive, take yyog in the genitive, with the exception of o, 7i, Xuy£, gen. \vyKog (a lynx) ; on the contrary, 7] \vy%, gen. Xvyyog (a hiccough). Some substan- tives, with the termination $, insert r before the casal termination, and take Krog for the gen. ; 122 ETYMOLOGY. namely, o ava£, clvclktoq (a king), a yjupdvaZ, vatcroQ (a mechanic), fi vuZ, wktoq (night), and com- pounds ending in yaXa£, as ojuoyaXa£, XaKTog (a foster-brother). The word rj «Xw7n?£ (a fox) shortens the long vowel of the final syllable, and has aXujireKOQ in the genitive. Note 1. In words with the terminations ig, vg, avg, and ovg, the accus. sing, is formed by annexing v, and that without excep- tion in those which have a vowel before the casal termination ; consequently, in ig, gen. tog or eayg ; in vg, gen. vog, eog, and sag ; in avg invariably ; and in ovg, gen. cog. On the contrary, if a consonant enters before the casal termination, oxytones always retain a in the accusative ; but those differently accentuated either exclusively take v or interchange it with a ; e. g. fj Kptj-nrlg, gen. Kprjirlcog, ace. t:pr)7r73a (a foundation) ; on the contrary, opvig, gen. 6pvi%g, ace. opviv and opviSa (a bird). iVbte 2. The vocative sing, has usually the same form with the nominative. A particular form for this case occurs only in the following terminations : (a) the terminations ig, vg, and eve, drop g in the vocative ; e. g. fidvTi (from fidvrig), 7rp£c-j3v (from Trpiajovg), fiaaiXev (from (3aatKevg). So also the words fiovg, ypavg, and -rrcug ; thus, fiov, ypav, tccu : (b) the termination ag (gen. avrog and avog) forms the voc. in av, the termination tig of subst. and adj. in ev ; e. g. fxiXav (from fiiXag), yiyav (from yiyag), yapiev (from yapieig) : (c) words which have ?/ or (o in the final syllable of the nominative, and adopt the corresponding short £ or o before the casal termination, retain the short vowel in the vocative; namely, those in r^g invariably, and the rest when their nom. is not oxytone ; e. g. affejoig (from daefii/g) ; on the contrary, \ijjJiv (nom. and voc), fj,rjrep (from j.u]~r)p), ykpov (from yipwv), prjrop (from piirwp). The words wari'ip, dvi]p, and carip, although oxytone, nevertheless take the short vowel in the voc, and draw back the accent to the penultimate syllable ; thus, ird-zp, avsp, Mep. The word aior^p, which retains the long vowel in its other cases, forms the voc cwrep, with the accent likewise drawn back : (d) feminines in w and (og form the voc in dl ; e. g. olldi (from alSwg). Note 3, From the rules given for the formation of the voca- tive participles are to be excepted, which have all but one form for the nom. and voc PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. 123 Note 4. The dative plural, with a few exceptions, which will be given in the proper place, is formed according to the analogy of the other cases, with the application of the rules assigned for the change of consonants, to which reference is made in the para- digms. As a peculiarity, it is only to be remarked, that the ter- minations evq and avg retain their diphthong in the dative plural, and consequently form this case in tvai and avat. Note 5. The neuters of this declension also have three similar cases, which in the plural likewise terminate in a. § 40. (38 and 39.) PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. I. Nouns in which the casal terminations are annexed to an unchanged nominative : 1. without the addition of a letter. Hereto belong the terminations av, up, op, w, vp, which are inflected throughout in this simple manner. But words with the terminations ap, nv, vp, v, W, iDv, up, partly annex the casal terminations to an unchanged and partly to a changed nomi- native. Sing. ~5 - "-"-""5« i/, a> vv kXojv-wv 3aKpv-0JV D. \pap-(ri iraia-OL * "EXX^-ct * KXio-ai *. Bdicpwai A. -ipup-ag TTaiav-ag "EXXriv-ag (cXuivag ddicpv-a V. \pap-eg Traiav-eg "JLXXrjv-eg xXdiv-eg ddupv-a. 2. with the addition of a letter. Hereto belong the termination «, which inva- riably, and the termination i, which partially joins the casal terminations to an unchanged nomina- tive by means of t. Sing. Dual. Plur. to, a deed. .N. 7rpay(.ia N. A. & V. Trpay^a-rt N. TTpay/ma-Ta G. 7rpay/xa- roc 1 G. & D. ?r oay/xa- to iu G. Trpayfxa-Toyv D. 7Tpayina- TL D. Trpayjiia- (7i'|~ A. irpay/jLCL A. Trpay/ma-ra V. wpajfia V. Trpayfxa-Ta Sing. Dual. to, honey. Plur. N. fxi\i N.A.&V./kIXi-te N. jUtXi-ra G. jUL^\l-TOg G. & D. ^ueXZ-roiv G. jU£Xl-T6)1/ D. /ii^Xi-Ti D. fiiXi-ai \ A. jUtXfc A. jusXi-ra V. ^Xc V. ^wfXt-ra * According to § 18. 4. f According to § 17. 8, PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. 125 Note 1. Herewith are also to be classed the words enumerated § 39. XXX. 6. which terminate in uv, and take r before the casal termination. These, however, in annexing the casal terminations, change at the same time the long vowel of the final syllable into its corresponding short one, with the exception of such as have the circumflex on the final syllable of the nominative, and are properly contracted ; e. g. Eevotyuv (instead of Bevofyaiov), gen. EePOtyuJVTOQ. Sing. N. X£«v G. X&OV-TOQ D* Aeov-re A. Xcov-ra Dual. 6, a lion. N. A. & V. Ae'ov-re G. & D. \&OV-TOlV Plur. N. Xeov-rcc G. Atov-rtov D. Aeouori * A. \kov-raq V. \eov-reg II. Nouns in which the casal terminations are annexed to a changed nominative : 1. by shortening the vowel in the final syllable of the nominative. Hereto belong the greater part of nouns in yv, yp } b>, u)v, cup. Sing. 6, ether. 6, a deity. a&fip dai/J.(i)v a&ep-oq $atjiiov-oc cuSep-i ^aijuov-i a&zp-a Saipov-a a'l^rjp Sa/]uov 6, a shepherd. N. 7T0l/iTJV G. iroip.kv-oq D. 7TOlfJLEV-l A. TTOlflkv-a V. 7TOlfXr)V o, an orator. f>1]T(x)p prjTOp'OQ prjTOp-i pi]Top-a prirop Dual. N.A.&V.TTOt^V-E G. & D. TTOljUCV-OlV SaifJLOV'E. pfjTOp-E dai/ULOV'OlV ptlTOp-QlV * Instead of Xiovrtrif according to § 17, Note 1. 126 ETYMOLOGY. Plur. 6, a shepherd. N. iroifxiv-sg G. TTOlfUiZV-lOV G. TTOl^-Gl * A. 7roijiiiv-aQ 6, a deity. 6, an orator. C)a/jUOV-£C pf]TOp-£Q cai[Aov-(jt)v pr]Top-d)V ^ClljULO-Gl *j" f)T]TOp-Gl daifiov-ag purop-ag <$aijHQV-£Q pJjTOp-tg Note 2. Some words with the termination r/s throw out £ from the gen. and dat. sing., but are regularly inflected in the remaining cases, excepting the dat. plural, which likewise rejects the e, and inserts a before the casal termination. f sing. Dual o, a father. Plur. N. 7rari7p N.A.&V. 7rar%- £ N. Trarkp-zg G. Trarp-og G. & D. TTdTZp-OlV G. ircnkp-wv D. TrarQ-i D. TraTp-a-ai A. Trartp-a A. Trarzp-ag V. 7rarfO V. 7rar£p-£C In this manner are declined, besides the ad- duced example, only rj pimp, a mother ; ?? Suyamp, a daughter ; i) yaGT^p, the belly ; h Ai?pir/7p. iVote 3. In the Epic dialect great license prevails in the forms of the words here enumerated, so that £ can be either rejected or admitted in all the oblique cases ; e, g. SvyaTtptQ and Svyarpeg, SvyaTspa and Svyarpa, &c. In the accentuation also of these words many irregularities occur, which may be reduced under the following heads: (a) forms, in which e is not rejected, always have the accent on this e ; e. g. %yarepe£, Svyarepae, prjrepa : (b) in forms where £ is rejected, the accent stands on the termi- * Instead of Xioprtri, according to § 17, Note 1. t According to § 18. 4. PARADIGMS TO THE THIRD DECLENSION. 127 nation, and in the dat. plur. on the inserted a ; e. g. firjTooc, firj- rpt, fj.rjTpa.au Except from these all the syncopised forms of Ar]jj.yTrjp, in which the accent stands on the antepenultimate syl- lable ; thus, &)]fir)Tpo£, A/yp/rpi, Ar)ij.r]Tpa, and the Epic forms Svyarpa, S^yarpec, SvyaTpaQ : (c) in the vocative the accent re- cedes to the radical syllable ; e. g. iraTEp, Svyatep, AyfirjTep. 2. After the rejection of the final letter (c) of the nominative. All nouns whose final letter is £ or \l, and seve- ral of those which terminate in ag } ig> vq, and wq, are declined in this manner : Sing. 6, a crow. ?/, a storm, o, a wood-worm. 6, a jackal. JN. KopaE, XcuXaifi Kig 3wc (jr. Kopcuc-QQ XatXair-og Ki~6g %u)-6q D. KopaK-L XaiXa7T-i tci-i Sw-'i A. Kopaic-a XaiXcnr-a Kia or kiv Sw-a V. /copa£ XcuXaif; kiq %iog Dual. JN . A. & V. KooctK-e XaiXcnr-s ki-s S'w-s (jr. c£ 1). Kopasc-oiv XchXcltt-oiv kl-oiv %(s)-oiv Plur. N. KopciK-zg XatXair-tg /a-fc Sto-tg G. Kopaic-wv XaiXciTT-MV Kt-WV Sw-wv D. Kopa£,i * XcuXaxpi 'j~ i Kl~GL %(i)-GL A. Kopaic-ttQ XaiXarr-cig Kt-ag Zw-ag V. Kopcuc-zg XcuXcnr-eg tci-sg Zijj-zg * According to § 17. 2. f A ccording to § 17.1. 128 ETYMOLOGY. 3. After the rejection of the final letter of the nominative, and with additions before the casal termination. All terminations hereto belonging reject the g of the nominative, and then take before the casal termination a T sound, or an v, or even vr. To the first class belong the terminations ag, aig, ac, ng 9 *£> uc, wc, and ovg ; to the second, ig and Big ; and to the third, ag, ug, and ovg. Sing. 7-0, a prodigy. 6, >/, a child, r/, contention, f/, a helmet. 6, a foot N. ripag ripa-r-og ripa-r-i A. ripag V. ripag iraig tpig Kopvg irovg "Kat-h-og epi-d-og tc6pv-$-og 7ro-()-6g irai-d-i tpi-d-i Kopv-Sr-L noS-i Trcu-c'-a epi-v icopv-S-a or Tro-c^-a Kopvv (ttqvv^) 7raT epig & 'ipi Kopvg ttov Dua, N. A.& V. ripa-r-e wal-d-E epL-fi-e Kopv-Sr-e tto-S-e G. &. D. repd-r-oiv 7raL-B~o7y kpi-Z-oiv KopvS-otv 7W-h-oiv Plur. N. ripa-r-a G. repd-r-ojv D. ripa-ai * A. ripa-r-a V. ripa-r-a jrcu-c'-ee €pi-c)-fg Kopv-S-eg 7ro-^-ec Trai'h-iov ipi-^-iop Kopv-$-m> 7T0-()-(JjV Trai-ai * ept-oi KOpV-ffl * rco-ai * 7rat-c)-a£ epi-S-ag jcopv-'S'-af 7rd-cV/, a nose. 6, a tooth. IS, ylyag fcrcic pig ocovg G. yiya-vr-og kte-v-oc pi-v-og o^o-vr-og D. yiya-VT-i /crc-v-i pl-V-'l oSo-vr-i A. yiya-VT-a ACT£-V-a pl-v-a oSo-vr-a V. ylyav Dual. piv oSovg N. A.& V, yiya-VT-E ktz-v-z pi-v-e 0$6-VT-£ G. & D. yiya-VT-oiv ktz-v-ow pi-v-6iv O^O'VT-OIV Plur. N. yiya-VT-eg KTZ-V-£g pi-v-zg b§6-VT-eg G. yiya-vr-iov KT£-V-WV pi-v-u>v oS6-VT-(i)V D. yiya-<5i * KTZ-Ol J pi-al "(* oSoVGl * A. yiya-vr-ag KTZ-v-ag pi-v-ag o^o-VT-ag V. yiya-vr-zg KTE-v-eg pi-v-sg o§6-VT-zg OBSERVATIONS. 1. On the quantity. The casal terminations a, ag, and i, are here invariably short. Also the doubtfuls a, «, v, when they stand before the casal termination, are generally short, the terminations avoc, ~ivog, vvog, formed from substantives, being alone always long. Of the rest see § 8. 2. On the dialects, (a) In this declension also Epic writers frequently lengthen the dual termi- nation into ouv ; e. g. woSoiiv for ttoSoiv. (b) Be- sides the termination iv are used by Homer in some words of this declension for forming the gen. and dat. plur. ; e, g. vav(pi or vavfyiv (as gen. plur. of vavg), KOTv\r}d6voiv (gen. plur. of kotvX^wv) ; and, with a inserted, opeaipiv, oyzatyiv, and gti$ziv (from opog, oyog, and arrfcog). CONTRACTED DECLENSION. § 41. (40.) 1. Here, also, when a vowel stands immedi- ately before the casal terminations, contraction generally, though not invariably, takes place. 2. This contraction, however, sometimes de- viates from the rules above (§ 21.) adduced. The principal ground of such deviation lies in the rule, that the contracted accusative plural of the third declension is invariably formed like the contracted nominative plural. § 42. (41.) 1. The terminations rjg, zg, og 7 to, and wg, are universally contracted. CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 131 Sing. >/, a trireme. to, a wall. fj, an echo, y, shame. N. rpujprjg relypQ VX l * alSiog G. rpir)peog rpir'jpovg TeiyEog-yovg flX°°s VX°v£ aldoog alSovg D. rpnipei rptf)pei Taipei Teiyei VX°i 7 'IX°~ L aldoi aidol A. rpirjpEci rpirjpt] Tel^og VX° a vx° aldoa aiSui V. rplrjpeg TEiypq vxoi aldoT Dual. N. A. V. rpirjpee rpriiprj ruyee rdyn Dual and plur. as in the G. D. rpirjpioip Tpiripoiv ruykoiv reiymv termination og of the second declension Plural Nom. Tpirjpeeq rpirjpsig ruyza ruyji Gen. rpirjpewv rpirjpuyv ruyjxjjv T£l X** ) Dat. Tpirjpzcri TZiyZGl Ace. Tpirjpeag rpirjpug Tziysa TUX*} Voc. Tpiripetg TpirjpEig Tuysa ru'xn Note 1. The terminations rig and eg belong to adjectives ; and eg, except in the three similar cases of the singular, where this termination remains unchanged, is declined perfectly like the termination og. Note 2. The following is to be observed of the differences of dialect in these terminations : (a) in the termin. i$m', for ovvrj$£u)v, Ka.KorjS'Eiov. 2. When a vowel stands before the termina- tions rig, £c, and oc, the Attics contract a* of the ace. sing, and neutr. plur. not into v, but a ; e.g. k\wq (glory), pi. ic\&a— /cXIa, vyn'ig (sound), ace. vyda— vyia. 3. Proper names ending in kA^c, contr. k\ijq, are doubly contracted by the Attics ; e.g. Nom. 'Hpct/cAf'rjc 'HpaitXriQ Gen. HpaxXeeog 'Hocl/cAeouc Hpa/cAouc Dat. Hpa/cAta 'Hpa/cA^Ei Hpa/cAfi Ace. 'Hpa/cAsea 'Hpa/cAf'a VOC. Hpa/cAg^c 'Hpa/cAac ('Hpa/cAec) Note 4. Epic writers in such words contract £€ into rj, and leave the casal termination unchanged ; thus they decline 'Hpa- Kktrjg, gen.'Hpa/0£,dat, 'HpcuiXfji, ace. 'Hpo/cXi/a, voc. 'HpdnXetg. In the adjective forms of this kind the contraction fluctuates be- tween r} and ei ; e. g. from dyciKXe j?c, gen. dyctKXrjog—- from EVKXerjg, ace. pi. ivKXelag — from evppeyjg. gen. evppeiog. — 1t7riog (a cave), dat. (nrri'i, dat. pi. aririjeaffi and cnriacri, occurs as the only neuter with the termination Eog, which is treated like the above- named words. Its remaining cases, however, as in others of this kind, are formed from a lengthened collateral form in ewg ; e. g. gen. tnrelovg, gen. pi. (ttteiiov. So, besides this, Homer has also Xpeog and %pelog (a debt), and hiovg as gen. of ciog (fear). 4. Some words with the termination wv, gen. ovog and wvog, reject v before the termination in many cases, and then undergo a contraction, by which they are assimilated to forms derived from the terminations w and u>c. This takes place most frequently in the ace. sing, and in the nom. CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 133 ace. and voc. pilfer, of comparatives with the ter- mination CJV. Singular. Norn, f.iutwv, neutr. fxuZpv. Gen. /Lid'Covog, Dat. fidtovi Ace. fjLutova and fiti'Cu), neutr. piiCov. Plural. Nora. peiZflveb and putovq, neutr. jua'£ova and /ueifro. Cren. jiutflvojv. Ace. fiutovaq and fuilovg, neutr. fxutova and fid£w. Voc. putoveg and fiiUflVQ, fLiu'Cova and fi£i£o>, Note 5. Substantives of this formation occur for the most part only in single forms, chiefly the ace. sing. ; e. g. elkoj for ehova (from eIkgjv, an image), 'A-TroWo* for 'AiroXKiova, Hoaeidw for Hocreid&va, kvkeu> for kvkeuvci (from kvke&v, a mixed drink), ct'Xw for dkiova (from d'Xw^, a thrashing-floor). Examples of the formation of other cases in this manner are drfovg for drj^uvog (from drjcJaii', a nightingale), \e\thn for xe\ic>on (from x^ l <^ K > a swallow). § 43. (42.) 1. A considerable number of words with the terminations ig, i, vg, v, retain their proper vowel only in the ace. and voc. sing., substituting £ for it in all the remaining cases, and words in ig and vg then take in the genitive termination an addi- tional a, which in reference to the accent, how- ever, is considered as short, like w in the gen. plur. of these words. The neuters in i and v form their genitive in the usual manner. 134 ETYMOLOGY. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. hi a to ivn. 70, a city. N. TToXlQ 7roXug 5/ CMTTV yf aarrf G. iroXewQ iroXewv CLGTZQQ aariwv D. 7r6Xu ttoXzgi ClCFTEl aaTzai A. TToXlV iroXug 5f UGTU aorrj V. woXiv TroXeiQ DuaL aarv aarn N. A. V. TToAtE Ct(7T££ G. D. TroXewy aarkoiv Note 1. Besides the dual termination the Dorians have /3a»e and /3a;*/. § 44. (43.) The termination cue takes w in the genitive sing. ; and in the dat. sing, and nom. and ace plur. admits of regular contraction. Sing. Dual. Plur. 6, a king N. fiacnXzvg N. A. V. fiaoiXk fiaaiXetg G. j3aaiX£(A)g G. D. fiaaiXioiv (3ac!pae G e /ceoaroc, /cioaoc, K£oa>c D* KtpaTi, fcspai, Kcpa Dual N. A. V. /C£oare, Ktpae, Ktpa G. D« K£paroiv s Ktpaoiv 9 K£Owr« Plur. JNL A. V. tctpara, Ktpaa, Ktpa G. K£paTto)V, KEpaqq (a goblet), o and to Taping (pickled fish), o and to o^oq (a chariot). (7) of words in we, several are inflected both according to the third and second declensions ; e. g. TraTpMQ (a paternal uncle), gen. TraTpuoq and irciTQU) ; so also pjrpwc and Mlvcoq ; besides o y£\wq (laughter), gen. yzXuToq and y£W, ace. ycAwra and yzXiov. In the Epic dialect the word spwq (love) has also for the nominative a collateral form in oq, according to the second declension, which is in- flected through all the cases, thus — gen. epwroq and £p0V, &c. (c) Metaplasm, or the peculiarity by which a word has only one nominative extant, but yet forms to it single cases which refer to some other primitive form ; e. g. to v «X/c»? (vigour) belongs a dat. aXid (from 'AAS) ; to 'Affile (Pluto), besides the usual formation, belong the gen. ''AiSoc, dat. "A'i'gi (from 'AI2), Besides these the usual cases of metaplasm are the following : («) substantives in oq of the second declension IRREGULAR & DEFECTIVE DECLENSION. 143 form a plur. of the neutr. gender in a ; this takes place in Attic prose, chiefly in o cWjuoc (a bond), o mTog (corn), o otc&hoq (a balance), pi. cWjua, GiTa, (TTaSfia ; but the number of such examples of metaplasm is much greater in the poets and the Epic dialect, where, to adduce only the most known,, are found Spv/xa, KeXev^a^ KvicXa, Xvyya, ji«7pa, pvirct, rap(ja y Taprapa, &c, all plurals to substantives in og. Some of these words have a particular form extant for the neuter in the singular also ; e, g. o Zvyog and t6 Zvyov (a yoke), o vutoq and to vwtov (the back), 6 kptTfxog and ro hptTfxov (an oar). (/3) substantives of the first and second declen- sions possess single forms analogous to a nomina- tive of the third declension. This is shown most perfectly in o vlog (a son), of which the following forms occur : G. vlov and vlkog, Ion. vlrjog (from 'YIEY2), Ep. also vlog (from 'YI2); and so through all the cases, except that only v\6v and via are extant for the ace. sing., and to the Epic form gen. vloq a dat. plur. vlaai is formed. Of the other words single forms only occur according to this declension; e. g. to &v$pov (a tree), PI. N. and A. SevSpea, D. devSpsvi (from t6 8&r3jtt»g). In like manner to Kplvov (a lily), PL Kpivm, and D. /cpiWt. Also, to av$pa.7ro§ov (a slave), D.P1. avSpcnrodtacriv, besides avSpairoSoig. — o koivuvoq (a partaker), to which koivwveq and Koivwvag occur as N. and A. Plur. to TTpoQuirov (the countenance), to which an Ep. D. PL IS -irpoQuztraai for irpogwiroig. r\ vi\og (friendly, a friend), &vog (strange, a stranger), fiapfiapog (ungrecian, one not a Greek). 6. But since in individual cases many ad- jectives appear as exceptions from this general rule, it will be necessary, for greater perspicuity, to enumerate their several terminations. ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 147 A. Simple Adjectives. (1) with the termination oc (a) Adjectives having the derivative endings 3oe, Koq, Xog, vog, irog, pog, aog (£oc, ^oc), and arog, and formed from simple roots, are oxytone. Exceptions : The accent is upon the radical syllable of (1) the greatest part of those in vog, which are derived from substantives, and signify a material or a class ; thus, K&pivog (of cedar- wood), XiSivog (of Stone), Krjpivog (waxen), a^ow- irivog (human), and the like : (2) all in wog ; thus, Sapcrwog (confident), &c. : (3) the several follow- ing ; $r)\oq (manifest), yavpog (proud), Uog (equal), iXev^Epog (free), Xafipog (impetuous), /uovog (alone), oXog (whole), iravpog (few), (pavXog (bad). (b) Adjectives in wg, tog, uog, and pog, if these endings are annexed to the root without other additions, are proparoxytone. Exceptions : flaXiog (dappled), S£i6g (right), 7roXio'c (gray), and aicoXiog (crooked), are oxytone— also, k^tXr)jui6g (willing) is oxytone, (c) Adjectives derived from substantives, and ending in mog, are properispome. Exceptions : (1) all dissyllables are oxytone, as aicaiog (left); also the following trisyllables, apai6g (thin), yepaiSg (old), dr]vai6g (long-enduring), Kparaiog (strong), waXcuog (old) : (2) SUaiog (just), fefiaiog (firm), and fiiaiog (violent), are propar- oxytone. (d) Adjectives («) which are formed by the ad- l 2 148 ETYMOLOGY. dition of the terminations i\og, vXog, and Aeoc, are paroxytone, as noiKiXog (variegated), opylXog (iras- cible), ayKvXog (curved), ariofxvXog (loquacious), XevyaXiog (pernicious). Also, (/3) multiplicatives in oog, as air\6og (simple), $nr\6og (double) ; and (y) the several following; oXlyog (few), rjX'iKog, TTvX'iKog, (of what age ?) TYiXUog (of such an age), uloXog (variegated), avrlog, kvavrlog (contrary). Exceptions : aiavXog (wicked), yoyyvXog (round), and all those in which the X is doubled, as zpnvXXog (creeping) and the like, are proparoxy- tone. (e) Adjectives derived from verbs accent the termination, so that those in rog are oxytone, those in rwg paroxytone: thus, 7roirjTog (made), 7roir)Twg (to be made). Note 1. The accentuation of feminine adjectives is regulated by the masculines. In proparoxy tones, however, if the final syllable be long, the feminine must become paroxytone. Now since the termination rj is always long, the quantity of the termi- nation a remains only to be determined, and this is long when a vowel or p, and short when any other consonant besides p pre- cedes, as also in adjectives in ve, fem. eta. Thus, dyioe. ayia (holy), /Bg'jScuog, /3f/3cu'a (firm), ottovccuoq, onovSaia (serious), but yXvicvg, y\vKe~ia (sweet), ^apUiSt xapUaaa (graceful), fiiXag, fiiXaiva (black), &c. Note 2. The feminine forms a separate gen. plur. with a circumflexed termination in these adjectives only, which for the nom. have a syllable more in the fem. than in the masc. ; in all other adjectives one form of the gen. plur. obtains for all the three genders ; e. g. yXvicvc, tceta, gen. plur. yXiweW, ykvKei&Vs from yap'uiQ, ^apteero-a, yapiivTWV) yapiEaG&vj on the contrary, sXevSspwv from eXevSspog, ipa, &c. (2) with the termination m or ag, (a) Adjectives of these terminations, inflected ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 149 according to the first declension, follow the rules which have been given above, § 32. for substan- tives of the same terminations. (b) of adjectives in yg, of the third declension, the greatest part, namely, all those which have eoc in the genitive, are accented on the final sylla- ble ; on the contrary, most of those which have yrog in the genitive are paroxytone ; e. g. aKgifir\q (exact) ; on the contrary, irkvyq (poor). (c) of adjectives in aq, those which take adoq in the genitive are oxytone, all the rest are par- oxytone ; e.g. $pojj.ag (running), but fieXaq (black)* (3) with the termination vq. Adjectives in vq are, in the masc. and neutr., oxytone, in the fern, properispome ; e. g. t$vc ? vdeia, ri$v (pleasant). Exceptions are V tcru c (half), SijXvc (female), and irpeafivq (old). Note 3. The Ionic shortened fern, of these adjectives is made paroxytone (see § 49. a . Note 2) ; e. g. fjMa instead of rjh'ia. (4) with the termination uq. Adjectives terminating in uq are paroxytone, and also in the fern, and neut. retain the accent on the same syllable on which it stood in the masc. ; e. g. yapluq, yapizaoa, x a P uv (graceful), Tipfjuq, Ti/iim) ? 7roXv$(*}poc (from Swpoi'), TrayicttKoq (from kcik6q), irayyaXsTrog (from yjaXeirog). (b) The accentuation of those adjectives, which derive their second half from a verbal root, is de- termined by the quality of the penultimate sylla- ble. Those, namely, in which the penultimate is long, are oxytone ; e. g. Xoyayog, odnyog, and irai- tlaywyoq (all from ayb)), GiroKOiog (from ttoieoj). So, also, those which end in -fBoaKog and -op(36g (from (36 and ^lpj3o>), and those in -7njyoc (from irriyvvfii), in -aoiSoc,' 01 -tpSog (from aaSw), and SO On. Note 4. The compounds derived from the verbal root epyio are differently accented according to the difference of significa- tion. When they denote a "-forming or managing" they are oxytone ; on the contrary, when a moral operation or a mere quality, they are proparoxytone, or, by contraction, proper- ispome ; e. g. apweXovpyoe (a vine-dresser), Xt&wpyoc (a stone- mason), yewpyoQ (a farmer) ; on the contrary, KatcovpyoQ (a villain), irepUpyoQ (busy), and so on. (c) But those adjectives whose penultimate syllable is short differ in their accent according to their difference of signification ; they are, ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 151 namely, paroxytone in the transitive, but propar- oxytone in the intransitive and passive sense ; e. g. naTpoKTovoQ (murdering a father), irarpoKTovog (murdered by a father), %porpd(pog (fostering wild beasts), ^poroo^oc (fostered by wild beasts). Note 5. From this rule must be excepted the compounds formed with prepositions, with the privative and intensive a, with ev and Svg, or with det, dyar, dpi, dpri, epi, rjfit, £ct, iravj and ttoXv, which are all proparoxytone. The same rule is followed also by many others of a transitive signification, when the passive sense, of which they are capable, is not in use. As the number of these latter is too great for being severally specified, we shall leave the knowledge of their accent to be obtained by individual observation. (2.) with the termination wc Compound adjectives in we, which have their last half borrowed from a substantive, are propar- oxytone (comp. § 10. A. 4.); e. g. ayypug, Xbttto- •y£wc, a£io^pztog, /jiovoKepwg, c, -yvug, and -xp^e, are oxytone. (3.) with the termination ng, (a) According to the first declension. Of compound adjectives in r?c, inflected accord- ing to the first declension, those, whose last half is an unchanged substantive, retain the accent of the substantive. The accentuation of the rest is to be determined by the quantity of the penulti- mate syllable ; namely, if this penultimate is long, the adjective is oxytone ; if shorty it is paroxy- tone. The compounds in -m/Am are excepted^ 1 152 ETYMOLOGY. which are always paroxytone, being used almost solely as substantives. Note 6. The Epic forms, with the ending a instead of r/c, are all proparoxytone ; thus, evpvoira for £vpvo7rr}Q. Note 7. Compound adjectives in ag of the first declension are paroxytone. (b) According to the third declension. (a) In these adjectives it is first to be consi- dered whether they borrow the second half of the composition from a verbal root or a substantive. Those in the first case, which are long in the penultimate, are paroxytone, and in the neuter, with a short ending, proparoxytone ; e. g. avSatiriQ (arrogant) ; but those which have a short penul- timate are oxytone ; e. g. iofta^g (violet-tinged). Exceptions : (1) All compounds formed with the words given above, Note 5, are oxytone ; e. g. aTspirriQ (unpleasant), eviru%g (prompt in obedi- ence), &c. (2) Tetrasyllabic words, in which two long syllables follow two short ones, are oxytone ; e. g. TrvpiXajULirriQ (flaming with fire), &c. (3) Those terminations in -t?o??c and -w'&c are, in the neuter, properispome ; e. g. 7to&7q>jc, neut. Troupe (reach- ing to the feet) ; /xi>SwSr?c, neut. pvbw&i: (fabulous), &c. (|3) Those which borrow their second half from a substantive are oxytone ; thus, e. g. all ending m -oXyircs -£&m 3 -ovpyrig, and -7rAnSrJc. Exceptions : (1) Those with the terminations -rj^nc* "V^Qs -/AEjeSriQ, -/ifVrjc, and -wArjc, although de- rived from substantives, are all paroxytone, and, in 7 ADJECTIVE^ AND PARTICIPLES. 153 the neuter, proparoxytone ; e. g. vTrepfiey&riQ, v7rep- filye^c (excessively great) ; awri%Q, av^eq (cus- tomary). (2) Those in W (from croc, a year) in the older languages are invariably paroxytone ; with later writers partly oxytone, partly paroxy- tone. (y) Compound adjectives in -ftXvs, -ople, -Sviic, -/c/iTjc, and -ttXijc, that have vrog in the genitive, are oxytone. (4.) with the remaining terminations. Compound adjectives, whose terminations have not been enumerated among the preceding, are mostly adjectives of one termination, with a mono- syllabic last half, and, when this is borrowed from a verbal root, are oxytone ; as, e. g. all end- ing in -7rA^£, -pw£, -rpu>$, and -cr$a£ ; on the con- trary, if it is borrowed from a substantive, they are paroxytone, and always retain the accent upon the penultimate, even when the final syllable is short ; e. g. /ua/cpo'^ap (long-handed) ; irapa^pwr, neut. 7rapa<£pov (insane). The compounds formed from fiiyag (great) are proparoxytone ; those de- rived from jucXde (black), and ra\ag (wretched), paroxytone. Note 8. In the comparative and superlative, the accent always recedes as far towards the root as the number and nature of the final syllables admit ; e, g» vyuivoTepog, aKpifiiffrepog, ydiuv, neut. ijdiov. 154 ETYMOLOGY. § 49 \ (47.) VARIOUS TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. A. Of three terminations. In all adjectives of this kind, the feminine is always inflected after the first declension; but the neuter coincides in form with the mascu- line, except in the nom. ace. and voc, in which it has a distinct form derived from the masculine. WCaofboq, go6ji, go&ov, Wise I (.vxen. ao(j>ov 9 (70(j)r)Qf ov. C*jren. ciKaiov, biKaiaq, ciKaiov. Note 1. The fern, of adjectives in og takes the termination a only when this is preceded by a vowel or p. Adjectives in oog are excepted, whose feminine, unless preceded by p, ends in or\ ; €. g* cnrXoog, cnrXor} (simple), but dSpoog, d$poa (in one mass). Note 2. In the gen. plur. of these adjectives the whole three genders have only one form, although the fern, of all that are not oxytone ought to be distinguished by the accent. Comp. § 32. Note 3. /ON C yXvKve. y\vKua. y\vicv, SWeet : (3) vq, act, v Y ' ' s I Ijr. yAvKtoq, yAVKuag, yAvKtoq, Note. The Ionic fern, of these adjectives ends in ia and ■«/. In the Epic dialect, and with the poets, the termination vg is used both for the masc. and fern. (4) ac ? wea, tv {% a ?™s>X a P [£(f ™> X a P Uv > graceful; C.G. yapnvT0q ? yupdaaqq., yapUvTog, TERMINATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 155 v: (6) 7]V, ElVCtj £VSG. TZpZVOg, T£p£lVV}Q, TSpZVOQ. (NO fizXaq, /u-Acuva, jusXav, black ; /^n JG. uiXavog, LizXalvt]g, MfXavoc. (O) ac, au'tt, ov\ r . \ ,„, J (Besides this, only raXac, k wretched.) ^repr^v, rspuva, ripev, tender ; " : » ripevog, TEpeivrig, T&pevog. other of this form.) C £/cwv, E/coua-a, ekqv, willing ; (7) wv, oucra, ovn G. e/covroc, tKovarig, ekovtoq. (So C only the compound clkov). iraq. Travel, ttclv, all ; /G. 7ravroc, tra&tig. 7ravroc. (So t8) ac, ada, av^ ' ' only the compounds, as a-rag, (jv(X7rag 9 TrooVac.) B. Of two terminations, (1) og, ov< (2) wg, a)vl o 77 riavyog, to r)avyov 9 peaceful ; G. tov rrjg tov riavypv. o 7] IXewg to i'Xewv, propitious ; G. TOV TYjg tov iXeu). Note. Of adjectives of this termination, compounds ending in KEpwQ, ye\(i)£, and tpwg, are heteroclites, and, besides the gen. w, also form wrog, &c. The neut. plur. usually terminates in a ; c g. 7r\f'a, 'l\ea, from TrXtwf and IXewg. f N i o 7] a6)(f>ati)v to Gwtypov, discreet ; (oj tov, ovl r - - - , . C^jr. tov T7]g tov tjwfpovog. Note. Respecting the deviation in declension of comparatives of this ending, see § 42. 4. The adjectives iduv (fat) and npo- 4pwv (favourable) have also for the fern, the collateral forms >/ -rrieipa and // irpo^patjaa. 156 ETYMOLOGY. fA\ f ° V a\r$riQ to aXriSeg, true ; C.G. tov Tt)Q tov aXrj^iog, COIltr. a\t$ovg e Note. Compound adjectives in (tjjq, from erog (a year), fre- quently form also a peculiar fern, in me, gen. inBog. Cor) appyv to appev, masculine ; (5) Tiv , £v\ G. tov rrjc row appzvog. (No other be- v sides this.) for) toW ro iSoi, skilful ; (6) t?, i i r - - - „a N C^J* ^"o u r*7C tov tooioc. tov Tr)g tov i$piog. Note. In the few simple adjectives of this termination, we find, besides the declension here given, a gen. also in idog, and so on through all the cases. But from these must be accurately dis- tinguished the compounds formed from 7r6\is (a town), iraTpis (a native country), and x a 'p*£ (grace), which likewise form a neuter in t, but retain the declension of the substantives from which they are derived. With the Ionians and poets, those ending in -noXig have the gen. in tog ; but, with the Attics, in idog. The adjective avaXfcig forms in the gen. dvdXtcidog. C. Of one termination. ., v ' ( o i) 4>vyag, fugitive ; (1) ag, gen. a$og] r ' V J V * ,« ( (jr. tov Trig (jtvyabog. Co /Lioviag, alone ; (2) ag, gen. ov - yapirog) ; airaTiop, airdrop, fatherless (gen. a7raro- pog) ; Snrovc, SiVouv, two-footed (gen. Sinolog) ; c5- vqvq, evvow, benevolent (gen. evvov), &c. Others which are formed from neuters assume an analo- gous termination for the masc. and fem. ; e. g. from SctKpv (a tear), 6 ^ aSaKpvg, to a^aicpv (tearless). (2) In those adjectives of one termination, which have no particular form for the neut, the gen. and dat. of the masc. are also used in con- nexion with neut. substantives ; thus, e. g. in ad- jectives in ag, and in those in vg given above under 5. (3) Adjectives of two terminations in og and ov comprehend all compounds, in which the mere termination og is annexed to the root, whether they be formed from nouns or derived from compound verbs ; e. g. aXoyog, ov (irrational) ; tv(f>wvog, ov (harmonious) ; noXvypdfyog, ov (that writes much) ; Siatyopog, ov (different) ; and several simple adjec- tives, as fiapfiapog (barbarous), r^vyog (quiet), vjiupog and n%aog (tame), and particularly a great many of those that end in wg, tfiog, mog, and eiog. On the contrary, simple adjectives in tog, Kog, Xog, vog, pog, rog, and rzog, are all of three terminations, and those in Kog preserve the three terminations even as compounds ; e. g. e7ri^uKTiKog, jo), kov (adapted for display). DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 159 § 49 K (48.) DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. According to the given terminations of geni- tives, and to the previously learnt paradigms, most adjectives may be inflected without diffi- culty or obstacle. All that occurs therein as unusual, will be pointed out in the following examples. A. Adjectives of three terminations. (i) og, a, ov, and og, v, ov. Before these termi- nations several adjectives have an £ or o, and then contraction takes place, which, in some instances, deviates from the general rules, since the distinc- tive casal terminations, as a in the neut. plur., ag in the ace, and aig in the dat. plur., must always be left unchanged in contraction. Singular. N. Xpvaeog Xpvcrza ^puo-cov, golden G. Xpvaoifg Xpvaeov yjpvGtag XpVGOVV ^pU, and in oac, o£ greats **• ^syoAou jttE-yaXr^c /Uf-yaXoi; D. fisyaXy /LttyaX?? /icyaAr^ A. pcyav /UEyaXqv /ulya. M 2 104 ETYMOLOGY. Dual. N.A.V. G. D. /utyaXoiv juzyaXa [xsyaXaiv Plural. neyaXh), great fJLsyaXoiv, N. fi£*yaXoi juzyaXai ptyaXa G. jueyaXcjv D. /usyaXoig I^EyaXaiQ /LieyaXoig A. jLisyaXovg fjieyaXag Singular. /A£y*Xa. N. ttoXvq ttoXXti ttoXv, much. G. 7ToXXov TroXXrjg iroXXov D. TToXXd) L iroXXy TToXXw A. TToXuV ttoXXtjv Dual. TtoXv. N, A. V. 7ToXX(U 7roXXa 7ToXXlO G. D. TToXXoiV TToXXcUV Plural. TToXXoiV. N. TToXXo'l TToXXdl TroXXa G. 7ToXXlOV D. iroXXoig TroXXaig iroXXoig A. iroXXovg 7roXXag TroXXa. Note. In both these adjectives two forms are evidently mixed together, so that we must assume for each a double nominative, namely, besides /Jiiyag, fiiya, also fxeyaXog, 77, or, and besides ttoXvq, 71-0A.V, also 7to\X6q, //, qv. The correctness of this assump- tion is proved by the Epic dialect, in which the cases are regu- larly formed from itoXvc\ as, gen. -KoXioQ, nom. pi. TroXieg, contr. ttoXcIc, &c. ; and by the Ionic, which retains also the forms TroXXog and noXXoy for the nominative. But jieyaXog, as a nomi- native, is no longer extant. PARTICIPLES. 165 § 50. (49.) PARTICIPLES. Participles which, besides the idea of a pro- perty, include also that of time, coincide in re- spect to form with adjectives, and have all three terminations. TVTTTIDV, TVTTTOVtJa, TVTTTOV, Strik- ing ; Gen. 7WTOVTOC, TV7TTOVGriQ f TV7T' TOVTOg. (See § 40. Note 1. X^v). (1) d)V, OVGd, OV I Note 1 . If a or c, or o, enters before the termination, it is regularly contracted with the same. fTvipag, rvipaaa, rtyav, having (2) ag, aaa, av ) Struck ; V.G. TVlpaVTOQ, TVXpCKJYjg, TVTpClVTOQ. (See §40. 11.3. yiyag). f T£TU(j)to£, TZTVfyvla, TZTV$OQ } haV- (3) Note 2. If a enters before this termination, it is regularly contracted with the same ; but the feminine then assumes an- other formation analogous to that of the masculine ; e. g. eoraw'e, evravla, laraoQ (standing), contr. Iotw'c, £orwa, kcrrojg ; gen. ioTwroe, earuiatjg, eoraJrof, &c. • TV(j>%dg, TVtpSeiGci, TV(j)%ev, struck; (4) ug, ektcl, cv ) G. Tvej&evTog, TvffieiGrig, rv^Sev- t ™g. (See § 49 b . x a p' lH ^ with the observation.) 166 ETYMOLOGY. /rN i $l<$ovq, cidovGit; §i$6v, giving ; {o) ovg, ovcra, ov } r « «J s s , * *, C ^x. ^idovroe, dibovvYiQ, oioovroc- (See §40. II. 3. oSovc). / §£i/cvuc, SeiKvvva, Seikvvv, sllOW- fd\ ) in g ; V roc. /'ayysAwi'j ayyeAoWa, ayytXovv, s~\ ~ - I about to announce ; J vjt. ay ye A ovvroe } ayyeAQverrj^^ ay~ v ysAovvroc. -ru7rro i u£i>oc,ri>7rrojU£V>/,Ti;7rTo^£i>(n^ (8) jucvoc, j«£v)7, \ struck ; pZVOV \ G. TVTTTOu'cVQV ,TVT7TOf.dvi](Z } TVT?TQ- Degrees of Comparison. § 51. (50). DEGREES OF COMPARISON IN GENERAL. 1. The property expressed in an adjective can usually be attributed to more objects than one. Yet it seldom is found exactly to the same extent in one as in another, but is possessed by one in an usual degree, by another in a higher or in a pre- eminent degree. % Now, if one and the same property be attri- DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 167 buted to two different objects, and these com- pared with each other in reference to the measure of this property (e. g. the son is richer than the father), there arises a new form of adjective — the comparative ((rvvtcpiriicov ovojulo). But if a property exists in many objects, and one of them is to be distinguished as possessing it the most perfectly, this also is effected by means of a new form — the superlative (virepbzTiicov ovop,a). These two forms are called degrees of comparison ; and, for the sake of uniformity, a corresponding appellation has also been given to the simple form of the adjec- tive — the positive (SenicGv ovofia), which, however, is merely the appellation of the primitive form, and consequently must not be reckoned among the degrees of comparison. § 52. (51.) FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 1. The degrees of comparison are formed from the positive; namely, the comparative, by ap- pending the termination rspog, «, ov ; the superla- tive by appending rarog, rj, ov. 2. These terminations are appended to the root of the positive in the following manner : (a) In adjectives in og and vg, after throwing away c ; e. g. 168 ETYMOLOGY. Seivoq (exalted), Seivorepoq, cWoraroc. j3s(3aiog (firm), j3'EJ3aiorEg>og, fizftmoTaToq. wpvq (broad) s evpvrepoqy evpvraroq. TrpEafivQ (old), TTptcjfivTEpGg) TrpeafivrciToq. Note 1. If the penultimate syllable of adjectives in og is short in the positive, o is changed into w in the comparative and su- perlative ; e. g. ffofog (wise), crcfojrepoQ, (roywrarog. mSapOQ (pure), KaSapwrepoe, Kafyapuirarog. Note 2. In this case mutes with liquids are generally regarded as lengthening the syllable, and, therefore, in such adjectives o remains before the termination of the comparative and superla- tive ; e. g. nriKporepoQ, TriKporarog (from niKpog, bitter). The poets, however, in many cases, after mutes with liquids use w be- fore the termination ; e. g< EvretcpwraTog, from evtzkvoq. Note 3. Contracted adjectives in eog — ovc, and ooq — ovq, must be distinguished from each other in respect to the formation of the degrees of comparison. For those in eog form their compar. and superl. regularly from the uncontracted form, and then also undergo regular contraction ; e. g. -n-optyvpeog, contr. iroptyvpovg ; compar. 7rop(j)V£iorepog, contr. Tropcbvpuirepog ; superl. iropcpvpeuiraTog, contr. TvopfyvpuyTarog. Those in oog, on the contrary, append earepog and eararog to the root, and always contract this termi- nation with the preceding o; e. g. evvoog contr. evvovg, compar. {evvoiarepog) evvovvrepog, superl. (evvoivrarog) evvovararog. In this last-mentioned class the Ionic dialect frequently adopts the usual formation ; as, e. g. evpowrepog and e vpowTctrog (from evpoog, contr. evpovg), (b) In adjectives in aq, aiva, av, to the neuter; e. g. fieXaq (black), pzXavrepoq, juizXavraToq. (c) Adjectives in nq and uq shorten these ter- minations into ££, and then append rspoq and Taroq ; e. g. aXrfiiiq (true), aXrfizGTZpoq, aXrfiiGTdToq. Trivrjq, gen. r\Toq (poor), TrtvtGTEpoq } invkaTaroq, yapmq (pleasant), yapdorepoc, yapikararoq* DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 169 Note 4. Adjectives in ng, gen. ov, of the first declension, annex urrepoe and icrrarog to the radical form of the adjective ; e. g. KXiirrrjQ (thievish), KXeTTTiaTarog. In like manner also 4/ev^rjg, which belongs to the third declension, forms its degrees of com- parison. On the contrary, yppiariis (gen ov), for the sake of har- mony, takes the compar. vfipirrrorepog* (d) Adjectives in wv append to-rspog, and those in £ eo-Tepog or to-rfooc, to the root; e. g. Gtofpuv, gen. Giofpovog (discreet), <7W(j)povei\og (friendly, dear, beloved) the usual form is QiXrtpog and ^iXrarog ; besides which, however, i\aiTEpog, and even the regular (piXwrspog and #iAw- rctTog, are also found. Note 6. The three forms of the comparative and superlative of tyiXog appear to have been used by the ancients with a certain distinction of signification, so that (piXrepog and (ptXrarog signi- fied more friendly, dearest friend ; (ptXalrepog, more dear, more esteemed ; and /Aoe, vavyoQ (quiet), i§ioq (proper), Uoq (equal), zvdioQ (serene), oxpioq (late), and irpwioq (early)]. kpfXjj/uLEVOQ (strong), £f>pii)[i£v£v, oig^igtoq. yXvKVc (sweet), j\vkio)v 9 yXv.Ki€FTO£, DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 171 2. The following only belong to the same class: exP^c (hostile), KvSpog (renowned), oltcrpog (piteous), and ifivg (pleasing), (5a%g (deep), fipaSvg (slow), fipayyg (short), trayvg (thick), Trpea- fivg (old), rayvq, and wkvq (swift). The formation here given, however, is not exclusively in use even for these adjectives ; but besides it the usual one in vrrpoc and orepog occurs. Thus, e, g. oikt^oq takes the usual comparative oiKroortooc, although the superlative is always oiktigtoq. Generally of those in pog y the formation iwv, igtoq, predominates only in ala^pog and sySpog ; and of those in vq, only in^Suc and rayvq. In all the other given adjectives the regular form must be regarded throughout as the more usual ; thus, PpaSvrepoq (fipaSlwv only in poetry), wpzefivTzpoq, and fipayvrspoq (without a col- lateral form), &c. 3. In some adjectives of this kind i of the end- ing iwv, in the comparative, is rejected, and the last letter, if S, S, k, or ^, changes into aa (Att. tt). This happens particularly in rayyq, compar. Tayiuv, and Sacxcrwv, neut. Sa<7y ; (3pa$vc, compar. fipaSlwv and /3o ; y\vKvg, compar. yXvKiwv and yXvaa^v ; irayvQ, com- par. Trayjwv and 7nWwv. And in the same manner also must the compar. /Wow, of jnaKp6q (long), be explained. Note. The i in this termination of the comparative is always •.long in the Attic dialect, but used short in Epic poetry. 172 ETYMOLOGY. In the neut. iov, the accent recedes to the antepenultimate syllable. On the deviation of this termination in declension, see § 42. 4. § 54. (53.) ANOMALOUS COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 1 . The comparative and superlative remain in several adjectives, whose positive has grown into disuse. These are noted the most easily in con- nection with some extant positive, to which they approximate the nearest in respect to signification. In the following list, where several forms of the comparative and superlative exist for one positive, those usual in prose are distinguished by the im- pression. Comp. Superl. 1 . dya$6g (good, Stre- a fJL e i v id v nuous, excellent) dpeiwv (Epic) a p i a r o g Kpeiaaiov ") Kpiffffwv (Ionic) > KpctriaroQ k pel tt (t> v (Attic) ) fi e\t i ta v /5 £\t l (r r o g fiiXrepog fliXrarog (poet) XiOltOV, XtpiOV Xio'trepog (Epic) Xol'iffrog, XfffTOg i- piarog. Note 1 . That these various forms were not used in exactly the same signification is certain, but it is also equally certain that DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 173 no settled distinction of them was universally observed. In gene- ral, the following may be assigned : d}xdi>u)v signifies more ex- cellent, more useful, more advantageous, preferable, braver (con- sequently is used chiefly in an external relation) ; to it apicr- toq belongs as superl. — tcpeirriov signifies stronger, victorious, superior, whose superl. is Kpariarog. — /3e\uW, together with PiXriarog, refers to internal excellence and moral goodness ; (pip- repog and epraroQ are used of external superiority and im- portance. Comp. 2. KaKog (bad, ill, vile) Superl. K a K I 0) V KO.KLOTOQ KaKwrepog (poet) ^ £ l p o) v, or -^slpiffTog yepelwv and X £l P°~ repog (Epic) ijaffioy, or i}Ki(JTog i)TTU)v (Attic). Note 2. With respect to the signification of these different forms, the following is to be observed generally : kclkiidv, more cowardly, more ill, more wicked, more reprobate, more disadvanta- geous, more hurtful; yzipuv, meaner, viler, more unfit, more paltry ; fjcraiav, weaker, inferior, less good or fit. 3. fxiyag (great) 4. filKpog (little) 5. oXlyog (few) pdt,isiv, or fiifav (Doric) fiucporepog eXdffGOJv, or eXdrruv (Attic) f.ieiioi> oXi^tay (Epic). fxeyioTOQ fiiKporarog tXay^iffTog oXlyiffTog Note 3. As the ideas little and few are so intimately allied to each other, kXaaawv and kXdx^rog are also used as comparative and superlative for dXiyog. 6. TroXvg (much, many) n-XaW, or TrXtiaTog nXiiov Note 4. The Attics usually make this compar. ttXcW. They adopt the diphthong ei only in the contracted forms, as, e. g, 7rXeiove for wXetoveg (see § 42. 4.), and sometimes in the neut; 174 ETYMOLOGY, ■nXelov for ifSAov. In Ionic and Doric this form admits of con- traction in cases where o follows e ; e. g. nXEvvEg, trXEvvag^ Tikevvs for ttXeoveq, &c. 7. KaXog (beautiful) 8. pycwg (easy) Ion. prfiSioc 10. 11. KaXXlcOV -KaXklGTOQ paw paarrog prj'tTEpog prjirarog prj'tiop pifiaTog ICKyELVog (painful) aXyEivoTEpog aXyELvorarog uXyiojy dXytarog iriir&r. (ripe) TtEitatrEpog •KEKai-arog 7rlix)v (fat) TriOTEpog irwrarog. 2. Some comparatives and superlatives are evi- dently derived from substantives and particles ; to the latter, particularly those which denote a certain succession of things, belong ; e. g. Compar. Super!, wpoTEpog Trpwrog (from Ttpo) VTTEpTEpOe vTVEprarog (fi'Om VTTEp) dvutTEpog cipuirarog (from aVoj) VCTTEpOC vfrrarog (probably from vttu) KXETTTlffTCiTOC (from KXi7rrr)e) ETaiUGTClTOg (from ETolpog) covXoTEpog (from dovXog) ftaffiXEVTEpog (from /ScmtiXevc) KvvTEpog (more impudent) (from kvwv, a dog)c Note 5. In the last-mentioned cases the given substantive must be considered, by virtue of its signification, as the true positive to the derivative form. To others, however, occurring particu- larly in the Epic dialect, a substantive serves only as the primi- tive form for derivation, without admitting of being regarded properly as a true positive ; e. g. rajp^tW and KEpharog (lucrative, cunning, from the primitive form tcipfog, gain), kXiyxiffTog, (very base, primitive form t\eyx°£)> ^vxoiTarog and fivx aT °G (inner- most, prim, form f-ivx°Qi a corner), &c. Note 6. A few instances occur where, to express a still higher gradation of idea, a degree of comparison becomes the positive to a new formation ; e. g, taxaros (last) ; fVxarwVfpoc, (axaroharoG (last of all) ; KpG&m (first) ; TrpiorHrroc (first of all, the very first), DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 175 Note 7. In the Epic dialect many adjectives are also found, which have the termination repog in the positive, and must there- fore be carefully distinguished from comparatives. Such are ffaa)T£pog (safe), dyporepog (wild), SrjXvrEpog (female), &c. Note 8. In many adjectives in Greek, as in other languages, the formation of a comparative and superlative from the root of the positive was not usual, but the gradation of idea was ex- pressed by adding the adverbs /j-dXXov (magis, more), and fxd- Xicrra (maxime, most) ; e. g. rpiorog (vulnerable), rpojrdg fidXXop (more vulnerable) ; Svnrog (mortal), SvrjTcg fiaXXop (more mor- tal) ; crjXog (evident), fidXXop cijXog (more evident), cfjXog jidXivTa (most evident). 176 ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER VI. Of Numerals. § 55. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF NUMERALS. 1. All numerals are adjectives, expressing the idea of a definite number or of consecution. 2. They are distinguished into : cardinal (how many ?), ordinal (which in order ?), multiplicative (how manifold?), and adverbs of number (how many times ?). Also numeral substantives can be formed, all terminating in ag. 3. For ciphers the Greeks use the letters of their alphabet in regular order; but, to make the number sufficient, they insert therein a ', 600 x ' , 700 f, 800 w, 900 £). This series is also used to designate thousands, having then a stroke underneath the line ; e. g. a t or t a 1000, i t 10,000, o t 100,000. In the same order the ciphers are connected together for compound numbers, 1821 aio K a, 53,602 vjxP- SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. 177 SYNOPSIS OF NUMERALS. Cardinal. Ordinal. 1 a tig juia ev Trpwroc, V, ov, the first 2 f3 $vo and ^w dwrEpog, a, ov, the second 3 y rpae, rpta tqitoq, Ep. also rpiraror, 17, ov 4 S reaaapeg or T^rrapEC, a, Ion. riraproc and Ep. T£(7(7£peC, Dor. T£TTO£>££ OF T£T£>aTOC T£rop£C, Aeol. iriGvpeg 5 £ 7T£VT£, Aeol. 7r£^U7T£ 7r£/U7TTOg 6 5- £$ £/croc 7 2' £t™ 'ipSo/uiog, Ep. also 8 ?'j o.«crw oy^ooc, Ep. also oySoaroc 9 S £W£a ivvcLTOQ, Ep. also avaroc 10 t $£/CCL §£KClT0g 11 ici £v$£/ca fvSfftraroc 12 t/3' Sw&Ka, Ion. & poet. SuwSeica Swc)£/caroc and Suo/ccu^e/ca 13 ty rf>ic/catS£K:a & ^£/car^)£ic ? neut. T£>ic/ccuc)£K:aroe SsKciTpia 14 18 TSGaaptQKaiSzKa and Ttacra- TSGaapaKaiSsKctTog paicqiSeica 15 t£ 7r£vr£KeuS£/ca 7T£vr£/catS£ft:aroc 16 i<5" E/cfcatSffca eKKaideKaroq N 178 ETYMOLOGY. Cardinal. Ordinal 17 it t7TTaKai§£Ka iTrraKai^Karog 18 If] OKTli)Kai$£K(t OKTUKaiStKCtTOQ 19 i% svveaKaiSeica tvveaKai&Karog 20 k ukogi (v),Ep.la/co(Ti,Dor. UKOGTOQ UKaTl 21 Ka UKoaiv ug, fxia, ev UKoarog irpwrog 30 X TpiaKovra, Ion. TpirjKovTa rpiaKoarog 31 Act TpiaKOvra ug rpiaKOGrog irpioroq 40 /u TEo-crapaKOi/ra, Or rcrrapa- TEcrerapa/cocrroc /covra, Dor. rerpcuKovra 50 V TTZVTTlKOVTa TTeVTVKOGTOg 60 £ eSrj/covra t^ACOcrroc 70 o J/3Soju?7*covra tj3Sop;Kocrroc 80 ?r oy^oriKOVTCt, Ion. oyStu- oy§or}KOGTog KOVTCL 90 C° Ivavrj/covra, Ep. kvvi]KOVTa kvevtjKoarog 100 p f/carov l/caro(7roc 200 a Sia/cotnot, Ion. ^i^/co(Tioc, SmKoa-toaroc at, tt 300 r rpia/cofftot, Ion. rpa^Koaioi TpiaKoaioarog 400 u TteaapaKOGiot TZGGapaKOGioGTog 500 $ TTEvrafcocrtot wevraKOGioGTog 600 % eHaKoaiot £$aKOtriocrroc 700 1p tTTTCLKOGlOl tTTTClKOGlOGTOg 800 tu o/cra/co N. TZGGapeq OY rirrapeg, a G. &U01V Att. Suai% Ion. G. Ttaaapojv also Suwv D. Suolv and £T£pog, a, ov, Dor and Ep. v> ai/Toig. 4. Pronouns reflexive, for the more accute indi- cation and separation of a person. kfiavrov, EjLiavTYjQ, of myself. Gtavrov Or aavrov, aavr^q, of thyself. lavrov Or avrov, avrnq, avrov, of himself. 5. Pronouns demonstrative, which distinctly point out the object of which we are discoursing, with the accessory idea of place, O 7} TO } thCe o§£, $&£, rock, this. ovroq, avTY], tovto, this. IfCaVOC, ZKUVY], ZKUVO, Ion. KtLVOQ, DoY. TllVOQj that. o i) to Suva, a certain person. 6. Pronouns relative, which refer to an object already mentioned^ and give to it a nearer de- finition. oq % o, who. ogtiq, ring, 'on, whoever. 7. Pronouns indefinite, which merely indicate an object generally, without further definition. rtc, rl (enclitic), any one. aXXoc, aXXri, aXXo, another. tTtpog, tTspa, irtpov, the other of two. 8. Pronoun interrogative. riq s ti, who ? what ? 9. Pronoun negatives, which denote the absence of a person or thing. INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. J83 n it ~ VTIQ, OVTl, I , { no one. ling, fxrjTi, > %v 9 $ no, none. OVTIQ. ov^ug, ov§£/j.ia, ov^ev, 10. Pronoun reciprocal, which designates the mutual action of different persons upon each other. Dual aXArjXoiv, plur. aXXrjXwv, of each other. § 58. INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. i Personals. Sing. N. tyw, I. ov, thou G. D. A. hfxov pov EfXOl /HOI GOV aoi Dual ov of him •r Ofc € N.A. VWl vw 0(j>tol G(*)E G.D. vww vwv G(j>WlV WV Gb)iV Plur. - N. G. D. ypug fjjULbJV tj/mv v/uug VfXlV &ug. neutr. G$La <7U)V G(jil(Tl A. Vfxag vfiag ®$ag, neutr. oza 184 ETYMOLOGY. Note 1 . Many of these forms are enclitic, namely, the oblique cases singular of all the three pronouns, except the dissyllabic kfxov, Efxol, k\xk. Of the third all the forms are enclitic but a§iov and cr(pa.e. On the contrary, the whole of the forms retain their proper accent when they are used with particular expression and in opposition to some other person, or when they depend upon a preposition. In such cases the pronoun of the first person uses only its dissyllabic forms ; ejiov, ejioi, ejie. Note 2. The particle ye, which is joined to a pronoun for greater emphasis, mingles with those of the first and second person into one word, and then the forms eyw, l/iot, and ejjle, throw back their accent ; thus, eywye, tjuoiye, Efxeye ; on the contrary, kjxovye. (in- stead of kfjiioyz)* Note 3. In the older language and in the different dialects these personal pronouns exhibit a great variety of forms, which we shall here reduce into a synopsis. The Epic dialect constitutes the basis therein, and the peculiarities of the others are added with their proper designation. Sing. N. Iy«lywv(*) gv TvvT} t Dor. rv (*) — — (*) G. Efieo, length. Efieio trio, length. cteIo fo, length, do contr. ejjlevj fiEv contr. (tev er(pio"iv fftiia'i ff(bui otyiaiv trdxae &(j)ta * Those forms which occur only as enclitics are given un- accented. INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 185 Plur. N. (Ion. rj/JLeeg) yfietQ (Ion. vfiieg) v/ielg aixfiEQ, Dor. ajxig vfi/ieg, Dor. bfieg G. f]jjii(i)v i]fxelo>v D. yfjuu i)fitv ijfxlv d/xfjLiy afifii A. fjfxeag rf^iag fjfjtag a/j-fie, Dor. afxi Vfl£(i)V VjJLEUOV V/JUP VfMtV VJXfllV VflfJLL _ vjiiag v/nag v/mag v/ifxe, Dor. vfie &(j>lfflV (T(j)l(Tl crcbiag ff(pag ffd)e Reflexives. Singular. I myself. Thou thyself. He himself. N. (e yio avTog avTi}) (gv avToqavTii) (clvtoq) G. D. suavrov £fj.avTrjt; gclvtov gcivthq avTOV clvtiiq avrov tfxavTio hfxavriQ Gavrw Gavry avrM avry avrto A. E/mavrov Zfxavrfjv Gavrov Gavrrjv avrov avrrjv avro Plural. N. fifxuq avroi vfiuq avroi G(j>ug avTOi Gr. t//uwv a\JTU)v vjuwv avTU)v aVTLJV D. &C. avroig avro A. avrovc avT( Note 4. Instead of av in these forms, the Ionic dialect always uses wi/, before which e remains unchanged, and is even inserted in the reflexive of the first person; thus, ifxeuvrov, aeo)VTov t klOVTOVf &c. Demonstratives, The declension of the simplest demonstrative, or article, has been given above, § 31. This is followed by its derivatives, namely, o&, ?}&, t6§£, in which the particle &• is annexed unchanged to the several cases of 6, r), to, thus, gen. rovck, rrjcck, D. A. 186 ETYMOLOGY. rovSe, &c. and ovtoq, in which r is added at the beginning of the root in the same forms as in the article. Note 5. In the Doric and Epic dialects the article prefixes the r in the nom. plur. also of the masc. and fem., thus, roi and ral instead of ol and at. In the remaining cases it experiences all the variations which have been noticed in the dialects of the first and second declensions ; toIo for tov, rdajv for rwv, raiai and rrjarw for rcue, rwe, Dor. for rovg, &c. Of oh the remarkable Epic form of the dat plur. rotgheai or rolshatrt for rolgh, must be observed. Singular. N. ovTog avrrj tovto, this G. TOVTOV TCLVTY]Q TOVTOV TOVTO) TOVT^ TOVTO) TOVTOV TUVTriV TOVTO Dual. N. A. TOVTO) TttVTa TOVTO) G. D* TOVTOIV TUVTaiV TOVTOIV Plural. N. ovrot avTai Tavra G. TOVTO)V D. TovTOig TavTaiQ tovtoiq A. tovtovq TavTag raura Note 6, The lonians insert an € before the long final syllable of this pronoun ; e. g. tovtIov^ rot/rcW, for tovtov, rovriov, &c. Sing. Plur. N. gelva, a certain person &"*c G. SAfog $dvo)v D«s ■- # * * . cuvi A. ScTva 8«vac JVote 7» Sometimes cam is also used as an indeclinable. INFLEXION OF PRONOUNS. 187 Indefinites and Interrogatives. Singular. N. t\q t\, any one rig t1 9 who ? what ? G. tlvoq and rov, Ep. teo, rev tivoq and rov, Ep. r£o D. rm and tw, Ep. rzw r/vi and tw A. Tiva Tiva &c. iVote 8. These two pronouns of perfectly similar form are dis- tinguished by the accent. The indefinite is always enclitic, and in the oblique cases takes the accent on its ending ; on the con- trary, the interrogative, even in a connected discourse, remains always orthotone in the nom., and in the oblique cases preserves the accent on the radical syllable, Note 9. Instead of Tiva as neutr. plur. of the indef. we find the collateral form Att. arra, Ion. aaaa, which is not enclitic. In Ionic also the accessory forms t£u>i> and rioiui for nvwv % tkti, occur. Relatives. Singular. N. o G. D. aXX/jXoiv A. aXXrjXw Plural. G. aWrjXtov D. aWrjXoig aWiiXaig aXXrjXoiC A. aXXrjXovc aWr}\ag a\Xr)\a Note 1 1 . Of this recipr. the plural form is the most usual, and is frequently adopted even when the discourse treats of two persons. Note 12. All pronouns, not inflected here, follow the declension of adjectives in oe, ?/, or, with the distinction that those, which have o in the nom. neutr., retain it also in the ace. neutr. § 59. CORRELATIVES. 1. Correlatives are words, which stand in a mutual relation to each other, both with respect CORRELATIVES. 189 to form and signification. They are all directed to the general nature of an object, as, e. g. mag- nitude, form, situation, age, &c, and in such a manner that one asks a question respecting it, to which the rest contain the simplest answers and relations. 2. They are all adjectives of three termina- tions, having one common root, and distinguished from one another solely by their initial letters and accents. Synopsis. Interrogative. Indefinite. Demonstrative. Relative. ttoctoc, how great ? ■kogoQ) of any roaog ocrog how much? how magnitude roaogEs OTroaog, as many ? roffovrog, so great ttoIoq, of what 7roLOQ, of any rolog olog quality ? quality roiogSe TOiovrog, of such a quality oTtoiog^ as 7r^X//:oc, how old 1 TrrfkiKoe, of a T7]\lKOg ijXiKog certain age TrjXiKogSe bnrikiKog, rrjXiKovrog, so old as Note 1. Demonstratives in ovrog conform to the declension of ovrog (see § 58.), except that, besides the termination o, they have also ov in the neutr. ; e. g. roaovrog, roaavrr), roaovro (v), gen. roaovTOv, roaavrr^g, toctovtov, &c. Note 2. Besides these usual correlatives there are also others, which occur, however, only in simple forms, and do not complete the full series ; e. g. 7roca.7r6g, whence sprung ? dWoBcnrog, from another country, biroda^og, whence, 190 ETYMOLOGY. § 60. LENGTHENED FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 1. To render still more prominent the exposi- tory power of demonstratives, the Greeks append to them an i, which then always bears the acute accent, and is long by nature, and before which every short vowel is rejected ; e. g. ovroal, avTr\i 9 tovtI (hicce, haecce, hocce), this ; so also oSt (from o&), sKuvovL (from Uuvoq), togovtovI (from to- govtoq), &c. 2. For the same purpose the enclitic mp is annexed to relatives ; e« g. cWsp, the very same who ; ol63 for the first case the conjunctive, and for the last the optative, as the appropriate mode. Note 1 . Among the peculiarities of the verb are besides to be remarked the infinitive, which expresses the idea of the verb absolutely, and therefore cannot be considered as a real mode ; and the participle, whose idea has been explained above, § ?A. 2. 5. As every thing which exists and takes place can only be conceived by us with re- ference to time, the verb, therefore, assumes forms, called tenses, to indicate the distinction of different times. Now in time we distinguish three divisions, the past, present, and future. Hence arise also three tenses, the past, present, and future. For the accurate narration, however, of past occurrences, and for the determination of their connection and succession, one single tense is not sufficient and we therefore express the past by several tenses, namely, the perfect, pin- perfect, imperfect, and, in Greek, also the aorist. The whole of these tenses are resolved with re- spect to signification, and form into two classes : (a) into the principal tenses : present, perfect, and future. (b) into the historical (called also subordinate) tenses ; imperfect, pluperfect, aorist. Note 1. Several tenses in Greek have a double form, namely, the aorist and future universally, and the perfect and pluperfect of the active, so that in conjugation we find an aor. 1. and 2. a fut. 1. and 2. &c, and in the passive also a fut. 3., whose signifi- cation coincides with the Jut. perfect of the Latins. But as the distinction of these chiefly consists in form, mention can be made only of one aorist, &c. in a classification of the tenses l o 194 ETYMOLOGY. Note 2, An accurate elucidation of the peculiar import of the different modes and tenses can only be given in the Syntax, in discussing the application of these forms. FORMATION OF VERBS, § 62. (64.) Conjugation. 1. To derive and form all the existing modifi- cations of a verb is called to conjugate. This is done by the annexation and change of certain terminations, made use of to denote the different tenses, modes, numbers, and persons. 2. These terminations always remain essen- tially the same, however the verbs may differ to which they are annexed. But the manner in which they are united into one whole with the primitive form of the verb is different, according to the different nature of that primitive form itself, and hence we distinguish a plurality of conjugations. 3. In Greek the union of terminations with the primitive form of the verb takes place in a two- fold manner ; or, which is the same thing, there are in Greek two conjugations, whereof one, which, from its personal termination, is called the conju- gation w 9 connects its personal terminations to the primitive form of the verb by means of a vowel ; and the other, which, likewise, from the termination of its present, is called the conjugation pi* con- nects them to it immediately. CONSTITUENT PARTS OF VERBAL FORMS. 105 4. The conjugation w predominates ; because by far the greater number of Greek verbs are formed according to it, and because it is even used for the completion of the conjugation 1*. C V gdl. evroc, acrr/c, kvroc. r. of the participle is purely accidental, as is clear from the perf., where Second and third person sing., and in the third person plur., is much j plur. eiav. and in the conjugation p. The same is particularly common in the end of the verbal root, the collision of three consonants would occasion ; the Attics, on the contrary, making choice of compounds with the rf. pass, can only be formed by a composition of this kind ; e. g. conj. n these terminations are annexed to the root by means of a connective pe second person; whence eat, contr. y, and Att. ti, which in particular rariable rejection of , • -■ - >• rl , lallu ,| unchanged (j The terminations rra, and .to can on - ^ suosmuting a ..ri-l.t li.irsl.iii- ■" i "'" ' , , , ., ., .,., participle and the .trill I ( '"' a) "°" ™" W " F " " ™* ""*'"" «™W"'t ('/. «") "■ opt. rt-.^fit. '':'.'""■■ , llt properly to be cm and «o, " ^£%£^*A Phifunperat., which is very ,Vc,ue„„y, and with Epic writers a,,,.,., us the case in the perf. and pluperf. Uiwon of three consonants would t -irvfvrm; the Attics, on the contrary, in -Uiuir ''!'" l n dopt. perf. pass, can only be formed by a I p'oa a ol tl aid be icm in die second person; »«.., with the invariable rejecti - svfectly resembles the thM pi i hi, h m pattiatilui VERBAL TERMINATIONS. 197 (1) All the tenses can be reduced to common and simple primitive terminations of the active and passive forms, wherein the historical and principal tenses in certain persons are clearly distinguished from each other. In the passive the terminations of the perf. and plupf. furnish the simple primitive form for both classes of tenses ; but of the active the following are the primitive terminations : Principal tenses. Historical tenses. I. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. Sing. — g — _ c _ Dual,/ TOV TOV Plur.S **" tz iXri/C£ev. 2. From this general rule are to be observed the following exceptions : (a) If the root begins with a double consonant, * For (jjEifilXr^Ka, according to § 15. D, 200 ETYMOLOGY. or with two consonants which are not a mute and liquid, then a only is prefixed in the perf. and plupf. ; e.g. ^a\\(jj, perf. i-\pa\ica, pllipf. £-^aA/cav Zevou) • — z-^vtoKa — £-$£VWfC£lV £?]Aoaj — £-foAw/ca — e-fyjXwiceiv CFTTiiptJ — z-arrapica ■ — k-Girapicuv. On the contrary : 'paa, plupf. sppa(j>eiv. Note S. The only example of reduplication in p occurs in the Homeric f>epv7ru)fiiva } from pvTrow. (c) The following verbs beginning with X re- ceive instead of reduplication the syllable a in the perf., which remains unchanged in the plupf. : Xcififidvu) (I take), perf. el-X^a, plupf. d-X^eiv in the pass. — tt-Xiy/z/iae — ei-Xrjfifiijv Xayxawo (I obtain by lot), — e t-A*?x a — £6-X>?x £tJ/ Xiyw (I gather), — ti-Xoxa — fi-Xdx"" in the pass. — el-Xeyfiat — el-XeyfiTjy* TEMP. AUGMENT— ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 201 According to the same analogy are formed upnKa (I have said), from 'PEQ, and u^aprai (it is determined by fate), from jueipoimi. (d) The verbs |3ouXo/uat (I am willing), c&va^cu (I am able), and juc'XXw (I am about), are augmented by 1? instead of e, particularly in the Attic dialect ; e. g. impf. tfiovXopriv and r)j3ovX6juY}v — eBwajuriv and rj^vvafiriv — fueXAov and rJ^cXXov, &C. Note 4. In the Epic dialect the aor. 2. also sometimes receives a reduplication, which it then retains through all the forms ; e. g. XtkdSovTQ, aor. 2. from \av$dvofxai t inf. \a\a$icr$ai. § 67. (68.) TEMPORAL AUGMENT.— ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 1. When a verbal root begins with a vowel or diphthong, the prefixed e is contracted with it into one sound, but so that the original sound belong- ing to the root is retained as much as possible in the contraction. This, from the reason assigned § 65. 3., is called a temporal augment, and is the same in the historical tenses and in the perfect. 2. As every vowel or diphthong which may stand at the beginning of a root is not capable of admitting the augment, we shall therefore, for easier inspection, divide them into three classes. (a) the vowels a, £ , , the diphthongs — > O v — t; — v } — {>/3pt£w — vfipi^oVi pass. vfipiafiau Exceptions : (1) The following verbs beginning with e, on prefixing the augment, take the diph- thong a instead of the usual contraction into v : tan) (I let), £$(t> and £&&*> (I am wont), IX/d^w (I roll), zXtao and eA/cuw (I draw), ''EAQ (I take, root to the aor. 2. u\ov, aXoji^v), «rw (I am occupied), tirofiai (I follow), zpya'Cofxai (I WOl'k), sottw and £07ri)£w (I creep), wnaw (I entertain), and £x w (I have). (2) Verbs that begin with a and ot, and have an- other vowel after these sounds, remain without the augment; e. g. a-npi, 3d pers. impf. a^ro. — alw, impf. alov. — oiatciiby, impf. olaKilov, Except the verbs aa'gw (I sing), and oUpai (I suppose), which always admit the regular augment ; e. g. impf i;a$OV, li)6fJLK]V t Note 1. Some other verbs beginning with ol also admit the augment, as, e. g. oltcovpiio, olvoio, &c. (b) The diphthong av, followed by a consonant, is changed into w on receiving the augment ; but, * The Dorians also in this instance retain long a instead of tj s €. g. dyov for y\yov. TEMP. AUGMENT— ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 203 if followed by a vowel, it receives no augment. The diphthong zv, which also becomes rjv on the acces- sion of the augment, generally remains unaug- mented. Examples : av'£av(*), impf. rjvZavov, perf. T]v^r]Ka avaivu) — — avaivov iv^ofxat < — - rjv^ofiirjv and zvyopnqv ZVplGKlO YIVpKTKOV and EVpiGKOV, pf. ZVpriKtt. (c) Verbs whose root begins with v, w, se, ov, and with a long I or v, suffer no augmentation. The only exception to be observed from this rule is uKa'Ca) (I conjecture), to which the Attics some- times join an augment, whereby a is changed into y ; e. g. impf. uko£ov and yicalov, perf. pass. ilKCKTfiai and yKUGfiai. Note 2. The following verbs beginning with vowels take the syllabic augment : wS-eco (I push), impf. euSovv, pf. pass, ewtrfiat o)v£ofj,ai (I buy), — e(i)povfjir}v — kd)vr\\xon. ovpeio (I urine), — eovpovv pf. eovpr}Ka ayvvjii (I break), aor. 1. ea£a, — edya aXivKOjjiai (I am caught), aor. 2. edXojv — kdkwica avSdvoj (I please), — 'iahov. The same analogy is followed by the irregular perf. ioitca (I appear, from ukoS), io\7ra (I hope, from £A7rw), and k'ooya (I do, from the obsolete root^yw), which have this peculiarity also, that they admit in the plupf. a new augmentation of the o ; thus, £w/cap, £wX7rav, twpyeiv. This latter kind of aug- ment occurs also in aopraZu (I celebrate), impf. 204 ETYMOLOGY. Note 3. The verbs bpaco (I see), and avoiyio (I open), take both the temporal and syllabic augments at the same time ; thus, impf. kojpwv, aviwyov, aor. 1. dvi&lfc, pf. IwpctKct, dyeyxa, &c. 3. According to the above (1) assigned rule, in verbs of this kind the augment of the perfect and historical tenses is the same, and therefore they do not admit of a proper reduplication. Never- theless, a certain number of verbs, whose root begins with a, or s or o, receive in their perf. and plupf. a peculiar kind of increase, called the Attic reduplication, which consists in prefixing to the temporal augment the first vowel of the root, to- gether with the next succeeding consonant. In this case the plupf. has frequently no particular augment. Examples : uyupis), pf. (jiyepKa) ayfiytpxa, pass, ayrjyepjuiai ifX£(x> - — (jlfAZKCt) £jU1tyl£/Ca plupf. tfXt]fX£KUV opvTTU) — (wpuv^a) opwpvy^a — opojpvytiv. 4. When forms from polysyllabic roots have this Attic reduplication, the long vowel in the penultimate syllable is usually shortened ; e. g. akzitytO) pf. a\r}Xi(pa f pf. pass. a\f)\ip,fiai. — clkovcj, pf. ktcwoa.— 'EAEY6Q, pf. cXtjXvSo, &c. Yet this shortening does not obtain invariably, as appears from kpripuica, perf. of spuSw, and similar forms. Note 4. The Attic, like the common reduplication, (see §66. Note 4.) is sometimes prefixed in the Epic dialect to the aor. 2., although with this distinction, that in such aorists the augment is added to the reduplication ; e.g. i/papoi', aor. 2. of apw— oKoKkov PARTICULARITIES, &c. 205 (without augment), from the obsolete root 'AAKfl. This Attic reduplication in the aor. 2. has been retained by the verb ayw even in the common language ; e. g. aor. 2. r/yayov, conj. aya'yw, inf. dydyetv. Note 5. It must not be concluded from the name, that the Attic reduplication belongs exclusively or principally to the Attic dialect. On the contrary, it is found used in the old Epic ; and many forms, possessing this reduplication, exist only in the older and poetic language, and are never used by the Attics. § 68. (69.)] PARTICULARITIES IN THE USE AND NEGLECT OF THE AUGMENT. 1. What has been said in the preceding sections, respecting the augment, holds of simple verbs, and is confined to its use in the common lan- guage. Towards a complete discussion of this doctrine it is requisite also to give the necessary information on the augment in compound verbs, and on the freedom of poetic language in its adoption or neglect. I. Augment in Compound Verbs. (1) In verbs which are compounded with pre- positions the augment enters between the prepo- sition and the root, and the short final vowel of the preposition is rejected, except in ir^i and tt^o, which retain the vowel before the augment ; e.g. 206 ETYMOLOGY. irpOQ-(j>£p(t). illipf. 7rpOQ-£-(j)£pOl> Gv\-\eyto — - — a7r-£-7T£/i7roi> 7raoa-j3aXX(t> — 7rap-£-|3aXXov ? pf. 7rapa-j3£-j3X??^a 7T£oe-j3aXXa> — • 7T£pi-£-/3aXXov — 7T£pl-j3£-j3X»J/Ca 7rpo-7re(jLTT(jj • — Trpo-k-Tr£f.iiTQv f usually with cra- SIS 7rpovir£fjnrov. Note 1. In all the adduced examples, it is evident that the preposition is compounded with a simple verb ; and as the verb retains its idea in composition, and merely receives an accessory relation from its union with the preposition, it is natural that in placing the augment the verb should be formed independently, and that to the verb so formed the preposition should be added unchanged. From this must be distinguished the other case where independent verbs are formed from nouns compounded with prepositions. Here the second part of the compound is not an independent verb, and therefore cannot properly take an aug- ment, which should rather be joined to the entire, and, with re- spect to signification, indivisible verb, in the usual manner ; con- sequently at the beginning. Yet this obtains only in few cases ; dvriciKEd) (from dvTiBiKOs), impf. rivridiKOvv ijnrecov (from epireBoe) — i)fX7re^ovv 7cpooin La'Cofxa t (from irpooifx 10 *') • — > ETrpooLf,ua^6jXY]y. While most verbs so formed, nevertheless, take the augment in the middle ; e. g. Eiri$v[i£b> (from £tt/ and S'vjlioc), impf. etteS-vl-iow kyKU)fiLa£u> (from kyKiojiiov) — £veKrirEV(i) (from Trpofiirqg) - — Trpoefo'irevov. The same is observed in iy^eipeoj, eue^pevoj, fVt-^cevw (from ettit^Mq), airoXoyEU), Tcpo^EVEw, avvEpyEio, viro7rTEt/(t), &c. all of which have the augment in the middle, although they are not de- rived from simple verbs, but evidently from nouns. Note 2. On the contrary, some compounds, formed by the union of a preposition with a simple verb, prefix their augment to the preposition. These are particularly such as are unusual in the common language as simple verbs ; e. g. K-a-^v^w (I sleep), impf. ekcl^ev^op KaSrjfiaL (I sit), — eKaSrfjftfly Ka^i^oi (I set down), —- sicd$i£ev dfxUrrv^i (I clothe), aor. jjpQieffa. 4 PARTICULARITIES, &c. 207 Yet even this is not an universal rule, but liable to many ex- ceptions ; thus, e. g. besides EKaSevcov, KaSrjvdov is also used, and dtyiKveofxai (I come), aVavraw (I meet), e^erd^o) (I examine), are invariably augmented in the middle, although the simple forms drrdct) and erdi^io never occur. Note 3. The following verbs compounded with prepositions receive a double augment, one in the root, the other in the pre- position : clvExo}xai (I endure), impf. yvetxoiJirjv, aor. 2. l]VE(yyj>n.r)v dvop&oio (I erect), — i]viop%ovv, aor. 1. r)viop$(oaa kvoxkiu) (I molest), — ■ rjyoj^ovr, pf. r/^w'^Xi/fca Trapoiveo) (I rage), - — kirapiovovi', pf. 7rs7rapo)yr]tca. Besides the adduced examples, this usage occurs, although not invariably, in some other verbs. Note 4. The verbs ckcuraw (I prescribe a mode of life), dtaxo- via (I minister), and a'/x^io-/3r/r£w (I doubt), are treated as com- pound verbs with respect to the augment, although they are only apparently and not really compounded with prepositions. They sometimes also present a double augment, like those adduced in the preceding note ; e. g. diaLrdo), impf, cirjrwv and edirfruv Bicucoveoj — hLr\Kovovv and e^ltikovovVi pf. %e§ir\K6vriKci dfJKJHafirjTiQ) — ?;/x0£cr/3>/rov^. (2) Verbs compounded with *u and (I shame), — sSvcwttovv. 208 ETYMOLOGY. Note 5. Many verbs compounded with ev, which, according t& the above rule, should receive the augment in ev, have no aug- ment ; e, g. ev(s)\ov}iaL (I feast), impf. evej^ovfxrjv. (3) Verbs compounded with a privative, and with nouns, are augmented at the beginning ; e.g. SsivoTraSsbJ, impf. zSeivoTTa'Sovv tupoovEOJ — ' iifpovovv XoyoTTOiko — £Xoyo7roiouv. 1 1 . Neglect of the A ugment. (1) Like the augment of the perfect, (see § 65, 4.) the Epic reduplication of the aor. 2., where it occurs, (see § 66. Note 4., and § 67. Note 4.) is retained unchanged through all the forms. The augment of the aorist, on the contrary, remains only in the indicative; e. g. irv^a, inf. rv\pai, opt. Ttyaiim, part, rtyaq* Of the impf. and plupf. it is to be understood that they can possess no form besides the indicative. (2) The augment is frequently omitted in the indicative also of the historical tenses. The par- ticular cases in which this omission is allowed, or usual, are determined according to the following- rules : (a) the reduplication can never be omitted. (b) the syllabic augment is very frequently re- jected from the pluperfect, not only in the Ionic dialect and the poets, but even in the common language ; with the imperfect and aorist, on the contrary, such omission is a mere poetic license, used whenever requisite to the verse by the Epic, ROOT AND CHARACTERISTIC OF VERBS. 209 but only seldom by the Attic poets ; while in prose this augment is always retained. Note. 6. The imperfect txPW which is frequently used with- out the augment, \P^ y > even m P rosa i c writers, constitutes the only exception to this rule. (c) The temporal augment can be omitted not only by Epic writers and in poetry generally, but also in Ionic prose. The lonians allow themselves its omission even in the perfect ; e. g. oik£u> (I in- habit), pf. pass. wKrifxai and oiicofiai. Note 7. Except from this the forms tfXSor and i]\v$ov (aoi to tp^o/iat), which never occur without the augment. Of the Root, and its Union with Terminations. § 69. (65.) ROOT AND CHARACTERISTIC OF VERBS. 1. The root of a verb is its primitive form, i. e. the syllable, or syllables, from which, by the ad- dition of different terminations (and of the aug- ment), every verbal form is produced. 2. The last letter of the root is called the cha- racteristic (£. e. the distinguishing letter) of a verb, because its quality directs all the changes which take place in the union of the root with the termi- nation, and according to which the proper conju- gation of each verb is determined. p 210 ETYMOLOGY. § 70. (65.) DISCOVERY OF THE ROOT. 1 . The root of a verb is found by taking away from a given verbal form the termination, and, if it possesses one, the augment. And, since the pre- sent is usually adduced as the principal form of a verb, and its termination is perfectly simple, the easiest method of discovering the root is to cut off the termination w from the first person of the pre- sent. Thus, e. g. of the verbs r^tjSw, \eya), ^aw, vEfAto, the roots are rpt/3, Xcy, <^a, vtfi. 2. But in most Greek verbs this process is not sufficient for finding the original or pure root, and another radical form, generally more simple than in the present, is developed in the analyzation of the remaining tenses. 3. This difference of roots discovered in the ana- lysis of several tenses of one and the same verb consists either in the mere change of vowels (con- cerning which the necessary information is given below, § 71. 5. c, to the end, and § 73 a .), or in additions by which the root of the present is in- creased. The former is the case in almost all mono- syllabic roots, having a diphthong compounded with i ; the latter in all those wherein the termi- nation of the present is preceded by the double consonant t or by two consonants which are not a mute and liquid. DISCOVERY OF THE ROOT. 211 4. All such verbs with more than one root should properly be ranked in the class of irregu- lars. But as the number of irregular verbs, which is already considerable, would be increased be- yond measure by such an arrangement, all those are classed among regular verbs whose present root has undergone a change so definite that the original or pure root can be accurately deter- mined by it according to certain rules. Hereto belong the following classes of verbs : (a) verbs whose characteristic in the present is itt. In these the r is a strengthening addition, and their true characteristic is one of the P sounds, usually k, more rarely |3 or $ (*) ; e. g. Present : tvtttu) (I beat), Kp{nrru) (I conceal), paimo (I sew). Root: TYIK2 KPYB& 'PA f° r their pure characteristic ; e. g. Present : irpdrrau) (I do), typiaaio (I shudder), Trrvaau (I fold). Root: nPAra fcPIKO ITTYXft. Note 2. In some verbs of this kind the pure characteristic is a T sound, d or 3-, or r. Such are ftXi-ru) (I cut honey- combs), ftpdcrau) (I shake), ep£, whose pure characteristic is a pala- tine letter, usually y, belong the verbs denoting sound, as aid fa (I groan), dXaXdfa (I raise the battle shout), k-pd£o> (I cry), Kpiofa (I croak), olf-tojfa (I wail), oXoXvfa (I scream aloud), arevdfa (I sigh), rpifa (I chirp), &c. ; besides {mart fa (I scourge), pvardfa (I drag), ora£w (I trickle), (I boil). Note 5. The pure characteristic fluctuates in the following, whose derivative forms are according to both analogies ; dp7rdfa (I rob), fut. dpTvdffb) and dpTrdfa ; fiaardfa (I carry), fut. fiaardaoj, aor. pass. kfiaardy§r)v ; ward fa (I nod), fut. wardato and ^vo-- ra£w ; iraifa (I play), fut. 7rait,ovfj.at, aor. 'irraiaa. Note 6. Some in 4. 213 sent is AX, a simple X forms the pure character- istic ; e. g. pres. trreXXw (I send), root 2TEA, flit. OTfXw, aOH £OT£lXa. 5. In all those verbs, whose characteristic in the present has been changed, only the present and imperfect are formed from the root of the present. All the other forms are deduced from the pure root, with the unchanged characteristic. Note 8. Concerning verbs with the characteristic ttt and with gg or tt, it has been observed in general that the former have usually 7r, the latter usually y, for the pure characteristic. But since, besides tt, both /3 and^, and, besides y, both x an( l K can a ^ s0 enter as pure characteristics, it is necessary that for every single verb of this kind the true characteristic should be definitely as- certained. This, however, can only be done by attending to kindred words ; thus, e. g. for /3a7rrw(I dip), the substantive (la&r) (a dipping) furnishes the true characteristic , &c. Yet, as a knowledge of the pure characteristic is only requisite for the secondary tenses, in which it occurs unchanged, and as these tenses are used in but very few verbs of this kind, which practice gradually discovers, such knowledge is therefore in most cases of no consequence. In the primary tenses, before annexing the termination, the characteristic always experiences a change, which equally occurs to all the three P and three G sounds ; e. g. TVTTTU) (rOOt TVir), KpVTTTU) (YoQt Kpvfi), pdliTOi (rOOt pCL(f) J flit. rv^poj, Kpvxpu), pcixpoj ; pf. TETvtya, KEKavfa, eppaoa : so 7rpd&GU) (root 7fpay), (f)pipiK) } irrvaGb) (root tjti>x) ; fut. vpd^w, typifa, 7TTv£,. 2. The whole of verbs in « are first divided into two principal classes, namely, (a) verbs barytone, that is, such as have their final syllable unaccented (see § 10. Note 4). To these belong all verbs, whose characteristic is a consonant or a diphthong, or a simple vowel, ex- cept a, e, and o. (b) Verbs perispome or contract, that is, such as have their characteristic vowel contracted with the present termination, on which account the circumflex then enters upon the blended sound produced by contraction. To these belong verbs with the characteristics a, e, o. 3. Verbs barytone are again divided into se- veral classes with reference to the identity or resemblance of the characteristic, upon which depends the conformity of changes in the root be- fore certain terminations. 4. Changes of the characteristic are introduced In the formation of verbs, through an endeavour after harmony, and are effected according to the general rules adduced above, § 15 — 19. In verbs barytone such changes are usually requisite, when the termination begins and the root ends with a consonant, consequently in the tenses CLASSES OF VERBS IN to. 215 whose terminations begin with a, (fut. 1. and aor. 1. act. and mid., fut. 3. pass.), or with ju, (perf. and plusqupf. pass.), or with 3, (aor. 1. and fut. 1. pass.), or with k 9 (perf. act.). Hereto is added the breathing connected with the termi- nation of the perf. 1. act. in those cases, where it is merely a without an acceding k. 5. For the cases here observed we shall assign the necessary changes of the characteristic in the different classes of verbs barytone. These classes are as follow : (A) Verbs pure, whose characteristic is a diph- thong or a simple vowel, with the exception of a, £, O ; e. g, Tito, eAkVO), /cAata>, (JHk), KzXtVlO, CtKOVU), &C. For the formation of the tenses of these verbs the general rule obtains, that they annex the tem- poral terminations to an unchanged characteristic, and receive in the perf. act. the termination ica. Besides this, however, the following peculiarities are yet to be observed respecting them. (1) Secondary tenses are not formed from these verbs, except in some whose present root has undergone changes. (2) Verbs, whose characteristic in the present is i or v 3 lengthen this vowel in the fut. and its derivative tenses (see §72. 2. II.), when it was short in the present ; e. g. SaKpvw, fut. SaKpvvto, aor eScucpvcra, pf. pass. Stdatcpv/uiai.— rib), fut. Tiaii), aor. trlea, pf, pass, rerlfxai. Exceptions from this rule see in § 8. third sect. B. 2. b. (3) In the aor. 1. and in the perf. pass, many verbs pure insert a a- before the termination, 216 ETYMOLOGY. namely, all those in mo, which retain the short vowel in the derivative tenses, (see above, § 8. third sect. B. 2. b.), besides the following : ukovcd (I hear), /3uw (I stop full), fX/cvw (I draw), Soavw (I break in pieces), ksXevw (I urge on), Xtvw (I stone), £uw (I scrape), vaXa'tv (I wrestle), vrpiw (I saw), TT'caiti) (I stumble), ua» (I rain), ygiw (I anoint).— 7rauw (I put an end to) takes (I shut) fluctuates, having the perf. pass. Ktickzipai, besides the usual form /^/cXa^a*. Note 1 . Verbs pure in aw, ew, ow, are passed over here, being specially treated of as contracts in the sequel (§ 77). (B) Verbs mute, whose characteristic is a mute letter. Like the mute letters, verbs mute also resolve themselves into three divisions, according to the different sounds ; consequently, (a) Verbs whose characteristic is a P sound, either /3 or w, or <£ or ttt (according to § 70. a.) ; c. g. rot/3w, TTtfxirii), ypcKjxo, TU7rro>. These unite ({ 17. 1.) the characteristics with the succeed- ing a 3 aor. 1. pass. krpl^rw, pf. pass. TETOtyljUCH. Note 2. When fi precedes the P sound, one fx is suppressed in the perf. pass., as otherwise three would occur together m t e. g. iy^p//.t7rrw (I bring near), pf. pass. cyKe'xp^/^a*. FORMATION OF VERBS. 217 (b) Verbs whose characteristic is a K sound, either 7, or k, or x> or ff 7T (§ 70. b.), or I (§ 70. c. together with Notes 3 to 6), or kt, (§ 70. Note 1.) ; e. g. ayu), ttXzki*), rpzyjx), r, OTtvaZoj, tiktw. These unite the characteristic with the following* a of the temporal termination into £, (§17. 2.) and change the same into -y before the initial p of the temporal termination (§ 16. 2), into x before 9, (§ 15. B.), and likewise into x before the aspirated termination of the perf. 1. (§ 15. E.) ; e. g. 7rXka>, fut. -n\k£d), pf. 1. 7T£7rX£^a, aor. 1. pass, kirkky^nv, perf. pass. TrktrkzyiiaL Note 3. Verbs, whose characteristic is yy, drop one y in the 1 pers. perf. pass. ; e. g. otyiyyio (I tie), pf. pass, etr^iyjaat, but 2 pers. eV^iy^ai. (c) Verbs whose characteristic is a T sound, either S, or 3, or r, or 2 (§ 70. c.) ; e.g*. ofSw, Tra'Sw, avvru), pala). These drop the T sound before temporal terminations beginning with euvu>, fut. (j>avu, — o-tthogj, Hit. (77TEOW. (2) The aor. 1. is to be deduced from the fut. 2., and in such a manner that the short vowel in the last syllable of the root is changed into a kindred long sound ; e. g« from the fut. Kpivio, aor. 1. tKplva. from the fut. <£avw, aor. 1. i(j>yva. — KTUVb), fut. ktbvio, ROY. 1. £/CT£iva. — ifiaWw, fut. \pa\. 219 contains e or u, these sounds change into a in the pf. 1. act. and pf. pass., as also in all aor. 2. and in the aor. 1. pass. ; e. g. fieipu), (I destroy), pf. 1. itffcapKa, pf. pass, e^apfiai, aor. 2. pass. tySaprjv. — oteXXw (I send), EGTaXica, i&raXfim, loraAS^v, £ayKa. This perfect of such verbs, however, occurs only seldom, and is sometimes formed even with the omission of the v. This omission is regular not only in the perf. 1., but also in pf. and aor. 1. pass, in kAivw (I bend), Kplvu) (I judge), 7r\vvb) (I wash), ktuvm (I kill), rdvo) (I stretch) ; e. g\ from kXivoj, pf. 1. KficXucct, pf. pass. fcijcXf/iac, aor. 1. pass. c/eXi'Styv. — ravw. pf. 1. TETaKa, pf. pass, rirafmi, aor. 1. fraSfyv (where a enters agreeably to the observation in the pre- ceding section). In the aor. 1. pass., however, the retention of v in these verbs, with the excep- tion of reivd), is not unusual ; and with the poets it is frequently necessary, in order to gain a long syllable ; e. g. sic\lv%v for kXi^v, &c. (5) the formation of the perf. pass, of verbs in aivoj and vvb) is liable to still greater fluctuation* Generally v is changed into o- before the termina- tion fuai ; e. g. fycuvo), perf. pass. TrLfyaafxai ; but, in several verbs of this kind, v before p becomes likewise p, as in ^palvio (I dry), pf. pass, e^pappai : in some forms v is even omitted, and the vowel before the termination lengthened ; e. g. rpa^vvay (I make rough or angry), pf. pass. Terpayv/nai. 220 ETYMOLOGY. Lastly, all this holds good only of the first per- son of the pf. pass., the v, on the contrary, being replaced in the remaining forms of this tense ; thus, 7T£0ao^uat, 2 pers. Trkfyavvai.- — sZMpajipai, 3 pers. £%ripavTai 9 &C. (6) Verbs, having the characteristic /*, form their pf. 1. always according to a lengthened form in cw, consequently with the termination ma ; e. g. vefxu) (I divide), pf. 1. vtvipriKa. § 72. (72. 8.) AFFINITY OF THE TENSES TO EACH OTHER. 1. Although each tense can be formed from the root of the verb distinctly and independently of every other by means of a peculiar termination, yet it is evident that certain tenses are either perfectly similar, or very nearly allied to each other with reference to the changes which take place in annexing the termination to the cha- racteristic, while others again have other peculi- arities in common. 2. Agreeably to this affinity, with reference to the change of the characteristic, all tenses are re- solved into three divisions, so that those adduced in one order are always allied together and distinct from those in another. These three divisions are as follow : L Tenses which are always formed from an un- PECULIARITIES OF SINGLE TENSES. 221 changed present root : present and imperfect, act., pass, and mid. II. Tenses which usually change the character- istic : futur. 1. and aor. 1. act. and mid. — Per- fect 1. and plusquampf. 1. act. and perfect and plusquampf. pass., besides futur. 3. — Aorist 1. and futur. 1. pass. III. Tenses which are always formed from a pure root with an unchanged characteristic : futur. 2. and aor. 2. act. pass, and mid. — Perfect 2. and plusquampf. 2. Note. The only change, which the root can undergo in the tenses of this last order, is that of the radical vowel, of which something has been said in § 71. c. 3. ; the rest is given in the following $. § 73 a . (72.) PECULIARITIES IN THE FORMATION OF SINGLE TENSES. The necessary particulars respecting the for- mation of tenses have been adduced above, § 71., according to the different classes of verbs, and from the rules there laid down most tenses may be correctly formed from their different roots. Many roots, however, on account of their peculiar na- ture, are subject to certain changes not specified therein ; and in like manner also for some tenses certain distinct peculiarities are to be observed, which we here classify together. 1. Of the roots which undergo peculiar changes 222 ETYMOLOGY. in the formation of the tenses, those, whose last letter is i or v, have been already treated of above, § 71. A. 2. We here shall adduce the necessary particulars respecting those which have the vowel e or the diphthongs a and ev in the middle of the root. (a) In monosyllabic roots of verbs mute, which have c in the middle, this £ usually changes into a in the aor. 2. ; e, g. Tpi-rno (I turn), aor. 2. irpa- ttov. — Tr\sKio (I plat), aor. 2. pass. fVAa/ajv. — flpz%<*> (I moisten), aor. 2. pass. kfipayr\v* Much more rarely this change of sound enters also into the perf. pass., where it only occurs with certainty in (x) (I turn round), Tpha) (I turn), Tptyw (I nourish,) pf. pass. eaTpa/JLjiiai, TZTpanpai, T&pafifiai. The more extensive and constant use of this change of sound in the roots of verbs liquid has been specified above, § 71. C. 3. Note 1. This change of sound does not extend to all verbs mute of this kind, even in the aor. 2., but several retain the ra- dical vowel e unchanged in all the forms ; thus, /3X£Vw (I see), Xiyio (I say), XtVw (I peel), QXeyu) (I burn). Note 2. The following verbs, which adopt o in exchange for e in the perf. 1., are to be observed as exceptions from the general analogy : K'XeVrw (I steal), Xeyw (I gather), Trifi-jro) (I send), rpeVw (I turn), pf. K£/c\o^)«, eiXo^ct, ttetto fupa, rirpofa (similar to the pf. 2. of Tpi([>(i}). The same analogy is followed by fcldoj (I fear), pf. ^e^oikci. (b) The diphthong a in the middle of the root of verbs mute becomes t in the aor. 2. ; e. g\ AaVoj (I leave), aor. 2. iXtirov. — 7raSo/icu (I believe, obey), aor. 2. zm%iir)v. Concerning the other mode by which the sound of a is changed in verbs liquid, see § 71. C. 3. PECULIARITIES OF SINGLE TENSES. 223 (c) The diphthong n> in the middle of the root becomes v in the aor. 2. ; e. g. epzvyt*) (I bellow)* aor. 2. vpvyov. — tXevSw (obsolete radical form to Ip^opai, I come), aor. 2. ?iXvSov.-— fcvyio (I fly), aor. £(j)vyov. 2. The fut. 2. and fut. Att., besides the perf. 2., perf. pass, and the aorists pass., we adduce as tenses, in the formation of which distinctive pe- culiarities are to be observed. (a) The fut. 2. act. and mid. is formed by- annexing the termination e'w and eojucu, contracted in Attic into w and ovfim, and constitutes the pe- culiar form of the fut. in verbs liquid. In other verbs it is so little used in the general languuge, that it can be referred to with certainty only in four, and in those always in the middle form alone ; namely, ixayovfiai as fut. to fxayofxai (I fight). e^ovjuai — je£ojucu (I sit). TriovfjLai (*) — 7Tiva> (I drink). iSofiai (*) — aA'w (I eat). But notwithstanding this a fut. is formed by many verbs pure and mute, which has the same termination with the fut. 2., and, on account of the frequent use made of it by the Attics, is called the Attic Future. Thus when one of the three short vowels, a, e, ?, stands before t — (TICE()q.Q This is the most usual form of the fut. in verbs in /£&>, with a polysyllabic root, and of those in su) which retain e unchanged in the fut. (see § 77. Obs. 2. b.), but verbs in a£o> generally form the fut. with but the T sounds remain unchanged, and instead of I the S contained therein is substituted; e.g\ TtTvtyarai from TV7TTM TZTayarai TCKJGh) 7r£7T£tS'arai 7T£i3w £GK£va$aTai — • (TK£va£(t) e. I LOOSEN. I COMMAND. I LEAVE. I SEW. I RULE. I ARRANGE. I PERSUADE. I PREPARE. I SOW. Present. HI Xvw KtXtiu X«Vu» paiTTii) TEUTVM irs»w OKEud&U EtTTTEipOV eoiraptca tairapKiiv EffTTOpd Imperfect. e — on eXuoi/ bceXevov sXstirov sppaiTTOV ETamrov IwtSoV cffirfa&w Perfect 1. - £ — a or ra XeXukc KEKeXeVKCE \i\zt(j>a 'sppatya TtVaxa TTtTTElKa EtTKEuaKa Plusquamperf. 1. i - e — iw or km iXtXvKav ekekeXeukeev eAcXei^ejv tppafaiv W<" ETETO X EIV eVeTTEIKECV EffKEUnKEtV Perfect 2. -E — a wanting * wanting. \s\onra wanting. wanting. TEra-ya 7TE7TOt9a wanting. Plusquamperf. 2. E- E Ell> — — iXeXo«r«v — — srETaytrv Eir£7T0i9EIV — nnropuv Future 1. — a« XJ™ keXeuhw Xeti/'W paipttt ap5(u * 7TEI(T(D (TKtvaoto wanting. Aorist 1. 1 — au eXwci EKfiXfivtra eXeii/'a eppaxpa ^p5» Era&a eVeKXCI EGKtvaoa Future 2. — u wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. CTTTEpw Aorist 2. PASSIVE iVlSov EffTTajOOV Present. — opa, Xvojttai ^eXe^CE Xsivrojuai parrropai opx«/«» TcWcyia. 7r £ »o^a. aKevatflfiat airtipoftdt Imperfect. e — o/xyv eXvoiitjv ekeXevoiijjv IXeittojutjv sppaTTToftrtv i)j>XipxV craySqv eVew9i)v «re«/aW 'tanapSnv Future 1. — 9tJ(TO^«i XuSiVo^iat Kt\tvaZT}aofiat Xa^i)(7opat pa wanting. wanting. eX(7T);v kppa^-qv wahting. irayiiv sV£V wanting. 1 owapi)v Future 2. — ijiro/ini — — Xnrrjaopai pa^ijaopai — Tayiftroftat 7T(9^uo/iai — £aftT)V Era£d/H)K ElTElffO/HIW eoKtvatrapnv ctnrupafuiv Future 2. — oiifuu wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. oTnpovpai Aorist 2. E OjUTlV ftw * n iv&oiaiv — |e sirapopitv. ' verbs- all ll* rest of the paradigms are formed completely without regard as to any particular form of the iiulividu L firjv as ii uriv as ii as ii T T q2 [To face page 2S6.] TABLE 3. Complete Scheme of Conjugation for Verbs Barytone. ACTIVE. TENSES. INDICATIVE. CONJUNCTIVE. OPTATIVE. IMPERATIVE. NFINITINE. PARTICIPLE. Present. I strike. Sing- Dual. Plural. Sing, ruirry Dual. TVWTtiTOV Plural. TUTTTEtJEEEV Sing. TVWTOIS Dual. Plural. TU7TTOI/MV TU7TT01TOV TUTTTOirE rUTTTOlTIJV TVTTTOItV Sing. Dual. Pl ura i. TinrrETWv Tun-rETWffar and TUTTOITWI' rfr™ gen. iwrovroc, outrijc. Imperfect. I struck. EF — et-vtttoeeev erutttetov e7u7ttete £TU7TT(r^V irvTTTOv wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. Perfect 1. I have struck. TiTVfr TlTV<\>aTOV TETU0EETE TETU0EETOV TZTVtpatTt rertyoi TErtyyc TErii^j TETVT}TOV TErU^WEEEl. TEru^tjre TiTVffoifU TETU^ioic; TETU^Ot TETU0OIT1JV TETuAoiEV si TETU0ETOV TETU^ETE TEm^ETWU TETUI^STGJffaV and TETU^OVTdiV TEr^Eva. TEru^lic, ma, dc. gen. TErv^oroc, wiac, Plusquamperfect I. I had struck. ETETU^EIC ET-Eru^Et'rtJv IrETU^Eiiravand wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. wanting. Future 1. I shall strike. ***" as the present. wanting. rtflpotfu as the present. wanting. rttyav •**"k ou < r "> ""■ Aorist 1. fcfc — etui/$tiK7aV and TtTvcfim' rerli9«7| ivifSEnVjiiE (TinfSs^ffav) TV$%TOV TU^SnrE -*■ gen. tvroc, EWfjc, e'vtoc. Future 1. I shall be struck. 111 TUEpl)ErfiEE£$ON TU^JlJffEffSoi' TV »|» OV. Aorist 2. I was (once) struck. W» n » 4 n,™ r ^ & """""" as in the TUTTEEI|V aorist 1. Tvmtg, ttoa, tv. Future 2. I shall be struck. TUTTJJOOJUat as the future 1 . wanting. TUTTTJETOl'tEEJV as in the present. wanting. TVTTl)OEO$ai TU7r/)t>ll' as the imperfect. TU7TEIJEEEIE as ir the TU7TOIEEE)l/ present. as in the present. ■nmioSai TUTTO/iEVOf, J}, OV. PARADIGMS OF THE CONJ, IN «. 227 persons could not be given in a complete scheme of conjugation selected for verbs mute, and, there- fore, their particular inflexion must be pointed out here in the example of a verb liquid. Active. Pres. errlAXw (I send), conj. gtzWu, opt. trreAAoijiu, imper. orcAAe, infin. cjteWeiv, partic. oreAAwi/, ovaa, ov. Imperf. axrcAAov. Perf. 1. eoTaAjca, COnj. earaX/cw, Opt. toraXKoijUi, imper. arraX/ce, inf. co-raA/ccvat, particip. zaraXicwg, Kvta, koc;. Plusqpf. 1. £(7raA/C€iv. Perf. 2. cffroAa, &C. Plusqpf. 2. e ov. Aor. 1. £areiXajLiY}v 9 COnj. GTuXwfiai, Opt. oteiXcu^uijv, imper. aruXai, infin. orEiXao-Sai, partic. GTeiXafitvog, t) 9 ov. Aor. 2. £GraX6fit}v 9 COnj. (rraktJfjLai, opt. (TTaXoifiriv, imper. araXou, infin. erraXecrSai, partic < >< C^wC^O/^'w •-> iu w w v w W **» ^ w «* ^w " W j>_ ?-^^ j^^?^ t" t: ^ ?- ^ > ^ ^ ^ <** *- .?> ^gr ^ ?> i *£->p*?r *>??*£•*£• *S , «P'*$y *>js- \ CO /"*"!\ i>^ CO ^ ?-4 £?^o? C^S ^<0 N 8 •— o ^^ •^ v.^ •J tf* * 5 <^ UJ 8 > co 8 w O O 8_ • i—) •"""s. •"~^ • CO »0 «3 U2 A /"">» r-> Y 1 ^ ^ 1 o 8 8 8 ^S 8 8 *• -fc -w ^8 8 cr GO *>- 3^ !> 8 !:-§■ O CO 1*3 8 w O O "8U cL Q*. 8 "o,v S 80 4- t- l- 1, 1- »- W h i- l- 1 «Mjy vjjy "^W W -IW ^UJ VJ ^w w w 1^ 1- 1- i- I- I- 1- I- *- b h CO 1 > > 8 ... „, -i o o5^ 1 8 a. b 8 1- 9 4& S b 8 w £2 8 8 g w b C© CO co 8 yj UJ w S 8 8 co ^2 1= t= o CO 8 o co " 55 8 T N N fc w w w fe fc N w 1=: CO t— 1 ■><-> ctf VC?> :§ b '° 13 1—) Ph r— 4 Q V»^ PARADlGxMS OF THE CONJ. IN *. 231 The conj. and opt. of the perf. pass, have no independent form but are expressed periphras-. tically by the participle and the auxiliary verb COnj. 7r£7raidtvidhoQ ur\v. So also of the zivai ', rest. e.g. Note 1 . Independent forms for these modes are found only in some perfects in rjjuiai, as will be shewn below in the contracted conjugation (see § 77. obs. 3). Of the opt. of verbs in tiw and vio, in which i of the optative termination is absorbed, and the characteristic vowel thereby made long, as d7ro(f>Sifir]i> (opt. perf. pass, of a7ro(J)$l(jj) Horn. Od. 10. 51. and XiXvrw (of \i»w) Od. 18. 238. (comp. § 79. obs. I. 5.), examples are very rare. Imperative. Sing. 7T£7ratO£U(70 TETpitpO TZTal^O TT£7T£lGO wtTrai^tva'Su) T£rpi, mvto, vvb), euw, aw, ew, ow. For the most part, the aor. 2. act. as well as the perf. 2., is formed only in primitive (not derivative) verbs, and in those chiefly, which have received an accession to the root in the present or have undergone a change in the characteristic ; e. g. AaVw, aor. 2. i\n?ov s OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN w .— DIALECTS. 233 perf. 2. XeXoara. — avSavix), aor. 2. 'iaSov, perf. 2. tada. (4) The conjunct, and optat., and particularly the imperat. perf. act., are used extremely rarely, and with propriety only in those verbs whose per- fect either takes entirely the signification of the present, or by indicating a continuous state, will admit of being understood in that sense ; e. g. tte- 7ro$a (I confide), COllj. 7T£7roiSa>, Opt. 7T£7roi$o/r?v. — T&vrjKa (I am dead), COnj. t&vt]kio, opt. T&vriKoijui. Of the imperat. perf. act. scarcely any trace oc- curs in Greek writings. (5) The fut. 3. pass, is usual only of a few verbs. Verbs liquid, and those which take a temporal augment, never form this tense. § 75. (76 II.) PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT DIALECTS. I. Peculiarities of the elder language generally, as preserved in the poets and particularly in the Epic dialect. 1 . On the variation in the formation of single tenses, we observe as follows : (a) Besides the usual form of the imperf. and of the two aor. act. and mid., another also occurs, having a lengthened termination and denominated Ionic, because it is used also with Ionic prose writers. Its peculiarity consists in affixing to the 234 ETYMOLOGY. root £07Cov, €, I go) ; besides /3//(7£o, as imperat. So also Svgeto or £^(7£ro, besides the imperat. Svgso (from Svojuai, I put Oil), t^ov, T£tQ (as aor. act. of '/kw, I come). AfSeo or Xe^o (lie down, as imperat. aor. mid. of Xeyw). olae (bring, as imper. aor. act. of zpu), I bear). — Lastly, in the Epic dialect the reduplication of & c - 3. The following is to be observed of personal and modal terminations : (a) The 3d pers. dual imperf. act. is formed by Homer in some instances like the second person, and consequently has the termination rov instead of Ti)v. Such forms are Siw/cerov (II. X. 364), XcKpvaae- rov (II. xviii. 583), and rera^rov (II. xiii. 346). (b) Besides the terminations ^%v and peSa of the dual and plur. pass, the full-sounding pe(j%v and fjLeaSa are used according to the exigency of verse. (c) In the third pers. plur. pass, the perf. and plusqpf. very generally, and the optat. frequently, substitute the terminations arai and aro for vrai and vro ; e, g, KtywpiSaTai (from %tof>i£w), rvirToiaro for TVTTTOIVTO. (d) In the second pers. sing, of the passive con- jugation, the (r, which follows a connecting vowel, is rejected; but in that case cat generally, and ao frequently, remains without contraction, and the termination eo is either uncontracted, or takes the Ionic contraction into ev, or the t is even length- ened into £i, as e. g. epao (from ipofxai). (e) Of the conjunct, the following peculiarities are to be observed : (a) the 3d pers. sing. conj. act. frequently appends the syllable %Utcu for Sir)Tai, &C. (f ) In Epic the 3d pers. plur. imperat. both act, and pass., is always formed with the monosyllabic termin. tojv and o-Swv ; e. g. wivovtwv for ttivztwgclv, £TT£(jS(i)V for £7T£). fuysWi (3 plur. conj. aor. 2 pass, to piyvvjuii). In such resolved forms of the conj. aor. 2. pass, it not unfrequently happens that the £ is lengthened in £i ; e. g. Sapuu (conj. aor. 2. pass, to Sayitaw), and also the modal vowel made short (see above, e) ; e.g. ^a/uLusre, as 2d pers. plur. to Sajidh). (1). On the abbreviation of the termin. v\aav into £v, see below, III. 5. II. Peculiarities of the (new) Ionic dialect. (1) The later Ionic dialect, as exhibited in the writings of Herodotus, possesses in common with the Epic dialect just treated of, many peculiarities, which we therefore shall merely indicate by re- ference to the preceding. To these belongs the 240 ETYMOLOGY. use of the terminations arai and aro for vrai and vto, (see I. 3. c.) which was more extensive with the Ionians than with the Epic writers, being also adopted by them in the imperf. and aor. 2. mid., in which case however the preceding connecting vowel o is changed into e ; e. g. £j3ovAsaro for tpov\ovTO, hfMfiyavkaTO for kf.ir)yjxvaovTO, — In the 2d. pers. sing. pass, the Ionians after rejecting the ofi£o for o(3ho, &c. The circumflexed terminations (see I. 3. h.) are frequently resolved, as with the Epic writers ; e. g. w into cw, &c. 2. The licence assumed by Ionic writers in the use of the augment has been already spoken of above, § 68. II. 2. (3) As distinctive peculiarities of this dialect in regard to verbal forms, we merely observe further, (a) that verbs mute and liquid, when the last syllable of the simple root is long by position, frequently insert an £ between the root and ter- mination ; e. g. Truleu), pnrriti), av^aWeojuai for 7ueZw, plTTTb), (TV/nf3aWofJLai. (b) That an a is inserted in the termination ero, thereby forming earo, and the 3d. pers. sing, thus made to resemble the 3d. pers. plur. ; e. g. ZT&taTO for CTiScro, &C. III. Peculiarities of the doric dialect. (1) The change of r/ into a, so common to the OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN «.— DIALECTS. 241 doric dialect, occurs in verbal forms in the dual termination r?v and the passive termination ^v, which in doric are therefore av and pav ; e. g. iKopav for lK6fit}v. In like manner this change is usual also in the derivative tenses of verbs in dw and of some few in ew, which lengthen the characteristic VOWel into t\ ; e. g, ayairaati) for aycnT7]Ga>, kfyikaaa for £l\ri) and tyria% (thou saidst, from ^1). (3) The first person plur. of the active conju- gation terminates with the Dorians in peg instead of fizv ; e. g. erv7rrojU£c for Itwtojuev. — In the passive they likewise use the fuller term. fieoSov and fAzo% for fxSov and fieOa (see above, I. 3. b.). (4) The 3 pers. plur, act. terminates in Doric R 242 ETYMOLOGY. in vti with a short connective vowel instead of a£\kvv\acr(TOiGiv for (pv\a%(jav. This peculiarity is common also to the Epic, where, e. g. t rpa^v for erpa(j>Y)(jav } and such like forms are quite usual, and in the optat. this abbreviated termination thoroughly predominates also in the common language ; e. g. rvfSi&v for rvtySdriaav. (6) The infin. act. instead of the termin. uv has in Doric tfizv or generally w 9 and more rarely the lengthened yv, e. g. TVTTTZV and TV7TT£jU£V for TV7TTUV \a(5ev and \afir\v for Xa/3av. (7) In the terminations of participles the Dorians use in instead of ov, and m instead of a ; e. g. OBS. ON THE CONJ. IN «.— DIALECTS. 243 Tvirroiffa for rvffTOvoa Xafiolaa - — Xafioixra Tvipaiq and Tv\paiGa for rvipag, acra. The partic. perf. act. is sometimes formed by the Dorians with the termination of the partic. pres. ; e. g. Tr^piKovreg for 7T£^//coTfc» In some in- stances Epic writers also adopt this formation ; as €. g. KEicXfiyovTSS for Kf/cArJyoTcc. (8) On the formation of the fut. 1. act. and mid. we observe the following as Doric peculiari- ties : (a) all verbs in £w form with the Dorians the fut. 1. in £w (see § 70. Note 7.) The same peculiarity is transferred also to the aor. 1. (b) The termination of the fut. 1. act. and mid. is circumflexed by the Dorians and conjugated throughout entirely like the termination of the fut. 2. ; e. g. Tvxpio, uQ y el, plural rvif/ovfiiv OX evpev, Eire, ovvri or SVVTl. Fut. mid. rvxpov/Jtai Or tv^ai, &c. In some verbs which form a fut. mid. with an active signification, this fut. has retained the Doric termination even in the common language, e. g. 7T£(TOl>/Uai and 7T£U<70UjUCU, fut. tO 7Tl1TT(i), and TTVV- Savofiat. So also, besides the two named, are formed the fut. of Sfw, kAcuo>, v£w, 7rai£a>, ttAou, 7TV£0>, Trviyti), $£vyw and \£^w, thus Stvaovpai, KXavaovfxai, &C« IV. Peculiarities of the Attic dialect. (1) The Epic termination of the plusquamp, c«, r2 244 ETYMOLOGY. (see above, I. 1. c.) passed also into the Attic dialect, assuming the contracted form in ??, to which t}g (for tag) corresponds in the 2 pers, and u or uv (for ££ or ££v) in the third. This termina- tion however can be referred to with certainty only in the plusquampf. to a&o, of which the fol- lowing forms are usual with the Attics : 1 pers. ffiuv and % s 2 pers. $&ie or ^SektSo and yfirig or ySrpia, 3 pers. $Sa and $Ssiv. (2) In the 2 pers. sing. pass, the Attics after rejecting (for hxov, eayov)* But even in other compounds the ac- cent must never be carried beyond the augment ; e, g. 'iv\a£ai (pvXafai c are oxytone ; (g) The femin. and neutr. particip. of the active retain the accent on that syllable, whereon it stood in the mascul., but they change its sign according to the nature of the accented and the succeeding syllables; e.g. vXarrwi>, ^vXarrouo-a, ^wXarrov (not (j>v\aTTov, as might be expected).— iraiSevwv , iraiSevovcra, TraiSevov—T&vnKWQ, rzdvr)Kvia 9 teS- VY)KOQ. (h) In the fut. 2. act. and mid. and in the fut. attic, the terminations w and ovfxai are circum- flexed, as being formed by contraction from iw and iofiau The same happens in the conj. aor. pass. ; e. g. tv^w. §77. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN a,. (I) When one of the three vowels a, e, o stands before the termination o> of the present, the At- tics always contract it in the pres. and imperf. act. and pass, with the concurring temporal ter= mination. 248 ETYMOLOGY. (2) This contraction takes place according to the given rules (see 21.) of contraction, but with a few exceptions, the reason of which will admit of being explained in the succeeding paradigms, (3) All the other tenses are formed by these verbs regularly and without contraction ; wherein it is further to be observed, that in the deriva- tive tenses the short characteristic vowel mostly changes into the corresponding long one, conse- quently a and g into n s but o into w. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 249 C3 ■5 *3 * o * ! o I o 1ft c ft O l- 13 O ft 1ft 15> o o -a b ift o b i Cu i ,_H i C 3 3 b b ft o ft o t* v o en b en '5 e a • 3 i-5f •> 1 ft o lb ft o w ft 3. w tft ,l- o l s b ift o 2'Z ^2 o J] pQ pAid C5 i i « i i §1 "Si ss 2 •** > o < G Qi EC 05 55 o v &■ ft ft ft .S o* a 2 c i T 1 o l o 18 l i i b 13 i SS.-G o G Q o , iu *S 5k *G "O es S3 ft ft ft ™» «*«. a 1 *3 to 3. o u» 3, © kg §■ g »>3 <>B S- 5*. b ft o "3 3. SI s s 4-2 *J g o? -Q Ok §.£ • i-H CJ '3'? o 5 ^ • I-* S2 O T3 3 o G s ps -S « b^ Q; . -5 250 ETYMOLOGY. .*£. i .i.i.i-.s.s ^'s's I 's-8 (Ti o o O O ^ w S St - »l *r*f i v| sf -J *s J $ ** s ■ CQ § u I* o U CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN „. 251 s w ft o o o § S =3. I, 3. ft t-t © C" Softer »- £ =3. c o o 5 <£ .5" -5" -2" -§" ^ ^ »■ .§ .3- o 3 8 • 3r C ft o 'o o N t b o o ^s -w sv o o o o 5 5 * *'£ I i I 1 3-*3- • i o o 3 8 *8 o o S ^8 *8 sg 3- 3- =4. +3 ft ft a * -if * *■ * *•, fc 5 -S §* > *$*"3* 3^3^3-*3- 8 ^8 3-3-3-3-3-3.3-3. m ft 02 CJ3 3 '£ e/i o a; » "Mi g**° lies ° g 3.S 2 g fi S £ a « I §|' 5 .5 S I g §3 >> >» II £ 3 O X B • .55 bJD .. >^3 H -bJ °§£ ,o p 09 V a „o o u o o toe® 13 «S o o ft CL..B ft rG qj i s e .1 a '8 '§ '§ ^8 V § 4 '° 3 8 o I o o .9 © ' 3 * 3 £ ft ft" £ v3 § tf « fc *5 S ^ «Mu "g^H^^I 1-1-3 ' ' ll^f 1 3 1 3. 2. 2. =L 5- .fi-.3-.iu -w -«* ^~ *g GO ft . OJ . £ o ft ft Si • M 3^3,^^^ § H 1 - 1 «b -b £»*• &, *s -a *s s S s ^2 ° ° §777 .S^sT ' ',:■• V'gg '" 1X8 ft s t» ft x o *© fi ° ® ^ ^ 22 w^ es fl S .9.2 O g ft i a 8 S * o3w3t a g^ft I ^ - S b « §- « 3- ■ -. w. • • * * * - *S a/ Sj » • ' • « £; e ■ -c? cgJ'C § *T s ^ « ft -8 ^ A 8 § I- a 1* blvul^ftft".^ g .s? :■; ;, t •* "35 *• *- »" ^Jr: *o S 3 g- I- I" I" t §" t C -*■*■« -- =| £ q cl 'a .a «» fi .-2°l -§.s o 'is •* S 5 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 253 5- *• £ 13 IP 3 O o O ^ W «v O w O \o v o o OJ crt 3 <0 13 13 o o o o o © o s I- Ssi *- I o *>© v © o v © a. a. 3. 3. 3. «J H* "J "J 3. a. 3. a. hi 8 I- p. *0 *>© b b 3. 3. a. 13 O 3 2 >»>$ 1 '1 *S v § l S S • • 8 • • ' ' 8 ,1- 1 3 i sa. i p. 3 0> 3. 3 > O CJ *« v53 Ci vg v« 6 v b 1 5 'b ^cs ^b 3-3-3- *- w P Ph S 02 9? w cS o ^ fl C5" o O 254 ETYMOLOGY. § S * >S , - crt J? o cJ? i; c a. b b a. b ?> *3 »3 13 v 3 »3 13 • 1 1 « 1 1 ft 55* o % & O o o cf<3 cH £ -s .3..S ,* ©00© o ft ft 5i ** 5- b b 5- b ft -3 r- s- v 3 sc 3 o v o <£ Crt 6 to a, 6 r *-3 »« *s v 3 »s '3 1 1 1 1 1 1 ft eX> P 55* (tt W © 5*' o °& crt & °l Crt 1- a. , o 1- ={_toto a.b ft 3- l 3" • 3- -3- * 30 -3^ ^ » 3- * 3- 3": • I . * 1 1 1 » .< 1 O J* ft 8 - crt o o t> a. t> $ ^3 R- R" v 3 R* 3 3-3-3-3-3-3- U V 1- W V> ¥• © ft ft « ~ Crt © R" Crt w O 5°^ O £ Crt Crt w Crt l- .3-2 b ^3- to ^to ^a. b ft 2 .2 2 "S © *o © © § 3-3-3-3-a.3.a.^a. K I- I- t. b |. I- fi *■ > c3 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 255 «5> to to >S xS> l £ S i i ft *B <* <£ S to b a ft 5 £ ft v 5 »S> »2> to i 8 i *!: S, i >S *£ ^£ 5» Q Pu CD .£ 03 • l-H S3 *o *H • ft Q.< tC ft fi c3 s >— ( Ph 2 o 4J ' ?-4 ft £ * s k o o C OOO N J= N o 3 18 5. => S ■o o S 8 "8 -8 3-3-3- C 1- it m 256 ETYMOLOGY. O * > 8 en o s* en Jt o w en i5> v3 v5> O !5> o CO O O O © O o 1 I I QJ o 55 £ -^ ^ * o * > « « bT 3 <£ ft 3 <£ k a.-b k, 4 b,l>lb,» £ vf- S ^ *© S o 3 3 3 ^3 3 3 ^3 3 3 & o v o o o^o^o ftftftftftftftftft o * *"?4 ■"* S b S S S 2 5 "3. ~3. "1 1 "a. "3. 1 "1 "3. £ m O «v J^ 8 ft 5 s- ft iu 2 -% -I -§ v § •§ *s « o a a s ^3 i§ *s ^3 *S »3 £ * * H ^ O * > « J° © A W a • «^ s s- ft w ? % « o c °i (^ ^ w =LbJ-=Lbb=Lb^ S 8 ^8 8 2 g "« =i, ^ S S § S^ 8. 3. §_ 3-3-3-3-2-5- i-fc-i-CEii-i-i-i- >d ~\u +m +** +vt *\n *\u |« \* fr. |- t- b t» l» t» ^ ;g ^ ^ o CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN cu. 257 ^ >^ 3 1 1 1 if J J 41 t J 4 <%j | | | :■ | o 1 1 . f , 3L 1 | .9- S | ■*• < 3. 3. ^ a_ „cj- a» -s- «jj- a_ a. a. *w '3 CD < g S? CD b - o S > ' . a a * a lit II •Bl!4||^i|il If a CD . H o CD •al P £ b 3 a § o tz pera nfini artic 3 o *-i O 3 3 3 O Ph <3 CD 2 , thus fut. yeXacTk), Sa/xacrw, IXaffw, &C (b) Of verbs in £ 'w, the following retain in the derivative tenses the £ unchanged : ai&ofiai, cikzo- fxai, aXato, ap/cfo), kfxkuy, Z,zw 9 kuXktt), $£(0, reXfw, rptw, thus iut. ai^eaofiai, dicscrofxai, &C. Other verbs in £o> take the long vowel in some tenses, while in others they retain the short one. These are as follow : CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN w . 259 aiv£(*> (I praise) fut. alvkan) aor. 1. yvtva perf. f«a aor. 1. pass. yve%v perf. pass, yvrifiai. The Epic forms are aiyj)^, &c. atptw (I take) retains the short vowel only in the aor. 1. pass, ypiSriv. &w (I bind) has in the fut. Srjcrw aor. 1. (Sqaa, but in the perf. S&eKa perf. pass. Sc&juai aor. 1. pass. ttoSIu) (I desire) interchanges according to the difference of dialects between tto^ctw and 7to% (I swim), ttAew (I sail), TTvew (I blow), pw (I flow), yfu (I pour), fut. $ev- aovfxai (see § 75. III. 8. b.), 7rA£u) 9 /cl- KXrijuiai (I am called, KaXew) ; e. g. KEKTV/iiai COllj. K£KT(*)/J.ai Opt. KeKTy[lY)V and KEKTWfXYlV, WO, lf>TO, &C. ^uE/uvrjjuat COnj . /uf^uvwjucu Opt. fitfxvypriv and /lie/xv^uijv, WO, WTO, &C. s 2 260 ETYMOLOGY. Moreover, in verbs contract also, the conj. and opt. perf. pass, are formed by compounding the particip. with uvai. (4) On the application and neglect of contrac- tion, the following rules obtain : the Attics use exclusively the contracted form. In verbs in lw only, whose root is monosyllabic, contraction does not take place, if e is followed by one of the dull sounds o, w, or, ou, or by an r? ; e. g. ttXIw, 7r\siq, 7rAa, 7rXarov, but 7r\zofjisv, 7t\eov}r£, Zwm, inf. Zyv, imperf. iZw, ifa, iU, &c. In KvaiD (I rub), (Tfxao) (I smear), ^aw (I scour), this, although not the only one in use, is the com- mon mode of contraction. (6) As peculiarities of the different dialects in the use of verbs contract, we observe the follow- ing : (a) The Epic dialect adopts or neglects con- traction according to the exigency of verse. Here- CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN w . 261 in the following must be observed on the single classes of verbs contract. (a) in verbs in £&>, if £ is followed by the dull sounds w } io, oi, and ou, contraction does not take place ; but if another sound follows, it is partly- omitted, partly applied, and £o is then contracted into eu. Frequently also £ is lengthened into a, with the omission of contraction ; e. g. -rcXa'a, cteXhsto (from teXe'w), TfXa'av and Sa'av for 7r\&iv and Skiv. In Epic, the termination tai of the 2d pers. sing. pres. pass, is not contracted into y, but either remains in the resolved form, e. g. (j> L \Uai 9 or the e of the root is contracted with the £ of the termination into a, e. g. juuSaeu for [ivSkai, or one £ is rejected, e. g. julvSwi. In the 2d person sing, impf. and imperat. either a> is contracted into a/, or, as most frequently happens, an £ is rejected ; e. g. alrko, 6of3eo for airao, oj3££o. (/3) Verbs in ow are either contracted in the usual manner, or they neglect contraction, and change the characteristic vowel o into w ; e. g. virvbiovraQ (from vttvow), &c. Also some forms in these verbs, as in verbs in aw (see under 7), ex- hibit a lengthening of the sound, which presup- poses a contracted form, and generally takes place with ow and ow ; e. g. apoucn for apoovai, apovai, §r\ioh)VTO iOr ^rjioovro, or/iouvro, <$Y)i6(j)ZV for §1]l6oi£V, S?]lOt£V. (7) Verbs in aw occur in Epic without contrac- tion only in individual cases, chiefly when the root 262 ETYMOLOGY. is monosyllabic, or the characteristic vowel a is long ; e. g. i\P aE (fr° m XP" W )> < f + r r opauq ooaq — opaaq opatazai — • OjOcktScu opaaaziai opaoipii —— op(i)fxi " opowjut. Whether a Ions* or short vowel must be insert- ed, is determined by the nature of the word and by the relation of the syllables to the metre. The short sound is inserted when the preceding sylla- ble is short, as in all the above examples ; on the contrary, the long sound enters where a long syllable is essential to the metre, consequently chiefly in the middle of more longs ; e. g. /xvaecr%iCOlLit. fivaa^ai, Epic lengthened form jmvaaa%i i 7 jUEvoivasi /uzvoiva — fizvoivaa fjpaovaa — rjfiwaa rifitjojaa. In rare instances, and only in certain forms of individual verbs, the inserted sound follows that of the contraction. This happens only in the mingled sound w, when succeeded by vr, and in w, which is then lengthened into woi ; e. g. vfiaovTtq COIlt. rjfiwvrec, Epic length, form i)(3ujijvt£Q cpaoifxi - — c>pw/tfi " c)pii)oi/jLie CONTRACTED CONJUGATION IN «. 263 Note 1. In Epic the third pers. dual in ty]v of some verbs con- tracts aa into y\ ; e. g. Trpoaavh'iTi]v (from Trpocravdau)). This con- traction occurs in the same form of two verbs also in ew, namely, in aireiXiirriv (from &7r£i\ew) and bfiaprt'iTqv (from 6/j.ap- reV). Also an rj enters into infinitives of verbs in aw and sw, formed with the termination [levai ; e. g. yorjfAevai, TrEunjfizvai (from yodio, TEivdu)) ; so also (piX-tifiEvai (from (piXiw), &c. Note 2. The forms of the imperf. in some verbs change with Epic writers a into e ; e. g. \ievoiveov (from [lEvoivdio), ojiokXeov (from dfioicXdco), rjyreov (from aVraw). On the farther extension of this usage by the Ionians, see below, b. Note 3. In some verbs in od(o, the Ionic contraction of orj into (o (see below b.) occurs also in the Epic language ; e. g. knifiio- cojiai for E7rt[3or](TO[iaL (from £7rt/3octw). (b) With the Xonians verbs in lw for the most part omit contraction, except that they frequently contract co and wv into eu ; e. g. iroiev for woiov, 7roiev- juevoc for 7roto^£voc. Also in Ionic, as has been shown above (a. a) in the case of the Epic dialect, an £ is frequently rejected in the 3d pers. sing. impf. pass. In verbs in ow the lonians make use of the contracted sound £u instead of ou ; e. g. !&- KaUvv for $iKaiovv (from Sucaiot*)). Moreover, they also adopt the usual contractions in verbs in ow. Verbs in aw are likewise regularly contracted by them, although they frequently choose n instead of a as the mingled sound of contraction ; e. g. opriv for ooav, this particularly happens if an i pre- cedes ; e.g. %fJLir]Tai y irjaSai for %/utarai, laaSai. But in many cases the a of these verbs changes in Ionic into £, and contraction is then omitted ; e.g. vTEQ. It is remarkable, that the Ionians, with whom the resolved form predominates, should adopt contraction in certain cases where the Attics reject it. This happens in the derivative tenses of verbs in oaw, where or) is contracted into w ; e. g. (3w(tw, £j3 wora for /3ori, fj3o?jcm (from j3oaw), apfiuGciQ for ava/3ori — 'irffxt - - cw — $ifii f ^vjui be referred ? and what are the forms in fxi, which may be deduced from Trpau), gtcioj, 71-raw, and the forms in vvfxi from 'ArQ and 2KEAAQ ? (9) The following are to be observed as pe- culiar personal terminations for this conjugation : pres. 1st. pers. sing, pi, 2d. pers. e, 3d. pers. SlfiuJTOV i(TT(jJflEV dt^fiev larriTE dldfJJTE laruiai (v) didwari (v) Iffrairjv diBotrjv hacvvoifjii, &C lOTai7)Q 8(.dulr]G IffratT] didolri ri^ftev « orate v didouv mper. S. (Y/Sen) or (tWaS-i) or (SiSoSi) or (^eikw^l) or r/$« tora didov ZeIkvv ri^erw IGTCLTO) %1()6tIO t)ElKVVTU) D. ri-9"£rov 'larrdroy 3t()OTOP ^ElKVVTOV rt^e'rioy IffTCtTlOV didorwy ^EIKPVTCOV P. tlSete 'iGTClTE didore ^ElKyVTE tlSetiogclv, or iffrdrojaay or dicioTWffap or ^EiKyvrioaay or T&EVTiOV, tardvTwv ^^wrwy ^ELKyvyrioy Infin. tiSevcli Iffrctpat cit^di/at ()£iKyvyai Part tlSeiq, ao-a, tora'r;, ©tort, aV didovg, ovaa, ^EiKyuQfVcrajvy eV 6v PARADIGMS OF THE CONJUGATION IN /«. 271 Gen. tyros Gen. clvtoq Gen. ovrog Gen. vvtoq Impf. ETiSrjv and \aTf\v et'lSovv (eTtSrjg) and IcrrrjQ ETI&EIQ (etiSt}) and larrf ETlS'EL Edidiov and e^eUvw and Eoidovv e<£w) and ede'iKvv and lEi^ov E^EiKyve D. — P. etiSetov EriSrirrju EtL§£}X£V etISete kri^Eaav. Aor. 2. s. D. £•9-77 f-9"£rov £^ETt]V E^EfJLEV £%£T£ eSegclv IGTO.TQV \urarr\v 'iardfiEV 'Icrrare iarUffxtv, iarrjv £ $i- arrjS'i, crrtjrh), (cWS'i) c»0£, £d- rw, &c. &c. rw, &c. •9"£7vcu arrival. ^ovvcll Seic,, ^Eiaa, (ttclq, crraffa, dove, fiovaci) $£V (TTCIV <)6v Gen. $(vtoq Gen. (ttcivtoq Gen. cidrroc. 1 272 ETYMOLOGY. Fut. 1 . Sr'jaio (TTT](TU) fiojcru) £a'£w Aor.l. eSrjKa etrrqcra kdioica E^Ei^a Perf. teSeoccl E(TT7)Ka d£()u>ica $i()£i-)(a Plsqpf.ire-9-et/ceiv tiarriKEiv or kffTTIKEiy e^e^MKELv. E^EdEtyEiy Passive. Pres. Ind.S. D. P. Conj. S. Opt. Imper. S. Infin. Part. Impf. S. Tl$EjJLai tiSegcu or tISetcll Tl§£}A£§OV TiSrEffSov Tl$E(T%y TiSeoSe TL&EVTCLI rt-9'a/juai riSrj TiSrjrai, &c. Tl§ElflK]V ti$e7o tiSeIto, &C, tISeo-o or ri$ov rL$£ff$(0, &c. rl^Etr S'cu ri^ifiEyoQt rj t ov, £Tl$£fJ.r)V (£Tt$£ffo) Or et'iSqv ETlStTO urrafjiai taraaai or lory. '/orrorat I era [*£%!> IgtclgSov "(TTCtcrSov IffrdfiE^a "iaracr^E 'iaravTai dldojjiai (ji<)offai ^l^6jl£%U 3l()0/, namely in the following cases : (1) Verbs in v/m possess even in the 1st pers. pres. the form vm besides vpi, and the two are in- terchanged almost through all the forms. (2) In verbs in v^h having the radical vowel ^ and in verbs in w/*i and vfxi the singular of the im- perf. act. is generally formed according to the conjugation w, the second and third person indeed occurring almost exclusively in this form, while in the first person the two forms are interchanged with each other. On the contrary in the verb iarrjfii collateral forms of the imperf. Urtav, f l are in rfSty/u not unusual even to the Attics, in 8180714 on the contrary S&o'ig for 8/So>c and 81801 for Si§oxcr$ belong only to the lonians. Of iarrifxi such collateral forms are not found. (4) Also the conj. and optat. pass, and mid. of verbs in v/m (root ew) and 0711 have a collateral OBS. ON THE CONJUGATION IN in. form according to the conjugation w, wherein the characteristic vowels c and o are entirely lost, and the accent proves that no contraction must be assumed ; e.g. TiOwjiai, nOolfiriv, — ^iBb)jj.ai f ^i8olfiriv. In verbs in n^i, whose characteristic vowel is a, this form of the conj. and optat. does not occur, but an accentuation at least appears in the optat which corresponds to those given forms; e. go t(jrai(ir]v, raraio, igtulto for igtcliq, IgtciitOo (5) Of verbs in vpi we have above adduced only the usual form of the conj. and optat., bor- rowed from the conjugation w. Nevertheless in- dividual traces occur here also of a peculiar for- mation according to the conjugation /**, particu- larly a pass. opt. in v^v (for vifiriv), 3d pers. vto and COnj. in v{xai 9 3d pers. vrai, C. g. SiavK^avvvTai,, Plat. Phsedon. p. 94. (ed. Heindorf), ScuWo, Horn. II. xxiv. 665., ir'nyvvTo, Plat. Phaedon. p* 264. Much more rare are the examples of simi- lar formations in the active for an opt. in vnv (for v'mv), and a conj., in which v absorbs the succeed- ing rj of the termination, as in hawi (as opt. of £vv) Theocr. Id. xv. 94. (6) No verb, besides those above adduced, tho- roughly admits of a formation in fu, but many which belong to the conjugation w in the present, have single forms according to the conjugation f±u This is chiefly the case with the aor. 2. which often follows the analogy of verbs in fu $ particu- larly in verbs in uw, aw and ow ; e. g. iw and iSpv, t 2 276 ETYMOLOGY. aor. 2. to Qvio and Suw — i(5rjv and i^nv, aor. 2. to /3cuW and $0avw (old roots j3aw and $0aw) — IjSiW and 'iyviov, aor. 2. to /3tow and yi-yvwvv for eriOecraVf Weaav, Eorqffav, zZoaav, ttyvGav. (6) The lengthening of the termination of his- torical tenses into ai Se/^cv and Se/jizvai — S'fivat iarafiEV and lara^vai — tcrravat OTTJjUEV and ffTYi/uievai — cravat §{$0^(£V and §i§of(£vat — €>ilWa! 278 ETYMOLOGY. Sofizv and Sofitvai for Sovvai $£IKVVJH£V and SeiKVVfJltVai : §£lKVVVO.£ ^vjuev and Svfuzvai — $vvai 9 (9) With the lonians the 3d pers. plur. pass, changes v before the terminations rai and to into a 3 in which case a preceding a is converted into e ; e. g. T&saTdi for ri^evrai — iGrmrai and ioTtaro for fffravrai and loravro — Sidoarai for S/Sovrai- — k^uKvvaTO for eSa/cvuvro. (10) The Epic dialect in compliance with the exigency of verse sometimes retains the long vowel before those terminations, where otherwise it ought always to be shortened ; e« g. n%^vat and Ti^i]/jBvog for r&ejuievai and Ti$^i£vo£ — Si'Sctjdi and $i§ovvai for §l§o%i and §t§ovac. Note. Differences of dialect with respect to personal termina- tions occur in the conjugation /it, the same as in the conjugation to, and therefore their enumeration is not repeated here. Comp» §. 75. III. Accents. On the position and change of the accent the same rules obtain for this conju- gation as for the conjugation &>. Only with res- pect to the imperat* aor. 2. mid., which is always circumflexed in the simple form,, it is to be ob- served,, that the accent recedes, when a dissyl- labic preposition is appended to the simple root ; e. g, %v, sv%V; KaraSov*— On the contrary the ac- cent always recedes in the dual and plural, if only a monosyllabic preposition is appended ; e* g. DEFECTIVE VERBS IN p. 279 § 80. SOME DEFECTIVE VERBS IN p. fl) Upi (tw), I send, throw. This verb has almost entirely the same inflexion and changes as r&iijii: When the short radical vowel e appears pure in the historical tenses and receives the augment, it changes into «. The use of this simple verb is as rare as its derivative compounds are of frequent occurrence, e. g. avlrifu, CKpirifxi, £?*>, which however exists only in the first person. 282 ETYMOLOGY. plur. tipsy (ion.), and ^dv (poet.) 3 pers. iaoi (v) (ep.), £vti and iWi (dor.) (2) The conj. forms in Ionic ew, iyg &c, in Epic also the lengthened aw &c. (3) The opt. has the Ionic collateral form ioifxi &c. ' (4) In the imperat. the collateral form ovtcjv of the 3d pers. plur. is very rare, the lonians form it hoVTWV* (5) The infin. has in Epic the collateral forms ifizvai and ifipavai, ifiev and Eju/iEv, in Doric vfxzv or tyuec, Ufizv or £i/j,eg. (6) The Ionic and Epic participle is kCyv, hovaa, cov. A rare collateral form of the feminine is the Doric iaaea. (7) The greatest variation occurs in the sing, of the imperf. whose different forms we shall here class together, particularly in so far as they per- tain to the Epic language. Such as do not be- long thereto, are particularly designated. Sing. 1st pers. ea, r\a, EOV, ECMCOV 2d pers. Si^Sa, w&a, iag (Ion.) 3d pers. ir\v, j}i|#, WV, take (rjg Dor.) Of the plur. only ioav as collateral form to wav requires observation. (8) The Epic fut. doubles the a according to the exigency of verse. (9) On the liability of this verb to inclination we have treated above (§. 12. 2.), where at the DEFECTIVE VERBS IN ]iu 283 same time also ($. 12. 3. c.) the exceptions have been specified. (10) Compounds with prepositions, where the rule admits, receive the accent of the verb upon the preposition ; in the inf. and partic. however it remains upon the radical word ; e. g. oweivai, avvbjv. — Other cases, wherein the accent is re- tained by the verb, occur in the imperf. as e. g. awrjv (originally awkriv), and in the fut. e. g. ^earai (properly t&GZTai.) II. To d/ii, I go. (1) Besides the adduced forms this verb pos- sesses a pres. and imperf. mid. : ic/mi, i^ur?v, which are made use of in the intensive signification to haste. The fut. uaofnai and aor. utu^aiv belong to the Epic dialect. (2) ufxi, although a pres. in respect to form, is however commonly used itself in the signification of the fut. (3) An Epic collateral form of the 2d pers. sing, pres. is ua%a. — Also urj as 3d pers. sing. opt. be- longs to the Epic dialect. — Epic collateral forms of the infin. are t^vai and i'juev. (4) This verb also exhibits the most remark- able copiousness in the imperf., whose various forms, as used by the Epic writers, are here classed together : Sing. 1st pers. via, riiov. 2d pers. nisg, and Uq 3d pers.« e (v),K0/&W' 284 ETYMOLOGY. Dual. 3d pers. irr\v Plur. 1st pers. yojuiev 3d pers e rjiov, riiaav, tcrav. §81. VERBAL ADJECTIVES. (1) Verbal adjectives which are derived from and belong to verbs, deserve a place here. They form two classes, one terminating in roe, ttj, tov, and the other in rkog, rka, rkov. (2) Both these terminations are appended im- mediately to the root of the verb, yet in certain cases, when the root ends with a consonant, such alterations must be adopted, as are required by the r. At the same time also a change of the vowel often occurs and not unfrequently a a is inserted. (3) In all such changes the verbal adjective agrees with the aor. 1 . pass., and hence it admits of the most correct formation from this tense, namely, by cutting off the augment and the ter- mination %v, by changing the aspirate at the end of the root into the tenuis and then by appending the terminations toq and reog. Herein may be compared the 3d pers. sing. perf. pass., which in most cases affords a correct guide to the formation of these adjectives ; e. g. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE CONJUGATION. 285 Xiyo) (XsXcfcrai) sXey^lrjv — ■ 0iXfa> (w£(j>i\riTai) e^iXtjStjv wavu) (jrETravTai) kirava^v — Xpacj (Kexpvrai) alpicj (yprirai) (7T£7rvvrat) ttvz(i) Xektoq XeKTZOQ GTpETTTOC GTpETTTEOQ ffnXt]TEOQ 7TaVCTTOQ TTClVGTtOQ yjp^aroq yjpHlGTZOQ alpETog aipEriog 7TVEVGTOQ. (4) In respect to signification the two forms are accurately distinguished ; adjectives in toq express either a finished action, e. g. Xektoq, said, or more frequently a mere possibility, e. g. alperog, that can be taken, capable of being taken. On the contrary verbals in rkoq always imply the idea of necessity ; e. g. aipzrkov, that must be taken, ca- piendum. Irregular and defective conjugation. §82. CAUSE OF ANOMALY. (1) Anomaly arises in conjugation, when the root of a verb is changed by the addition of one or more letters or by the transposition of the let- ters which compose it. 286 ETYMOLOGY. (2) The root receives additions very frequently and in a variety of ways ; hence arise a great number of irregular verbs, which cannot be formed correctly, unless besides the present the pure and unchanged radical form be known. (3) To facilitate the ascertainment of the radi- cal form, we here give a synopsis of the changes by which the usual present is formed from the simple root. In it we distinguish whether the simple root terminates in a vowel or in a conso- nant. A. Changes of verbal roots terminating in a vowel. (1) The present is formed by annexing v to the radical form ; e. g. from the roots $%, m, ™, <)v, the pres. (pSavk), nivit), tlvoj, $vvw, fut. vy, the pres. tt)ki*>, oirupu), AaVfa>, ov, iJaSo^rjv. — Many monosyllabic roots, having a short vowel and ending with a mute, on annexing the syllable av insert an additional v before the mute of the simple root. This changes before a P sound into in, and before a K sound in y ; e. g. from the roots Xi7r, Xaj3, Tvy^ fxa$, a§, pres. \ifj,7rav(t), Xc^uj3ava>, rvy- yavb), fjiavSavw, av^avio, aor. 2. £Xt7rov, €Xaj3ov, etu^ov, epaSov, eaSov, (6) The termination wfii is annexed to the root ; e. g*. from the roots ay, &i/c, o/x, pres. ayvvfit, ScCJCVVjLU, OflVVjULU (7) As a poetic prolongation of the simple root must be observed the annexation of £ to- gether with such a connective vowel, as is re- quired by the sound of the root, generally with a ; e. g. ukc&u), §io)Ka,§ ? both associated with the present ipyopai, and to others enumerated in the following cata- logue. § 84, CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. Observations on the following Catalogue. (1) The forms distinguished by capitals are all obsolete roots, which are requisite for the deduc- tion of irregular forms still in use, but must no longer be used themselves. (2) To avoid unnecessary prolixity the extant orms of an irregular verb are often not completely enumerated. These however are merely forms which continue in the analogy, and consequently IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 291 can be formed easily and regularly, and the omis- sion is always indicated by &c. Thus e. g. in alviio after assigning the fut. alvEGO), the aor. rjveo-a can be formed at once, and therefore has not been received into the catalogue. (3) Where the signification is not specifically given, the natural one, such as is clear from the signification of the present, must be understood to remain. (4) Forms which are usual only with the poets and in the older language, are designated by an* at the beginning. A. * 'Aaw, I hurt, of which aor. aasa or aaa in the act. 3d sing. pres. aarai, aor. aa; Ayo>, / lead, fut. a£w, &C. aor. 2. rj-ya-yov, inf. a-ya- yav, aor. 2. mid. ^yayo/^v (with the Att. redupl.), pf. riya, Dor. ayfioya. *'Adpu), I raise up, used only in the partic. aelp&v, pass, aupopzvog, part. aor. 1. act. iidpaq, mid. aei- papzvog, aor. 1. pass. 3 pers. sing, a^Sr*, 3 plur. aepSev, paftic. atpSslg. — Pllisqpf. pass. 3 pers. awp- 70. All its remaining forms are deduced from aipto). *'AEQ, inf. arivai or ayfxivai, to blow, retains the long characteristic vowel also in the dual, and plur., as well as in the pass., pres. pass, arjpi, — - Aor. 1. aeaa, inf. aiaai, to sleep. AIvlw, i" praise, fut. cuvcffw, &c. — perf. pass, ^v^iai, but aor. 1. P. ^V (see § 77. Obs. 2. b.). Alpio), I take, fut. alprjGU).— Perf. ypr}Ka. Ionic apai- pr}Ka, perf. pass, yprifxau aor. 1 . pass, yp&nv. The aor. 2. is borrowed from the obsolete root 8 EAQ, and makes uXov, inf. tXeiv, for the act. tiAojurjv. inf. tXiaSai for the mid. Aipu), I raise, fut. apio, &c. Atcr^avojuat, I feel, fut. aia%GOfxai, &C — aor. 2. ^(t3o- /i»?v, perf. ya^t}jnau ^'AicayjxzvoQ, pointed, partic. perf. pass, from an unusual root, which may be 'AKAZQ or 'AKQ, according as a reduplication is assumed or not in aKayjxkvoq. # 'AKAXQ, / afflict, aor. 2. ^Kayov, aor. 1. maynaa Or a/camera.- — Mid. aor. 2. rjKayopriv Or aKayo^v, Perf. aKayj\p.m and a.Kr}y^jxai, 3 plur. aKr)yk§ciT(U for d/crj^Evrac. Plusqpf. 3 plur. aicayjEiaTo for ci/ca- 6 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 293 * 'AXeetVw, i" avoid, to which the Epic forms of the aor. 1. mid. are riXevaro or aXevaro, partic. aXcva- ji£voc, inf. a\ea and afnnGyyovfiai, see under "E^w. * ' AinrXaKiGKb), I err, miss, fut. afnrXaK^ab), aor. i7/i7rXa» kov. inf. ajU7rXa/cav. 'A^ilwu/xe, J draw, 'AMIEQ, fut. u^dau), Att. afupLu, aor. ??/xi£ also erivSavov, aor, 2, ?aSov, Ep. also a<$ov, besides the 3 pers, zid^e, inf. a§uv, pf. za$a and ll&i, Hit. a8i}w$w, aor. iqvw^a. ** kirnvpiDv , as 1 pers. sing, and 3 pers. pint, impf. with also an aor* signification, I took away, 2 perSe awnvpaq, 3 pers. axqvga, from an assumed radical form cnravpau, of which, however, no- thing occurs besides the enumerated forms. To it awovpae belongs as a partic, on account of similar signification, although their connec- tion does not admit of being clearly pointed out. # 9 Airaj>i, inf. cnrafeiv, lUt, a7TUf}G(jJ<, The active of this verb never occurs^ but Is invariably sub- stituted by cupeV IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 295 Arrzy^avoixai, I am hated, fut. aTT&y^riGOiiai, perf. ApapicTKw, I Jit, aor. 2. ripapov, fut. ap£ov, fut. au^aw, aor. 1. ?ji>$r]a-a, pf. rju^fca, perf. pass. i}v^i]juac, aor. nv'in- %v — av'ihaofxai as fut. pass. I shall grow. ,f kytiofiaiy I am Vexed, fut. ciyStao/uai, aor. tJ^SeV&jv. # 'AXQ, radical form to axyvpai and 'AKAXQ, which see. B. Balvo), I go, primitive form BAQ, by reduplicat. fiifiaix), fttfitiju, or, by the insertion of j3fj3aina, contr. jSejSwc, j3£|3w, I heai\ fut. j3a(rra(7w, &c. adopts in the passive the other mode of formation according to the characteristic y; e.g. aor. 1. k^aara^v (see § 69. Note 5.) IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 297 BaGKu>> BAQ, BIBHMI, see BaiW Bifipwaicw, I eat, from BPOQ, fut. j3pwaw and j3pw- aofiai, &C. aor. 2. Ej3f>tov. Btow, 1 live, fut. j3ia>. BAHMI and BOAEQ, see BaXXw. Bo<7/cw, I feed, fut. (3off#cri(rw, &c. BouXo^uat, / w?i//, impf. £j3ouXojurjv and ri(5ov\6[iriv 9 fut. ^ovXriaofxai, pf. foefiovXrjpai, aor. I/3ovX»j3ijv and t5j3ouX?%v (see § 66. d). BPOQ, see Bif$poi/c. I^anvai, see AAQ, AaKvt*), I bite, from AHKQ, fut. ^opai, perf. SeSij- ya, &C. aor. s'Sajcov. Aapw, J toze, simple root AAMQ, whence aor. 2. c&i/Liov, conj. Sajtiw, lengthened Safiew, Sapdto, by transposition of the letters of the root, pf. SeSpuzica; pass. US/urinal, aor. 1. pass. EcW$r?v. Actpdavoi, J «s/eep, flit. £ap$?j o-o/iai, pf. Sf^ap^/ca, aor. jSapSov, by transposition ^pAi/, and with a passive form but an active signification, *AAQ, primitive to hdaoKu, I teach, from which with an active signification only aor. 2. iZaov IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 299 or SsSaov. The most usual forms are the aor. 2. pass, k^ariv, (I was taught) learnt, inf. Sarivai, conj. Saa'w (by an Ep. prolongation for Saw), fut. Saiiaofiai. The passive signification belongs also to the perf. &c)a??/ca, Sedaa, &Saijjuai. — Of the mid. the Epic inf. hBrntrSajL, (to become acquainted with,) inquire into, investigate, is alone extant. A«, see Aeoj. AelSu), see Alio. AeiKvvfii, I show, fut. &i'£w, &c. The lonians form the derivative forms without i, thus §e$w, i&Za, &e. The Epic form of the perf. pass. Sei&ypAi* is irregular. A^w, jT £&£&/, aor. ifoipa, perf. Sl^aca by transpo- sition of the radical letters, to be distinguished from the like forms of the verb Sapaw. AtpKuj, usually Uptcopm, I see, perf. USopw with a present signification, aor. i&paKov (for iSapKov), also ^paKriv and sSepx^v all with an active sig- nification. Asyopai, I receive, fut. S&ppat, &c. The Epic forms of the aor. 2. without a connective vowel I8i-ypjv, 3d. pers. Stvcro and e&iktq, imperat. &'£o, inf. ^x~ Sat, part. Sfy^itvoc are to be observed. Ato), I bind, fut. c^crw, aor. £cW, pf. Sc&icaj perf. pass. $&tpai, aor. e&Sijv (see § 77. Obs. 2. b.), the fut. 3. SeSriffOfiai has the signification of the simple fut. pass. Aku), I want, am deficient, pass. Uo/uai, I have need of, beg, fut. §£wo>, &c. In general the act. occurs only as an impersonal, pres. &i, conj. &'#, opt. 300 ETYMOLOGY. <$eoi, Inf. Bdv, part. 2>£ov,impf. iBu, aor. £$eV«, fut. Btfjcrei. AHKQ, see Aukvu). AiBaaKw, / ifetfcA, fut. SiSa£a>, aOI\ eBlBa^a, pf. Se8i- ^a^a, &C. Ai^atTKw, / rw^ tfwtf?/, usually occurring only in compounds, borrows from the root APAQ fut. Bpacrojxai, perf. BeBpaica, aor. tBpav, ag, a, &C. COnj. Bpu, ac, a, &c, opt. Spairjv, imperat. BpaSi, inf. Spavai, part. Spae, (all formed according to the Conjugation fxi). Allrijuiai, I seek, retains the long characteristic vowel in the passive form contrary to the ana- logy of the conjugation pi. Aim, I fear, fly, Blofxai, I scare, terrify, both in use only with Epic writers. Hence are deduced the pf. B&Bia, I fear, in Epic also BdBia, pi. without a connecting vowel BelBifiev, BuBite, BuBia&i, im- perat. BuBiSi, inf. BeBiivai, Ep. BsiBipsv, part. BeBiwq, gen. otoq and wroc, plusqmperf. 3 plur. kBdBioav. —The common language has the pres. BuBw, fut. Betarofiai, aor. iBsura. Ep. iBBeiaa, pf. SeSot/ca with a present signification. AokIoj, I appear, seem, from AOKQ, fut. Bo'fa, &c. pf. with a passive form BeBoypai, have appeared. The regular formation Bok^™, Sec. is more rare. APAQ, see AiBpaaicuj. Avi»a/*ai, 2 #/?2 # We, 2d. pers. Bvvacai (not Suvp), im- perf. nBwafiviv (see § 66. 2. d.) conjugated like iffTdfiai. fut. Bvvriaop.ai; aor. Sw^S^v and ISwaaStyi;, pf. BiBvvtifj.au IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 301 ^vw, I cover, fut. <$v, EAEQ : pf. zSriSoKa, [fi&fca, by change of vowel rJSoAra, with the Att. redupl. c&J&Mea], pf. pass. eStjcWjucu, Ep. also e^rj^ojuLai, aor. pass. rj^USriv. As aor. 2. act. fyayov, inf. ayeiv. Elojmai, I Sit, fut. &ovpai. 'E&Xai and ScXw, / am willing, fut. tQskriM, %z\r}, Sec. *ESw, I am wont, only with Ep. writers, together with the pf. 2. awSa, Ionic iw%, in the same signification. EIAQ, an obsolete form with the signification, / 302 ETYMOLOGY, see, perceive, in Epic yet used as a passive, EiSopai, I am seen, appear, seem, besides the aor. Hcrafxriv or hiGafxy]v. — The primitive form is IAQ, aor. 2. elBov, Ep. also without augm. i'Sov, conj. 'ISto, opt. i^oifii, imper. ffig, inf. ISuv, part. ISwv, aor. 2. mid. u^o^v, tSo/xijp in the same signification. — The pf. olSa (I have per- ceived or seen into) I know, which belongs thereto, is anomalous in formation and conjuga- tion. Its forms therefore are here completely enumerated. Sing. ot&a (ol^ag only Ion.), ol^a (for olSaaSa, see § 75. III. , 2 ° Dual Utov (borrowed from a collateral form tSa, con- sequently instead of ffiarov, by syncope @*©v) \r tore iaaai (for tcWi, where the change of 8 into a can only be explained as proceeding from an en- deavour to assimilate this form to the remain- ing ones of the dual and plural, which all have , Att. spio, pf. siprfica, pf. pass. upn]jxai y flit. eipiiaojULai (with a middle form and a passive signification), aor. pass. upri%v Ion., eppffiw Att, inf. pr\%vai, part. prfiuQ, fut. pY)%juai, opt. (nroifxriv and £(T7rotjui]v, imperat. (tttou, Ep. otteo, also (ttteio, inf. (ttteVScu and kcnri^ai, Partic. <77ro/u£- voc and £w, I go away. Fut. eppfcio, aor. vppwa- 'EpvSalvtt) also tpevSw, I make red, fut. kpx&ri&w, aor. 7)pv%va and rjpevaa, perf. ?7pv^??/ca. * $ EpvKw, I keep back, fut. l/>v£w ? aor. l.ipvZa (rare), USUal. aor. 2. ripvicaKov* ^Ep^ofxm, I go, forms from 'EAEY9Q fut. hXzvGoixai or eXwffovfiai, aor. 2. ijXvSov, Att. iJXSov, Dor. rivSov, inf. IXSav, imperat. IXSI, &c. perf. e\r}Xv%a, Ep. also uXi}Xov%. Eu^fo), ko%ev$(i), I sleep, fut. £u^?iffo>, jeaSft/Srjcra), im- perf. e/caSfeuoov, more rarely Ka%vSov and /ca&uSov (see §. 68. Not. 2.) EvpiGKG), I find, from, *E¥PQ, aor. zvpov, imperat. svpe, fut. evpriGM, j)f. svpyica, pf. pass. E&£>tyicu, aor. pass, zvp&riv, aor. mid. zvp6p,v)v and evpajuirjv. "EySbptdt, I am hated, fut. aySfiGopai, pf. ri^/itu. -E%w, / kw ? fut. ?5w and g^gm, aor. c^ov, inf. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 307 d^av, conj. ayu, opt. o-^oiV* imperat. ayj, usual. ayjq (for ayj&i, according to the conjuga- tion fit), pf. iayjqica. — Pass. pf. i(jyjif.iai, aor. hoypriv, fut. a^%(JOf.iai.~ Mid. fut. l^Ofiai and ayjiaopai, aor. kay6fir\v. — From the root 2XQ, whence the aor. is borrowed, a new pres. is formed with the prefix i ioyu (I hold, keep), to which also the fut. £^(v, aor. rijunriayov, inf. ajXTriayuv, — Mid. afxiri- yo/uai or ajjanayyovfxai ( I have OTl), fut. afKJti^ofiai, aor. TifXTTiayo^v *)• (3) vTri a '/*" x2 308 ETYMOLOGY. Zwyvvfxi, I join, flit. &v£o>, &C. aor. 2. pass, elvyrjv. Zuvwfii, I gird, fut. ^o)(rw &c. pf. pass, '^wctjucu, aor. H. "H/iat, J^Y, ?5(Tae, r)rai OX narai, &C. inf. T/, tJcto, 7)TO, Or yiQ (comp. §. 15. not. 6.) fut. Oaxfjd), aor. i%a\fsa, pf. rkrafya, pf. pass. rk^a^jxai, aor. 1. pass. t%(j>%tiv (see §. 15. D. Exceptions), aor. 2. kra^v and so on. — -From this is to be distinguished the obso- lete form 9A0Q, / am astonished, from which rk%ira as a pf. 2. with a present signification (where the second aspirata is changed into the tenuis) and irafyov as an aor. 2. occur in the poets. Beu), I run, fut. SevGOfxai or Sevaov/xai. The remain- ing tenses are supplied by the forms of rpe^to. Biyyavo), I touch, forms from $tyw, fut. Si'Sw and Si£ojuatj aor. iSiyov* QvriGKM, I die, forms from 9ANQ, aor. i%vov, fut. %vovfxai 9 perf. T^y»ifca (by transposition of the 5 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 309 radical letters), besides the syncopised forms, 1 plur. T&va/uzv, 3 plur. r&vaai, Opt. Tt&vairiv, imperat. r&vaSi, inf. r&vavai, partic. r&vr\Kuq, together with r&vsug, tzSvyjuq, t&vuwq. — From the pf. is formed a fut. rcSvriSw and r^v^ofxai, in frequent use with the Attics. Ooptw and OOPQ, see Qpwaicw. OPEOQ, see 1>ty«. OPEXQ, see T^w. OpvirTb), I bruise, fut. Sptyto, &c. aor. 2. pass, krpv- riv (see §. 15. not. 6). # 9jowa/co>, I spiking, forms from 90PQ aor. 2. &opov, fut. ^Ojoovjuat. 6Y$Q, see Tfyw. Gua>, I sacrifice, fut. Sutrw, &c. aor. 1. pass. ztv%v (see {. 15. D. Exceptions, 1). I. "IAQ, see Effiw. f 'I£w, /ca^i^w, I seat, make to sit, fut. tj^w, /caSi^rJa-w, or /ca^iw (for fcaSi(ra>, according to §. 73. 2. a) aor. £Ka^i(ja, &C. 'lAcveo/uat, more rarely i'/cw, / coT/ze, fut. i£a>, usual. t'So^at, aor. I£a, usual, <£ov (according to J. 75. 1. 1. d), aor. mid. ik6hy\v, pf. lytxai. In prose the compound aj see VCopai, eu£&j, Ka/vu/xai, see KAAQ. Katw, / ferw, Att. /caw (with long a and without Contraction), fut. Kavaw, aor. iicavaa, perf. /ckau/ea, pf. pass. KtKavpai, aor. 1. pass. EjcavSqv, aor. 2. pass. Ejcatpc. Besides the given form of the aor. 1. must be observed the double Epic formeW* and iictia and the Attic 'Urn (all formed without - $r?va, EKepSava and EKEpSrjea. Kr$(jj, see KAAQ. Klpvrifu, an Epic collateral form of Kspavvvjii, which see. Ki^avw, I reach, overtake, conj. ici^w, Ep. Kvyzita, opt. ftrt^ctijv, inf. Kiyj\vai, part. KiyEiq, impf. 3 dual. /a^rrjv, all formed from KIXHMI, fut. Kiyjtow and Kiyyaofiai, aor. 2. k'/ct^ov (see §. 82. B. 5 and , 3)- Kt)(pi?jut, see Xpao>. KXa&u, I SOUnd, fut. /cXa-y&u, aor. 1. iytcayia, pf, 2. K£/cXrjya, aor. 2. £/cXa-yov. KXa/w, I weep, Att. /cXaw (with long a, and without contraction), fut. Kkavao^ai or /cXai; aor. eicpayov. Kpe^avvvfiU, I suspend, pass. /cpuavvu/xai, I am sus- pended, and as a mid. I" suspend myself; Kpzfxa- fiai (like ioTaiiai), I hang, to which conj. Kpt^u- fxai, opt. Kpe/uaijj,r}v, fut. act. Kps/jiaGO), Att. KptfxCj, aq, a, &c. The aor. pass, l/cpcjuo^v is common to the pass. mid. and intransit. ; but the fut. pass. Kp£/uLaG%aofiai belongs Only to Kp^avvviiai, since Kpzfiaj.mi has a peculiar fut. Kp^aofxai, I shall hang, hover. Kthvcj, I kill, root KTE (see § 82. A. 1.) and by changing the vowel KTA, fut. ktevw, Ion. Kraveio, aor. 1. iicTEiva, aor. 2. tKravov, besides Ep. 'Utciv, «c, a, (formed according to the conjugation /u,as iSpav from §i§pa(TKu>), 3 plur. k'/erav for £KT, aor. s/cuaa. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 313 A. Aayxa™, / receive by lot or fate, root AAXQ and AHXQ (§ 82. B. 5.), fut. X^o/iai, aor. cXo X ov, perf. EtXi?xa (§ 66. 2. a), or XkXoyya (as from AErXQ). Aa/uLfidvoj, I take, root AABQ and AHBQ, fut, Xfyo- pai, aor. fe'Xaj3ov, pf. tiXriQa (§ 66. 2. c), perf. pass. dXrjfifiai, aor. 1. pass. sXri^v, aor. 2. mid. cXa/3o- /i»?v. — The Ionians form perf. XsXajSrj/ca and (from AAMBQ) fut. Xdfvpofiai, aor. pass. eXdfx^v, pf. pass. XeXajuifiai, aor. mid. tXa{i\pd. fxr\v. AavSdvw, more rarely XrjSw, / am concealed, fut. X?7. AHXQ, see hay yaw. Aovw, I wash. In this verb the Attics almost in- variably contract the connecting vowel of the termination with the ov ; e. g. 3 impf. iXov, plur. eXov/jLev, pass. pres. Xovpai, &C. inf. XovaSai. M. * Mato^at, see MAQ. MAKQ, / bleat, from this obsolete primitive form there remain only the aor. 2. ifiascov and the perf. /inject, partic lULSfxaKvIa, which are associated with the common pres. finKaoiiai. MavSdvu), I learn, from MA9Q, aor. i[ia%v, fut. m«- %(JOfxai, pf. }iz}Aa%r}Ka (§ 82. B. 3.). *Mapvajuai, I fight y usual only in the pres. and impf. ; opt. fiapvolfiriv (§ 79. Obs. I. 4.). Ma^Ojuat, I fight, fut. iiaykaojiai and tiayj)aofiai, Att. Iiayovfiai (§ 73. 2. a), aor. kfxay^(rdp.r\v 3 perf. ^U£fia- yjEGfxai and fi2fiayjq^mi. *MAQ, an obsolete primitive form, signifies (1) JT desire, strive, and has in this signification Only pf. juE/iaa, 1 plur. fitpapev, part. fiEjuawc* gen. oroc and wroc, and plusqpf. 3 plur. pspaaav. — (2) / taste, feel, in which the pres. {xaiopai is USUal, fut. juao-o/xac, aor. e/aaad/JLtiv. i * Mcipojuai, / obtain, from the root, MEPQ, pf. c/i- /uopa, pf. pass. tipapTai, it is ordained by fate (respecting the augment, see§ 66. 2. c). MeXXa) s I am about, am to come, imperf. rijieXXov (see §66. 2. d.), fut. ^XXfow, &c. (according to § 82. B.3.). IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 315 Mi\(x) y I concern, give concern to, lie at the heart of, is mostly used in the active form only as an im- personal ju£/\a, fut. \LiKy\au, &c. (according to § 82. B. 3.), pf. Ep. juspjXti mid. pekofiai, I am concerned, fut. jusX/jo-o^ai, aor. cjueXt^v, &c. MepfiXwKa, seeMOAQ. Wikvu, I remain, perf. 1. n^v^ica, perf. 2. fikfiova. Miywfxi, also jULiayoj, I mix, fut. fii^d), aor. £f*i£a, perf. pass. pEfuyfjiai, aor. pass. e(xi^%v, aor. 2. pass. kjxiyr\v, MifjLvrjGKCj, I remind, from MNAQ, fut. /hvwoj, Sec. — mid. fjLi^vrjdKo/jLaL, I remember, mention, aor. k^a- %v, fut. f.ivy]a%aofxai. — perf. ptfivrjfiai, I am mind- ful of, think of, remember, conj. /uejuvcdjwu, opt. pip- vypriv and /^vwftp (see § 77. Obs. 3.), to which fut. fisfjLvi'iGoiLiai, I shall bear in mind. *MOAQ, / go, fut. poXov/jiai, aor. k'/ioXov, pf. fxk^ /3Xw/ca (formed from MAOQ by transposition of the radical letters, therefore properly ^Xw/ca, and by the insertion of j3, according to § 15. Note 4., /ue^uj3Xw/ca). The usual present thereto is /3Xw(TKW. * MvKao/jLai, I bellow, aor. z/ulvkov, perf. ixkjxvKa (from MYKQ), N, Natcu, I dwell, fut. vaeaofiai, aor. kvaaactfxriv (by an Epic reduplication of g, according to § 75. I. 1. d.) and kvaa^v (with a passive form), pf. vkvaajuai. — The aor. 1. act. ivaaaa, has the transitive sig- nification, / bring into a dwelling. 316 ETYMOLOGY. Na'ww, / stuff, fut. vaZw, aor. iva'£a, perf. pass, vs- va^at (see § 70. Note 2.). Nl/xw, / distribute, fut. vejuw and v£^w. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 317 OXurSaivw or o\i, &c. 'Ovlvrifu*, I am of use, forms the pres. and imperf. like Ujrjfu, but the remaining tenses from the primitive 'ONAQ, fut. ovri7ra, fut. Qipofidi, aor. w^rjv (with an active as well as a passive significa- tion). Pass. perf. ifi/xai, fut. bffiaofxai. 'Opaio, I see, impf. ewowv (§ 67. Note 3.), Ion. topwv, perf. fwpafca, perf. pass, tupapai, aor. pass. cwoaSrjv. All the remaining forms are wanting to this verb and are supplied by those given under 'OTIQ and A. *Opvvpi t I excite, from'OPQ. Fut. op™, aor. l.wpaa, aor. 2. wpopov (with the Attic reduplication), mid. opvvnai I arise, aor. wpapriv, or by rejecting * With a particular reduplication instead of ovrifii. 318 ETYMOLOGY. the connecting vowel, wpfxnv, 2d. pers. Z>pu\t}<*(jj, &c. The aor. 2. w^Aov is used merely to designate a wish : O that ! would that I and the more usual pres. is o^Xtcr/cavw, fut. o(j>\f}Gto, Sec. n. HAOQ, see ria^w. Uailw, I jest, fut. Trai&pai and 7rcu£oi)/iat (see § 75. III. 8.), aor. 1. fVauya, pf. TTEiraiKa, perf. pass. TTeiraKT/jLai and iriiraiyiiai (comp. §. 70. Note 5.). Umu), I strike, fut. usually irainaw, but the remain- ing tenses regular, aor. tiraiaa, perf. 7r£7rcu/ca, aor. pass. sVcuo^rjv. riacr^w, / 5?^fer, from I1A9Q, aor. e7ra%v> from XIEN9Q, pf. 7T£7roi£a, fut. 7TUGO{iiai.— The pf. 2. -irkirrfta, aor. £7rrj(ra, fut. Trricrofxai. are more rare and proper to the poetic language alone. — A peculiar Homeric form is ttettwSe as 2d. pers. plur. perf. rh&w, I persuade, proceeds regularly in the act. but forms besides the aor. 1. iiruaa an aor. 2. iirtiov, Ep. ttettiSov, and likewise an Epic fut. 7r£7ri£rj(7w. — Pass, and mid. ird%fxai, I believe, fol- low, likewise with an aor. 2. 7r£7riSojui]v.— The perf. 2. TrtTro&a, I trust. TlzXaZo), / make to approach, bring near, regular up to the Epic forms of the aor. y\\\\iv\v (as mid. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 319 according to the conj. p) and tt^Xikj^v (with a passive form), ILVpwrai, see IIOPQ. Uetttw, see ITeo-orw. * Uep^u), I lay waste, aor. 2. iwpo&ov (by transposi- tion of the radical letters). Il£(Tcra>, 7T£rrw, 1 ^oi/, fut. iriipv, &C. from 7r£7rTW. TLeaelv, see IIiirTw. IIcTavvu/it, / spread, fut. 7r£Ta<7w, Att. 7rErw (see § 73 a . 2. a.), perf. pass. Trkirraixai (for 7T£7r£raor/ucu), aor. pass. fTTfraffSrjv. fl£To/uat, / fly. From this primitive form by- syncope aor. £7rrojurjv, inf. 7rr£, which is also not unusual as a pres. n/prpTjjui, / set on fire, inf. Trinirpavai, proceeds in the pres. and impf. like Urrjfii, the remaining forms from ITPAQ or 7rp^w, thus fut. ir^^> &c. aor. pass. IVp*i and TroSrjdw, usually TroStcro^ai, pf. 7reTr6%Ka, pf. pass. TTETroi^ucu, aor. 1. pass. £7ro%ea%v. JJopuv, iiropov, I gave, a defective aorist with the poets. To the same theme (in the sense of to distribute) belongs the perf. pass. -Kk-xpurai, it is ordained by fate, formed by transposition of the radical letters, part. TreTrpw^ivog. IIOQ, see ILW nPOQ, see Uopelv. IITAQ, see UtTavvvfJLi, Ilerofieu. YlTnaaw, I cower doivn, fut. 7rr/?$w and the remaining forms regular, partic. perf. th-th-wc. 3ITOQ, see IltWw. HvvSavoiiai, I leam, from TTiv^Ofiai (Poet.), fut. tteu- ao/iim, aor. tTTvSo/uriv, pf. irtTrvejucu. 322 ETYMOLOGY. '?%<*>, / do, fut. pifo or from EPrQ ipfo, &c. pf. topya. Piw, I flow, fut. pmffh) and pevcropai, aor. ipptvaa. In the same signif. however the aor. 2. kppvw (formed according to the conjugation /mi from a root 'PYEQ) with the fut. pvriao^ai and perf. kppvr]Ka is more usual. 8 PEQ, / say, see Eipw. "Pfiywpi, I rend, fut. p?)$w, &c. aor. pass. eppayt}v.— pf. 2. sppuya with an intransitive signf. #3$ raz£. 'Pi-ycw, i" shudder, fut. piyr), I put in motion, aor. 1. iaawa (formed with out a, see § 75. LI. d. and by doubling the £vvu/xi, (rropyv/xi and (rr^wvy^u, / spread, fut. trro^EO-w and (rr^wcrw, aor. fcrropfca and aarpujaa, perf. fdrpwKa — pass. pf. iorpafxai, more rarely Effropr^cu, aor. karopea%v and tarpwStyv. *2rvy£w, I" abhor, hate, fut. , / ^flue, fut. ffwuw, pf. pass. azGwapai, but aor. Y 2 324 ETYMOLOGY. T. TAAAQ, I endure, used only in the aor 1. krakaaa, Ep. £Ta\acr(ja. The perf. TtVArfKa, pi. by syn- cope rhXa/Liev, impemt TerXaSi, inf. rerXavai, Ep. TETXdfiev, fut. r\i]GOfjiai and aor. 2. (according to the conjug. pi) irX^v, inf. rX?ivat, imperat tX^i, opt. rXalriv, part. rXac are formed by trans- position of the radical letters. TAQ, see San™. TAQ, see T«W Tc/vw, I stretch, fut. Ttv£, aor. 1. kVctva. From the radical form TE, or by change of sound TB (§. 82. A. 1. and §.71. C. 3.) pf. rkraKa, perf. pass. rirafxai, aor. 1. ETc&riV) fut. TC&rjGOfiai, TEKQ, see Tkra>. Tljuveu, / a*/, forms from TEMQ, fut. r^, aor. 2. inpov, and by transposition of the radical letters perf. rlr^rj/ca, perf. pass, rcrjUT^cu, aor. 1. p. et/jlIj^v. In Ionic this verb is rapv^, from which the aor. 2. irapov is sometimes also used with the Attics. ^Teray^v, reaching, seizing, a partic. aor. 2. from the same root with TaW Tcv^w, in this form two kindred verbs must be accurately distinguished : (1) Tfi>)(w, / make, fabricate, reg. fut. rcv^w, aor. irev^a, pf. rhevya, perf. pass, rkrvypai, aor. pass. !ru^*]v. Epic forms of the aor. 2. arercru/cov and rErv/co^rjv (by reduplic.) (2) Tvyyavu), I happen, acquire, fut. tev£o/mu, aOr. £TV)£OV, pf. T£ru^rj/ca. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 325 Tilers, I bring forth, from TEKQ, fut. re£w-, usual. TE^ojuai, aor. ztekov, perf. r£ro/ca. Tirpaw, J bore, from TPAQ, fut. rp^w, &c. An accessory form more usual with the Attics is TZTpalvw, to which fut. rzTpavio, aor. 1. £rfrpr?va. The perf. always from the radical form, r£- rpt]Ka, pass. rirp7]fiai. TiTpwvicoj, I wound, Ep. rpwu), fut. rpbJGio, &c. perf. pass. TerpLo^ai, aor. 1. pass, krpuferiv, fut. rpwSriffO- ^ai and TpuiGOfiai (with the form of the mid., but the signf. of the pass.) Tib), I honour, is merely poetical and forms regu- larly fut. riGb) &c. perf. pass, rkifiai. — At the same time however it furnishes the derivative tenses also to Tivw, I 'pay, atone for, fut. Acno, pf. pass. tLtkj- iuai, aor. l.pass. kriG%v. The mid. rivopai, fut. Tiaopai, aor. knadfxr]v has the signf. to revenge, punish. TAHMI, radical form assumed for the formation of some tenses of TAAAQ, which see. Tpiipijj, I nourish, fut. Sp^w (see §. 15. Not. 5), pf. 2. T£Tpocj>a, pf. pass. T&pajtAjULai, inf. T&pa(D, I fumigate, burn, fut. %\pw (see §. 15. Note 5.) — Aor. 2. pass. etv^v. Y. 'Y7nArQ, see'ESw. $at'vw, / cawse to appear, fut. $avd>, aor. 1. i^nva, aor. 2. c^avov, perf. 2. irk^va, perf. pass, n^aa- liai (see § 71. c. 5.), aor. 1. pass. l^avSr/v, aor. 2. hfyavnv, fut. tyavjiaofxai. The pass, has an intran- sitive signf. / appear, in which the act. also is sometimes used. ^u^ofxai, I spare, fut. $hgoiacli, &c. Epic forms are, pf. ire(pi^ri/Liai, USUal. 7T£$a<7/xcu, fut. 3. 7r£^tS?)cro^ae (in the signf. of the simple fut.), aor. Trrf&opriv, (by reduplic) &£pu), I bear, irnpf. eyg, &c. dual. $aroi>, plur. 3. pers. tyaai, all formed according to 'iarrijxi, and used as enclitics, except the second person IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 327 (frrig. — Conj. u, Opt. alr]v, imper. <£a$i, inf. $avai, partic. as> impf. iw, 2d pers. ifrjg and t^aSa, 3d. plur. f^affav and poet, ityav, fut. fyrjau), aor. £^r?apr)v» In Epic 7T£- QtiGfihog as part, and 7r£$a, namely, ?)/uLL for fqptl (as an intermediate proposition on repeating an expression, like inquam), nviovi^v and r\ for i^, used likewise in intermediate pro- positions on quoting the discourse of another, and in Homer also after a discourse quoted. ®%avu), I am beforehand, anticipate, (respecting the quantity of a see page 29. 4. c.) forms from 9AQ, fut. <£$ac7fe> and ffiaopai, aor. 1. ifiaoa, aor. 2. iffivv (according totheconjug. jut), conj. vv, inf. vvai, part. $vq in the same signification. X. Xaipw, I rejoice, fut. yaiphau or yaipfaofxai, ill Epic also Kzyapr]GOfiai and K£yapi], e. g. xpawvrai. (4) Xprj, It is necessary, one must, inf. \py]vai, opt. xpdr), conj. XPV> P arte \p' ctl) v, * m pf» ' IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 329 *XPv v (anomal. accent) or y^pvv (never s'xp*/), (5) 'ATro^pr], It is sufficient, 3d plur. airoy^p^Gi (v), inf. a7ro^p^v, part, (nroyjpuv, wcra, wv, imperf. cnrt^pri, fut. a7ro^pTjff£t. Here also the lonians usually take a instead of tj ; e. g. impf. airky^pa. Xptjjwv/iAi, I colour, fut. xpa' (TW &c. perf. pass, d- ^pwo-^uai, aor. pass. t^pwaSf^v. Xwvvvjuli, I heap up, dam. The radical form you is still usual as pres. with the older writers ; to this belongs the inf. %ovv, fut. ^wuw, &c. pf. pass. KE^wdfiai, aor. pass. zywaSriv. Q. 'Q&w, I push, impf. ewSow (§ 67. Note 2.), fut. w%(tu> and (Lao), aor. k'wo-a, pf. kWa, perf. pass, caw/iai, aor. pass. cwcrStyv, all from the radical form '06Q (see § 82. Note 4.) 330 ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER IX. LESSER PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. All forms occurring in a language besides the noun, pronoun, and verb, hitherto treated of, are small words, which impart perspicuity, bre- vity, accuracy, and connexion, to discourse. These are comprehended under the common name of particles, and agree together in, and are distin- guished from the other parts of speech by this, that they occur in only one single form, and are wholly incapable of declension and conjugation. 2. As the use and signification of these can only be explained in the syntax, we shall here merely enumerate the principal forms thereof, and adduce short observations respecting their derivation and formation. Note. Strictly considered, the adverb, as a word with a com- plete and independent idea, does not belong to the class of parti- cles. Since, however, it possesses an unchangeableness of form in common with particles, it appears most convenient to give it a place here among them. FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 331 Adverbs, § 86. FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 1. In its form the adverb most nearly resembles the adjective, to which it is also allied in idea, and from which it is mostly derived. 1. The most usual termination of an adverb is cog, which, for a correct formation of the same, requires merely to be annexed to the pure root of the ad- jective. Thus, e. g. from Ka\6g, root/caX, is formed the adverb /ccXwg, from rayyg, root (as is shown by the genitive ra^i-og) ray^—Tayiwg, and in like manner adverbs are regularly deduced from the remaining adjectives ; e. g. Adjective. Root. Adverb. aotyog ao(p (jofywg Kaipiog pkyag pov(i)g \apiug a\r)%g -^ctpisvr a\r$e yapiivrwg aXvSLwg, COntr. a\r]- Sug, &C. Note 1. As the root of an adjective of the third declension is to be recognised most distinctly in the genitive, the following rule may be observed for the easier formation of adverbs : Change the adjective termination og (nom. or gen.) into wc, Note 2. As a rule for the accentuation of derivative adverbs in u)q, we must observe, that those formed from adjectives in og 332 ETYMOLOGY. and rjg have a circumflex on the termination, if the adjective is accented on the final syllable ; on the contrary, if it is not accented on the final syllable, they have an acute on the penultimate ; e. g. dicpi(3hJQ from dKpcfirjg, but avSddwg from av$rdcr)Q. — Those formed from adjectives in vg are always ac- cented on the penultimate syllable ; e. g. Yjd£u)£ from yjcvg. 3. In many cases the adverb has no particular form, but is expressed by an adjective form, thus, (a) the neuter adjective, singular and plural, is used for an adverb, chiefly by the poets ; e. g\ KaXov aa'Sav, to siflg beautifully ; fipayja oVfASuv, to recount briefly, (b) In like manner also the dat. sing. fern, oc- curs instead of an adverb ; e. g. S^oma, publicly ; iSlq, privately ; Koivy, in common ; irzly, on foot ; ravTrft thus, in this manner, wherein properly a substantive is always to be supplied, usually o&£. 4. Adverbs are also formed from substantives, and that in various ways, thus, (a) certain forms of substantives are used in the signification of adverbs ; e. g. apyjw (in the begin- ning), entirely, a/c^v (at the point), scarce; Ko/midy (with diligence), very much ; airovSy (with zeal, pains), with trouble or difficulty, scarce, hardly. (b) Some substantives furnish an adverbial sense, when combined into one word with prepo- sitions ; e. g. 7rapa^iifia (with the thing), immedi- ately, on the spot ; wpovpyov, (77-00 zpyov, for the thing, to the purpose) serving the purpose, ser- viceable, requisite, useful ; skttoSiov (from before the feet), out of the way, aside ; ep7rodwv, in the way, impeding. FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 333 Note 3. All such adverbs retain the accent in that place, where the rule would require it to stand, if the substantive was written separate from the preposition. (c) Adverbs are derived from substantives by the annexation of certain syllables. In this man- ner, a very great number of adverbs are formed, the most important of which we shall here enu- merate with their subjoined signification : (a) By the appended syllables %eu, &, and St, are formed adverbs denoting place (abverbia loci), in such a manner that the syllable Sty denotes direction from a •place, &■ direction to a place, and St rest in a place; e. g. ovpavoSev, oUoStv, from heaven, from home ; ovpavovSs, oIkovSe (more usually ot/caoV), to heaven, home; ovpavoSi, oikoSl (more usually oiKoi), in heaven, at home. Note 4. Concerning the accentuation of these adverbs, see § 12. 4. Note 5. The termination Se is always annexed to an unchanged accusative ; but in some names of towns of the first declension, which are used only in the plural, the B becomes blended with the preceding a of the casal termination into £ ; e. g. 'AB^va^e, 0r//3a£e, to Athens, to Thebes. This termination '(t occurs also in some other words ; e. g. %pa£e, to the door, out. Note 6. Instead of the syllable $i, some names of towns have at or (Ttv appended, e. g. 'A&ijvriai, at Athens; HXaraiaviv, at Platcea. Some other words receive the termination ol, e. g. Tor^juoT, at the Isthmus ; o'ikoi, at home. Lastly, adverbs of place derived from pronouns are formed by the appended syl- lable %ov ; e. g. iravTaypv, every where; aXhaypv, elsewhere; hiayov, in some places. (|3) By annexing the syllables Sov and ksti are formed adverbs, which express comparison ; e. g. /3oTpuc\)v, clalter-ivise ; ayeX^ov, in herds ; Kwr\^6v, after the mariner of dogs ; 'EWtivhjti, after the 334 ETYMOLOGY. manner of the Greeks; avSpiari, after the manner of men. (y) The termination aoV forms adverbs signify- ing, that something takes place by the application of that idea which is contained in the substantive ; e. g. \oya$r)v (from Xoyoc), by selection; a^jSoXacV (avajSoA/]), with delay. 5. Adverbs are also formed from verbs, all having the termination £V, which is annexed im- mediately to the root, wherein however, as is self-evident, a preceding tenuis or aspirata must change into the corresponding middle letter; e. g. Kpvj3^7]v (from k^tttw, root jcpv/3), secretly; 7TA£y§r?v (from ?rXk-w), in a twisted manner or form ; avWrj^v (from avWafifiavw, root <™XX??j3), taken together. 0. Lastly, from some prepositions also are formed adverbs, which serve to denote place and all terminate in w ; e. g. aw (from ava), above ; Kara), beloiV ; i^b), IvitllOlit ; atrw, Within; irpoGto, onwards. This w belongs also to some other ad- verbs ; e.g. a, alvoj, WW. (2) All these terminations are annexed to the root of the noun, from which the verb is derived, €. g. 7rvp 7rvp6& — KOfir} KOfJLaii) — KOipog KOipaveoj — %avfjLa ^avfxaCd) — aX?7%(,' aXrfiSevu}, &C. (3) With respect to signification these deriva- tive verbs may generally be classed and defined in the following manner : (a) They express : to be or to have that, which is signified by the noun from which they are derived — ad), £o>, evb), (aZ,b), i£w), e, g. y^oXfj, choler, yoXau) (to have choler), to be angry. — /co/^, hair, Kofxaw, to have hair, to be covered with hair. — roAp?, boldness, to\jlicl(jj (to have boldness), to be bold. — Koipavoq, a lord, Koipaveit), to be lord, to lord, govern. — i\og, a friend, §i\kw (to be a friend), to love. — ttAoutoc, riches, ttAoutew, (to have riches), to be rich. — (povcvg, a murderer, cpovtmo, to be a murderer, to murder. — KoKai, a flatterer, KoXaicevu, to flatter. —-a\r}%g, true, aXySeva), to be true. — In verbs in a£w and i£o> this signification at least obtains when they are de- rived from proper names, e. g. Aw 0° furnish with gold), to gild.—alpa, blood, a\fiariluv).—a%\r}Trig, a wrestler (aSAav). — av\r)Tr)q, fem. av\t)Tpig, a flute-player (auXav). — juaS^rric, /j.a%- rpiQ, a scholar (jtaSeiv). — awrrjp, awrapa, a preserver (). — prjTup, an orator, (pew, I speak.) (2) By annexing the termination aig substan- tives are formed from verbs, which represent the idea of the verb as an acting, operating, on the con- trary, by annexing the termination pa, are formed those which express the production of an action, e. g. 7rpa£iQ, action, irpayjua, a deed, circumstance (irpaoro-fc)).' — Troirjaig, poetical composition s -rroirif.ia, a poem (iroiib)). — /jLipriGiQ, imitation, (ilfinpa, the work produced by imitation {p,i\iko\xai). (3) Moreover many substantives are formed from verbs by means of the terminations a, rj, og, fit] and /uoc, which mostly contain the idea of the verb as an abstract, e. g. xapa, joy, (yalpta). SiSayfi, in- struction (SiSdcKU)). $ei'Aoc, ci friend, iXioq and (j>iXii<6q, friendly, irorafxoq, a river, TTorafxiog, that is in the river, belongs to the river, KaSapoq, clean, KdSdpioq, cleanly. Hereto belong also the terminations dioq, uoq, oioq and woq, of which uoq in particular is of fre- quent occurrence, all personal adjectives being- formed by means of the same ; e. g. 'O^paoc, Ho- meric, Uv%y6pdioq, Pythagorean, &c. so also, a^Spw- Truoq, human, ywdiKuoq, of women. (2) The terminations wq and Xvoq, serve to de- note the material of which something consists ; e. g. yjpvazoqi golden, yaXKEoq, brazen, apyvpzoq, silver, ZvXivoq, wooden, X'&ivoq, stone. (3) Terminations poq, spoq, ypoq, dXeoq, sic, (o«c) and wStjc.— Most adjectives with these termina- FORMATION OF WORDS. 343 tions denote a state of fulness or an abundance and often agree with the English adjectives in y, ous or ful; e. g. oiKTpoq, piteous, %vep6q, envious, \v7TYipog, sorrowful, SapaaXeoq, Courageous, yapiuq, graceful, v\wq, woody, irvpouq, full of fire, fiery, ai/iiaTw§Yis, bloody, xfjaupwSriQ, sandy,— Yet many in dlr\q express also a resemblance ; e. g, avSpwSrjq, manlike, manly, ywaiKoj^q, womanlike, womanly, effeminate, (4) The termination ifioq, annexed only to verbal roots, denotes usefulness, aptitude; e. g. yjpYiGifJLoq, useful, kZw^ifxoq, eatable, noriiioq, potable, "SavaGifioq, deadly, (5) The terminations r6q, rkoq, see § 81. § 94. TERMINATIONS FOR FORMING PARTICULAR KINDS OF WORDS. 1. Substantives and Adjectives. (a) Diminutives are formed by the Greeks with the terminations iov, Siov, idwv, i^evq, apiov, vWiov, vXXiq, ig, iGKoq, tffkij, &c. e. g. TrcuStov, a little boy, GTE, via) ; e. g. GTzvdlu) (o-Kara-Aa/uj3ava>, I take possession of beforehand. 2. If in combining several words together no harshness or dissonance arises, each individual member of the compound retains its proper form, or only undergoes the usual changes, which are rendered necessary by the nature of the concur- ring letters ; e. g. iroXi-^ayoq, much-eating. iraXai- (jhitoq, spoken long ago, -ira^opog, (jav and (pspu)), all-producing, fruitful, vavjiayla, a sea-fight, ey-Ka\eoj Qv), I call on. 3. In general however the root of the first member of the compound receives an accession : o, s, a, m, e. g< 7raiS-o-rptj3nc, one that educates chiU 346 APPENDIX TO THE ETYMOLOGY. dren, lyOv-o-moX^. a fish-monger, aw^aT-o-^vXa'i, a body-guard, §aK-k-%fioq (from ZAkv*), root cW), heart-gnawing, tz\z-g-$o{joq, bringing to an end, \v-Gi-f±z\yiQ, limb-relaxing, irav-ai-yokoq, rage-ap- peasing. Note 1 . The o is used for connection, when the first member of the compound is a noun, s and o-i, when it is a verb, as appears from the adduced examples. 4. As occurring only in composition must be observed the particle iXog o to. ayaSa GVfnrpaTTfsJV Kat, twv Trovrjpidjv airoTpk- 7ro)v. — rag yjdovag Srjpeve Tag juera $6%r}g, — oyirXiog rig av^!poJ7rog, or av^pioirog Tig Gy^erXiog. 3. When a substantive is used for the designa- tion of a general specific idea, the Greeks add the article only in those cases where the idea is to be rendered emphatically prominent either in and by itself or in opposition to another ; the article is else wanting ; e. g. ttoXs^oc ovk iariv avzv kivSvvwv, war is not free from dangers. — 6 iroXtfxog ovk avzv Kivdvvkjv, 7] Sc apjivi] aKLvSwog (the article on account of the opposition of war and peace.) (4) In proper names the article stands in Greek either (a) as a demonstrative, which is almost in- variably the case with Homer, or (b) to indicate that the object is known generally or already mentioned in the preceding. But the article must always be omitted before a proper name, when an additional substantive with the article is subjoined to the same for nearer definition. OvvtKa tov Xpvariv r)Ti(JL7](i apY}Tr)pa ATpaSrje, (that Chryses, the known).— -i) 8' vrm to irp\v jutv ovatWo OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. 351 tpyov aeiKEg &a K\vTaifxvr}6q povoq ttXovgioq (tart). — to KaXov Srjpeue. — TtOV KaK(t)V 7rX£lW £(7Tt KCITO. TOV |3tOV, 7J TWV CLya%U)V. TO Iv avSpw7roic KaKov (the evil, wickedness of men.) — to, kv av%>w7roic fca/ca (the ills, sufferings in the world). 352 SYNTAX. 7. (4)* The article in Greek appears alone, that is without a subjoined substantive, in the following cases : (a) When a substantive already- named would have to be repeated ; (b) when the idea of the substantive assigns a general relation or a reference easy to be supplied from the con- text. Such substantives are : condition, situation, affairs, relations, circumstances, events (irpayp.ara), things, goods, property (^rj/uara) ? house, home, country (oikoq, yuga), men, persons, relatives, friends, dependents, companions, subjects (avSpw- ttoi); son, daughter (ylog, rralg, %yarrjp); road (o£>oc)j day, time (y/utpa, y^povog). Merpia rj 0£w SovXeia, ajiizrpog $£ 7} rotg av^puiroig. — - 01 7ToX£jLtlOt KCU TY\V TlflETZpClV §VVClfAlV (jtofSoVVTCtl, Kdl rr\V rh)v GVfXjjLa^tov . — AXt£av(!)pog, o iXi7T7rov (ylog), Kapra £7roX£^ui7(7£. — FjpprjQ, o M.alag (ylog), rr\g ' ArXavrog (3v- yarpog), Sta/covarat rolg %zolg. — zKaarog rig aTro^rj^rjaag ofiurai irepl rwv ot/cot (jrpayp.anov), — K\y)povop.og rwv warpwwv (yjpi)ixarii)v),- — ra y]fxkrzpa (y^pfifxara) fxiKpa loriv. — Trop£V£t riva, ot irspi riva, ol avv nvi 9 ot juera rivog, the surrounding compa- nions, dependents, friends^ assistants of any one. — to. irapa nvog, the accounts, commands, gifts of one. — ra 7rp6g riva, the relations towards one. — ra 7T£ot n or ra Kara ft, the circumstances, events of a thing.— r« rfc aptrrig, the nature of virtue, virtue in its whole compass;— re* r^g rvyyg, the course of fortune. OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. 353 Note 1. This last mentioned mode of expression is not unfre- quently used in Greek as an emphatical paraphrase of a simple substantive ; e. g. ol 7repl tov &r)fioa$EVT], Demosthenes with his party. — ot xepl tov $i\nnroi>, Philip and his power. — rd tov xo- Xd/jLov, war and its concomitants. 8. The article is also added, when the substan- tive is accompanied by a pronoun, in the follow- ing cases : (a) It is used with the demonstratives ovtoq and zkuvoq, in which case the pronoun either pre- cedes the article or follows the substantive ; e. g. ovtoq o avrjp or o avrjp ovtoq (not o ouroc avr/p). — De- monstratives from the correlative series (§ 59) can also be placed in the middle between the article and substantive ; e. g. towvtoq o aviip, or o toiovtoq avrip. — Toaavrri rj SvvapiQ, 01' t) roaavTr) ZvvafiiQ, (b) In possessive pronouns the addition of the article, though not necessary, is however usual, the possessive being placed in the middle between the article and substantive ; ,e* g> o goq SovXoq airtdpa. — tjuoc vloQ (a son of mine). — o z/j.6q v16q (my son, the definite, who is already known from the context, or my only son). (c) In 7rac, Travyrjv erpajrovro, oi $£ tfiuvav. — nov arparuoruv oi ju £ v tKvfitvov, ol § c ettivov, ot <8 £ f yujuva^ovro. — T O V £ jU £ v cinnrEij tou? o £/coXo^£v. § 99. (100.) PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 1. The definite pronoun avrog, avrfi, avro, is used in a threefold sense : (a) when it is joined to personal pronouns of the two first persons or to the third person of a verb, or is combined with a noun, it signifies self, and stands either before the article or after both the article and noun, (b) In combination with the article, o avrog, it signifies : the same, the very same, (c) If its oblique cases (1) If we have made sure of this, it will then be possible also to consider in what manner one may punish him ; where the whole proposition riva rpoirov TijKopijarerai rig etcelvoy is formed as it were into a single substantive idea by the addition of the article rov, a a 2 356 SYNTAX. are used in reference to a preceding noun, they are to be rendered, in English, by : him, to him, her, to her, it, &c. O TraTijp av to g ecjioj3ri%. — jiiaXXov tovto (pofiov/mai rj tov Xavarov avr 6 v. — a v t o g o c&A^oc irvipk jj,e. — a v r o g eyr].— £yw a v r o g tKAavaa. — a v r £VT£g, Kai ev tij a v t ij oiKia av^SlavTsg, Kai vtfo tCjv av t w v yovicjv ayaTra^ievoi, Kai tt\v avTriv j.ir\Tkpa Kai tov avTov iraTtpa wpocrayopzvovTzg, ttwc ov irav- TWV OVTOl OlKUOTCtTOl \ — 01 TltpGai Kai a\)TOl (2) eg ixayjiv aTa£ ) avTO.'-—aXXa Kai rj/uug avTOi ToXfirjcTo/xev. Note 1 . In the signification of the oblique cases of avrog ad- duced under c, Homer generally andthe other poets frequently use the requisite cases of the third personal pronoun. Fre- quently also no pronoun is found for the designation of a re- ference so near and so easy to be understood from the context. Aae prr)v ovkItl cpaal ttoXiv^e (3) ep^ccr^, aXX d7rdv£v$£r ett dypov Tn'ifiara -KaayEiVy ypr\i (4) aw djui(pL7r6\o), ij ol (for abrujy fipioaiv re Ttoffiv re TrapriSel (5), evr av jitv (for avTov) icd/iarog Kara yvla \d{3rjpa ttXugtci Xafiiov o Kvpoc ravra navra roie tpiXoig dizdi^ov, Kai ocra tlo ai'ofjiaTi avrov kogjaov irkfxiroi Tig, tcai tteoi tovtwv Xiytiv avrov sfyaaav, on to julv € av t ov awfia ovk av Svvairo tovtoiq iraai /coffurjerae) {piXovg 3s KaXhjg /C£/cog^i?7U£vovc ME-yicrrov /cocruov avSpt VOfUt'Coi. Note 2. Instead of the genitive of personal pronouns the dative also is used for possessives, in the elder language gene- rally, by the poets of all periods frequently, and by the Attic prose writers chiefly in tyiXog, E-%$p6g, TroXe/JLiog, avfXfjLa^og and similar adjectives formed into substantives. MtfripL fioi fiprjffriipeg e7re\paov ovk e^eXovctt], — oarffe ()£ ot Ttvpl XafXTTETOLOVTL k'iKTT}V (l). XeIKTCTETE ydp TOyE TTCIVTEQ, 6 jlOL yipag IpyETai aXXr). — ol ij jj.T v Gv^aypL a(biKvovvrai iroXXrj rfj Svvd/JLEi. — ov irdvTag tovq ovk evvovq kySpovg a o t t)e! vofii^Etv. Kupog fXEv diri^avE fjta^6/.iEvog to) acJtX^' 'Apra7ra'rr/c $£, 6 tvmt- TOTaTog av t m tlov aKYjiTTOvyjav •S'fpaVw^, Xeyercu, E7r£i$rj Eifie TTETTTUKOTO. KvpOV, KaTaTT7]C{] Tpwtuv svek 7]\v$ov (2) aiyjiY\T dd)v (3) Sfupo fxayj\GOfX£Vog. — r)X$ov l*ya> iravGovGa to gov fuiivog ovpavoSzv. (In the two last examples, adduced from Homer, the pronoun evidently stands without particular emphasis). 5. The indefinite pronoun ng frequently ex- presses in general our English one, or every one. Tloi r £ g rpexpErai ; — -\sysTU) rig irepi avTOV tovtov, y yiyvMGKti. — Kai r i g oiKiav avaTrXacracrS'w,— -avSpwirov civai>Epov ovk av t i g tvpoi. 6. Relative pronouns are regulated in respect to gender and number by the noun, to which they refer, but in respect to case by the verb of the proposition, to which they belong. 0\)TOg £GTIV O aVT]p, O V £lO*£g.——fltT£<$(x)K£V f)fUV TTaVTWV, o g a 7rapr)v. — (2) Epic for 7i\dov.— (3) Epic for aixM T< **v° 2 360 SYNTAX. must often be placed before the demonstrative, namely when it contains the more important idea. OvTog IffTiv, ov ti^ec; avSpa. — ovk zyw, mtivi iTKTTtvaai av §vvalfxr\v i A to. — o v av yvwai Svvajuzvov jutv yapiv aTro(!>i$avai, jultj arro^'i^ovTa §c, Ko\a£ovcn Kal tovtov icryvpiog. 8. (§ 127. 3—6). A peculiar construction in the use of the Greek relative consists in what is termed attraction. Thus when a relative should stand in the accusative on account of the verb connected with it, but the noun to which it refers stands in the genitive or dative, and is not accom- panied by a demonstrative pronoun, the relative is then put in the same case with the noun. MeracuStoC avrio rov gitov, o v it e p avrog tyziQ. — * tv TrpoGcpiptTdi roig fyiXoic, o i c £ X a * — Xpwpara avv T0L ^ Srja-aupoic, oig o 7rar?)o KartXiirtv, \ariv, ug apyvpiov AoyiGZEvra, TaXavra tt\uio twv tokj^iXkov.- — avri riov TTEvrriKovra ra\avT(s)v } w v ztyzpzg ^aajiiov, SiTrAatna Kwa£;a- pei airo^og. 9. This attraction of the relative occurs the most frequently, when it refers to demonstrative pronouns which stand unaccompanied by a sub- stantive for the designation of general ideas. In this case the demonstrative pronoun is usually omitted, although perspicuity and energy fre- quently render it necessary to be retained, espe- cially when the relative proposition precedes the demonstrative. Transposition in the relative also* OF THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 361 of which mention has been made above (7), is not unusual in attraction. Ovketi eywys ttigtzviji) o i g (1) aTCOKpivofiai. — w v (2) iKTrjaa^v ovSlv oi§a, on ov Sifo-oKxap/v. — ov£>£ vvv ri\v y Ejurjv ipv^rjv kuparz, aXX o I g (3) c\£7rparT£ro, TOuToig avTTjV wg ovaav KaT£(t)(i)paT£, — o i g av oi aAAOi £pyaL,wvrai, tovtoiq av \prjGTg. — zl^zTrXayr) scat paGiXevg tt\ e^oow tov GTpaTSvuaTog* foYjXwfff $£ rovro ol g (4) rr? VGTeoaia £7rparr£.' — fVfXaSov ri w v £j3oi/Xou £i:r£iv j — rwvoe yap )(apiv Kal Sevo' (5) £j3ftyi£V, w v oS* s^ayyEXXfrai. — /3ov- Xot/xqv av v^ac. /cat rovro /caravofjo-at, on rovrwv, wv vvv v^uiv 7rapa/C£X£V0juai, ov&£v ro/c. SouXoic. TrpoGTaTTO), a $ v^uag i\oig EiriXiyujv, Seircu gov rovrov £/C7ri£iv Tiifxepov gvv olg (6) juaXiora (piXeig, Note 4. Examples are more rare, in which attraction takes place when the preceding demonstrative is combined with a sub- stantive ; e, g. t'nrep ely] ttov r/ ipv^f/ /caS - ' kavTijv ^vvrjS'poiffiJ.evi] Kal d7rr)Xkayn£vt] tovtiov tojv KaKtov, (ov (tv vvv Sirj\$£Q, iroXXi] av eXttIq eirj Kal KaXr), ujq dXrj^fj iariv a x a P'~ aaio. — eialv 01 Xeyovaiv. — eittote Kvpog Tropevoiro Kai TrXelffrot [xiX- \oiev bxjsear-jcu, irpoffKaXwv rovg (f)iXovg eaTrovbaioXoyelro, a>g ^rjXoirj ovg rifxaatv, bpqv e^rj rovg iroXXovg obfo o-triog Krrjaovrat, (f>povri£ovTag. — r't dnoXavaatg av Trig dp^rjg, el fxovog dpoipog e'irjg eariag, o v ovre baiwrepov \ioplov ev dv$pe7, bg (4) av, bpwv rovg (piXovg tL ) a , KaT^fxivovg i ju?) £7rtrp£7T?/. Xephon. Hellen. I. 3. 51. (1) For on vvai). 3. With the subject, as the most important COMBINATION OF SUBJ. WITH PRED. & COP. 365 part of a proposition, the two other parts must agree in external form ; hence the copula stands in the same number with the subject, and the predicate in the same number and case, and, when it is designated by an adjective or partici- ple, also in the same gender. O K.vpog paaiXevg r\v 7TQ(otoq twv Tlspawv, — to tiov Uepawv cSvoc fia^i/uwraTOv Kal av^puoTarov tv. — r) gov ZvyaTrip Ka\r) kari Kal aya%rj* — ol av%p. — Tva rijg taScipag evperijv dvayo- pevovan. — \p6vog diicaiov dvcpa heiKWGLv fxovog' kcucov 3e kclv ev fipzpa yvoirjg [u<£. — 6 Hvpog Xeyerat yeviarSat Trdig IvafifiiHrov. Note 3. (§ 102. 5.) Frequently also the subject and predicate stand together without a copula, which in Greek is suppressed in all places where its absence does not offend against perspicuity. "EXXtjv eyio (efyu'). — rd ti5v io $vo fxutv icaO' iifikpav fiopov koivov Kareip- yaaavro. — -ffcjxpv § evo^oir} Ztuc? tczS u reXeire fioi Zavovri jiiez eaz e c tjojj, yaipzrov t , ov yap p. tTi pA£- ttovt I a 6\p e (7 ^ avSig. (f) With substantives of the feminine gender when they stand in the dual, attributives (ad- jectives, participles and articles) are frequently found in the masculine form, because the dual, as unnecessary, did not possess a complete for- mation for all words. AfJL(j)lO TOVTU) rw 7To\££. $VO ywaiKt Epi£oVTE, TW 5. If two or more subjects occur in one pro- position, the common predicate and the copula either stand in the plural, or determine their ex- ternal form by the subject which is next them, or, if the subjects designate inanimate objects, the predicate stands in the neuter plural. APPOSITION. 369 'RffT p clti] y 1 1 twv v£wv 'A p i ff r £ v c, /cai KaA- Xt/cpaTije, /cat Tt/uavwp. rtva tVtovv/uav £X £,t 1 7T 7T i a c /cat IlspiavSpoc ; — a viffTaro £/c tow ctvu- ttogiov o T/juap^oc /cat o $> i\r\ (Xb)V> U7r o kt e- vovvreg Nt/aav. — aj3ej3ata (fffrt) /cat ttXowoc, *<" §6%a, /cat Tifxr}. — /cat tyw /cat cru 7roXXa Stj tov apkaKUV ev&ca ty) 7roXet /cat e '/ ir o ju £»v teat €7rpac;ajusi'. § 101. (110). APPOSITION. 1. The predicate attributed to a subject either appears as a property connected with it and is united by the copula, or it declares the nature of the subject independently and is then sub- joined without a copula ; e. g. Socrates was wise, — Socrates, the wise, — This latter mode of attach- ing the predicate is called apposition, and the word which forms it must stand in the same case with the subject. KfNHffoc, Auowv jScktiXeijc, a7TEj3aXE Trjv apyjjv. — 2a>- Kparriv, tov ov, awzKTUvav ot AStyvaibi. — apex?), fii- yioTOv twv Sewv Sujqov, Seta lart /cat aSavaroc.- — 2/cuSatj jSap/Bapov to k$voe ? av&p£ioi ho* /cat fJ.ayip.oi. 2. An apposition can also be subjoined to per- sonal and demonstrative pronouns, and it occurs in Greek even when the personal pronoun is not expressed but is contained only in the verbal form, b b 370 SYNTAX. E/CHVOU, TQV CTO^lffTOU, TTCIVTSQ KctTaytXioGi, r}fAUQ 9 ot Ta\anr(Dpoi, aTToXwXafJLev. — 01 (azv AXkju^vtjc, /cat 2^ueX*?c uiot £ua>vovvrcu a<£oovric£C* o c£ Maiac ttjc ArXavr/c\>c <$iaKovovf*ai avroiq (1). 3. Even possessive pronouns frequently ex- perience apposition, which however always stands in the genitive, because the relation of the genitive is expressed in the possessive (§ 108. I. 1.). The English language instead of this apposition makes use of an ejaculatory proposition, by a repetition of the subject which is indicated in the posses- sive pronoun. Aiapira'Covcn to, e/ma r ov k a ko§ a t pov o g (2). — - ra/uia Svgtjivov /ca/ccL — airirz £

v (3) yjopav. § 102. (103). OBJECT. 1. That which is declared in the predicate denotes either a mere condition of the subject, in which it is conceived by itself without connection with other objects, or an action by which the subject stands in connection with and relation to others. 2. The object to which the action proceeding from a subject is directed, is called proximate, (1) The apposition 6 Maiag (vlog) refers to the £yu contained in dtaKrovfxai.— (2) Wretched that I am !— ~ (3) Ye barbarians ! 10 ILLUSTR. OF THE REL. DESIG. BY THE CASES. 371 when it is acted upon immediately, and remote when it only participates in the operation with- out being immediately affected by it. 3. This object is always designated by an ob- lique case, the proximate usually standing in the accusative, the remote frequently in the dative. § 103. ILLUSTRATION OF THE RELATIONS DESIGNATED BY THE CASES. 1. Every object is considered generally in a 'two-fold respect : (a) as an object by itself, or individual whole without combination or contact with other things ; (b) as a member of a greater whole and so far standing in combination with and relation to other objects. 2. The object which is considered individually we designate by a definite appellation and use the same unchanged in all eases where we speak of this object as an individual thing. This is the primitive form of the noun — the nominative. 3. If we consider an object in its combination with and relation to others, one only can be adduced as independent and with an unchanged appellation, while the others admit only of being represented as dependent and standing in re- lation to the same. This dependence is designa- b b 2 372 SYNTAX. ted by a change of the primitive form of the noun, which we denominate a dependent or oblique case. 4. The oblique cases therefore denote the re- lations of things to each other These relations, which taken singly are innumerable, may all be reduced to two principal classes 'f (a) combination in a quiescent state: (b) combination in an active state. 5. Combination in a quiescent state is either internal and essential, which is designated by the genitive ; or external and contingent, which is de- signated by the ablative. 6. In the combination in an active state one object operates and exerts a power upon another,, This operation however is either immediate so as to move and change the other object — relation of the accusative; or mediate, so that the other object does not itself receive the same but only parti- cipates therein— relation of the dative. 7. The use of a case must be determined by the relation which it indicates and the cases themselves arranged according to the two given principal classes of relation. Hence if we proceed from the active relation, the natural order of the cases is : accusative, dative, genitive (ablative), in which we shall here treat them. USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 373 § 104. USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 1 . The accusative stands in Greek with tran- sitive verbs (i. e. those which express an action immediately operating upon an object), and as- signs the proximate object in answer to the ques- tion, whom ? or what ? Oi f EAArjvee hviKiqaav r ov g Ylkpa a g. — oarig p.rj ko~ Xcl'Cei t a 7ra$77, avrog vtt avrtjv KoXaferai. — QrfGEvg ty]v ApiaSvrivEv Na£w kclteXittev. — oi Stoi ovte ffi- T OV E($OV(TlV, OVTE TTLVOVGIV OIVOV. 2. Other verbs also, which in the Latin and some modern languages frequently take the object in the dative or are connected with it by a prepo- sition, require the accusative in Greek. Such are : (a) Verbs signifying to benefit (oj^eXeIv, ovivag- Sai), to hurt (fiXtnrTuv), and in general all which denote an action, tending to the advantage or disadvantage of a person ; consequently to do good or evil to, (ev, KaXiLg, Kaiciog iroiuv, EVEpysrEiv, kciko- ttoielv), tO Speak well or ill of (eu, KctKtog XtyEiv), to injure (aSucuv), to take revenge upon (ri/JLtapuaSai) ; to render services, when the service implies support Or protection (^EpaiTEVEiv, SopvfyopE'iv, ETriTpoTTtveiv), to Jlatter (koXclkeveiv, Swtteveiv.^) O KoXaK ev wv tov g (j>iXov g TroXXa a § i k e i Kai pXa 7TT ei avr ov g. — o ^(jJKparrjg oicaaKwv 7rAacrra w eXt}g £ roue ffwovrag.— Wp£? ayazoi d>

o(3eiiXog yev£a£lai. 3. The accusative also occurs in Greek with intransitive verbs, when the object which receives the action contained in the verb is definitely as- signed. This takes place chiefly in the two following cases : (a) In verbs signifying to go, to come, to reach, to arrive, or in general any motion, the object into, over or through which the motion extends, is put in the accusative, while in English it is usually joined to these verbs by means of a preposition. USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 375 ''Ore §rj rrjv vijgov a l k e r o, fiirupQvSe ( 1 ) ?/i£v (2), o(ppa /aiya GTrioq'iKero, rw \vi Nvju^ij vaiev. Hom. Od. 5.55 ff. — ^vaer (3) 'A^aiwv t'Svoc, £-y£ip£ §£ (jiwra f/cacrrov. Hom. II. 17. 552. 7ropeve(i%i Or zXSeilv oSqv. — ou cWarov £(m § i a /3 a t v e i v rov ttot a fxov, a pj vriyofievov. — w £ayoi, nveg egte ; 7ro- Sev 7rXaS' v y p a k£\ ev% a. Note 2. In the verbs to cowze, to advance, to arrive, the accusa- tive stands without a preposition, only when the particular point, at which one arrives or will arrive, is accurately and definitely assigned. Also the use of the accusative without a preposition in these verbs belongs more properly to the poets, particularly to the Epic writers, while in prose a preposition is usually subjoined, as in English, (b) Instead of general expressions, indicating existence in a state or occupation in an action, the Greeks make choice of a verb, which contains the same idea, and is usually of the same origin with the substantive and therefore designates the existing state more nearly and definitely. This verb, although intransitive, always takes the ac- cusative. Kiv3uv£vv) SeSiwc kqi rp£jii(ov. — tpavsputg tov tt 6Xz fiov it o- X gjU-TJ iivvvvai, eicSvuv), to take away, to rob, to deprive (a^aijoacrScu, Grepzlv, awoGTe- puv), to conceal, to keep secret (Kpvirruv, kpvttteg%i, aTTOKpVTTTZG^ai), ' Att avr a q kv o'ikm s'/pero t o v tt a i § a. — vvv §rj E/uie 7roXXoe ot/cerat gItov a'tTOVGi, 7roXXoi §e l/ua-* r la.—o Kvpoq rjptJTa tovq avr o fioXov q t a TMV ttoX^lwojv. — ov TTpaTTOjULai de XpV fiar a. — tov p'- v o v fxot scai (j>i\o v TTctiSa a <£ £ i X £ r o tt)v ^vy^riv. — o ^tJKpaTYiQ t ov q fx a S rj t a q £ S i $ a £ £ rrjv aw- <$> poG vv r\ v. — Tcaiq fieyaq, fiucpov £^wv yjTiova, £ r epov tt a i S a julik p o v, fikyav tyovra yjLTwva, k k$v g aq au- r o v, rov pkv kavrov k k £ r v ov tj jlkJ) le g e, tov &£ ekelvov avToq kvk^v. — 7r o X X a k a k a ei ir ev avSpw- 7T O V C. 7}V T I G £ £ y to (pdVW K a K O V 7T £ 7T O I 7] K to q, ojULoXoyto a^iKeiv, — tc clk a ir oWa zo p y z T p to a q. — r a £ Gy^ar a £ X £ y o v aXXrjXov q. — o ynsjpyoq, o re tpOlO, GV$£V O Tl (IV G£ CL 7T O K p V 1p (l I 7 O OTTOJq £7TOirj(T£V e - — ov g e k p vip to r r)v Efxrvv y vu> jultj v. Note 3. With these verbs an accusative remains also in the passive, namely the accusative of the thing ; e. g. efiol ariveiv Trapean, ttKovtov 7rarpu>ou ktT]o>iv kareprffxivrf. Note 4. As an exception from the given construction must be noticed the verb 3e7c$at, to beg, which on account of its primi- tive signification, to need, takes the genitive. (Comp. § 108. 1. 4. a.) USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 377 5. Verbs signifying, to call, to appoint, to choose, to make, to account, to consider, or regard, have in the active a double accusative, because the notion of the verb extends to the object and to the property ascribed thereto at the same time. These verbs take in the passive a double nomina- tive (see § 100. Note 1.) Sojuffnjv ovojxaCovai tov avSpa tovt o v. — ol 7To\ejj,LOL tov g ' AS r\ v a l o v q uXovto pog r\v r rj v irarpiSa. — Av$6g fart to y iv o g. — tyvvai o Kvpog XiytTcu e id o g fmlv KaWictTog, ipv^riv §£ ^iXav^pdyiroTaTog. — o Ma£>- avag TTorafiog hkogi /cat irevre wodag c^ti to ev p o g, — evict tiov (j>a\ayyi(t)v ouo r/jtiiwjSoXiata to jxk y zx 6 g £(TTL. TO §£V$pOV TTZVTrjKQVTCl TTO^lOV £(7Tl TO VlpOg, Note 6. The accusative of nearer definition, if rightly consi- dered, is nothing more than an accusative of the object. The difference of the Greek and English idioms, however, depends upon a fundamental difference in the mode according to which (1) Three accusatives of the object, all dependent upon vin)- \v$e, which takes Tpwac as the general object, 'UaaTov as a strengthening appendage, and yu7a as a nearer designation of the part where the terror is shown. USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 379 the things are viewed. Thus the Greek conceives the state and property as independent and as operating upon the object, and therefore uses the accusative (as a designation of the object.) The English, on the contrary, conceives the connection of both with the object as accidental and expresses this by prepositions ; e. g. Kafivh} rovg o0£a\juov£, / have a disorder (which is shown J in the eyes. Note 7. In many constructions and phrases the accusative is evidently elliptical and to be regarded as the effect of an over- strained brevity of expression ; e. g. 6/j.wjjit Tcavraq Seovq, I swear by all gods (where the participle TrpoQKakovfievoq may be supplied). 8. Those verbs also, which are always con- nected with another case, stand nevertheless in the accusative, when a pronoun or some other general expression supplies the place of a specific definition. 'Q ayaSe, jur/ ayvoH aeavrov, jul^e a/utapTave, a ol ttXeigtoi afxapravovai (1). — f^l coKiofiev cpiovrzg a v 7]ow~ jULE^Sa ovk avTiTicjuv av^Jig a v XvirCjfAE^a (2), 9. Lastly, the accusative stands also in defini- tions of time and place to the questions, how long? how far ? MktSov vfiiv Swgid TrXziova ?j vvv aXajuifiavzTE, o i\ov or elg SiSaaKaXov (supply okiav.) Note 10. '£2c, to, is properly not a preposition but a particle, which is frequently joined with prepositions signifying direction towards a point, to indicate that the idea of the preposition must not be taken in a strict and definite sense ; e. g. u>g 7rp6g, (Jg elg, as towards, as to, i. e. towards, to. By reason of this frequent combination with prepositions &ia ^WfULaTtt 7TOl7TVVOVTa. Horn. II. 1. 599. f. Kara, denotes extension over a thing, also inde- finite proximity, and lastly, correspondence, or suitableness ; hence, at, on, in, with, near, about, for, to, against ; with regard to, after the likeness of, according to. Tlov rjciov Apteral h kcit aypov ;—- ot Tag Tvfivi\aiag VJ)aovg tvoiKOvvTtg yvfxvoi f/3/axxav Kara tt/v tov %£povg wpav. — Kara tov kcito. Kpotaov yrpovov ol 27rapTiarai fc«- 382 SYNTAX. SwireprEpoi Ty TToXe/jLto hyzyovzvav rwv Teysarwv. — ^v Kara vovv Trpa^wfizv, \arai i) a<[>o<$og aaa\f)g. — ra. Tlvprj- vaia hpr\ Kara to vipog kcil Kara to jjiey&oc vTrapya c\a- opa T(s)V aAXcov. — paGiXzvg tuv /isAicrcwv V0[xo3£tu Kara rovg fxtyaXovg apyovrag. — eSo&v avrto irpoi and Hepl, about, around, round about, at, with, near ; in reference to, with regard to, towards, about. 'Opwv o-£ afxcj)' 'irnrovg tyovra (1), aju(j> apfxara, a{i<$>i fjLtjyavag (2), 7}yovjar}v, sttel ano rovrov eyoXavaig, tote Kal a^i(j> £/u£ (3) V£uv gjo\j\v .—~tu)v avfxfxayjjjv dir&avov afityi (4) rovg pvpiovg Kai rpiayiXiovg. — zu)pa£, Tnpi ra xrrepva ap/no£ii>v tKavrio \arai. — rrspi jusaag vvKrag. — KaKi- ovg ucrl irzpi r\fxag (5), i) -ti/xeig irtpl sKuvovg. — ol dju(j)i nva, ot irepi rwa (the companions, associates, (1) e^eiv dfji(j)i ri, to be about something, L e. to be occupied with it — (2) Engines of war. — (3) For me, in order to have^ in- tercourse with me. — (4) Nearly s about. — (5) slvai irepi nva, to behave to one, act towards one. USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 383 friends, dependents of any one) tcl irepl tyiv iroXiv (the relations of the state). "Em, upon, towards, to, over, with, among ; until, unto, to, up to; against, for, after (to express the aim). — ' Kvafia'ivuv £$' 'ittttov. — levai tirl rove ttoXb/uliovq. KXlV£LV £7T£ TO ^LipOV . £7Tl Svo (TTaSia (tWO Stadia wide) zwiTpuQ fyizpaq (for three days, three days long).— irkfiTTuv £7rt xpw aTa ( to sen d for money). — £7rl ri ; (for what ? why ?) Mera after (post and ad.) lionet av%p(t)7TOQ vvicto. juiz% i]Xiov, /cat Xipbv fiera Kopov. — o Kjooicroc ^irtyzv kv SapcWi, ttoXei ry irXovcntoTary tu)v kv Tig Agio. pzTa Baj3vAwva. — ttXuv fxera ^aX^ov (to sail after brass, that is, in order to fetch brass).— petf vfjikpav (after break of day, that is, by day.) — jusTaTpiTriv fjfispav (within three days). Uapa, (I) by, to, near, beside, at. (2) by the side of, alongside, along, by, past ; hence (a) of time : during, in; and through (to denote the means, when the circumstances are assigned through which something is effected), (b) in comparison with (held beside or near to) ; for, the same as (so that it stretches alongside something, has the same extent or value.) (c) past, beyond, above, besides, against, contrary to. H o^bq Trap avTO to Tuyoq (f>£pu.— Trap oXov t6v j3iov TOVTO fSlWsCt. \(D{IZV TTUpa TO.Q VaVQ, TTCipa TTjV 7TOGIV yyyaXXovTO. — ^iXiTnrog ov irapa (1) ttjv avTOV pwfxrjv (1) While his strength lasted, i. e. under the influence of his strength, through or by his strength. 384 SYNTAX. togovtov £7rr)v%,tiTai 9 ogov napa rrjv twv ASrjvm'wv a^itXaav. —irapa yvwjurjv (contrary to expectation). — irapa Svva/xiv (beyond the power), — trapa tovq aXXovg (above or more than the rest). — napa ttjv vaiv (against nature.) Tlpog, Epic 7ron, to, in the direction of, towards ; in respect to, in inference to ; in comparison with, in proportion to, according to ; for, on account of (to assign the object or aim). YIogt} o$oq irpoq warepa tov gov \ — gkottute to. vjuiETEp ctuTGJV irpog ra twv c*XXo>v avSpwTrwv. — ra> yjpvGu Kara" ^ptovrai irpoQ KOGfiov. — ra irpog tov iroXsfxov (the things belonging or relating to war, preparations, prac- tices of war).— 7rpbg (j>i\lav (friendlily).— 7r/)oc -n^ov^v (gladly). *Ytt6, under, (sub.) about, towards (to assign ap- proximation in point of time). YlTo' f I\lOV TjX^OV Ot 'EXXl]V£C.™-V7TO TOV GLVTOV y^pOVOV, —wo vvicTa (at nightfall.) Use of the Dative. § 105. (107). SIMPLE USE OF THE DATIVE. 1 . The dative serves to designate the more re- mote object, that is, it designates the object which merely participates in an operation without USE OF THE DATIVE. 385 being immediately affected by it, or in which the effect or consequence of an action is shown. 2. The dative stands in answer to the questions to whom or what 1 for whom or what ? to whose advan- tage ? to whose disadvantage ? ESw/ca (to i to j3ij3Aiov. — '£7r£or3e fx o t, id 7raiceg. — eiriTarro) cot tcl fikXriGTa 7roarr£iv. — v fi i v ukotojq SVVOVQ UfJLl. S £ O l C T£ KCll CL V S O U) IT O I Q CLQZGKti aVY]0 KaXog KayaSoc— £ jul o I fihv iroXkfxioi 'AffffUjOioi, a o i Se vvv k^lioveg uaiv, r) £ fxo L — £*yw jii£V (j>iXog i\v £ k £ t v (o wg juaXiarra.— o rt av tovtcov KciTcnrpaZyg kcli goi KctXov serai, /cat Ty it 6 X £ i ayaSov. — o ^wKparrig kul irai^uv Kai GTrov^a'C^v sXvcriTiXti t oiq ffuvSiarpi (5 ov (1) fiy fioi warepag 7roS' ofiolrj evSeo rifirj. Horn. II. 4. 410. — 'Odvaaevg krvtyXwai jjle KaStvdovra, HoXvtyrjfiog (hr/ai npog (1) Therefore. C C 386 SYNTAX. Toy 7rciTEpa, Kal aV ekeIvov tv(J)\uq Etfii cot, u) Kapra \yaipov. — o ^wKpaTrjg woXXaKig <$ i eX £y et o r o i c. t £ % v it ai g, — £ upv- t a i it a g i 3 £ o i c, yev£G%ai ttote Kai tavTOvg tiridu^ai, OTl 7TIGT01 HCTIV. Note 3. As exceptions must be noticed the adverbs TrXYjaiov, TriXag and iyyvg, together with the verbs derived from them, as ifkriaia^Eiv, 7rpoo - 7re\a^f<7-9'at, EfX7r£\d£E% ovtir e r o v r o) tt)q Swapzug (2). — tl ^ a \ £ 7T a i v £ t c tw XtpairovTi', Note 4. As exceptions are to be noticed aiTiaaSai and Karr\- yopeiv, to accuse, the former of which always takes the accusative and the latter the genitive. 5. Words implying equality, resemblance, suit- ableness, or the contrary have in Greek the dative. 'H SsaTroiva o/uLolav t alg SovXaig ei^e tk]V £c- Srjra. — vfiuq ravavria 7Tparr£T£ £ K € i v 6 i C« — ° o"tSi|- pog iffoi rovg aazzvag kv rio TroXi/au) roig icry^v- po~tg. — X^P lv Gm £ X W irXtHTTriv, on rovg 7roXXovg OjUO- yviofiovaq f] jjliv kirolriaag, — tov (piXov rijuwcri £ S Iffou rw it ar p c. — oi aXXoi rwv IvSwv r o i c B a fc- r plo ig 7rapaTrXr}(Tiav i^ovcn Btalfctv, — S o u X to i o i k a g. Note 5. In like manner the dative stands also with 6 av-oc, because it expresses perfect equality. 'Ev rw avrS Kir^vvtp to~lq (pavXorciroiQ aliopov/xcu. — ru)v avTwv 'ipyiov tKeivotg £7n^vfjL0Vfiev. — ov tcjv avriov, ovre kpyiov, ovte \6yu)v karlv fj peorrjg rS yi]pa. — w7rXicryLte- voi 7rdvr£Q i)crav ol 7repl top Kvpo v toTq civtoJq Kvpto birXoig. — ol irovrfpol to aTrXovv te kol d\r)$eg to uvto rw f)\i-jio) elvat d'lOVTCLl. (1) That are too willing. — (2) For his power. c c 2 388 SYNTAX. § 106. (108). THE DATIVE FOR THE DESIGNATION OF ABLATIVE RELATIONS. 1. The dative is used also in Greek to assign some other relations, which are expressed in Latin by the ablative, that is, it serves to indicate all definitions which are mentioned incidentally and secondarily to the main object. The dative stands therefore in Greek to assign (a) The means by which and the instrument with which a thing is accomplished. Hence also the verb ^of^ou, to use, to make use of, takes the dative. Totv o (j>% a X ii oiv bpwfxzv. — ev toSfc, on r a v r r? t yj 8 o £ y oloGT u, kfioi re layypwg yapiGaaXai Km Tovg Gvpfxayovg peyaXa w^eXrJcrai. — 7}GTpcnrTZ fxlv ^aXich), tjvSu §£ (poiviKiai naaa r\ Grparia. — tov MaooWiov avrip 27rapnaTrje, bvofxa Kplfxvr)GTog, airoKr'ivvvGi, X i # (o tt\v Kztya\r\v 7rara£ac. — ol ttoXejluoi kj3aXXov Xizoiq Kai £7raiov fx a y^a i p a i g. — LirfSiva (j>i\ov ttoiov, 7rpiv av zZ&TciGyq, TTWQ Kt-ypriTai r o i g irporspoig (piAoig. Note 1. Also in expressing connection and community the Greeks use the dative without a preposition, if the object which performs or suffers any thing with another, does not appear inde- pendent but is subject to the direction of or belongs to the other and is therefore conceived as a means in the hand of the same. The occurrence of this dative without a preposition is the most frequent in conjunction with the pronoun avrog. USE OF THE DATIVE. 389 'Eyw ottvoirjv ay elg rd ttXoicl efifiaiveiv, a avfi/juv Kvpog £017/, firi (1) ijfxdg avralg r alg rpirjpeffi Karahvar]* (b) The motive and cause, where the English use the prepositions from, out of, for, with, in, at, &c. Hence the verbs to rejoice, to be delighted or gratified, to be grieved, to be vexed, to be pleased, or sorry, govern the object by which the feeling is occasioned, in the dative. p o vr) fxar 1 tovto tirpa^av 01 Azyvcuoi. —

awriXSlov, ovk apeXs'ia. — ol AaK^ai/j.6vioL Kapra aX- yovai r ov r io t if) 7T a S e 1, — 7roXXot fxlv air&avov a ir o- 7r X rj £ 1 a, 7roXXoi Z\ clk p ar si a. — ukotwq a o 1 yaipov- aiv 01 AaKzcai/jLOVioi, are TroXXa eiSoti. — ogtiq layvpuq y^pi) fxa a iv i]derai, ev igZi tovto, /cat ca7raviovTa ig\v- puq aviaffdai. — ol ^oXe/unoi ayaXXovrat t y v i K y. — ov§e v tl rouroic fxkya \vwovfi£$a. — r w -yvjivaZ^a^ai /xaXXov f X al p e TleXoirlSag, toi ^ juavS'ttvav o E7ra^uiv(GvSac. (c) The manner and w#?/ in which, or the cir- cumstances under which, a thing takes place. Bia uq ttjv oiKiav eic^X^ov. — iravTCL oWtra/cro, Lgte £lO£Vai tKCKTTOV TY]V tdVTOV \U)paV Kai [X £ T p If) KO.I T O IT If). — aStfiiGTOTzpoi vvv rj TrpoG&zv t av t y (2) yeyivrjVTai .-— o Kvpog ETriweXtia rovro liroiei. (d) The period of time, at which a thing takes place, or during which a thing continues or exists. Qq £V KU)fJL(f) $OKZl 7] TToXlQ TTO.GU UVOl T rj $ £ T 7J VI KT L TplQ tVLKTJGaV T aVT Yf T y T) fXi. o a. (1) p7 depends upon an expression to be understood, such as kpei SaKTvXiov. — rotpS afx^i yvvaiKi ttoXvv yjpovov a\yea k7ra%o[X£v. — tteoi rrj ttoAei (j>o(3zio%ai. En I, upon, on, after (immediate succession). It (1) before the informed, before experienced judges. USE OF THE DATIVE. 391 also signifies dependence or subordination and hence is also used to assign the condition, object, aim, and motive, E^)' VcV>0 ETTEfXTTOV TT\V aO^A^V, ajJOQ ETTL TTJ KE(j>aXy \yovaav. — XpvaavTctQ }xev §rj ovtwq eIttev' avkarr\ £ cV avTio <£>EpavXag. — ewi jSatnAet (1) irav egtlto toiovtov. — Th)V OVTliiV TCL flEV EGTIV E' 7]fXlV (2), TO. § OVK E(j) f)JLUV. — to filv En kfxoi oiyofxaC to S etti goi gegivg/jlcii. — etti 7ro(7w (3) av eSeXoiq tovto TTOLriaai ; — avvEkaflov aVTOV eirl %vaT0). — ty w, E(j>' wte, on condition that, Mcra, among (inter) only in the older language and with the poets. Oioq yap f.i£Ta toigl yspaiTEpOQ Ev^pjjiai Eivai. — gv St TTCLGl fXET aSaVCLTOlGlV CLVaGGELQ. Uapa, with, among, at ; Upog, in, at, to. UavTiov /maXiGTa TifxaTai 17 dpETrj /ecu wapa Seoiq koi Trap dvxp&)TroiQ. — tyiXovq irpog tolq avayKaloiQ koXovjuie- voiq aXXovq KT(s)fXE^a porfilovQ. — irpoc; tovtm (4) oXoq EijLiL — 7rpoc TovToiq, 7TpoQ ^£, besides, moreover ', in addition. 'Ytto, under (sub.) Ytto (dcigiXei Eivai. — to. v7ro tu) ovpavto bvTa. — u^>' ecivtm iroiEiG^ai, to reduce into his power. Note 2. With the poets ava is also used in connection with the dative, in the signf. upon ; e. g. Xpvcrijg fiXSe %clq eiri vrjaQ 'A^a/tov ari\x\xar tywv kv %£p^ XP vff ty ^ LV ^ L ffKrjTrrpa). (1) Depends upon the king. — (2) In our power. — (3) At what price. — (4) I am wholly at this, that is, wholly occupied with this. 392 SYNTAX. Use of the Genitive. § 107. RELATION OF THE GENITIVE. 1. The fundamental relation which the genitive expresses, is (§ 1 03, 5.) that of the essential or im- mediate connection of objects with each other. 2. This fundamental relation of the genitive can be conceived in two ways, namely (a) so that several objects together constitute one whole or are mutually supplementary to each other ; (b) so that one condition arises or is developed out of another. Consequently, the doctrine of the usage of the genitive in Greek resolves itself into two principal divisions, namely, the genitive of supplement, and the genitive for the designation of the cause. § 108. (106 and 107.) GENITIVE OF SUPPLEMENT. The different cases, in which the genitive forms the supplemental idea, must be classed according to a twofold respect, since the relation of essential connection can be conceived not only as subsisting and growing but also as dissolving and ceasing. USE OF THE GENITIVE. 393 1. Relation of essential connection as subsist- ing: L Of two or more objects standing in essential connection with each other, that, to which ano- ther is conceived to belong, requires the genitive. But the part stands in essential connection with the whole, the property with the object, the feel- ing, expression and action with him that feels, expresses and acts, the possession with the pos- sessor, the enclosed with the enclosing and gene- rally the accident with the substance. When therefore a relation of this kind subsists between two substantives one of them appears in Greek in the genitive. H Trjg aperrjg kttigiq \xovr\ (Befiaiog. — tj aperrj KaWiG- rog avzpuTTLJv kcrri KOGfxog. — iroXeuyg ip v X*l 0i vofioi. — r) vcpavXig Krr?(7tj3iov kariv evprjfia. — o SaXoc rrig irarpi^og TrpoooTrjg £ rUviav IVi/xeXaa, care bestowed by the children and upon the children. 2. All words containing the idea of a part take the whole in the genitive. This general rule is exemplified in Greek in the following cases : (a) With superlatives and numerals, as well as with all adj ectives and pronouns, denoting generally 394 SYNTAX. the mere idea of quantity or number, as 7roXuc(much, many), oXlyog (little, few), nvkg, ivioi, ol ^v (some), aXXoi, tTspoi, ol Se (others), 01 aXXoi, 01 XoiTrot (the rest), c/ca(7roc, frag (each), ovSug (no one), the Greeks put the substantive, which designates the class spo- ken of, in the genitive. Other adjectives also re- quire the genitive of the substantive expression, if the property contained in them is not ascribed to a whole class but only to certain individuals of that class ; e. g. good men, ol ^p^oro! rc5v kv^p^irwv (for all are not good), on the contrary mortal men, ol %vi\to\ avSpuyn-oi (for all partake of this property). H fizyiGTr) t u) v v 6 (T b) v avaiSeia. — k t rj fx ar to v 7r a vt d) v TifLUUTdTov £otiv avrjp (jtiXog (JvvtTog re Kai ev- vovg. — 7rp£crj3vrarov r to v ovtwv S £ o g.—-aXXa /uirjv T to v ye £to v r to v c %S p w v ov ttoXXoi plv ottXwv scFTeprjvrai, ttoXXoi &£ 'ittttmv ; — ov$ug r to v EX\?]vwv TOVTO TTOIZU (T£ p,OVOV T to V l X It) V OVSC H$OV, T to V a v § p to v roig KaXoig k aya^oig alptTU)T£pov zgti zaveiv, i] oouXeueiv. — r to v drEKjuiaprijjg £ y^o v r to v otov 'ev£Ka £«rrt, Kai t to v (pavzptjjg ett wftAua o v r to v irorepa Tvyj]g Kai irorepa yvu)fir\g hpya Kplveig Jttt w v tt oX e- fjt, i to v ol (jlIv cnroXtoXaaiv, ol $e ^i£(j>vyov. — airkxavov kv rrf fiayj) r to v fikv o ttXit (o v Staicooioi, r to v o i tt~ TT £ UJ V TTZVTYllCOVTa* (b) Not only the superlative, but verbs also which contain the idea of a superlative, take the genitive. Such verbs are irptoTtvuv, apiarevuv, tcpa- tkttsvuv (to be the first, the most excellent), ap\ziv, jSaaiXeuftv, Kvpuvuv, rvpavvtveiv (to rule), zttigtcituv (to be at the head), i/yuaSat, arpaTYiyuv (to lead), USE OF THE GENITIVE. 395 KpaTuv, tTTiKpciTEiv, TTEpiylvevSai (to become master), riTTa(j%i (to be overcome, to be inferior), §ia£puv, Siawptweiv (to surpass, to be distinguished), and the like. Also the adjectives eyKparrjg and aicpa- tt)q, as related in idea to the above named verbs, are joined with the genitive. Aarvayr)q M f} 8 to v rip^z. — 01 ' KXXrjveq EKparrjaav t w v (3apf5apcuv. — /ecu TOVQ %£OVq COCOVU) £ p (i) r o q WT- TCLG&ai. £ KUVOQ 7 U) V 7) X I K I li) T h) V £KpaTl(JT£VG£V. Xviry vTTtpfidXXei to a$iKUV t ov ao\/C£io£ai. — -au)(j>pov6g earl, kyKparn dvai y a a r p o q Kai a^poStfftwv /cat £7ri$'u|uiwv iraaCiv. Note 2. Some of these verbs besides this usual construction are capable also of other combinations. Thus Kpareiv in the sig- nification to overpower and to hold in general governs the accusa- tive ; e. g. Thucyd. 1. 109, Meyd(3a£oQ rove re Alyv7rriovQ Kal tovq avji}xdypvQ paxy wpdrnae. — Avdcraetv in the signification to command^ to order is joined with the dative, in the signification to be master or lord with the genitive ; e. g, Horn. II. i. 288, icdv- rwv fiey Kparieiv eSiXei, irdvreaai B* avdaaeiv. — 'HyeicrSai in the signification to lead, to be at the head takes the dative, and even apxjEiv and Kpartiv occur in connection with the dative when the idea of commanding rather than of having power predominates. (c) With the verbs ixzrkyziv, fxersari fioi, koivmvsTv (to have a part Or share), /u£raXauj3ai>av, avWafifiavuv, evvepyov eivai (to take a part or share), rvyyavuv, Xayyavuv, Kvpuv, /cXrjpovojuav (to get a part or share, to become partaker, to acquire), (.u-raSiSovai (to allow to partake), the thing wherein a share is possessed or given, stands in the genitive. O avzlpuyiroq ju£r£^£t rri q Seia q v £ $ 1 a g (3ov\tTai ti} g k pr) g aipaazai, irpooiTG). — gvv TOig Seoiig ao^EcrScu yjprj tt a v t o g e pyov. — e$o)Ka croe r w v yp r\ p,aT it) v. — ol ttoXsliioi frf^uov r y\ g yr) g, — avTiXafitcrSe rwv ir p ay iiclt u) v. — r r) g y £ 1 p o g aye tov iraiSa. Note 4. In this manner it appears that the genitive should also be explained with the adverbs and verbs, which signify approach (see § 105. Note 3.) and with £x £0 "^ at m tne sense to adhere to, to border upon. 'EX.£vo-i£ 'AS'^wj/ lyyvg Kelrai. — iroWaKig ol ttXt] a i ov dWrjXio v oIkovvteq elg tydpav Kadiaravrai. — irpwroi Xeyovrai ol KopivSwi iyyvrara tov vvv Tpoizov fiera^etpicrai rd 7repl Tag vavg. (e) With the verbs airoXavuv, ewavpzaSai (to en- USE OF THE GENITIVE. 397 joy), ovaaSai (to have profit or advantage), ye'uwSai (to taste), yeveiv (to give tO taste), eaSiuv, tyayuv (to eat), mvuv (to drink), the object enjoyed, &c. stands in the genitive. Nougat; SouAouc. tymffe r ifxr] g tXevZepiae.,— o avr\p ayc&OQ ovk au airoXavn tu>v tt}q apeTrfg Kapirw v.- — ri/irje Kai kukoq o)v 7roWaKig eytVGciTO. — ol trroanwrai za^iovai k pe u) v 07rrwv Kai mvavaiv oivo v. — 7roXXa Kai aya%a ryuyovro tio fiaaiXu Kai ovaa&ai t vj v tt a p o v T (l) v. Note 5. The verbs ecrSkiv and iriveiv govern the accusative of the object, when it is to be expressed, either that a person takes something constantly as his usual food, or that he consumes the whole supply and eats and drinks more than an ordinary quantity ; on the contrary, the genitive denotes that only part of the supply is taken ; e. g. to kiovelov meiv, to drink the poisoned cup (because it is entirely drunk off). — niveiv olvov and irieiv oirov, to drink wine (the former of one whose usual drink is wine, the latter to take a draught of wine.) — kaSieiv Kpia, to eat, live upon animal food. — haSieiv koe&v, to eat of animal food. — Also aVo- \avEiv requires the accusative, not when the object in which we find enjoyment but that which we enjoy from it is assigned and, if both are named, the object from which we have the enjoyment stands in the genitive and the thing enjoyed in the accusative ; e.g. t'l ct'AAo C^ov aly&v Kal 'I-ktvwv teal (3o(jJV kcli twp ciWiov £u>a>y roaavTO. a'ya^a dnoXavEi, oaa av$p(i)7roi ; (f ) With the Verbs fXifivr\ov\ov enrelv.—ln like manner it stands also with fivrjfjLOveveiv, dva\xijivi\(SK£iv and fiifiviiGKEcrSai to denote that mention is made not merely of single circumstances of an event, but either of a single circumstance in and by itself, or of the whole event ; e.g. fxyrijiopEvetv iroWd TvvTrap£\7]\v$6T(t)P 7r6p(tiP» (g) With the Verbs cttcoveiv, aKjOoacrSai, kKvuv, ttvv- SavtaSai (to hear, to learn), aia^av^ai (to perceive, to observe, to feel), awievai (to understand), o(T(j>paivE(j%ai (to smell), the object stands in the genitive. TI a v t o q paGiXevg a/coua. — ovte avTog tovto ttwttote 2 (1) k p clt ov g 77/coucra, our aXXov ^clgkovtoq aicriKo£vairiG%6[JLriv. — kXve g t ev ay julljv t 10 v fftwv, — ov GvvriKav a X A r) X (o v. Note 7. The genitive is put with these verbs only of the object which produces the thing perceived or of an occurrence of which we perceive only single parts ; the thing perceived on the contrary stands in the accusative. Hence for the various con- struction of these verbs the following rules obtain; (1) if the person alone is named, this stands in the genitive ; (2) if both person and thing are named, the person stands in the genitive, and the thing in the accusative ; as e. g. tovto UwfcpaVovc i]Kovaa. — (3) If the thing alone is named, the question then is, whether this is conceived as a simple part which I comprehend with my senses, or as a compound whole of which single parts only are perceived ; in the first case the accusative stands, in the second the genitive; e.g. ojq rj(r$£T0 rd yiyvo\x£va. Xenoph. Cyrop. III. 1. 4. — doTi yaSrinivoQ tov yeyeprj/jLevov, Ibid. V. 3. 20. — On the contrary, always ala$dp£(r$rai Kpavyfjg, Sopvfiov, &c. (because (1) I reward. USE OF THE GENITIVE. 399 one can perceive only indications of the noise). In like manner, dicoveiv Siktiq to hear a suit. — cdaSdvEaSai £7n/3ov\r/£, to perceive a plot, — On the contrary, ^wievai ra Xeyofieva, to comprehend or understand what is said. Note 8. Hence the genitive sometimes occurs also with drnveiv (to obey), dv-nKovortiv and direiSeiv (to be disobedient), which otherwise usually take the dative. (h) With adverbs of place and time the sub- joined nearer definition stands in the genitive [because the adverb denotes a single point only, but the subjoined definition of place and time de- signates the whole]. Tiavrayov Trig yVG ^vprjaeig ayaSovg re kcli ttovtj- qovq. — ov% opag iv u KaKov (1) ; — ol ovv tio \aaovi linreig, O7roi acpiicovTO twv EAXijviowv ttoXccov, sv ralg TrXetVraic ctijuwvto.— iropfHi) rr\ g J] X i tc i a g, in advanced age. — o ipe rr\ g ^jtiloac, late in the day. — - TtjviKavTa tov irov g, at this season of the year. (i) In those cases also where the genitive is used alone to assign definitions of time, it must be explained as a genitive of the whole by a men- tal suppletion of the individual or particular part. Thus the Greeks make use of the genitive in as- signing time, (a) to the question when ? if a por- tion of time is mentioned in one or more moments of which something has taken place ; (|3) to the questions since when ? within what time ? Oi 7ro\tjHLOi airtyjt)pr) v (1) airo TavTtig Tr\g fifxepag air'tru), — ovStig £evoc a^i/crat ^povou a vy^v ov (2) c/cei^f v. 3. With the verb uvai a genitive frequently occurs, which is to be explained in a two-fold manner : it denotes, namely (a) the whole, to which an object mentioned belongs as a part or member ; (b) the object, to which something must be conceived to belong, either as a posses- sion, or as a property, peculiarity, duty (where in English the substantives part, business, cus- tom, duty, character, &c. are supplied), or as a production and offspring. T ljv \a/Lif5 av 6v t b)V ugiv oi fxav&avovTtg, — oitrSa, oti tov Sclvcitov 7]jovvrai iravreg ol aXXoi r w v fx £ y i- K£>an?e r to v aficpi MtX?JTOV GTpaT£VO[JL£V(jJV. CIVTOQ rjSfXf T U) V jU £- v 6v t to v tivai. ToUTO TO TT&IOV £OTi T O V /3 d <7 I X £ W Q. O KVh)V £GTl tov (j>i\ov. — kavTov uvai, to be his own master, av^pog SGTiv ayaSov £v 7roiuv Tovg v kciWl&twv ij&'aiKa. — o Kvpog z&v'iCzto irav to GTpaTEVfia a^uog t to v KaXojg tt£7toi>7- jU, £ V (x> V . (c) The expressions experienced, skilled, ac- quainted, inexperienced, unskilled, unacquainted, and all adjectives denoting a capability, fitness, apti- tude, of or for a particular action (the adjectives derived from verbs, chiefly with the termination iKog), take the genitive of that, in which one is experienced or for which one is adapted. l£(j<)KpaTriq e^i^aGKe jusypic otov ceoi zf.nrEipov uvai £ k a gt v 7T p a y jj, aT o g tov opXojg irZTraimvfizvov. rag Ttyvag .[laSriGSi 7rapa twv kTri V Q rov 7Ti£iv ovk av airoXavoi, ovtio Kai o hirupog wv £ p 10- T O Q UTTUpOQ EGTl T It) V 7} C I G T U) V a(j>pOClGl(i) V* — ~ KaKovpyog ptv tiov aXX to v, caurovSe 7roXu KUKovp- yoTEpog tern. — c\'oW/C£ rwv iXo)v ra ^tripartita. — rov Grparriyov uvai y^pvt iropiGriKov r w v £ 7r t t rj S £ i w v roig arpciTiioTaig. — r o v ttclvtwv i)$ lg t o v a kovg fxa~ r og, e 7r a iv ov Gavr^g, avrjKoog a, Kat row iravrwv fjSiGTOv S £ a fxa r o g a^Searog' ov&v yap 7TW7ror£ GtavTrjg epyov KaXov re^liaGai. Note 9. Hence also the verb TceipaaSai to try, (that is, to be- come experienced or to endeavour to become experienced) is joined with the genitive ; e. g. 7reipa(7$ai rov fiaSeog, to try to find out the depth. — TretpaaSaL yjopiov, to attempt a place. — tte- Tveipaf.iivov elvai tlpoq, to be experienced in a thing. (d) Verbs to charge, to accuse, to sue, to inform or enter an action against (ainaG^ai, Siw/cav, uGayuv, virayuv, ypafyzG^aC), to sentence, to condemn (Si/ca&iv, Kp'ivuv), to be convicted (aXwvm), to acquit {atydvai, airoXmiv, £Xa>%)ovv), take the crime or even the punishment of the crime in the genitive [as sup- plemental to the substantives, transgression, crime, punishment, understood]. Ypa§o\xai ere 6v o v. — Siuklo rov Sewa k X o ir r) g. — ' Ava%ay6pag aGefieiag zKp'&ri. — o plv Savarov eKpl^rj, o $£ a^fSrj r Co v k y kXii jma. r (*) v. — Ava^iXaog virayofXEVog % av ar ov ev Aa/cfSat^ovi Bia rrjv Bv£avrtou 7Tp6$OGW, a7TE(j)VyEV. (e) With the verbs to buy (wvekt&u, ayopdluv, wpiaG^lai, KTaG%ai, TvapaXap,fiavuv), to sell (jrtoXuv, airo- SiSoG^ai), to offer for sale (irioXeiv), to value (jtjuav, Tu*aG%i), the definition of the price stands in the USE OF THE GENITIVE. 403 genitive [because a general idea, as xw a > or Trpayfxa, is to be understood]. Ot Opaiceg uvovvrai Tag yvvaiKag irapa tujv yovtwv \pv fxar u)v 71 o X X a> v. — r w v tt 6 v u) v ttu>\ovgw rjpiv iravTa rayaSa ot Seoi. — Nt/ciae o Nt/crjoarou Xlyerat <$ov- Xov Trpia rj q. — o! hiTicra- ILizvoi roiq ceivoig re Kai ziriKiv^vvoig kclXcoq j^prjvQai av~ cazioi zlgiv, 01 Se SiajuapravovTZc, r o v t u) v ShXoL — TO. ciKaia cei irpajTUv Kai r to v aS i k h) v aTTEyta^ai. — ot ttXovgioi piya $ia£pov rov Xaywj/ etc rtiv 3lk- tviov aico7rovQ rov yiyvofJ-ivov K) XvctiteXeiv avrdlg. Note 2. Also in interjections, expressive of wonder, abhor- rence, pain and the like, the cause of the feeling is subjoined in the genitive. <&exj rov dv0pog\ — 10 Zev fiaffiXev, ry g Xeirrorrirog ruiv (ppsvdj v ! — o'lfioi r w v k fiui v /ca/cwv! 2. With intransitive verbs the genitive is added of the object to which the state expressed in the verb refers. This occurs chiefly with iy^iv (to be circumstanced) accompanied by adverbs and with rj/cuv (to be come, to be become), but also with other intransitive expressions, whose nearer re- ference is to be subjoined by a substantive. (1) rov ieVcu, on account of the coming in, that is, that they might oome in. — (2) rov p) XvciteXe'lv abrolg, that it may bring no advantage to them. 406 SYNTAX. Nvv ettsiS?) ov^ ovrio r p 6 it o v fxovov zyzig, aXXa Kal aWovg dvaKTaa^ai ^vvaaai, ovg Kaipog tit], rJSij Kal oiKiag c rd^ovg (1) zkckttos el^v. — Xenoph. Hellen. IV. 5. 15. — Tr)g re yap 'IraXiag Kal ^iKeXiag Ka\ug it a pa- ttXov (2) /corai (r? KzpKvpa) Thuc. I. 36. — zv riKuv y kv ov g, to be of good extraction. — *5 x\kuv r ov /3 1 o v, to have a happy life. 3. With verbs to envy, to admire, to esteem happy, to be angry at, the object for which one envies, &c. stands in the genitive. Ov fxzyaipu) r o u & e aoi 8 u> pr) par o g. — r rj g a p- ^ r) g ov (pSlovovfiev roig fiaGiXzvai. — £rjAu> az rov it X o v- tov.< — eyu) vfiag tyri/M SiKalwg av, w v f/xoi ^aX£7ra(V£re, tovtwv roig rjeoig yjipiv u^Lvai wg ayaSwv. Note 3. The verbs %avfia£etv and ayaaSdt (to admire) often take also the genitive of the person, namely when the admiration is not excited by the person himself and his whole character, but by an indication, action, or generally by an individual circumstance evinced in the person ; e. g. ^avjxd^io tuv orparr/yw v, on ov Treip^v- rai rjfilv iiCTropl^ety mTr\piawv . — aya/xal crov, cloti ovk apyvpiov icat ygvaiov irpoeiXov Srjo-avpovs KsRfr}&$ai fj.a\\ov f y aotyiag. — Hence with these verbs the person must always stand in the genitive, when the particular circumstance exciting the admiration is expressly assigned ; e. g. tovto §av}id'(io gov, this I wonder at in thee. 4. With verbs to care for, take care of, to be concerned or interested for, to neglect, to make light of, to despise, to spare, the object stands in the ge- nitive (as the cause of the state expressed in the verb). (1) As each was circumstanced with respect to swiftness, that is, as quickly as each was able. — (2) Corcyra is favourably si- tuated for the passage to Italy and Sicily. USE OF THE GENITIVE. 407 Ol Trarepeg irpovoovai r to v iraiSw v. — £ avrow rot KijderaL o 7roovotov ad z\o v. — ovk av tcaXug 7rparrotjUi, u t o v t d) v dfizXCov ti)v e/a^v rjcovriv zepairwuv co/cotr/v. — ot £V rw THyjti KareyeXitjv r r} g iroXiopKLa g. — ti yap KaTtvorjaag fit rj ttovov rivog atroGTavTa, rj k ivd v- vov (j)£iaa/jLs.vov ; — ovk oXrywpsiv ^/pr? rovg 7roXtr£uo^i£- vovg T(ov koivCov, ovd airoXaveiv wg ibiwv, a/uzXuv $£ wg a X X o r p 1 w v, aXXa /cricWSai ^i£v tog o 1 k £ i 10 v, a7T£^£CrSai &£ WGTTSp §« TWl> fJ.Y}dlv 7TpOGr]KOVTb)V. 5. Verbs which denote sensual appetite or violent desire, as fTTiSu/iav, £i£(rSai,op£*yEv (iori) %p6voe, or fie! fi dpicrKsiv role Kara/, t6>v h$d()£ (2). Sophocl. Antig. 74 f. Note 5. Words also, like 7roXXa7rXd(riog, irspirrog, &c. which contain an idea corresponding to a comparative, partake in the given construction of comparatives. Ol }1EV Tt\eT(TT0L T(j)V avSpwiriOV, ETTEL^dv TUJV dpKOVVTTMV TTEpiTrd Krij&wvrai, rd liev civtujv KaropvTrovcri, ra ce KaTa(ri]Trovcri, ra ce apL-j^iovvTEQ, kul ixErpovvTEg, /ecu MJ-avTEQ Trpayuara e^ovgi b d£ K.vpog, a av "icr) TrEplrrd ovra r dv avrw dpKovvru) v, rov- rotg rag kvCeiac, rCdv (biXojy e^ukeIto. — TroXXaTrXacriovg v^wy a v r ui v EviKavE crvv rdlg $£o~ig. Note 6. Also verbs which imply the idea of comparison take the genitive of the object, similarly to those containing a super- lative idea ; see 5) 108. 2. b. §110. PREPOSITIONS COMBINED WITH THE GENITIVE. In general the prepositions combined with a genitive denote the relation of proceeding from something, either locally, as partition, remotion, separation, or causally, as origination by, descent from some one. Yet it must not be overlooked that several of these prepositions are also used with the genitive partly to designate collateral (1) For tGv Epyuiv too WXk. — (2) For rovrov rov yjxjvov, or hti f-i doi&KEiv rolg EvS'dcE, where the brevity of poetry intimates rather than actually expresses the thought. USE OF THE GENITIVE. 409 existence in a state of rest, and partly to assign direction and motion towards a particular point, where we therefore might have expected them in combination with the dative or accusative. These prepositions are as follow : (1) Connected with the genitive alone. 'Avrl, instead of, for. HacriXtvQ avri p.vpiwv kari arparuor a. — ovk. oioa, cn'S wv iroXXol f}ju,ag jjugovgi. — ZeOc, orav flovXyrai, SovXov iXoiaq. — «tto rovrov rov -vpovov avro- vo/iol uciv airo Qvfijua^iag. — raparrzi avrovg o airo rwv iroXz/muov (pofioq. — airo Sikcuogvvtiq, Out of a love of justice.— d(f> zoiTzpaQ, with the commencement of evening. — o aVo r^q orparnyiaq, an ex-general. 'Ek, before a vowel e$, (a) of place : out of ; from, forth from, away from, (b) of time ;' from, since, after, (c) of origin and cause ; from, by, on account of, in consequence of, according to. (1) The sect founded by Plato— the Platonists.— (2) Of their own impulse. 410 SYNTAX. Tavra Biairpa^a/iiEvog ek Trig iroXewg waXiv airr]u.—£K Trig Svaiag yzvojizvog cnr&lavev.' — iroiu, to tekvov, tcl c/c TraTpog TTpogTaySzvTa, — kvTav^a $r) o Kvpog tyLXaazv £/c twv 7rp6o%ev ^a/cpuwv. — Frequently zk paraphrases adverbial expressions, as e. g, £$ awpocrSoKriTov, un- expectedly. — l/c tov (Kjxtvovg, unawares. 'YLveica, ievekev, poet. av£Aco y uvzkzv, on account of, for the sake of by means of by virtue of. JLXevng c vsKa eiroXeiAriffav ol JLWrfveg wpog Tovg Tpioag. \6yov Ivtica, for the sake merely of saying some- thing.— £V£Ka ye tovtov, as far as relates to this. . Up6, before (of place, time and preference) ; for, for the good or interest of instead of TavTa 7rpb Tr)g YlsHnarparov i]XiKiag eyhzTO. — ovSeig ovTwg avoriTog zgtiv, oaTig ttoXeijiov irpo uprivrig aipurau — -ovte £*yw apKtGU) vfuv irpaTTit)v irpo vfxojv, ovtb v/jizig ivpo yjjuwv. — irpo 7roXXov iroiuaSai, to esteem above much, to hold in very high esteem. Note 1. Many adverbs also are combined with the genitive, and in this combination are to be considered as prepositions, thus avev, arep, <^'x a > without, filter] v, after the manner of, eyyvg, ttXtj* awv, near to, evdv, directly at or to, kvtaiziov, before, /isra^v, be- tween, during, fiexP 1 ( e )> &XP L (-)' U P t°> ^°» ntpa, iripav, beyond, TrXrjp, yjjjp'iQ, except, ycipiv, on account of (2) Connected with the genitive and accusa- tive. Aia, through, (of space and time); through, by, by means of (of cause and means). To iy\og r{X% $ia rou Swpa/coc e — ttovov wapuye Toig USE OF THE GENITIVE. 411 TroXe/iiioig $i rjjUtpac. — ravra ov irapa rtov Stwv k^o/tev, aAXa Si aXXrjXouv ityuv yzyovtv. — £ia Ttov ljtiov kv tyj vvkti avayKij /uaWov 7] Sia Ttov offiaKfxtov %Kaara /cat ai- cxSavctxSat /cat 7rparrav. — §ia ttoXXov yjpovov, after a long time. — cia ttevte £rwv, every fifth year. — Zi oXlyov uvaiy to be at a little distance.— <$ia rk\ovq, to the end. §ia \zipoQ zyziv, to have in hand. — ha yzro Kara ySovoq. — ov ^vva/aal 7rw, w ^uKpareq, toq av ZjiTUQjfxiav apETrjv Xaj3av Kara iravrwv (I).— -ot ocrrai Kara rov KpvcTTaWov iropevofievoi Siafiatvovai Tovq TToraf-iovq. — Kara gkottov to&vuv, to shoot at a mark (because the arrow, proceeding in a curve, descends to the mark). *Y7r£p ? over, above ;for, on account of in behalf of, instead of O 7]\lOQ TTOpWBTai VTTBp l]flU)V . CLV aXXo£ VjACLQ aciKy, rifjiuq who v/ntov jjiayovfi&a. — ei ra 7rapa croi tcaXwq £\£(, %appu virlp kicuviiiv. — tivai virkp rivoq, to be to any one's advantage— vnlp rov Xaj3av, in order to obtain. (3) Connected with the genitive, dative and accusative : (1) I cannot find one virtue (which pervades all) in all. 1 412 SYNTAX. 3 A/n(pi, about ; on account of ; concerning, of, as with the dative ; e. g. afi. — irepl \pvyjov rwv vfxeTspwv o aywy (eari), Kai irepi yrjQ, Kai irepi oitcwv, Kai wept yv- vaiKwv Tc Kai tekvwv, Kai irzpi iravrwv ayazwv. — ii?air)KEQ nepi iravTUiv tcWsc; av^pwv vi]a So?7V kvi 7rovr(o kXavvefiev (1). — Trspl ttoXXou ??yao-Sat or iroiuaSai, to esteem highly. — tu Kepi nvoq, any ones condition, state, circum- stances. 'Etti, upon, on, at, by, near ; in the time of, during ; among, with, (to designate accompanying circum- stances or conditioning causes) ; of, concerning, (de). iLtoKparriQ Zvwv fyavzaoq tjv ttoWukiq fMV o'ikoi, 7roXAct- KiQ §£ £77 £ T(*)V KOlVbJV TY)Q TToXsiOQ j3(x)fl(jJV . ' A^i]VaiOl BIT I jusv Tle\a i7T7T6)v KarefiptoSt], — evioi (jiofiovptvoi fj.rj Xt}povHv), and then take that case which such signification requires. But if the preposition can be separated from the verb and joined to the noun without any alteration of the sense, the compound verb takes that case which is governed by the preposition in this signification, OBS. ON THE USE OF THE OBLIQUE CASES. 415 Twv irovtov yjctiyxaTa avrnrapfytTe (1). — Travreg aiTETry$ii)v apjuurwv. — ot 7roA^uioi £%ri\zovTr)g 7T o- X c to g. — ol Botwrot avv^ayiaavro t ol g Yl £ X o 7r o v- vt) a io i g. — cvopw -y a p v fxiv ovy^ o\o i g kaofxhvoig (2) ttoXe^uhv Hlp£$. — avafiaivto tov 'ittttov. — irape- GKtvaoavTO /cat ana /cat Trora, /cat t ely^o g Egr)£avTO (3). — ot avorjToi 7r o X X a c /cat jU£*yaXac £vju0ooac Ug-KITTTOVGI. Note 1. When perspicuity or emphasis requires it, the preposi- tion compounded with the verb is repeated before the noun. 2. Verbal adjectives in tc'oc, rea, teov, always take the person in the dative, but the thing in that case which is required by the verb from which they are derived. Etorjv?7C £7rtSujU77Tfov tcrrtv a vSowtto i c. — cVc- v£tp>jT£OV v fxiv £oti Tto £ p y to. — ut£ rovg Stovg iXstog £lVat v ot£t Sav TrXovrt&ffSat, Tto v po we can also say, $epa7T£vr£oi aoi elaiv ol Seoi. instead of: rovg fiXovg ehepyerririov ol (plXoL Evepyerrjriot. instead of: ojyeXrjriov vfuv ecttl rr\v ttoXiv (b^eXrjria v^uv kariv r/ iroXig. (1) Instead of undertaking labour you give money. — (2) That you will not be able. — (3) And brought it into the fortress. 410 SYNTAX. CHAPTER III. THE VERB ACCORDING TO ALL ITS PARTS, A. Kinds of the Verb. § 111. In the doctrine concerning the use of the oblique cases, the peculiarities of the simplest form of the verb, the active, have been sufficiently deter- mined. It yet remains for us here, therefore, to explain the use and peculiarity of the two other kinds, the passive and the middle. §112. PASSIVE. 1. The active verb expresses an action of the subject which is directed to a certain object. The passive, on the contrary, represents the ob- ject, to which the action expressed by the active is directed, as something suffering. 2. Consequently that noun which in the active stood as proximate object in the accusative, must KINDS OF VERBS— PASSIVE. 417 in the passive stand as subject in the nominative. But the subject of the active now becomes an object, from which another suffers something, and is therefore added by means of certain pre- positions, usually by v7ro with the genitive. 'EfCTtoO KTZlVSTCll V7TO TOV ' AyjiWsWQ (OY O A^tXXsuC Krdvu tov "'E/cropa). — cVaS?] (fyw) avzirziG%Y)v vtto tov Anavpiov £(j> vfiag GTpaTEvzcrSlai, ug iravra kiv^vvov tjXSov. — 01 Tlkpvai £viKri%7](jav vtto Td)v EXX/jvwv. — 01 ayaSoi fxi- Govyrai vtto rwv Kafcwv. 3. Instead of vtto the Greeks also frequently use the prepositions -rrpog and wapa, both with the genitive, namely irpog to designate an independent operation or a vigorous exertion of power, but napa, to signify that something proceeds from the immediate vicinage, or from the internal or external means of an object. To irpog tu)v AaKzdaifioviwv iroiovfizvov zavjuarog sgtiv a%iov. — oi f/ EAXrjv£C 7roXXa ri^iKifiriGav irpog to)v Tltp- GtoV. ol aV%p(i)7T0l TTpOQ TWV TToStoV KlVOVVTCtl. EL Kdl tovto aiTh)v rj^iKovv, tovt av irapd gov eiricEiKVVGZh). — i]Gav avro) kv^Xol iroWai irapa twv (piXfov Gvvu\zyiikvai. 4. Frequently however the subject of the ac- tive is joined to the passive in the dative with- out a preposition, chiefly to the perfect of the passive. Tavra XiXg/crai ?j/iiv. — Ikuvoq eXrfffifi kpwTi Trig yvvaiKog. — Tavra irkirpaKTai }x o i, —irie'Cof.itvog r ai g Trepi tovc wai^ag GVfityopalg irakiv ir£fj,irb) irpog tw % 6v* e e 418 SYNTAX. ' 5. The Greeks also often form a passive of those verbs which in the active take a genitive or dative of the object. In this passive therefore the object which in the active construction stood in one of these two oblique cases, is added in the nominative. AoTcaVcu Sr/ to au Ti^ibJ/nevov, a/xeXfirat $£ to ciTifxaZofxtvov (dpeXuv tivoq). — filau tovq KoXaKEv- qvtclq, iJGTTEp Tovg e^airaTiovTaQ' a fx (j) o t e p o i yap tt i g- T £V% kv T EC (1) rOUC TTlGTZVGaVTaQ ClSlKOVGlV (tTIGTEVHV Tivi).—ravT bIttiov k aT e p ov r)%riv vtt avTOit {Ka- Tatypovuv tivoq). — y\ fiziQ vtt A%r}vai(*)v £ 7r 1 13 o vX ev 6- [*£% a (2) QirifiovXevuv tivi), 6. Verbs w T hich take a double accusative in the active (see § 104. 4.) have in the passive the no- minative of the person and leave the accusative of the thing to stand unchanged, because the thing remains a true object also in the passive. *0 Traig StSaoTcercu t a q t i^v ag (3). — viro (3a- aeXleuc ireirpaKTai (f/cavoc) tovq (j>o p ov q (4). — k y u €7T£iorSr/v t a\)T a V7to gov (jreizsiv Tiva ri).— K p o lg og, afyaip&uq t riv a p XV v (5), <$ieTpi(3e irapa to) Kvpu). 7. Often even the dative of the person in the active becomes the subject of the passive and the accusative of the thing remains unchanged. Ol Tb)V 'AS»]VaiWV €7TlTfrpajUjU£VOl (6) TTJV vX aKTJ v (1) If they are believed.— (2) We are plotted against. — (3) Is taught the arts, that is, is instructed in the arts.— (4) He is pressed for the taxes by the king.— (5) When the empire was wrested from Croesus.™ (6) To whom the watch was consigned. KINDS OF VERBS— MIDDLE. 419 diTEtcTuvav rovg eySpovg (htrirpkiruv rivl n). — Gy^) *£- yupOTOVY)iiai dpyrj v (-0* — ° ' ^ V ff T a '» avaySivreg irpog fiaaikka, direr fxyfi^aav (2) rag k £ a X a g. § 113. MIDDLE. 1. The middle has in many tenses the same form with the passive, and also approaches so near to it with respect to signification that care is required to distinguish them. The principal sig- nification however of the middle is the reflexive, namely, that in which the action proceeding from the subject is again directed to the subject; so that subject and object perfectly coincide in one and the same idea. 2. In this reflexive signification, however, seve- ral cases are to be distinguished : thus either the subject which performs the action, becomes at the same time also the proximate object, that is, the middle expresses that an object actively in- fluences itself (e. g. Tpliru), I turn, rpLrronai, I turn myself, aiayvvw, I excite shame, aiayvvofiai, I excite shame in myself, am ashamed) ; or the subject becomes the more remote object of the action (e. g. atrew, I ask, aiTEopai, I ask for myself, beg (1) I have been elected to an office. — (2) Their heads were struck off. e e2 420 SYNTAX. for myself.-— ajuuvw, I avert, anvvopai, I avert from myself) ; or the reflexive of the action is only shown in the circumstance that it is accomplished in reference to the subject, that is, that the sub- ject participates in the accomplishment of it (e. g. vitttio tovc Trodag, I wash the feet of another, v'nrro- fxai tovq ttoSclq, I wash the feet of myself or mine own feet, consequently the same as vi-xtm tovc tjuavTov 7r6%ac.) "We shall here give examples of these three different cases of the reflexive signifi- cation. (a) The subject is at the same time the proxi- mate object, or the middle is used to designate an action which a person accomplishes upon himself. Ot 0£ e (j) v\ avya§Eg s jul icr% u i\og y T7] a a.T o |U£ tovto to (3ifi\iov. — ol ' h%)vaioi Tovg lav- 422 SYNTAX. Ttx>v ovppayovg TroXXa ^prjpara £7rpa£avTo (1). — 7ro\eu)g vopovg vopit,u), a ol ttoXitcii, a v v% k pt v o i (2) a re Set ttoiuv Kctl wv aireysoSm, £ y paxfj avro (3). 4. A more remote reference of an action to the subject takes place also when it is performed at the desire or command of the subject, for whose end consequently it is performed by another. Hence the Greeks use the middle also in this signification, where the sense is expressed in English by the addition of verbs to cause, &c. O Ylavaavlag TpaireCav YlzpaiKr\v Traper't^sr o. — Apyaoi &povipoi rb)v yovtiov KaXuyg SiSaaicovTai rovg irai^ag. — rw J£vp(o 07rXct rjv pa\a /caXa kcu appor- 70VTii 9 a o 7raTT7rog 7T£pi to Gtopa £7T£7roir?ro. 5. The properly reflexive signification, implied in the middle, frequently cannot be rendered li- terally by an English expression without harsh- ness and violence. In such cases we use some other intransitive or transitive verb, which cor- responds in sense to the signification of the Greek middle. (1) They extorted (for themselves, for their own benefit). — (2) According to an agreement. — (3) They have written (for themselves, to observe them themselves) ; for this is the dis- tinction between ypdtyeiv or T&ivai vopov and ypdtyeaSai or TtSeaSai vopov, that the former can only be said of one who gives laws for others, but is himself elevated above law, conse- quently of God and absolute monarchs, the latter, on the con- trary, of a citizen who gives laws to which he himself is subject. KINDS OF VERBS— MIDDLE. 423 Have aa% £ (1) r " ^ lKa iroiovvreg. — navTeg ot (TTjOa- Tiwrai rjyaXX ov r o Kai zv wpii v r o. — vjiug ye wX a (T a fievo i (j> a iv ecrSe, ov a r a X £ v r e g (2). — (j) o |3 o v rovg Seovg. — o arparog r?Si] ir ep ai ovr a i rov iroTaf.i6v, — tiXXepSe (3) ttiv fiYirspa, w KaKodaifioveg. — civayKrj $ia to iroWoitg (j>o(5eiv iroWovg Kai eyzpovg 7TOl£LG%ai. Note 2. That verb is alone to be considered middle, which with a passive form has a reflexive fundamental signification, as has been pointed out in all the cases hitherto adduced. On the contrary, the case also occurs in Greek where the internal signi- fication does not correspond with the external form of the verb, but while the form possesses terminations which are otherwise peculiar to the middle, the signification is either purely transitive or intransitive, and entirely rejects any reflexive reference. Verbs of this kind are called deponent, which must be accurately distinguished from verbs middle, and which are considerably nu- merous in Greek, as e. g. aiaSaveaScLi, to feel, dtyucveiaSai, to arrive, yiyveaSai, to become, to take place, t^ojitcu, to receive, to accept, BvvacrSai, to be able, epyaZetrSai, to work, KelvSai, to lie, fidxzvSat, tojight, and many others. §114. MIDDLE FORMS. The following must be observed with respect to the forms used in the middle signification : 1. For the future and aorist the middle pos- sesses separate forms which in general have only (1) Properly; stop yourselves ; hence; cease. — (2) tniXKetu, to send, mid. to send one's self; hence, to travel — rlXketv, to pull out the hair, mid. to pull out one's own hair, and hence, as this is a sign of grief and sorrow, to mourn. 424 SYNTAX. a reflexive signification, although in the same signification the aorist of the passive is also fre- quently used. Ot AaKtSaijuovioi scaXcjg 17 fiv v av r o rovg iroXtjuiiovg, ——woX^g rivog vojiovg vOjUt^w uvai a oi 7roXirai, g v v- ZEfievoi a te $a iroieiv Kal % i] v a 1 ovrto rairuvoq. — yvovreg ot rroX^uoi to ov, erpaTTi]aav \^i) eig (pvyriv. — Kai gv ye ravra sir e ig% i] g (2). — ravra aicovaag o fiacnXwg duviog £ (j> o- Note 1. The fat. mid. often stands for the fut. pass., which in verbs of a polysyllabic root, would assume a form too lengthened and inharmonious. Hv vucrjcrwfiev, oi crrparidrai jieya / rr rj a 6 fie S" a ev jrotovvreg. Xenoph. Anab. II. 3. 23. Note 2, The aor. 2. mid. also is sometimes found used in a passive signification, but never the aor. 1 mid. — Thus in Eurip. Hippolyt. 27. f. Kareayero stands in a passive signification {'Itttto- Xvrov) ih^ovaa QaiSpa, Kapdiap Kareayero epojri otivw. — So likewise the participle Karaay6f.terog occurs several times as passive. — In Herodotus 8. 90. on the contrary, where (at vfjeg) hecpSapearo stands as aor. 2. mid. (for ^te^dpovro) with a passive sense, this usage is remarkable, the passive form c)ie (4) yWpOV koiKtvai, o $£ Tr)g d/j.EVog tio tov oikuov aypov K£KT7]fl£VW. §115. FURTHER GENERAL OBSERVATIONS UPON CERTAIN VERBS. 1. Several verbs have a double signification in the active, namely, a transitive and an intransi- tive or neuter. E7ri 2cip§ac r\ y £ v (5) o Kuooc. — o AEp^rjg e'lg c- j3 a X £ (6) £C tt/v EXXaSa. — tejulvei /jlegtjv ti)v Botwr/av o Krj tl ?r p a r r £ t ; KaXtjg it par r £ t. (1) I have effected for myself, have obtained. — (2) Had caused to be made. — (3) Who kept by her in readiness. — (4) Who has hired for himself. — (5) Proceeded to Sardis. — (6) Made an ir- ruption. — (7) Before it disembogues. — (8) I am ill. 426 SYNTAX. 2. In the perfect 2, this intransitive significa- tion predominates, and that not merely with verbs possessing the nature just assigned, but with those also in which an intransitive significa- tion never occurs in the present. On the other hand this perfect never has the purely reflexive signification. 'E/C TOVTQV TOV ^pOVOU VLU KoXwq 7T £ 7T p a J (X. Uvp- pog eirei avpfiaXuv roig Pw/xaiotc. $ig eviKrjGe, iroWovq tCov (j)i\(ov Kai TjyEjUiovijov airoXeaag, av en fiiiav, etyr), p.a- ynv 'Pby/naiovg vik:t](TWjU£v, aTroAwXajuev (I ). — k are- aye (2) i) yvrpa, — Sopv ev Grepvto £ 7r £ tt rj -y £ t. Note. The perf. 2., otherwise erroneously called, the perf. mid., stands in the following relation to the perf. 1.: (1) The two forms occur together in only few verbs of one and the same dialect, especially in those which, besides a transitive, admit of an intransitive signification, for which the perf. 2. is then exclusively used. Such perf. 2. with an intransitive signification are, besides those contained in the preceding examples : kypyyopa (from eyeiph)), dvio)ya (from dvolyio), fiefirfva (from fiaivoj), jrcVpiS'a (from tte/^w), uiu-q-Ka (from 07/7rw), rirrjKa (from n/W), Ttkw), eXy'iXvSa (from tpyofiai), iceicpaya (from *cpa£a>), r£$r]\a (from ^a'XXw), eKrova (from /crfivw), XeXoittci (from Xeittio), XiXrjSa (from Xr/S'w), odwcia (from o£a>), iriicovSa (from 7rao-^w), iriiropda (from 7r€pc>w), taropya (from ortpyw), rsroica (from TLKTh))^ rirptya (from rpt'^w), 7r£(p£vya (from 0gvyw), Tretypuca (from ^jOtVcw), ^typ^a (from x £ '£ w )> (1) Then are we ruined, aVo\\v/*e, I ruin. — (2) naTaywfjii, I break something in pieces, Kareaya, I am broken in pieces. VERBS WITH TRANS. AND INTRANS. SIGNF. 427 and those used in the signification of the present, namely yiyrjBa (from yr}$iio), cJe^ia (from AEI£2), eiojScl (from eSrto), eoikcl (from £i/ca>), ffetrrjpa (from ca/pw), and %iyr\va (from yaivu). 3. Some transitive verbs receive an intransitive signification only in single forms, namely, in the second aorist and in the perfect and pluperfect, which are then used exclusively in this significa- tion, while all the other active forms of the same verb are transitive. The most noted verbs in which this is the case are icrrr/p (I place) and ft)w (I produce) with their compounds, which in the above-named tenses respectively receive the sig- nifications to stand and to arise or become, E7T£j3aiV£V O Kt^UOIV €7Tl TOV ITTTTOV OpOoQ EffTpW? kcli rjKovTi^ev awo tojv 'lttttcov opzog. — kv rw irpog tovq Hc\o7rovvri(7iovQ no^e/mo) ot KepKvpaioi Ev- y o v. — ekeIvoq juvya v tt e p ov tclvtyiv rr\v St/cj]v. B. Tenses. § 116. PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION OF THE TENSES. I. General investigation of the tenses. 1. Since the double forms which the Greeks use for some tenses are not different from each other in signification, they need not be distin- guished here. To explain, therefore, the use of the tenses, we shall treat merely of a present, im- perfect, perfect, pluperfect, future, aorist, and fut. 3. passive, and chiefly indeed as far as their usage is peculiar to the Greeks, and deviates from that of other languages. 2. In order to define accurately, and under- stand correctly the peculiar signification of each tense, it is necessary that, besides the idea of time, regard should also be paid to the stage or period of the action which is expressed in the verb. For, as the time admits of being resolved into three divisions, being either past, or present, or future ; so the action also, considered as such, appears in a threefold relation, and must be con- USE OF THE TENSES. 429 ceived either as co?npleted and finished, or as deve- loping and forming, or as at the moment of beginning and coming on. 3. Now, both the point of time and the stage or period of the action are indicated in the verbal forms which we denominate tenses, and hence the peculiar idea of each individual tense cannot be properly understood, unless at the same time a correct conception be entertained of the rela- tion which intervenes between the time and the action. 4. But the action in each of its three relations can fall into each of the three divisions of time, and hence arise three times three, or nine tenses, which we shall here develope according to their idea, illustrated with examples from the Greek, and designated, as far as these will suffice, by the usual grammatical appellations. (1) The action falls into the present time. (a) as completed or finished — ysy pa^a, I have written . —Perfect. (b) as developing or forming — ypafoj, I write, am writing. — Present. (c) at the moment of beginning, or coming on — fttXXw ypcKpuv, I am beginning to write, am just going to write, am on the point of writing. — Compound future, formed with the pre- sent of the auxiliary verb. (2) The action falls into the past time. (a) as completed— zytypafyuv, I had written. — • Pluperfect. 430 SYNTAX. (b) as developing— eypa^ov, I wrote, was writ- ing. — Imperfect. (c) at the moment of beginning— ifieXXov y a- §uv, I was on the point of writing. (3) The action falls into the future time (a) as completed — yey pa^wg Ecro/Licu, I shall have written.— Future perfect. (b) as developing — ypa\pw, I shall write, or be writing. — Simple future. (c) at the moment of beginning— ypatpwv fVo- fiai, I shall be on the point of writing. 5. All the tenses here specified have a positive existence in a language, although they are not completely enumerated in the grammar, which generally passes over such as do not possess an independent form but are produced by composi- tion with auxiliary verbs. In Greek there is also the aorist, the signification of which we shall de- velope in the discussion of the individual tenses. II. Use of the individual tenses. 6. The present expresses an action, which we are just now performing, as in other languages, e. g. ypa(*), I write, or am writing (am just now in the act of writing)„Also the present is used for assigning properties, which are permanently con- nected with an object without being particularly evinced at the present time, or for the expression of a general sentiment; e. g. iravra ra aya^a 8/- OONTIV O QeOQ.- — TToXXwV KCIKUV aV%p£v y a a iv. Xenoph. Anab. I. 4. 8. Note 1. Hence the perfect is generally used to denote a lasting and permanent state or an action finished in itself, and therefore often occurs in Greek, where in English we use the present. This is chiefly the case with the second perfects, which take an intransitive signification (s. § 115. Note). 'Emro xpri yvuvai, otl ovZiv £gtl KEpZaXEwrspop rov vlkup' 6 yap Kpartiv a/ia 7rdvra a v v y p tt a k e, /ecu tovq apdpac; Kai tciq yvpaTucag /ecu ra ^pr/juara. — ravra \xiv eotip, a ttclcti effc^o^- Sat (1) (f>r)jjii Ze~lp. — r) koXcjq £rjp, rj koXojq t e 3" v rj K iv at top EVyEVfj XP 1 !' ty^OVOQ TOlQ ^OJffl TTpOQ TOP dpTlTTaXoP' TO Zk fit] EfXTTO- Stop- dpapTaywviGTw Evvola TETtfJujrai. Note 2. Several perfects are always used to denote only the finished action, whose effect is permanent, and therefore in Eng- lish are translated by the present of some other verb, which ex- presses the consequence of the action contained in the Greek verb ; e. g. /ce'/cX^ucu, my name is, am called (koXeoj, I name). — KEKTTjfxai, I possess (tcTcwfiou, I acquire to myself) — \ii\ipn\iai, I remember, am mindful (jipaofjiai, I call to mind) — ol da, I know (e'IZu), I see, perceive), &c. 8. The aorist, on the contrary, only denotes generally an action or occurrence of the past (1) This, I think, must be the fixed opinion of all (BiBox$ai, to be and remain decided.) 3 432 SYNTAX. without determining the period of its termination^ and without leaving the mind to dwell upon it ; e. g. £kti/cparj)V, tog a^iog eltj Savarov. — Kvpog jue^qi c)toc)£/ca tT(s)V ry rojv Uepawv irai^ua ewai^Ev^ri' £/C &£ TOVTOV TOV J^pOVOV ft £T£ 7T EjUlf a T O CIVTOV O *Ac>TvajYjg. Note 3. Hence in narrative the perfect is frequently inter- changed with the aorist, the former being used of an action, which as completed remains in its effect, but the latter only ge- nerally to denote a past, momentaneous action. Ta fiev Trapek^ovra K.vpov ?)H»/ crars, (rrpdrEVjia Zovteq /cat apXpvra tovtov clvtov KaraarrrjaavreQ' Kvpog Be r/yovfAEVOQ tovtov GVV §EO~lC, EVK\eEI£ flEV VflCLQ, (O TUpGCil, EV TTOLGIV aV$pU)7TOlQ k ir o i'r\ cr e v, evti}1ovq ft kv rrj 'Acr/a Trcurr). ru)v Ze avurpaTEvcra- jlEVUiV CIVTO) TOVQ jAEV dpi(7T0VQ KOI 7T E 7rXo V T I K £, TOLQ %E 7TOXXo~l£ fj.t(T$6v feat Tpoorjv ir a p eokevo. ke v. — 6 fxkv tzoXejjloq cnravriov IJfXCLQ T(OV Eipr][xivi»)V ait E(JT E pr\KE' KOi yap TOL TTEVEGTEpOVQ 7T £- TToirjKE, KOI TToXXoVQ KlV^VVOVQ VirOflEVELV l)vayKCLjxr)v £7T£0"£(l) — dvavGola, (earfyf to ttXeov oaTig (2) aVoXeVag tov- Xaaaov sXa ft e. Note 5. In like manner the Greeks sometimes make use of the aorist in images and comparisons, which are added for the more accurate representation and description of an occurrence, where in English we employ the present ; because such images are de- rived from observation and experience, and in so far appear as occurrences of the past. Nevertheless in such comparisons we frequently find also the present and even the future. 'Qig %pog ri jxiv eiXe irapzidg' Sg ai/Tig /caS' ojxiXou edv Tpioiov a'y- epio^isjv 'AXiZavdpog, Horn. II. 3. 35. fF. Note 6. Hereto is allied the signification of being able, in which the aorist also sometimes occurs ; for an event, which has taken place frequently and at different times, can easily happen again. Ma At", ttyr) 6 2a/cae, kyco Kal Evcaijiov'tav tovto vojxi^to, to ToXXd eyovTO. iroKXd Kal hairavav. ti ovv, £(f)r), Trpog S'euiy, 6 $£- pavXag, ov^l gv ye avTitca jidXa evdaluojv kyivov (3), /cat kjxe evciaijiova kiro'nqaag; Xafiiov ydp, £//» ravra 7ra'vra kekttigo, koi xpw Oiriog fiovXei avTolg. Xenoph. Cyrop. VIII. 3. 46. — < k d r<& a v (4) SjJuJUg 6 '(? depyog dvijp, 6 ()£ noXXd kopycog. Horn. II. 9. 320. — 7raig jikv dpar\v Tzarip k-^et irvpyov fiiyav, ov Kal tr p cr £~nr £, Kal K p o a £ p p 7) § T) rrdXiv. Eurip. Alcest. 323. f. — ovS' d(TTOV rj v £ a SffTig av-^ddrjg y£ywc, 7TiKpog iroXifaiQ Iff" tIi> djiaSiag inro, Eurip. Med. 226. £ 9. The future tense expresses an action, which is to be performed at a future period. Yet in Greek an accurate distinction must be observed between the simple future and that formed with (1) Trt7TT£iPy to fall out, to happen. — (2) As more comprehen- sive and emphatical for u tic. — (8) Could you not instantly be- come very happy, &c. — (4) For k-ari^ave from KaTa§vi) £ iv, irapaykyovk Tig, — etteict] ewc £ juleWe yiyv£v\a£,. — fxarriv l/jloi ke k\clv cr £ r a i. Note 8. This tense is also used to express a continuous state in the future, and hence forms the proper future to those per- fects, which take a present signification of their own, and imply a continuous, permanent state. (Comp. above, Note 2.) npfff/Birtpw lieu vEuripiav Tzavriav apyEiv ir poarET d^er at (1). — %a\£7ra v £ Be $eo\ BJaovat iiEpi}.iva.Q* a'XX' efiKrjQ kcli rulcri fie fx /£ e t a i (2) eff-9'Xd kclkolgiv. — tovtwv Be tiov tt p ay aaVwv Eg didiov rolg ETnyiyvofiivoLQ LivrfLirf k ar aXeXf / \p e t a l (3). — ■ Toffovrov ex £l a'Xyoc, 6 oinror k k\ e\t] a e t a i (4). — ciei ttjq afJQ tyikicLQ fi e fx v y a(y%ai $r)fxi §tlv, eir avrovg ovtu) Tag yviofiag £ X £ l v ' — £7r£t ^ av airavra cucovariTt, K p i v a t e, Kal fxrf irpoTtpov -k poX a p (3 a- vsre. — KaXkaag o Kvpog Apa(nrr\v Mr$ov, tovtov zkeXzvge ^lafoXa^at avTO) tt)v yvvaiKa. — ravrr\v ovv EKeXeVGEV O KvpOg §l(t(f> v\a.T T ElV TOV Ap aav\ov fxrire X k £ y g, fi7)TZ k p y a a y Tt. (b) The conjunctive is likewise used in simple propositions, when something should be ex- pressed as undecided with respect to its issue : hence (a) in questions implying doubt. Eyw tl Trotw; — i\ 7T d) fie v, rj a i y w fi e v ; — tl $to ; Tl $ p W ; £ t 7T to OVV GOl TO d'lTLOV J (|3) in negative propositions, chiefly with ov pri, when something is not to be positively denied, but only stated as unlikely to occur. In this case we commonly translate the conjunctive by the future. Ob fULYJ £ I 7T to (1). OU firj 7T 1% T) T CI I. kav TOVQ fy'v X" t " ■■ > f rs f >/ ovq KpaTigg £u irouov, ov jur/ cot ouvwvrar avtwuv o\ iro\kjxioi. Note. The poets also frequently use the conjunctive in posi- tive propositions, where we translate it by the future, although it (1)1 will not say. 442 SYNTAX. does not imply mere subsequence, but principally something un- decided ; e. g. Horn. II. I. 268. oh ydp7T(o toiovq '[Sop avepag, oh de 'Ltitofiat (nor shall). The peculiar signification of this con- junctive is most clearly shewn, where it stands in connection with the future; as, e, g. Homer. Od. 16.437. ovk '£&& ovtoq avrjp, ovS' 'iorosrai, ovSe yevyrai, there is not, neither will there be, nor can there be, such a man. 3. The optative denotes a thing purely imagina- tive, a mere human conception, abstracted from all reality and condition. Hence its use in simple propositions is very common and diversified, al- though it admits of being reduced chiefly to the following cases : (a) Every occurrence which in and of itself is conceived as possible (whether the imagination employs it as an expectation, a hope, an appre- hension, or as a merely assumed case), is ex- pressed by the optative, usually in combination with the particle av (comp. § 120. 5. a). In Eng- lish we translate such an optative by the addition of the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would, should, 8$c. laojg av tivzq e ir ir i firj cciav toiq upr\}xkvoiq. — - ou/c av a if d'ff "j^o t fxfj v irXeov^KTOvvrag opwv tovq ara- KTOvvraq. — ra irovrjpa av^ptoiria ovk av aXXwc juaXXov £ X o i q, i) u £ic\h»7C ti* tovq Sf koXovq Kaya^lovg av^pu)- 7rouc, 7rpOQi\u)Q yjptofizvoq, fxaXiGT av k ar e p y a a a i o. — y fvoir av wav kv tw yiaKptt) ypovM. (b) In the same light must the optative be considered, when it is used to express requests, commands, and even positive assertions, where with us it is, for the most part, translated by the MODES.— INDICAT. CONJ. AND OPTAT. 443 imperative or the future. For in this usage there is couched merely a milder and more refined form of expression, chiefly adopted by the Attics, wherein we advance that which might be pro- nounced unconditionally and positively, merely as our own opinion and idea, and consequently do not anticipate the judgment of others. Ovk av air o (j>ev yo i c ttjv vogov, — djpa av £ i r\ TTpCLTTeiV TCL §£OVT(l. X £ J O I Q O.V a 0£l XeyBlV. (c) Also the optative is used for the expression of a wish (for a wish is the idea that something can be, united with the desire that it may be), sometimes accompanied by the particles a, uOe, u yap, wg, sometimes without them. KaXrJv (rot Owl SiSoiev rvyr\v. — w ttcu, y&voio irarpoq evTv^ecfrepog , ra S' aXX' Ofxoiog. — eiSe aavi- (7$£IJJ TO KaKOV £$ ClvSptOTTtoV . XaXvj3(OV d>C a 7T o- X o i t o yevog. Use of the Indicative, Conjunctive, and Optative, in dependent Propositions. % 120* PRELIMINARY REMARKS— USE OF THE PARTICLE dV. 1. The further doctrine of the use of the above- mentioned three modes is so ample and compli- 444 SYNTAX. cated, that a necessity arises of dividing it into different sections. And, as the use of any parti- cular mode taken singly and alone determines itself according to the form and sense of the pro- position, so the individual cases of the use of these modes admit of the best arrangement, ac- cording to the various forms of the dependent propositions. 2. Of dependent propositions we distinguish three different classes, namely (a) supplemental propositions, (b) transitive propositions, (c) relative propositions. 3. These dependent propositions are connected with the principal proposition by means of certain particles, which, however, merely serve to place the sense implied in the mode in a clearer and more positive light ; but by no means, as it is usual erroneously to suppose, occasion the ne- cessity of or govern the mode itself. 4. The several particles made use of for con- necting dependent propositions, we shall as- sign separately for every form of the dependent proposition : but one of them, namely, the par- ticle av, is so diversified with respect to its use, as to be applied in almost every form of the de- pendent proposition, and must therefore be dis- cussed in this place preliminarily to all the others. 5. The particle av, synonymous with the Epic ke or Kev, imparts to the verbal expression, which it accompanies, the accessory idea of conditionality 9 i. e. it denotes that the thing of which we dis- course is conceived as dependent upon certain MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPTAT. 445 circumstances. The use of this particle is there- fore extremely various, as it is applied in all cases where a thing or an idea is not to be expressed absolutely and of itself, but as dependent upon contingencies, consequently as uncertain, doubt- ful, difficult, probable, or generally as possible. Hence av is also frequently associated with other particles, to limit or modify their sense, as will be shewn in the succeeding sections. On the use of av in independent propositions the following must be observed : (a) In connection with the optative, with which in the common language it is most frequently employed (comp. § 119. 3. a.), av denotes that the mere idea expressed by the optative is also con- ceived in a relation to reality, i. e. as realizing itself under certain circumstances ; e. g. ovk avaa- 3(otp]v, / cannot possibly endure (the enduring ap- pears to me as impossible in and of itself, without any regard being paid to existing circumstances, or the operation of contingencies) ; on the con- trary, ovk av avaayo[ur]v 3 1 should not endure (the cir- cumstances would not be of that kind, that I should endure). (b) In connection with the conjunctive, av is used in simple propositions only by Homer and the poets, to denote that an event will be realized merely through existing circumstances ; e. g. Hom. II. 1. 205. jjq virspoirXiyai T ^% av wort Svuov oXtaaij, through his pride it will happen that he will lose his life (bXeoau would express the loss of life as a positive assertion without regard to existing 446 SYNTAX. circumstances ; but &Ak»$ av implies that the loss of life is conceived in a purely objective sense, and as the consequence of pride). — In like man- ner, II. 1. 182. f. T7)V jU€V lyW GVV Vfjl T fjU^J Kdl ifldlQ £Tapoi designates the positive subjective assertion, but ayu) ke a case brought about by circumstances). The English translation of such a conjunctive by the future, by no means accurately corresponds to the true sense, but a nearer approximation to it is furnished by the construction it will happen that (c) In the connection of av with the indicative, a distinction must be made between the different cases : (a) av is only very seldom joined to the indicative of the present and future, to soften the positive expression, and to invest it with an air of uncertainty ; e. g. ovk old' av, I dont exactly know, I dont rightly know. — ol/nai av, I should suppose, — KivSewtvei av uvai, it seems certainly to be, it would seem to be.- — In this manner Homer frequently uses av in connection with the future, e. g. II. 22. 42. raya K£V c Kvvsg teal yvirzq i^ovrai, SOOn perhaps Will the dogs devour them. — II. 4. 76. /ecu k£ tic ffi «$>««, and thus perhaps some one will say. — Also av sometimes appears with the indicative of other tenses in the same signification ; e. g. Xenoph. Cyrop. VII. 1. 38. svZa $17 eyvoj av tic, ogov a^iov eh] to (j>i\ti(JZai apyovra v7ro tuv apyofxivu>v, then a person probably saw, &c, then might one see, Sec. — (/3) With the in- dicative of preterites, particularly of the imper- fect and the aorists, av denotes that an action has MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT AT. 447 not taken place merely once and at some definite period, but as often as circumstances occurred to occasion it ; hence in English translation we either express it by adverbs as generally, usually, or by verbs to be wont, to use, ox, according to an idiom, not unlike the Greek, by would ; e. g. Herodot. 3. 51. o Sc, ok(i)q cnrzXavvouzvoQ sASoi eg aXXyv oiKiav, aire- XavvzT av Kal airo TavrriQ, he used to be driven away, &C. — -Elirip. Phoen. 401. ttotI fxlv kir ri/uapuyov, eir ovk tiyov av, then again I would have nothing, used to have nothing, (d) Sometimes av is joined even to the impera- tive, to soften the positiveness of the expression contained therein ; e. g. Sophocl. (Ed. Tyr. 1424. iSpae av, zl tqvt t<& av, I should have done it, that you may well suppose. (e) When av is joined to the infinitive or parti- ciple, the event expressed in the verbal form is re- presented by it as conditional, and merely probable ; e. g. kvofxiCov, u Trpu)TH]V ravriiv tt\v ttoXiv Xafioizv, pa^lwg av a(j>i(ji t a\Xa wpoaytjpriGziv, they thought that the rest would readily surrender to them. — roue 'A%vaiovg 7]Xiritfiv 'iaii)Q av kir^kX^uv, Kai tt\v yrjv ovk av Trspu^uv rtir\%vai, he expected that they would probably take the field, and would not suffer, Sec. — EuptWw ravrnv av p.6- vt]v yevo/uLevrjv twv (xeXXovTuyv kiv^vvcov airoTpo7ry]Vj J find that this would be, 8$c. Note 1. All the remaining cases of the usage of av are con- fined to the department of dependent propositions, and are there- fore enumerated in the following sections. Note 2. With the poets in particular the particle av frequently occurs twice in one member or clause of a proposition, where it 448 SYNTAX. is explained in one of the instances as a pleonasm. But of this repetition of the particle in the same member, two cases are to be distinguished : (a) for either the words belonging to the same part of the construction are separated from each other by a long intermediate proposition and the particle av, which already stands in the beginning is again placed after this proposition, as Sophocl. Antig. 464 ff. a'W av, el rov k% efirjg fir)rp6g Savovr aSairrov kayoixriv vIkvv, kuvolq av rfXyovv. — Ibid. 897 ff. ov yap iroT ovr av, el reKvojv jur/r/)p 'i(^vv,ovT el ttogiq juoi KarSavuv errj- xero, (jla ttoXitCjv tov(c) for the cause alone : on, $i6ti. 5. The following are general rules for the con- struction of these propositions : (a) the indicative always stands in direct discourse after temporal and causal particles, when the time and cause are assigned unconditionally and as facts, (b) The conjunctive is used in a supplemental proposition, when this proposition appears as conditional, and the temporal and causal particles then receive uv. (c) The optative stands in a supplemental pro- position, when mere ideas and conceptions are assigned, consequently for the most part after temporal particles, to express not an individual circumstance but cases of frequent recurrence. Ov §okh aoi to$e irpovoiaq tpyio koackvai, to, e it e\ acrS^vrJc egtiv r) oxpiq, pXzfyaooig aimjv Svptoaai ' f — ■ rjyovfxrjv, e it e i euro tovtov G^oXaaaiq, tote Kal a^ Efxl e£eiv o^oXtjv. — K.vpog viriayETO, avdpi ekclgtiq owcteiv wevte apyvpiov jdvag, k ir a v eig T$aj3v\(Lva rj k oj g t. — irokiv ov7T(t) EwpaKac avTiTarro^Evrjv (1) irpog iroXiv iripavs, $rcc, eiTEidav v tt r? $ #, irapayjp-qfia Tavry (1) At war. MODES.—INDIC. CON.I. AND OPT. 451 avTi tov jua^EffSai ttuSegScli &e\ei ; — £ w el fiayofizvoi ovk eov v a v t o \af3ziv to ywpiov, airikvai STreyeipovv.— OVKETl 7}fX£ig EKEIVOV GTOaTltoJTOl EG/lI£V s £ IT £ I y£ OV G V V E- 7T0jU£3a avTw, — ^aX£7ra ra -irapovTa, otto re GTpaTrj- yiov toiovtwv crrfOo/ifiSa. — ravra Xkywv (1) o 2w- KpCLTYIQ OV fJlOVOV TOVQ GVVOVTOQ £$OK£l 7T01EIV, 7T O T E VTTO Ttov av%pd)TTiov o Qto v t o, air£y£G%ai twv avoaiuv Kai a$iKh)v tpyuv, aXXa /cat ottot £ ev spri/mia eiev, £ 7T £ 1 7T £ o y yri G a ivto, )iyi$£v av ttote, wv -irpaiTOiev, Seovg eia- XaSav. — fX£fivr\fiai clkovgoq (2) ttote crou, on ukotmq av Kai 7Tapa TtoJV %£to)V TTpOKTlKlOTEpOQ £17) (3) toJGTTEp Kai 170.00. av«?pw7ra)v, ogtiq firi, o tt o t £ ev a7ro^)0£^ £ i r;, ror£ koXokevoi, aXX o r £ ra aoiara 7r p a r r o i, ror£ juaXtara TtoJV Z£to)V (J,£(XVto)TO. — -OTCLV Tl 7T O I TJ G to) G I, VOfXIElQ TOVQ XEOVQ GOV ic. — *« ™ Trsiffovraa MtjSo*, £££ Il£f>(7ac to ^£ivoy ?? £ £ t. (b) The condition is expressed as an assump« tion and idea, wherein all regard to reality is left entirely out of the question. The antecedent is formed with u and the optative, the consequent takes the optative with av ; e. g. oi>% £ l ttclvtzq i A- Sot£v Ukpcrai, ttX^ei je ovk a v v it £ p ]3 aXo I u E^a rovg iroXe/Jiiovg. — ou iroXXri av aXoyia £it/, £i ^>oj3ot- to tov Savarov o Siicaioc;. (c) The condition is expressed as a supposition, the realization of which depends upon external circumstances, so that its taking place or not taking place will be learnt from experience. The conjunctive with kav, y\v, av, stands in the antece- dent, the indicative in the consequent; e. g. kav tovto ykv r\r a i s KaXu)Q £ £ o v a i v ol TToXirai. — kav ri £%WjU£V, § £ p o v Ev^aipovla ol wXovaioi twv TrevrjTMV. — £i Tracri TavTO tcaXov £(j)V ao(j>6v S* afxa, qvk r\ v a v afxtyiXtKTOQ av%pu)7roiq epig. 3 454 SYNTAX. Note 4. Besides these adduced cases, the most varied changes can take place in the combinations of hypothetical propositions, on account of the very different modes in which a consequence can be conceived as dependent upon a condition. Thus, from a given condition may be derived a preceding, a simultaneous, and a succeeding consequence, so that the tense of the consequent proposition must, vary according to the difference of sense ; e. g~ e I rovro uXtj^eq eern, cltottov 7]v, or eort, or corai. In like manner a consequence which is founded only in our imagination, may be derived from a condition expressed as absolute, so that the consequent proposition is formed with the optative, while the antecedent takes the indicative with el ; e.g. el tovto ciX^eq, £(tti, cltottov a v e t y].— Also the consequent is often already de- pendent in sense and construction upon another proposition, and therefore cannot be regulated in its combination by the hypothe- tical antecedent; e.g. rS 'AnoXXtovL ev^avro ol'ASrjvaioi, el oio- $e7ev, ekclgtov etovq ^Eojpiav clttcl^elv elq A rjXov> where aVa^ir contains the supplement to ev£>clvto* Note 5. A (properly Doric) collateral form of the particle e& is ai, which has this peculiarity, that in and of itself it can only stand in connection with the optative. If ke be added to the same, the conjunctive enters. But in both constructions this particle occurs only in those hypothetical propositions which de- scribe an event accompanied with affections of the mind (as ex- pectation, apprehension, wish, indignation, and the like). Note 6. With the Attics, at least the prose writers, eI is never found with the conjunctive. Also in Homer this connection of eI and the conjunctive without the accession of civ, ke, kev is only of very rare occurrence ; but with the Dorians it frequently takes place. Herodotus makes use of the simple eI with the conjunctive, only in the signification whether in dubitative inter- rogations. On the contrary, in oblique discourse, when the ideas of others are assigned, the infinitive invariably stands after eI ; see Herodot. 3. 105 and 108. Note 7. When, as frequently happens, the hypothetical ante- cedent is expressed by a participle without a subjoined condi- tional particle, this occasions no change in the construction of the consequent. MODES.- INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 455 § 122. USE OF THE INDICATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, AND OPTATIVE, IN TRANSITIVE PROPOSITIONS. 1. When, instead of an individual person or thing, an event, which we express by a proposi- tion, is assigned as the object to a transitive verb, this proposition stands in the same intimate rela- tion to the principal proposition as the object to the verb, and therefore because it is reached by the action of the principal verb, it is denominated a transitive proposition. 2. A similar near relation obtains when we as- sign to an action the aim or intention, which is to be accomplished by the same ; for here also the action is evidently conceived as directed in its effect upon the intention, consequently as tran- sitive. 3. There are therefore two kinds of transitive propositions to be distinguished, namely, I. tran- sitive proposition for assigning the object ; II. tran- sitive proposition for assigning the intention. I. Transitive Proposition for assigning the Object. 4. The particles made use of for the formation of these transitive propositions, are on and wq. But the verbs upon which such a transitive pro- position depends, are all those which express a perception of the external or internal sense, as 456 SYNTAX. - to hear, to see, to feel, to perceive, to experience, to observe; to understand, to apprehend, to comprehend ; as also those which denote an operation of the thought or an action proceeding therefrom, as to judge s to think, to believe, to know 9 to remember, to forget; to say, to tell, to disclose, to announce, to mention; to shew, to prove : lastly, the impersonal phrases, it is manifest, plain, evident, certain, Sec. 5. These transitive propositions invariably take the indicative, when any thing is expressed uncon- ditionally or adduced as a fact ; on the contrary, the optative, when we merely assign the opinions and ideas of others . YlavTtg ojuoXoyovGiv, u>£ at ftayai K p ivovt a i jnaX-° Xov raiq xjjvyaiQ, i] rmq rwv aiofiaTwv pwfxaiq. — ITtoi- kXeovq tJSij SiafizfirjKOToq £€ EvjSocav cupeGTiocrav rCov A$??- vaitev, rjyyeX^ij civtu), o t i Wlzyapa a e cft 7] k z, Kat JJs\o7rovvr}Cfioi ju eXXov a iv safiaWuv eq ttjv Arrt/crji/, Kai 01 (ppovpoi ^a^apfiiEvoi %ig iv,—Qr]pafjLEvy)q airfiy- ytiXzv kv £&/cAr?<7('a ? ort avrov AvaavSpoq teioc; [izv K a- r ky^zi (1), ura §c zX eve i (!}.££ ActKz$atp,ova isvai.— Kypov TEZvrjKOTOZ o« GTpaTiiyoi eStavpia'Cov, o r i ovte aXXow 7T E fl 7T O i G7}fJLaVOVVTa O TL ^p7] 7TOIUV, OVT UVTOQ d t~ VOir O. Tl(T(TCl. 6. In oblique discourse, on and dg are usually indeed followed by the optative, but even here the indicative enters, when actual events and positive (1) Present instead of the aorist, comp. § H7 5 Note 2. MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 457 assertions are assigned. Also the indicative often stands in oblique discourse on account of the person being introduced as speaking himself, or being conceived as speaking himself in the midst of the narrative. Ot IvSot tAe^av, on it Bfxip b lb gclq o IvSwv (3a- aiXevq kcli k £ X b v a bl b v tpwrav, sc, otov o 7roX B/noq urj MrjSoic re /cat to) 'A(javpi(D (1). — rQY®")lvaTO f otl f3ov- \ o 1 r av airavra ti*) warpi ^aoi££(xS f ai. — httev, o r 1 juc- vuv ]3 o v X o 1 r o. — loq bittbv o IZarvoog ttooq QtipajuLivriv, OTL Ol/Xto^Erai, £1 yUT7 fflW7T?7evytjg eitj /cat Xf-y 01, on ravTr\v ttjv rifABpav (I) The king of Assyria. 458 SYNTAX. wepi/nsiveiev av avrovg. — Z avSpzg, ouS' £jue XavSa- vu, o t i, zav ctaXviofxev to GTpaTEVjma, ra /iev rifxzTEpa aa^evecTTepa yiyvoiT av, to. Se twv ttoAe/uiwv icakw av^i] (T £ r at. Note 2. When av is added to the optative after on, it has the same sense in this combination, as with the optative in an inde- pendent proposition. Comp. §. 120, a. 8. As a peculi ity in the Greek construction, we must observe, that the principal proposition frequently adopts as object the subject of the de- pendent proposition, and the dependent proposi- tion is then destitute of a subject. 'Opag to tt v p, tjg iravrag Kaiei ; — -£*y(*> v fx a g oa- iog oi$a.y ore ov y^pr\fxaTO)v dzofxevoi gvv kfxoi e^XS'ete. Note 3. After a portion of the verbs, to which the necessary amplification is subjoined by means of on and wg, the dependent proposition can also take the accusative with the infinitive, (see § 126. 1.) and after another portion of them the participle (see § 129. 1 and 2.). Also when several dependent propositions are subjoined to the principal proposition the two modes of con- struction frequently interchange ; instances also sometimes occur where they are mingled together, on or iog being retained, but the dependent proposition taking the infinitive ; e. g. Avaavdpog, ei Tivd ttov 'idoi 'ASrjvalov, a.7r£iT£fji7rev kg Tag 'ASftvag, ddiog, on, 6(7(0 ay 7rk£iovg ovKhtyvaiv kg to clgtv, Scittov tiov £7riTr)^£t(or kv- hiav e ar eg $ a i. — Xenoph. Hellen. II. 2. ^.—eXtti^iu c>e \prjj iog avlpag aya&ovg fjeaXXop i) Kaicovg avTOvg yEvif a £G§ai. ibid. VI. 5. 42. II. Transitive Propositions for assigning the In- tention. 9. The particles made use of for assigning the intention are iva 9 owwg, o^p«, wg, layg and ^. These intentional particles are connected with the con- MODES— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 459 junctive when the verb of the principal proposition is a present or future, on the contrary, with the optative, when it is a preterite. Illustration. The following proposition will serve to establish the truth of this rule : the in- tention is an idea, existing in the mind of the agent, of a result to be effected by the action. The accomplishment of the intention is made strictly conditional by the action, that is, the in- tention can only be accomplished by the action. Hence the intention really exists only so long as the action either is performed or is to be performed, and must therefore in this case — after a present and future—be expressed in the conjunctive. But if the action has been performed, the intention no longer exists, but the idea only remains, that it was performed with a certain intention, and therefore in this case — after a preterite—the op- tative must be used. Asyw, iv e t S y g.—We^a, iv e 1 8 e 1 1) g» — irspifi^vco, £WQ aVOl^Sy TO ^GfJllOTTiplOV. 7r£0l£fl£VQ/i£V skclgtots, 'iiog avot^SsiTj to Szv/LitoTfipiov. — reXeloig rolq av^pdai o AvKovpyog vofxifxov £7ron7 ov $ ovXev o £ toIq Trroj'yolg, tva kol avrog Trap' dXXiov X a j3 o i g -Kevr\g yevuixevog. — iroXvv yjpvaov EK7r i fi- 7r £ i Trarrip, t v a p) r\v <7£ Tlrjyaaov ££t>£a«, ottwc zfyaivov rpayi- kiotegoq, that thou mightest have a more tragical ap- pearance. 13. In the case also, where the particle w\ is used after verbs expressing fear, apprehemi&n, anxiety, and the like, the optative enters only when the fear or apprehension is mentioned solely as a circumstance of the past, other- wise the conjunctive is constantly adopted, even in narrative where a preterite precedes, the narrator transporting himself into the period at which the fear still exists. E7ri(rra v y w a i 7rctTpi$a, Kal oi LieXXovTiQ Liayeazai, ceSioteq, jultj r) t t rj S w a" i v, aSujuwg Siayovai. Suviog E7TB(p6(5r}VTo, Lirj k ar a X 7) (j>- $f € i £ v vno Ttov A$rjvaia>i\- — ot Ksp/cupoioi avrfVXfov TOig KopivSioig, ^eiaavTSQ, jutj eg rrjv yr\v atyCov tt £ i p w a i v airofiaiveiv. Note 6. From the adduced examples it is clear that the con- junctive is invariably used after p) even with a preterite preced- ing, when the discourse alludes to the actual state of fear and apprehension, while the optative stands in combination with this particle, to designate only the idea of an impending evil. MODES.— INDIC. CONJ. AND OPT. 463 Note 7. M?) is connected with the indicative of the preterite, when the event which excites the fear and apprehension is as- signed as past, and the apprehension as sufficiently well founded ; e. g. Thucyd. 3. 53. vvv Zk <[>opov[Jie$a, firl d^oripuyv ctfia 7) fiapT-n k a fievy we are now apprehensive, that we have failed in both objects. § 123, USE OF THE INDICATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE IN RELATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 1. The words made use of for designating re- lrition are the relative pronouns og, ogtis, olog, ogoq, &c. and relative particles, as ov, oVov, iv%a 9 iv^zv, oSsv, oiroif oiTOjg, u>c, tva, &C. 2. The general rule for the use of the different modes in relative propositions is likewise defined by the peculiar signification of these modes and is as follows : the indicative enters the relative pro- position in all cases wherein any thing is ex- pressed unconditionally and as a fact, even in narrative also, where the optative might be ex- pected ; the optative is used to designate a mere idea, chiefly therefore in assigning not a single and definite, but a frequently repeated action; the conjunctive stands after relatives in mentioning present and future things, to express an assumed case or existing intention, and in this last case the particle av, in Attic prose always and gene- rally with Epic writers and the Attic poets, ac- companies the relative. 464 SYNTAX. 3. The following observations are suggested from this general rule : (a) the indicative stands in the relative proposition, when the verb of the prin- cipal proposition is a preterite, present or future, and an event is expressed as definite and uncon- ditional, (b) the optative stands in the relative pro- position after a preterite, present or future, to express mere thoughts and ideas, (c) the con- junctive, can only stand after the present or future, and that under the above-mentioned conditions. ^(jjKpaTfjg ra filv avayKcua avvefiovXeve Kai irpaTTUV, tog € v 6 jut i £ £ v apiGT av TTpay%r}vai* irzpi $£ twv a§?i\a>v, o 7T to g air oft i] i\ovg eGirov^aioXo- yuTo, tjg SijAoi?;, ovg rtfta (2). Xenoph. Anab. I. 9. 28. — For an example of the conjunctive (i) All the organs of the senses. — (2) In order to make known those whom he distinguished. Here according to the Latin mode of construction the optative n^frj might be expected ; but to designate any matter of fact the Greeks use the indicative. MODES.— INDIG. CONJ. AND OPT. 465 after relatives with av, see Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 1.2. 4. A relative proposition, in which av occurs, is always conditional, but this conditionality can either depend upon something real, and then the conjunctive enters (see above, examples second and third from the end), or upon something im- aginary; upon a mere assumption, in which case the optative follows the relative w T ith av ; e. g. Xenoph. Memor. II. 9. 3. ev US', on umv ev%de rwv roiovr(i)v avSptov, o'i iravv av (j> i X o r i firj^l £ i ev cpiXio aoi -^prja^ai, they would account it a great honour to enjoy thy friendship (if they did so.)— Horn. II. 15. 735. t. 7]s nvaq (pafiEV uvai ao6ar)TK}paQ ottiggo), ?je tl thyoq apeiov, o k avSpacji Xoiyov apvai, which fortified place (if we had such) might ward off. — Soph. Antlg. 908. ovk cot a^eX^OQ ocrrtc a v /3 X a. gt o i 7tot£, there is no brother, who could spring (if there were one). Note 1. The Attic prose writers always subjoin av in the use of the conjunctive in relative propositions, but Epic authors and the Attic poets frequently omit this particle ; e. g. Sophocl. (Ed. Tyr. 1226. f. tu>v c>£ Trrjfioviov [idXiara Xvtcovg u$ 6 a v w a av^raiperoi. Note 2. The indicative also can stand in combination with qlv after the relative, namely, (a) the indicative of the imperfect and aorist, to indicate that something has not taken place in the way assigned by the preterite without av : e. g. Plat. Phasd. $ 1. ed. Heind. ovre tlq £,£voq dffiKrai %p6vov ow^vov ktcelSev, o a r i q a v 7/fiiv cra(j>£g ti dyyeiXat olog r >) v, who could have given us an ac- curate account (but he could not, because he did not come). — (b) In Homer also the indicative of the future, to denote that the event is rendered conditional by an idea to be borrowed from the context; e. g. II. 9. 154. f. ev 5' avfipeg vaiovai-—, o'i k£ e £w- h h 466 SYNTAX. Tivycri, $sov wg r t /.a // cr ov at v, who (if he becomes their lord) will honour him as a God. Note 3. The infinitive occurs after relatives, when in oblique discourse a relative proposition accedes as a nearer definition to a principal proposition expressed in the infinitive, in which also a circumstance founded only on tradition is assigned ; e. g. \6yog k&rl aEifffibv yeriffSai) J fca rep e i Sfj v a i tt\v ohiav. —In other cases where the infinitive stands after relative par- ticles, it must be regarded as the consequence of a union of two different modes of construction ; e. g* Xenoph. (Econ. 7. 29. ravra Be, 'itynv, Bel VfJ-dg, w yvvai, elBorag, a e/carepw tiptop ttooq- TlTCLKTai VTTO TOV &EOV, TTSipaffSai, O 7T (jJQ (s)Q fiiXrurra rd Ttpoai]- Kovra EKaT£pii> ijfjLutv B i air p d t r £ (t $ a i. — Xenoph. Hellenik. VI. 2. 32,—tovto Eiraivuj, ort EvpEro, 6 ir co § \iy\re dvEiria- rtifxovQQ eJvai rcov ilg vavjiayiav, jii]re fipacvrepov ri a.(f) ike (j 3" at. —Finally, in many cases also the infinitive after relatives must be considered as an absolute form of speech, (comp. § 125. Note 3.) ; e.g. ov-% Jf^u, ottoi t pd ire Kpoiae. — El TIVOQ £Tl £V$£lG%ai &OKZLTE, TTp6g e/Lll A £ J £ T £* KCll ti Tig £t7THV ri fiovXtrai, Ai c $aTw. — %i]p a to KaXov, (2> Trai ! — 7r £ i S o u toIiq GO. 5. The imperative following owS' on, dl£ti to Ka\ X a j3 e 1 v (1) 7rp6(T(p$Eyfia toiovc' dvfipog ev xpovo) paKp<5 !• — l\0Q £To\jLLr](JE TOVTO 7T O I S L V. £7T£ra£;£ /ULOl TdyjiWQ w o o q £ X S £i v. — Savwv o 7rarr)p EVOvSzrrjGS tovq 7rai^aq ffw^ovfi v. - * - £^uoi*Y£ Sokei tCjv KaXiov k ayaSwv avdpojv ££)"ya ou {JLOvov ra juleto, (nrov$r)Q TrpaTro/ueva a^tofivrj/uovEVTa £ i v a i, aXXa Kai ra kv raiq iraiciaig. — Gf^utcrro/cXric 7rojg £7TOU1 I X € I V CIVTOV ', Note 4. Although in the given verbs the use of the infinitive in the dependent proposition is the ordinary construction, yet much must be observed with reference to the individual cases. On the first class, verbs of willing, it must be mentioned, that after to be willing, to strive, to incite to persuade, &£petv Kcti tovq Koiviovag ravTYjv tirwitv sv^vea^ai. rjscopev pav- S a v a v. — Travra irtyvice /cat fX clggov g% ai (2) — Aaioc ot^wcri flovKoXoiGiv s k & £ t y a i fip£(j>og. Note 6. So also must the infinitive be regarded which the Greeks use in short intermediate propositions, sometimes with sometimes without we, to assign the aim or definition of an expressed proposition ; e. g. ctTrXwe siiriiv, to speak plainly. — we ziroQ uTCEiv, so to speak, if I may so speak. — we ev icatyaXaia) el- 7teii>, to speak briefly t to be brief. — we epe ev pepvrjcrSat, if I re- member rightly. — we piKpbv peya\a> slicdaai, to compare small with great. — oaov y' epe eifiivai, as far as I know. — epol honeiv, as appears to me, 7. If the principal proposition stands in a cau- (1) That are seldom seen, or rarely to be seen.— (2) Every thing is so constituted by nature, as again to decay. USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 475 sal combination with the dependent proposition, so that the state denoted in the dependent ap- pears as a consequence of the event expressed in the principal, the dependent proposition takes (ogre and more rarely ug in combination with the infinitive. 2o)/Cj0arr?c i)v 7TZ7rai()evpzvog ovrojg, 10 a r e iravv paSlujg €%£iv apscovvra. — (^iXoTi/JLorarog r\v o ILvpog, oj g t e iravra v ir o p nv a t tov eiraivtiazai £V£/ca. Note 7. I regard as the consequence of an event not only that which has been developed out of it by actual experience, but that also which, according to rational calculation, might result or which would seem to have resulted from it. A distinction must therefore be made between real or actual and ideal or conjectural consequences. This distinction the Greeks observe also in lan- guage, designating the actual consequence by uigrs with the in- dicative ; but the conjectural consequence by Cjcte with the infinitive. Hence the indicative always stands after wqte, when a real event is assigned as having resulted from another ; e. g. elg tv\v varepaiav ov^rjKEV 6 Ti(T(Ta(pipvr)Q, w a S - ' ol "EAX^vec e wgre ttoXe/hov dvr'Eiprjvrjg at peUffS at, tovtov \iaivo\XEv6v (fta/xev. Hence the infinitive stands also after r) ugre preceded by a comparative; e. g. dtypoviffTEpoi eigiv i] ulgre aicrSareorSat rfjg £7n(3ov\fjg.—(b) The infinitive likewise stands after digre, when the principal proposition is negative ; e. g. oh Siofial ye tovtiov ovShog, uigre ae kiv^vvevel v. — (c) Also when the principal proposition is hypothetical or interrogative ; e.g. el towvtov serai to fiEyaXa izplirrEiv^ io gr£ pi] o'lovte eI vcil fiijr d}i

v (j)iX(ov EvfpavSfjvai, lyw jiep ^aipeiv ravrr\v rrjv Evhaifioviav keXevio. — dp ovrwg dvaiffSrjTwg £%£i£, to gre fxr} dyavaKTElv fxrf^E ro~ig vppet xp^^oig ;— (d) When the con- 476 SYNTAX. sequence appears at the same time as the aim or intention ; e. g* log kfiov cJiropovvTog, 6 tl av rvypifii 7roicov, wj te icakcog e\e t v to. rifierepa , avfij3ov\EVETco 6 n rig bpq. avfKpopcorarov. Xenoph. Cyrop. VII. 5. 47. — ol rpiaKOvra kfiovkn$r](mv 'YXevaiva e£,icico~ tratrSai, cogrE £~ivai trtyiGi Karaipvyriv. Xenoph. Hellen. II. 4. 8. comp. Thucyd. 3. 114. — Hence the infinitive stands also after e' to or eif cote, which is put by attraction for kirl tovtlo, cogrE. — Lastly, cogrE takes also the infinitive, when it is used in oblique discourse ; e. g. ovnog, Etyavav, 7rpo$vfjL£~ivK£vai. — to djuapTavtiv av% pojiro vg ov Xav/LiciGTOV* — ov^bv kirpay^r} dia to £(C£ivov fxri wa- peivai. — Hep^ijt; a>c £7rv%tTO tov E X X 17 a tt ovt ov kZr fv^Sai (1), /cat tov ' A S a> Si£cr/ca. — KiXtvio 7rrjc. Illustration 1. In dependent propositions after the three adduced (§ 125. 4) classes of incomplete verbs, this construction may be explained by con- sidering the accusative as object to the verb of the principal proposition and the accompanying infinitive as an illustrative specification of the state, in which the object is conceived to exist; e. o/cAi?c elg rovq Kparijpag rf]Q A!'iTvr]Q evaXaaSai teal city a v i a § fj v at, Empedocles is said to have leapt into, &c. (Xiyerai as personal and consequently 'E//7i\ as subject belonging thereto.) — Xiyerai r r) v Xl/uaipav t parj vai vko 'A/xtcw^apov, it is said, that, &c. (Xiyerat con- sidered as impersonal). 2 e When the subject of the dependent propo- sition is at the same time the subject or object of the principal proposition, it is not repeated with the infinitive nor is it indicated even by the ac- cusative of a personal pronoun, but the infinitive then stands alone. 10 USE OF THE INFINITIVE. 470 O/uoXoyw a§iKuv.-—o (jiiXog e(j>7] (T7rovSa££iv.-"~S£OjU.ai gov 7TaTfp< eXSeiv. — ovk £7reiGa rov irarioa tovto iroiuv. Illustration. 2. Since, according to the above illustration, in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, the accusative, in a dependent proposition, is not required by the infinitive, but must be considered as object to the verb of the principal proposition, the use of such an accusa- tive is only necessary when a new object is as- signed, which has not yet been mentioned in the principal proposition ; e. g. vojui£w ae '^x av XpV ara (where as indicates an object not yet mentioned). On the contrary, if the object is already con- tained as subject or object in the principal pro- position, its introduction with the infinitive ap- pears unnecessary, the correct reference being in this case self-evident ; e. g. vopllu) iyziv y^^fiara (where the addition of hpk would be superfluous, because the eyw implied in vo^lla) is already suffi- ciently expressive). § 127. ATTRACTION IN THE INFINITIVE. In the last mentioned instance where the sub- ject as being already contained in the principal is not expressly introduced into the dependent pro- position, if predicates are added, these cannot 480 SYNTAX. stand in any other case than that of their subject* Now as this, if it is at the same time the subject of the principal proposition, stands in the nomi- native, but otherwise in one of the oblique cases, the infinitive therefore also occurs in Greek with the nominative, genitive and dative. This kind of construction is called attraction, because the de- finitions given in the dependent proposition are regulated by the structure of the principal pro- position and consequently are as it were attracted by the same. Examples of the nominative with the infinitive. O A\eE,avdpog tyaaicev eivai Atoc viog. — etreiaa avTOvg e i v a i S £ o g.—~ri aWo r] Kivdweveeig E7ridei!~,ai } av (1) fj.lv XpV 0" to q r£ Kai (j> i\ ao z\ (j> o q eivai, eKeivog c>£

/ £7Tt T b) O fX O lO I TOiq AeiTTOLieVOig £ I V a I eKTr£jH7TOVTai 61 anoiKoi. Thucyd. 1. 34. Examples of the genitive with the infinitive. Ttov vvv AvKiiov tyaiievwv S a v 3 i (ov eivai ot ttoX- Xqi eiaiv eir^Xv^eg. — e^eovro avrov eivai 7T o o S u- fx o v. — £i fS^Xae tcaravouv, evpr)aeig~ troXXovg rvpav- vovg Kai vtto yvvaiK(ov nov eavrcov Sie^appevovg, Kai vtto eralptov ye twv fiaXiara §okovvt(ov

Zev /uzyiGTE, <$6g fioi (j>avj}vai a^ioj fxlv UavSeiag avSpl, a^ioj c)£ Kvpov (j) iX to. — ovk a\\o- tpioig vfxw yjpwiizvoig napa^uyLiacTLV, aXX oikuoiq, w avdpeg Axrivaioi, evdai /uocriv £$£tfrt yeveoSai. DeniOSth. Olynth. secund. 7. — i8o$E Tolg rwv 'EXX^vtov orparrj- yoig, avGKZvao~af.iz.voig a ziyov Kai zt,oirAiGa- fievoig Trpoievai, zojg Kupw GVjxiii^ziav . Xenoph. Anab. II. 1. 2. — odonrfo Z7rzyzipy}Gav Trpog tov j3acri- Aza 7ToXejU£iv, cnraGi gvvzttzgzv, e£ aSoJtov jU£V yEVfcrScu Aajxir po ig, zk -rzvi]Ti.ov $£ 7r X o u c i o i g, zk Tcnruvtov 0£ TroWrjg yjopag /ca* ttoXewv Seinroratc. zyw §' ot>/c £AC TtoV TOIOVTOJV jUzWd) (T£ TTdpaKClXuVy aXX £/C TtoV c\)$av- rtov y£V£cr^at arqwv. Isocrat. ad Phil. p. 100. B. ed. Stephan. Note 1. In the case even where the article to or the particle were is attached to the infinitive, the predicates, if they refer to the subject of the principal proposition, stand in the dependent proposition in the nominative. ' Ollwlll TrdvTctQ Seovq, fi-rj av eXiarSai tyjv (oaaiXiojg dpxijv / rrjg ^v\r\g (f>iXia, <$ia to a yvr) el v a i Kai aKopEffToripa kariv. — ovZe\q TrjXtKovTog egtlo 7rap' VLlil/f IOQTE TOVQ VOLIOVQ TT d p (X (j CL Q Lii] 3 OV V CL I dlKTJV, Note 2. This attraction is omitted in the following cases ; (a) when the subject belonging to the infinitive is separated from the infinitive by a long intermediate proposition, so that the re- ference might not be easily understood, the predicates stand with the infinitive in the accusative, without regard to the case of the subject to which they belong ; Xenoph. Anab. I. 2. 1. IS ev i a ru> 'Apfca^t, og avrto 7rpOEiaTt]K£L tov ev Tcug ttoXectl Zevlkov, 7} kelp TrapiiyyEiXE \a/3ovra Tovg avSpag. — Herodot. 3. 17. fiovXEV O fXEV U) %£ 01 E^ofe, ETTL fXEV K/ ^ajjijiirt^ov ctyiojv /3a- (riXevcrai, ev6fii£ov e v.' — LlZ/ULVr}7ror£ ^(OKparovg ov^lv «(T£|3£c ? ov§l avomov, ovte it p ar r o v t o q £t^£Fj ovre Xeyovrog rjKovaev* — -OV^tTTOTE ^£T£/U£Xr/(T£ jiWL G I *y 7] 6 q w v.— aavru avvrj^eig d () i k o v v t c. — oi&a (TatyiOQ EfiavTOv ovk ififj-epovra rrj 7rp^.6rrjTi. — eavrov ovSe^ic 6fj,o\oye~t KctKovpyog 10 v or KaKovpyov ovra. Note 2. That the case of the participle is regulated by that of a noun in the principal proposition, depends upon the same prin- ciple with attraction in the infinitive (see § 127) and consequently proceeds from the circumstance of a dependent proposition having no subject of its own. In few instances, and in those only where the participle should stand in the nominative as pre- dicative definition to the subject of the principal proposition, the subject of the dependent proposition is indicated by the accusa- tive of a personal or reflexive pronoun, and the participle then stands likewise in the accusative ; e. g. SophocL Trachin. 709. oput di fi epyov deiroi' I %'e i p y a a jjl k v t) v (where one would expect to find fie omitted and i&tpyacfiivri).— Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 5. 10. 7T£pL£~lhoy aVTOVQ T'/f^ CLCVVCtTOVg y £ V & }l £ V O V Q. Note 3. The impersonal expressions it is known, manifest, evi- dent, it is shown, it is plain, it is clear, and the like, are expressed personally in Greek ; e. g. cfjXog 7\v dvuoiiEvoc, it was evident that (1) I perceived that they fancied themselves very wise.— (2) To have been silent. USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 487 he was grieved. — Qavepol kyhovro ^ Se vjliiv wapaiviov, ttoiovq rivaq y^pr\ sivai fv rw TOiuSe, aiayyvo'ifxr\v av I should be asha?n- ed, were I indeed to admonish you, — (where the admonishing is conceived as a real action in the accomplishment.) — Plat. Phaed. § 79. ovk kiraiayyv%aofiai ipsaSa i, I shall not be ashamed to ash (the asking yet impends). — aiayyvopai iroinaaq I am ashamed to have done.—ausyyvonai -n- o i ij aivt(£iai in the signification to be evident, to be manifest, takes the participle, in the significa- tion to seem, to have the appearance, the infinitive ; e. g. Xenoph. Symp. 1. 15. a/ma Xkyiov TavTa aafytog k X a i £ i v tyaivBTo, he was just as though he wept, kX aid) v £aiv£To would be : he evidently wept. (e) Verbs to declare, to announce, to show, take the participle, when something is announc- ed or shown as a fact, the infinitive, when it is assigned that something may or is said to be ; e, g, airrjyykXXzTO TloTi^aia it oX to p k ov jjl kv jj (when it is certain that it is besieged).— aiTr\yykX- Xfro TTortoam ir oXiopK^ia S at (in intelligence merely resting on report.) Note 4. That the dependent proposition can also be formed with on and we? after all these verbs, is already known from § 122. 4. 5. To some verbs, which merely express sub- USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. "" 489 ordinate definitions of an action ? the Greeks add the participle of the verb which expresses the principal action. Such verbs are : rvyyavw, Xav- %avw } Zavg (3) rovg fiev 7ro\Bjj.iovg Ka/cw£ tt o i w v, rovg Se (pi\ovg ti> £ p yer to v.- — § i ar er eX e k a (4) (j>tvy(t)v to pav^avuv ri 7rapa rivog. — -ov&v a^iicov § i ay sy £vrjfj.at 7rotwv(5). — ol Scot "fcaipovai TipjttEvoi (6) v7ro TU)V CtV%p1j)7r(i)V. O SoOXoG <£> )£ W K £ I £ to V (7) TCL Tto ctGTTOTy aaip£%£VTa, Note 5. The verb rvyyavt lv is often used in this manner, when it is impossible to be expressed in translation, since the Greeks, to designate the absence of human intention and will, very fre- quently join it with those verbs also, which without it express a mere occurrence of nature or of chance; e. g. trv-^e 3-avwV, he was dead, — rvyyavovaiv e^ovteq, they have. § 130. PARTICIPLE IN INTERMEDIATE PROPOSITIONS. 1. The participle in intermediate propositions either forms (1) explanatory collateral definitions to (1) That happened to be there. — (2) Unperceived. — (3) First. — (4) Always. — (5) I have never committed injustice.— (6) Gladly receive honour.— (7) Had hastily carried away. 490 SYNTAX. single words of the principal proposition, which we express by the relative who, which ; or it de- notes (2) relations of time, expressed by the Eng- lish particles while, after, as, when, or (3) relations of cause, like the particles, because, since, as, or (4) condition, like the particles if, although. The case of the participle in intermediate propositions is determined by the noun of the principal propo- sition, to which it refers* ASvvarov woWa T£pwjit£vov avOptoirov iravra kciXioq 7roiuv.' — aSoSol ovtzq ol evvovy^oi irapa roig aWoig avOpwTrotg $£G7Totov ttriKvpov ceovTai. — -ya\e7rov kaTi Atyav Trpoc. yaGrkpa, tbra ovk e^ovGav. — a^iKU Sw/cparrjc, ovg fxlv r) troXig vojjliCu Szovg, ov v o jx t- Z, (o v.- — 2 to k p ar r\ g §e tt i gt evtov Zeoig, 7rwg ovk ci- vai Steovg kvofiiCzv ; — to awfia GvvrjpfAOGTat g o i, juiKpov fiepog Xaj3ovri (1) Ikclgtov. — ov^lv diatyspu no kA£7T- tovti, jueya rj G/iUKpov vfyeXopEVU) (2). — S&vSpa pev TjuijSfvra Kal k oirivT a raying ^verai, avcptov oe § taipS a p ev t b)v av%ig rvytiv ov pac^iov lori. — i\ovg, ovk eySpovg, &£i tivai rovg pzWovTcig airpofyaaiaTovg GVfXfxayovg £G£G%ai, Kai jutjte kin roig ayaOoig tov hpyov- rog $ o v fi a o v r a g, pire kv toiq KaKoig ir p o $ to- go vr ag, 2. In like manner the participle is also put with a verb, where it refers to the subject contained in the verb* (1) So that thou bast received. — (2) Whether he has stolen much or little. 13 USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 491 "RvSaifAtov taofAat y i y v to <5 k to v Efiavtdv. — ravra o?/ o p (jjvt e g ov zappsirz ; 3. Most frequently however the participle is used in intermediate propositions, to bring several actions enumerated in a proposition into the pro- per connection with each other. 4. For every occurrence either consists of a simple action or is formed by the combination of several co-operative actions and conditions. In the latter case a mutual relation obtains between the single parts of the occurrence, whereof one either precedes another in time or is founded upon or developed out of another. In English all the single parts are frequently enumerated together independently and connected by the co- pulative particle and; but in Greek the principal action alone is definitely expressed, while all that preceded it in time or co-operated towards its establishment or formation appears in the parti- ciple. S^oXaoriKoc oiKiav n pi a fxev o c, tt)q SvpiSog it p o- Kv\pag, rjpdjra rovg Trapiovrag, a irpsiru aiirw 7] oacia. ourw S« Tag yviouag £)(av, wg, kav n 3^, 7r\evaT£ov tig rag vavg avroig z }i p a a iv (1). Note 1. Frequently such participles may be best and most conveniently expressed in English by a substantive with a pre- position, frequently by an adverb. Aa'(/>rtv tov (3ovko\ov Xtyovai Tty^evra (2) eKreS'fjvai kv 3d(pvr] f (1) That, as soon as it is necessary, they should embark on board tha ships and sail away. — (2) After his birth, 492 SYNTAX. oS'ey ical to oyojaa eXafiev.—dp'xofievoQt in the beginning, origi- nally.— teXevtiov, in the end, at last. — ^Laknribv \povov, after some time. Note 2. The participles ex

(see § 108. 2. i. and § 109.), the participle with its subject usually stands on such occasions in the genitive — genitives absolute. Euw)£0i//x£ve«jv(l)ropoi typovpav £7n T))v ' HXiv. — £ ipyo/u&voig av T o ig (1) At the time when the enemies were feasting. — (2) See dXiaKofiai, § 84. — (3) If a god bestows a thing,— (4-) As the year came to a close. USE OF THE CASES ABSOLUTE. 495 (1) rr)Q %a\a i X o v g, £$ aSeXtptov $£ ov y ty v o fievov g. — ol TroXejuioi, tog ewpiov rrovovvrag rovg Gtyerepovg, irpovKivrjGav to GTiog, to g w avGO ju £- v ov g tov Suoy/iov, cVcc G(pag ISoiev irpogopfir)Gavrag. Xenoph. Cyrop. I. 4. 21. — oi woXe/Moi eLGrrjKeGav, tog av, eneidri ug ToZevjLta ye ayucoivro (oi MrJ^oi), gtt)go- jli e vo v g, wGTrep tcl nXeiGra eitoStGav ttoiuv. Ibid. §. 23. (1) Because they were cut off from the sea. — (2) Since (as they are convinced) intercourse with the good promotes virtue, &c. — (3) Because (according to his belief) the gods knew best.-— (4) As if friends were formed from fellow-citizens, &c. 496 SYNTAX. £7TOptVOVT0 9 to) Q OV^EVO. UV \ f) c kvkirpr\(jav rag Saooic, Tore ai kcu avrrj irpogeyevsTO (2). Herodot. 5. lOo. — bkeivoi $£ t'l qe\% ovt tg (3) avv roig virrj^Taig, uTTtv o KpiTiag. Xenoph. Hellen. II. 3. 54. — evnv- Bev, ctvSrjv rp'nroSog £/c y^pvaov Aaj3a>v (4), Qoipog fit £7T£^e ^vpo. Eurip. Iphig. Taur. 945 f. — vvfiuov <)£ TOVTOJV' £ % O V T £ £ ^WpaV , K £ K T t] JU. £ V O I Tpi" TjpSig , KpaTOVVTBQ , KCU 7TOOC. TQVTOIQ £ l" § 6 t eg — ■ — * o/lkjjq ovc^ev tovtiov wpag £7T^O£. IsOCrat. Paneg. 31. ed. Morus. (1) The nights being made days. — (2) An evidently de- fective construction, the writer having thought of some transi- tive verb, as TrpogiXafiov, or the like, but afterwards choosing the intransitive expression 7rpogeyeveTo, and repeating avrrj therewith, as an indication of the subject. — (3) Where the writer intended immediately to proceed with the relation sIXkov diro tov /3wjuov, which follows in the next proposition, but first cursorily inserts the command given by Critias. — (4) Where Orestes narrates further of himself as subject, although Qolfiog becomes the true subject in this proposition, and therefore strictly Xdfiovra ought lo stand dependent upon eirefji\le fii. k k 498 SYNTAX, CHAPTER V. On the Use of Particles, § 132. (137.) IDEA AND DIVISION OF PARTICLES. 1. Under the name of particles are usually comprised all kinds of smaller words, from the employment of which language derives connec- tion, distinctness, perspicuity, energy and brevity* To particles therefore belong prepositions, (which, having been already treated of, we shall here pass over), also all conjunctions and lastly negatives. 2. Of conjunctions we first distinguish three principal classes, namely, (I) particles employed to invigorate discourse and to give strength and prominence to single ideas ; (2) particles serving for the external connection of propositions ; (3) par- ticles denoting an internal connection of proposi- tions. 3. The last assigned class of particles is again resolved into the following subdivisions : (a) tem- poral, (b) causal, (c) illustrative, (d) intentional, USE OF PARTICLES. 499 (e) conditional, (f) consequential. But as all these particles and their combinations have been treat- ed of above in the doctrine of the modes (§ 121 — § 123), the following remarks are confined solely to the two first of the assigned principal classes. § 133, (139.) PARTICLES FOR THE INV1GORATION OF DIS- COURSE AND FOR THE HEIGHTENING OF SINGLE IDEAS. 1. ys, an enclitic particle, emphatically heightens the word, which it follows, above the rest, and thus strengthens the idea of the same. It is fre- quently joined to pronouns, particularly personal pronouns, and is often also to be put in combina- tion with other particles, from which it usually stands separated by one or more words. Generally also it is used in rejoinders and answers, either to confirm or to restrict; also in exhortations, to render them more impressive. In English the sense of ye in most combinations can only be in- dicated by heightening the tone of the word to which it refers, frequently also it may be trans- lated by at least, now, however, yes, quite, very. k k 2 500 SYNTAX. 4 Qg clttoXoito Km aXXog, orig TOiavra ye pe(oi, SO may every one perish, who does such things ! — o §1 yepixaliov \afie \eipi TvSuSriQ, fxeya epyov,o ov §vo y av^pe (j>epoiev, otot vvv fipoToi aari, which even two men could not bear, Sec- — E-ywye, I for my part (always in opposition to others). — wavv ye, very much, surely, certainly. — - 7rpo%fjiri(jo/ L iai, to y e/jlov jnepog, at least, as much as in me lies. — eiKorwg ye, quite naturally. — ye %i\, really, certainly. — ye rot, at least however. 2. irep, likewise enclitic, is in signification in- timately allied to ye, and denotes, conformably to its derivation from irepi, comprehension or inclusion, whence, like ye, it is employed to strengthen single ideas. It very frequently enters into combination with relative pronouns, as also with temporal, causal and conditional par- ticles, to confirm their signification. The sense of this particle also is generally indicated in English merely by a stronger intonation of the word, although it frequently also may be trans- lated by very, ever. In combination with a par- ticiple we often translate it by although, or how much soever. Aeyei, awep \eyei, SiKaia iravra, he says all, whatever he does say, justly.- — piireav t6v$, ayaftog wep etov, airo- mpeo Kovpriv, and thou, be thou never so excellent (that is, however excellent thou art), deprive him not of the virgin. — ev^vg iropeveranrpog tov Kvpov ywep tiytv, just as he was.—eiirep, if at all, provided that, if in- deed.— e net we p s seeing that, since.—- Kalwep with a participle, although. USE OF PARTICLES. 501 3. &'j denotes the dejiniteness and certainty of an expression. Its most frequent occurrence is in combination with adverbs of 'place and time, to restrict their indefinite sense to some certain point, like the English just, even, now, only ; also with interjections and interrogative particles and in exhortations for stronger emphasis, like the Eng- lish but, then, well, nay. It is also used, when in the midst of a narration real events are brought forward, and generally in definite and emphatical affirmations as a sign of authenticity, like of a truth, surely, certainly, really, assuredly. TIupaGO/jiai §?) /ecu £ycu aoi ovtojq U7reiv,well I also shall attempt, &C. — §« $?] TrpaoTBpov 7T(i)Q cnroKpivEG%ai, one must indeed &C. — tovto apa ra> eXev^epio irpkiru, /ecu rtu Si/ccu'w §y], and certainly to the just. — aye <$rj, well then ! well now! — tl Sri ; what then ? — vvv S^justnoiv.-— £/j ttov or Srnrov, truly, no doubt, I should suppose. § 134. (138). PARTICLES FOR THE EXTERNAL CONNECTION OF PROPOSITIONS. 1. The parts of a proposition are connected to- gether externally, by being either one united to another or one opposed to another. 2. In the union of the members of a proposition to one another, two cases are possible ; namely 502 SYNTAX. either several subjects are assigned, as participa- ting in common in certain predicates, or several predicates are enumerated, as belonging to one subject. 3. In opposition between the members of a preposition it is declared generally, that one exists in a different relation from the other. This also is possible in two ways ; namely, the opposition either depends upon a difference of the subjects conceived with unlike predicates or upon a difference of the predicates conceived in one and the same subject. 4. As particles for uniting together the mem- bers of a proposition, the Greeks make use of kcu and the enclitic tz 3 the use and distinction of which are pointed out in the following observa- tions : (a) Kal and re serve for the simple union both of single ideas and of entire parts of a proposition. The connection by ts is more usual in the elder and poetic language, than in Attic prose, and ge- nerally this particle is not merely put once be- tween the two ideas to be connected, but joined to each of the connected parts ; e. g. irarrip avfyiLv re %swv re, the father of Gods and men. — This con- nection by t£—te occurs with Attic prose writers only in the union of strongly opposed ideas — -as e. g. tykpuv y^prj to, re daifiovia avayKaliog ra te awo twv TroXfjuiwv ovfymW Thucyd. 2. 64. With Homer however frequently and with the Attic poets not rarely in the union of kindred ideas. If more than two ideas are connected, Homer proceeds USE OF PARTICLES. 503 with the repetition of re, — as II. 1. 177. alu yap toi epic re (j>l\r] 3 ttoXsuoi re, payai re, or after having several times repeated re then uses Kal — as Od. 3. 413. f. 'E^e(j)p(t)v re, ^rpariog re, Ilepcrevc r,' Apjroe re, Kal avriSsog Opacxvuri^c,— or interchangeably re, Kal, re. With Attic prose writers, in whole series of words enumerated either as subjects to one common predicate or as common predicates to one subject, the two first are generally con- nected by re teal, but all the rest by the simple Kal, (b) re /cat connects more closely than the simple Kal and is chiefly used, when ideas are to be re- presented as united in one supposition. Hence this kind of combination is also chiefly used, when opposite ideas are to be assigned as closely con- nected ; C g. yjCH]GTOi re Kai irov^poi, — ayaSa re Ka\ /ca/ca. For this reason we also say aXXwq re Kal (in other respects, on other grounds and also) par- ticularly also, especially, because aXXw? already ex- presses a natural and strong antithesis to that which follows. (c) /cat — ml, as well — as, both — and. This com- bination can only be adopted, when the combined ideas are of different kinds, but never in those which are perfectly homogeneous. Hence several substantives can always be connected by Kai — Kai, — e. g. airtKTUvav Kai Trai^aq, Kai yvvaiKaq, — but of adjectives only those which contain nothing ho- mogeneous in their idea ; e. g. av^puirovq svpjj&zfe Kai aya^lovq, Kal KaKovq, OX Kal ?rev)jrac, Kal wXovaiovq 504 SYNTAX. and the like, not 7roAic /ecu jUtyaXjj /ecu 7ro\vav9pu)Ttog f but juizyaXri re Kal TroXvavOpcowog, Note 1. Originally re appears to have been the copulate for the annexation of every cursory allusion in discourse. In this manner we find it still used in Homer, who joins it to temporal and causal particles, but chiefly to relative pronouns and par- ticles, to indicate the natural connection of propositions, which obtains in the use of these particles. 5. Of the particles employed in the opposition of members of a proposition, we here adduce only fxkv and Se and remark thereon as follows : (a) The opposition in which one member of a proposition stands to another can be stronger or slighter and in both cases the Greeks use fikv and Se for connection. The English particles indeed and but can only be used to designate the stronger opposition, and hence we are often deficient in de- finite expressions for the Greek fxiv and U, which we then translate sometimes by and, also, sometimes by but, on the contrary, yet, sometimes by partly — partly, as well— as also, sometimes finally by now, moreover, and the like. (b) When fxLv is put in the first member of a sentence, the thought necessarily turns to an op- posite member with dL Several cases neverthe- less occur, where, with ulv preceding, the expected Si does not actually enter* Namely either (a) the antithesis to the member formed with pw expressly exists, but declares itself so clearly by the position and subject that U can be omitted. This is chiefly the case when temporal and local adverbs are used, which stand in a natural opposition between USE OF PARTICLES. 505 themselves, as e. g. ivrav% and l/ca, ttowtov and iiruTa, &c. — Or (|3) the antithesis is indicated by another particle, as ctAAa, avrap, avre, &c. — Or (y) the antithesis lies only in the mind, but is not expressly assigned in the discourse. This is chiefly the case when personal and demonstrative pronouns are used at the beginning of a proposi- tion in combination with pfa ; e. g. syw plv Trpoypri- ixai, I have formed the resolution (another probably not). — teal ravra /jIv $rj roiavra, these things are so cir- cumstanced (but others differently). (c) Although where ^v occurs SI must be sup- posed to follow, yet reversely SI does not neces- sarily imply a preceding fizv, but can be joined, without jidv preceding, to every proposition con- taining a further developement and division of single consecutive circumstances, although the connection is then not so close and essential, as in the use of julv and SI. Also §£ is frequently used at the beginning of a discourse which appears as antithetical to one previously adduced ; or in ad- dresses and questions, or in answers, where it al- ways indicates an opposition conceived in the mind. — At the beginning of the subsequent proposition SI can only stand when a temporal or conditional particle is used in the antecedent proposition. Finally, in all the cases here specified this Greek particle is in general incapable of translation into English. Note 2. Both \ikv and li are usually placed after the first word of the proposition. If the first is a preposition they can stand after the second word. With the poets however li often obtains an earlier position in the proposition. 506 SYNTAX, § 135. (147.) NEGATIVE PARTICLES. 1. The Greeks employ for negation the two particles ov (owe, ov%) and jurj, whose composition with other particles produces a double series of negatives, which in certain combinations of pro- positions and under certain relations of sense are used interchangeably according to the same rule, as the simple ov and fin themselves. 2. Although the English, like other languages, possesses only one expression for both particles, yet between the use of ov and fin in Greek a defi- nite and important distinction obtains. 3. In general this distinction is correctly de- signated by saying : ov denies positively and di- rectly, fifi, on the contrary, denies prohibitively or conditionally. Hence ov is used to deny a thing itself, fin, on the contrary, to deny the sup- position of a thing. 4. Hereupon is founded the following general rule : ov stands as negative particle in an indepen- dent proposition, whether expressed as an asser- tion, or as a question, or as a subjective opinion, and likewise in all cases where an idea is nega- tived in and by itself : pi, on the contrary, denies in conditional propositions, whether they appear as really dependent upon an expressed principal proposition, as in assigning intention and in USE OF PARTICLES. 507 the investigation of a contemplated result, or the dependence lies merely in the imagination, as in conditional and assumed cases, or in the expres- sion of a wish, of a command, of exhortation, of fear and apprehension. 5c The following remarks lead to a right appli- cation of this rule in single cases : (a) A whole and independent proposition, whe- ther pronounced as an absolute assertion, or as an opinion and view, or as a question, can be nega- tived only by the particle ov. Ovsc ayazov r\ iroXvicmpavia. — ovk av ayairioriv Ka- Xeu&at cnriGTog. — ri yap o v irapeGTiv * Note 1. If fx{] stands in questions, it indicates that the enquirer supposes something to exist which he does not wish ; e. g. dpa /x?) icaKol w ' 10 cciu 508 SYNTAX. give a tiling to another, if he has it not himself? (on the contrary a ovk avrbq iy*i 9 would be : that which he has not himself)— -ov^uq Ararat y^pr\paTa, Offtic jULTi irapsffTcii, who is not there, or, if he is not there*— o pi) TTiGTevojv, if a person does not believe. — b pr) (juXo- ffofwv, if any one does not philosophize (on the contrary o ov $iXoao$Cov,one that does not philosophize).— Eurip. Phoen. 814. ov yap, b pr) KaXbv, ovttot £(j>v koXov. — • Xenoph. Anab. IV. 4. 15. ouroc yap sSo/ca Kal 7rpoT£- pov TroXXa 7]&rj aXriZzvaai ToiavTa, to, ovtci te toq bvra, Kal ra. pr) bvra Cjq ovk bvra, if any thing did not exist, he assigned it as not existing. (7) With infinitives, whether they be depend- ent upon a verb or accompanied by the article. 'Avay/crj tovto p r) iroiuv. — to p rj 7raffSrivai fxoi aiTiov aoi twv KaKU)v.' — ivopiaav avTOv p rj fiovXeozai paXXov 7] p i) cvvaazai. Note 3. In narration, when the negative assertions of another are adduced directly as his assertions, ov stands with the infini- tive ; e. g. ovk e^eXelv tyrjcri, he declares that he positively will not. ($) pr) always stands with the imperative, as also with the conjunctive which is used instead of the imperative (see § 124. 3.), and with the optative when it indicates a wish. M rj irpaTTZ rouro. — p rj tovto $pa\y, 244. /3wv, jSwc, Dor., instead of fiGvv,(3ovg, 135c r. •ye, signification and use of, 499. ye appended to pers. pronouns, 181. A. 5 inserted between two liquids, 64. dayvg with long a, 32. 5e as appended syllable to nouns and pronouns, 56f. cs, signification and use of, 504f. tie without [x'sv preceding, 505f. dk at the beginning of the consequent proposition, 505. dktcojiai, Ion. instead of eexo/xai, 62. SsvSpsa, Skvdpeai, from dsvdpov, 143. dt), signification and use of, 501. diairdu), augment of, 207. diaicoi'kio, augment of, 207. diaKOvog, quantity of, 31. divrj with long t, 37. Slojkstov as 3d pers. dual., 237. Spair£TT]g with long a, 32. E. £ instead of ei with the Ionians, 71. e interchanged with a by the Attics and Ionians, 72. e inserted by the Ionians in verbs pure and liquid, 240. e rejected in the 2d pers. imperf. pass. 261. ea as termin. of the 1st declens. with long a, 23. ea as accus. of words in evg with long a, 25. ea as termin. of the pluperf. 235. 240. eag as accus. plur. of words in evg with long a, 27. tyKpartjg with the gen., 395. IBeXw^i, 238. ei Att. for y in the 2d pers. pass., 244. a instead of e in the Epic and Ionic dial., 71. ti prefixed instead of the reduplication, 200f. a interchanged with on after verbs de- noting an emotion of the mind, 452. si with the conjunctive, 454. sia as termin. of the 1st declens. with short and long a, 23f. slg instead of sv, 380. tig with the genit., 381. sv instead of tivin the infinitive, 242. sv instead of ijffav in conjugation, 242. sv remains unchanged before a and <,, 68. tVox^sw with double augment, 207. toiica with syllab. augm., 203. £o\7rawith syllab. augm., 203. iopya with syllab. augm., 203, GREEK INDEX. 515 zoprdZio augmented in the o, 203. iTriKai'SdveaSai with the accusative, 398. IpiQog with longt, 36. tpivog with long i, 36. eg instead of tig in conjug.with the Do- rians, 241. sgkov and t with long a, 26. Atrof with long i, 37. Aiip with short i, 34. XvTrtj with long v, 44. M. juev, signification and use of, 504. jU£i> — ds, use of 504f. /i£v without a following c)£, 504f. jj,sq Doric instead of juev in conjug., 241. ft?], signification and use of, 506ff. fxi) in interrogations, 507. fxf) after conditional and intentional particles, 507. fir) after relatives and with participles, 507f. fxr) with the infinitive, 508. fx r) with the imperat. conjunct, and op- tative, 508. fxr) in antitheses, 508f. fir) ov, double use of, 510f. fxrj with the conjunct, and optat., 462. fir) with the indicat. of the pi-eterite, 463. fwcpog with long t, 37. fiifikofiai with long t, 37. fioi elided, 79. jxveXog with long v, 44. fivicau) with long v, 44. fivKr\g as heteroclite, 141. N v Doric instead of A, 62. v instead of £> without contrac- tion, 131. X9**>Q, as heteroclite, 14L ^. i|/uX?/ with long v, 44. Q. w Doric instead of ov, 72. w Doric instead of ov in the genit. of the 2d declension, 104. w instead of wv in the accus. of the At- tic declension, 10G. (x)a as tennin. with long o, 23. wS'eio with syllab. augm., 203. lovkojiai with syiiab. augm., 203. o)v, genit. ovog, with the rejection at' the v, 132f. ojg, genit. wro£, with the rejection of the r, 137. tog as termin. heteroclite, 142. 155. ojq for ovg in the accus. plur. of the 2d declens., 104. wg with the accus. absolute, 495. tog as preposition, 381. u>g with the accent, 49. fogre, construction of, 433f. wv Ion. instead of av, 7 If. 185. ENGLISH INDEX. Accent as a means of determining the quantity, 2 If. , nature of the, 45f. « , sign of the, 46f. , its position in general, 47ff. — in words of the 1st declens., 9 Iff. — - — in words of the 2d declension, 10 Off. - in words of the 3rd declension, 109ff. in adjectives, 146ff. in the verb, 245ff. », irregular in contracts of the 2d declension, 105. , irregular in the 2d Attic de- clension, 107. change of the, in syncopised words in rjp, 126f. — — , irregular in the accus. of the termination w, 132. , irregular in the genit. plur. of words in rjSrjg, 132. - — in compar. and superl., 153. , change of the, 52ff. — incontraction, 76. — — in elision, 79. Accusative absolute, 49 5f. ~= — absolute with iog, fhg av, 495. >£7Tf0, Accusative absolute instead of the no" minative of the subject, 496f. — sing, of the 3d declens. in v, 122. , signification of the, 372. , use of the 373ff. for assigning the prox. ob- ject, 373. — , with verbs, which in some other languages frequently take the object in the dative, 37 3f. with intrans. verbs, 374f. , double with verbs, 375ff. of nearer definition, 378f. — — with definitions of time and place, 379. used elliptically, 379. . with prepositions, 379ff. ath verbs to hear, to per- ceive, to understand, 398f. . with the passive, 418. with the infinitive, 47 Off. - ■ — — with the infin. after \eytrat, 478. Adjectives, terminations of, 154ff. — - of one termin., 156f. — — — — ■ of two termin., 155f. < in og, 158. — - — — of three termin., 154f. — — - — of three termin. as common. 154. ENGLISH INDEX. •519 Adjectives in iog, 155. . , irregular, 1 63f. Adverbs, formation of, 33 Iff. — — — , degrees of comparison of, 335f. JEolic dialect, 5. Alexandrine dialect, its peculiarities in verbal forms, 244. Amplificatives, 344. Anomalous nouns, 141. Anomaly in conjugation, 285fF. Aorists in gkov and tTKOfirjv, 233f. 276. Aorist 1., its deviating formation with Epic authors, 235f. Aorist 1. with the termin. xa, 26 8f. Aorist 2. mid. in a pass, signification, 424. of trans, verbs in an intrans. sig- nification, 427. Aorist, significat. and use of the, 431ff. interchanged with the perfect, 432. to be translated by the present, or by to be tvont, to use, &c, 432. in the significat. to be able, 4S3. Aorists pass, in a mid. signification, 424. Aphaeresis, 79. Apostrophe, 58. Appended v, 79f. ■ does not accede to the dor. termination vti, 242. Apposition, 369f. — in pers. and demons, pro- nouns, 369f. ■ - in the genit. with possess. pronouns, 370. Article, variations of dialect in its de- clension, 186. ■ — , signification and distinction of the definite and indefinite, 349. with ideas of species, 350. with proper names, 350. — — , definite, 351. with adjectives, 351. without a substantive, 352f. with pronouns, 353. with adverbs, 354. with the infinitive, 354. before whole propositions, 354. ■■ — vvith the genit. or with preposi- tions, 352. as a demonstrative, 349. Attic dialect, 6. — , its peculiarity in verbal forms, 243f. , later, 7. Attraction in the relative, 360ff. • in oloe, 36 If. - — — with the infinitive, 479fT. withtheinrin.iiomilted,48lf. Augment, idea and kinds of the, 198f. , syllabic, 199ft: •' ■ in verbs beginning with a vowel, 203. syllab. and tempor. together, 204. temporal, 201 ff. cannot be applied, 202f. in compound verbs, 205fF. in verbs compounded with t v and dug, 207f. — — — — before the preposition, 206. doubled in compound verbs, 20; ■, omission of the, 208f. Breathings, 17f. C. Cases absolute, 493fF. , oblique, signification of the, 372. — — , relations of, explained, 371. Change of consonants, 60fF. Characteristic of the verb, 2C9. Comparative, formation of the, 167fT. — formed by the rejection of o, 169. — in airtpog, korepog and io-Tspog, 170. — in iiov, 17 Of. in iu)v, declension of the, 132f. in gguv, 171. anomalous, 172fF. from substantives and pre- positions, 174. is wanting, 175. Comparison, formation of the degrees of, 167ff. Compound verbs, construction of, 414f. Conjugation in general, 194f. in w, 194ff. - _ in /n, 265ff. , irregular and defective, 285ff. Conjunctive, peculiarly formed by Epic authors, 237f. perf. act. and pass, has no independent form, 231. 233. perf. pass, in an indepen- dent form, 231.259. in the conjug. (xl with the lengthening of the termination, 277 520 ENGLISH INDEX. Conjunctive of verbs in vpi formed ac- cording to the conjugation pi, 275. • -- — in simple propositions, 440f. — — with av, 445f. ■ — after tempor. and caus. particles, 45 Of. »• after intent, partic, 458fF. - — — in hypoth. propositions, 453. 463fF. in relat. propositions, — without av in relat, prop., 465. Contraction of vowels, 73ff. 1 in the 1st declension, 97. ■ — — in the 2d declension, 104f. in the 2d declens. omitted by Epic authors, 105. , Epic, in the termin. r)Q, eg and oq, in the 3d declension, 131. -, variation of, in verbs contr., 2 6 Off. 260ff. 132. •- in conjug. in the Epic dial., — , double, in words in /c\^£, Copula as part of a proposition, 364ff. in the same number with the subject, 365. — is wanting, 366. — in the sing, with a neut. plur., 366. ■ — in the plur. with a sing, of the subject, 367. Correlatives, 188f. D. Dative, signification of the, 372. use of the, 384ff. for designating the remote ob- ject, 384f. — ■ for assigning possession, 335. for assigning approach and con- nection, 386. — for assigning the object with verbs, 386. * with words denoting equality, resemblance or suitableness, 387. for designating the relation of ablatives, 388ff. for assigning the means, 388. — with xprjfffS-at, 388. — - for assigning connection and communion, 388. ' for assigning the motive, 389. — — — with verbs of feeling, 389. Dative for assigning the way and man- ner, 389. for assigning the time, 389. — with prepositions, 39 Of. — with the passive, 417. of pers. pronouns instead of possessives, 358. [xoi, (Toi redundant, 385. with the infinitive, 481. absolute, 494. Declension in general, 88f. , irregular and defec, 139ff, Defective nouns, 144f. Deponents, 423. Desideratives, 344. Dialects in general, 2. — - - of the Greek language, 3ff. Dialect, differences of, in regard to the change of letters, 6 Iff. , differences of, in the 1st de- clension, 97ff. — — — — — - in the 2d de- clension, 104. - in the 3rd de- clension, 126f. 129ff. 134ff- ._ — _____ in verbal forms, 233ff. -in the conjuga- tion in pi, 276ff. Diastole, 57. Diminutives, 343. Doric dialect, 4f. ■ ■ , peculiarities of the, in ver- bal forms, 240ff. Dual unusual in many words, 368. E. Elision, 78f. Enclitics, 54ff. retain the accent, 56. Epic dialect, 3f. poets, 3f. F. Feminines in oq in the 2d declens., 99f. Frequentatives, 344. Future 2, formation of the, 223f. Attic, 223f. 1, varied formation of, with Epic authors, 235. with the Dorians, 243. — 1. rmd. with Dor. termin. in the common language, 243. ------ mid, with pass, signif., 424. ENGLISH INDEX. 521 Future, simple and compound, use and signification of the, 433f. 3. rarely used, 233. • , signif. and use of the, 435. ■ instead of the common future, 435. instead of the imperative, 469. Gender determined by the significa- tion, 86f. of the names of animals, 87. of words in the 1st declens., 90. ■ of words in the 2d declens., 99f. of words in the 3rd declension, 107ff. Genitive, signification of the, 372. 392. : of supplement, 392fF. - with substantives, 393. ————— in an act. and pass, signif., 393. '- for assigning possession, 393. ■ of the whole with mention of a part, 393ff. with superl., adject, and pro- nouns, 393f. with verbs containing the idea of a superl. or compar., 394f. 408. — ■ with verbs to have or take a part. 395. 390. with verbs to touch, to begin, • • " - ■ with verbs otherwise govern- ing the accusative, 396. with adverbs and verbs de- noting approach, 396. with verbs to enjoy, to taste, to eat, to drink, to have profit, 396f. with verbs to remind, to re- member, to forget, 397. — with verbs to hear, to learn, to perceive, to observe, to understand, 398. with adverbs of place and time, 399. for assigning the time, 399. with slvai, 400. — ■■ with words expressing abun- dance or deficiency, 401. — with worthy, unworthy, to be worth, to deserve, 401. — ■ withexperienced, skilled, 401. with verbal adjectives, 401. ■ with Tvyx&vEiv, \ay%dvtiv, Kkr)Qovo}xuv, 395. Genitive with TTtioaGSai, 402. — — with to charge, to accuse, to condemn, 402. ■■ for assigning the price, 402f. ■ with to exchange, to barter, 403. ■ for assigning separation,403. ■ for assigning the material, 404. translated in English for, on account of, in respect of, 404f. — with to smell, to scent, to taste, 404. - — • for assigning the cause, 404ff„ with interjections, 405. — with e'xf iv and rjKe.iv accom- panied by adverbs, 405f. — - with verbs to envy, to admire, 406. — — — - with verbs to care for, to be concerned for, to despise, to spare, 406. ~ — with verbs expressing vio- lent desire, 407. ■ • with the comparative, 407. ■ ' ■ with 7ro\\a7rXdcriog, 7rs~ piTTog, 408. with the infinitive, 480. as apposition with posses- sives, 370. — — absolute, 494. . w ith wg, 496. of pers. pronouns instead of possessives, 357. Grammar and its parts, 1 . H. Hellenic dialect, 7. Heteroclites, 14 If. Hypothetical propositions, 449. 452ff. construction of, 452fF. I. Imperative, use of the, 467ff. perf. use of the, 468. with dv, 447. pres. interchanged with the conjunct, aorist, 468. after olcQ' on, &c. 468f. Imperfect, signif. and use of the, 434. ■ in (Ticov and ocofMjv, 233f. 276. Impersonal expressions given personally in Greek, 486f. Inchoatives, 345. ENGLISH INDEX. Intleclinables, 144. Indicative in simple propositions, 440. with dv, 446f. . after tempor. and causal par- ticles, 450. . — — in hypoth. propositions, 45 2 if. . with av'va. hypoth. prop. 453. . — in trans, prop, after on, ejg, 45 6f. — — of the future after intentional particles, 461. . preterite after intentional particles, 46 If. ,, -in relative propositions, 463fF. _ with dv in relat. proposi- tions, 465f. .after were, 473f. Infinitive active, with various termin. in Epic authors, 238f. — with various termin. in Doric authors, 242. » of verbs in fxi in Epic authors, 277f. . , use of the, 4G9ff. . . with the article, 354. 469f. and with pre- positions, 470. with dv, 447. used absolutely to express vio- lent feeling, 470. — used absolutely in intermediate propositions, 474. „ , instead of the imperative, 470. — after Ttgiv and Trdpog, 471. ■ , ■«. distinguished from the parti- ciple, 472. as supplement after incomplete verbs, 47 2f. — as supplement after adject.473f. — for assigning the aim and in- tention, 474. _ after (ogrs, 475. — — — , independent, with the accus., 476ff. ,— . with the accusat. in depend. prop. 476ff. — in depend, prop, with the accus. wanting, 478. — ■ after incomplete verbs instead of the participle, 487f. «- — — after on, w£, 458. after relatives, 466. Intentional particles, 458ff. Intransitive verbs with a passive con- struction, 427. Ionic dialect, 6. , — _ — — — , peculiarity of the, in ver- bal forms, 239f. 263f. Ionic dialect omits contraction, 75. Iota subscript, 16. — ■ under the infinitive ter- min. av, 252. L. Language according to its idea and de- velopement, If. Letters, pronunciation of the, lOff. ■ , division of the, 12ff. , change of, 60ff. M. Masculine adjectives with dual femi- nines, 368. Middle letter inserted, 64. — forms, 423ff. , signification of the, 4 1 9ff. in the signif. to cause, 422. Modes, idea of the, 192f.439f. , their use in simple prop., 440ff. of the aorist interchanged with those of the present, 437. Modal vowel shortened in the con- junct., 233. Mute with a liquid forms a true posi- tion, 20. admits of redupli- cation, 200. N. Names of nations, 344. Negatives, use of, 506ff. ■ — , accumulation of, 509. Neuter plur. with verbs in the singular, 366. of adjectives instead of the singular, 351. Nominative investigated, 371. , double with verbs, 365. — with the infinitive, 480. absolute, 496. Numerals, I76ff. O. Object, proximate and remote, 370f. Optative perf. has no independent form, 231. 233. ■ in oi r\v in verbs contr., 251. ■ perf. pass, in verbs contr., 259. ENGLISH IXDEX. 523 Optative in verbs in vfii formed accord- j ing to the conjug. fit, 275. , it3 use in simple prop,, 442f. with dv, 445. — after temp, and caus. particles, 4 5 Off. with civ after temp, and caus. particles, 45 If. after on, ojq, 45 6f. ■ inhypoth. prop., 453f. ■■ ■ after intent, particles, 459ff. • inrelat. prop., 463ff. ■ — with dv in relat. prop., 465. P. Particles, use of, 498ff. , idea and division of the, 498. Participle perf. with the termin. of the present, 243. , two-fold use of the, 4S3ff. as supplement after incom- plete verbs, 484ff. in intermediate prop., 489ff. ■ for connecting several mem- bers of a prop., 49 Iff. — with the article, 492f. — — — with dv, 447. to be translated by a sub- stantive, with a prep, or by an ad- verb, 491. — ■ ■ — to be translated by with, 492. of the aorist as preterite, 43 7 f. of the fut. to assign the aim or intention, 493. ■ after XavSdvio, Tvy\dvio, ^iciTeXeco, and others, 489. Participles, terminations of the, 165f. Parts of speech, developement of the, 8 Iff. Passive, use of the, 4 ] 6ff. - 1 of verbs which take the object in the genit. and dat., 418. Patronymics, 344. Perfect 1. with o instead of s, 222. 2., formation of the, 224f. - ■ 2. as the proper perf. of Epic authors, 234f. • 2., use and signif. of the, 426. — passive, formation of the, 222. 225f. 229ff. , in a mid. signif., 425. , signif. and use of the, 431. * instead of the present, 431. Plural instead of the dual, 368. Pluperfect in sa with Epic authors, 235. Pluperfect, signif, and use of the, 435. Position, 20. Predicate, as part of a prop , 364. in the same number, case and gender with the subject, 365. in the neut. sing, without re- gard to the subject, 367. determined by the signif., not by the form of the subject, 367f. Prepositions with one case, 3S0f. 390. 409f. with two cases, 38 If. 41 Of. ■ with three cases, 3S2ff. 390f.411ff. Present, signif. and use of the, 430. instead of the aor. 438. Proclitics, 49. Pronouns, their form and inflex., 181ff. — personal, according to the different dialects, 184f. " demonstrate declined, 185f. ■ — , lengthened, 190. , peculiarities in the use of, 355ff. personal in Homer instead of avTQQ, 356. — personal, expressly accom- panying the verb, 358f. possessive, partly omitted, partly interchanged with the pers. and reflexive, 357. definite, use of the, 355f. ■ reflexive, interchanged with the definite, 356f. reflexive of the 3d pers. in- stead of the 1st and 2d pers. 358. relative, most simple con- struction of the, 359. — — relative and adverbs with ecTTiv, 362. relative, adapted in external form not to the preceding but to the subjoined substantive, 362. relative regulated in external form by the predicate, 362. — — relative instead of the demon- strat. with a particle, 363. Pronunciation, Erasmian and Reuch- linian, 11. Propositions, dependent, aceording to their different forms, 444. R. Reduplication of the consonants cr, A, \x, v, 69f. in the perfect, 199. wanting, 200f. Attic, 204 f. 524 ENGLISH INDEX. 2. and fu- Reduplication in the aor. ture, 236f. 201.204f. — can never 208. ■ in verbs in yu, 266. Relative not repeated, when several re- lative propositions follow one another, 466. — with the infinitive, 466. Root of the verb and its discovery, 209fF. S. Subject, as part of a proposition, 364. in the nominative, 364. wanting, 365f. Superlative, formation of the, 167ff. ■ in KTrog, 17 Of. ■ — ; in airarog, kcrrarog, icra- U. be omitted, Unaccented words, 49. rog, 170. — formed by the rejection of o, » anomalous, I72ff. ■ — - from subst. andpreposit.,174. wanting, 175. Supplemental propositions, 449ff. Syllables, division of, 58f. Synizesis, 77f. Syncopised substant. in rjp, 126f. Tenses, division of the, 193. , peculiar signif. of the, 428fF. , use of the, 430ff. , formation of the, 22 Iff. , affinity of the, 220f. Tenuis, in Ionic unchanged before the rough breathing, 65. Transitive propositions for assigning the object and intention, 455ff. Transposition of consonants, 68f. V. Verbs, kinds of, 19 If. barytone, 214ff. • ~ contract, 247ff. liquid, 217ff. mute, 216f. --pure, 215f. ■- in (o 9 classes of, 213ff. in dco, retaining the a in the de- rivative tenses, 258. — — in da) take t] instead of a in contraction, 260. in odo) contr. in Epic and Ionic, 263f. — in leu, retaining the £ in the deri- vative tenses, 258. ■ in so), which take ev in the fut., 259. — in 6(0, retaining the short vowel in the fut., 259. in jxi, 265. with a trans, and intrans. signifi- cation, 425. Verbal adjectives, formation of, 284f. ■, construction of, 415. — — — terminations and their annexa- tion to the root, 196ff. —forms, constituent parts of, 195. —, use of, 232f. Verb, its idea and properties, 19 Iff. Vocative singular, its formation in the 3d declension, 122. W. Words, Greek, formation of, 388ff. THE END. Printed by R* Gilbert, St John's-square, London. r