Class Book. ElTg GopightN o.H^E COPYRIGHT DEPOSm Washington Taking the Oath of Office as President. ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY BY WILLIAM A. MOWRY AND BLANCHE S. MOWRY^ WITH MANY MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY BOSTON NEW YOKK CHICAGO '} ^^^A -^A^ STANDARD BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. By WILLIAM A. MOWRY, A.M., Ph.D.. LL.D. First Steps in the History of Our Country. In collaboration with Arthur M. Mowry, A.M. For lower grades. 334 pages. 60 cents. Essentials of United States History. In collaboration with Blanche S. Mowry. For grammar grades. X, 444 pages. 90 cents. A History of the United States. In collaboration with Arthur M. Mowry. For upper grades ami high schools. 480 pages. $L00. Elements of Civil Government. 22t> pages. 72 cents. With special state editions for Illinois. INhissachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Pennsyhania, and Vermont. Studies in Civil Government. 259 pages. 90 cents. AMERICA'S Great men and their deeds. American Pioneers. In collaboration with Bl.\nche S. Mowry. 303 pages. 6o cents. American Heroes and Heroism, In collaboration with Akthik M. Mowry, A.M. 223 pages. 00 cents. American Inventions and Inventors. In collaboration with Akthvu M. Mowry. 298 pages. 05 cents. The Territorial Growth of the United States. 245 pages. Si. 50. Marcus Whitman and the Early Days of Oregon. 358 pages. $1.50. First Steps in the History of England. By Akthih M. Mi>wuy. A.M. o24 i>:>4^c.-<. 7i^ cents. AUG 24 1914 Copyright, igod. U)ii, 1014. By Sii.vkk. Bi KPiMr .\m> C\nn\\Nv Cl.A8S0n77 TO THE TEACHER. The opportunity for developing a strong love for Ameri- can history comes when the boy or girl is beginning the seri- ous study of this subject. If the teacher and the text-book together can present the essential points in the history of our country in an attractive, realistic way, a lasting interest is assured. This interest is the best possible basis for develop- ing patriotism and good citizenship. To give a living touch to the text, the authors, in the record of events, have put emphasis on the personal element, on the men who have made American history. Grammar school pupils need a narrative history rather than a condensation of facts, dates, and names. It largely rests with the individual teacher to'give the class a liking for the history hour. The discerning teacher will select the important topics and study them in fuller detail than the space of a single text-book allows; he will provide for the reading of interesting books listed in the bibliography (Appendix, page 3) ; he will enlarge upon the significant parts of the biographies of our leading statesmen and makers of history. He will not set forth the bald outline of everything the man did, but rather will make clear for what he w^as noted, what he did for his age and for succeeding ages. For example, he will make it appear that Jefferson or Madison was a statesman, and show the important things for which he should be remembered ; and that Washington was a states- man and a soldier, while Franklin was a statesman, a diplo- mat, a scientist, an economist, a philosopher, and a writer of pure English. vi PREFACE It is well, in many cases, merely to read over the details of war and battles, dwelling rather on causes and effects. The classroom should be free from the spirit of militarism, and the pupils should see clearly that glory is not confined to the battlefield, nor patriotism to the career of the soldier. Attention should be given especially to the growing tendency among the nations to avoid wars and to settle all international difficulties by arbitration. Nowhere better than in the history lesson can we cultivate the spirit of philanthropy and good- will for the whole human race. PREFACE to the Revised Edition Within the last few months the authors have critically examined this book and changed or added to the former text wherever a correction or improvement could be made. They have rewritten some chapters and continued the narrative down to the present date. As enlarged and brought down to the year nineteen hundred and fourteen they confidently entrust it to the teachers of American History in our schools. A good knowledge of the history of our country cannot fail to make the youth of to-day intelligent and patriotic citizens of to-morrow. April, 1914. CONTENTS SECTION I. — THE COLONIES I. Primitive America . . . II. The Discovery of America III. Early Settlements . . . IV. The Southern Colonies V. The New England Colonies VI. The Middle Colonies . . VII. Life in the Colonies . . VIII. The French Colonies . . IX. The Struggle for America PAGE 1 7 20 27 43 56 65 79 91 SECTION II. —THE REVOLUTION X. The Colonies Alienated 100 XL The Struggle for Independence (1776-1777) . 125 XII. The Struggle for Independence (1778-1781) . 143 XIII. The Articles of Confederation and the Fed- eral Convention 164 SECTION III. — THE NATION XIV. The Constitution of the United States XV. The United States in 1790 XVI. Washington's Administration (1789-1797) XVII. John Adams's Administration (1797-1801) XVIII. Jefferson's Administration (1801-1809) XIX. Madison's Administration (1809-1817) . XX. Monroe's Administration (1817-1825) XXI. John Quincy Adams's Administration (1825- 1829) XXII. Jackson's Administration (1829-1837) XXIII. Van Buren's Administration (1837-1841) XXIV. Harrison and Tyler's Administration (1841- 1845) XXV. Polk's Administration (1845-1849) . . vii 170 175 186 193 198 208 217 223 227 234 236 242 VIU ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER PAGE XXVIo Taylor and Fillmore's Administration (1849- 1853) 249 XXVII. Pierce's Administration (1853-1857) 252 XXVIII. Buchanan's Administration (1857-1861) . . . 257 XXIX. Lincoln's First Administration (1861-1865). — The Civil War (1861-1863) 268 XXX. Lincoln's First Administration (continued) — The Civil War (1863-1865) 294 SECTION IV. — THE NEW NATION XXXI. Lincoln and Johnson's Administration (1865- 1869) 313 XXXII. Grant's Administration (1869-1877) 323 XXXIII. Hayes's Administration (1877-1881) 330 XXXIV. Garfield and Arthur's Administration (1881- 1885) . 333 XXXV. Cleveland's First Administration (1885-1889) . 336 XXXVI. Harrison's Administration (1889-1893) .... 339 XXXVII. Cleveland's Second Administration (1893-1897) . 341 XXXVIII. McKinley's First Administration (1897-1901) . 346 XXXIX. McKiNLEY and Roosevelt's Administration (1901- 1905) 364 XL. Roosevelt's Administration (1905-1909) .... 370 XLI. Taft's Administration (1909-1913) 374 XLII. Wilson's Administration (1913- ) 381 XLIII. The United States at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century 383 APPENDICES appendix A. Bibliography 3 B. Chronology ' . . . 12 C. The Declaration of Independence 25 D. The Constitution of the United States of America . . 29 E. Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg 45 F. Colonial Possessions 47 G. States and Territories of the Union 48 INDEX 50 MAPS PAGE The Location of the Eastern Indian Tribes 3 The World as KnouTi in the Time of Columbus 8 Toscanelli's Map, 1474 10 The Map of Da Vinci, 1512-1516 14 The Sloane Manuscript, 1530 15 Mercator's Map, 1541 17 Grants to the London and Plymouth Companies 27 The Southern Colonies 38 The New England Colonies *. . . . 50 The Middle Colonies 61 European Claims to the Atlantic Slope in 1640 (colored). Following 64 The French Occupation of North America 84 Colonies during the French and Indian Wars (colored). Following . 90 North America after the Treaty of 1763 98 The Campaign around Boston, 1775-1776 115 The Vicinity of Boston 118 The Campaigns in New York and New Jersey 132 The Campaigns in the Middle States 137 The Campaigns in the South 151 The Battleground of Yorktown 159 The Territory of the United States after September 3, 1783 (colored). Following 164 The States and their Land Claims at the Close of the Revolution (colored). Following 176 The United States in 1800 (colored). Following ...... 198 The United States in 1803 201 Field of Operations in the War of 1812 212 East and West Florida 217 The United States in 1821 (colored). Following 218 Routes of Travel from the Seaboard to the Mississippi . . . .221 The Center of Population 224 Field of Operations in the Mexican War 244 The Mexican Cessions and the Oregon Country 245 The Territorial Growth of the United States (colored). Following . 246 The Result of the Compromise of 1850 249 ix X ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY PAGE The Result of the Kansas-Nebraska Act 253 The United States during the Civil War (colored). Following . . 268 The Peninsular Campaign 281 The First Invasion of the North 283 Field of Operations in Virginia 285 Field of Operations in the West 288 Field of Operations in the Southwest 290 The Battleground of Gettysburg 295 Sherman's Campaign in Georgia 305 WesternHalf of the United States, 1870 (colored). Following . . 322 Territorial Dependencies of the United States (colored). Following 356 The World, showing the United States and its Dependencies (colored) Following . 360 The United States in 1911 (colored). Following 372 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY SECTION I.— THE COLONIES CHAPTER I PRIMITIVE AMERICA I. The Land. — The North America of five hundred years ago was a region very different from the North America of to-day. The general outhne of the shore was much the same. The same mountain ranges raised their crests towards the skies; the same rivers ran to the seas. But most of the land east of the Mississippi was covered with a forest that extended from the frozen lands of the North to the tropical shores of the southern sea. The great prairies of the interior were the home and the feeding ground of innumerable herds of deer, buffalo, and elk. The deserts of the West were vast sohtudes. For countless ages the forces of nature had been preparing a land that could support a nation. Great oceans bordered its eastern and its western shores, and mighty rivers with far- reaching branches connected north with south, and east with west. The action of rain and snow, of frost and ice, and the decay of vegetation had made a soil of marvelous fertility. Below the ground were vast treasures of gold and silver, of iron and copper, and unmeasured fields of coal. But no one in all this great territory understood the advantage of river and seas; no one reahzed that the soil could produce more than a 1 2 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY bare subsistence; and few could have made use of the minerals, even if they had known how to take them from the ground. 2. The Inhabitants. — Yet a people roamed througli the forests, hunted on the prairies, and made homes for themselves in the cliffs of the West. They were divided into many tribes and spoke different dialects, but they all be- longed to one race of men and they were all barbari- ans. Their com- plexion was a dark reddish brown color; their cheek bones were high and their hair was An Indian Wigwam. straight, black, and thin. In summer they wore little or no clothing; in winter they w^rapped themselves in the furs of animals. As nearly as can be determined, there were in all about five hundred thousand of these red men within the present limits of the United States, which is less than the number of inhabitants in the city of Baltimore to-day.^ 3. Homes. — The homes of the red men varied in size and 1 The eastern half of the continent was occupied by three main tribes of Indians. All the region south of the present southern boundaiy of North Carolina was held by the Maskoki. North of that line the Al- ponquins held all the territory, except the portion which is now New York State. This latter area was occupied by the strong Five Nations of the Iroquois — the Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas. Onondagas. and the Mo- hawks. The Pequots. Mohegans, Narragansetts, and Wampanoags, with whom the settlers in New England came in contact, were Algonquin tribes. PRIMITIVE AMERICA 3 shape. Some were constructed of poles fastened together at the top and covered with bark or skins; others had straight sides and rounded roofs; still others had upright walls and slanting tops; while those of the southwest were dug out of the cliffs or built of stone or adobe. Yet, however much they The Location of the Eastern Indian Tribes. varied in appearance, seldom was a red man's house the home of one family. Some sheltered twenty people; some were large enough to accommodate two hundred. They were like great tenement houses and were noisy, dirty, and unheal thful. Of comfort there was little, and of privacy none at all. ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Rugs of fur and mats of woven grasses took the place of beds and chairs. Fire was built on the ground under a hole in the roof through which only a portion of the smoke escaped. Food was boiled in crude earthen pots or roasted on twig spits. A matron presided over each house. She directed the preparation of the food, and distributed it when it was cooked. Her word was the law of the household and no one, not even a warrior high in che councils of his tribe, dared to dispute it. A village was composed of several of these houses and was usually surrounded by a stockade, outside of which were the vegetable gardens. 4. Occupations. — The red man had two duties — to pro- vide the meat for his wife and family, and to protect them from their enemies. As a hunter he rivaled the beasts in cun- ning. He could imitate the gob- ble of the turkey and the cry of the wolf so as to deceive those animals them- selves. He knew all the haunts of the deer and the feeding grounds of the buffalo. By a broken twig, or a track in the dust, he could tell what animals and how many had passed his way. He seldom missed his shot, so great was his skill in the use of the bow and so swift were his flint- pointed arrows. A red man could endure untold privations and sufferings An Indian \'illage in the Southwest. PRIMITIVE AMERICA without a nuirimir or a oroan. His standing in the trilv (.lopcnded upon his courage and his succoss in war. No cow- ard could boconie a chief. As a warrior he was tierce, cruel, and treacherous. He never, if }iossible, met the enemy in open battle, but surprised him on the trail or attacked him in the night. Women and children were either put t(^ death, so that n(^ one would be left to avenge the men, ov else adopted hito the cinujuer- ing tribe. All captives were cruelly tortured. 5. Women. — ^^^lile man was the provider and the pro- tector, woman was the drudge. 8he planted the corn, the beans, the squashes, and the tobacco: cultivated them with hoes made of shells or of bones : harvested the crops: and pounded the grain into meal. She brought the game into the village, dressed it, and preserved it for future use. There were neither horses nor cattle in America, before the white men came, so on a journey the woman carried the burdens and also prepared the camp. Almost as soon as the girls, could walk, they were given tasks which grew^ longer and harder as their strength and stature increased. The boys had no duties, but ran and wrestled and shot at a mark with bow^s and arrow^s. According to the red man's idea this was not an unfair division of labor. If the man carried the burdens, he could not protect his family; if he risked his life to procure game, it The IxniAx Hixtkk. From the Statue by J. Q. A. Ward in Central Park, New York City. 6 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY was only right that the wife should prepare it for food; and he thought that by some mysterious power she had greater success in raising crops from the soil than he. In his rough way he was usually kind to his family, and if there was trouble in the household, the man and not the woman had to find a new home. As we have seen, women controlled their homes and sometimes they even became the rulers of their tribes. 6. Religion. — The red man was very religious. Every- thing that was new, or strange, or that he could not under- stand was the work of the Great Spirits or manitous. So he worshiped the thunder, the wind, the fire, the sun, and sought their aid and appeased their wrath by long fasts and by burnt offerings. He also believed in witches and thought that all dreams, however ridiculous, were sent for his guidance and instruction. Wlien a youth reached manhood, he spent several days in a lonely spot without food. Then, if at the end of his fast he saw in his sleep some bird or beast, that creature was supposed to be his guardian spirit through life. He believed that existence was not ended at death, but was continued either in some animal or in some other country where customs and habits were similar to those here. So a warrior was buried with all his weapons about him and with food and drink for his journey. 7. The Coming of the White Man. — In some sections the red man had a legend that a great white manitou would some- time visit their country. And when the white men first arrived, they were welcomed with all the honors that the red men knew how to confer. To discover why and how the white men came to America it will be necessary to cross the Atlantic and learn something of the conditions in the 01-d World five hundred years ago. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 7 SUMMARY A land rich in natural resources was inhabited by a race of barbarians who had no knowledge of the minerals stored beneath the ground or of the proper cultivation of the soil. They lived principally on the products of the chase and the vegetables of their gardens, which were cared for by the women. They were fierce fighters, but feared all the forces of nature and worshiped whatever they could not understand. CHAPTER II THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 8. The Old World. — Five hundred years ago Europeans had a very limited knowledge of the extent of land on the earth's surface. Maps of that period omitted the whole of Australia, the most of Africa, and large portions of Asia. Tradition had said that somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean was a large island, but no one had even dreamed that a western hemisphere existed. In fact most people believed that the world was fiat, and that if one went far enough to reach its edges, he could look down into unknown horrors. ^^Tell me, my son," asks an old Anglo-Saxon book on geography, ''why the sun is so red in the evening," and then replies, ''Because it looketh down upon hell." Only a few hardy Norsemen had dared to venture far to the west, and the reports of their voyages had never reached southern Europe. The Atlantic was commonly Norse known as the Sea of Darkness, where only gods Voyages, might sail in safety. All sorts of fierce monsters were sup- posed to live in its waters, and to be large enough to destroy ships as well as men. The south 'presented equal dangers. 8 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY There, it was said, the heat of the sun dried up all moisture, and ships lost their way in muddy seas and never reached home again. 9. Trade with the East. — It was not strange that mari- ners were not eager to make explorations either to the west or south, until a necessity arose that compelled them to seek OCEAN AMERICA PACIFIC OCEAN SO UTH^ AMERICA INDIA N OCEAN MAP OF THE WORLD •s Known in th& time of Columbus. ANTARCTIC OCEAN The World as Known in the Time of Columbus. a new route from Europe to Asia. Even five hundred years ago a flourishing trade was carried on between Europe and the East. Spices, ivory, jewels, and silks were brought by caravans from Asia to the Mediterranean Sea. There they were packed in vessels and carried to Genoa, Venice, and other Turks ports. In exchange for these luxuries, Europe in Europe, gave woolen cloths, linens, glass, and wines. There had been three routes between the West and the East, but the Turks had closed them all when they captured Constan- THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 9 tinople in 1453 and gained control of the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Now that Europe was denied these luxuries, she desired them more than before, and her desire was increased by the new stories that were told by travelers from Cipango and Cathay, as Japan and China were called. Palaces and temples were reported to be covered with gold, and jewels were said to be larger and more numerous there than any- where else. A new route must be found. 10. Da Gama. — The Portuguese were the most daring sailors of that time, and little by little they pushed their way down the coast of Africa.^ As the mud banks and the dry seas did not appear, each journey made them a little more daring than before. In 1487 Bartolomeo Diaz (de'as) reached the southern point of Africa, but his crew com- pelled him to return. The king of Portugal, however, was convinced that the route to India had been found, and when he learned that this point had been called the Cape of Storms he said, '^^Nay, rather, let it be called the Cape of Good Hope." Yet even then ten more years went by before a ship, com- manded by Vasco da Gama (vas'ko da ga'ma), reached India. Meanwhile another voyage, far more important in its results than the discovery of the water route to the East, had been made. 11. The New Theory. — In spite of the almost universal belief that the earth was flat and the sun moved round it, a few earnest students had reached the conclusion that it was round. Toscanelli, an Italian astronomer, was the first to announce this theory. If, he reasoned, the earth were a ' The use of the compass, which was introduced into Europe from China by Arabian sailors, helped to give mariners courage to sail beyond the sight of land. Before the thirteenth century, Europeans directed their course upon the ocean by the sun and the stars, which were entirely use- less as guides in cloudy weather. 10 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY sphere, it would be possible to reach India by saiHng west; there was an ocean on the western coast of Europe and a great sea along the shores of India and China. The mariner who attempted to prove the truth of this theory was Christopher Columbus. 12. Christopher Columbus. — Columbus was born in Genoa. He received a good education and at an early age went to sea, where he had various experiences as a pirate and a slave ToscANELLi's Map, 1474- trader. Once Columbus visited Iceland, and while there he possibly heard stories of the voyages that some daring Norse- men had made, hundreds of years before, to a land far to the west. Later he became a thoughtful student of geography and a skilled map maker. His business carried him to Lis- bon, in Portugal, where there was great call for maps and charts and where everybody was interested in the progress of the voyages down the coast of Africa. The studies and experiences of Columbus had convinced The Plan of him that the earth was round and he became Columbus, interested in Toscanelli's theory that India could be reached by sailing west. He desired to make a voyage THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 11 by that route, and several letters passed between him and Toscanelli. In one of them the astronomer wrote, ''When that voyage shall be accomplished it will be a voyage to powerful kingdoms and to cities and provinces most wealthy and noble. . . . For these and other reasons and many Christopher Columbus. As he appeared before Queen Isabella. others, I do not wonder that you, who are of great cour- age . . . are now inflamed with desire to execute the said voyage." 13. The Preparations. — It was one thing to reach the conclusion that such a journey was possible, but a very differ- ent matter to get governmental aid, without which no voy- age of discovery could be made at that time. As was natural, 12 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Columbus first sought assistance from roilugal. l^ut King Jolui eager (liscovci-cr though he was -- refused. Genoa and Venice had also been invited to help, but neither would Spain aids give assistance. Finally Columbus turned to Spain. Columbus. (2ueen Isabella gave him a friendly hearing, but was so opi)osed by her counseloi's that six or seven years went by before she could give him the necessary aid. Even then the difficulties of preparation were not ended, From ;i sixtccntli ccmury i)rint. Columbus, Departing on His First Voyage, Takes Leave of THE King and Queen. for ship owners refused to risk their ships and sailors declined to enlist. Finally all obstacles were overcome and on the 3d of August, 1492, the expedition embarked in three small ships, the largest of which was only sixty-five feet long and twenty wide. Even Columbus would scarcely hav;^ dared THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 13 to make the voyage in such small boats, had he not supposed the distance to be much less than it is. 14. The Discovery. — Throughout the voyage the weather continued fair and the seas calm. The sailors were constantly on the lookout and frequently mistook the low-lying clouds and fog-banks for the much-desired land. As day by day went by and land did not appear, they began to be troubled at the distance they were going from Spain. Columbus, therefore, thought it necessary to keep them in ignorance of the real distance made each day. The voyage, on the whole, was uneventful. Finally, on the night of the 12th of October, the familiar cry of ''Land! Land! " once more arose. This time the cry proved true. The lookout on board one of the vessels had really spied the faint outlines of land in the distance. Daybreak showed a beauti- ful island covered with trees and tropical plants. Columbus ordered the anchors to be dropped and the boats to be lowered. Then he and his company landed, knelt on the shore, set up the cross, and took possession in the name of the San king and queen of Spain. Columbus called the Salvador, island San Salvador in honor of ''the blessed Saviour." The name has since been changed to Wathngs Island. For some weeks Columbus voyaged around the adjacent islands, seeking for the continent of Asia. So firmly did he believe that India was close at hand that he called the islands the West Indies, and their inhabitants Indians. But he thought that the natives w^re a stupid race because they called all the world an island and did not seem to know what a continent was. In spite of all that the Indians told him, Columbus decided that he had discovered Asia when he found Cu})a. He immediately sent a messenger, who could speak Arabic, into the interior with a letter to the "Great Khan." Tliough neither the emperor 14 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY nor the cities of China were reached, Columbus imagined a reasonable excuse, and still firm in his belief that he had discovered Asia, he set sail for home in January. After a stormy voyage he reached Palos, where he was received with great honors and rejoicing. 15. Other Voyages. — Almost immediately after his return Columbus made preparations for a second voyage, and this time he had no difficulty in getting sailors to man the ships. ^^Such was the desire for travel," said an old- time historian, ^Hhat the men were ready to leap into the sea, to swim, if it had been possi- The Map of Da Vinci, 1512-1516. ble, into these new After the discovery of South America and Florida. partS " ,' and thc SOU of Columbus wrote, ^' There is not a man w^ho does not beg to be allowed to become a discoverer." Columbus made in all four voyages across the Atlantic, and on one of these touched the shores of South America. He died still thinking that it was Asia he had found. In his last illness, which had been brought on by worries and disap- pointments, he cried, ''Why doest thou falter in thy trust in God? He gave thee India." 16. John Cabot. — Columbus wrote a letter giving an ac- count of liis voyage, which was translated into Latin and scattered throughout Europe. AVhen the letter reached THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 15 England, it was read with great astonishment and the voyage was considered an achievement ^^more divine than human." An Itahan navigator had made a home for himself in the busy seaport town of Bristol, where he was known as John Cabot. He had traveled much, had been in the East, and had accepted the theory that the earth was round. The story of the success of Columbus made him desire to accomplish ''some notable thing," and to give to the king of England some share in the honors that were coming to the kings of Portu- gal and Spain through the discoveries made by their subjects. THE SLOANE MANUSCRIPT, 1530 AFTER THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC AND CONQUEST OF MEXICOT; Henry VII gave him permission ''to sail to the east, west, or north with five ships carrying the Enghsh flag, and to dis- cover all islands, countries, regions, or provinces of pagans in whatever part." Cabot set sail in May, 1497, and Discovery reached land, probably at Cape Breton Island, in of North June. He returned to Bristol in August, where America, his stories of fish and forests and bears were received with such astonishment that he "would have been set down as a liar, being foreign-born and poor, had not his crew, who 16 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY were Bristol men, confirmed everything he said." King Henry honored him by giving him ten pounds and a yearly pension. It has been said that the next year Cabot and his son Sebastian set sail again, and that after reaching land they coasted along the shore from Labrador to Virginia. Because no riches were gained by these voyages, England for many years paid little attention to the new lands, but in after years it was upon these two voyages of the Cabots tliat she rested her claim to the ownership of North America. 17. America. — The re- ports of Columbus's voyages caused great ex- citement in Spain. Men beheved that gold could be picked up everywhere on the other side of the water. Merchants and adventurers begged the court to give them per- mission to fit out vessels at their own expense. . Among the many who made voyages across the Atlantic was another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci (ves-poot'che). He made four voyages in Amerigo all and explored the coast so far to the south Vespucci, tiiat he came to the conclusion that the new lands were not islands off the coast of Asia but an entirely new continent lying between Asia and Europe. On his return from one of these voyages he wrote a long Sebastian Cabot. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 17 letter in which lie described with great enthusiasm all that he had seen. This letter was so interesting that it was pub- lished in book form and wideh' circulated. A man by the name of Waldsee- miiller^ added it to a book on geogra- phy that he was about to pubhsh. In it he said, ''Another fom'th part has been dis- covered by Amer- igo Vespucci . . . therefore I do not see what is rightly to hinder us from calling it Amerige or America, i.e., the land of Americus, after its discoverer ... a man of saga- cious mind." The name was adopted and at first was applied only to the southern conti- nent. By 15-il the whole hemisphere, north and south, was known as America. There appears to have been no intention on the part of * Martin Waldseemiiller (valfza-miil-ler) was a German. He wrote a work called Cosmographiop lyitrodndio, to which he added a reprint of the four voyages of Vespucci. This work was published in 1507, just a year after the death of ColumbiLs. 18 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Vespucci or Waklsceniiillcr of robbing Columbus of his right- ful honors. Columbus was supi)osed to be the discoverer of the ''new islands merely/' while Vespucci was the explorer of an entirely distinct ''new world." i8. The South Sea. — The news that a new world lay in the path to India was not at all welcome to Europeans. They wanted the wealth of Asia, not the hardships and privations of an undeveloped continent. Immediately a search for a passage through to Asia began, and this search continued for over three hundred years. The first European to see the ocean "on the back side of the continent" was a Spanish explorer, Vasco Nufiez de Balboa (noo'yath da bal-bo'a) He crossed the isthmus of Darien in September, 1513, and walking into the sea, took possession of it in the name of the king of Spain. Because it appeared to lie to the south, he called it the South Sea. By this name it was known for many years. 19. Magellan. — Because of this discovery, explorers nat- urally came to the conclusion that the New World was only a narrow strip of land, and their desire to find a passage through it increased. In 1519, Fernando Magellan, a Portu- guese nobleman in the service of Spain, set out to circum- navigate the globe. Though he knew that his ships were unseaworthy and his crew mutinous, he told his friends to be "of good cheer ... he would do his appointed work all the same." After reaching the New World he sailed south along the shores of South America, and finally entered the strait which bears his name. The ships were five weeks going through the passage, but as the water continued to be salt, Magellan was firmly convinced that the way through the continent had at last been found. Even then his men, fearing starvation, de- sired to go back, but the brave commander declared that he THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 19 would go on ''if he had to eat the leather off the ship's yards." When he reached the ''mayne sea, he was so gladde thereof that for joy the teares fell from his eyes." Because its quiet waters were so different from those of the stormy Atlantic, he named it the Pacific or ''peace- ful." After great suffering he reached a group of islands which }\e called the Ladrones, "the isles of robbers." He then proceeded to another group and named it The World the Philippine Islands Circum- after King Philip of navigated, gp^jj^ jjere Magellan, "our warrior, our light, our com- forter, our true guide," was killed in an encounter with the natives. His lieutenant, Sebastian del Cano, continued the voyage, and on the sixth day of September, 1522, reached Spain with one ship and only eighteen men. Thus was accomplished the first voyage around the world. Magellan. SUMMARY The majority of Europeans believed that the world was flat and that the sea was inhabited by monsters who would destroy men and ships. But the capture of Constantinople forced Euro- peans to brave the horrors of the deep in order to find a new trade route to India. Sailors first sought it around Africa. Meanwhile the idea that the earth was round had been gaining belief, and a few people thought that India might be reached by sailing to the west. Christopher Columbus undertook to follow this route and discovered a New World. The report of his voyage excited other nations to make 20 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY explorations and they also sent expeditions across the Atlantic. Columbus died still believing that he had discovered land lying off the coast of Asia; but as years passed, people began to think that an entirely new continent had been found. This was finally proved by the voyage of Magellan, one of whose ships sailed around the world. The New World was called America in honor of Amerigo Vespucci, who wrote a book de- scribing his explorations. — -^ — CHAPTER III EARLY SETTLEMENTS 20. Spanish Settlements. — Spain rapidly pushed forward her explorations in America, but confined them chiefly to Mexico and the southern continent.^ The general idea seemed to be that nothing of value could be found in the north. ^'To the South," was the cry, ''to the South for the great and exceeding riches of the Equinoctial ; they that seek riches must not go into the cold and frozen North." Spain established only two settlements within the present limits of the United States — at St. Augustine in Florida in 1565, and Santa Fe in New Mexico in 1605. The fort at St. Augustine was built more to keep the French ''heretics" out of America than for any other purpose. 21. The French. — A decree of Pope Alexander VI had divided the New^ World between Spain and Portugal by an imaginary line drawn north and south, from pole to pole. ^ Mexico was first explored hy Hernando Cortez in 1519. With an army of four hundred and fifty men he forced his way to the City of Mexico, which he captured and made the headquarters for Spanish explo- ration and trade in North America. Peru, from which Spain got the most of her wealth, was conquered by Pizarro, who entered the capital in 1533. EARLY SETTLEMENTS 21 ]^)^tugal w.'is giv(>n all lo llic oast of this line, and thus cairio into possession oi" tlie eastern part of South America, which was known as Brazil. Spain received the lands to the west, which included the western part of South America and the whole of North America. This arrangement was naturally unsatisfactory to the other European governments. Francis I of France sent to the king of Spain a letter asking by what right he and the king of Portugal undertook to divide the world between them. Unless they could produce a copy of the will by which their father Adam made them the sole heirs, The Old Spanish Gate at St. Augustine. Francis declared that he was at liberty to seize all he could get. He dispatched various exploring expeditions to the New World, and in 1562 Gaspard de Coligny (de ko-len'-ye), admiral of France, sent out a colony of French Huguenots or Protes- tants. They made a settlement on the coast of Carolina and named it Port Royal. The colony was unsuccess- pj-ench ful and soon returned to France. Two years later Settlement Coligny sent out another colony under Rene Lau- at Port donniere (lo'dC'nyar'), who built Fort Caroline near °^^ ' the mouth of the St. Johns River in Florida. When the news of this colony reached Spain, Pedro Menendez de Aviles 22 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY (ina-naii'dath da il've-las') hastened to America to destroy the Protestants. He founded St. Augustine, defeated the French fleet, captured Fort CaroUne, and put to death all the French. In 1568 this massacre was avenged by Dominique de Gourgues (do'me-nek' da goorg) with terrible slaughter. He was aided by the Florida Indians, whose first reverence for the Spaniards had changed to savage hate. St. Augustine, how- ever, remained in the possession of Spain, and France did not attempt to make another settlement in the southern part of North America. 22. The English. — Spain, steadily gi'owing more powerful because of the riches she was obtaining from her American possessions, was the enemy that England most feared and hated. Englishmen began to wonder if there might not be wealth for them in the long-neglected land that John Cabot had discovered. Hitherto their attempts to gain a footing there had not been successful. George Brete. writing in 1578, gave as reasons for this, the lack of liberahty among the Eng- lish nobility, and want of skill among the Enghsh in the art of navigation. But he added, ''These two causes are now in this present age very well reformed." Sir WiUiam Hawkins, the slave trader, and his more famous son. Sir John, had made several trips to the New World. Their Hawkins stories of its natural resources had thoroughly and aroused the English merchants. In 1576 an ex- Frobisher. pedition under ^lartin Frobisher was sent out. He started with three vessels, but one was lost, a second turned back, and with only one he reached the northern coast of Labrador. All hopes of a profitable southern passage to India had, by this time, been abandoned, and the discovery of a northern strait, it was believed, was the one thing that could bring fame and fortune to an explorer. EARLY SETTLEMENTS 23 Frobishcr found a sUnw which he (lioiio-ht contained gold, and the ex|)edition returned in great excitement to England. The gold did not appear. Two years later Frobisher set out again, this time with a colony, to seek for gold. But so' many of his vessels were lost or crushed by the icebergs that he gave up the idea of leaving a colony in Labrador. He filled his few remaining vessels with a worthless cargo of dirt supposed to contain gold, and w^nt back to England. 23. Sir Francis Drake. — About this time Sir Francis Drake came back from a trip around the world. He had been gone about three years, had harassed the Spaniards, had captured great quantities of their treasure, and had been the first w^hite man to see the west- ern shores of the present United States. He spent the winter in a harbor on the California coast, named that part of the country New Albion, and returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope (1579). His voyage aroused such enthusiasm at home that it was suggested that his vessel, the Golden Hind, should be placed on the top of St. Paul's cathedral in London, w4iere all people could see the bark that had sailed around the world. 24. Gilbert and Raleigh. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert then attempted to start an Enghsh settlement in New^foundland. But though he discovered what he supposed to be silver, he decided that the situation w^as unsuitable for a colony. He loaded his vessels wdth the supposed ore and set out for home, only to lose his ship, his ore, and his hfe in a fearful storm. Sir Fran'cis Drake. 24 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY This disaster did not prevent his half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, from sending out an exploring exj)edition in April, 1584. Raleigh was one of the most distinguished and far- sighted Enghshmen of his time. He knew that Spain had done nothing with the country lying just to the north of Florida, and hither he sent his ships, instead of to the frozen north. Taking possession of this country in the name of the queen, the explorers returned to England and re- ported that the soil was '^the most plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all the world/' and ^4he people most gentle, lov- ing, and faithful, void of all guile and treason." Queen Elizabeth named this region Mrginia,^ in compliment to herself, the virgin queen. 25. The First Colony. — In April, 1585, Raleigh sent to Roanoke Island a colon}^ of one hundred householders with Ralph Lane as governor. The charter granted to these colo- nists all the rights and privileges of persons native of England. Raleigh carefully fitted out the expedition with all things necessary. Most of the settlers, however, were seekers for gold, and few were of a kind to make useful members of a colony in a new country. By their harshness and injustice they soon rendered hostile the ^'gentle, loving, and faithful" SiK Walter Raleigh. 1 The story is told that the Indians were asked the name of their coun- try. They misunderstood the question and rephed, *' Win-gan-da-coa." The Enghsh for some time called this region by this name, but dropped it when, later, they discovered that the word meant "You wear fine clothes." EARLY SETTLEMENTS 25 Indians. Since it did not furnish gold, life in the wilderness held few attrac- tions for them. Accord- ingly, when Sir Francis Drake paid them a visit, they were all glad to return with him to England. With them they carried back two ])roducts of the new land that were unknown in Eng- land, the potato and to- bacco. Raleigh planted the potato on his estates in Ireland, where both climate and soil were favorable to its production, and it be- came a staple article of food w^ith the Irish people.^ 26. The Second Colony. — Raleigh, undiscouraged by the failure of his first colony, sent out in 1587 a larger and better equipped company of settlers. Some of them brought their wives with them, some knew how to till the soil; everything seemed to point to the suc- 1 It is said that Raleigh learned from Governor Lane the use of the "new weed." A well-known story relates that one day as Raleigh sat in his room smoking, a servant came in with a tankard of beer in his hand. When he saw smoke issuing from Raleigh's mouth, he thought that his master was on fire and poured the contents of the cup over him. Stone Marking the Site of Old Fort Raleigh. INSCRIPTION. On this site in July-August, 1585 (O.S.), colonists, sent out from England by Sir Walter Raleigh, built a fort, called by them " The New Fort in Virginia." These colonists were the first settlers of the English race in America. They returned to England in Julv, 1586, with Sir Francis Drake. Near this place was born, on the 18th of August, 1587, Virginia Dare, the first child of English parents born in America — daughter of Ananias Dare and Eleanor White, his wife, members of another band of colonists, sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1587. On Sunday, .August 20, 1587, Virginia Dare was baptized. Manteo, the friendly chief of the Hatteras Indians, had been bap- tized on the Sunday i)reccding. These bap- tisms are the first known celel)rations of a Chri-^tian sacrament in the territory of the thirteen oritimal United States. 26 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY cess of the colony. In accordance with the advice of Gover- nor Lane, they had intended to settle on the shore of Chesa- peake Bay. CaUing first at Roanoke Island, however, they established themselves there. Governor White soon was obliged to go back to England for reenforcements and fresh supphes. He promised to return immediately, but England was then engaged in a fierce war with Spain, and two years went by before White was able to get back to Virginia. When at length he arrived, he found the settlement a wilder- ness, and no trace of the inhabitants could be discovered. Among those lost were his daughter and his tiny grandchild, Virginia Dare, the first English child born in America. For many years the fate of the settlers remained a mystery. It was finally discovered that, despairing of the return of the governor, they had moved to Croatoan, the home of some friendly Indians. They were adopted as members of the tribe and were killed by the tribe's enemies. Raleigh had spent so much money on his colonies that he was unable to fit out another. He still trusted that he should live to see America an English nation. Though he did not realize his dream, he did live long enough to see an English colony permanently established in Virginia. Of this we shall learn in the next chapter. SUMMARY The Spaniards confined their explorations to Mexico and South America, and the Portuguese to Brazil. When the French attempted to found a colony in Carolina, Menendez built a fort at St. Augustine and massacred the French. The English now began to turn their attention to America. Martin Frobisher and Sir Humphrey Gilbert started unsuc- cessful colonies in Labrador and Newfoundland, and Sir Francis Drake harassed the Spaniards and made his famous voyage around the world. Sir Walter Raleigh then attempted to colonize Virginia and failed. THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 27 CHAPTER IV THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 27. The Two Companies. — In spite of the English failures to colonize America, Englishmen more and more turned their thoughts towards the possibilities of the new world. By the opening of the seventeenth cen- tury conditions favored a fresh attempt. England had given her old enemy a crushing blow in the de- feat of the Span- ish Armada, and Spanish attacks were no longer to be feared, either on sea or on land. In 1606 certain firm and hearty lovers of coloniza- tion organized into two companies and obtained from King James charters which gave them the right to colonize Virginia. jj^e At that time the whole of the territory in Charter North America claimed by Great Britain was ^^ ^^°^- called Virginia. To the first, which was known as the London Company, because most of its members lived in the vicinity of London, was given the territory be- 28 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY tween the 34th and 38th degrees of latitude, oi' from Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac River. The second, or the Plymouth Company, whose members were residents of the west of England, obtained the land between the 41st and 45th degrees, or from Long Island to a little north of the present city of Halifax. The region between was common property, but neither company could make a settlement within a hundred miles of the other. The territories were to be a hundred miles in width, but a second charter, granted three years later, extended the boundaries from sea to sea. No one, however, supposed that the distance between seas was more than a few hundred miles. 28. The Purpose. — To find the way to the '^back side of Virginia," which Sir Francis Drake had seen in 1579, was indeed one of the chief reasons for sending out the colonies. This is shown by certain instructions given to the Jamestown settlers: ^^You must observe if you can whether the river on which you plant doth spring out of the mountains or of lakes. If it be out of any lake, the passage to the other sea will be the more easy." Another reason of the colonizing scheme was, as in the earlier attempts, to find gold which, according to a story book of that time, was still believed to be '^more plenti- ful! there than copper" (so very common, indeed, that even the '^ dripping pans" were reported to be of '^pure gould"). The main purpose of the companies, however, lay in the fact, which all the most clear-sighted were beginning to realize, that English power and English commerce could be extended and increased by American colonization. It was felt, too, that the colonies would give to the poor and unfortunate an opportunity to make a new start in life. This idea steadily grew, as the years went by and men did not find gold in every sand bank. Virginia was called the best poor man's country in the world, and preachers came to speak of Virginia as the THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 29 '^door which God had opened for England." It was no longer difficult to get men to go to America, and this, in spite of the fact that all the advantages were for the king and the com- pany and not for the colonists.^ 29. Jamestown. — The first colony of the London Company left England on the 19th of December, 1606, in three small vessels, the largest of which, the Susan Constant, could carry only a hundred tons of freight. The voyage was long and stormy, and when the seasick travelers reached land in the early spring, they found the trees and bushes green, the woods full of flowers, and the birds singing. It seemed to them that heaven and earth had never ^'agreed better to frame a place for man's commodious and delightful habita- tion." Therefore they named this land Point Comfort. The two points at the entrance of Chesapeake Bay they called Cape Henry and Cape Charles, for the two sons of the king. Proceeding up a fair and broad river, which in honor of the king they named the James, they landed May 13, 1607, and immediately set up tents and erected booths of branches. Thus, in high spirits and with fair expectations, the settle- ment of Jamestown began. 30. The Difficulties. — The joy was short lived. In a few weeks serious difficulties arose. The colonists had made a mistake in choosing the situation for their settlement. It was on a low point almost surrounded by water. As soon as the hot summer came, the fumes which rose from the 1 The king was to receive one fifth of all the gold mined, and one fifteenth of the copper. The company had the rest of the profits and the entire control of the government. The colonists had few rights, except those which Raleigh's charter gave to the settlers at Roanoke Island: they and their children were to have all the rights and liberties that would have been theirs had they been "abiding and boi-n " in England. Because the kings did not keep this promise was one of the chief reasons for the contioversy between kings and colonists in later years. . 30 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY marshes brought on a serious illness. Before the frosts of Death of autumn arrived, men died, sometimes as many the Settlers, as four a day, until about one half the colony had perished. Moreover, the colonists had not been well chosen; most of them knew nothing about the cutting down of trees, or the digging up of stumps, or the tilling of the soil. '^Thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers up of tree roots," wrote one of their number, would have been worth ''more than a thousand" of these. Not only did they not know how to work, but they did not want to w^ork, and the president of the council and most of his assistants were too inefficient to force them. In addition to all these troubles, the stock of food ran low and, as the Indians would not sell to them, the colonists were in serious danger of starvation. Indeed there is no doubt but that Jamestown would have shared the fate of the preced- john ing colonies, if one of the council. Captain John Smith. Smith, had not gained control of the government. He compelled the Indians to sell food, and told the men that if they did not work they should not eat. As he was a man who kept his promises, land was cleared, corn was planted, and fortifications were built in spite of grumblings and com- plainings and bhstered hands. Under Smith's rule some men proved more industrious than he had expected. And yet ten good workmen, he wrote, would have done more substantial work in 'a day than ten of his men did in a week. 31. The Starving Time. — For a time affairs at Jamestown moved on with some degree of smoothness, though quarrels were frequent, Indians were hostile, and gold was not found. The. next year more colonists came over, and by 1609 there were five hundred settlers. But they were mostly adven- turers and gold seekers, and after Smith was wounded and THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 31 obliged to return to England, another starving period came on. By the next spring only sixty inhabitants were left, and in June they decided to abandon the settlement and return to England. As they sailed down the bay ''none dropped a tear, for none had enjoyed one day of happiness." Before they reached the open sea, they met the ships of the new governor, Lord Delaware. He brought colonists and fresh provisions. The de- serters returned and a new day began for Jamestown. 32. The Reforms. — Lord Delaware served as gover- nor of Virginia less than a year, yet he remained long enough to establish the colony permanently. Sir Delaware Thomas Dale and Dale, then became governor. He was a stern, military ruler, but he brought order into the colony. He started a new settlement at Henrico City, which was a more health- Captain John Smith. From the original engra\ingin John Smith's "His- tory of New England, Virginia, and the Summer Isles," pubhshed in 1624. ful location than Jamestown, and made several reforms that were of benefit to company and colonists alike. Up to that time the land had been held in common and the settlers took little interest in its cultivation. Dale gave to each colonist three acres of land and exacted as a yearly payment only six bushels of corn for the public granary. The colonists now had something of their own to work for and to develop. In place of their continual quarrelings, a good-natured livalry 32 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY sprang up among them. Crime grew less and less, and all fear of another starving period passed away. 33. Tobacco. — The settlers had not been the only ones to suffer discouragement at the condition of affairs in Vu-ginia. The members of the London Company had been dissatisfied at the returns that came from their expenditures. Lumber and sassafras roots hardly had the market value of the 2;old A Virginia Tobacco Field. that had been expected. Some of the members had even urged the abandonment of the colony; others, however, were interested enough to continue the experiment Then, nt length, an abundant revenue came in from an entirely new and unexpected source. In 1612, one of the colonists, John Rolfe,* began to grow ' John Rolfe married Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, the Indian chief. She it was who had saved John Smith's life when lie hnd hvon con- demned to death by the Indians, and who afterwards aided the colonists in several times of need. After his marriage. Rolfe took his wife to Eng- THE SOUTHERN COLONIES ' 33 tobacco. Year l)y year its ('ultivation spread until almost every other product o( the soil was neglected. Against the weed King James expressed himself, declaring smoking to be ''a custom loathsome to the eyes, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs." Nevertheless its use in England increased with great rapidity, and the product found a ready market. In five years, indeed, "the market place, streets, and all other spare places in Jamestown were planted with tobacco." It almost came to be the money of Virginia. One pound of best tobacco was valued at three shillings. Fines for misdemeanors were paid in tobacco, and every planter was compelled to set aside a certain number of pounds towards the minister's salary. 34. Slavery. — The rapid increase in the production of tobacco demanded an increase also in the number of field laborers. Englishmen had found the summer sun of Virginia too hot for active labor, and the Indians made poor farmers. Negroes from Africa had been imported into the West Indies, where it had been proved that one negro could do the work of four Indians. Therefore, when in August, 1619, a Dutch man-of-war brought twenty negroes to Jamestown, no diffi- culty was found in selling them to planters. The importation of slaves increased year by year until, at the end of one hun- dred and fifty years, there were nearly as many blacks as whites in Virginia. 35. The First Assembly. — The same year that brought the slaves to Virginia witnessed another event which was also to have a lasting influence upon American history. This was the calling together by Governor Yeardley of the House of Burgesses, the first legislative assembly of representatives land, where she was received with great honor. Pocahontas died soon after her son was bom. He became the ancestor of many of the leading families of Virginia. 34 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY of the people ever held in America. Up to this thne the colo- nists had had no voice in their government. Virginia had been ruled by a governor and a council of thirteen, appointed in England. The laws had been harsh and calculated to benefit the company and the king rather than- the people, and Virginians considered that they were not given the rights and liberties that were due the subjects of the king of England. Now, however, the company became more liberal and pro- vided that Virginia should henceforth have an assembly with power to make such laws as the people should deem necessary for the good of the colony. The first assembly of twenty-two burgesses, elected by the free inhabitants of the plantations, met at Jamestown, July 30, 1619. It passed laws that were ''well and judiciously framed, which were of the greatest com- fort and benefit to the people." 36. Bacon's Rebellion. — Yet all the good which had been expected did not come from the new assembly. In 1624 the king took the government of Virginia into his own hands, and the liberal poUcy of the London Company came to an end. The governors were given greater power and, since many of them were men who thought only of the advantages that would come to themselves, the colonists suffered many hard- ships. By 1676 indignation had risen to such a point that under the leadership of Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy young planter, the colonists rose in rebellion against the tyranny of Governor the governor. Sir WiUiam Berkeley. The direct Berkeley, reason for their revolt was his refusal to send an expedition against the Indians who were plundering and killing the inhabitants of the distant plantations. Bacon first punished the Indians and then, marching to Jamestown, he captured the town and burned it to the ground in order that ''the rogues," as it was stated, "should harbor there no more." THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 35 Bacon died a few weeks after the capture of the capital and, as the people had no leader, the rebelhon came to an end. Such was Governor Berkeley's reputation for severity that the colonists beheved he would hang half the colony. He was, however, recalled to England by the king, Charles II, who declared of Berkeley that he had "taken away more lives in that naked country than I for the murder of my Father."^ No reforms were brought about by this rebellion against the government of the king, nor was it taken as a warning that the inhabitants of Virginia would not forever endure tyranny and oppression. 37. Lord Baltimore. — Nearly fifty years before Bacon's rebelhon, and while Charles I was still upon the throne, the people of Virginia were greatly disturbed by the arrival of a visitor. This w^as George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a favorite of the king. He had pre^dously attempted to make a settle- ment at Avalon, in Newfoundland, but had failed because the winters were so long and severe. He now desired to found another colony where the winters were shorter and milder. Virginia gave him a cold welcome, first because she feared a division of her territory, and second because he was a Cathohc. No Catholic and, in fact, no one who did not be- lieve in the forms and doctrines of the Church of England, was tolerated in Virginia. Nevertheless, Lord Baltimore was l^leased with the country, and soon after his return to Eng- land Charles I granted to him a large tract of land on both sides of Chesapeake Bay. This was clearly within the ter- ritory of Virginia, but the remonstrances of the colony were 'About thirty years before Bacon's rebellion. England had risen against the misrule of Charles I, and had beheaded him. The repub- lic or Commonwealth, as it is usually called, lasted for eleven years, and then Charles II, the son of the first Charles, was placed upon the throne. 36 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY not considered.^ Calvert called his country Maryland, in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. 38. St. Marys. — Lord Baltimore died before he had com- pleted his plans for a colony. The king, however, transferred the charter to his lordship's son, Cecil, who had succeeded to his father's estate and title. In 1633 the new Lord Baltimore sent his brother Leonard to Maryland with twenty gentle- men and two or three hundred laboring men. These colo- nists bought, on the shore of Chesapeake Bay, an Indian vil- lage, the inhabitants of which were moving away. They paid for the village in steel hatchets, hoes, and cloth, and named it St. Marys. It was March when they arrived, and as the land had already been cleared by the Indians, the colonists imme- diately began their planting. The winter, therefore, found them well provided with food and there never was a starving time in St. Marys. The colony prospered, and by 1647 twenty thousand people had settled in Maryland. 39. Government. — Maryland was known as a proprietary colony ; that is, it had been given by the king to a proprietor. Lord Baltimore, who had entire control of its territory and all the revenue coming therefrom. In return for his gift the ' Soon after the arrival of the Maryland colonists, a controversy arose with Virginia over the ownership of Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay. The island had been settled l)y AVilliam Clayborne, a Virginian, but was nicluded in the grant to Baltimore. Clayl)orne attempted to hold it by force but was driven out by the Marylanders. The dispute was not settled until 1776, when Maryland came into full possession. From a medal of 1632 Cecil Calvert, Second Lord Baltimore. THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 37 king aske^l t^^'() Indian arrows, which were to be delivered yearly on Tuesday of Easter week, and a fifth of all the gold and silver. The arrows were faithfully presented every year, but Maryland never pro- enough gold and king's A Baltimore Shilling. duced silver to fill the purse once. In Maryland, Calvert had powers al- most equal to a king. Fortunately for the colony he ruled with justice and wisdom. The colonists were allowed great freedom, and taxes could only be levied by an assembly elected by the people. 40. Religious Toleration. — Maryland was founded first as a business venture and second as a refuge for Roman Catholics, who were at the time greatly oppressed in Eng- land. Though there was no section of the charter which absolutely granted religious freedom, every settler was allowed to hold any religious faith he pleased, provided only he be- lieved in Jesus Christ and respected the creeds of others. Such freedom in religious matters was not at that time granted anywhere else except in Holland, and Maryland came to be known as "the land of the sanctuary." As his seal upon this spirit of religious liberty. Lord Baltimore, in April, 1649, framed the famous Toleration Act, which ^^ ordered and enacted . . . that noe person or persons in this Province . . . professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth bee any waies troubled ... in respect to his or her re- ligion." Later, when the colony was taken from the Cal- verts, this freedom came to an end. Taxes were levied for the support of the English church, and Catholics were oppressed. 38 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 41. The Carolinas. — Carolaiia or Carolina/ as the region south of Virginia was called, extended to the boundaries of Spanish Florida. It had first been settled by the French St. A us list The Southern Colonies. Huguenots and afterwards by Raleigh's two colonies. Each of these attempted settlements, as we have seen, had failed. Early Toward the end of the seventeenth century, how- Settlers, ever, English colonists began to emigrate to Caro- lina. The first settlement, started in 1653 by a company of ' This region had been named Carolana by the Huguenots, in honor of the French king, Charles IX. Later, at the time of its permanent settle- ment, the name was retained as a compliment to Charles II of England. THE SOUTHERN (X)LONIES 39 iion-confonnists frofii Virpnia, was known as tlie Albenfiarle colony. The second, at the mouth of the Caix' l^'eai- River, was begun by a company of New Englanders. These latter settlers were dissatisfied with the country and abandoned the settlement. Later, some other colonists came from the Bar- badoes and settled at the same place. The district was thenceforth called Clarendon. In 1670 still another settle- ment was made at Charles Town at the junction of the Ashley and the Cooper rivers. 42. North and South Carolina. — In 1663 King Charles gave the whole of this district to eight proprietors. They had almost absolute power over it, but as they offered liberal terms to colonists, the southern portion was rapidly settled by a thrifty class of people. In the northern part, however, conditions were not so " prosperous. North Carohna was known as the ''rogues harbor," and was the refuge of all sorts of people who could not live elsewhere. In fact, exemp- tion from arrests, from investigation of the past records, and a year's freedom from taxation were granted to all newcomers. Therefore the northern section of Carolina was turbulent and disorderly. The colonists had little regard for law and order: they were without lawyers, regular physicians, and even, for many years, without a clergyman. In 1729 the colony was divided into North and South Carolina, and thereafter had separate governments, j^^ Caro- South Carolina became one of the richest and most li^^^s be- come influential of the English colonies, while North Separate Carolina was for a long time of little importance. omes. 43. Agriculture. — Near the close of the seventeenth century, a ship from Madagascar put into Charleston harbor. The cook had some rice among his stores of provisions which he gave to one of the settlers, who planted it in his garden. So flourishing was the growth from this small quantity, that 40 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the exionsivo culture of rice was undertaken in tlie swanij)s of South Cai'ohna. In less than fifty years the rice crop Rice and yielded an annual income of £200,000. The soil Cotton. and chniate were also found to favor the culture of indigo, and next to rice this became the principal product of Carolina. Cotton was also raised, and pitch and tar were obtained from the forests in large quantities. Charlestori became a commercial center and two or three hundred ships annually went thence to Europe. 44. James Edward Ogle- thorpe. — According to Eng- lish law, during the eighteenth century, a man owing money which he could not pay was condemned to imprisonment until such time as his debt should be paid. Prisons af- forded little opportunity for earning money; therefore many debtors lingered in prison for years and often- times for life. And when, in- deed, they were released, it was difficult for them to find work, and their condition and that of their families was very lit- . tie improved. James Edward Oglethorpe (o'g'l-thorp), while serving as a member of a conunittee to investigate debtors' prisons, was much affected by the miseries which he found there. He therefore conceived the plan of founding a colony in America where the most worthy debtors could begin life again. He formed a company, sohcited subscriptions, and obtained a grant of territory between the Savannah and the James Oglethorpe THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 41 Altamaha rivers. It was wholly a benevolent undertaking; the trustees desired no income from the colony The Georgia and did not reserve any of the land for them- Charter, selves. The province of Georgia was to be held '4n trust for the poor," and the motto on its seal was ^'not for themselves, but for others." 45. Georgia. — In January, 1733, the first company of colonists, led by Oglethorpe himself, arrived in America, and made a settlement at Savannah. ''His colony will suc- ceed," said Governor Johnson of South CaroHna, ''for he nobly devotes all his powers to serve the poor and rescue them from their wretchedness." Fifty acres of land were allotted to each settler who could not pay the expenses of his journey, and five hundred to those who paid. The land was granted for life, provided the tenant improved and cultivated it, and there was to be no charge of rent for ten years. Oglethorpe directed that every settler should set out nuilberry trees, and he hoped that thereby silk could be produced in quantities large enough to give the colonists an income and save England the necessity of buying it from foreign countries. The laws of the colony forbade the impor- tation of spirits, and inasmuch as Georgia was to be an " asylum for the distressed," and ^'slaves starve the poor laborer," the keeping of slaves ^\as not allowed. ^loreover, Oglethorpe granted freedom to all religious beUefs, except to Roman CathoUcism, and many persons of persecuted sects found refuge in Georgia. They came — Jews, Swiss, Scotch Highlanders, and Salzburgers and Moravians from Georgia Germany. The colony, however, did not fulfill all R^yaT^' of Oglethorpe's hopes, and for many years it did Province, not prosper. The warm climate was trying to the colonists. Only the Germans were able to keep their vigor. Accordingly, in 1752, the ti'ustees turned over the province to the king. 42 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY SUMMARY The English king granted land in America to the London and the Plymouth companies. The London company sent out the first colony, which settled at Jamestown in 1607, and which, in spite of discouragements, endured until success and prosperity arrived. Tobacco, which was first grown as an experiment, soon found a ready market in England and became a source of large revenue. A demand for laborers was supplied by negro slaves from Africa. In 1619 the first representative assembly on American soil was held. The settlers hoped that this would remedy all their evils, but the colony later passed into the hands of the king, and suffered from the oppression of the governors. As time went on, one of the governors was so tyrannical that the peo- ple rose in rebellion. But their leader died, the rebellion was put dowm, and no especial benefit was accomplished. Virginia was in course of time disturbed by the king's grant of a portion of her territory to Lord Baltimore. This grant resulted in the founding of the Maryland colony. The first settlement in Maryland was made at St. Marys. The colony grew rapidly under Baltimore's kindly rule. Religious free- dom was granted to all who believed in Christ. Virginia also acquired neighbors on the south, in the terri- tory of Carolina. At first this whole region was one colony, but in 1729 it was divided into North and South Carolina. Georgia was founded by Oglethorpe as an asylum for the poor debtors of England. The first settlement of this colony was made at Savannah. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 43 CHAPTER V THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 46. The Separatists. — The sixteenth century was a period of rehgious unrest in England as well as on the continent. A great many people were dissatisfied with the pomp and show of the EstabHshed Church and desired to '^purify" it of what they considered its evils. One class thought that they could best improve the church by remaining within it though without conforming to all its rites and ceremonies. These reformers, non-conform- ists, as they were called, were known as Puritans. Then there was another class of dissenters who did not retain their mem- bership in the Church of England. They formed separate organiza- tions which had no bishops nor appointed clergy and which left out of their service all forms and ceremonies. These were called Separatists, or Independents. At the time of this division in the church it was unlawful for any one to hold opinions on religious matters not in accord with the accepted beliefs of the religion established by the government of England. In fact, religious liberty was a term that had almost no meaning three hvmdred years ago. King James declared, ^'I will make them conform or I will harry them out of the kingdom." Puritans as well as Separatists were fined and imprisoned, and suffered all sorts of indig- A Puritan Minister. 44 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY iiities because they would not conform. But the Separatists were more severely i)unished because they carried their dis- sent to greater lengths. To escape persecution many fled to Holland, the only country in Europe which permitted liberty of conscience in religious matters, and which was therefore called by the other nations '^a, common harbom* of all here- sies" and "si cage of unclean birds." 47. The Pilgrims in Holland. — In the little village of Scrooby, situated in Nottinghamshire on the main road from London to the north, lived a congregation of Separatists. They were accustomed to hold their meetings in the manor house, where lived William Brewster, the postmaster. Because of their religion " they could not long continue in any peacable condition, but were hunted and persecuted on every side. Some were taken and clapt up in prison, others had their houses beset and watched night and day ; . . . . and the most were fain to fly and leave their houses and habitations and tlie means of their livelihood." After several trials and much suflering they succeeded in reaching Amsterdam, where a number of English fugitives had already assembled before them. The next year they removed to Ley den, wiiere they found homes and employment. More and more Pilgrims continued to arrive until, within a few^ years, their number had increased to a thousand. 48. The Removal to America. — At Leyden the Pilgrims lived happily many years. The Dutch so highly respected them that they would trust even the poorest ''in any reason- able matter when they wanted money, because they had found by experience how^ careful they were to keep their w^ord, and saw them so painful and diligent in their calling." Yet the Pilgrims were not wholly satisfied with their life in Holland. As their children grew up, they saw them take ser- vice in the Dutch army or navy or marry into Dutch families. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 45 It cuiitiniially became harder and harder for them to retain their Enghsh speech and customs. They finally determined to search for a place where it would be possible for their chil- di'on to remain English and where they might lay the foun- dations of a new church. America -seemed to offer the advantages which they desired, and through the good offices of friends in England a section of land was obtained for them on the banks of the Delaware River within the territory of the London Company. 49. The Voyage. — It was decided that only the strongest of the Pilgrims should go first to the New World, and that the majority, with their pastor, John Robinson, should remain in Leyden until the venture should prove a success. The colonists led by William Brewster left the Old World in two ships, the Mayflower and Speedwell, in the sum- The mer of 1620. After sailing three hundred miles Mayflower, beyond Land's End, the master of the Speedwell claimed that his vessel was leaking and unseaworthy. She was obliged to put back to Plymouth, where she was abandoned. As many of her passengers as possible were transferred to the Mayflower, which, with one hundred and two colonists, started again, alone. The voyage was long and stormy and land was not reached until the 9th of November; then instead of the green shores of the Delaware which the voyagers had expected, they saw the bleak and sandy end of Cape Cod. The captain of the May- flower claimed that it was unwise to sail farther, and after a month spent in exploring the country, they finally landed at Plymouth on the 21st of December. 50. The Mayflower Compact. — The patent that the Pil- grims had received had been granted by the London Company and would be of no value in the territory of the Plymouth Company to which they had come. Therefore, as they were 46 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY without laws or form of government,, before landing they met in the cabin of the Maijflotver and drew up a compact, in which they solenmly, ''in the presence of God and of one another," promised to obey the laws that should be framed for the government 'of the colony. Forty-one men signed their names to the compact. They then elected John Carver as their first governor. 51. The First Winter. — The long voyage had weakened From the paimiiit; 1>\ Liul \ . The Landing of the Pilgrims. rtiany of the Pilgrims and they were ill-prepared to stand the hardships of a cold New England winter. Though the season was unusually mild, one half of their number died, among them Governor Carver. Yet, when the Mayflower returned in the spring, not one of the colonists went back with her. ''It is not with us as with men whom small things discourage or small discontentments cause to wish themselves at home again," said their minister, AVilliam Brewster. The PlviiKHith colonists were fortunate in that they had THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 47 no conflict with the Indians. They early made friends with Massasoit, the chief of the Wanipanoags, and he aided them in many ways. The Indians showed the Pilgrims how to plant the Indian corn, and before another winter came, they had so bountiful a harvest that Governor Bradford appointed a day of thanksgiving to God who had been ^^with them in all their ways." This was the first Thanksgiving Day. 52. The Salem Settlement. — ^'Out of small beginnings great things have been produced; and as one small candle may light a thousand, so the light here kindled hath shone to many." Thus wrote Governor Bradford of the founding of Plymouth, and the history of Massachusetts Bay proves his words. While the Plymouth colony was slowly growing, the Puritans in England were finding life there more and more difficult. Some of the more clear-sighted leaders, realiz- ing that an open conflict with the king must soon come, and with the example of the Pilgrims before them, concluded that it might be possible to plant a Puritan colony in America. In 1628 six prominent Puritans obtained from the Ply- mouth Company a grant of land which extended from three miles south of the source of the Charles to three miles north of the Merrimac. In September a colony of sixty persons, led by John Endicott, arrived at Naumkeag. A small company of fishermen who had found Cape Ann too rocky for a successful settlement were already stationed there. They and the newcomers came to an agreeable understanding and changed the name of the place to Salem, a Hebrew word meaning peace. The next year the members of the colony were increased by the arrival of a large com- pany of Puritans, well supplied with cattle, tools, and am- munition. Francis Higginson, the minister, a leader of this fresh band 48 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY of iiiiiiiigrants, had said, as the shores of England grew dim in the distance, "We will not say as the Separatists were wont to say at their leaving of England, 'Farewell, Babylon,' but we will say ' Farewell, dear England, farewell, the Church of God in England, and all the Christian friends there.' We do not go to New England as Separatists from the Church of England, but ... to propagate the gospel in America." Yet in spite of this declaration, soon after their arrival, Hig- ginson and his followers organized a church* in Salem which to all in- tents and purposes was as truly a Separatist church as the one in Plymouth, and when later some among the band attempted to organize another church Uke that of the Church of England, they were sent home. John Skelton was ordained as minister of the Salem church and Francis Higginson as teacher. 53. Boston. — The charter granted to the Massachusetts l^ay Company by the king did not designate any special jilace for holding the meetings of the corporation. The company therefore decided to transfer the government of the plantation to those emigrating and to move their officers and the charter itself from England to America. John Winthrop, a wealthy Puritan of Suffolk, w^as elected governor of the colony, lender his guidance a large company was brought togetlier, and setting sail, arrived in Salem in the summer of UioO. Some of the company re- ' The clnnrh hiiildiii";. orectiMl '\n 1()34. is still stamlino; in ^^mKmh. The First Church at Salem. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 49 iiiaiiied tliere, others founded Charlestown, still others started the towns of Dorchester, Newtown, and Watertown. The majority, with the governor, settled at Sliawniut, which was I'enanied Boston in memory of Boston, England, whence many of the Puritans had come. 54. The Government of the Colony. — In a short space of thne the region around Massachusetts Bay possessed more inhabitants than Plymouth. Settlers continued to come in large numbers, until in 1650 there were about twenty thou- sand people in Massachusetts. Many of these colonists possessed considerable property and were men of great influence. At first the colony was gov- erned by the governor and his assistants. When, however, a tax was levied for the purpose of ]3uilding a fort at Newtown, the inhabitants of Watertown de- clared that they were English freemen and alone had the power to levy taxes. As a result of this protest, a change was made in the government and thereafter the freemen of each settlement elected representatives to the General Court. Represent- These representatives met in Boston and there ative Gov- transacted the business of the colony. Local emment. affairs were managed in a general assembly or town meet- ing, by the freemen of each tow^n. A freeman (or voter) was any male member of the colony who was twenty-one years old and a member of the Puritan church. 55. Roger Williams. — Though the Puritans had come to America ^'to enjoy the liberties of the gospel in purity and CIOVEHNOK ^\'I\THI{01^ 50 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY peace," they were not more willing than were the Church of England jsettlers of Mrginia to tolerate in the colony j^eople who did not agree with their belielVs. Naturally, among so large a numl^er of people, there were those who did not agree. Roger Williams, a young clergyman, arrived in Boston in 1631. He settled in Salem, was made pastor of the church, and was justly iwiiular with the jDeople. He soon, however, The New England Colonies. came into conflict with the officers of the province because of his views on civil and religious matters. He claimed that the land which the colonists occupied belonged to the Indians and that the king's grant had no value unless supported by a purchase of the land from its rightful owners. He declared that the power of the magistrates extended only to the bodies and outward estate of man, not to the mind and con- THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 51 science. Therefore, he argued, every man should be allowed to worship as his own conscience dictated. The Puritans were not ready to admit that a complete separation of church and state was wdse or even possible. They feared that the whole country would ''be set on fire by the rapid motion of a windmill in the head of one particular man," and ordered Williams to leave the country in a ship that was returning to England. Williams fled into the wilderness and spent the Avinter among the Indians. Then, at the suggestion of Governor Winthrop, he bought of the Indians a tract of land bordering upon Narragansett Bay and started a new colony. He named his settlement Providence and made it ''a shelter for persons distressed for conscience." 56. Rhode Island. — About this time ^Irs. Anne Hutchin- son was banished from Massachusetts because she held religious beliefs that were disapproved by the magistrates. She and some of her followers settled on the island of Rhode Island in Narragansett Bay, where they founded the towns of Newport and Portsmouth. These settlers were on friendly terms with the Providence people, and in 1644 Roger Williams obtained a charter which united the colonies of Rhode Island and Providence. This charter, in 1663, was superseded by another, which granted complete civil and religious liberty. 57. Connecticut. — In 1635 and 1636 a large number of the inhabitants of Dorchester, Newtown, and Watertow^n, led by the Rev. Thomas Hooker, moved to the valley of the Connecticut River and began the settlements of Hartford, Weathersfield, and Windsor. Their reasons for removal were several: namely, that the settlements at tlie Bay were too crowded, that their cattle had too little pasture room, and tliat the law compelling non-church members to protect the colony and to obey its laws, but giving them no voice in the government or election of officers, was not just. 52 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The new towns remained for a time within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts Bay, but in January, 1639, all the freemen met in Hartford and adopted the first written constitution The First known to history. In it there was no mention of Constitu- the authority of the king. The people were made tion. ^j^g foundation of all authority and every citizen who would take the oath of fidelity was accounted a freeman. This Connecticut constitution marked the beginning of American democracy. 58. New Haven. — The fertihty of the Connecticut Valley Saybrook Fort in 1636. attracted other settlers, and towns were started at various points along the coast and in the interior. A settlement at Saybrook was begun as early as 1635. New Haven ^ was begun in 1638 by the Rev. John Davenport and Theophilus P]aton, the one a minister, the other a merchant of London; and the towns of Milford, Guilford, and Stamford were settled at about the same time. These four towns were known as 1 The site of New Haven was bought of the Indians for "twelve coats, twelve alchymy spoons, twelve hatchets, twelve hoes, two dozen knives twelve poringers, and four cases of French knives and scissors." THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 53 the New liaveu Colony, and their government was similar to that of Massachusetts Bay. In 1665 the two colonies of New Haven and Connecticut were united and were thenceforth known as Connecticut. 59. New Hampshire and Maine. — New Hampshire was first colonized under a grant made to Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason, and originally included a portion of the present state of Maine. Settlements were made at Dover and Portsmouth as early as 1623 and at Pemaquid and York two or three years later. Exeter and Hampton wxre founded by colonists from Massachusetts. From 1643 until 1679 New^ Hampshire formed a part of Massachusetts. At the latter date the por- tion w^est of the Piscataqua River became a royal province, but the eastern part, know^n as Maine, remained under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts until 1820. 60. The United Colonies of New England. — The year 1643 saw the first union of the English colonies. In that year the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New^ Haven, and Connecticut formed a confederacy as a protection against the Indians and against the Dutch, who laid claim to much of the present state of Connecticut. Two commissioners were elected from each colony, who took charge of the militia and had power to provide for the common defense and welfare of the four colonies. Each colony, however, had complete con- trol of its own internal affairs. The English government, afraid that the colonies were planning to throw off their dependence upon the home country, protested against the union. Governor Winslow of Plymouth, however, defended it, declaring, ''If we in America should forbear to unite for offense and defense against a common enemy till we have leave from England, our throats might all be cut 'before the messenger would be half seas through." The union thus formed lasted forty years and was especially 54 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY useful in bringing into closer sympathy the peoj^lo of the various New luigland colonies. 6i. Royal Provinces. — Through all the early years of New England, the New England colonists had almost complete control of their government. The Navigation Acts, passed l^M^/ NF^^^\v^* ^^y ^l^e Enghsh Parliament, re- "^ — ~-^^ ^'^^..••*' stricted their commerce, but the A Pi\e-Tree Shilling. , ii.ii.i- people elected then* governors and legislatures, made their laws, levied their taxes, and even cohied their money. ^ In 16S4, however, the king took away the charter from ^Massachusetts and made it a royal province. Three years later the charters of Rhode Island and of Connecticut were also withdrawn. Sir Edmund Andros was a}v pointed governor of all the country from Acadia to the Delaware River, lender his rule the colonies were de- prived of so many of their rights and liberties that Massachu- setts declared that no privilege was left them but to be sold as slaves. "The governor invaded liberty and property after such a manner," wrote Increase Mather, "as no man could say anytlung was his own." In 1689, when a new king came to the English throne, the people of Boston seized and imprisoned the governor and sent him out of the colony .= Then a new charter was granted to ' One piece of money was known as the pine-tree shilling. It had Mas- sachusetts printed on one side and New England on the other. The pine tree was not vnnnistakably a pine tree. Therefore, when the king objected that there was not shown on the coin any evidence of the colony's alle- giance to England, a friend of the colonies assured his Majesty that the tree on the coin repi-esented the oak in which Charles II had hidden after the battle of Worcester. 2 Soon after Andros was imprisoned by the people of Boston, the mi- litia of New York arose against Lieutenant-Governor Nicholson and seized THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 55 Massacluisi'tts. whicli iwslorml inosi of Ikm' ))rivilei!;os, hut ivservocl to \\\v king i\w ri*i;h( to a{)p()int Ihc govcM'nor. In Ui91 Plymouth and the Massacluisetts Hay Colonies' were uiiitt^l. Rhode Island and ('(.nnecticut ^ continued to govern tluMnselves in accordance with their old charters. SUMMARY Dissatisfaction with tlu^ religious forms of the Established Church brought about the next English emigration. In 1620 a company of Pilgrims, who had found a refuge from persecu- tion in Holland, started the settli^nent of Plymouth. Eight years later some Puritans arrived at Salem, and two years afterwards a large colony hiid tlu^ foundations of Boston and the surrounding towns. The Puritans of iNhissachusetts Pay coukl not agree upon religious matters, and those who were dissatisfied moved to Providence and the Connecticut Vall(\v. where settlements were made which granted greater religious freedom. In spite of their differences, there was considerable sym- pathy between the colonies. At one time four of them formed a miion as a protection against the Indians. For many years the New England colonies practically governed themselves. Parliament began to fear that they were becoming too inde- pendent, and deprived them of many of their rights and privileges. the government for William and Mary, the new English rulers. A com- mittee of safety was elected and Jacob Leisler was placed at its head. For over a year he governed the colony and then surrendered to the new governor appointed by the king. Leisler was trietl for high treason, con- demned, and hanged. ' A\'hen Andros went to Hartford to demand the Connecticut charter, the document was brought, but the discussion contimied until evening, when the lights suddenly went out and left the room in total darkness. The candles were relighted, but the charter could not be fovmd. Tradition says that it was hidden in the hollow of an oak tree, which thenceforth went by the name of the Charter Oak. This tree was blown down in a gale in 1S56. It was estimated that it was at that time about one thousand years old. 56 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER VI THE MIDDLE COLONIES 62. Henry Hudson. — In the first half of the seventeenth century the famous Enghsh navigator, Henry Hudson, made two voyages in search of a northern passage to India. He had carefully explored Greenland and the waters north of Europe as far as Nova Zembla, and had gone nearer to the north pole than any other navigator of that time. He desired to make another exploration, but the English merchants who employed him were unwilhng to spend more money on what appeared a useless undertaking. He therefore offered his ser- vices to the Dutch East India Company and they were accepted.^ A ship of eighty tons, called the Half Moon, was fitted out, and on the 4th of April, 1609, Hudson set sail from the Zuyder Zee. He first followed his old track to the north, but being stopped by the ice he turned his ship towards America, in the hope of finding a passage to the Pacific somewhere to the north of Chesapeake Bay. He landed at the mouth of the Penobscot River, cut down a pine tree for a new mainmast, and carefully explored the 1 The Dutch East India Company was a great organization designed to carry on trade with India and China. Henry Hudson. THE MIDDLE COLONIES 57 coast to the south. Finally he entered the present harbor of New York and went up the river now known by Discovery his name, until the waters measured only seven of Hudson feet in depth. There he turned his prow down the ^^ver. river and directed his course homeward, since the autumn was too far advanced for further explorations to the north. ^ 63. The Dutch Settlements. — Hudson, in his report to the East India Company, said that the country lie had visited was as fair a land as could be trodden by the foot of man ; that it was the finest for cultivation that he had ever seen ; that it was well covered with great trees of every description, and that it abounded in fur-bearing animals. Dutch merchants soon discovered that the fur trade was profitable, and in 1613 built a few log houses on Manhattan Island and the next year a fort near the present city of Albany. About the same time, Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, made a voyage to Man- hattan Bay, where he secured a rich cargo of furs, which he carried to Amsterdam. Block also sailed along the New England coast and gave names to two islands. Block Island and Rhode Island. After a time the States General of Holland made a formal grant of territory to settlers. Later the government turned over to the United Netherland Company the land from ^ The English regretted that they had allowed so skillful a navigator as Hudson to sail in the service of another nation, and when he touched at an English port on his return voyage, they would not allow him to proceed to Holland. The next year he again set sail in a ship fitted out by English merchants. He reached the great sea now known as Hudson's Bay, and at its southern end he spent the winter. In the spring, when he made known his determination to push his discoveries farther, the crew mutinied. They placed Hudson, his son. and several of the crew who were sick, in an open iDoat, cut it loose, and turned their ship towards home. When they reached England, they were seized and imprisoned, and a vessel hurried to America to search for Hudson. No trace of the bold navigator or of his boat was ever found. 58 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the 45th parallel to the mouth of the Delaware, extend- United ^^^§ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ Cape Cod. This whole Netherland region was within the territory granted by Eng- Company. jg^j^^^ ^q ^}^g London and Plymouth companies. Of course the English made complaints, but they were disre- garded. Dutch colonists were sent over in 1623, and three years later, Peter Minuit, the governor of the colony, bought the island of Manhattan from the Indians for sixty guilders.^ The settlement became known as New Amsterdam, the fort farther up the river as Fort Nassau, and the colony as New Netherland. 64. Peter Stuyvesant. — New Netherland grew slowly. It was simply a trading colony. Religious liberty was granted, but the people had no voice in the government. When Peter Stuyvesant, their most famous governor, ar- rived in 1647, he declared, ^'I shall govern you as a father his children, for the advantage of the chartered West India Company." 2 Peter Stuyvesant. ^ The present value of a guilder in American money is about forty cents. This would mean that Manhattan was bought for twenty-four dollars. But as the purchasing value in Minuit 's day was about five times what it now is, it is often said that he paid one hundred and twenty dollars for the whole of Manhattan. 2 The West India Company was chartered by the Dutch government in 1621. It had control of all Dutch navigation and trade on the coast oi America as well as of Africa. THE MIDDLE COLONIES 59 The company could not have found a better man to guard its interests tlian Stuyvesant, who was absokitely trust- worthy and honest. On the other hand, he was obstinate and hot-tempered and was continually quarreling with Discontent the colonists, who desired more rights and greater of the freedom. The company upheld the governor in Colonists, his opposition to the demands of the people and once wrote him that he must not let them indulge in their visionary dreams. The colonists compared their condition with that of their neighbors, the New England colonists, and became more and more dissatisfied and discontented. 65. New York.— Consequently, when in 1664 the English The Dutch Staadt Huys (State House) at New York. determined to take possession of New Netherland, many in New Amsterdam sided with the English. ^^The company," wrote Stuyvesant, ^^is cursed and scolded; the inhabitants de- clare that the Dutch never had a right to the country.'' The governor determined to oppose the English fleet, but the people felt that resistance was madness and in a written remonstrance urged him to surrender. Finally, Stuyvesant gave orders for the white flag to be raised, saying, ^^ Well, let it be so. I had rather be carried to my grave." Thus, without bloodshed, the English took possession of New Netherland. Later the Dutch regained control of the province, but only for a few 60 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY months. New Netherland was given by King Charles to his brother James, Duke of York, and the name was changed to New York. Fort Nassau was renamed Albany. 66. Delaware. — The Dutch made their first settlements in Delaware as early as 1630. Eight years later, a company of Swedes commanded by Peter Minuit, who had once been The governor of New Netherland, bought of the Indians Swedes. a tract of land in the vicinity of Wilmington. They called their colony New Sweden, and their fort Christiana, in honor of the queen. It was hoped that New Sweden would be a refuge to ^^all oppressed Christendom" and a blessing to '^the common man." Lord Baltimore claimed New Sweden as a part of Maryland, and the Dutch in New Netherland maintained that it belonged to them. Minuit paid no atten- tion to the remonstrances of either colony. In 1655, how- ever, Governor Stuyvesant made an expedition against New Sweden and captured it. The colony passed, with New Netherland, under the control of England. 67. New Jersey. — New Jersey, like Delaware, was origi- nallv settled bv the Dutch. The Swedes also made settle- ments north of the Delaware River and a company of Puritans migrated there from New England. The region, however, was generally considered a part of the Dutch colony. After the English came into possession of New Netherland, the Duke of York gave the country lying to the south of New York and to the east of the Delaware to Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley. Carteret had been at one time governor of the isle of Jersey, and owing to this fact the colony re- ceived its name New Jersey. Lord Berkeley sold his share to two Quakers and the colony was then divided into East and West Jersey. The two portions were not united until 1702, when New Jersey became a royal province. 68. The Quakers. — George Fox, an English j^reacher, THE MIDDLE COLONIES 61 was the founder of a religious sect which came to be known as the society of Friends or Quakers. This last name was given them by Justice Bennett, whom Fox, in the course of his trial before him, bade ^'tremble at the word of the Lord." The Quakers held many peculiar be- liefs which caused them to be severely persecuted. They refused to serve in the army or navy, would not pay tithes, and main- tained that every man was the equal of every other man. In consid- eration of this lat- ter assertion they kept on their hats in the presence of persons in author- ity, not even ex- cepting the king. They held the doc- trine that each man's life should be guided by an inner light. A few of these Friends were led into many ex- travagant and foolish deeds. The majority, however, were sincere, quiet, and peace-loving people, who could not be won '^with gifts, honors, offices, or places." The Quakers found their way to America, where they The Middle Colonies. 52 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HlSTOR\ ivceived anything but a cordial welcome. Several colonies, indeed, pas^seil laws which made it a crime for captains to give the memlx^rs of this new sect pass^^ge in theii* ships. They were banisheil. tloggeil. imprisoneil: but persecution New Enersecu- tion gradually died out as the spirit of lilx^rty incivased. 69. William Penn. — The cause of the much-abuseil Quak- ers was warmly taken up by William Penn, v.iio had Ix^come a Friend while at college. His father, an English admiral and a stanch friend of the Duke of York, remonstrattxl with his son in vain, punisheil him, sent him abroad, and even disinheritevl him. but tinally took him back and left him a fortune. William Penn had Ix'come interesteil in America while acting as an arbitrator hi a dispute Wtweeii the Quaker proprietors of West Jei^sey. He Ix^gan to plan how the New World might Ix^come a refuge for the despised sect. When, on the death of his father, he discovereil that the king owtxl his father £16.(XX^. he propostxl that the debt Ix^ paid in American land. King Charles was not unwilling to make Penn's ^^^^^ arrangiMiieiit. and granteil to Penn a tract Grant from south of Xow York. The territory includtxl IVla- the Kmg. ^yare and land formerly given to other colonies. The rival claims creattxl bitter disputes hi after years. ^ At ' A ilispute with Maryland over the soutlK»rn lM>undarY of IVnii^yh-ania eeame famous in after vears as the dividing line IxMween the five and the slave states. \\ 11.1.1 AM Penx. 64 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY never broken, laid out the city of Philadelphia, and granted a Charter of Privileges for the government of the colony. Religious freedom was given to all who believed in God, and the people were allowed great liberty. , .t>i5 ktH^-ti* lnun4JC* .yZtm^M *tJi luU^ 'tna/u /ia.zej 3s^* s^^^..r^^^ "^ a^^jZziz::'^ -2^A^««^<»i^ ^mZnA.ThiftJ'fMcjyt^^ "^/.nA&^J^i Indian Receipt for Ten Thousand Dollars in Payment of Land Sold by the Representatives OF THE Six Nations to the Descendants of William Penn, 1769. Penn always maintained his friendly attitude towards the colony, and in his old age wrote, ''If, in the relation between us, the people want of me anything that would make them i LIFE IN THE COLONIES 65 happier, I shall readily grant it." Pennsylvania became *'an asylum to the good and the oppressed of every nation." Quakers came to it from England, Germans from Germany, and large numbers of Scotch-Irish from Ireland. In three years Philadelphia grew from a hamlet of a few Phila- houses to a city of six hundred dwellings. In so delphia. short a space of time the colony had grown to be larger than New York after its fifty years of occupation. . SUMMARY Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, entered the harbor of the present city of New York and explored the course of the river which now bears his name. Because of this voyage the Dutch claimed the land bordering upon the river and sent out colonists. Later they spread to the surrounding districts and made the first settlements in New Jersey and Delaware. The region occupied by the Dutch colony of New Nether- land was claimed by the English, who sent an expedition to capture it. The Dutch governor surrendered, and the colony was thenceforth known as New York. A religious sect called Quakers or Friends was greatly perse- cuted both in England and in the colonies. William Penn, a wealthy Quaker, received from the king a tract of land in America in payment of a debt- He founded the colony of Pennsylvania, where not only Quakers but other persecuted people found a refuge. «!$► CHAPTER VII LIFE IN THE COLONIES 72. Geographical Conditions. — The situation of mountains and rivers, the climate, and the conditions of the soil deter- mined in a large measure the varying characters and occupa- 66 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY tions of the inhabitants of the English colonies. In New In the England the stony, hilly country forbade extensive North. farms, the good harbors of the coast developed fishing industries and commerce, and the rapid rivers fur- nished water power for various manufactures. The cold climate fostered an active, vigorous people. In the South the rich lands favored large plantations. The many quiet rivers made communication safe and easy, but In the they were not used for manufacturing purposes. South. The Middle region combined certain physical con- ditions of both North and South. Therefore the towns were not so numerous as in New^ England, and the farms were larger, though they were not so extensive as in A^irginia. 73. The People. — New England and Virginia were almost entirely inhabited by emigrants from England. The Carolinas had, in addition to English settlers, colonists from the north of Ireland and from Scotland, and a number of French ref- ugee Huguenots. In the Middle colonies were various nation- alities, English and Dutch in New York and New Jersey, Swedes in Delaware, and Germans and Scotch-Irish in Penn- sylvania. 74. Social Conditions. — There were few members of the English nobility in America. Most of the colonists. South as well as North, came from the thrifty middle class. Yet even in democratic New England social lines were sharply drawp. The members of the learned professions — the ministers, the doctors, and the lawyers — formed the upper class. Seats in church were given according to rank or the contribution that a man made to the minister's salary. The poet, John G. Whittier, has WTitten in regard to this custom the following lines : " In the goodly house of worship, where in order due and fit. As by public vote directed, classed and ranked, the people sit." LIFE IN THE COLONIES 67 At Harvard College the students were arranged in class or at table in the order of their father's positions in the com- munity. Even the dress of the people was carefully regulated. Men who were worth less than two hundred pounds could not ornam.ent their garments with gold or silver lace, and their wives were prosecuted if they wore silk hoods or scarfs. In New York the patroons, Dutch owners of the great estates on the Hudson, constituted the aristocratic class. They rented their lands to tenant farmers and obtained large A Manor House in New York. incomes therefrom. great land owners In the South also the gentry were the They lived in luxury and patronized all who had to work with their hands. However, there were few very poor people in any of the colonies. New England had practically none, and in Phila- delphia it was said no beggars were to be seen, for none had the "lesist temptation to take up that scandalous life." New York was not so fortunate and was put to some difficulty in caring for its poor. In North Carolina too there were a OS ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY luiiuber of unprosperous people, most of whom were outcasts from Mrginia. 75. Servants. — The poorest people in all the colonies were Redemp- tliose descended from the redemptioners, or inden- \ tioners. tured servants. Some had either sold or bound j themselves to pay their passage across the Atlantic; others j had been transported for crimes and misdemeanors; and many 1 had been kidnaped and sold by their captors. During their time of service these redemptioners could be bought or sold ^ at the pleasure of their owners. At the end of a term of ' years, usually not over seven, they were given their freedom. 1 The worthless among these servants caused their owners j nuich trouble, and rewards were continually offered for runaways. Besides these redemptioners the only servants were slaves, and they were in every colony. In New England they were emploved mostlv as house servants and never be- Slaves 1 . . came very numerous. Rut if New England did not find it profitable to keep negro slaves, she did find it greatly to her advantage to import them intoMrginia and the other Southern colonies. Many of the \'irginia planters were disturbed by the rapid increase of negroes in their colony and desired to stop the trade in men and women. England, however, also found the slave trade profitable and would not prohibit it. In South Carolina the slaves soon outnumbered the white inhabitants, and there, in the unhealthy rice fields, their condition was most pitiable. 76. Cities. — Because of the small farms and the necessity of keeping together from fear of the Indians, the New England colonists lived near one another in t owns and villages. Boston was the largest city hi America up to the middle of the eigh- teenth century, and Salem. Portsmouth, Newport, and New Haven were towns of considerable importance. Philadelphia \AVl] IN Tlll-^. COLON 1I<:S GO canu^ \\v\\ (() Hoslon in si/(\ mikI was well laid oul with s(i'a.ii;*ht., wide slrccts hordiM'cd r)y liandsonu* houses. New ^'()^k was vxvn in (hose (>ai-ly colonial (hiys (he* i2;ay(*st city in the colonies, and had (he most varied j)o})ulalion.' Albany was a Hourishiniz; (own, l)u( all (he other settlements of the middle colonies wim'c small villages. Baltimon^ was not founded until 1729, l)u( i( i2;rew I'apidly and in lif(y years had a. population of 2(),()()(). A SoUTinOHN C'OLONIAL IloMlO. Ohai-lestou was the only city in the South w^orthy of the nam(\ In many places the colonists of South Carolina could not live on the plantations because of the unhealthfullness of the country. Therefore they generally left overseers ' The first charter for New York City was granted in 1689 by Thomas Dongan, English governor of the colony. This was siii)erseded by the Montgoinerie Charter in 1731. The rights which Dongan gave to Albany in a charter granted a year or two before that to New York are incorpo- rated in the present city charter <>!' Albany. 70 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTOR\ to iul(' llu'ir great country estates and made their homes hi Charleston, where the l)reezes blow fresh from the sea. In Virginia the planters, prefering country to city life, lived more generally on their plantations. Williamsburg, the capi- tal of the colony, was but a small village. 77. Travel. — Roads outside of the towns were poor in all the colonies. At first they were usually bridle paths with- out bridges and were often impassable in bad weather. Later A Massachusetts Tavern. Built in 1(395 they were widened to cart roads, but history does not record bridges broad enough to admit a wagon until 1669. In the South sloops and boats were used almost entirely as means of transportation. It was said to be easier to go to London than to travel from Boston to Mrginia l^v land. Therefore there was little com- LIFE IN THE COLONIES ' 71 muiiication l)et\vccn tlie colonies. It naturally followed that, as they knew little of one another, there was no close bond of sympathy between them. In the South a visitor was always welcome, for it was he who brought the news. Robert Beverley writes that in Virginia a traveler needed no other recommendation than that of being a human creature. Even a poor planter w^as glad to give up his one bed to make room for a weary traveler. South Carolina was noted for its hospitality. A traveler there had Httle need of money. Every house was open to all respectable strangers, and tavern keeping was a very unprofitable business. In the Northern colonies, however, the taverns held an important place in village hfe. They were to those early colonists what news- papers now are to us, for it was there that all the men of the town gathered to learn whatever news of the outside world a passing traveler might bring. Few^ letters were written, and even after postal routes were laid, the riders went only when their bags w^ere full. The first mail between New York and Boston started on the The First first day of January, 1673. In his letter to Gover- Mail, nor Winthrop of Connecticut, Governor Lovelace of New York wrote that he considered this monthly post the best means for bringing about a mutual understanding between the colonies. 78. Houses. — The first houses of the colonists were built of logs and seldom had more than one room, had no plaster on the walls, and for windows had only wooden shutters. As the country grew older, however, these rough shelters were replaced by more substantial dwellings built after the style of those in England and Holland. The wealthy merchants of the Northern towns and the owners of the great Southern plantations lived in handsome mansions built of brick, or stone, or wood. Much of the building material was brought from Europe and the furniture was imported. 72 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The furnishings of the snuillor houses weiv mainly of home manufactui'e. Benches and stools took the place of chairs and couches. Beds were often only rude frames fastened against the wall, on w^iich were placed mattresses stuffed with mosses or corn husks. Frequently hemlock boughs WTre used for beds. The tired colonists slept well on these hard couches, for, as they said, "sl hard day's work makes a soft bed." The great kitchen, with its fire})lace large enough to hold a The Kitchen Fireplace. four- or six-foot log, with its festoons of dried fruits and vege- tables, with its spinning-wheel and loom, was the center of family life. The best room was reserved for ceremonious occasions, such as weddings and funerals. There were almost no carpets anywhere, but the floors were carefully covered with fine white sand, which was often elaborately marked in figures. 79. Utensils. — Only the wealthy families could buy gold and silver dishes, but there were few who did not own at least LIFE IN THE COLONIES 73 one silver spoon. Dishes and platters of various sorts, and common spoons were made of pewter, a mixture of tin and lead. In early times forks were seldom used. Knife, spoon, napkin, and fingers were, thought sufficient for the proper handling of food at table. Wooden dishes of all descriptions were employed, but even these were not very numerous. One wooden trencher usually sufficed for a plate for two people, and when a Connecticut deacon, who owned a sawmill, cut out a trencher for each one of his children, his neighbors said that he was too extravagant, even for a deacon. Cups and mugs were also scarce, so drink was passed around the table in a large tankard shared in common. Gourds of various shapes and sizes made good bottles, skimmers, dippers, cups, and bowls. The best bowls, however, were formed out of maple knots and were so highly prized as frequently to be mentioned in wills. 80. Home Industries. — Almost everything that a farmer's family could eat or wear or use was homemade. Wool was cut from the sheep's back, carded, spun into thread, and woven into cloth for suits, dresses, and coats. Flax was grown in the fields and made into table linen, towels, and sheets. Straw was plaited for bonnets and hats. Gloves, mittens, and stockings were knit; butter and cheese manufactured; candles dipped; and fruits, vegetables, and meats salted, cured, dried, and preserved for winter use. The farmer made his tools, his harnesses, his sleds, and his carts. He was mason, brick- layer, and carpenter in one. In the South the slaves did most of the real labor of the household, though the mistress and her daughters gave care- ful oversight to the work. In the Middle and Northern col- onies, every member of the family was a lielper. Even the little children had their tasks of knitting, sewing, and dish washing, almost as soon as they could walk. 74 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 8i. Amusements. — Yet with all their many and varied duties, the colonists found time for amusements. Thanks- giving Day and election and training days were holidays that were greatly enjoyed in New England. Families helped one another when any great task was to be done, and quiltings, corn huskings, house raisings, and road breakings in winter were made the occasions for much fun and merry-making. The Dutch were fond of sports and games of all sorts. In the winter they skated, coasted, and went sleighing. They bowled and played trock (a kind of croquet) and tick-tack, which was much like the game of backgammon. In 1753 a theater was opened in New York, where plays were given three times a week. In the South men engaged in all manner of outdoor sports, especially horse racing, fox hunting, and cock-fighting. 82. Sunday. — An old hymn says: — " New England's Sabbath day- Is heaven-like, still and pure." Sunday began at sunset Saturday night and lasted until sunset the next night. Everything was made ready on Satur- day so that no cooking, sweeping, or other housework except that absolutely necessary was done on the holy day. No one could run, or walk, or ride except quietly to church. All the people were expected to attend the services and all ab- sences were carefuhy investigated by the tithing man. The sermons were long and difficult to understand, but no one was allowed even to nod, for the tithing man was careful to arouse every sleeper with his long pole. The early Virginians were just as particular to keep the Sabbath as were the Puritans. One of the early governors even went so far as to declai-e that absence from church should be punished by death. This penalty was never imposed, but LIFE IN THE COLONIES 75 strange offenders were fined tind even put in tlie stocks. If one made a journey on Sunday, other than to go to church or to attend a case ^'of extreme necessity/' he was fined tw^enty i:)Ounds of tobacco. In times of trouble, such as famine or Indian raid, the last Wednesday in every month was set apart for prayers and was nearly as carefully kept as Sunday. The Middle colonists w^re not so strict in their observance of Sunday, but even with them laws were framed which care- fully guarded the day. No Sunday excursions or picnics were allowed, the vicinity of the churches was kept quiet and trans- gressors were punished. 83. Punishments. — The colonists had many punishments for crime and wrongdoing which have en- tirely passed out of use. These were also at that time connnon in the mother country. Samuel Johnson, the English author, once said, ^^ Madam, we have different modes of restrain- ing evil — stocks for men, a ducking stool for women, and a pound for beasts." The stocks consisted of a bench on which the ofTender sat. In front was a board with holes through which the feet were thrust and held securely. The pillory was another instrument for punish- ment similar in idea to the stocks. On a plat- form were erected two upright posts across which was a board with holes just large enough for wrists and neck. The boaixl was divided so that the upper half could be raised. After the culprit was placed in position, the upper part of the board The Stocks. Pillory. 7() i'ssi:n riAi vS ov vwvvv srvris iiisrom TUK V\\ I OK\ was IowotihI and lorki^i. hoUing llu^ haiulsand Uciul socuroly. IVoqiuMit ly a cawI was fastiMunl to ihr hrc^isl ot' llu> (I'ans- iirossor. on whi^'h was a IcWcv (ItMiotiiii:: his t>tTons(\ \\ hippiiii:; posts olton stoinl by the slocks aiul tho pillory, aiul those were used as punishments tor lyiui:;. swc^iriui:. selliui;- spirits to the Indians, and otluM' inisdenu\nnors. One oi \\\c most peeuliar penal instruments was the duekiuii" stool, whieh was used to punish seoldiui: women. John l\ndieott saw one in use in \ ir- The Duck- i^inia and wrote a de- ii^ii ^too I. seription ot" it. "" At ye end ot" a lonu" ai"m."" he said, "is tixed a stool upon whieh the woman was l'asteni\l by eords, Ium- i^own lu^ld last around her teete. The maehine w a s t he n mo\i\l up to the ed^e ot" ye jHMul . . . and ye woman was allowed to i::;o ilow n under ye w ater tor ye spaee o\ halt" a minute." Massa- ehusetts at tirst punished luM" seoldiui:; w omen by ga^- giuij; them and setting" them betore their doors "tor all eomers and goers to i:;a/i^ at." But this t"orm ot" punishnuMit was abandoned tor the duekin^;" stool, I he usi^ ot' whieh soon beeame univiM'sal in all the eolonies. PuK Oi eKW^; Srooi LIFE IN THE COLONIES 77 84. Schools. — The colonies varied greatly in the regard ])aid to the education of their children. The first public school in America was established in Dorchester as early as 1639, and eight years later the Massachusetts legislature passed a law which ordered every village of fifty families to have a school for teaching all children to read and write. Further- more, it was ordained that every town of one hundred families must set up a grannnar school to fit the youth for the univer- sity. The Dutch also started schools at an early date, but they were private schools and most of them were not continued after the English took possession of New Netherland. The Middle colonies had some good private schools, but no public money was spent to educate the people. In the South the settlers taught their children as best they could, or sent them to England to be educated. The planta- tions were too scattered for the children to come together for school purposes, and the authorities were opposed to public education. Governor Berkeley's remark on this point is often quoted: ^'I thank God," he said, ^^ there are no free schools, nor prhiting: and T hope we shall not have them, these hun- dred years; for learning has brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them. . . God keep us from both." As a result of this short-sighted policy held by the magistrates of Virginia, the poor children of that colony were ignorant of even the simplest knowledge of letters and figures, while in Massachusetts it would have been difficult to find a chikl of school age who could not read and write. Virginia, howc^ver, had schools where children were taught to spin and weave. In 1668 the colony passed a law that such schools should be established in every county. 85. Colleges. -Massachusetts, in 1636, though distui-bed by {\\c hoslilily »»r \\\r Indians and by c()ntrov(M"sies of ^•al'ious 78 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY sorts, appropriated four hundred pounds to start a college at Newtown. Two years later, John Harvard, the young minister at Charlestown, died and left his library and one half of his estate to the new college. The college was named Harvard in his honor and the town was called Cambridge for the Cam- bridge in old England, where most of the Puritans were edu- cated. Harvard soon or.joyed a high reputation and Eng- lish Puritans sent their sons to America to l)e educated there. The next college founded in America was William and From the engraving by Paul Revere. Mar\^ C O 1 1 C g C . at Harvard College in 1720. Williamsburg, XlY- ginia. Dr. James Blair, its first president, went to England to collect money for it. He met with little sympathy from the colonial commissioners, who seemed to think that it would be a waste to expend money in America wluni c^very [)enny was needed to carry on the war with France, l^lair urged that clergymen, and a college in which to educate them, were needed in Virginia. '^You nuist not forget," said he, 'Hhat people in Virginia have souls to save as well as people in England." The conunissioners told him that the colony had better devote itself to the growing of tobacco. Blair, however, persevered and the college was chartered in 1693. Seven years later, in 1700, Yale College was founded at New Haven, and before the French and Indian War, King's Col- lege, now Columbia University . Nassau Hall, now Princeton, and the University of Pennsylvania had been begun. THK FRENCH COLONIES 79 SUMMARY The occupations of the inhabitants of the thirteen English colonies were influenced in a large measure by the character of the soil. In the North, where the soil was stony, the people lived in villages and became sailors, ship-builders, and mer- chants; In the South, where the land was fertile, the colonists had extensive plantations and did not live in towns and cities. Though there were no members of the nobility in America, social lines were closely drawn. However, there were few very poor people, except those who were descended from the inden- tured servants. Negro slaves performed most of the manual work in the South, but were not numerous in the 'North. Only the wealthiest people could afford to buy goods im- ported from Europe. On the farms almost everything that was worn or used was of home manufacture. In the Nort h- ern colonies everybody had to work hard, but even there time was found for various kinds of amusements. Sundays were everywhere carefully kept as holy days, but observed more strictly in New England and Virginia than elsewhere. New England, at an early date, provided free education for the children. The other colonies had some good private schools, but spent no public money for educational purposes. — -$1^— ^ CHAPTER VIII THE FRENCH COLONIES 86. The French in Canada. — ^ We must now go back and study the ])art France jjlayed in the colonizing of America. Though no further attempt was made to settle Carolina after the destruction of Port Royal by the Spaniards, the P'rench (lid not lose their interest in the New World. The hardy sailors of Normandy made profitable voyages each year to the fishing grounds of Newtouiulland, and in 1524 Verraz- zano (ver'rat-sa'no), an Italian navigator in the employ of 80 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY France, coasted along the shore from Cape Fear to Labra- dor. Eleven years later, Jacques Cartier (zhak kar'tya'), a jolly Frenchman, sailed up the great river of Canada as far as Jacques the present city of Montreal. He built a fort on Cartier. the banks of the St. Charles where he and his men, tormented by scurvy and in constant fear of the Indians,^ spent the long northern winter. When, in July, Cartier re- turned to France, his report was not such as would tempt settlers to emigrate to the valley of the St. Lawrence. 87. The Founding of Quebec. — Religious wars for half a century pre ven ted t h e French from sending out colonists. In 1608, how- ever, the year after the founding of Jamestown, Samuel de Champlain sailed up the St. Lawrence with two ships. His most earnest desires were, first, to con- vert the Indians to the Catholic faith, and second, to establish the power of He built a fort where the river narrowed and the cliffs rose high on either side and called the place Quebec. Here he spent the winter with twenty- eight men, while his ships went back to France for reen- forcements and supplies. When the ships returned in the spring, there were only eight men at Quebec to give them a welcome. But the courage of the men was not daunted by ^-^v Samuel de Champlain. France in the New World > To hide their weakness the French frequently beat against the sides of the fort with stones and sticks so that the Indians would tliiiik that they were engaged in vigorous labor. THE FRENC?! COLONIES 81 (he siitTcM"ini2;s of I he Caiuuliaii winter, and (liainplaiii, as soon as })ossil)l(v, sol out with a part}' of Indians to exi)lore the waterways of the St. Lawrence. In his first expe- Discoveries (lition he discovered Lake Champlain. Each year of Cham- lie pushed farth(M' and farthcn- west until he reached P^^^"* Lake Huron. Champlain had a wonderful faculty of winning the confidence and respect of the Lidians, and thus, from the very beginning, tlu* Fi-encli had httle to fear from the natives. Quebec, however, grew^ slowdy and after seventeen years it had only fifty or sixty inhabitants, mostly traders and ad- venturers. 88. The Jesuits. — Li 1625 the hrst company of priests, belonging to the Society of Jesus, arrived at Quebec. Strong in the behef that '' the saving of a soul is worth more than the conquest of. an empire," they abandoned even the comforts that could be had in a frontier fort and went into the wilder- ness where no white men had ever been. Here they lived wdth the Indians and in the Indian way, and labored long and faithfully with suffering and death for their rewards. '' Should we at last die of misery, how gi-eat our hap})iness would be," wrote one of these heroic priests, and surely if to die of misery was their idea of happiness, many of them were happy. Though their w^ork w'as of little lastilig benefit to the Indians, it was of great value to France. The Jesuits blazed the way for the soldier, the trapper, and the trader. Their tact and their knowledge of the red man's character won the allegiance of the Indian, if their religion did not win his heart. The w^ork of one of these missionaries. Piquet, was said to have been worth that of tw^o regiments of soldiers. 89. Marquette and Joliet. — The Indians who visited the frontier mission })()st of Michilimackinac (Mish-il-i-mack'-i- nack) spoke of a river which flowed to the south, ever gain- ing in volume. They called it the Mississi})pi(''the father of 82 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY waters"), but no one seemed to know just where it entered the sea. The French wondered whether it flowed into the Atlantic, or the Pacific, or the Gulf of Mexico. Father Marquette (mar'ket^), who had charge of the port of Michilimackinac, had a great desire to seek this river. He Marquette Preaching to the Indians. did not, however, leave his post until, in 1673, Louis Joliet (zho'lyaO arrived at the mission. Stories of the great river had even reached Quebec, and Joliet had been dispatched to join Marquette and explore its course. Together they set out in birch canoes and finally, by means of lakes and streams and portages, they reached the Mississippi, with a joy, as THE- FRENCH COLONIES Louisiana. Marquette wrote, which he could not express.^ They floated down the river as far as the mouth of the Arkansas, and then, having determined that it flowed into the Gulf, they returned, Marquette to his work among the Indians and Joliet to Quebec with an account of the voyage. 90. La Salle. — Eight years later (1681) Robert Cavelier de La Salle, the commander of Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario, set out to complete the explora- tions begun by Marquette. On the 19th of April, 1682, he reached the mouth of the Mississippi. Erecting a cross and a column on which were engraved the arms of France, he took possession, in the name of the king, of all the country which bor- dered upon the river and its branches. He named it Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV. Two years later he sailed from France for the mouth of the river, and on this expedition was accompanied by a large 1 Marquette, however, was not the first white man to see the Missis- sippi. In 1513 Florida had been discovered and named by Ponce de Leon, a Spanish explorer. In 1539 Ferdinand de Soto and six hundred Spaniards set out from Tampa Bay, Florida, to search for gold. Urged on by stories of vast treasures to the west, they pushed their way through trackless for- ests, innumerable streams, and treacherous swamps, until they reached the great river. This they crossed with difficulty, and for a year longer con- tinued their fruitless search. Then, worn out by hardships and thoroughly discouraged, they turned their steps to the sea. When they again reached the Mississippi, De Soto became ill and died. His body was secretly buried by night in the river, in order that the Indians might be kept in ignorance of his death. His companions built several small vessels and succeeded in reaching Mexico. But this was after nearly one half of their number had perished. Robert de la Salle. 84 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY colony fitted out by the king. But the commander of the fleet was jealous of La Salle and, purposely missing the Missis- sippi, landed the colony on the shores of Texas and returned to France. La Salle attempted to find the Mississippi by marching overland, but was unsuccessful in his search, and The French Occupation of North America. finally starting out for Canada was assassinated by one of his followers. 91. New France. — In spite of La Salle's failure to found a colony, he had added greatly to the domains of the French king in America. At his death, and due in large measure to his efforts. New France extended from the Gulf of St. Lawrence THE FRENCH COLONIES 85 l<) the farther end of the Great Lakes, from the Great Lakes south to the GuH" of Mexico, and from the Appalachian Moun- tains to the farthest source of the Missouri. Between this great territory and the Atlantic was a narrow strip of country, a few hundred miles wide, occupied by twelve English col- onies. Even some of this land was claimed by the French. The English colonies, on their part, laid claim to much of Louisiana under their grants of land from sea to sea; they had, however, done nothing to possess it. 92. Iberville. — ^'Possession is nine points of the law," says a common proverb. And in accordance with this proverb, France determined to show the validity of her claim by something more substantial than words on paper. With the idea of guarding the southern gateway of Louisiana and keeping the English out of the valley of the Mississippi, she dispatched another colony to the Gulf of Mexico. It was commanded by Lemoyne d' Iberville (le- settlement mwan' debar'vel'), the idol of the Canadians and of of Missis- the French navy. He founded Biloxi in 1699, and ^^i Val- nineteen years later his brother, Bienville, estab- ^^' lished the city of New Orleans. The vast stretches of New France were now guarded by Quebec on the north and New Orleans on the south. The waterways connecting with the lakes were also fortified, and the only unguarded approach to Louisiana was over the mountains on the east. 93. The French and English Colonies. — Thus we see two nations firmly established in America, north of Mexico, which was Spanish territory. In their religion, in their method of life, and in their views upon government, they possessed few points in common. The English had come to America to make permanent homes. They brought their families, they built substantial houses, they cleared the land for cultivation and depended upon themselves for subsistence. On the other so ESSENTIAT.S OF UNTTT-:n S PATES? HISTORY li;itul llu' 1m\mi('1i \V(M't> inoslly liiiiitiM's. li'adri's, soldiers, luid acKiMiluriM-s. Wm'v \\{{\v land was uiidiM' ciillivation, and the people relied lo a largi^ t>\((Mit upon tlu^ l-Vench king for their supplies. Though (he luiglish were under the control ot" king or lord- proprietor, they had in every eolony some share in the govern- ment, and in New iMigiand they were almost independent. Moreover, they hn^ked to the future, and were thoughtful, sober, and self-rehant. The I'reneh were ruled by the gover- French Tkaokhs (Jkkktim; Indians. nor, the soldier, and the i)riest. They knew nothing of self- government and did not desire to know. They thought only of the ])resent moment, were light-hearted, picturesque in dress and living, and dependent. However, the English colonists were uoi united eitlier in n^ligion or in government; tlu\v were jealous of each others' liberties and prosperities; they had no army for nuitual defense, and no central power. Ncnv I'rance, on the contrary, was a great military camp and ev(M-y man capable of carrying arms was ivady at all times to THK FKION(UI COLONIKS 87 rally (o llic ddViisc ol llic colony. lis sclllcis .'ickiiowlcd^cd only one Hulliofily, thai ol tlic kiiii;" of rVaiicc as i-cpi-cscnlcci by {\\c f2;()V('nioi'. 'rh(\y wvvv all ol' one r('li<;ious faith. 94. The Indians and the French. In no way did the l<'i-(Mi('h and the T^nglish diflVr so much as in their attitude towards the Indians. The natives saw the foi-ests fall, their hunting <2;r()unds disappear, and the number of white j)eoj)le increasing year by year. ^^You and the r'rench," said they to the I^]n<2;lishnian, Sir William Johnson,' "are like the two edges of a pair of shears, and we are the cloth which is cut to pieces between them." But the Indians did not dread the French as they did the I*]nglish. The French b(\st understood the Indian character. They knew how to flatter the pride of the Indians and their love of display; they were able to converse; with them in their own language and in theii- own way; they lived among them, married their women, and often rivaknl tluMn in wood- craft and in cunning. And more than all else, the French did not deprive* the Indians of their hunting grounds. The greatest product of New France was furs, and tlu* I'rench were just as anxious to keep the hunting grounds unmolested as were the Indians. Moreover, the existence of all h'rencli ' Sir William Johnson pi'ohahly had nioro influence over the Indians of New York than any other white man. He had the oversight of a large tract of land in the Mohawk Valley and thus came into constant contact with the Indians. He always treated them with fairness and honesty. He lived among them, often wore their dress, talketl their language flu- ently, and was acquainted with their customs and traditions. At the out- break of the French and Indian War he was made "sole su[)erintendent of the affairs of the Six United Nations." He led the colonial forces against Crown Point but met the French at Lake George. In the battle that followed, Johnson completely defeated the French and thus saved New York. For this victory he received the thanks of Pai-liament and was made a baronet. For further services in the war he was granted a tract of land of a hundred thousand acres. At the time of Pontiac's War his influence alone prevented the Iroquois from joining in the hostilities. 88 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY mmmmmmmmmmmmmi M A Af V S S E WUNNEETUPANATAMWE UP-BIBLUM GOD KANEESU'i I K A n W O N K 1^1 WUSKU TESTAMENT. 5«» , !.rO» ■OS) iNUKKONE TESTAMENT I forts and ti-ading posts depended upon the goodwill of the Indians. Therefore, with steadfast purpose, the French won the friendship of the Algonquin tribes, who occupied most of the territory north of Georgia and east of the Mississippi. ^ 95. The Indians and the English. — On the other hand the Enghsh formed large settlements and cleared broad tracts of land. Accordingly, through tliis colonization, the Indians w^ere pushed out of their old haunts until it seemed that they would soon not be able, as they said, ^Ho hunt a bear into the hole of a tree but some En&'lishman would claim a right to it as being his tree." The English as well as the French had From "Early Bibles of America," by John kborcd faithfully for the Wright, D.D. Thomas whittaker. couvcrsion of thc rcd mcu. Title Page of Eliot's Indian Bible OF 1663. "OS 5<" Ke jjiKifbiinnutmii nifhjx' Wtimnneainob £HKlS7 "♦SI ti«h afoowcitt £o> «|| -SO. S?j JOHN ELIOT- '12 «(t- ; I —__ .(x: ~T-~- ' ■ •■»'«^ 2| PriataiwpMQjpe Swwac/ Crtf, kah AUrm*M/ ftbufm. CAMSRIDGB: « one eouneil tire with them. When New Netherland beeame New York, the Iroi|uois transferred their treaty of friendship to the Knglish. Yet they continued their alliance not so nuieh because they Uned the English as because they hated the Frenchman and his Indian allies, the Algonquins. Champlain. on his first explor- hig expedition, had won the tnulying hatred of the Five Nations when, in the battle tiiat took place between them and Cliam- plain's Indians, the guns o( the l-'rench had caused their defeat. The French later worked hard to conciliate the Iroquois, but never succeeded in winning their confidence. The active hostility, ov passive neutrality. o{ tins powerful tiibe [o the French was o( the greatest advantage to the luiglish colonies in their struggle with New l^'auce. SIMMAKY The I'rench. driven out of the smuhern pan o( Xonh America by the Spanianls. began to make exj^lorations in ihe \alley o( the 8t. Lawrence. In lOOS Fhamplain founded Quebec, and from that time French priests, trappers, and adventurei*s pushed their way westward mUil they had reached the farthest bordei*s of the (uvat Fakes. Marquette and .loliet fcnmd the Missis- sippi. La 8alle explored it to the Cuilf of Mexico and took possession of Louisiana. The French then sent colonists to the mouth of the Mississippi, and built various forts and settle- ments InMween it and C^Juebec. Thus it came about that two nations were established in Nm-th America, both claiming the same territory. Tiiey wim\^ unlike in many respects. inU especially in their treatment o( the Indians. Thi^ I'rench undiM'stiHHl the red man and won the friendship of most o{ the tribes east of \\\c Mississippi. The English dislikinl tlu^ Indians, and tlu^ Indians hated the Fng- lish. because tile white men had taken from them so nmch of their land. Only the Iroquois wit list (H^d the advances of the French. THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 91 and these were |)()\verl"iil eiioiii;;!! lo rcMider ^reat assistance to the English in the struggle whicli took place between the two nations. ^¥^ CHAPTER TX THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 97. Early French and Indian Wars. — That a clash between the two nations must come sooner or later was to be expected. France and England had been foes for centuries, and a war betw^een them was always innninent. American colonies would naturally hold the same views as the mother country, so that when war broke out in Europe, it was taken up by the French and British colonies. The first conflict began in 1690, and was caused by European complications. It is usually named in history as King William's War. A short period of peace succeeded, and then Queen Anne's W^ar followed. This, in its turn, was followed by King George's War, which was closed with the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-shapeF), in 1748. All three of these wars were of similar character, and the greatest hardships resulting from them were felt by New England and New York. These colonies were nearest the Canadian border and most exposed to the fierce attacks of the French and their Indian allies. Neither the English nor the French gained by these wars any advantage that w^as of permanent value. Nearly all the captured points were returned to their original owners and no definite settlement regarding boundary lines was made.^ France and England 1 England came into possession of Nova Scotia, or Acadia, as it was then called, l)y the treaty of peace at the close of Queen Anne's War. When the final struggle with the French l^egan, England, fearing that the Acadians would take up arms against her, sent an expedition to Acadia. The French peasants were forced to leave their farms, were driven on board vessels, and were distributed along the Atlantic* coast among the various English colonies. 92 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY still claimed the same territ()ri(^s and peace was only for a time. 98. The French Forts. — Near the close of King George's War, the English king granted a tract of land on the Ohio River to a company of merchants known as the Ohio Com- pany. In 1750 this company made its first expedition, only to find that the year before the French had begun to con- nect more closely Canada and Louisiana, thus extending and uniting their domain. Here and there all through the valley of the Ohio the English company found, buried lead plates bearing the French king's claim, and shields nailed to tree trunks which bore similar inscriptions. Following up the advance thus evidenced, the French next completed a chain of sixty forts, which included such important points as Crown Point, Niagara, Detroit, Vincennes (vin-senz'),and Kaskaskia. Crown Point was on Lake Champlain, and the English colo- nies considered it an insolent invasion of British soil. 99. Fort Duquesne. — The French also built a fort at the junction of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, which they called Fort Duquesne (du'-kan'). The governor of Vir- ginia claimed this region as witliin his jurisdiction and sent, in 175-1:, Major George Washington with a small force to dri^-e out the intruders. The French were strongly intrenched, and Washington was defeated. This skirmish brought on the final struggle for the possession of America, the outcome .of which was to decide whether France or England should control the continent. This contest was known as the French and Indian War. 100. The Albany Plan of Union (1754). — England urged the colonies to forget their differences and to unite in a plan for defense. A convention was called to meet at Albany, which was attended by delegates from seven colonies. Benja- min Franklin introduced a plan which provided for a capital THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 03 city at Philadelphia, a governor-general appointed by the Crown, and an assembly elected b}^ the various legislatures of the colonies. The assembly was to make the laws, but the governor was given the right of veto. The plan was adopted by the convention, but when it was referred to the colonies and to the English government for acceptance, neither America nor England would ratify it. England objected to it because it gave too much power to the colonies, and the colonies vetoed it because it gave too much power to the king. loi. General Braddock. — England now sent General Braddock to America with a force of regulars. He planned three campaigns, and he himself led the expedition against Fort Duquesne. He had had much experience as a com- mander, but knew nothing about Indian warfare. He re- fused to take the suggestions of Washington and other officers of the colonial militia and formed his plans according to European tactics. The French commander of the fort was frightened by the size of the English army, and prepared to evacuate Duquesne without waiting for the attack. But his lieutenant, -ph D f t Captain Beaujeu (bo^zhuhO, begged to be allowed and Death to meet the English forces. His request was o^ General granted and with less than nine hundred French ^^ ^^ ' and Indians he lay in ambush beside the road. As the red- coats came along, they were met by a volley from the hidden foe. Braddock immediately formed his men into a solid column and returned the fire. But they could not see the enemy and their close ranks made a bright target for the French guns. Completely terrified by their rapid destruction, the British regulars turned and fled, and no efforts of their officers could stay the rout. General Braddock was killed, and the army was saved from comi)lete dc^sti-uction only by the heroism of the despised colonial troops. 94 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 102. War Declared. — In 1756 war was formally declared between France and England, and preparations were made for waging it on a large scale. The Marquis de Montcalm was placed in command of all the French forces in America, and General Loudon was sent across the Atlantic to lead the British and colonial armies. Loudon and his associate offi- cers were inefficient, and the colonies were backward in grant- ing money and supplies. The next year was disastrous to the English. The French gained the advantage in almost every battle, and the Indians flocked to the support of the victors. Once more the frontiers were drenched in blood. 103. William Pitt. — In June 1757, William Pitt, the famous English statesman, be- came secretary of state for foreign affairs. With him im- mediately a new order came in. He raised a larger army, selected new commanders, and so aroused the zeal of the colo- nists that they responded with money and with men. Gen- eral Abercrombie was placed in command of an army which numbered fifty thousand regu- WiLLiAM Pitt, Earl of Chatham, j^^. ^^^ colonial troops. Again three expeditions were arranged: one against Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain, another against Cape Breton Campaigns Island, and the third against Fort Duquesne. At of 1757 and Ticonderoga no decisive victory was won by either 1758. c>j(|p 'Yhc English captured Cape Breton. Tlio iM-ench abandoiK^d and 1)ui'ii(m1 Fo!'! I^ikhk^sho. On lis site the I^ritish erected a nvw fortification and named it Foit ritt. Moreover, three campaigns wore* planned for the year THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 95 Montcalm. 1758. General Amherst was to make another attempt to capture Ticonderoga ; General Prideaux (Pre' -do) was to lead an expedition against Fort Niagara, and General James Wolfe was to attack Quebec itself. Montcalm realized that the results at Quebec would decide the outcome of the war. ''Never was Canada in a state so critical and full of peril," wrote the bishop of Quebec to the people of his parishes. Every Cana- dian who could carry a gun, the boy of fifteen and the old man of eighty, was pressed into service. The French com- mander withdrew so man}- troops from the forts in the interior that when Amherst arrived at Ticonderoga and Prideaux at Niagara, both places fell into their hands, but not in time for them to give aid to Wolfe at Quebec. 104. The Battle of Quebec. — Meanwhile General Wolfe had been making thorough preparations for the siege of Quebec. He had been given the power to appoint his own officers, and had made his selections because of especial fitness and not because of family position and influence. Some of King George's councilors were so surprised by the appoint- ments that they said that Wolfe must be mad. ''Mad is he?" the king replied, "tlien T hope that he will bite some others of my generals." As foi- Wolfc^ himself, few would have sup- posed that he would make a successful leader. He was slight and awkward and always suffered from ill health. But he The Marquis de Montcalm. 96 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY had the spirit and the courage of a hero. He neither shunned hardships nor feared death, and his soldiers adored him. In the early summer of 1759, Wolfe and his army of ten thousand men arrived at the Gulf of St. Lawrence in forty Wolfe be- ships. The French, believing that the river was fore Quebec, not navigable for large vessels, had declared that no man-of-war could get up to Quebec. But the English, by means of captured Canadian pilots and by their own skill in navigation, sailed up the river, to the great dismay of the The Heights of Quebec. French. The latter, however, believed that Quebec, perched high on its steep cliffs, was impregnable, and they sent word to General AVolfe, after he had captured Point Levi across the river and was able to cover the city with his guns, ''You may demolish the town, no doubt, but you shall never get inside it." With equal firmness Wolfe replied, ''I will have Quebec if I stay here till the end of November." 105. The Plains of Abraham. — Week after week went by and Quebec seemed as far from capture as ever. Wolfe had been very sick, but during his illness he perfected his plans so THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 97 that when health returned he begged his physician to put him in such condition that he might be without pain for a few days and able to do his duty. In the stillness of a dark night, September 12, 1759, while the fleet deceived the French into thinking that an assault w^as to be made below, the army advanced up the river to a point above the town. At the very place where the French had said that the English could not go unless they had wings, and where it was thought that a hundred men could keep back an army, the English ascended the cliff. Almost without a sound the pickets were captured, and when morning came and the mists blew away, Montcalm was astonished to see an English army drawn up in battle array on the Plains of Abraham. Montcalm collected his forces as rapidly as possible and hurried to the attack. Wolfe personally directed the ar- rangement of his men. He was everywhere encouraging, quieting, steadying his forces. AVhen the French assault Defeat of came, it was met by the French, a steady volley. Then AVolf e gave the command to charge. The English bore down upon the French, Wolfe leading the way. One shot struck him, then another ; but still he pressed on. A third lodged in his breast and he feh. Then the cry arose, ''They run, they run!" ''Who run?" asked Wolfe. ''The enemy, sir; they give way every- where." Wolfe forthwith gave orders to Colonel Burton to cut off General Wolfe. 08 ESSENTIALS Ol-^ UNITED STA11':S HISTORY lli(>ii- rclrc.'it, Jind (lied, iinirmuiiii.u", ''Now (j1(h1 \)v praised, I will die ill jH'ncc." Moiiic.'iliii, also inoitaliy WMnmdod, like- wise died, eoiiteiit in (lie llioii^lit llial he should nut live to see the surrender of the city which he had so long and faith- fully defended. 1 06. The Treaty of Peace. Though the capture of QueV)ec l)racti('ally ended the war, the tn^aty of })eace was not signed NouTii Amiohk'a ai'Tku thk Tkkatv ok 1703. until IVOo. By it France was (l(>prived of all \wv ])OSsessions in Amei-ica exc(>pt two small islands near Newfoundland. C-anada and all the r(><2,i()n between ilu^ Allegheny Mountains and the Mississij)pi came into the possession of ]^]ngland, whik: the country west of the Mississi])i)i was turned over to Spain. IMorida was ceded to (ireat l^ritaiii by Spain, and remained in her possession twenty years, aft(M" which it was ceded back to Spain. VcM'gennes (var'zhen)^ the French ambassador to THE STRUGGLE FOR AMERICA 99 Constantinople, said when he heard the terms of the treaty: ^'luigland will, ere long, repent of having removed the only check that could keep her colonies in awe. They stand no longer in need of her protection; she will call on them to contribute towards supporting the burdens they have helped to bring on her; and they will answer by striking off' all dependence." SUMMARY After several wars between the VnmcM and the English colonies which gave no particular advantage to cither side, I'^i'ance redoubled her efforts to occupy the valley of the Missis- sippi. An expedition of Virginian militia against Fort Du- (juesne brought on the French and Indian War. Its outcome d(.'cided whether France or England would remain the masters of North America. At first the advantages were for tin; French. The rmglish colonics were not united, were jealous of each other, and their iMiglish military leaders were either incompetent or unused to Indian warfare. Finally, however, when William Pitt became secretary for foreign affairs, new plans were laid and skillful generals were appointed. The war was closed by the capture of (2uebec. By the treaty of peace France lost all her territory in America except two small islands. SECTION 11. -THE REVOLUTION CHAPTER X THE COLONIES ALIENATED 107. Results of the French War. — The war had been a great expense both to England and to the colonies. It had cost the Americans more than ten million dollars and the lives of thirty thousand men. The drain had been excessive, but the colonies had learned some valuable lessons. The sons of Massachusetts and Virginia, of Connecticut and South Carolina, had fought side by side. Colonial They had come to re- Confidence, spect each other, and the jealousies between them, which before the war had been so common, had greatly diminished. Then, too, they had acquired experience in the art of war. Moreover, at the close of the war the people realized that with France driven from the conti- nent and Spain confined beyond the Mississippi River, they no longer needed the strong arm of the mother country for protection. Thus they had gained in self-confidence. Up to this time, however, the colonies had remained loyal to Eng- land. The people considered themselves English. They did 100 Ensign Carried by New England Ships. THE COLONIES ALIENATED 101 not wish to be otlierwise, tliough Great Britain had often- times severely tried tlieir patience. io8. Colonial Commerce. — When John Winthrop came to Massachusetts Bay, he brought with him one Wihiam Stephens who, it was said, ^' would have been a precious jewel to any state that obtained him." Stephens was a skilled ship-builder and under his guidance the colonists began to build vessels of all sizes, some of which were large New Eng- enough to carry four hundred tons. The soil of New land Ships. England was dry and unfertile, and since the people could hardly gain a living from it, of necessity they turned their attention to some other mode of livelihood. Accordingly New England became the carrier for the colonies and her ships were found in every port or moored at the wharves of the Southern planters. The vessels took rice, tobacco, tar, fine timber, furs, and fish to England, and brought back in return all the luxuries for house and dress that could not be obtained in America. 109. Navigation Laws. — As early as 1651 England passed the first of the navigation laws, which forbade the colonies to trade with any country except England and only in colonial or British ships. Other navigation laws followed, each one a little more severe than the one before it. In 1663 a law was passed which allowed no goods to be brought to America except in English ships. This last bore heavily upon all the colonies, but especially upon New England. It not only pro- hibited her carrying trade, but ruined her ship-building indus- tries. The law was considered unjust and was evaded as much as possible by the New England captains. Virginia, boasting obedience to the laws, declared that the New England men broke through and traded to any place where their interest led them, but neither small nor great vessels were built in her domain. 102 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The navigation laws were sni)})lemented by others wliich put heavy tkities on l)oth exports and imports. The money all came out of the pockets of the colonists and went to enrich the English government. no. Manufactures. — The Northern and Middle colonies attempted various manufactures. Fur hats were fashionable, and New York began to make them. England then passed a law to protect the British hat makers, forbidding New York to send her hats either across the Atlantic or to another colony. Pennsylvania started iron industries, and England framed laws which declared that no mill or other engine Restriction £^j. j.QHij^p- ij-on, nor any furnace for making; steel, on Colonial . , , , , . , , . ^^.. , • i Industries, should be erected m the colonies. vVithout a special grant from Parliament no one could make a nail or a horse-shoe. Cotton and woolen mills were built in the colonies, but their products could be sold only at home. It would have been considered piracy to print an English Bible in any American colony. Though angered by these trade and manufacturing restric- tions, all the colonies remained loyal. England, they ad- Continued iiiitted, was only doing what all European countries Loyalty did. It was indeed the universal opinion at the of the time that colonies w^re for the sole purpose of benefiting the parent country. If, after the French and Indian War, England had tried to hold the love and friendship of the colonies, they might perhaps have remained a part of the British empire to this day. III. The English Theory. — At the close of the war Great Britain found herself burdened with a vast debt which must be met in some way. Parliament considered that the war had been brought on by the colonies and had been waged principally for their benefit, and argued that it therefore was right and just that they should bear their share of the burden. THE COLONIES ALIENATED 103 Parlianient 1)jis(h1 its assertion on the ground that, in its character of a i-epresentative government, it had become the legislative body for the whole empire; that thus it had the power to make the laws for the colonies as well as for England, and could levy taxes upon both alike. On this point, Enghsh and American ideas were so different that the American Revolution resulted. 112. The American Theory. — The colonists claimed t^hat by royal grant each colony had a legislature or parliament of its own and that the London Parliament had no right to tax it. If the British govern- ment required money from the colonies, it must appeal to the colonial legislatures, and they would raise the needed sum by levying taxes upon their people. James Otis of Massachusetts, quoting Lord Coke, the greatest authority on English law, de- clared that it was ^'against the franchise of the land for free- men to be taxed but by their own consent." In this same vein the colonists argued that taxation and representation went together, and that as they personally were not repre- sented in the British Parliament they should not be taxed by that body. Their point was not that they desired representa- tion but that they believed taxation without it both illegal and unjust. They determined not to submit to the injustice. ''Here," said Henry Ward of Rhode Island, ''no acts of Par- liament can bind. Giving up this point is yielding all." Jaaie.s Otis. 104 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 113. The Stamp Act. — In March, 1765, Parliament ])asso(l what is known as the Stamp Act.* This act pi"ovidecl that stamped paper nuist be used for all legal documents, and that stamps be i)laced on playing cards, books, newspapers, and pamphlets, and various other articles used in the colonies, and tliat this paper and these stamps must be bought of the British government. 114. Its Effect. — The passage of this act inflamed the From the puinting by Chappel. Patrick Henry Addressing the Virginia Burgesses. American people in every colony. It was said of Virginia that "the whole colony was filled with the utmost consterna- tion and astonishment." In the House of Burgesses, Patrick lienry, then less than thirty years of age, made a thrilling speech against the act and ended with the words, ^^Tarquin and Caesar had each a Brutus; Charles the First, his Crom- 1 The celebrated William Pitt, the elder, did not favor the Stamp Act. When it was first proposed, he said to Sir Robert Walpole, "I will leave the taxation of America to some of my successors who have more courage than I have. I will not burn my fingers with an American Stamp Act." THE COLONIES ALIENATED 105 well; and George the Third" — The speaker of the House cried, '^ Treason, treason! " Then Henr}^ fixed his eyes on the chair and added, ^^may profit by their example." Thenceforth the leading men of America had no desire to withdraw from the contest. They did not then contemplate independence, but they determined to resist the Colonies acts of Parliament, and by every means in their resist. [)ower to seek to have their grievances redressed. Benjamin Franklin wrote to Charles Thompson, ^^The sun of liberty is set; you must light up the candles of industry and economy." Mr. Thompson replied that he feared that other lights would be the consequence, and predicted the revolution that followed. 115. The Tax on Tea, Paper, etc. — The Stamp Act, so obnoxious to the colonists, was repealed the next year. Parliament, however, still insisted on its right to tax the colonies, and a little later a new act was passed imposing a tax on tea, paper, lead, and one or two other articles. 116. Americans • Friends in England. — It nmst not be supposed that the entire people of Great Britain agreed with Parliament in its legislation against the colonies; for the facts are far otherwise. The course taken by Parliament was in ac- cordance with the views and desires of the king and his prime minister. Lord North. Many of the leading men in and out of Parliament, however, openly and warmly defended America, and opposed the hostile acts of the British government. Wlien the Stamp Act was under discussion in the House of Commons, Charles Townsend made a speech in ^ its favor in which he spoke of the Americans as and Pitt '^children of our own planting, nourished by our plead for indulgence," and ^^ protected by our arms." Im- o o^ies. mediately Colonel Isaac Barre rose and replied in a burst of eloquence that thrilled the whole house. ^'Children planted by your care?" he cried, ^^No! Your oppressions planted 106 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY them in America. . . . They nourished by your indulgence? They grew by your neglect. . . . They protected by your arms? They have nobly taken up arms in your defense. . . . The people there are as truly loyal, I believe, as any subjects the king has; but a people jealous of their liberties, and who will vindicate them, if they should be violated. . . . But the subject is too dehcate. I will say no more." The great statesman, Wilham Pitt, the elder, declared in the House of Lords: ^^I rejoice that America has resisted." Lord Camden said: '^The question before your lordships con- cerns the common rights of mankind. ... In my opinion, my lords, the legislature had no right to make this law" (that is, one laying a tax upon America). 117. British Troops in Boston. — In 1768 a regiment of British soldiers, under Colonel Dalrymple, was ordered to Boston and was quartered in that town. The British minis- try and Parhament, it w^as evident, were endeavoring to sub- due the spirit of the colonies, but in vain. ■ Every ste}) taken by them had more and more inflamed the patriotism of the Americans. 118. The Boston Riot. — On the 5th of March, 1770, a crowd of men and boys, angry at the presence of the redcoats in a time of peace, insulted the city guard, and dared the soldiers to fire. It was in the evening, and several hundred persouvS had collected in and near King Street, now called State Street, just east of the old colonial State House. The officer in command, in order to avoid trouble, ordered the soldiers into the l^arracks. About nine o'clock the mob gathered round the sentry near the Custom House, with sticks and stones, hooting and yelling, ''Knock him down, kill him, kill him." The captain sent a corporal and a squad of six men to i)rotect the sentry. This only incensed the men, who gathered near the soldiers and, THE COLONIES ALIENATED 107 with insulting words and tones, dared them to fire. The soldiers fired a volley and four persons were killed and five wounded, of whom one afterwards died. 1 19. Trial of the Soldiers. — The soldiers were arrested and tried by the civil law, for murder. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, two of the stanchest patriots, defended them. It was a notable trial. The accused were the hated British sol- Frmn ilic iiainting hy (..'hipjr.-l. The Boston Massacre. diers. They had killed American citizens. But they were with great ability defended by two leading Boston lawyers, who believed that the kilhng was justifiable. Captain Preston and six soldiers were acquitted, and two men were convicted and sentenced to light penalties. Thus it was proved that a Boston jury could give an impartial verdict, even in the face of an inflamed public opinion. 108 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 120. The Burning of the Gaspee — Alamance. — The ill feeling was not conhned to Boston. It pervaded all the colonies. In the early summer of 1772 the British armed schooner Gaspee under command of Lieutenant Dudmgston, was picketing Narragansett Bay to prevent smugghng, when a Providence packet decoyed it into shoal water at high tide and ran it aground. In the darkness of the night follow- ing, several boat loads of men, some of them leading citizens of Providence, rowed down to the schooner, boarded her, captured her officers and crew, carried them ashore, and burned the vessel. The British government offered a large reward for the arrest of any person who participated in the affair, but although it was well known who some of them were, no information was ever given and no arrests were made. In North Carolina the people resisted the royal Governor Tryon on account of heavy taxation and fought with him the battle of Alamance. Tryon won the battle, but the sturdy patriots continued their resistance.' 121. Parliament removes all Taxes except on Tea. — In the year 1770 Lord North became prime minister. He moved in the House of Commons that all duties levied in America, except that on tea, be repealed. His motion was carried. Nevertheless the Americans refused to buy any tea. The English East India Company found itself encumbered with a large surplus stock of tea. To aid this company a new plan was proposed in 1773, which promised to be certain of success. It was a carefully prepared scheme to thwart the opposition in the colonies. The tax upon tea in the Ameri- can colonies was threepence per pound and the East India Company paid a heavy duty on all the tea it landed in England. The company was permitted to export to America its surplus stock free of the duty in England, provided it paid the American tax of threepence a pound. This plan THE COLONIES ALIENATED 109 was thought to be very shrewd. The buyers in America would thus be getting their tea lower than the market price in England and have no tax to pay. The East India Com- pany at once shipped various cargoes of tea to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. At Charleston the tea was landed and stored in damp cellars, where it p t ■ . was allowed to rot. Not a pound was sold dur- regard the ing the war. In Philadelphia and New York the Tea Tax as captains were persuaded to carry the tea back to ^ " ^* England. With the Americans the question was not one of money but of principle. If the tea was landed and sold, they reflected, the British government would receive the tax, although it would not be paid directly by the consumers. 122. The Boston Tea Party. — Late in the fall of 1773 three vessels loaded with tea anchored in Boston Harbor. The citizens held a great meeting in the Old South Church (December 16), and voted that the tea be sent back to England. The governor, however, refused to allow the ships to sail till they had landed their cargo. He would give no pass, and the owners of the vessels were unwilling to sail with- out one. The people, therefore, took matters into their own hands. A cry was heard, the warwhoop sounded, and a com- pany of men disguised as Indians, wrapped in blankets and each carrying a hatchet, advanced to Griflfin's Wharf where the tea vessels were lying. They boarded the ships and pro- ceeded quietly to their work. No damage was done to the vessel, nor was any person molested, but in about three hours three hundred and forty chests of tea were broken open and the contents poured out into the sea. A multitude of spec- tators stood on the shore Avatching the bold proceeding, and when the work was done all returned to their homes and the city again resumed its quiet. 123. The Peggy Stewart. — At Annapolis, Maryland, 110 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY lived a Scotchman named Anthony Stewart. One of his ves- sels, the Peggy Stewart, laden with tea, sailed in October, 1774, into the harbor of Annapolis, then one of the most important seaports in America. The men of Maryland were just as determined and just as patriotic as those of Boston. They would not allow the tea to be landed. They even went further than the Boston patriots had gone. A company of young men, banded together as the Whig Club, rode into The Stewart House at Annapolis. Annapolis on the morning of October 19. On their hats was the motto, ^'Liberty and Independence, or Death." They went to the house of Anthony Stewart, erected a rude gallows, and their leader, Dr. Charles A. Warfield, gave Mr. Stewart his choice, in these words: ''You must either go with me and apply the torch to your own vessel, or hang before your own door." Stewart chose the former course and was forthwith marched down to Windmill Point, where THE COLONIES ALIENATED 111 he was compelled to set fire to the vessel loaded with the obnoxious tea. Thus North and South alike resisted the attempt of the British Parliament to tax the colonies. 124. The First Continental Congress. — During the sum- mer of 1773 Committees of Correspondence were appointed in all the colonies, so that whatever was going on in any colony became quickly known from New Hampshire to Georgia. Next, measures were taken to call a Continental Congress to consider what the colonies should do at this critical period. The first Continental Congress met in Carpenter's Hall, Phila- delphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. It was composed of fifty-five delegates representing all the colonies except Georgia, who, on her part, promised to unite with the other colonies in the ^^ effort to maintain their right to the British constitution." John Adams, in a letter written while the Congress was still in session, describing that body, called it '^ an assembly such as never before came together, on a sudden, in any part of the world." After a long and spirited discussion, Congress adopted a Declaration of Rights in which it declared that the colonies were "entitled to life, liberty, and property"; that their emi- gration from England did not take away from them Declaration their rights as Englishmen ; and that "they were en- of Rights, titled to a free and exclusive power of legislation" in re- gard to taxation and all internal matters. The Congress furthermore claimed that the acts of Parliament had violated the rights of the colonies and that harmony between England and America could be restored only by their repeal, and it agreed to stop all imports and exports from Great Britain. The members then adjourned until the following. May when, it was hoped, an answer from the king would be received. All votes in this and the subsequent Congress were taken 112 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY by colonies, each colony having one vote. Doubtless this united action was of advantage in that it helped to bind the colonies together, but it was apparently without effect on the British government. 125. Who first foresaw Revolution. — As time went on, it began to dawn upon first one and then another that a revo- lution, calculated to bring about a complete separation from Great Britain, was inevitable. It is impossible now to sa> with certainty who first per- ceived that this revolution must come. The people were slow to consider seri- ously that they must break from the mother country. They wanted to be loyal sub- jects of the king. James Otis, Samuel Adams, and Joseph Hawley in Massachu- setts, and Patrick Henry of Virginia, were probably the first men to see clearly that there was no solution to the problem but independence. Joseph Hawley wrote : '^ After all, we nmst fight." When these words were read in the hearing of Patrick Henry, he exclaimed, ''I am of that man's opinion." George Washington himself now reahzed that parchment measures would be useless.^ 1 A pamphlet, written by Thomas Paine, called "Common Sense," was issued early in the year 1776 with the approval of Benjamin Franklin and Samuel Adams. It boldly asserted ' ^^at the Americans ought to separate en- tirely from Great Britain, and set up a government of their own. This pro- duction was read everywhere. It is said that over 100,000 copies were sold. It did much to make the Revolution possible and to hasten its coming. Patrick Henry THE COLONIES ALIENATED 113 126. Leslie at Salem. —General Gage was made governor of Massachusetts and was ordered to Boston with four regiments of British regulars to awe the people into submission. Early in 1775 Gage assumed the aggressive. He heard that powder and cannon were secreted at Salem, and sent Colonel Leslie with three hundred sol- ,jifiV diers to capture any mili- tary stores to be found there. On Sunday morn- ing, February 26, 1775, Leslie sailed out of Boston harbor and arrived at Marblehead about noon. The object of the expedi- tion was at once suspected by the patriots of Marble- head, and Major John Pedrick mounted his horse and rode to Salem to warn the people. Di- vine service was being held in the several churches, but when Major Pedrick announced the approach of the soldiers, the congregations were instantly dismissed. It had been reported to the EngUsh that Colonel David Mason was mounting beyond the North River some old can- non captured from the French in the recent war. Colonel Leslie, therefore, rapidly marched to the drawbridge over the river. On arriving at the bridge he found a large number of men already there and the draw raised. He ordered the draw down, but his command was defied. There was then A Powder House near Boston. Used by the colonists in 1775 and 1776. 114 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY danger of imniecliate conflict. Leslie threatened to fire. Colonel Timothy Pickering, who was in command of the Salem militia, warned him that if he opened fire not one of his men would leave town alive. The delay had already given time to secrete the cannon, and Reverend Thomas Barnard, pastor of the North Chm'ch, succeeded in making a com- })romise. The agreement was that the draw should be lowered and that Leshe be permitted to march his men thirty rods beyond the bridge, but only on his word of honor as a man and a soldier that he would then countermarch and return with his forces to Boston. This was done, and thus blood- shed w^as averted. Here at Salem, then, was the first armed The First resistance to British soldiers, and but for the tact Armed and skill of Mr. Barnard, here would probably have Resistance, i^qq^i the first bloodshed of the Revolution, instead of a little later at Lexington. 127. Lexington and Concord. — Nevertheless Gage was determined that the people should not arm themselves nor secure ammunition. He sent his spies to neighboring towns, and through them lie learned in April that the patriots were about to remove some military stores from Concord to Groton. On the evening of April 18, eight hundred regulars, the pride of Gage's army, with great secrecy crossed the Charles River beyond the Common and took up their march for Con- cord. Their movement, however, became knoAvn to the patriots. The trooj^s had scarcely passed Boston Common when Wilham Dawes galloped across the neck to Roxbury, and on through Brookline, Brighton, and Watertown to Lex- ington; at the same time, Paul Revere, who was waiting for the signal with his horse ready saddled, started from Charles- town and took the northern road through Somerville and Medford to Lexington. Both men warned the inhabitants along the road, from farmhouse to farmhouse, that the THE COLONIES ALIENATED 115 regulars were coming. In the early morning of April 19, 1775, the British troops, under command of Lieutenant Colonel Smith and Mai or Pitcairn, arrived at Lexington, ^ . '' ' 1 Lexington, about twelve miles from Boston. There they found a small company of minute-men and citizens, about seventy in all, a motley group, and perhaps forty spectators without arms. Major Pitcairn led the advance. He halted his troops at the Green, and riding around the meeting-house, with a drawn sword in one hand and a i)istol in the other, he shouted, ^^Dis- The Campaign around Boston, 1775-76. perse, you rebels. Throw down your a r m s and d i s - perse." No one obeyed. He then rode on a little farther, discharged his pistol, flour- ished his sword, and ordered his sol- diers to fire. Seven Americans were killed and eight wounded. The patriots scattered, l)ut kept up an irregular firing. The British then pursued their way to Concord, a distance of six or eight miles. Here the people, having had full infor- mation of their approach, were found drawn up for defense. Observing that the regulars were too numerous, they retired across the bridge, and waited for reen- forcements. The soldiers proceeded to execute their commis- sion. They destroyed several cannon, carriages, wheels, and limbers. The}^ threw five hundred ]iounds of ball into the liver, and destroyed fifty or sixty barrels of flour. The militia, now being reenforced, advanced under the command of Major Buttrick. The British retired across the bridge, Concord. 116 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY and then fired upon the patriots. The fire was returned with such vigor that the regulars were forced to retreat, with a loss of several killed and wounded and some prisoners. 128. The Retreat to Boston. — They continued their re- treat to Lexington. There they were joined by Lord Percy with one thousand men and two cannon, but they made no further aggressive movements. The entire force returned The Retreat of the British from Concord. to Boston without delay. They were fired upon from behind stone walls and fences, and were constantly harassed through the entire march. The loss of the British army during the day was, killed, wounded, and missing, two hundred and seventy-three; of the Americans, eighty-eight. Thus hostili- ties were commenced. The Revolution, which was to end in the independence of America, had begun. 129. Effect of the Battle upon the Country. — That had THE COLONIES ALIENATED 117 come which Patrick Henry predicted when he said: ^^The next gale that sweeps from the north wiU bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms." The poet Emerson, years afterwards, sang the great significance of this ^' clash": — " By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world." It is indeed difficult to estimate the effect of this battle upon the people in all the colonies near and far. The news of it spread like wildfire. The entire American people, from New Hampshire to Georgia, were inflamed with enmity against England. Israel "Putnam left his plow in the fur- universal row and hastened to Cambridge. Colonel Stark, Enmity from New Hampshire, brought his militia to Massa- agamst chusetts. A single month had not passed before twenty thousand men were encamped near Boston. At Savannah, Georgia, a band of men broke open the powder- house, captured the pc»vder, and secreted it for future use. The patriots in New Jersey took possession of the treasury containing one hundred thousand dollars and appropriated it for the payment of troops. At Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, the people, on the 31st of May, made the first declaration of independence. Doings similar to these took place all over the thirteen colonies. 130. Reenforcements for the British Army. — On the 25th of May the Cerberus arrived at Boston bringing large reen- forcements, with Generals Howe, Chnton, and Burgoyne, so that the entire British army in Boston numbered more than ten thousand men. The patriotic Provincial Congress of Massachusetts voted that ^'an army of thirty thousand men be raised immediately." In Rhode Island a brigade of three regiments, with a train of artillery, was placed under the 118 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Winter coiiiniaiul of General Nathaiiael Greene. Tlie army of hvonly thousand men aromid J^oston was set to work building en- trenchments to shut up the British army in that city. 131. Battle of Bunker Hill. — The Massachusetts Com- mittee of Safety undertook to raise defenses on Dorchester Heights on the south and on Bunker Hill on the north. Colonel Prescott was charged with fortifying Bunker Hill. On the night of June 16, 1775, with one thousand men, in the quiet of the midnight darkness, he marked out tlie entrenchments, and at dawn, June 17, a redoubt about eight rods square had been thrown up. Directly opposite, in the channel, was anchored the British ship Lively. When the captain of the Lively came on deck, just after daylight, he was surprised to find the newly made Yankee breastworks frowning down upon him from the sum- mit of the hill, and at once he ordered his men to open fire upon the fort. At almost the same time the British artillery on Copp's Hill began a discharge across the channel, and continued it during the entire forenoon. In the afternoon a strong British force of fully three thousand men w^as landed at the foot of the hill. Forming into two lines under com- mand of Generals How^e and Pigot, the men began their advance up the hill. The patriots were commanded by ColoneJ Prescott. Colonel Stark directed the New Hamp- The Vicinity of J^oston. THE COLONIES ALIENATED 119 shire forces, mikI ('a])(jiin Kiiowltoii (lie cunipaiiy from Con- necticut. General Warren, General Ponieroy, and General Putnam were all on the field, helping and encouraging wher- ever needed. The Americans reserved their ammunition until the regulars were close at hand. Then the order to fire was given, and they poured forth their shot with such sure and successful aim upon the British infantry that they mowed them down in ranks. The advancing colunni broke and fled. Once more, rallied by their of- ficers, the army steadily moved forward to the assault. Again it was driven back by the same murderous fire. Then General Clinton arrived with reenforce- ments, and for the third time the British regulars marched up the hill against this Yankee force of Retreat undisciplined yeomen, of the The Americans had ex- Amencans. ha^gted their ammuni- tion and were obliged to retreat. They retired in good order across Charlestown Neck to Prospect Hill. Here they fortified themselves. The British, on their part, wantonly burned Charlestown, destroying three hundred houses and two hundred other buildings. The British lost over a thousand men and the Americans less than half that number. The patriots, however, were greatly saddened by the death of General Joseph Losses in Warren, who was shot in the head and killed in- the Battle, stantly. Among the losses on the British side was Major Pitcairn, who had led the regulars at Lexington. In the Colonel William Prescott. From the statue on Bunker Hill. 120 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY decisive battle of Quebec, which practically closed the French and Indian War, not so many British officers were killed as in this little skirmish with the farmers of New England. 132. Results of the Battle. — ^Thus four thousand trained and disciplined British regulars, after being twice repulsed by less than fifteen hundred raw militia, had succeeded in cap- turing a slightly fortified redoubt only because the ammu- nition of the defenders had been exhausted. The English government and people now had a clearer idea of the great- ness of the task which they had undertaken. General Gage *at once saw that it would be difficult to subdue the Americans. He wrote to Lord Dartmouth: '^The rebels are not the despicable rabble whom many have supposed them to be. The conquest of this country is not easy." The colonies, on their part, encouraged by their success, were inspired with fresh zeal to carry forward the contest. General Ward, in an order to the troops, said, "We shall finally come off victorious, and triumph over the enemies of freedom and America."^ Dr. Franklin wrote to his English friends, ''The Americans will fight, and England has lost her colonies forever." ^ 1 Not long since a gentleman from Boston visiting in Quebec was shown a small cannon, and was told, "We captured this from you at Bunker Hill." "All right," replied the American, "you have the cannon, but we have the hill." 2 General Howe's order to burn Charlestown aroused the indignation of Dr. Franklin. In London Franklin had made the acquaintance of a very intelligent gentleman, Mr. William Strahan, like himself a printer, and in 1775 a member of Parliament. Between the two men a strong friendship had arisen. Soon after the battle of Bunker Hill, Franklin wrote Strahan a letter which has become famous. Indignant as Franklin was at the conduct of General Howe in burning the town, yet, after the war was over and peace had been declared between the two countries, Frank- lin renewed his acquaintance with Mr. Strahan, and they enjoyed a friendly confidence till death interrupted it. A copy of this letter was procured from Strahan soon after it was received and was printed in the English newspapers. THE COLONIES ALIENATED 121 ^^^^P^^- ^7^' (^£>t>fnjC^ ^7T^^^/f~u^^'z^^?-i^ ~~^ '-^^^■ ff-XM^rrt)^ ierr» frtt^ <2.->*C ^/ i^iut^^ lO^m^. Franklin's Letter to Mr. Strahan. 133. Washington, Commander-in-Chief. — Meanwhile the Second Continental Congress had met in Philadelphia. It voted to raise an army of twenty thousand men and to issue bills of credit to the amount of three million dollars. Massa- chusetts requested Congress to organize a Continental Army, 122 KSSION'riALS OV MNirhll) SI. \ IKS IIIS'IOL'N jmd .loliii Adams su^^cslcd (iiMti'^c \\'n.sliiii}j;((Hi n„s ('(»iii niaiidcr in cliicl. Ac('(irdiii;i;ly , W'iisliin^loii was cIkcjcii hy haJIol oil llic l.'">lli nl .liiiic, 177.''), and cnniinissKMH'tl in I lie na.in«' ol Mh' I 'nilcd ( 'olonics. A.s I he main army w a,s (•cnlcictl ai'onnd UoshMi, Wasliinfiilon wcnl (licrc lie aiii\'cd ai ( 'anihridj^c on I lie L'd ol .Inly, and on llic very ncvi da,y, "a.i nixail nine o'clock in llic iiioininfi;, \Va,sliin|i;(.oii, w il li Ncvrral ol I lie f'Clicial olliccis, \\ c n I o n Too I (not nMMMilcd, a;; (»llcn rep rcscnircl ) lo I lie <-liii ; I ill olaJldin^' l>\' I he cd;M' ol ( 'amlnid^'v ( 'o m m o n . 'I'll ere lie .said a, lew wolds lo llic asscmldcd I roo|)S, and draAvin^ liis ;;\\ (»rd I o(»l\ c(»iii!iiain I ol I lic( 'oil! incnlal Afiny," ' a lilllc hand ol slra,^- f'lin^; larincr,s, drcssc(| in lio!ncs|)iiii ol varied col- oi's a,nd l('\l lire < 'lieers and slionis imiiiediaJcly lollo\vc(|, and I lie hoom- iiij^i; ol cannoii lold llie nIoI'V lo I lie enemy in (iioNJoitAi, VVAHinN(ir(iN IN (!mmmani< I'.o.sloii, VVa,Mliinti;lon, laJI, strong, and well proporl ione(|, \\'ii>^ at I lie lime lorly- llii'ee y<'ajs ol" a|i;c. "lie wore a, hlne hroadclolli c((;i,l, lailf .siiiaJIclollics, silk slockin^s, and cocked li;il," 134. The British Army leaves Boston. in Marcli, I77(», Wasliin^lon roililie«| Dorcliesler llei^lils hy ni^lil. 'I'lie ' (jiKilcd Iroiii Ijcjiry ('iiliol Lodf^r. -1 ^ m K;'^r'">^_ I I IH I I .Hlllli;' I.' I .M l>oh(.on }i.ti(\ y\it'("dlt'ti'iti^ liJH UtnutH, He, Ui<^n /'r^n<(^/[if^(a'<'y (U^tutitil ('MtiUftt l,o f>o>^ i^'j^H ftn'i forlify iJhh cr/r(Ufmnif.M'rly /nifi'iful ol lJi<: Lv.l. Uiat ofK^^^ \ntf(tt'(t, at lUuikct' Hi)), lji* Uiv^^r from ('atti\tt''uiii(t, ittiU'tiui I'lO^ton, Tlfr^ Hritinfi Ut tlK'Jr liaj'tr^ 1j«/J U'i'l i^'Vittai \t\itKit'(u\ r^annorj, many l^: '^17^^ law of th^^ land anlUonyMn ua*. t^niMin U) i\it('\iiv(t, — and it m my duty Ut iUtcXmv, i\m Vaw, ^'^^^ — that (litot'iLy. iUit Third, Kin^ of (Uttai HtliaUt UuM aUlicatxfd th^^ gov^^rnm/^nt, that \i(t \iiiH H'> ;)j- /'//)>;/ ov^^r HH and mt (tw(t no (t\n*A\i*u('M Ut him/' \iU(Ait \Aiini\ i^hH^A an fud, May 4, a/'.tnally d;ood,> and taxes on the property of the country.^ The new government made use of both of these methods. The principal revenue, however, except in a few instances, from that time until this, has been from tariff on imports. The first tariff bill was First Tariff passed during Washington's first term, and while Bill. primarily it was a tariff for revenue, yet to some extent it was also a tariff for protection. ^ Iron, hemp, cotton, and salt were among the manufactures protected. 219. The First Census. — ^ The first national census was taken in 1790, and a new census has been taken every ten years since. The census bureau is now one of the most im- portant of the national government. Each census collects careful and accurate information not only in regard to the population, but concerning industries, productions, imports, exports, wealth, illiteracy, education, rehgion, and many other important matters showing the progress, development, and condition of the country and its people. 220. Coinage of Money. — ■ The national mint for the coinage of gold, silver, and copper money was established at Philadelphia, where it has ever since been in active operation. The first coins were struck in 1793. The decimal system of money — ten dollars making an eagle, ten dimes a dollar, and ten cents a dime — was adopted. 221. New States. — The new government contained thir- teen states, but during Washington's first term two states 1 Taxes on property may be on all property, real or personal, or they may be on specific kinds of property, or on goods manufactured. 2A tariff for revenue is a tax on importations from foreign countries and is designed to furnish money to carry on the government. A pro- tective tariff is designed to protect home production; and is placed upon raw materials or goods manufactured in countries where labor is cheap, so that they cannot be sold in the United States at a lower price than goods manufactured here. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797) 189 Fiom the paintinj,' liy Stuart. George Washington. were added. These were Vermont, in 1791, and Kentucky, in 1792. During his second term, in 1796, Tennessee was admitted. Hence by the year 1800 there were sixteen states in the Union; eight of them were slave states and eight were practically free states. 222. The French Revolution. — In 1793 the French people executed their king, Louis XVI. Thereupon three 190 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY nations, England, Spain, and Holland, made war upon France. During our Revolutionary struggle, France had aided us with a loan of money, with troops, and ships of war. Many of our citizens now wished that our government would in turn help France in her struggle with those three nations. Wash- ington and Hamilton favored strict neutrality, but Jefferson Division in wished to aid France. 1 Other differences arose in the the Cabinet, which caused much heated discussion, Cabinet. ^j^j there was great political excitement through- out the country. Jefferson resigned his position in the Cabi- net at the close of the year, and Hamilton in January, 1795. 223. Great Britain Unfriendly. — Although the English government had acknowledged our independence and made a treaty of peace wdth us in 1783, it still retained possession of forts on Lake Erie and in its vicinity. It held Detroit and seemed un- wilhng to withdraw its troops from our territory. Moreover, American seamen were taken from our merchant vessels under the pretext that they were Brit- ish deserters, and forced to serve on Enghsh ships. These things caused a bitter feeling toward England and many of our states- men favored a declaration of war. 224. Jay's Treaty. — War, however, was averted by the 1 In a letter to the Earl of Buchan, now preserved in the British Mu- seum, Washington wrote: "I believe it is the sincere wish of United America to have nothing to do with the political intrigues or the squabbles of European nations: l)ut on the contrary, to exchange commodities and live in peace and amity with all the iiihaliitants of the earth, and this I am persuaded they will do, if rightly it can l)e done." John Jay. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797) 191 celebrated treaty of 1795. This was the work of John Jay, an experienced and discreet statesman, whose services were prominent in the treaty of 1783 and who had served as chief justice of the United States. In some quarters this treaty met with bitter opposition. It was especially criticised be- cause it failed to restrict the British claim of the right to search our vessels and impress our seamen, and because of the feeling that it would restrict our commerce with the West Indies. 225. Treaty with Spain. — During the same year Thomas Pinckney negotiated a treaty with Spain fixing the boundaries between the United States and Florida, and granting New Orleans as an open port of deposit for American merchandise, free of duty. 226. Hamilton and the National Bank. — Alexander Ham- ilton was secretary of the treasury under Washington, and with great skill he established the treasury of the United States on a firm basis. Hamilton favored a national bank, and in 1791 such a bank was chartered by Congress called '^The Bank of the United States." The charter ran for twenty years, and when it expired, in 1811, it was not renewed. But it was rechartered in 1816 for twenty years and never renewed. 227. Washington refuses a Third Term. — Washington, having been twice unanimously elected President and having served for eight years, declined a reelection for a third term, and thereby established the precedent in accordance with which no President has been elected for a third term. No one except Washington has ever had a unanimous election. James Monroe, at the time of his reelection in 1820, a period known as ''the Era of Good Feeling/^ came within one vote of a unanimous election. He had two hundred and twenty-eight electoral votes, and a delegate from New Ham]> shire gave John Quincy Adams one vote, not because he was 192 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY opposed to Monroe, but because he was unwilling that any one after Washington should have a unanimous election. 228. Washington's Farewell Address. — Washington had been greatly abused by his political opponents. The attacks upon him had been made, as he himself expressed it, '4n terms so exaggerated and indecent as could scarcely be applied to a Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even to a common pick- pocket." Having fully made up his mind to retire to private life, he wrote his '^Farewell Address to the People of the United States." Concerning this address, John Marshall, in his ^' Life of Washington " says, ^' He wished to terminate his political course with an act which might be suitable to his own character and permanently useful to his country." He calls it ^'A Valedictory Address, in which, with the sohcitude of a person who, in bidding a last adieu to his friends, leaves his affections and his anxieties for their welfare behind him, he made a last effort to impress upon his countrymen those great political truths w^hich had been the guides of his own administration, and could alone, in his opinion, form a sure and sohd basis for the happiness, the independence, and the liberty of the United States." And he adds, ^^The sentiments of veneration with which this address was generally received were manifested in almost every part of the Union." In this address, interesting now as then, ''The Father of his Country" spoke many words of important significance. ''Promote, then," he said, "as an object of primary impor- tance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. . . . Recom- Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; mends cultivate peace and harmony with all. . . . Har- Peace. mony, and a liberal intercourse with all nations, are recommended by policy, humanity, and interest." 229. Eight Years of Prosperity. — The first eight years under the Constitution were years of increasing prosperity JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801) 193 ibr the country. The y()un<2; r(>i)iil)Ue bj-ought new UFe hito every department of domestic production and won the respect of all nations. Its population constantly increased, its indus- tries widened, and its finances improved. All conditions, indeed, were so encouraging as to call forth these words from President Washington: ''The wealth and prosperity of these States will increase with that degree of rapidity as to baffle all calculation." SUMMARY As soon as the new government was in active operation, the President proceeded to choose his Cabinet officers. A tariff bill for protection as well as for revenue was passed, a census was taken, a national mint was established, and new states were admitted. It was soon discovered that the Constitution needed some changes and ten amendments were added. A war between France and England brought dissension in the President's Cabinet and much excitement throughout the country. England angered the United States by seizing Ameri- can seamen, but war was averted by Jay's treaty. An agree- ment with Spain fixed the southern boundary between the United States and Florida. Washington refused a third election and closed his eight years of service as President with a remarkable address to the people, in which he urged them to cultivate peace and harmony with all nations. — '^' — CHAPTER XVII JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (i 797-1801) 230. The Second President. — By this time the people had become divided into two political parties, the Federalists, and the Republicans or Democratic-Republicans. The Fed- eralists favored a strong, national government. The Repub- Ucans, on the other hand, beheved in ''state rights," or state 194 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY supremacy. The former were called ''loose construction- ists/' and the latter "strict constructionists/' from their method of interpreting the Constitution. John Adams of Massachusetts, the choice of the Fed- erahsts, was inaugurated the second President, March 4, 1797, at Philadelphia. The national debt had already been funded, that is, put into bonds bearing regular interest, and a part of it had been paid. Commerce was increasing and agriculture was everywhere flourishing. The South was especially prosperous because of the rapid increase of the cotton crop, brought about by the cotton gin. 231. Efforts to prevent War. — Jay's treaty, w^iich had prevented a war with Great Britain, was in danger of causing hostilities with France. Accordingly President Adams sent a special com- mission of three men to France to treat with that country. The commissioners were John Marshall of Virginia, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. The French minister, M. Talleyrand, re- fused to treat with them. Then it was intimated, through secret agents, that if they would pay a quarter of a million dollars to the French government they would be officially received and all matters of dispute would soon be settled. To this Pinckney replied, '^ Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." This saying at once became popular throughout the United States. The French government ordered the commissioners to quit the country at once. They forthwith fitted out privateers to prey upon our John Adams. JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801) 195 merchant vessels at sea, and this procedure soon led to open warfare. Such a state of affairs required the most careful attention of Congress. The nation must be made ready for war. A provisional army was ordered, and Wash- Prepara- ington was conmiissioned lieutenant-general. tionsfor American men-of-war were instructed to seize any ^^^" French vessel which should commit depredations on American commerce. Intercourse w4th France was suspended, and it seemed for a time that war could not be avoided. Presi- dent Adams, however, was well aware that we were still a small nation, hardly recovered from the effects of the long struggle with Great Britain. He therefore avoided a dec- laration of war. In 1799 Napoleon became First Napoleon's Consul of France, and the year following a treaty Treaty, was made and peace restored. 232. Alien and Sedition Laws. — While these troubles with France were existing, Congress passed two laws which were veiy unpopular ^\dth the people and which did much to destroy the Federalist party and to give the control of the national government at the next presidential election to the Republicans. 1 The first of these laws was called The Alien Law. It authorized the President to order any foreigner whom he should judge to be dangerous to the peace and liberties of America to depart from the United States; those who refuse to obey the President's command in this re- spect were liable to be fined and imprisoned. A few weeks after the Ahen Law was passed, the other, called TJie Sedition Law, was enacted. It imposed a fine and the penalty of imprisonment upon such persons as. should utter any false, scandalous, or malicious writing against the government. Congress, or President, and upon such as should 1 The party then called Republicans was the forerunner of the present Democratic party. 196 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY combine or conspire together to oppose any measure of gov- ernment. These two laws were a great stretch of the pow^r of Con- gress, such as had not been ventured upon since the adoption Opposed of the Constitution. The opposing party at once byRepub- called them unconstitutional, claiming that they licans. violated the first amendment, which prohibited Congress from passing any law to lessen freedom of speech or of the press. 233. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. — The legis- latures of Kentucky and Virginia were bitterly 0})iJ0sed to The Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon. both these laws, and passed resolutions asserting the doc- trine that a state might judge for itself how far the national authority should bind and control it. These resolutions were the first official utterances of the doctrine which South Carolina some thirty years later proclaimed, — namely, the doctrine of nullification. 234. Death of Washington. — Washington, who had commanded the armies of the united colonies, fought the battles of the Revolution, and served as first President of JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801) 197 llie young republic, died at his home at M(3uni Vcnioii, on the 14tli of December, 1799, not c^uite sixty-eight years of age. At news of his death the whole country was throw^n into deep mourning. By his mihtary ability and success, his constructive statesmanship, his dignity and gentleness under all circumstances, his lofty patriotism and philanthropy, and his high moral character, Washington had endeared himself to all. The high estimation in which he was held is best described by the title given to him, and to him only, familiar now to every school child, "first in war, first in peace, and first in tiie hearts of his countrymen." 235. The New Capital. — The seat of government had first been established in New York City, but was soon moved to Philadelphia. In 1800 it was transferred to its permanent home in the new city of Washington on the Potomac River. President Washington himself had chosen the site of the national capital. The land was originally the gift of Maryland and Virginia, but the part given by Virginia was afterwards returned. Washington located the position of the principal buildings and approved the plan for laying out the streets and squares. The city was named appropriately in his honor, but for a long time it was derisively called "The City of Streets without Houses," and "The Capital of Miserable Huts." 236. Presidential Election (1800). — President Adams was the Federalist candidate for reelection, wdth Charles C. Pinckney for Vice-President. Thomas Jefferson was the choice of the Republican party, with Aaron Burr for Vice- President. The Federalists, as has been stated, had made themselves unpopular by the Alien and Sedition laws, and the Republicans triumphed. According to the Constitution as it then stood, the candidate who received the largest number of electoral votes became President, and the one who received the next, Vice-President. As there were an equal 198 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY nnnil)pr of votes for JefTerson and Burr, the election was The thrown into the House of Representatives. There Twelfth the choice fell upon Jefferson for President, and Amend- Burr for Vice-President. To guard against the recurrence of this difficulty of a tie vote, the twelfth amendment to the Constitution was framed. SUMMARY John Adams at his inauguration found the country in a prosperous condition. Jay's treaty, which may have prevented a war with England, very nearly caused a war with France. Pri- vateers preyed upon our vessels, and intercourse with France was suspended. An American army was raised and the nation made ready for war. Hostilities, however, were finally averted and peace was made. The difficulties with France were followed by the passage of the Alien and Sedition laws, which were so unpopular that they prevented the reelection of President Adams. During this administration, George Washington died, and the capital was moved to its permanent home in the new city of Washington. — <^ — CHAPTER XVIII JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 237. The Inauguration. — The third President, Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, Tefferson ^^^^ diplomat who had represented his country in Demo- France, who had been governor of Virginia, United cratic in States secretary of state, and Vice-President, was Character, jj^^ugurated March 4, 1801. ^ The new President was opposed to any display or unnecessary ceremony. His I Jefferson's acquirements were numerous and varied. It was said of him that he " could calculate an eclipse, survey an estate, tie an artery, GO H -sj a H © '^ w 2 ^- g <1 •| « « " •3 •S =? -^ Uj J3 O JEFFERSON '8 ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 190 habits were simple, and some thought hihi too careless and undignified for the chief executive officer of an important republic. 238. The New Party and its Policy. Jefferson's election was the first political revolution since the adoption of the Con- stitution. His message^ voiced the policy of the incoming Re- publican party. This policy was to foster carefully the state governments; to restrict the Federal power; to reduce the army and navy, the taxes, and the duties on imports to the lowest available point. The new party favored a currency of gold and silver only, and none of the leaders were in favor of prohibiting Congress from borrowing money. Jefferson par- doned all who had been imprisoned under the Alien and Sedition laws. Party spirit ran high and much bitterness existed in political circles. Thomas Jeffkuson. plan an edifice, try a cause, break a horse, dance a minuet, and play a violin." A Northern man said of him: "When he spoke of law, I thought he was a lawyer; when he talked al^out mechanics, I was sure he was an engineer; when he got into medicine, it was evident that he was a physician; when he discussed theology, I was convinced that he must be a clergyman; when he talked of literature, I made up my mind that I had run against a college professor who knew everything." 1 Quite in keeping with his democratic character, Jefferson wrote his first message and sent it to the Senate and House to be read, instead of delivering it himself formally in person as both Washington and Adams had done. His example in this respect has been followed by all succeed- ing Presidents. 200 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 239. The Province of Louisiana under Spain and France. Of the three European nations prominent in the perma- nent colonization of North America, France settled along the valley of the St. Lawrence River, — Quebec, Montreal, and the adjacent places, — England peopled the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia, and Spain planted colonies in Florida and Mexico. The treaties of 1763, however, greatly changed the map of North America; France was thereby swept entirely from the continent; Spain came into possession of the whole country west of the Missis- sippi River, and Great Britain had all east of the Mis- sissippi River, together with Canada. Florida was ceded back to Spain in 1783, and in the year 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte made a treaty Avith Spain by which that countr}^ gave up to France the vast territory Avest of the ^lississippi called the Province of Louisiana. Napoleon intended to make Louisiana an important colony of France. 240. The Louisiana Purchase. — Spain had prcAdously agreed to allow New Orleans to be an open port of deposit to the people of the Ignited States. In 1802, however, just before Louisiana was turned over to France, the Spanish governor closed the port of New Orleans to American vessels. This naturally alarmed the people of the Ohio and the Mis- sissippi valleys, since for them the port of Ncav Orleans was the one door to the commerce of the world. Jefferson, to avoid any conflict with France, proposed to buy from France the island of New Orleans. This island is formed by the Iberville River, Lake Pontchartrain, the Gulf, and the Mis- sissippi. If the island could be bought, he reflected, then the United States would hold the left bank of the river to its mouth and the Mississippi could never be closed to us by any foreign power. .Accordingly, Robert R. Livingston, our muiister to France, was authorized by the President to buy 202 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the island of New Orleans. Monroe, also, was sent over to aid him and to hasten the negotiations. At this time Napoleon was on the eve of a war with Great Britain, and he feared that power would capture New Orleans and take from France the whole province. He there- A Stretch ^^^'^ ^^^^ ^^^ Louisiana to the United States, and the of Consti- treaty was signed early in 1803 by our ministers, tutional Livingston and Monroe. Mr. Jefferson found °^^ ^' nothing in the Constitution giving authority to purchase more territor}-, but the treaty was so obviously for the good of the country that he signed it, and it was rati- fied by the Senate. Congress made the necessary appro- priations, and the price, fifteen million dollars, was paid. We thus doubled our territory and out of the newly acquired section have come twelve great states. This purchase was the Twelve most important transaction of Jefferson's eight States from j^ears as President. Indeed it was one of the most the Pur- striking treaties ever made between two nations. In time of peace one government sold to another a territory as large as all Europe west of Austria. 241. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. — Many years before Jefferson became President he planned an exploring expedi- tion to discover the sources of the Missouri Eiver and, if possi- ble, to fuid a passage to the Pacific. Yery little was known of the country west of the Mississippi. Before the purchase of Louisiana was proposed, Jefferson had commissioned Meri- wether Lewis, his private secretary, and William Clark to organ- ize an expedition to explore the western land lying between the ''Father of Waters" and the ''Great South Sea," and, if possi- ble, to find a path either by river or b}^ land to the Pacific. These two brave men left St. Louis in May, 1804, went up the Missouri Eiver to the Mandan country, and wintered near where the city of Bismarck now stands. In the spring JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 203 following they pushed on and by early summer reached the snow-capped mountains. These they crossed, and floating down the Columbia River in canoes of their own construc- tion, they were at last gladdened by the sight of the great ocean. They reached the Pacific in November, 1805, and wintered on the shores of Young's Bay, near the mouth of the Columbia. The next year, 1806, starting as early as the condition of the country would allow, they retraced their William Clark. Meriwether Lewis. steps over the mountains and down the Missouri, and reached St. Louis in September, thus completing their marvelous journey of about eight thousand miles performed in two years and four months. This exploration gave us not only much information concerning the region traversed, but also an additional claim to the country drained by the river dis- covered by Captain Gray in 1792, and called by him after his ship;, the Columbia. 204 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 242. War with Tripoli. Inr ycais the pirates of (he Barbary States had i^reyecl upon our coiiunerce, seized the cargoes, destroyed the vessels, and sold the crews into slavery. Meanwhile we had paid tribute to prevent the pirates from injuring our commercial trade. Then, when in 1801 we re- fused to pay their demands, the Dey of Tripoli declared war against the United States. A naval force was sent by our government to the Mediterranean, and, largely through the bravery of Stephen Decatur, the Dey made peace and the other Barbary States followed his lead. The war was ended and the tribute ceased.. 243. Troubles with Great Britain — The Embargo Act. — The British government persisted in what it called the ''right of search and impressment," which meant the right to stop any vessel upon the high seas, search it for sailors that were British subjects, and force them into British service again. The British frigate Leopard fired upon the American frigate Chesapeake, killing and wounding twenty men, and took from the vessel four of the crew. England, however, disa- vowed the act. Still the English vessels continued to exer- cise the right of search. If any seamen thus taken from American vessels were not British subjects but were Ameri- can citizens, they had no opportunity to prove their claims. Here seemed to be good cause for war, but the United States Embargo was not ready for war. Congress passed an act Act. called The Embargo Act, which forbade all ves- sels to leave or enter American harbors, except for coast trade. This act proved a serious injury to our commerce, but caused less harm to the English trade, against which Non-Inter- it was aimed. Later, Congress repealed the Em- course Act. bargo Act. In its place it passed the Non-Inter- course Act, which forbade English and French vessels to come into our }:)orts. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 205 244. Hamilton and Burr. — ^ Aaron Burr was Vice-President from 1801-1805, that is, during Jefferson's first term as Presi- dent. Party politics ran high and much bitterness of feehiig and personal abuse prevailed among the leading poUti- cians. A quarrel of long standing existed between Hamil- ton and Burr. Burr was un- principled and was intensely ambitious. He wanted to be governor of New York, and with a view to that end courted the friendship of the Federal- ists. In the election he was defeated, largely through the influence of Hamilton. In 1804 Hamilton's Burr challenged Death. Hamilton to fight a duel. Hamilton unwillingly accepted and was killed. The tragedy occurred at Wee- hawken, on the Jersey shore opposite New York. The whole country was shocked. The high standing of the two men, one a Vice-President, the other a former secretary of the treasury, increased the sentiment felt by all against this barbarous practice of duelling. 245. Burr's Southwestern Plot. — Burr was at once shunned, and was not renominated for Vice-President. Find- ing his political career ruined, he remained for a time in hiding and then began to plot a desperate scheme. In 1806 he crossed the Alleghenies and gathered to himself a company of reckless men, ready to follow him in his plans for power and self-glorification. It has never })een fully known what, in detail, his project was, but it was pretty generally understood that he plaimed a military invasion of the Louisiana country Alexander Hamilton. 206 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY and Mexico, with the intention of organizing a new govern- ment there and putting himself at its head. His scheme failed, and the next year he was arrested and tried for high treason. Sufficient evidence to convict him was not found and he was Burr's Last discharged. He spent many years as an exile, and Days. finally returned to this country and practised law in the city of New York. He was never able to reinstate him- self in public favor. He died in neglect and poverty in 1836. 246. The American Steamboat. — Improvements in trans- portation form one of the most important chapters in the history of our modern civilization. The excellent road build- ing of Rome constitutes one of the great legacies bequeathed to us by that ancient civilization. But it was left to the nineteenth century to bring into successful operation rail- roads and steamboats. Not wars, but the quiet triumphs of peace, have brought about these great improvements of modern life. Soon after Washington became President, experiments were made with a view to the propelling of boats by steam. Cap- tain Samuel Morey on the upper Con- necticut River, John Fitch at Philadelphia and New York, and James Rumsey on the Potomac River, made the attempt with more or less success. It was, however, left to Robert Fulton, under the patronage and largely at the expense of Robert R. Living- ston, to make successful the American steamboat. Fulton experimented first in "England, then in Paris, and finally in New York, where, in 1807, he built the Clermont and made The Clermont. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809) 207 a successful trial trip to Albany and back. From that time improvements have been rapid in steam navigation, until now the great trans-oceanic steam palaces, such as the ships of the American, the White Star, the Cunard, and the North German Lloyd steamship companies, are among the marvels of the age. 247. Presidential Election (1808). — As Jefferson's second term of office drew towards the end, each party held a caucus of its members of Congress and nominated candidates for President and Vice-President. The Republicans nominated James Madison of Virginia for President, and George Clinton of New York for Vice-President. The Federalists nominated Charles C. Pinckney of South Carolina and Rufus King of New York. Madison and Clinton were chosen. SUMMARY The policy of Jefferson was almost the opposite of that of the two Presidents who^had preceded him. A strict construc- tionist, he nevertheless authorized the purchase of Louisiana, though the Constitution gave Congress no express power to make such purchases. Lewis and Clark made their famous exploration of the Mis- souri and Columbia' rivers and thereby gave the United States another claim to the Oregon country. War was waged with Tripoli. Great Britain continued to seize our seamen. In retaliation the Embargo and Non-Inter- course acts were passed and finally war was averted. Hamilton and Burr fought a duel in which Hamilton was killed. Burr afterward attempted to form a new government in the West, but was defeated in his scheme. The first steam- boat made her trial trip in 1807. 2U8 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-18 17) 248. Relations with England. — When Madison came to the presidency he found our relations with England in a sad state. The Non-Intercourse Act had been a hindrance rather than a help to American commerce. It was repealed in 1810, the second year of Madison's presidency. For two years, how- ever, trade with Great Britain was forbidden. During all this time the President and his Cabinet did all in their power to pre- vent war without at the same time degrading tlie country. 249. Immediate Causes of the War of 181 2. — During the year ISll the war spirit was greatly inflamed, especially among the Westerners. It was thought that the British had been inciting the northwestern Indians to war. At length Tecumseh, an Indian chief, formed a league of these red men and at their head proceeded against the forces of the United States. General William Henry Harrison (after- wards President) met the Indians at Tippecanoe and utterly routed them. This incident, with one other, did much to hasten the war. The other incident was that the Little Belt, a British war vessel, fired upon an Amei'ican frigate, the Provident, without cause. 250. War with Great Britain. - On the first of June, 1812, President Madison sent a message to Tippecanoe. James Madison. Little Belt and The Presi- dent. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 209 Congress in wliicli \\v iiu'iilioiuMl four serious complaints against Great Britain. They were: 1. Impressment of our seamen. 2. Attacks upon American vessels. 3. Injury to our commerce. 4. Tampering with the Indians. Eleven days later, Congress declared war. The majority of the Republican party favored the war, but the Federalists From the painting by White. The Constitution Destroying the Guerriere. and the minority of the Republicans were bitterly opposed. The people of the Eastern states were quite generally against the war. Great Britain had a powerful navy, while we had scarcely a dozen vessels. Our army was small, made u}) of undis- ciplined militia under ignorant officers. Two attempts were made in that first year to invade Canada, both of which were 210 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY disastrous to the American cause. But the action of our Success httle navy more than atoned for the army's want of our of success. Captain Hull, in the frigate Consti- ^^^y- tution, fought the British Guerriere off the coast of Newfoundland and in two hours' hard fighting com- pletely wrecked the British frigate. The Wasp defeated the Frolic off North Carolina, the United States captured the Macedonian, and the Constitution took the Java. The next year (1813) we lost the Chesapeake near Boston, and, in 1814, the Essex at Valparaiso in the Pacific Ocean. Then Commo- Perry's dore Oliver H. Perry, with his little fleet of ves- Victory. gels built on Lake Erie, attacked the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns and defeated it. He an- nounced his victory thus: ^^We have met the enemy and they are ours, — two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." Through Perry's victory the Americans gained com- plete control of Lake Erie. Various engagements followed, highly advantageous to the Americans. The British made an attempt to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson River, but were driven back by Commodore Mac- MacDonough, and in this encounter lost four Donough. vessels and two hundred men. MacDonough's victory ended the war in the North. 251. Massacre at Fort Mims. — In August, 1813, occurred a frightful massacre, by the Creek Indians, of five hundred men, women, and children in southern Alabama. These people had gone for protection to a stockade made for cattle by a farmer named Mims. They were suddenly attacked by a force of one thousand Creeks led by a half-breed named Weathersford. Andrew Jackson was dispatched with a command of troops to avenge this massacre. He overran the whole Creek territory and forced the tribe to sue for peace. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 211 Jackson then set a price on the capture of Weathersford, ahve or dead. One day when the General was sitting in his tent, a big Indian chief walked in and said: ''I am Weathers- ford. I am come to ask peace for my people. I Surrender am in your power; do as you please with me. I am of Wea- a soldier. If I had an army I would still fight; thersford. but my warriors hear my voice no longer. Do as you will with me. You are a brave man. I ask not for myself, but for my people." Jackson, of course, was greatly astonished. Being a generous man, he gave the chief his liberty, on his promise to keep the peace in the future — and the chief kept his promise. 252. British capture Washington and burn the Capitol. — The British warships blockaded the Atlantic ports, plunder- ing and burning many of the smaller towns. Admiral Cock- burn with his fleet blockaded the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. In August, 1814, General Ross landed a force of nearly five thousand men in Maryland, and marched rapidly to the new city of Washington. This was at that time httle more than a village of eight thousand, people. He captured the city and burned the capitol and other pubhc buildings, includ- ing the President's mansion. Before setting the match to his bonfire it is said that Cockburn, followed by a mob of soldiers, entered the hall of the House of Representatives, climbed into the speaker's chair, and put the question, ''Shall this harbor of Yankee democracy be burned?" The vote was unanimous in the affirmative and the torch was inunediately apphed. However, British sentiment in general, as Knight informs us in his history of England, disapproved of the destruction of these non-warUke buildings and con- demned the act as ''an outrage inconsistent with civilized warfare." Meantime the President, his family, and his Cabinet fled 212 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Field of Operations in the War of 1812. from the city. Before she went, Mrs. Madison carefully Flight secreted Stuart's famous portrait of Washington of the and the original draft of the Declaration of Inde- President. pendence and tluis sav(Hl ih(Mn. So lun'ried was the retreat from the White House that the President's dinner remained upon the table, where the British soldiers found it MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 213 and fea-stcd iii)()n il. AHvv hui'iiiiiL!; \\\v>rit- ish army retreated. 253. The Star-Spangled Banner. — They sailed away to threaten Baltimore, but the fleet was unable to pass Fort McHenry. All day and until late at night the bombardment continued, but at dawn the American flag was still waving over the fort. During the night Francis S. Key rowed out to the British flag-ship, under a flag of truce, in an effort to get a personal friend paroled. The Admiral detained him on j '1 ■ :„ >^ ^^^^K^ ^^^^^^H^ ^r;,' ' '-"%-f^' • #1 - iii^iliiiM '**SP5 ■ '- ' h. ' ^' ^Ml. .. . ,^*V*^^B f'^H hf^ %;^-^i^?liF'-'*'';^: ■* w^am HH^efl^llVklHr SBBd^H^I Mt^ Pf ' ^!- ''''' '^M?'--' ^^ ^'^ ^ M^^:-i'^ -■ / ■ \ ■ .*™»*i- ?--^ "• ..ai*fe:.t,t(fi^':v,^->,^E^ # From the painting by Carter. The Battle of New Orleans. board the flag-ship till morning. At dawn Key beheld with joy the stars and stripes still waving, and on the inspiration of the moment he wrote the popular national hymn, ''The Star-Spangled Banner." The British, having failed to cap- ture Baltimore, sailed away. 254. The Battle of New Orleans. — The British army then directed its operations farther south. On the 8th of January, 1815, was fought the decisive battle of New Orleans. 214 ESSENTIALS OP UNITED STATES HISTORY General Andrew Jackson, having repulsed the British army at Pensacola, had hastened to New Orleans, feeling sure that the enemy would make its next attack there. Jackson's army, although composed of excellent fighting material, — brave frontiersmen used to rough border fights, — was utterly un- disciplined as to military strategy and tactics. The British army, on the other hand, was made up of well-trained soldiers led by superior officers, under the command of Sir Edward Pakenham. Jackson was skillful and energetic in his prepara- tions to defend New Orleans. He put the city under martial law, and built barricades of cotton bales and earthworks. With his five thousand men he was soon in readiness to re- ceive the British army, superior in numbers. The attacking party was brave and confident, but the Americans met its fire with patience and cool courage. The compact lines of the British soldiers were broken; they were repulsed every- Defeat of where ; the dead lay in heaps. The battle was the British, brief : it lasted but two hours and the chief slaugh- ter occurred in less than half an hour. Pakenham and many officers of high rank were killed. Their loss in all was re- ported to be seven hundred dead on the field, and twice as many wounded. The American loss in the main battle did not exceed eight killed and thirteen wounded. Jackson after- wards, in a letter to a friend, gave his loss as six killed and seven wounded. The British inmiediately retired and sailed away from the southern coast. This defeat of Pakenham was one of the greatest victories of modern times. ^ 255. The Hartford Convention. — While the war was in ' At the beginning of the war Jackson had been ordered to raise two thousand troops and proceed to Natchez. While at that place, an order came for him to disband his army. Jackson was indignant. He declared it was unworthy any government to enlist a body of men, march them five hundred miles from their homes, and then turn them off without food, money, or means of transportation. He refused to obey the order and MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817) 215 progress, opposition to it was increasing in certain quarters, especially in New England. In December, 1814, twenty-six delegates from the New England states met in a convention at Hartford, Connecticut. The convention sat for three weeks with closed doors. The fact that its discussions were secret strengthened the impression already prevalent that the object of the convention was treasonable. It was commonly believed that a dissolution of the Union was urged. The published reports of the convention were practically as fol- lows : that no new state be admitted to the Union except by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress; that Congress have no power to lay an embargo for more than sixty days ; that no President be eligible for reelection; that a Presi- dent shall not be elected from the state which has furnished the preceding President; and that the proceeds of Federal taxes be turned over to the several states in which they were collected. The people of New England, in general, were hostile to the movement. The political prospects of the dele- End of the gates were ruined, and the Federal party here re- Federalists, ceived its death-blow. 256. Treaty of Peace. — On the 24th of December, 1814, conmiissioners, American and British, signed a treaty at Ghent, in Belgium, which was ratified by both nations. Al- though the war had not been fought through to a result, yet England was wilhng to make peace because of European complications, and America, because of the dissatisfaction felt by so many of our people against the war. The issues marched his men back to Tennessee at his own expense. He was after- wards reimbursed by the government. He had three good horses, but he himself walked and gave his horses to sick men to ride. He was strong and " tough." On the march some one said, " The General is tough, tough as hickory." Hence he was called " Old Hickory," and this name clung to him all his life. 216 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY which had hn)Ui;Ii( on i]\v war were not scdlnl by Iht' treaty, and the relations between the (wo countries appeared to be about the same as before the war. Resj)ect for the United States, however, was strengthened in Europe, and England never afterw^ards attempted to enforce her claim to the right of search and impressment. Thus the w^ar brought commer- cial independence to America. The treaty was made before the battle of New Orleans was fought, but news of it had not yet reached America. 257. Affairs at Home. — During Madison's two terms our government w^as so much concerned with European dif- ficulties and the w^ar w^ith Great Britain, that but few^ domes- tic questions could receive attention. Two efforts, however, wxre made to charter a national bank, the second of which was successful, in 1816. Two new^ states were admitted to the Union, Louisiana in 1812, and Indiana hi 1816. 258. Presidential Election (1812). — Madison's second elec- tion was by a vote of one hundred and twenty-eight for him, against eighty-nine for DeWitt Clinton of New York. Dur- ing this second term Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts was Vice-President. In 1816 the candidates of the Republican party w^re James Monroe for President, and Daniel D. Tompkins of New York for Vice-President. The Federalist candidate for President was Rufus King of New York, and no nomination w^as made for Vice-President. Monroe and Tompkins were elected by a large majority. SUMMARY War with Great Britain was the chief event of Madison's administration. Many of the principal battles of this war were fought on the sea. The United States had only a few vessels, which, however, usually came off victorious. The British cap- tured and burned the city of Washington, l)ut were repulsed at MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825) 217 Baltimore. The most brilliant victory of the war, the defeat of the British at New Orleans, was fought after the treaty of peace had been signed. The war did not settle the difficulties which had caused it, except that England never again attempted to search American vessels. The war was opposed by many of the people of New England. Delegates from the five states met at Hartford and discussed various questions in secret. Their deliberations resulted in nothing but their own political ruin. — -^^ — LongiiudeiN G^J\ E OX RX G P O R I D A CHAPTER XX MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (i8 17-1825) 259. Era of Good Feeling. — The Federalist party had disappeared and the people were no longer divided on po- fitical questions. Hence Monroe's administration has been called the Era of Good Feeling. There was no opposition to Monroe's second election, in 1820, and he received every vote but one. Washing- ton, as has been already stated, was the sole President to receive all the electoral votes. 260. The Pur- chase of Florida. — Florida was a Span- ish province till 1763, when it was ceded by Spain to Great Britain. It was ceded back to Spain in 1783. Spain, how^ever, took but little interest in preserving order there, and the country was overrun with freebooters, Seminole Indians, O F M E X East and West Florida. 218 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY and runaway slaves. Indeed, the social conditions there were such as to be a constant menace to the people of Georgia. Various attempts were made to purchase the country from Spain. Finally a treaty was negotiated in 1819, by which Spain transferred the two provinces of East and West Florida to the United States for the sum of five million dollars. The final ratification of this treaty was delayed for two years, but in 1821 we came into possession of the entire province. It was organized as a territory soon after the treaty was ratified, and w^as admitted as a state in 1845. By this Treaty treaty the United States gave up to Spain all her with claim to Texas derived from the purchase of Spain. Louisiana, and Spain in return yielded to us all her claim to the Oregon territory. The forty-second par- allel west of the Rocky Mountains was made the dividing line between the Spanish provinces and the United States. 261. Slave States and Free States. — As early as 1787, in the Federal Convention, the slavery question was a bone of contention among the states. After the invention of the cotton gin, slave labor, which w^as already an important factor in the South, became more profitable. By the year 1800, all the Southern states were slave states, while all the Northern states were practically free. There were at that time, therefore, eight free states and eight slave states. Consequently the United States had sixteen slave-state sena- tors and an equal number of free-state senators. Henceforth Balance of for half a century the balance of power in the Power. Senate was carefully preserved in the admission of new states. New states were admitted as follows: In 1803, Ohio, free state; in 1812, Louisiana, slave state. In 1816, Indiana, free state: in 1817, Mississippi, slave state. In 1818, Illinois, free state; in 1819, Alabama, slave state. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825) 219 In the year 1820, Missouri applied to be admitted as a slave state. 262. The Missouri Compromise. — A large part of Missouri lay just across the river from Illinois. The people of that state and other Northern states did not want Missouri to be admitted into the Union as a slave state. Maine was ask- ing for admission, and became a free state in 1820. The South insisted that Missouri should come in as a slave state to keep the balance of power in the Senate. After a long and angry debate, a bill known as the Missouri Compromise Bill was adopted in 1820. This bill provided that Missouri should be admitted as a slave state, but that there should be no slavery in any other portion of the Louisiana Purchase north of the parallel 86° 30', the south- ern boundary of Missouri. The result of this compromise was to postpone the settlement of the slavery question, and for thirty years longer new free and slave states were admitted alternately, so that the balance of power was still preserved in the Senate. 263. The Monroe Doctrine. — The Spanish colonies in South and Central America and in Mexico had, previous to the time we are now considering, one after another thrown off the yoke of Spain and become independent states. Spain wished to reclaim them, but was not able alone to accom- ))lish her desire. She therefore sought aid from other Euro- ])ean nations. France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia formed what was called the Holy Alliance. This alliance Holy- was for protection against revolutionary move- Alliance. ments within their own states. England and the United States interpreted this action as the beginning of an attempt to compel the former colonies of Spain, which had revolted, to return to their allegiance. President Monroe consulted Ex-President Jefferson, who said: ''Our first and fundamen- 220 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY till iiiaxiiu shuLikl \)v, never to' Uuigle ourselves in the broils of Europe; our second, never to suffer Europe to intermed- dle with Cis-Atlantic affairs." President Monroe, in his message to Congress, December, 1823, announced the three principles known in history as the Monroe Doctrine. These were: 1. Any European power, which should interfere with any American government whose independence had been acknowl- edged by the United States, ''for the purpose of oppressing them or controlhng in any other manner their destiny," would be considered by us as showing an ''unfriendly dis- position towards the United States." 2. "It is impossible that the Alhed Powers should extend their political system to any portion of either continent [North or South America] without endangering our peace and happiness. ... It is . . . impossible that we should behold such interposition, in any form, with indifference." 3. "The American Continents, by the free and independent con- dition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any Euro- pean Power." 264. Tariff for Protection. — After the war with England was over, petitions for an increase of duties on imported goods were made to Congress. In 1816 a new tariff bill was passed, raising the duty on many kinds of wares, especially cotton and woolen goods. Four years later an attempt was made to pass a bill for a higher protective tariff, but by one ^HHjP* 4^. m^^^M ■^^"^H ^^H. ^H James Monroe. L MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825) 221 vote it failed to become a law. In 1824 a new tariff bill was passed, furnishing greater protection to home industries. 265. Naval Force on the Great Lakes. — In the year 1817 the United States and Great Britain agreed that the naval force on the lakes between this country and Canada should be limited. Neither of the two powers should have more than two vessels on the upper lakes, and only one on Ontario and one on Champlain, each vessel to be limited to one hun- RouTES OF Travel from the Seaboard to the Mississippi. (Note the Cumberland Road, the Erie Canal, the Pennsylvania Canal, and the route down the Ohio River.) dred tons burden, with but a single cannon. These vessels were to act as a police force to keep order and see that the revenues were properly collected. It was further agreed that no vessel should be built on the Great Lakes for war purposes. 266. The Erie Canal. ~- DeWitt Clinton, governor of New York, advocated the building of a canal across the state 222 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY to connect Lake Erie at Buffalo with the Hudson River at Albany. In 1825 he succeeded in accompHshing this great enterprise. The canal traversed a wilderness, uninhabited or only sparsely settled. It was almost four hundred miles in length, and cost very nearly eight million dollars. How- ever, it proved a great success and has continued useful to the present day. 267. Presidential Election (1824-1825). — In 1824 there were no party nominations. A few members of Congress nominated William H. Crawford, Tennessee presented Andrew Jackson, Kentucky Henry Clay, and Massachusetts John Quincy Adams. The electors gave Jackson ninety-nine votes, Adams eighty-four, Crawford forty-one, and Clay thirty- seven. As no one had a majority, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, and there Adams was chosen. The country was then, as always before and since, divided as to the powers of the Federal government into two parties, '^strict constructionists" and ^ Moose construction- ists." Crawford and Jackson were ''strict constructionists," and Adams and Clay were ''loose constructionists." The " strict constructionists " held that the Federal government was limited to the powers expressly granted by the Consti- tution. The "loose constructionists" maintained that in the Constitution certain powers may be implied which are not expressed; that the Constitution is not to be interpreted literally; and that new questions were not provided for in the Constitution. SUMMARY The principal events of the Era of Good Feeling were the purchase of Florida, the beginning of the slavery controversy, the Missouri Compromise, the adoption of the policy known as the Monroe Doctrine, and the opening of the Erie Canal. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829) 223 CHAPTER XXI JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829) 268. Conditions in 1825. — When John Quincy Adams became President, our country was under conditions very different from those which prevailed during the presidency of his father, a quarter of a century before. Twenty-five years had witnessed great progress. The territory was twice as large. The population had grown from four millions to eleven miUions. The business centers along the Atlantic coast had developed from small towns into large cities. The tide of emigration was moving westward with increas- ing rapidity, and, as a consequence, the center of population had changed from the eastern side of Chesapeake Bay almost to the western boundary of Maryland. The number of states had increased from sixteen to twenty-four. As yet, there were no railroads and land transportation had made no decided progress. Clinton's ^'big ditch," however, and other shorter canals had to some extent lessened the difhculties of conveying freight.^ Moreover, transportation by water had greatly improved. Steamboats had come into common use, especially on the Mississippi River. The steamship Savannah ' The Cumberland Road, also known as the " Great National Pike," was built by Congress and was intended to make easier communication be- tween the Ohio Valley and the Atlantic seaboard. The first section from Cumberland, Maryland, to the Ohio River was begun in 1806 and was opened to the public in 1820. Later the road was extended to Indian- apolis and afterwards to the Mississippi. It cost nearly seven million dollars. The Cumberland Road was a great aid in helping forward the development of the West. As the roadbed was smooth and the grades were easy, it was usually followed by the many bands of emigrants who were at that time leaving the East for the more fertile regions of the Mis- i'sippi Valley. See map on page 221. 224 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY had already crossed the Atlantic, and the Enterprise had steamed round the Cape of Good Hope. 269. Industries. — Farming continued to be the chief occupation. Wheat, Indian corn, barley, oats, potatoes, and hides were the products of the North. Cotton, sugar, Indian corn, rice, tobacco, and indigo were exported from the South. Many cotton and woolen mills had been built in the Eastern states, where spinning, weaving, and indeed all the processes of manufacture were carried on by water power -78' 7ti' Map showing the position of the CENTER OF POPULATION at the close of each Decade from 1790 to 1900 Center of Pupulatiun--^ L V Vn Pittsburg P^E N N S Y LVAM^J HA, ®'- mi O.Vol'arkersburg f)"" \(J I '■ \^ Charleston"-*,^ ^^^'^^ The Center of Population. 270. Education. — A rapid advance had been made in educational advantages. Public schools had multiplied, many academies had been established, and there were scattered throughout the country more than fifty colleges. The num- ber of newspapers had increased and literature was improv- ing. 271. Church and State. — From the beginning the trend The doc- " had been adopted and had flourished until, at the period we are con- sidering, it was almost universal. During the first quarter of the century religion had advanced, churches on the voluntary principle had been established almost everywhere, of sentiment had been against a state church trine of "freedom in religious concernments JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829) 225 and great progress was evident, in the ui)lifting, of manlvind and the enhghtennient (jf the race. 272. Political Parties. — The Era of Good Feeling was past. New pohtical parties had sprung up and were now divided on important questions. The administration party, with Adams and Clay as leaders, had favored a protective tariff and the opinion that internal im- Tariff Na- provements might be made by the national gov- tional and ernment. The other party, under the leadership ^*5*^ of Calhoun, Jackson, and Crawford, opposed the two chief tenets of the governing party and held to the doctrine of state rights and the limited powers of the Federal gov- •ernment. The party in power was now known as National Re^ publicans, and the followers of Jackson and Calhoun were called Democrats. A few years later the National Republicans took the name of the Whig party. 273. The Deaths of two Ex- Presidents. — John Adams, the second President, and Thomas Jefferson, the third President, died on the same day, July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the American Dec- laration of Independence. Just before his death, Adams said, '' Thomas Jefferson still survives." But Jefferson had already expired. 274. The New Tariff of 1828. — The idea of ''protection to home industries" was now supported by the majority in Congress, and that body passed a new tariff law of high pro- tective duties. The duties on wool and hemp, lead, iron, and John Quincy Adams. 220 ESSENTIAT.S OF TINITEi:) STATES HISTORY molasses, were very high. The bill, as [)assed, satisfied no- body, but was a compromise between the different sections of the country. It came to be called the Tariff of Abominations. It was especially disliked by the Southern states. Calhoun, who was then Vice-President, proposed that South Carolina pronounce the act ''null and void" in that state. 275. Presidential Election (1828). —The National Repub- lican party nominated Adams for President, and Richard Rush of- Pennsylvania for Vice-President. The candidates of the Democratic })arty were Jackson and Calhoun. Jackson received about twice as many votes as Adams and was elected. Both John Quincy Adams and his father were able and patriotic men, but neither of them was a popular or successful politician. John C. Calhoun. SUMMARY At the time of John Quincy Adams's administration the country showed groat progress. Population had increased, triinsportation facilities had improved, educational advan- tages had developed, and religious freedom had advanced. New political parties had been formed which were opposed to each other on the question of national and state rights and protective tariffs. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 227 CHAPTER XXII JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 276. The New President. ^ Andrew Jackson was a man of vigorous personality. He had lived a frontier life, and was ''rough and ready." He had a strong will and paid little regard to precedents. He was a brave soldier and had won distinction fighting the Indians in Florida and the British at New Orleans. He was, however, without administrative experience. Hitherto the employees in all the departments at Washington had been subject to few changes. In forty years less than two hundred office-holders had been removed. Jackson's motto was, ''To the victor belong the spoils," and he proceeded at once to make more than a thou- The Spoils sand changes. Men of little experience filled the System, positions made vacant. This course, inaugurated by Jackson and known as the "spoils system," has been followed more or less by every President since Jackson. 277. Hayne's and Webster's Speeches in the Senate. — In the year 1830, a great debate took place in the Senate between Robert Y. Hayne of South CaroHna and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. Hayne, in a two days' speech, defended the right of a state to nullify a law of Congress. He claimed that every state had a right to decide for itself whether any particular law was in accordance with the Constitution. He was well versed in the history of our country and he quoted the Virginia and the Kentucky resolutions and the doings of the Hartford Convention. His speech was one of power, show- ing that he was an able statesman, a carefiil student of history, and a great orator. Webster replied in a three days' speech w^hich has to this day been considered, both at home and abroad, one of the noblest specimens of oratory in the English 228 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED' STATES HISTORY language. Hayne had made a bitter attack upon New Eng- land, upon Mr. Webster personally, and upon the character and patriotism of Massachusetts. Webster argued that the Constitution was the supreme law of the land. He called nullification '' revolution." One of Webster's biographers writes of this speech: ''He said, as he alone could say, the people of the United States are a nation, they are the masters of an empire, their union is indivisible, and the words which then rang out in the Senate chamber have come down through long years of pohtical conflict and of civil war, until at last they are part of the po- litical creed of every one of his fellow-countrymen." He argued with great power that 'liberty and union, now and forever," are ''one and insep- arable." Later Hayne resigned his seat in the Senate and was elected governor of South Carolina. Calhoun resigned his office of Vice-President, and was elected to succeed Hayne in the Senate. 278. South Carolina and Nullification. — In those days the most important question in the minds of the people was the tariff. Four years after the tariff law of 1828, a new tariff bill was substituted, more uniform and with a lower average rate of duty. By this later bill the duties upon goods im- ported into the South were lower; yet the bill still held to the principle of protection, and to this principle Calhoun and South CaroHna were opposed. Daniel Webster. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 229 Collection Bill. A convention was hold at Columbia, South Carolina, in November, 1832, which [)a88ed an Ordinance of Nullification. It declared the tariff acts null and void in South Carolina, for- bade the payment of duties under these acts, and threatened to withdraw from the Union if the Federal government should attempt to enforce these laws in that state. Jackson, how- ever, determined to preserve the integrity of the Union. The next month he issued a proclamation to the people of South Carolina, warning them that the general government could not and would not yield to their demands, and j^ie insisting that the duties must be collected there Revenue as in the other states. Jackson then asked author- ity from Congress to collect the duties in South Carolina by force if necessary, and in response Congress passed the so-called Force Bill. 279. Clay's Compromise Tariff Bill. — In 1833 Henry Clay introduced a new tariff bill, by which duties were to be de- creased regularly every tw^o years until 1842, when they were to be brought to a uniform rate of twenty per cent upon all imports. This bill became a law and South Carolina repealed the Nullifica- tion Act. Thus peace was re- stored. By this compromise the protectionists, on their part, had lost, for the time being at least, and South Carolina, on her part, in her attempt at nullificatioTi had received no support from any other state. 28o„ Presidential Election (1832). — The Democrats nomi- nated Jackson for reelection, and Martin Van Buren of Henry Clay. 230 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY New York for Vice-President. The National Republicans jiominated Henry Clay of Kentucky for President, and John Sergeant of Pennsylvania for ^'ice-President. Jackson and Van Buren were elected l)y a large majority. 281. The United States Bank. — Jackson feared the power of the United States Bank, Avliich had been in oi)eration since 1816. He thought the bank was opposed to him pohtically, and he determined to destroy it, if he could. The bank had been chartered for twenty years, and tlie Supreme Court of the United States liad i)ronounced the charter valid. In 1832 Congress passed a bill re-chartering it, and Jackson Jackson vetoed the bill. In life veto message he pronounced vetoes a the bank ^'unnecessar}^ useless, expensive, hostile Re-charter. ^^ ^j^^ people, and possibly dangerous to the govern- ment." The proposition made in Congress to pass the bill over the veto did not receive a two-thirds vote and was there- fore lost. 282. Jackson removes the Deposits. — The government's business was done by this bank and there the funds were deposited. The President determined to secure the with- drawal of these government funds and their transference to certain specified state banks. By the bank charter no one but the secretary of the treasury could remove the public money. Jackson ordered the secretary, William J. Duane, to do this. Duane refused and was promptly dismissed. Roger B. Taney was then appointed to the office. He at once withdrew the deposits. In consequence the bank, to protect its credit, called in its loans and refused to lend any more money. -Thus a large part of the currency of the country was locked up, and a financial stringency resultetl which affected all classes of people. Taney's appointment was not confirmed by the Senate, and later he resigned the office. As a result of the removal of the deposits, no United JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 23l States bank has since been chartered, a fact in itseh' generally accepted as beneficial. Occurring in the manner it did, however, the ^'removal" was unfortunate, since it aroused a severe political storm and was, in a measure, responsible for the later financial panic. 283. Surplus Revenue Distributed among the States. — This heated discussion of financial affaii's and the stringency of the money market called attention to the fact that there was a surplus in the United States treas- ury. For years the revenue had been in excess of the expenses, until' there was a surplus of nearly thirty million dollars in the treas- ury. What should be done with this surplus ? Some said to use it for some important public im- provement. But both President and Congress were opposed to in- ternal improvements at the ex- pense of the national treasury. Andrew Jackson. Congress did not wish to lower the tariff so as to reduce the revenue. Finally it was voted (1836) to distribute the surplus among the several states. This was done in proportion to the population, — in other words, according to the number of representatives each state had in Congress. 284. The Cherokees in Georgia. — The Cherokee Indians in northwestern Georgia had attained a considerable de- gree of civilization. One of their number, Sequoyah, whose EngHsh name was George Guess, had invented a wonderful alphabet, almost the only syllabic alphabet in use in the world. The lands of the Indians had been guaranteed to tliem forever by solemn treaties with the United States, but the state of Georgia wanted these lands and finally succeeded 232 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY refuses to Support the Court. in securing them. The Indians were moved (1838) beyond the Mississippi by the United States Army. Throughout Jackson ^^^^ controversy the President refused to carry out the treaties or to enforce the decision of the Supreme Court. Wien the court decided in favor of the Cherokees, Jackson is reported to have said: ''Well, John Marshall has made his decision; now let us see him enforce it." John Marshall was the chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Surely the President knew that it is the duty of the executive to enforce the mandate of the judiciary. 285. New States. — Since the admission of Missouri, An Early Railroad Train. which had been the subject of such violent discussion, no new state had been admitted into the Union for a period of fifteen years. Then in 1836 Arkansas was admitted as a slave state, and the next year Michigan came in as a free state. Thus the balance of power between the free and slave states was still preserved in the Senate. 286. Industrial Progress. — A great industrial and inven- tive period was at hand. Already railroads had begun to be built here as well as in England. The first railroad in Eng- land was completed in 1830, and the very next year the Bal- timore and Ohio Railroad went into operation for a short distance. Before the end of Jackson's presidency, steam cars JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837) 233 were running over nearly two thousand miles of iron rails. With the coming of the steam car, interest in canal building had rapidly subsided. Anthracite coal had come into use, friction matches had been invented, and the machine reaper had made its appearance. 287. Presidential Election (1836). — The Democrats nomi- nated for President Martin Van Buren of New York, and for Vice-President Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky. The old National RepubHcan party was now called the Whig party. It nominated for President William Henry Harrison of Ohio, and for Vice-President Francis Granger of New York. Van Buren was elected by a large majority. The vote for Vice- President was divided between Johnson, Granger, and John Tyler of Virginia, and was finally referred to the Senate, where Johnson was elected. SUMMARY The tariff caused dissension and South Carolina threatened to withdraw from the Union if the law was not repealed. Peace was restored by Clay's Compromise Tariff. Jackson inaugurated the spoils system, vetoed the bill to re- charter the United States Bank, removed the government de- posits and loaned them to state banks. Congress divided the surplus among the various states. Steam cars were first intro- duced into America. The Cherokee Indians were moved from their lands in Georgia to reservations beyond the Mississippi, contrary to the treaties which the United States had previously made with them. 234 ESSENT1AJ.8 OF UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER XXIII VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841) 288. The President's Policy. — Van Buren had been a warm supporter of Jackson, and on taking the President's chair, March 4, 1837, he announced that he should follow out the policy inaugurated by Jackson, or, to use his ow^n w^ords, should '^ follow in the footsteps of his illus- trious predecessor." 289. The Financial Panic. — Shortly after the closing of the United States Bank, many state banks sprang up all over the country. A large number of these had very lit- ^*"^ tie or no money and no financial Martin van Buren. standing. They issued paper money which never could be redeemed. These were called ^Svild- cat banks." When they failed, the sound currency was greatly contracted and a panic ensued. Jackson then issued The Specie a ''Specie Circular" directing that nothing but Circular, gold or silver should be received as payment for public land. As a result, more ''wild-cat banks" failed. Money was hoarded and became scarce. Disaster followed. The prices of the necessities of Hfe became very high. In New York City bread riots occurred. The failure of business firms became numerous all over the country. Specie pay- ments were suspended. This year (1837) proved to be the most disastrous year for business the United States had ever seen. 290. The Sub-Treasury. — Jackson had placed the govern- ment deposits in various state banks. Van Buren proposed VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841) 235 to Congress the establishment of sub-treasuries, and a bill to this effect was drafted. His purpose was to ''make the government the custodian of its own funds, in its own vaults." The bill, however, did not pass till the year 1840. This plan proved advantageous and has for the most part been followed ever since. 291. Presidential Election (1840). — The panic of 1837 caused a reaction against the Democrats, because many attributed it to the laws passed by that party. The Whigs nominated for President William Henry Harrison, their standard-bearer four years before, and for Vice-President John Tyler of Virginia. The Democrats nominated Van Buren for reelection, l:»ut left the nomination of the Vice- President to the several states. A new party, the Abo- litionist or Liberty party, named James G. Birney of New York for President, and Francis Lemoyne of Pennsylvania for Vice-President. Then was fought a spirited political contest. The Whigs introduced songs, transparencies, torch- Ught processions. The campaign was known as the ''log- cabin and hard-cider" campaign. "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" was the popular refrain of this party. Harrison and Tyler were elected by an overwhelming vote. SUMMARY The state banks failed, and a panic resulted which affected the country disastrously. The question of the place of deposit for United States funds was settled by the establishment of sub-treasuries. 236 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER XXIV HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (i 841- 1845) 292. The Death of Harrison. — William Henry Harrison was the son of Benjamin Harrison, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He had been active in mili- tary and public affairs for nearly half a century. As governor and superintendent of Indian affairs in the Territory of In- diana, he had greatly aided the white settlers and bettered the William Henry Harrison. John Tyleh. condition of the Indians. In the War of 1812, Harrison had fought with bravery and skill, and next to Andrew Jackson was the most popular hero of that conflict. He was called the " Hero of Tippecanoe " because of his famous victory over the northwestern Indian tribes, in the battle of Tippecanoe. President Harrison took his seat March 4, 1841, and a month later, after a short illness, died at the White House. The whole country was greatly shocked, as this was the first death of a President while in office. The Vice-President, IIARRLSON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845) 237 John Tyler, immediately took the oath of office and became President, so that the business of government went on with- out interruption. Tyler, though chosen by the Whigs, was a strong, determined man, with Democratic princi- ^ j^j. ])les. A Whig Congress passed two bills to rees- Opposed tablish the National Bank, which were promptly *° Whigs, vetoed by Tyler. Many of the Whigs thought that he had proved a traitor to his party and all the members of his Cabinet at once resigned, except Daniel Webster. 293. The Webster- Ashburton Treaty. — Webster had already begun negotiations with the British special minister at Washington, Lord Ashburton, for a treaty to settle the disputes concerning our northeastern boundary. This treaty was made and signed in August, 1842, and was finally con- firmed by the Senate and by the British Parliament. It settled definitely the boundary between the United States and the British provinces from Maine to the Rocky Moun- tains. In May, 1843, Webster resigned from the Cabinet. 294. Texas. — In the year 1822, Mexico revolted from Spain, and two years later set up a republican government with a constitution similar to ours. The eastern portion of this new republic was called the '^ State of Texas and Coahuila." As it bordered upon Louisiana, many Southerners moved over the line and settled there, taking their slaves with them. In 1835, under the lead of these Americans, Texas revolted from Mexico and, a little later, estabhshed a government of her own, under the name of the '^ Republic of Sam Texas." General Sam Houston, who had gone Houston, to Texas from Tennessee and had command of the Texan army, became the first president of the '^Lone Star Re- public," as it was generally called. In 1838 Texas began to plan for the annexation of that country to the United States. It was finally annexed by a vote of the two houses 238 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY of Congress, and the bill was signed by President Tyler, March 3, 1845. Texas was admitted as a state the following December. 295. The Dorr War in Rhode Island. — The colonial government of Rhode Island was based upon a charter granted by King Charles II in 1663. When the Revolution occurred, most of the colonies, on becoming states of the new republic, framed constitutions for themselves. RJiode Island merely threw off allegiance to Great Britain and continued her govern- ment according to the old charter. The General Assembly, at an early date, had hniited the voting privilege to land- owners and their eldest sons. The number of representa- tives from each town in the General Assembly had remained the same for nearly two hundred years, though the number of inhabitants had greatly changed. Various efforts had been made to extend the suffrage and to make more equal the town representation, but the General Assembly would not give up the power it had held for so long a time. Soon after the presidential election of 1840, a plan for an extension of suffrage in Rhode Island began to be agitated anew, and in the winter of 1841-1842 two new constitutions were framed. One of these was prepared by a convention legally summoned by the legislature, but it was defeated by a vote of the people. The other was made by the suffrage party in a convention called and held without forms of law, and voted upon by all the people, legal voters and non-voters alike. This constitution they declared adopted, and under its provisions state officers were elected, although only the suf- frage party voted. Thomas W. Dorr, a brilliant lawyer, was chosen governor under this constitution. Then came a clash between the existing charter government and this revolution- ary government. A bitter and even bloody struggle seemed at hand, and President Tyler, who was known to favor the HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1^41-1845) 239 charter government, sent troops to Fort Adams to be used if needed. After several months of intense excitement, the ^^rebelhon" collapsed and Dorr fled from the state. The next year a third constitution was legally adopted, suffrage which granted most of the desired changes. This Legally went into operation in May, 1843. Dorr returned Extended. to the state, was arrested, tried for high treason, convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. After one year, he was set at liberty, and his civil rights were restored. 296. The Oregon Country. — West of the Rocky Moun- tains and north of Mexico lay the country of Oregon. Spain, Great Britain, and the United States all claimed a title to this region. In the Florida Treaty, Spain relinquished her claim to us, making the boundary line between the United States and ^'His Catholic Majesty's possessions in North America" the 42d degree of north latitude. In addition to this agreement with Spain, the United States had several other good claims to Oregon, which seemed sufficient to prove our right to the country. In 1792 Captain Grey of Boston had discovered the Columbia River, and thirteen years later Lewis and Clark had explored its course to the Pacific Ocean. The first permanent settlement had been made at Astoria by Americans in 1811. Moreover, Oregon was adjacent to the western portion of Louisiana. For years a treaty between our country and Great Britain had existed which did not determine the right of either nation to own Oregon, but gave to each the privilege of setthng there. Thus it happened that the ownership of the country depended in a large measure upon the number of actual inhabitants that England and the United States had in Oregon. 297. Doctor Marcus Whitman. — Doctor Marcus Whitman, a missionary to the Indians in that country, saw that the 240 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Hudson Bay Company was trying to secure a majority of the inhabitants favorable to the British claims, and he determined to prevent it from carrying out its plans. With a single companion, he crossed the Rocky Mountains in the winter of 1842-1843, enduring untold hardships, informed the govern- ment at Washington of the designs of the British, and the fol- lowing summer aided a great company of nearly a thousand persons, men, women, and children, to cross the mountains and settle in the country of the Columbia River. Thus the Americans gained a majority. In 1846 we made a treaty with Great Britain, agreeing that latitude 49° should be our northwestern boundary line. 298. Morse*s Magnetic Telegraph. — Samuel F. B. Morse, after years of careful study and experimenting, during the w The First Telegraph Message. course of which he spent his own money and all that he could raise, finally invented a successful magnetic telegraph. By this invention it became possible to send messages from one place to another by means of an electrical current passing through a wir(\ Congress made an appropriation for testing HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845) 241 the invention, and a line was set up between Washington and Baltimore. The first message sent over the wire was the sentence, ''What hath God wrought!" It happened that just as the line was put in operation, the Democratic convention was holding its session in Baltimore, and having nominated James K. Polk for President, it proceeded to nominate Silas Wright for Vice- President. Mr. Vail, at Baltimore, telegraphed this news to Mr. Morse, at Washington. Morse's office was in p^j-g^ jg^g. the Capitol, and knowing that Mr. Wright was in graphic the Senate chamber, he notified him of his nomi- News, nation. Wright at once declined the honor. Morse imme- diately telegraphed that fact to Mr. Vail, who informed the convention that Mr. Wright declined the nomination. The convention refused to believe the message, thinking that it was a trick on the part of those opposed to Mr. Wright. Therefore, a committee was appointed to inform Mr. Wright of his nomination and request his acceptance. The next day the committee reported that the telegram was correct and that Mr. Wright would not accept the nomination. Thus the in- vention had at the outset the best possible bit of advertising. The delegates told the story in every state in the Union. 299. Presidential Election (1844). — In the summer of 1844 the Whig national convention nominated Henry Clay for President, and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New Jersey for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated James K. Polk of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania. Polk and Dallas were elected. SUMMARY President Harrison, having served but one month, died, and was succeeded by John Tyler, whose policy was not that of the Whig party. 242 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY A treaty with Great Britain determined the northern boun- dary as far as the Rocky Mountains. Oregon came into the possession of the United States, and Texas was annexed and admitted as a state. Rhode Island was disturbed by the Dorr rebelUon. The telegraphic system invented by Morse was put into operation. — ^!^ — CHAPTER XXV POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849) 300. The Texan Boundary. — The State of Texas, while a part of Mexico, had been called ''The State of Texas and Coahuila " (ku-a-we'-la). Texas proper was east of the Neuces River, but she claimed as far west as the Rio Grande (re'-6-gran'-da) . Mexico had not acknowledged the independence of Texas. She now held that Texas did not include Coahuila, and that her boundary was the Neuces River and not the Rio Grande. 301. An American Force Sent to the Disputed Territory. — President Polk, in the summer of 1845, sent an armed force under the command of General Zachary Taylor to take possession of the disputed territory. In March, 1846, Taylor, who then had an army of about four thou- sand men, was ordered to advance to the Rio Grande. The Mexican general. Arista (a-res'ta), crossed the river and a bat- tle ensued. Taylor was victorious and the Mexicans were driven back. 302. War Declared. — President Polk sent a message to James K. Polk. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849) 243 Congress, saying: '^ Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States and shed the blood of American citizens upon American soil. War exists, and, notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself." Forthwith Congress declared war against Mexico. In September Gen- eral Taylor began his march westward. He captured the fortified town of Monterey (mon'te-ra'), and then fought the battle of Buena Vista (bu'na vis'-ta), where in Buena February, 1847, he defeated the Mexican general, Vista. Santa Ana (san'ta' a'na) and a force greatly superior in num- bers to his own. 303. The American Plan. — While General Taylor was to advance upon the City of Mexico from the north. General Scott, who had landed with twelve thousand men at Vera Cruz (va'-ra kroos), was to approach the capital city from the east. General Kearny was to capture the old town of Santa Fe (san'-ta fa') and the province of New Mexico. At the same time a fleet of American vessels, under the command of Commodores Sloat and Stockton, which had already been sent to Upper California in anticipation of the war, was to take possession there. In every detail this plan was carried out. In California, Los Angeles (los an'-gel-es), Monterey and San Francisco were captured ; General Fremont w^as elected governor by the American settlers there. All New Mexico fell into the hands of the Americans. General Scott, who was placed in su- preme command, marched his army to the City of Americans Mexico. Various battles were fought, in which, Every- as throughout the war, the Americans Were always where Vic- victorious. In September, after hard fighting, Mexico surrendered. The triumphant American army marched into the city of the Montezumas, and the war- was practically at an end. 244 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Field of Operations in the Mexican War. 304. The Treaty of Peace. — Upon the fall of the capital, the Mexican government was willing to sue for peace. A treaty was negotiated at Guadalupe Hidalgo (ga'-da-loop' he-daF-go), in February, 1848, by which Mexico yielded Texas, agreeing that the western boundary should be the Rio Grande. Furthermore, Mexico ceded to us her two provinces of Upper California and New Mexico, with the provision that the United States pay to her the sum of fifteen million dollars, and satisfy the claims of American citizens against rOLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849) 245 The Mexican Cessions and the Oregon Country. her to the amount of three milHon two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. 305. The Gadsden Purchase. — Five years after the date of this treaty, an additional territory was conveyed by Mexico to the United States. This territory has been called the Gadsden Purchase, because the treaty was made by Captain James Gadsden. It was a tract to the westward of the Rio Grande and south of the Gila (he'la) River. It cost us ten million dollars. The purchase was made on account of a difficulty respecting the boundary, and because it was thought 246 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY that the United States might desire at some future time tc build here a railroad to the Pacific. The Southern Pacific railroad now runs through the entire length of this district. 306. Increase of Territory. — The original territory of the United States was wholly east of the Mississippi River and included about eight hundred and twenty thousand square miles. By the Louisiana Purchase the territory was extended to embrace in addition more than nine hundred thousand square miles, and by the acquisition of Florida nearly sixty thousand more. The winning of Oregon gave us about three hundred thousand square miles, and the Mexican purchase, including Texas, increased our area by more than nine hun- dred thousand. We had, therefore, at the time we are con- sidering, an extent of territory more than three times that of the original. We had advanced from the eastern side of the ''Father of AVaters" to the very shores of the Pacific. 307. The Wilmot Proviso. — When the President asked Congress for money to buy territory of Mexico, David Wil- mot of Pennsylvania offered in the House of Representatives a ''proviso" that slavery should forever be prohibited in any territory purchased from Mexico. Although this did not pass Congress, it strongly affected the general sentiment of the people of the North. The opinion was rapidly growing in all the free states that slavery should not be further extended. The principle seemed to be that while, under the Constitu- tion, the national government could not interfere with the domestic institutions of the several states, yet Congress had the constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territories." The proposal of the Wilmot proviso angered the people of the slave states, and, on the other hand, failure to pass the proviso offended the opponents of slavery. 308. The Cost of the War and its Results. — The Mexican Copyright. 1902. bv S rdelt & Compares POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849) 247 War cost the I'liiUMl States very nearly one hundred tnilKon (h)nars and a i2;reat loss of hfe. The number killed in our army was not relatively large, but very many died later from disease occasioned by the war. Our armies had been successful throughout, but our coun- try had little cause to be proud. In comparison with us, Mexico was a small, weak nation. At the close of the war she was very unwilling to give up any of her territory. But she had been conquered. Her adversary had fought the war for territory and insisted upon securing it. Mexico was obliged to yield. It is to the credit of the United States, however, that we paid full price for the land acc|uired. The opposition to the war, especially in the North, had been powerful, but not sufficiently so to prevent opposition it. Many of our best statesmen then and since to the were outspoken in condemning it. General Grant ^^^' has called it ''one of the most unjust wars ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation." 309. Discovery of Gold in California. — Some years before the Mexican War a native of Switzerland, John A. Sutter, made his way from San Francisco into the interior of Cali- fornia and built a house for himself in the Sacramento Valley. In January, 1848, while he was building a sawmill about forty miles east of the present city of Sacramento, one of his workmen, James A. Marshall, discovered gold that had been washed down in the mill race. Soon large numbers from the neighborhood flocked to the place to dig gold. Later in the year news of the discovery of gold spread over the country and multitudes from far away went to Cali- fornia. These gold-diggers were mainly from the Northern states, and went to California either by way of Cape Horn or across the Isthmus of Panama. By the autumn of 1849 there were one hundred thousand inhabitants in the territory. 248 ESSENTIALS OF TNITED STATES HISTORY 310. California State Constitution Adopted. — At Mon- terey, ill October, 1849, a convention assembled and framed a constitution. This constitution was adopted by the people in November, and California then made application to Con- gress to be admitted into the Union as a state. This was liefore Congress had had time to form a territorial govern- ment. California was made a state in 1850. 311. Other New States. — In 1845 Texas and Florida were admitted to the Union, and Iowa the next 3'ear. 312. A New Political Party. — This acquisition of Cali- fornia, a great part of which was in the latitude of the Southern or slave states, and the failure of the AYilmot proviso, so in- censed the people of the Northern or free states that a new party was formed, called the Free Soil party. They de- clared for " Free Soil for a Free People." It was proposed by this part}' not to interfere with slavery where it already ex- isted, but to oppose its extension into any new territory. 313. Presidential Election (1848). — The Democrats nomi- nated Lewis Cass of Michigan and William 0. Butler of Ken- tucky. The Wiigs chose as candidates Zachary Taylor of Louisiana and Millard Fillmore of New York . The new Fi-ee Soil party nominated Martin ^'an Buren of New York, and Charles Francis Adams of Massachusetts. Taylor and Fill- more were elected ])y a majority of both the free and the slave states. SUMMARY A dispute over the Texan boundary brought on a war with ^Mexico, which resulted in a complete victory for the United States. By the treaty of peace we came into possession of New Mexico and California. This territory was later increased by the Gadsden Purchase. Gold was discovered in California in the winter of 1848. The population there increased so rapidly that within two yeai*s California was admitted as a state. TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853) 249 CHAPTER XXVI TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853) 314. Compromise of 1850. — California had asked to be admitted without an ^^ enabling act," and had presented to Congress a free state constitution. Thus she was the cause of a controversy in Congress. The free states favored her ad- mission and the slave states opposed it. The result was the Compromise Measures of 1850. These were as follows: ii5\V — . TTliisT T MINNES .,^ ^ terr'it 36A « -v s - — Z ' '"■i/ ~ — , The Result of the Compromise of 1850. 1. California to be admitted as a free state. 2. The slave trade to be prohibited in the District of Columbia, though slavery still continued there. 3. The rest of the Mexican cession to be organized into two territories, Utah and New Mexico, with or without slavery, as each should decide. 4. Texas to be paid ten million dollars for portions of her public lands. (These lands are now included in New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma.) 250 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 5. A strict Fugitive Slave Law to be enacted. The Fugitive Slave Law which was passed required the citizens of the free states to aid United States officers in capturing runaway slaves. The law was opposed by mary Northern people, and most of the free states passed what were called Personal Liberty bills, which interfered with its execution. The passage of these bills greatly angered the people of the South. Thus the slavery controversy in- creased; the breach was widened, and the ahenation of the two sections of the country intensified. 315. Death of President Taylor. — President Taylor, having served as President only a little over a year, died on the 9th of July, 1850. He was succeeded by the Vice-Presi- dent, Millard Fillmore. Thus a second time the Whig party lost its President by death, and this time, as before, the Vice- President's policy was fatal to the success of the party. During this administration the older political leaders passed away. New leaders rose up who came to be classed as either pro-slavery or anti-slavery men. On the one hand were Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, and Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois; and on the other were William H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, and Charles Sumner of ^lassachusetts. Douglas was not, strictly speaking, a pro-slavery leader, though he was so considered by many anti-slavery men. 316. Speech of Webster. — Daniel Webster delivered in the Senate, on the 7th of March, 1850, a memorable si)eecli in which he opposed the Wilmot Proviso and defended the Fugitive Slave Law. This speech, his last great effort, was variously interpreted. Some thought that he apologized foi* slavery and had deserted his Northern friends and his prin- ciples; others believed that he made a bid for the Southern favor to hel}) him to the presidency. And still others thought TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853) 251 Zachary Taylor. that he aimed only to harmonize the views of the Nortli and the South. Viewed in the broader hght of this later day, it seems probable that he was greatly influenced by his fear of secession. But, what- ever his motives, the speech seriously injured his influence. It offended the great mass of the Northern people, and Web- ster never regained his former ])opularity. He w^as not nomi- nated for the presidency in 1852. He died in October of that same year, a disappointed man. 317. Presidential Election (1852). — The Democrats nominated P'ranklin Pierce of New Hampshire, and William R. King of Alabama. The Whigs named General Winfield Scott of Virginia, and William A. Graham of North Carolina. The Free Soilers nominated John P. Hale of New Hamp- shire, and George W. Julian of Indiana. The Whig party carried only four states for their candidates. Pierce and King received the electoral votes of the other twenty-seven states and were elected. This election was the death war- rant of the Whig party. rff^ Millard Fillmore. 252 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY SUMMARY The request of California to be admitted as a free state was the cause of a bitter controversy in Congress. The compromise measures of 1850 served only to widen the breach between the North and the South. President Taylor died in office and most of the old party leaders passed away. New leaders came to the front and these were either pro-slavery or anti-slavery men. — -^ — CHAPTER XXVII PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857) 318. The World's Fair. — In 1851, a ^^World's Fair," to illustrate the world's progress in the arts and sciences, was held ill London, at the ^^ Crystal Palace," a large building covered with glass. This attracted so much attention that it was follow^ed by another World's Fair, held in another Crystal Palace, at New^ York in the summer of 1853. Va- rious nations were invited to exhibit with America. The fair had ex- cellent results. Thereby America saw what the nations of Europe were doing, and those countries saw how rapidly America w'as improving, and wherein she excelled. 319. Commodore Perry and Japan. — The ports of China and Japan had been closed to foreign countries for ages. England, by a war begun in 1840, had forced China to open her ports. A little later the United States made a treaty Fkanklix Pierce. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857) 253 with China for free commerce. Then, in 1853, Commodore Matthew C. Perry was sent by our government to Japan to endeavor to make a treaty for open trade between our people and that country. The next year he succeeded in securing from the Japanese government a treaty by which certain ports were rendered free of access to our commerce. Friendly diplomacy had secured for us what other nations had been unable to accomplish. 320. Kansas-Nebraska Act. — Stephen A. Douglas, Dem- ^ In all Territories "Question I C ^^~-^f Slavery" left to settlers. I O The Result of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. ocratic senator from Illinois, introduced in the Senate a bill (1854) for the organization of the two territories of Kansas and Nebraska. It was proposed in the bill that the people of these territories be given the right to decide whether, as territories, they should have slavery or not. The first settlers in a new territory were called squatters. Hence this new doctrine received the name of '^Squatter Sover- eignty." The bill virtually repealed the provision in the Missouri Compromise that there should be no more slave ter- 254 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ritory north of 36° 30'. It was called the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and it gave rise to a vigorous and bitter controversy m Congress and throughout the country. However, it finally passed both houses of Congress and became a law. Douglas hoped that this would settle the slavery question. But results proved otherwise. 321. The Border War. — The contest was only removed from Congress elsewhere. Kansas now became the battle- ground. The champions of freedom and of slavery each strove to secure the state. Missouri sent many emigrants over the border; these built the town of Atchison and this place became the center of pro-slavery operations. On the other hand, a society in New England, formed for the purpose, sent anti-slavery men into the new territory. They built the town of Lawrence, which became the headquarters of the anti-slavery movements. As it was clearly apparent that whichever side should have a majority of the votes would win when a government should be established, each of the two parties was striving to build up a population of its own sort in Kansas. 322. Election Contested. — An election was called and many of the inhabitants of Missouri went over the border to vote and then returned to their homes. Thus a pro- slavery legislature was elected. The Free State party, however, held a convention at Topeka, framed a consti- tution, and applied to Congress for admission as a free state. The House of Representatives voted in favor of admission, and the Senate voted against it. 323. Civil War in Kansas. — What might be called a civil war now ensued. Houses were pillaged and burned, assassinations were fivcjuent. These crimes were not con- I'uied to one party, though tlu^ opinion became curiiMit that the pro-slavery men were the more violent and PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857) 255 reckless. The administration at Washington favored the pro-slavery side, and one governor after another was ap- |)ointed by the President and sent to Kansas with the hope of quieting the belligerents, but no one of them was able to preserve the peace. This unfortunate state of affairs continued for several years, and it was not till 1857 that the Free State party gained a clear majority in the terri- torial legislature and hence slavery was excluded. The terri- torial government continued until 1861, so that not till the representatives and senators from the seceded states had withdrawn from Congress did Kansas come in as a state of the Union. 324. The Republican Party. — One important result of the Kansas-Nebraska Act could not have been foreseen by its friends. It was nothing less than the formation of a new and strong political party, destined to have a national majority before many years should pass by. Early in 1850 the Anti-Nebraska party, hitherto called the Free Soil party, adopted the name ^^ Republican." This party soon received large accessions, especially from the old Whig party. 325. Charles Sumner Attacked. — During this Kansas turmoil, Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts, a strong, independent, out-spoken anti-slavery man, made vigorous speeches against slavery and the pro-slavery party. In one of his speeches he made severe mention of Senator Butler of South Carolina, who was absent at the time. Preston S. Brooks, a member of the House from South Carolina and a nephew of Senator Butler, entered the senate- chamber after adjournment, and approaching Senator Sumner from behind brutally attacked him.* He beat the * The Const itut ion proscrihos th:tt tlio moiuhers of oi(h(M' house sluill l)e "privileged from arrest." aiul that " foi- any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be (]uestioiuHl in any other place." 256 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Charles Sumner. Massachusetts senator on the head with a thick cane until Sumner lay on the floor unconscious. Sumner was so seri- ously injured that for years his seat remained vacant in the senate-chamber, " & silent pro- test against unpunished vio- lence." Meantime his term of office expired, but he was unani- mously reelected by the legis- lature of Massachusetts. A majority of the House of Rep- resentatives voted to expel Brooks, but since the vote was not a two-thirds vote he was not expelled. He immediately resigned his seat, but was unanimously reelected by his district. 326. Presidential Election (1856). — The Democratic party nominated James Buchanan, an experienced statesman from Pennsylvania, and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The newly formed Republican party nominated John C. Fremont of California, and William L. Dayton of New Jersey. The Democratic candidates, Buchanan and Breckinridge, were elected. SUMMARY The first World's Fair was held early in Pierce's adminis- tration. Commodore Perry, representing the United States, made with China and Japan treaties allowing Americans to trade with those countries. Stephen A. Douglas introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in the Senate and it became a law. Douglas hoped that this would settle the dispute on the slavery question. Instead it brought about a civil war in Kansas, and led to the formation of the Republican party. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 257 CHAPTER XXVIII BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 327. The Dred Scott Decision. — Questions relating to slavery now fully absorbed the public mind. In spite of Mr. Douglas's good intention in putting forward his bill, the next few years showed that he had made a great mistake. That which perhaps did more than anything else to antagonize the North was the decision of the Supreme Court on the Dred Scott case. Dred Scott was a slave in Missouri, and his master had taken him to Illi- nois, a free state. Hence he claimed his freedom. The case came before the St. Louis court, by which the slave was given his freedom, but it was later appealed to the Supreme Court of Missouri, by which the St. Louis verdict was set aside and Scott was sent back to slavery. Then the case was carried to the United States Circuit Court. Finally it went to the Supreme Court. The decision of this Court, pronounced by Chief-Justice Taney (taw'-ney), was that Dred Scott must remain a slave. Further- more Taney pronounced the Missouri Compromise uncon- stitutional, null, and void, and denied the right of Congress or of a territorial legislature to make any restrictions con- cerning slavery in any territory. He affirmed that slaves had no right to sue in the courts, as they were not citizens of the United States, and seemed to approve the statement that the negro ^'had no rights that a white man was bound to respect.'^ James Buchanan. 258 ESSENTIALS OP UNITED STATES HISTORY Thr decision in the case, \\\\\\v it j)k>as(Ml the South, i'e|)uls(Ml Its Effect ^^^^' North. The great l)0(ly of the people in the on the iion-slave-holdiiig states condeiniied it as unjust Sections. ^j^^j unconstitutional. The result was that it in- flamed the people of the two sections and gi'eatly increased the alienation of sentiment which existed between them. 328. The Lincoln and Douglas Debates. — Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham Lincoln were Illinois candidates for a seat in the United States Senate. During the campaign they ''stumped the state" together, and made a series of speeches from the same platforms. The debates between them became famous. The questions which they discussed were those then agitating the public mind all over the country. The two champions themselves were intellectual giants. Perhaps no other political debate was ever so powerful or so far-reaching in results. Douglas had the difficult task of trying to reconcile the Dred Scott decision with his own doctrine of "Squatter Sovereignty." Lincoln took the ground of the moderate anti-slavery men and opposed, on the one hand the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and on the other the Dred Scott decision. Douglas was a great orator, but Lincoln proved quite his equal in logical reasoning and in skillful tactics. Douglas knew him well and before the debates began he is reported to have said: ''I shall have my hands full. He is the strong man of his party, full of wit, facts, dates, and the best stump speaker in the West; he is as honest as he is shrewd." Lincoln one day said to a friend: ''I shall ask Douglas a question to-night and I don't care a 'Continental' which way he answers it. If he answers it one way, it will lose him the senatorship; if he answers it the other way, it will lose him the presidency." This question related to slavery in the territories. If a majority in any territory was opposed BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 259 to slavery and the minority was in favor, what would be the outcome? Judge Douglas answered that the majority must rule. This was not according to the decision in the Dred Scott case in which the Supreme Court held that by constitutional right slaves could be taken to any of the ter- ritories of the Union. Douglas's answer satisfied the people of Illinois and they elected him senator, but it ^4ost him the presidency," for it displeased the South. 329. The John Brown Raid. — The Kansas difficulties, the Dred Scott decision, and the Lincoln-Douglas debates had all served to keep the political fires at white heat. As though all this were not enough, however, a foolhardy at- tempt for innnediate emanci]Dation of the slaves by insurrec- tion made the excitement still more intense. John Brown, a bold and fearless' man, who had been one of the foremost Free State leaders in Kansas, conceived the idea of freeing some slaves, arming them, and starting an insurrection, probably with the hope of frightening the South into proclaim- ing emancipation. On the night of the 16th of October, 1859, Brown, his son, and a few other persons captured, without bloodshed, the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, armed a few negroes, and patrolled the vil- lage. Brown was easily overpowered, several of his men were killed, and the remainder captured by the military. Brown himself was tried by a Virginia court, and sentenced to be hanged. He was executed December 2, 1859. Very few in the North sympathized with Brown's useless and foolhardy raid. The people of the South, how- ever, were highly incensed at this attempted insur- Supported rection and failed to understand that only a few by Most Northerners desired the immediate abolition of Northern- ers. slavery, and that fewer still appi'oved of any insur- rection for the purpose. All anti-slavery men were classed by 260 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Southerners as abolitionists, and henceforth Southern Demo- crats had only scorn and contempt for the ''Black Repub- licans," as they called the new Northern party. 330. The Slavery Question. — The fathers of the republic, in the South as well as in the North, had been generally opposed to slavery and had expected that in time it would be abolished. But as the years passed by and slave labor became more and more profitable, the people of the South Copyright, 1892, by J. Horgan, Jr. Negro Laborers in the Cotton Field. arrived at the conclusion that slavery was not only desirable, but justifiable, claiming that it was sanctioned by the Bible. In the North, where most of the people disapproved of keep- ing men and women in bondage, the question was widely discussed. Anti-slavery societies had been formed which ad- vocated the abolition of slavery, and some went so far as to declare that this should be immediate.^ The majority of ^In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison, an earnest opponent of .slavery, began in Boston the publication of a vigorous anti-slavery paper, called BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861) 261 the people, however, did not sympathize with these extreme ideas, not because they thought them wrong but because they thought them unwise. Moreover, all this discussion, while it widened the breach between the North and the South, served rather to make the condition of the slave harder. Petitions concerning slavery were continually sent to Congress, where they were usually read by John Quincy Adams. ^ The House of Representatives passed The Gag a resolve known as the Gag Rule, which forbade Rule. any petition on the subject of slavery to be presented. Mr. Adams, in spite of threats, ridicule, and abuse, persisted in offering the petitions, and finally the rule was repealed. 331. Condition of the Country Before the Civil War. — Before taking up the election of a new President in 1860, it will be well to review the condition of the country and to observe what great advances had been made in different directions since the beginning of the nineteenth century. 332. Postage. — Rates of postage were fixed by Congress in 1792. At various times after that date the rates were reduced. In 1843 the postage on a single sheet of paper for a distance under thirty miles was six cents; from thirty to sixty miles, eight cents; from sixty to one hundred miles, ten cents; and the highest rate w^as twenty-five cents for four hundred and fifty miles or more. In 1845 the postage for a letter not exceeding half an ounce w^as The Liberator. He was an extreme agitator, and denounced the United States Constitution as a "covenant with death and an agreement with hell." He published this paper till slavery was abolished and then it was discontinued. The abolition party in the North was always small, but it greatly inflamed the people of the South. 1 After John Quincy Adams had served his term as President of the United States, he was elected a representative to Congress from Massa- chusetts. He was re-elected by his district again and again until his death in 1848. During this period he probably did his best service lor his country. He was known as " the old man eloquent." 262 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY made five cents U)v ihvw liundred miles or less, and ten eents for a. distance^ more Hum three Inmdrcd miles. In 1'-"y- A Foreign Quarter ix New York City. parts of Ein-ope. The inunigrants came to bettor tlunr condition, which was. for the most ]^art. poor. The>- came in small numbers till about the year 1840. Since then the number of om* foreign-born citizens has continued to nuiltiply rapidly. During the sixty years before the begin- ning of the present century our population was increased by nearly twenty million persons of foreign birth. In the BUCHANAN'S ADMTNTSTHATTOX (1857-1861) 267 early days of foi'oiii;!! immigration, tlio great part of lliis increase was from Irelaiul and ( KM'many. Morc^ recently the larger part of it has been from Italy, Russia, Poland, and Austria-Hungary. In New Juigland many Canadians have settled. These newcomers have spread themselves well over our country, except the Southern states. They are in large numbers in the great cities like New York, Chicago, Boston, Cincinnati, San Francisco, St. Louis, and in the immense agricultural sections of the great Northwest. 344. Presidential Election (i860). — The Democratic party could not agree upon any one candidate and it s})lit into two wings. The Southern or pro-slavery division nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, and Joseph Lane of Oregon. The Northern delegates named Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, and Hershel Y. Johnson of Georgia. The Repub- licans chose for their candidates Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. The American or Know Nothing party, now called the Constitutional Union party, nominated John Bell of Tennessee, and Edward Everett of Massachusetts. Lincoln and Hamlin were elected. SUMMARY The Dred Scott decision, the Lincoln-Douglas debates, and John Brown's raid kept the slavery question prominently be- fore^ the country, and inflamed more and more the South and the North against each other. All Northerners were classed by the South as abolitionists, and the feeling of the Southerners against them was very bitter. The country had prospered in the twenty-five years before 1860, and the condition of the people had greatly improved. The temperance societies had lessened misery, inventions and discoveries had lightened labor, postage had been reduced, railroads had been built in all sections of the country except the far West, and books and pjipers had multiplied. 268 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER XXIX LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) The Civil War (1861-1863) 345. Secession. — The alienation of the South and the North was becoming more and more intense. Of this, the principal cause, as we have already seen, was the slavery question. As the anti-slavery party in the North constantly grew larger, the pro-slavery senti- ment in the South became more and more aggressive. The admission of California as a free state in 1850 gave the balance of power in the United States Senate to the Free State part}^ From that time the states- men in the South began their preparations for a separation from the Union. They did not choose to plan for '' revolution," but they thought to avail themselves of what they considered their '^ right to secede." Although nothing in the Constitution itself favored this supposed right, yet in the early days of the repubhc many in different parts of the country held to the belief that a state had the right to withdraw from the Union. As time went on, this belief diminished in the North and increased in the South. The great statesman of South Carolina, John C. Calhoun, maintained it firmly, and through his teaching and that of other eminent South- erners the doctrine came to be generally accepted in the State Rights. Jefferson Davis. UNITED STATES DURING THE CIVIL AVAR O Uuion States r Tl Territory Controlled ' " by federal Goverument O I Border States I | Confedeiate. States 025 50 100 200 300 400 500 SCALE OF STATUTt MILES The Matthews i I Northfup Works. Buffalo, N.Y. \. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINLSTRATION (1861-1865) 269 slave-holding states. Meanwhile the North had become unanimous in the belief that the Union was supreme. During the campaign of 1856, the sentiment was (juite current among the Southern states that if Fremont, the Re- publican, was elected they would secede and set up a new government. When in 1860 Lincoln was elected, they felt that the time for action had come. In the movement for separation from the Union, South Carolina took the lead. Immediately on receiving the news of Lincoln's election, the legislature called a state convention, which met on the 20th of December, 1860, and passed an ordinance of seces- sion. Before Lincoln was inaugurated, Mississippi, Florida, Ala})ama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had followed South Carolina's lead and withdrawn from the Union. 346. "The Confederate States." — In February, 1861, a C(jnvention of delegates from the seceded states assembled at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a new Union, which was named '^The Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen President, and Alexander ir. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-President of the Confederacy. 'Jlius it happened that before Lincoln became President a n(;w government had been established by these seven seceded states. Within a few months four more states, Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee, passed votes of se- cession and joined the Confederacy. 347. President Buchanan Inactive. — The President, James J3uchanan, was placed in a position which needed boldness and decision. He was, however, surrounded })y Southern advisers. Though he himself did not believe in the ''right of secession," he was persuaded that the national government had no right under the Constitution to coerce a state. Therefore he remained inactive in the face of dis- aster. Southern members of Congress resigned, and Southern 270 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY officers in the army gave up their commissions. War mate- rial and United States forts and arsenals were seized by the South and turned over to the new state authorities or to the Confederacy. All these decisive measures on the part of the South, and the passive state of the President, Govern- paralyzed the government at Washington. Mean- ment while the new government at Montgomery rapidly ara yze . pj-gp^j-g^j f^y ^yaj. When Lincoln was inaugurated, the United States held only three forts south of Virginia. These were Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, Fort Pickens at Pensacola, and Key West in Florida. 348. Population of the Two Sections. — The population of the United States, in 1860, was nearly thirty-one and a half millions. Of this number far less than one third was in the seceded states. Indeed, of the free white population, the South had scarcely one sixth of the number. Thus the people of the North numbered full twenty-two millions, while the entire white population of the Confederacy was a little less than five and a half millions. 349. Comparative Advantages. — While the North had a larger population, the South had more generals and experi- "snced soldiers, and could send a laiger proportion of her men into the field. The Confederacy had a large stock of guns and ammunition, but the Union had greater facilities for making a new supply. In the matter of railroads and telegraphs, the Federals excelled, but the Confederates were to have the advantage of fighting on their own ground. Union the '^^^^ people of the South doubtless thought that Purpose the North would not fight, or at most that the of the contest would be short. But the sentiment that the country nnist not be divided gained rapidly in the North. The Union, it was determined, must be ])re- served at all hazards. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 271 350. Lincoln Inaugurated. — On the 4th of March, 1861, Abraham Lincohi was inaugurated President of an already divided country. In his inaugural address he stated clearly that it was his duty to preserve the union of the states. He said that the national laws must be obeyed in all sections of Abraham Lincoln. the country, that the public revenues must be collected in tli(^ ports of the seceded states as elsewhere, and that the foi-ts and arsenals belonging to the Federal government which had been captured must be recovered. 272 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 351, Fort Sumter. — In the harbor of Charleston were several United States forts. In one of them, Fort Moultrie, Major Anderson, of the United States army, had under his command about a hundred men. In December he trans- ferred his command to Fort Sumter, a stronger fortification. General Beauregard (bo're-gard'), of the Confederate army, gathered a force of five thousand or more and prepared to attack Major Anderson. He demanded a surrender of the fort. This was refused. Major Anderson said that he would very soon be starved out if not relieved. General Beauregard asked him to state at what time he would evacuate the fort if unmolested. It was then April 11. Major Anderson re- plied that he and his command would leave the fort on the 15th, unless ^' prior to that time I should receive controlling instructions from my government, or additional supplies." General Beauregard had been notified that supplies would be sent to Major Anderson and he was unwilhng to wait. Accordingly at twenty minutes past three, on the morning of April 12, written notice was served on Major Anderson that the Confederate batteries would open fire in one hour. At about half past four the bombardment of the fort was be- gun. The contest continued till the afternoon of the 13tli, when the flag was lowered. Anderson and his men marched out with the honors of war, carrying with them their colors. Their provisions were exhausted, the woodwork had been set on fire, and the fort itself was ruined. In this engage- ment no life was lost on either side. 352. The Whole Country Aroused. — The fort was aban- doned on Sunday the 14th, and on Monday morning the news- papers throughout the entire country announced the fact that the flag of the United States had been fired upon and that Sumter had surrendered. Civil war had begun. In- stantly the whole North was in a blaze of excitement. The LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 273 people of every loyal state were now united in tlie sentiment that the flag must be defended. Democrats and Republi- cans, radicals and conservatives, the rich and the poor, capitalists and laboring men, everywhere rallied to the support of the administration, and demanded that the gov- ernment should defend itself. In the South also pubhc sentiment was equally united. The South was filled with rejoicing. The North, on the contrary, was heavy hearted, while it remained firm in its determination to maintain the Union. 353. President Lincoln's Call for Troops. — On Monday, April 15, the President issued his proclamation calling upon the states for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for three months. The whole North responded with remarkable promptness. Within a few days thousands were on their way to Washington. A regiment from Massachusetts, marching through Baltimore, was attacked by a mob of Southern sympathizers, who used paving-stones Baltimore and firearms. The soldiers returned the fire. ^ob. Several were killed on each side. The first blood in a terrible civil war was shed. The effect of this also was to unite the public sentiment on both sides. 354. Both North and South prepare for War. — The Con- federate government at once issued a call for troops, and armies were rapidly organized by both the Federal and the Confederate governments. In May the new government of the South was moved from Montgomery, Alabama, to Rich- mond, Virginia. The United States Congress assembled on the 4th of July and promptly passed the necessary acts for raising an army of five hundred thousand men and for pro- viding a competent navy. Congress declared that the war was not to be carried on for conquest, nor to interfere with the established institutions of the Southern states. It was 274 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY to be prosecuted only to sustain the integrity of the govern- ment. The rights of every state nnisl be maintained, but all the resources of the government must be used to sup- port the Constitution and preserve the Union. 355. The Blockade. — The President, in his capacity of commander-in-chief of the armies and navy of the United States, now undertook to blockade all the ports of the states which had seceded. This was a gigantic undertaking. Ves- sels were bought, others were built, and in an incredibly short time the blockade was effected along the coast of nearly three thousand miles. Al- though vessels would occasionally run the 1 blockade, it was not broken during the four long years of the war. 356. "On to Rich- mond." — At the be- ginning of the conflict both sides supposed the war would be short. Each section failed to understand the other. The South despised the people of the North, considering them as money-getters only, who would not fight, while the North accused the South- ern people of bluster and arrogance. The North did not com- prehend how fully the Southern people believed in state sovereignty, nor did it understand how deep was their affec- tion for their native states. Hostilities had begun in April, but three months passed and nothing of importance was accomplished or even planned. At first many supposed the war would be over in ninety days. Now it appeared that The Capitol at Richmond, Virgixia. Where the Confederate Congress met. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 276 General McDowell. ninety days were likely to pass before the campaign would be fairly begun. The leading New York papers daily repeated the cry ^'On to Richmond." ^^On to Richmond" was echoed all over the North. General McDowell was placed in command of a Union army of nearly thirty thousand men, with a regiment of cavalry and more than fifty cannon, and ordered to attack the Confederate forces under General Beauregard, entrenched near Manassas Junction, along a stream called Bull Run. 357. The Battle of Bull Run.— Here the first great battle of the war was fought on Sunday, the 21st of July. At the beginning the advantage was with the Union army, but in the after- noon the Confederates were reenforced by a number of regi- ments from the Shenandoah Valley. The advance of the Union forces w^as checked, and panic-stricken they made a hasty and disorganized retreat to Washington. General Sherman said of this battle : ^^It was one of the best planned battles of the war, but one of the worst fought." The Con- federate general, Joseph E. Johnston, said: ''If the tactics of the Federals had been equal to their strategy, we should have been beaten." 358. Results. — To the people of the North the battle of Bull Run showed that the contest could not be ended in three months. They began to realize that the con- flict might be one of years, and enlistments for ''three years or the war" were in order. Hence they prepared in earnest for a long and vigorous cam- paign. In the North. 276 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The effect of the battle upon the South was just the reverse. It made the Southern people over-confident. Some of the soldiers thought that by their victory they had ^ * ® done all that their country required of them and returned to their homes. In fact, as General Johnston wrote, ''the Confederate army was more disorgan- ized by their victory than that of the United States by defeat." The governments of Europe, not understanding the con- ditions under which the battle was fought, assumed that the Confederate armies had superior generals and su- perior fighting quahties and concluded that the South would finally succeed.^ 359. General McClellan in Command. — General Scott, the hero of the Mexican War, was in conmiand of the Union forces, but he was too old and too infirm for active service. George B. McClellan was chosen to take his place. McClellan had already, at this early period of the war, distinguished himself in several engagements in West Virginia, and his victories there had won that region for the Union. He at once set himself to the difficult task of organizing and dis- ciplining a great army. ^ ^. , Meanwhile the Confederates, on their part. Continued .... r- 7 Prepara- greatly increased their forces in Virginia, and from tions in now on were continually at work strengthening the South. ^^^ enlarging the defenses of Richmond. 360. Military Operations. — In October, 1861, occurred the battle of Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, not far from Leesburg. 1 One is here reminded of the reply of Paul Jones when the British admiral demanded of him, "Have you struck?" "No; I have not begun to fight yet." Having said this, Paul Jones then proceeded to capture the Serapis. In the same way, the Union army had not begun to fight. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 277 Two thousand Federal soldiers under General Stone were ordered to cross the Potomac. They were attacked Ball's by a superior force of Confederates under General Bluff. Evans and driven back into the river. Nearly all were slaughtered. In Missouri a fierce struggle ensued between the Unionists and the Confederates. The majority of the inhabitants were for the Union, and the state did not secede. Sev- eral battles were fought here, the Confederates gaining victories at Carthage and at Wilson's Creek. In the latter battle, General Lyon, in command of the Union forces, was killed. 361. The Trent Affair — Capture of Mason and Slidell. — The Confederate government, in the fall of 1861, commis- sioned James M. Mason and John Slidell as its agents to go to Europe and endeavor to secure from the governments of the Old World the recognition of its independence. The envoys ran the blockade successfully, reached Cuba, and there took passage with their secretaries on the British steamer Trent for England. Captain Charles Wilkes, who had formerly led the ^'Wilkes Exploring Expedition," now com- manding the United States steamer San Jacinto, overtook the Trent on the high seas, seized the Confederate envoys and their secretaries, and carried them to Boston, where they were confined in Fort Warren. The British government w^as indignant, and at once demanded that Mason and Slidell be set free, on the ground that the United States had no right forci- bly to stop an English ship on the high seas and take passen- gers therefrom. The Americans had always contended that British vessels should not stop American ships and take seamen or passengers from them. In accordance with this policy the United States government refused to sanction the seizure and returned the captured men to England. 278 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 362. Policy of Great Britain and France. - Mason and Slidell (lid not su(*c(hhI in <;('(ting the indei)ondence of I ho Confederacy acknowledged by any of the powers of Europe. The governments of Great Britain and France were, appar- ently, at one time desirous of making such acknowledgment, but were restrained from so doing. It must not be sup- posed, however, that the mass of the people in these countries desired the breaking up of the repubUc. On the contrary, it w^as evident that the great body of the people of Great Britain were friendly to the United States govern- ment. 363. Belligerent Rights Acknowledged. — However, Great Britain and France both acknowl- edged the belligerent rights and powers of the Confederacy. This gave to the Confederate vessels the j/rivilege of taking refuge ^n foreign harbors. After a time, moreover, the English ship-builders began to build cruisers for the use of the Southern The Flag of the Con- p;overnment FEDERACY, . ^, ,«■ . t * -««■ . 364. The Mernmac and the Moni- tor. — The Confederates rebuilt an old United States frigate called the Merrimac, turned it into an iron-clad ram, and i-enamed her the Virginia. All of the boat that appeared above the water was encased in heavy iron plates, so that all sorts of shot and shell would rebound or glance off and do no harm. This new and strange sea-monster steamed out of Norfolk Harbor on the 8th of March, 1862, and attacked the United States fleet of war-vessels lying in Hampton Roads. That day she sunk the Cumberland, attacked the Congress, forced her to surrender, set her on fire, and as darkness was coming on steamed back to Norfolk, to the shelter of the LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 279 Confederate batteries for needed repairs. Early the next morning, March 9, 1862, she i)roudly steamed forth again out of the harbor to finish her work of destroying the Union ships still remaining in Hampton Roads. As the Merrimac sailed onward towards the Minne- sota, which was fast in the mud, a small boat suddenly ai)peared upon the surface of the water, which was at once named by the Merrimac sailors '^a Yankee cheese-box on a raft." This little boat, with a flat deck only just above the water's edge, was an iron-clad monitor, designed and built on an entirely new and original plan by Captain John Erics- fflilHBWiliEEFfSBniiES <^ The Battle Between the Merrimac and the Monitor. son (er'ik-sun), a native of Sweden. She carried but two guns, which were in a revolving turret that rose midships above the flat deck. The explanation of the sudden appearance of this little boat was the fact that the Federal authorities knew the Confederates were rebuilding the Merrimac and had engaged Ericsson to build with all speed an iron-clad moni- tor. As soon as this Monitor was completed, she hastened 280 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY away (o Hampton Roads, arriving just in season to prevent the Merrhnac from doing further harm. This tiny craft placed herseH" between the Merrimac (or Virginia) and the wooden war frigates. The great giant and the Uttle giant began firing at each other, but with no effect on either side. Then the Merrimac ran full speed against the Monitor, but the blow was harmless. Five times the huge ram tried to sink the little iron-clad. The contest lasted full four hours, and apparently neither vessel was injured. It was clear, however, that the huge iron-clad could do nothing with her little antagonist. The small boat was shot proof, shell proof, and bomb proof; she could not be sunk; and being much smaller and requiring much less depth of water she could be handled, moved, and turned about much more easily and quickly than her big opponent. The Merrimac steamed back to Norfolk, and never sailed out again. Later she was destroyed by the Confed- erates. This brief contest had in a single day revolutionized all modern methods of naval w^arfare. Thenceforth wooden vessels played no part in contests on the Avater. 365. The Peninsular Campaign (1862). — From this time to the close of the war Virginia w'as the principal battleground. The Union army now entered upon a new campaign. With a splendid, well- trained force, afterwards famous as the ^'Army of the Potomac," McClellan determined to move against the city of Richmond, the Confederate capital. His plan was not to march his large army directly across Virginia to Richmond, a distance of very nearly a hundred and fifty miles, through the country of the enemy, but rather to move it by w^ater down the Potomac to the peninsula fonned by the James and the York rivers. In this way the actual marching distance to Richmond would be lessened one half. Landing his army at Fortress Monroe, he marched up the peninsula to York- LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 281 town. At this point his advance was checked by the Con- feaerate forces and he was delayed a whole month. McClellan Then occurred the battle of Williamsburg, after on the which McClellan pushed his army onward to the Peninsula. Chickahominy River. Here within a few miles of Richmond the battle of Fair Oaks was fought. General Johnston, the The Peninsular Campaign. Confederate commander, was severely wounded and the com- mand of his army was transferred to General Robert E. Lee. Meanwhile, in the Shenandoah Valley, the Confederate leader, ''Stonewall" Jackson' had been accomplishing great 1 General Thomas J. Jackson was a West Pointer, served in the war with Mexico, and was General Lee's most valuable general. At the bat- tle of Bull l^m, when the South Carolina troops were sorely pressed, General Bee, their commander, to encourage them cried out, " Look at Jackson, — there he stands like a stone wall." Ever after the troops called him " Stonewall Jackson." 282 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY things. With the troops under his command he had out- T k n' generaled three Union armies, each larger than his Campaign own, threatened Washington, and prevented Mc- in the Dowell, who with a Union force was marching ^ ^^* southward, from joining McClellan. In addition to these honors, others were in store for him as he now joined Lee before Richmond. Thus reenforced by Jackson, Lee attacked McClellan. The seven days' battle was then fought. This included several Seven distinct engagements, among w^hich were Gaines Days' Mill, Savage's Station, Fraser's Farm, and Mai- Battle. ygj.j^ jjjii During this battle of a week the Union loss in killed and wounded was about ten thousand, and the Confederate loss nearly twice as great. At the close of the seven days' fight, McClellan withdrew with his army to the banks of the James River, where he could be supported by the gunboats. 366. Disappointment in the North. — The Peninsular Cam- paign had ended in failure. Richmond had not been taken. The disappointment in the North was bitter. The President called for an additional three hundred thousand men, but recruiting w^as slow. The people of the North were dis- heartened. 367. Pope's Campaign. — General John Pope was placed in command of an army of fifty thousand or more stationed for the defense of Washington. McClellan slowly sent his army around by Avater to Acquia Creek to unite with Pope. Lee determined to attack Pope before McClellan could arrive, and started northward with his army. He met Pope near the old battlefield of Bull Run and a fierce engagement followed. Pope was defeated with great loss and his army retreated in confusion to Washington. Lee now continued his march northward and crossed the upper Potomac into Maryland. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 283 368. South Mountain and Antietam. — McClellan was ordered to intercept Lee with the remnants of his once splen- did Army of the Potomac, now reenforced by Pope's com- mand. He met the Confederates at South Mountain and won an easy victory. Then followed in September of that year (1862) the battle of ORMAY i CO The First Invasion of the North, Antietam. Jackson had captured Harper's Ferry and his forces had joined Lee. Opposed to the Con- federates was McClellan with his whole army. The conflict was severe. The result could hardly be called a victory for either side, although the advan- tage was decidedly in favor of the Union army. McClellan was constantly receiving re- cruits, and Lee suffered for want of supplies. Lee's advance northward was checked, and there was nothing for him to do but to withdraw his army to the other side of the Potomac. The loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners had been heavy, something hke thirteen thousand on each side. Thus Lee's first invasion of Northern territory was stopped, and he was compelled to march his whole force back to his former position, south of the Potomac. We must now follow the two opposing armies across the Potomac, and observe their movements once more on Virginia soil. Some minor engagements took place, but McClellan did not give general battle, or seek an opportunity to do so. Removal The entire North was fast becoming nervous, im- of patient, and sadly discouraged. Finally, on the McClellan. 7th of November, McClellan received an order relieving him 284 ESSEXTIAT.S OF UNITED STATES HISTORY from the coininaiul ami cliivcliiig him to turn ovor the iwmy to General Ambrose E. Buriiside. Both armies moved on- ward past Warrenton, down the valley of the Rappahannock to Fredericksburg, the Union army keeping between Lee and Washington. 369. The Battle of Fredericksburg. — Burnside's plan was to reach Fredericksburg before Lee could fortify there, cross the river by pontoon bridges, and choose the time and place for giving battle. He was, however, forced to wait a long while for his pontoons, and during the delay Lee posted his army on Marye's Heights and made strong fortifications. The main battle was fought on the 13th of December. Lee's army could not be dislodged from its strong position, so that the Union forces were obliged to retreat across the river. This was one of the worst defeats that the Union army suffered. The Federal loss was very large. It was now time for the two armies to go into winter quarters and to remain quiet till the next move could l^e put in operation. 370. Operations Along the Seacoast. — While all these engagements were occurring inland, there was great activity along the seacoast. In August, 1861, Connnodore String- ham, of the na^y, and General Butler, of the army, captured the forts on Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina. Later Connno- dore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman took posses- sion of Port Royal, South Carolina. Federal troops occupied Hilton Head, S. C, and from there naval expeditions were put in operation against various Southern ports. General Burn- side landed a large body of troops in North Carolina and acquired Roanoke Island and Newbern. St. Augustine, Fernandina, and other places in Florida fell into the hands of the Federals. General Gilmore took Fort Pulaski, Georgia, and Commodore Goldsboro captured Fort Macon, North Carolina. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 285 The possession of all these places on the coast was of great advantage to the Federal government, and diminished the difficulty of maintaining the blockade. Field of Operations in Virginia. 371. The War in the West. — During all this activity on the Atlantic slope, important things were happening in the Mississippi Valley. Vigorous efforts were made by the Confederates to bring about the secession of Kentucky and Missouri, but without success. 372. General Albert Sidney Johnston. — The main force of the Confederates in the West was placed under the com- 286 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY General ]McClellan. General Burxside. General Halleck. mand of General Albert Sidney John- ston, who soon showed himself one of the very ablest generals on the Con- federate side. He made every possi- ble effort to keep open the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. This was essential in order that the eastern and western sections of the Confederate army might remain in close touch with one another, and especially that the eastern army might be supplied with beef from Texas. Moreover, Gen- eral Johnston made strenuous endeav- ors to keep the Mississippi closed, so that the Union army could not come up the river with its gun1)oats. 373. Forts Henry and Donelson. — In Tennessee near the Kentucky bor- der, the Confederates had built two strongly defended forts, Fort Henr}^ on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. Early in the year 1S62, Connnodore Foote and a fleet of gunboats cap- tured Fort Henry. The garrison es- caped to Fort Donelson, just a few miles away. General Grant, having sent tlie gunboats around and up the Cumberland to join in the attack, marched upon Fort Donelson. After three days' severe figliting, tlie two Confederate generals, Floyd and Pil- low, escaped, tiie one by taking pas- LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 287 sage on a Confederate steamer, and the other by crossing the river in a boat while his staff retired to Clarks- ville. Buckner was left in command. The next morning Grant's troops were preparing for the final assault when a note was sent by Buckner to Grant asking on what terms he would receive the surrender of the fort. Grant im- mediately replied: ^' Yours of this date proposing armistice, and appointment General A. S.Johnston. of commissioners to settle terms of ca- pitulation, is just received. No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I pro- pose to move immediately upon your works." ^ Buckner straightway sur- rendered. Grant then telegraphed to Washington: ^'We have taken Fort Donelson and from twelve thousand to fifteen thousand prisoners, including Generals Buckner and Bushrod R. Johnston; also about twenty thousand stands of arms, forty-eight pieces of artillery, seventeen heavy guns, from two thousand to four thousand horses, and large quantities of commissary stores." The Confederate line of de- fense was broken, and Nashville, Co- lumbus, and Bowling Green were soon occupied by the Union forces. Then General Beauregard. ' This answer of Grant's was much quoted, and, ever after, his initials U. S. were said to stand for " Unconditional Surrender.^' Stonewall Jackson. 288 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY New Madrid, Island Number Ten, and Fort Pillow on the Mississippi surrendered. 374. The Battle of Shiloh. — Recovering from their defeats, the Confederates soon gathered a large force near Corinth, a place in Mississippi on the main line of railroad east from Memphis and a few miles west of the Tennessee River. The Union forces advanced up the Tennessee River in transports to Pittsburg Landing. There they disem- barked and marched forward to attack the Confederates. The Southern armv was under the command of General A. S. r I J Indianapolis 1 _. . , , I K,/^ ■ c K V 1 •Cincinnati Perryvllle- — ^ „"i „, ^j E N_I U C K Y • ''"^i"""'^''''^ ' i'"^- ,ducah Bowling Green-''''C2~_ -^'".^YFRGIfflA'" ^ MHI Sprmg5>^^:^ .iL_ , '?''°|*' X.i'""' *CARpL1hiA ^CKattanooga: %;„\*'? -. . - — "^hjcKania^ga^ south '.Atlanta Field of Operations in the West. Johnston and General Beauregard. The two wings were in charge of Generals Bragg and Polk. These able and experienced generals, at the head of a force of between forty ^ thousand and fifty thousand men, were determined to crush Grant's army before it could be reenforced by General Buell. The battle occurred on Sunday, April 6, and was fought with great fury. That afternoon General Johnston was killed and the conunand devolved on Beauregard. Grant's army was driven back to Pittsburg Landing, fighting stubbornly and suffering large losses. This day's battle was a decided LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-LSr)5) 289 f% K ^Kt'i J| ■ Admiral Farragut. Admiral Foote. victory for the Confederates. But Buell's army arrived in the night, and on Monday the Union army drove the Confed- erates through the village of Shiloh. Beauregard retreated to Corinth and a little later to Tupelo (tu' pe-lo), Mississippi. The battle of Shiloh was the most important battle which had been fought west of Virginia. General Halleck then took the field in command of the Union army in the West. Fol- lowing the Confederates by slow stages, he compelled the re- treat of Beauregard and stationed his entire force upon the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Thus he cut off commu- nication between the eastern country and Memphis, and helped to secure to the Union the control of the Mississipjji. 375. Farragut and New Orleans. — Operations on the Mississippi were not confined to the northern section. The Confederates had fortified the lower Mississippi and had used every means to prevent the navigation of the river. They had numerous forts, iron-clads, and fire rafts, and had obstructed the channel with chains. Commodore Farragut, however, determined to sail past these obstructions and take the city of New Orleans. With a large fleet, carrying a land force of six thousand men, he succeeded in cutting the chains and passing the forts on the 24th of April, 1862. The next 290 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Field of Operations in the South- west. (lay the fleet anchored below the city. New Orleans, being at the mercy of the Union guns, soon surrendered, and the Federal land forces under General Butler took possession. Meanwhile the Confed- erate army had quietly withdrawn. Various en- gagements took place during the summer and autumn of 1862, in dif- ferent parts of the Mis- sissippi Valley, including those at Perryville,^ luka, Corinth, and Nash- ville. 376. The Mississippi River. — The Union forces kept the river open above Vicks- burg, but the Confederates still held Port Hudson and Vicks- burg, which w^as strongly fortified. Farragut, running the gauntlet of the batteries at Vicksburg and Port Hudson, steamed up from New Orleans with his fleet as far as Memphis. 377. Conditions at the Close of 1862. — In the summer of 1861 the Federal army had been badly defeated at Bull Run. 1 " The Union loss at Perry ville was nearly four thousand, the Con- federate loss about three thousand. Near the close of the battle a curious thing happened to the Confederate General Polk. It was grow- ing dark and he unwittingly rode into the Union lines, thinking them his own men firing on their friends. He angrily demanded why they were shooting their friends. The Union colonel, greatly astonished, answered, ' I don't think there can be any mistake about it. I am sure they are the enemy.' ' Enemy! ' rejoined Polk, ' Why I have just left them, myself. Cease firing, sir. What is your name?' 'I am Colonel of the Indiana. Pray, sir, who are you? ' Polk now saw his blunder and that his only hope of escape was to brazen it out. ' I will show you who I am,' he shouted. ' Cease firing.' Then cantering down the line he reached a copse, put spurs to his horse, and was soon back in his own lines." Battles and Leaders, Vol. Ill, 602. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 291 During that year, the Confederates had gained several other victories. On both sides great armies had been organized. The blockade of the coast by the Federals had been ren- dered effective, and both governments had done their best to equip war- vessels for service. The Federals had saved to the Union Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, — three border slave states, — and had defended against the Confederate forces West Virginia and the national capital, Washington. During the second year of the war Forts Henry and Donelson, New Orleans, and Roanoke Island had been cap- tured by the Union army, and the first contest between armor-clad war- vessels had taken place. These en- gagements had all proved substantial victories for the Union cause. Thereby the Federal lines had swept across Tennessee, and the Mississippi River had been opened through nearly its entire length. Neither side had made any important gains in Virginia. The South had driven the Union army from the peninsula, and had gained a decided victory at Fredericksburg. The North had been saved from invasion at Antietam. None of the European governments had acknowledged the independence of the Confederate States, but several of them had given to the Confederacy belligerent rights. The expenses of the war had become so enormous that General Lee. 292 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY both governments had resorted to the use of paper money. The Union Congress, early in 1862, had authorized the issuing Use of of government notes, which were made legal tender Paper in payment of debts. These government bills were Money. called greenbacks because the backs of the bills were printed in green ink. At one time the amount of these bills in circulation had nearly reached the sum of five hundred miUion dollars. Each side had, also, issued interest-bearing government bonds amounting to many millions of dollars. Congress had not yet passed the bill authorizing the Na- tional Bank Currency. This was done early in 1863. 378. The Real Cause of the War. — The war was not fought between the two sections for the purpose of retain- ing slavery or of abolishing slavery. On the part of the Southerners, it was to establish a government of their own, separate from the United States. On the part of the national government, it was to preserve the Union. Nevertheless, slavery was at bottom the real cause of the conflict. The public sentiment of the two sections had for a long time become more and more alienated. The bitterness that had dominated the minds of the abolitionists in the North, and the corresponding bitterness of the Southern people against the North, had for their common origin the difference of opinion of the two sections upon the slavery question. 379. Emancipation. — President Lincoln had said that his sole object was to preserve the Union. But as the war progressed, the feeling at the North increased that, as slavery was the underlying cause of the war, the President should attack slavery as a war measure. After the battle of An- tietam, President Lincoln issued his first proclamation. This was only preliminary. It was a warning, a notice served upon the seceded states that if they continued their oppo- sition to the national government, he would at a later date LINCOLN'S FinST ADMINISTRATION (lSGl-1865) 203 declare (heir slaves free. This lie would do^ it was stated, as commander-in-eliier of the military forces of the United States. Later, on the first day of January, 1863, he issued his second or real Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all slaves free in all the territory held by the Confederates. 380. The End of Slavery. — This later proclamation, how- ever, did not abolish slavery throughout the United States. It did not apply to the border states which had not seceded. Slavery still existed, legally, in Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri. Slavery was finally made illegal by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu- tion, which was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1865, after the war was ended. SUMMARY As soon as Abraham Lincoln was elected President, South Carolina passed an ordinance of secession. The other Southern states followed her example. They then formed the Confed- erate States of America, and elected Jefferson Davis President. Fort Sumter was bombarded by the Confederates and surren- dered. Richmond, Virginia, was made the capital of the new government. Then immediately President Lincoln issued a call for troops. Both North and South made vigorous preparations for war. The Federals blockaded the Southern ports, and ordered an advance upon Richmond. The first battle was fought at Bull Run and resulted in a victory for the Confederates. An engagement took place in Hampton Roads between the big Confederate armored vessel the Merrimac and the little Union iron-clad Monitor. This contest revolutionized modern naval warfare. In the Peninsular Campaign the Confederate forces under Johnston and Lee repulsed the Union army commanded by McClellan. General Lee's advance into the North was checked at the battle of Antietam. The Federals were for the most part successful in the naval engagements, and the Union army 204 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY gained many important victories in the West and opened a long stretch of the Mississippi River. In January, 1863, President Lincohi issued his Emancipa- tion Proclamation, which set free the slaves in the seceded states. CHAPTER XXX LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (Continued) The Civil War (1863-1865) 381. Chancellorsville. — After the Union defeat at Fred- ericksburg, Burnside was kept in command of the Army of the Potomac until the 26th of January, 1863, when he was relieved. General Joseph Hooker succeeded him. General Hooker at once began a complete reorganization of the army. He did not venture to attack Lee, but, meditating a flank movement, marched a few miles up the Rappahannock to a place in the Wilderness called Chancellorsville. This was not a town, or a village even. The place had simply one house and in it a post-ofRce. Here on the 2d and 3d of May was fought one of the great battles of the war. Hooker was obliged to retreat across the river. The loss was great on both sides. Lee had outgeneraled Hooker, but neither commander felt himself in a condition to renew the contest. In this battle Stonewall Jackson was killed. His death Avas a great disaster to the Confederate cause. 382. Lee invades Pennsylvania. — Lee, encouraged by his defeat of Hooker, now determined to carry the war into the enemy's country. By rapid marches he crossed northern Virginia and Maryland, and with a great army of between seventy and eighty thousand men invaded the state of Pennsylvania. General Hooker having resigned his com- mand, the President appointed General George G. Meade to LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-18G5) 295 take his place. Meade at once hurried forward the entire Army of the Potomac to prevent Lee from attacking Wash- ington or Baltimore. Meanwhile Lee was hastening on, evi- dently aiming at Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania. 383. Gettysburg. — The borough of Gettysburg, the shire town of Adams County, is beautifully situated in a fertile region and had, at the time we are considering, a popu- lation of nearly three thou- sand. The Union forces, by rapid marches, pushed their way northward, until the advance under General Rey- nolds met the vanguard of Lee's army, on Seminary Hill, some distance north of the village of Gettysburg. General Reynolds was killed by a sharp-shooter, and then, until the arrival of General Howard, the command devolved upon General Doubleday. The Federals were forced back through the town, with constant skirmishing, until they finally took a position just south of Gettysburg along Cemetery Ridge. Cemetery Ridge is in the shape of a fishhook and Cemetery terminates at one end in Gulp's Hill and at the Ridge, other in Round Top, a steep, rocky elevation of great strategic importance. The L^nion army had its right on Gulp's Hill and from there it extended along the Ridge past the cemetery towards the west, and onward to the south- west for five or six miles, and had its left on Round Top. A part of Ew^ell's corps on the Confederate left attacked Gulp's Hill and drove the Federal force back, but early in The Battleground of Gettysburg. 296 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the next morning the place was retaken by Wadswoith's division of the Union army. On the second day (July 2), General Longstreet made a brilliant assault at Round Top, hoping to secure that eleva- tion and so turn the Federal left, but was repulsed. The third day of the contest witnessed one of the most memorable battles of the entire war. Let us try to picture the scene. The Federal army of nearly eighty- two thousand men, with three hundred and fifty cannon, was posted upon Round Top and Little Round Top OF Gettysburg. The Battlefield the series of ridges from Gulp's Hill on the right to Round Top on the left. The Confederates numbered about seventy- five thousand men and had over two hundred cannon. They occupied an elevation of ground which was like an outer circle to Cemetery Ridge. Their right was opposite Round Top and their left opposite Culp's Hill. Thus they extended over a distance of twelve miles. The space between the two armies was from one to two miles. About midday a heavy artillery fire opened on both sides LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 297 and continued for an hour or an hour and a half, shot and shell belching forth from the mouths of two hundred and fifty guns. After a short lull came the famous Pickett's '^ Pickett's Charge," when fifteen thousand men Charge, deliberately marched from the Confederate center across the intervening mile or more, and attempted to carry the center of the Federal line. They were shot down by a most destructive artillery fire from the center on their front, from Round Top on their right, and from the Cemetery on their left. On coming nearer to the Federal lines they were met with a steady infantry fire. They wavered, they fell back, they retreated across that intervening mile. The attack upon the Federal center had failed. This charge was a wonderful instance of bravery. It was heroically made, heroically withstood. But the slaughter was terrible. The killed, wounded, and prisoners in this important battle numbered about forty-five thousand, and the loss was nearly equally divided between the two armies. Lee had assaulted his enemy's right and failed. He had attacked the Federal left and been repulsed. He had moved against their center and been driven back.^ The invasion of next day, worn, weary, disappointed, disheart- the North ened, he turned back towards the Potomac, and ''^^®^*^^- the Southern army did not again attempt to invade the Northland. Gettysburg was the turn of the tide. It was the dawn of 1 General Longstreet strongly disapproved of this charge by Pickett and his infantry. In his book ''From Manassas to Appomattox," he Avrites: "Pickett said, 'General, shall I advance?' The effort to speak the order failed, and I could only indicate it by an affirmative bow." Then the General adds in a footnote: "A sobriquet of my boyhood was 'Peter.' General Pickett had written to the lady who afterwards became his wife, but had not mailed his letter. After receiving his orders, he wrote on the envelope, 'If old Peter's nod means death, then good-by, and God bless you, little one.'" 298 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY victory lor the North, and its oftect was discouraging in the extreme to the brave people of the South. Nor was Gettys- burg all. It did not stand alone as a Union victory. 384. Vicksburg. — The Confederates had continued to hold one important place on the Mississippi River. They had strongly fortified Vicksburg, the largest city of Mississippi, and de- fended it by a large force. Gen- erals Grant and Sherman began their movement against this strong- hold in December, 1862. Battle after battle occurred in the pre- liminary struggle, in which the Con- Genekal Hosechans. federates were successful. In May, Grant laid siege, and attack after attack followed, but the city still stood firm. The Confederate army numberetl over twenty thousand men and was under the command of Generals Pembei'ton and Joseph K. Johnston. Grant had nearl}- twice as many, counting those engaged in protect- ing his communications. Grant dug twelve miles of trenches. His artil- lery included about two hundred and twenty guns, most of them field pieces. The fort was defended by one hundred and seventy-two guns, nearly fifty of them large siege guns. Finally, after twelve days of inces- sant bombardment, the Confederate garrison, cut off from relief and reduced to ''one biscuit and a mouthful of bacon a day," surrendered on the 4th of July, 1863. General Sherman spoke of this as ''one of the greatest General G. H. Thomas. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTUATION (1801-1805) 299 General Hooker. campaigns in liistory." A few days kter Port Hudson, farther south below Natchez, surrendered and the Mississippi River was open to its mouth." 385. Chickamauga. — Chattanooga, a city in southern Ten- nessee, was an important point. Whichever army should hold it could control all eastern Tennessee and at the same time could attack the mountainous region of northwestern Georgia. In September, 1863, Rose- crans, in command of the Union forces, moved his army frpm Murfreesboro to Chattanooga. The Confederates, under Bragg, left Chattanooga and fell back about twelve miles south into Georgia. They were followed by the Federals. On September 19 and 20, near a creek called the Chickamauga, a fierce battle was fought. Bragg had been reenforced from Lee's army, so that he had about sixty thousand men, while the whole force under Rose- crans was about fifty-five thousand. The loss was heavy on both sides, each army losing in killed, wounded, and prisoners about seventeen thou- sand, nearly one third of the whole number. The Union army retreated to Chattanooga, while General Thomas and his command held back the Con- federates and covered the retreat. 386. The Siege of Chattanooga. — For two months the Union forces were shut u\) in Chattanooga by Bragg and his army. Grant, after his success at Vicksburg, was ordered to the relief of Chattanooga. Missionary Ridge and Lookout General Meade. 300 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Mountain, conunanding heights hold by the Confederates, were taken by sudden assaults (November 23, 24, and 25). Bragg's army then retreated to Dalton, and General Johnston took command of it. Meanwhile Longstreet, at the head of a Confederate force, had laid siege to Knoxville, which was hekl by the Federals under Burnside. He was unable to capture the city and he withdrew, taking his army across the mountains into Virginia. Thereupon military operations throughout that entire region were suspended till the following spring. Copyright, 1902. by Detroit Photographic Company. Lookout Mountain. 387. The Year in Review (1863). — This year had been far more favorable than the previous year to the Union cause. In the West, Kentucky, Tennessee, IMissouri, and Arkansas had been firmly held, the Mississippi River opened, and the Confederacy divided. A new set of able generals had come to the front, notably Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan. On the other hand, the Confederate cause had lost rather than gained. Lee's army at Gettsyburg had been beaten and LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 301 seriously weakened, and the capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, together with the movements around Chattanooga, all tended to show that the power of the Confederacy was failing. Indeed, it was evident that the necessary supplies for both the Confederate army and the people of the South were seriously diminishing. All men between the ages of eighteen and fifty were forced into service, and the soldiers were badly fed, clothed, and armed. West Virginia, i)roving herself loyal to the Union, sepa- rated from Virginia and was ad- mitted as a new state, June 19, 1863. 388. Beginning of the Year 1864. — At the beginning of the new year locations and com- mands of the opposing armies had greatly changed. Grant was made lieutenant-general of the Union forces. The Union army was massed in two great divis- ions, of which one was under the direct supervision of .Grant himself and the other under Sherman. The strength of the Confederates also was in two divisions, one with Lee in Vir- ginia, the other with Johnston in Georgia. Grant threatened Lee, and Sherman opposed Johnston. The Union authorities at Washington had planned a campaign which, it was be- lieved, would result in the capture of both the Confederate armies and in the consccjuent downfall of the Confederacy. The two divisions of the Union army were to begin operations at the same time. 389. The Wilderness. — The entire Army of llie Potomac General Joseph E. Johnston. 302 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY was set in motion in the direction of Richmond. On tlie 2d of May, 1864, the march began. The army crossed the Rapidan and pushed forward through the country known Grant ^s the Wilderness. Grant moved directly against against Lee. The struggle began almost inmiediately, and Lee. £qj. several weeks the fighting was intense and the slaughter was the most terrible of the whole war. The ob- stacles confronting Grant were many and great. Before him was a deter- mined veteran army under the command of officers brave, brilliant, and expe- rienced. He was in the enemy's country, which was indeed a wilderness. He showed his skill and strategy, especially by the simple device of flank movements. When Lee confronted him in a for- tified position, instead of engaging in a bull-dog attack in front, he simply marched his army past the enemy's flank and forced Lee to retreat to a new position. In this way, although with fearful slaughter, day by day he pushed forward, till in one month his army had reached the Chicka- hominy, and Lee, with his whole force, was within the de- fenses of Richmond. In this campaign of the Wilderness the entire loss on both sides was about forty thousand men, fully three fourths of which was from Grant's army. Yet even this great loss was better than long sieges and the inevitable diseases incident to camp fife. General U. S. Grant. LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 303 390. Richmond Defenses Impregnable. — It did not take long for Grant to discover that the defenses of Richmond upon the north side of the city were well-nigh impregnable. He therefore determined to make another flank movement. His plan was to push his army southward and so cut off the railroads which [wrought supphes to Lee's army. He moved his army around Richmond on the east, crossed the James River, and attacked Petersburg. 391 . Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. — The most success- ful cavalry general in the Union army was the intrepid Phil Sheridan. Grant sent him and his brave cavalry into the Shenandoah Valley against General Early, who had gone down that valley on a raid to threaten Washington. Sheridan defeated Early at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, and Early retreated rapidly up the Shenandoah Valley. Receiving reenforcements. Early re- turned and surprised the Union forces at Cedar Creek. Sheridan had been called to Washington for consulta- tion. He returned as far as Winches- ter, where he passed the night. The next morning (October 19), he started for Cedar Creek, and soon found stragglers on the road, hurrying to the rear. From Uiem he learned that Early had attacked his forces and that a panic had ensued. He ordered them all to return and told them that they would whip Early and his army that day, and whip him badly. Still he continued to meet stragglers as he galloped along the road. ^^Turn, boys, turn," was his command; "we are going back to whip the rebels." The effect was magnetic. The men returned and, inspired by the presence of their General Sheridan. 304 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY commander, won a decided victory. Early returned to Richmond and the Shenandoah Valley was left in peace. ^ 392. Sherman before Atlanta. — Meanwhile Sherman and his great army of one hundred thousand men was in the far- away Southland. He first moved against the Confederates at Dalton, Georgia. His plan was to drive that brave and skillful general, Joseph E. Johnston, into one of his strong- holds and then flank him and push forward. His force was larger than that of his antagonist, but he was in the enemy's country and fighting upon the offensive. He struck heavy blows upon the Confederate army at Dallas, Resaca, Lost Mountain, and Kenesaw Mountain. Finally, near the mid- dle of July, 1864, at the head of his army, Sherman pre- sented himself before the city of Atlanta, within whose fortified walls the Confederate army had retired. 393. The Capture of Atlanta. — During the severe fight- ing all along the way from Dalton to Atlanta, Johnston had been kept most of the time on the defensive. He was just 1 Sheridan's famous ride from Winchester has been immortahzed in a poem by Thomas Buchanan Read : " Up from the South, at break of day, Bringing to Winchester fresh dismay, The affrighted air with a shudder bore. Like a herald in haste to the chieftain's door, The terrible grumble, and rumble, and roar, Telling the battle was on once more, And Sheridan twenty miles away. ' He dashed down the line, mid a storm of huzzas, And the wave of retreat checked its course there because The sight of the master compelled it to pause. With foam and with dust the black charger was gray ', By the flash of his eye, and the red nostril's play, He seemed to the whole great army to say : ' I have brought you Sheridan all the way From Winchester down to save the day.' " LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 305 preparing to move against Sherman when, by a special order from President Davis, he was removed from the command and General Hood put in his place. The Union officers w^ere not displeased by this change. Their hope of success was greater than before and the courage of the entire Union army was strengthened. Sherman cut off completely Hood's line of supplies. Then nothing could prevent the fall of Atlanta. The city was evacuated on the 2d of September, 1864. Sherman's policy through his entire march was to Sherman's Campaign in Georgia. weaken the South and destroy, so far as possible, supplies for the army. Accordingly he here destroyed foundries, mills, and manufactories. 394. Sherman's Success. — Sherman had now been four months on his campaign. He had fought ten pitched bat- tles and many minor engagements. He had lost, in killed and wounded, twenty thousand men. He had, however, inflicted heavy losses upon the Confederate forces and had destroyed great quantities of army stores. At Atlanta and other 306 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY towns in Georgia there liad been large manufac tilling es- tablishments, which had furnished the Confederates with wagons, harnesses, clothing, and various sorts of military necessities. Sherman had also cut off these sources of supplies. 395. Hood invades Tennessee. — By orders from Rich- mond, Hood made an unexpected move. He left Sherman and turned his entire force towards Nashville. The Union army had thus far received its supplies from Tennessee over a single line of railroad. It was thought by the authorities at Richmond that Hood's new movement would entirely cut off Sherman's communication and would prevent the Federal advance through Georgia. Moreover, it was believed that Sherman would be compelled to turn and follow him, and that the seat of conflict would thus be transferred back to Tennessee. But in this the Confederate government was mistaken. Hood met General Schofield with four divisions Battle of of the Union army at Franklin, where a fierce Franklin, battle was fought, the Confederates losing four generals and nearly six thousand men. The Union loss, in killed, w^ounded, and missing, was a little over two thousand. Schofield fell back to Nashville, destroying bridges and in various ways impeding the advance of Hood's army. Hood besieged Nashville, which was ably defended by Thomas. Thomas at It was already the first of December. After re- Nashville, sisting the siege for two weeks, Thomas marched his forces out of their entrenchments and for two days (De- cember 15 and 16) fought Hood's army, drove it from its position, captured thousands of prisoners, and forced the remainder to a precipitate retreat. Hood's army was de- stroyed and it was never reorganized. The loss to the South was irretrievable. 396. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Sherman, mean- LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 307 while, had no intention of following Hood back to Nash- ville. On the 12th of November his communication with Nashville was broken. Cut loose from all supplies and confronted by no large military force, he at once divided his army into separate columns for foraging, and took up his march through the fertile section of Georgia toward Savan- nah. He thus provided food for his army of sixty thou- sand, men from the country through which he passed. He destroyed the railroads and whatever could be of service to the enemy's army. After a march of five weeks, covering a distance of three hundred miles, he reached the coast, and on De- cember 21, 1864, captured Savannah. He had now finished with entire success one of the most famous marches in all modern history. On the theory that the source of supplies for the opposing armies must be cut off, he had de- vastated a tract sixty miles wide and three hundred miles long, or eighteen thousand square miles, in the heart of the enemy's country. The authorities at Washington had had no new^s from Sherman's army since he left Atlanta. Now, however, Sherman sent a message to President Lincoln which reached him on Christmas eve. It read thus: ^'I beg to present to you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammuni- tion, also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton." He then spent the winter in Georgia and South Carolina, haras- sing whatever forces he could find, everywhere cutting off supplies for the Confederate army. 397. Mobile Bay. — - The entire coast, as has been previ- ously stated, had been so successfully blockaded that only General Sherman. 308 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY here and there a vessel succeeded in entering or leaving Southern ports. Mobile Bay, however, had constantly offered great opportunities for running the blockade. Here was stationed Admiral Buchanan, who had commanded the Confederate iron-clad Merrimac, in her fight with the Moni- tor at Hampton Roads. Buchanan had with him in the bay three gunboats and a ram. Moreover, the harbor was well protected at its entrance by three strong forts, — Admiral Gaines, Morgan, and Powell. Admiral Farragut, Farragut. with a fleet of fourteen wooden and four iron-clad vessels, attacked this fleet and these forts. The Confed- erate iron-clad ram Tennessee, a most formidable craft, was disabled and captured. The contest was severe and hazardous, for the air was so full of smoke that one vessel could not be seen from another. To get a clearer view of the operations. Admiral Farragut stationed himself in the vessel's shrouds above the dense smoke. His men remon- strated with him for thus exposing himself, and as he refused to leave the position one of his officers insisted on tying him to the shrouds, lest from a sudden lurch of the vessel, or from a wound received, he should fall into the water or upon the deck. The Confederate vessels were destroyed or forced to retreat. Fort Powell was abandoned, and Forts Gaines and Morgan surrendered. The contest lasted from August 5th to the 23d, 1864. 398. The Confederate Cruisers. — Early in the war the Confederate government authorized privateers to prey ui)on the merchant marine of the United States. This privateer- ing was carried on during the entire four years of the war. Several of these Confederate vessels were built and manned in England. The most important of them were the Florida, the Shenandoah, and the Alabama. These cruisers, car- rying British guns and largely manned by British sailors, LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 309 destroyed millions of dollars' worth of property and practically drove from the ocean vessels flying the Union flag. The year 1864 was an unfortunate one for these Confederate cruisers. In June the United States war-vessel, the Kear- sarge, sunk the noted Alabama off the coast of France. In August the Georgia was captured off Lisbon ; in October the ram Albemarle was destroyed by a torpedo in the Roanoke River; and the Florida was captured and finally sunk. 399. The Fall of Richmond (1865). — Wliile Sherman was fighting his battles in Georgia and making his famous march to the sea, Grant was keeping Lee and the Army of Virginia busy around Petersburg and Richmond. So the winter wore away. Grant's army was constantly increasing. Lee's army was poorly clothed, scantily fed, and inevitably it was growing smaller. Late in March, Sheridan, with a large body of cavalry and a strong force of infantry, pushed out from Grant's left wing, on the south of Richmond, to cut off Lee's supplies. On the first of April he captured the garrison at Five Forks and took five thousand prisoners. Lee at once saw that he could no longer maintain his position. The next day, early in the morning, the Union army was put in motion along the entire line. Before noon the Confederate forts in many places were found to be deserted, and thou- sands of prisoners were captured. President Davis Flight of was at church w^hen a messenger handed him a I>avis. note informing him that Lee and his army were lea^dng Richmond. He at once left the church and hurriedly de- parted with his family and Cabinet from the city. That night the whole of the Confederate army left Petersburg and Richmond, and the next morning, Monday, April 3, 1865, the Federal troops marched into the Confederate capital. 400. Lee surrenders at Appomattox. — Lee pushed for- ward toward Lynchburg, intending to make his way to North 310 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Carolina and join Johnston, who was then in connnand of the entire Confederate forces opposing Sherman. Grant at once moved to intercept him. Sheridan with his cavalry passed beyond and cut off Lee's retreat to Lynchburg. The brave Confederate general was practically surrounded. Nothing re- mained for him but to capitulate. The two great generals, in- deed one might say the two greatest generals of America, met, and Lee proposed to surrender the remnants of his army. The McLean House. Wtiere the surrender took place. So it came to pass that on the 9th of April, 1865, the soldiers of the Army of Northern Virginia laid down their arms and turned their faces homeward. Nearly thirty thousand officers and soldiers surrendered. They were paroled not to take up arms against the United States until exchanged. Grant's terms were the following: ^'The officers to give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the government of the LTnited States until properly exchanged; and each company or regimental com- mander to sign a like parole for the men of his command. The arms, artillery, and public property to be parked and LINCOLN'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1861-1865) 311 stacked and turned over to the officer appointed by me to receive them. This will not embrace the side-arms of the officers, nor their private horses nor baggage. This done, each officer and man will be allowed to retm'ii to his home, not to be disturbed by the United States authority so long as he observes his parole and the laws in force where he may reside." On the 26th of April Johnston surrendered his army to Sherman on the same terms as those on which Lee Johnston had surrendered his army to Grant. On May 4, Surren- General Taylor in Alabama surrendered to Gen- ^^^' eral Canby. In like manner the other Confederate forces laid down their arms. 401. The End of the War. — Thus after four years of hard fighting the Civil War was at an end. The people of the reunited country returned to the natural and more attractive vocations of peace. We have followed the brave armies of Federals and Confederates through the various important battles of the war. The men of the North had fought to preserve the Union, and the men of the South for what they beheved to be their rights based on the doctrine of state sovereignty. The North had the larger population, more wealth and greater resources, and it had conquered. The Union was preserved and we became again one nation, of which both sections were eventually to unite more closely than ever before in mutual respect and loyalty to the national government. The Civil War was indeed a mighty struggle, bravely fought by the men of both armies. But it was a costly con- test. By it nearly a million lives were lost, and the United States government was left with a national debt of almost three billion dollars. The war had absolutely impoverished the South. Nevertheless a new era of a larger and truer 312 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY prosperity was about to dawn upon tlie country. In the Dawn of North, especially in the Northwest, this pros- the New perity was already in progress ; the advance there Era. jj^ trade and agriculture was rapid. The South of course had to pass through a stage of painful and gradual reconstruction; then she too took her part in the general forward movement. It is indeed a fact that the growth and development of the entire country during the next forty years has been unparalleled in the history of the world. 402. The Election of the President (1864). — Meanwhile, as the Civil War was drawing to a close, the time again re- turned for the ever recurring election of the President of the United States. In June, 1864, the Republican Convention nominated Lincoln for reelection, and Andrew Johnson of Tennessee for Vice-President. The Democratic Convention met in August and named General George B. McClellan for President, and George H. Pendleton of Ohio for Vice-President. The election in November resulted in twenty-one electoral votes for McClellan and two hundred and twelve for Lincoln. This vote was interpreted as an expression of approval of the prosecution of the war for the preservation of the Union and the abolition of slavery within the LTnited States. SUMMARY After the battle of Chancellorsville the Confederate army invaded the North. The battle of Gettysburg followed and Lee was obliged to retreat. Vicksburg fell the next day, and later the Confederates were driven from Chattanooga. The following year the two opposing armies of the East were concentrated around Richmond, while Sherman invaded the South, captured Atlanta, and marching through Georgia took possession of Savannah. The next spring Richmond fell and Lee surrendered. The other Confederate armies laid down their arms, and the Civil War was ended. SECTION IV.— THE NEW NATION CHAPTER XXXI LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869) 403. Inauguration.. — Lincoln and Johnson were sworn into office on the 4th of March. So decided was the voice of the people that the feeling soon became general that the end of the war was near. It was nearer, however, than it seemed to many. President Lincoln made a hurried visit to consult with Grant. The Union army entered Petersburg April 3 and Grant sent for the President, who had already arrived at City Point. Mr. Lincoln hastened to meet Grant, and the two held an interview. The next day the President went to Richmond with Admiral Porter and a small company of marines. He entered the city on foot, escorted by six sailors in front and four in the rear. Be- tween these, without other escort, the President and his four companions marched to the late residence of Jefferson Davis. John G. Nicolay says: ^^ Probably never before, in the whole course of history, did the ruler of a great nation make so simple and unpretending an entry into a con- (juered capital." The President then hurried back to Wash- ington. 404. The Flag Raised Over Fort Sumter. — The 14th of April was the anniversary of the fall of Fort Sumter. When full arrangements had been made. General Robert Anderson 313 314 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY raised once more, amid the ruins of the fort, the identical flag which his own hands had been forced to haul down four years before. Interesting ceremonies took place and Henry Ward Beecher delivered an address which Mr. Nicolay describes as '' filled with an earnest, sincere, and unboastful spirit of nationahty; with a feeling of brotherhood to the South, prophesying for that section the advantages which her de- feat has in fact brought her; a speech as brave, as gentle, and as magnanimous as the occasion demanded." 405. President Lincoln Assassinated. — On the evening of April 14, 1865, an important Cabinet meeting was held and reconstruction was discussed. General Grant and Cap- tain Robert Lincoln, the President's son, were present. After the meeting the President went to see the play ''Our Ameri- can Cousin," at Ford's Theater. During the progress of the play, John Wilkes Booth, a fanatical secessionist, shot the President in the head and escaped. ^ Mr. Lincoln expired the next morning. Accomplices of Booth made attempts at the same time upon the life of Secretary Seward and of his son. Johnson took the oath of office and became President. The task that lay before him was, in some respects, the most difficult that ever confronted any President. It was nothing less than the reconstruction of a divided nation after four years of terrible civil war. 406. Jefferson Davis Arrested. — Meantime, President Davis had made his way to Georgia, where he was captured on the 11th of May. He was imprisoned for two years in Fortress Monroe and was then set at liberty. He lived till 1889, making his home in the state of Mississippi. He died in the city of New Orleans. ^ Booth was finally shot In a barn to which he had been traced, about fifty miles from Washington, on the Rappahannock River. Four of the conspirators were hanged and four others were imprisoned. LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINLSTRATION (1865-1869) 315 407. The Sanitary Commission. — During the entire war there existed in the Union an organization witli many branches called the Sanitary Commission, which furnished nurses, physicians, and attendants to look after the suffer- ing, the wounded, and the needy soldiers. Its duties were largely during and after battles. Its litters and ambulances were on the field before the battle was over. It provided hospitals, hospital cars, and hospital boats. The commis- sion received and expended five million dollars in cash, and contributions other than money variously estimated Caring for the Wounded on the Battlefield. from ten milHon to fifteen million dollars. Thus the entire cost of the work done by this commission was between fifteen milhon and twenty milHon dollars. A very large part of this money and of these supplies was raised by the women of the country. The Sanitary Fairs held everywhere, under the auspices of thousands of branches of this commission, strik- ingly illustrated the patriotism and the philanthropy of the people. 408. The Christian Commission. — Another channel of 316 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY aid to the soldiers of the Federal ami}' was the Christian Commission. This organization supplemented the work of the Sanitary Commission. It gave to the soldiers the benefits and consolations of religion, which the overworked chaplains could not possibly give. The Christian Com- mission raised nearly five million dollars, and this money did an infinite amount of good among the sick and wounded soldiers of the army. Never before had such immense efforts been put forth to mitigate the sufferings incident to war. For the Southern army no such societies were formed. Heroism Individually, however, the people were as heroic in the and as self-sacrificing as any people could be. South. They did all in their pow^r to lessen the sufferings incident to battles, marches, and garrison life. 409. The Great Review in the City of Washington. — The month of May, 1865, was the time appointed for the great bulk of the two Union armies under Grant and Sherman to be mus- tered out and to return to their homes. In celebration of this event, it was arranged that there should be a grand military review in Washing- ton. The procession was over thirty miles in length, and for two days it moved past the reviewing stand on Andrew Johnson. Pennsylvania Avenue, where w^ere sta- tioned the President, Andrew^ Johnson, his Cabinet officers, and many senators and congressmen. More than one hun- dred and fifty thousand soldiers, many of wliom had served in the army four full years, marched between throngs of people, w^ho w^re jubilant that the w^ar was ended, and who gave strong expression of their gratitude to these returning LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1809) 317 veterans. It was a marvelous sight, such as had never before been seen in any country. 410. The Army Disbanded — Its Effect. — Great anxiety was felt by many lest these disbanded soldiers would not be able to return to their various industries and take up the quiet life they had led before the war. Such' fears, however, were groundless. With very few exceptions the citizen- soldiers on both sides at once returned to their former occu- })ations, and no disorders appeared in any part of the land. The mayor of one of the largest cities in the Eastern states certified that, in his judgment, 'Hhe service had no ill effect upon the character of our citizens who enlisted." Similar testimony throughout the different states was general. 411. The Results of the War. — Many were the results of the war, and they continue to appear. Of these, the freeing of more than four million slaves comes first, perhaps, to mind. This, however, was the secondary rather than the primary outcome of the war. The main question settled was that the United States is a nation ^^one and indivis- ible," and that this nation takes rank as a leader among the world's powers, and not as two or more separate powers at enmity with one another. Because of the war, therefore, we are now in the front rank of the world's great nations. 412. A Nation of Readers. — ^ One immediate effect of the war was to make of us a nation of readers. During the })rogress of the contest every family within reach of a daily newspaper bought one and read it, to see if any ill had be- fallen the loved one who had gone from that family to battle. The habit of reading the daily papers once adopted was not discontinued. The great increase of newspapers, of maga- zines, and of books can thus be traced as one of the results of the war. 318 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 413. Inventions and Industries. — The necessities and exigencies of the war stimulated inventions and industries of various sorts in all sections of the country. Previously the South had never engaged in manufacturing to any great extent, but since the war various industries have been fos- tered and encouraged until now the people of the South are formidable competitors with those of the North. The making of cotton cloth has become in some sections of the South a leading industry. 414. The Constitution Amended. — For more than sixty years no change had been made in the United States Con- stitution. In 1865 Congress proposed the Thirteenth Amend- ment, which provided that ^'neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." This amendment was adopted by the necessary three fourths of the states the same year that it was proposed. The Fourteenth Amendment was adopted in 1868. It defined citizenship, fixed provision for the representation in Congress, and established the validity of the public debt of the United States. The Fifteenth Amendment, which secured suffrage to the colored race throughout the country, was ratified in 1870. It specified that the right to vote should not be abridged, either by a state or the nation, — 1. On account of race. 2. On account of color. 3. On accoimt of previous condition of servitude. 415. Reconstruction. — The reconstruction of the states which had been at war with the national government was a difficult problem; it had no precedent in history, and pro- vision was not made iov it in the Constitution. The Presi- LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-18G9) 319 dent had one theory for the reconstruction of the seceded states, and Congress had another. President Johnson, on May 29, 1865, issued a sweeping proclamation of amnesty, by which nearly all who had been warring against the Federal government were pardoned, indeed all except the leaders. He then appointed provisional governors who should set in motion state governments in the South. Congress, which met in December, ignored the work of the President and devised a new plan far more stringent. This included the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment by the several South- ern states. A bitter controversy between the President and Congress followed, till finally, in 1868, the House of Repre- sentatives voted to impeach the President. He was tried before the Senate and acquitted, the vote against him lack- ing one of the requisite two thirds. The vote of the Senate stood thirty-five for conviction and nineteen for acquittal. One by one the states which had seceded and formed the Confederacy accepted the plan which Congress proposed and were re-admitted. Tennessee was the first to regain its rep- resentation in Congress. This was in 1866. But not till 1870 did all the states accede to the terms proposed by Congress. 416. Carpet-Baggers. — Then followed the period when the freed slaves voted, and in some states controlled the government. They were oftentimes led by unscrupulous men from the North who were called ^'carpet-baggers."^ 'The adventurers from the North were called "carpet-baggers" be- cause it was said that each one when he went to the South was able to carry all his property in a carpet-l)ag. They were aided l)y Southern white Republicans known as "scalawags." To oppose the unscrupulous schemes of the ignorant negroes and the carpet-baggers a secret society called the " Ku Klux Klan " was organized. The members, in disguise, made night raids and not only frightened the superstitious negroes, but also succeeded in dri\'ing many of the scalawags and carpet-baggers out of the South. 320 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The results were scandalous. The state treasuries were plundered and the state debts were greatly increased. The ignorant negro voters were easily led into the corrupt lousi- ness, but it was the carpet-baggers who generally managed to get the lion's share of the plunder. The political condition of the Southern states for a dozen Ox THE Dog Trail in Alaska. years after the war was deplorable in the extreme. Gradu- Southern ally, however, affairs have been righting them- Politics. selves. The people there still have serious ques- tions to contend with. One of these difficult problems is that of the negro — his position, and his right to vote. But that whole section is rapidly gaining in strength, wealth, and industry. 417. Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867 WiUiam H. Seward, LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869) 321 ►secretary of state, made a ti-eaty between oui- country and Russia, by which Russia rehnquished to us all her possessions in North America, and by which we agreed to pay her the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars. This added nearly six hundred thousand square mile to our terri- tory. Since then we have secured from that far-away coun- try of Alaska furs, fish, and lumber of a value much greater than the purchase money. 418. The Atlantic Cable. — Several attempts to lay a cable across the Atlantic Ocean had been made, and had proved failures. On the 27th of July, 1866, permanent communi- cation by sub-marine cable was opened between this country and Great Britain. This result was due to the persevering efforts of Cyrus W. Field, of New York, who had devoted himself to the project for more than a dozen years be- 1 fore success crowned his labors. To-day there are fourteen lines in operation across the North Atlan- , Cyrus W. Field. lie alone. 419. China and Mexico. — In the year 1868 China, through its agent, Anson Burlingame, negotiated a treaty with our government — the first treaty that China had made, of her own accord, with any foreign nation. By this treaty China accepted the principles of international law and granted important commercial advantages. She also gave many rights to Americans living in China. The government of France, under the emperor, Napoleon III, demanded the payment of certain Mexican bonds held by the French, and as Mexico could not pay, Napoleon sent over 322 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY an army, conquered Mexico, and placed Maximilian, archduke of Austria, upon the throne as emperor. This action was so contrary to the Monroe Doctrine, so called, that our gov- ernment could not submit to it. We waited, however, till after the close of the Civil War, and then sent General Sheri- dan with fifty thousand veteran troops into Texas. The French army was withdrawn, and a Mexican army captured the capital and took the emperor prisoner. Maximilian was executed and once more a republic was formed for Mexico. 420. Presidential Election (1868). — Reconstruction of the Southern states was the leading question at this time. The Republican party nominated for President Ulysses S. Grant, and for Vice-President Schuyler Colfax of Indiana. The Democratic party named for President Horatio Seymour, ex-governor of New York, and for Vice-President Francis P. Blair of Missouri. Of the two hundred and ninety-four electoral votes. Grant and Colfax received two hundred and fourteen and were elected. SUMMARY On the same day that the United States flag was again raised over Fort Sumter, President Lincoln was assassinated. He was succeeded by Vice-President Johnson, who was confronted by the great task of reconstructing the Southern states. The Union armies were disbanded and the soldiers quietly returned to their homes. The thirteenth amendment, which abolished slavery, was adopted, and this was followed by the fourteenth and by the fifteenth, which gave suffrage to the negroes. Serious disagreements occurred over the methods for recon- struction of the states which had seceded. Congress impeached the President but failed to convict him. During this administration Alaska was purchased, the Atlan- tic cable was successfully laid, and a treaty was made with China. Emperor Maximilian was executed in Mexico and the republic restored. n4 H -«! ^ a SQ as S >- >^ ^ 1^; "^& ^ ?> - ??!' ■^ ^ 5 'S :k ■? ■5 3 ~ ■» » ^ ^ ^ ■^ -U ^ :;i ^^ -i (^ !3 ^ 2 -^ ^ i^ ^ *=' « « -J «• « * -t* ,J - — CHAPTER XXXV CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1885-1889) 448. Civil Service Reform. — In spite of party pressure, Cleveland favored civil service reform, and kept in office many Republicans. Under his leadership, moreover, other classes of public offices not yet covered by the reform were brought under civil service rules. Though the Senate w^as Republican and the House Demo- cratic, sevei'al important acts were passed and approved by President Cleveland. 449. Presidential Succession. — A bill was passed by Congress and approved by the President (1886) which pro- CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1885-1889) 337 vided that in case of the death or disability of t)oth President and Vice-President, the secretary of state should become President and hold office during the remainder of the four years. In case there be no secretary of state, or in case of his disability, the office shall fall to the other members of the Cabinet in the order in which the several departments were cre- ated: viz., the secretary of the treasury, secretary of war, attor- ney-general, postmaster-general, secretary of the navy, secretary of the interior. 1 This bill provides that, if any member of the Cabinet should not be qualified, his name be passed over and the presidential office be assumed by the next in order. 450. Electoral Count Bill. — A bill introduced by Senator Edmunds of Vermont was passed by Congress and became a law in 1887. It established in detail a method of counting the votes for President and Vice- President, and was designed to prevent in the future any such difficulty as occurred in 1876. 451. Interstate Commerce Bill. — The Interstate Com- merce Bill was adopted by Congress and became a law in 1887. Its object was to insure to all uniform passenger fares and freight charges. Hitherto there had been com- plaints that the large dealers had cheaper rates, or could procure rebates for their freight. Under the Interstate Grover Cleveland. ' Two departments have been added since, viz., Agriculture, and Commerce and Labor; but since these offices were not estabhshed when the law was passed the secretaries of these departments are not included in this succession. 338 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Commerce Law this discrimination was prohibited. A per- manent commission was appointed to oversee all railroads carrying passengers and freight from one state to another. 452. Chinese Exclusion Act. — Since the treaty of peace with China in 1868, there had been a large and rapid immi- gration of the Chinese to America. At the time which we are considering, there were in this country more than one hundred thousand Chinamen, most of them in California. As their mode of living was very inexpensive, they could afford to work for lower wages than other laborers. It was held that this cheap labor was a positive injury to the coun- try. Hence the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed, foi'bidding the importation of any more Chinese laborers into this country. 453. The Election of 1888. — The campaign of this year turned principally on the tariff question. The people were called upon to decide between the Republicans, who favored the continuance of high protective duties on importations, and the Democrats, who demanded a reduction of the tariff. President Cleveland was a candidate for reelection, with Allen G. Thurman of Ohio for Vice-President. The Repub- licans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton of New York. Harrison and Morton had two hundred and thirty-three votes against one hundred and sixty-eight for Cleveland and Thurman. SUMMARY During this administration civil service reform was ad- vanced; presidential succession was provided for; a new system of counting the electoral votes was inaugurated ; uniform inter- state railroad rates were established; and Chinese laborers were excluded. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION (188^^1893) 339 CHAPTER XXXVI HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION (i 889-1 893) 454. Oklahoma. — The condition of affairs in the Indian Territory more and more attracted the attention of the national government. In 1889, soon after President Harri- son took his seat, the government bought of the Creek and Seminole Indians a tract of about fort}^ thousand square miles of land in the western sec- tion of the territory, thereafter called Oklahoma. This was opened to white settlers, by the proclamation of the President, on the 22d of April, and a flood of claim-seekers rushed in and chose their locations, so that be- fore night towns of tents and rough board shanties had sprung up as by magic. The principal town, Guthrie, afterwards made the capital, in less than six months had a population of four thousand, with banks, churches, schools, daily newspapers, and lines of street cars. In 1890 the population of the ter- ritory had grown to over sixty thousand, and in 1900 to four hundred thousand. 455. New States Admitted. — In 1889 four new states, North and South Dakota, Montana, and Washington, were admitted to the Union, and the next year Idaho and Wyoming were added. Since then Utah (1896) and Oklahoma (1907) have been admitted. The number of states is now forty -six. 456. Pan-American Congress. — From the early days of our repubUc, sympathy between us and the people and Benjamin Hakklson. 340 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY governments of Central and South America had been grow- ing. This sympathy was voiced long ago in the Monroe Doctrine. In the winter of 1889-1890 a convention was held in Washington called the Pan-American Congress. To this body, assembled by the invitation of the United States, came representatives from seventeen countries. The object of the conference was to promote a stronger friendship between the different nations of the American continent, and to increase the commerce between- them. While no legis- lation grew directly out of it, yet the members of the congress recommended that in the future all disputes between the different governments be settled by arbitration rather than by a resort to arms. Since the meeting of this congress, the sentiment in favor of arbitration has had a wonderfully rapid growth, both in America and in Europe. The con- gress adjourned April 19, 1890, and after adjournment the members spent some weeks in visiting the larger cities of the United States. 457. International Copyright. — In 1891 Congress passed an act providing for international copyright. By this act the benefits of copyright in our country were extended to all foreign authors living in countries which permitted copy- right to American books. 458. Australian Ballot. — Dissatisfaction with the exist- ing modes of election brought about an important change in the matter of voting. One state after another tried the Aus- trahan ballot, which proved to be so successful that before the presidential election in 1892 thirty-seven of the forty- four states had adopted it. By this system complete se- crecy of voting is made possible, and opportunities for bribery and intimidation of voters are greatly diminished. At the present time this method of voting is in nearly universal use in our country. CLEVELAND'S 8ECOND ADMINLSTRATION (1893-1897) 341 459; Other Public Questions. — Congress legislated at diliereiit times on the question of gold and silver coin for money, on the tariff, and on reciprocity. Moreover, we had some difficulties to settle with foreign nations, notably those with Italy and with Chile. 460. The Election of 1892. — The campaign of 1892 was in most respects similar to that of 1888. President Harri- son was nominated by the Republicans for reelection, and Whitelaw Reid of New York, for Vice-President. Ex-Presi- dent Cleveland and Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois were nominated by the Democrats. A new party, called the People's party, chose for its candidates James B. Weaver of Iowa, and James G. Field of Virginia. Cleveland and Steven- son were elected. They had two hundred and seventy-seven electoral votes, Harrison had one hundred and forty-five, and Weaver twenty-two. For the first time since 1861 the Democrats controlled all branches of the national govern- ment. SUMMARY The opening of Oklahoma to settlers was followed by a rush of claim-seekers; arbitration was advanced by the Pan-Ameri- can Congress; authors were aided by the passage of an inter- national copyright law; and fairer elections were furthered by the adoption of the Australian ballot. — ^le- — CHAPTER XXXVII CLEVELAND»S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 461. The Bering Sea Case. — The catching of fur seals in the sea and off the islands of Alaska had become a profit- able business. But the wholesale slaughter of seals by the 342 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Canadians in what was termed the Bering Sea threatened to exterminate them. Tlie United States claimed that by the privileges acquired from Russia in the purchase of Alaska she had the right to consider Bering Sea as a ''closed sea/' and that it was properly under her control, so far as the seal fivsheries were concerned. Foreign vessels catching seals were seized by armed ships sent out by our government and the skins found on them were confiscated. Most of the cap- tured vessels were flying the British flag. The British gov- ernment remonstrated, and denied that the United States had any jurisdiction, claiming that the sea was an open sea, and that our government must pay damages. After much delay and various diplomatic moves, a treaty was concluded between the two countries which provided that the dispute should be settled by arbitration. This was Triumph another triumph for the principle of arbitration, for Arbi- now rapidly gaining in public estimation. The tration. commission met in Paris in March, 1893, and in August following rendered its decision, which was unfavor- able to the United States. Our government was obliged to pay to the Canadian ship-owners nearly half a million dollars. 462. Labor Troubles. — For several years workmen in various industries had been combining for the protection of their common rights, and various strikes and lockouts resulted. Occasionally mobs formed, and becoming law- less did serious injury to property and life. In 1886 the anarchist riots had occurred in Chicago. In 1892 came the labor troubles at Homestead, Pennsylvania; in 1894 there were strikes among the Pullman and railroad workers; even so recently as 1902 the great coal strike in Pennsylvania occurred. 463. World's Columbian Exposition. — The four hun- CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 343 dredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus was fittingly celebrated by a naval parade of all nations in the harbor of New York, October 12, 1892, and by a World's Fair held in Chicago. This fair, on the 21st of October, dedicated its grounds and buildings for a great exhibit of the industries of all the nations, and was formally opened on the The Grounds of the Columbian Exposition. first day of May, 1893, with an address by President Cleveland. It continued for six months. In the number and excellence of the industries it exhibited, the beauty of its buildings and grounds, and in the multitude of its visitors, this exposition was far superior to that of 1876, and to all previous World's Fairs. The total admissions to the fair grounds numbered nearly thirty millions. 464. Financial Difficulties. — These four years were a 344 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY [)erio(i of severe business depression in our country. In 1.S9.S this depression amounted to a real jjanic. Manufactured goods of various sorts, cottons, woolens, and iron, could not be sold and must needs be piled up, waiting for a market. Busi- ness men could not borrow money and failures resulted. Great numbers of workmen were out of employment and they and their families suffered great hardships. The panic, however, was of short duration. Prosperity was soon restored. 465. Hawaii. — A revolution against the Queen of the Hawaiian (ha-wi' yan) Islands occurred on the 14th of Janu- ary, 1893. Two days later a Committee of Safety appealed to the United States for protection. In response to this request, and to protect American interests, a small number of troops landed from a United States cruiser stationed at Honolulu. The next day, a provisional government was set up ''until," as it was stated at the time, ''terms of union with the United States of America should be negotiated and agreed upon." Following close upon these movements, a treaty providing for the annexation of these islands was negotiated and sent to the Senate February 15. It was not acted upon before President Harrison's term expired. President Cleveland with- drew the treaty, and began an investigation of the whole matter. We shall see later what was the outcome of all this. 466. Venezuela. — For many years Great Britain and Venezuela had had a dispute over the boundaries of British Guiana in South America. Venezuela had many times asked to have the question settled by arbitration, but Great Britain had refused. President Cleveland, fearing that England intended to fix the boundary by means of an armed force, informed the British premier that the Monroe Doctrine would not permit England to increase her territory on the American continent in this manner. He then issued a CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 345 message to Congress asking authority to appoint an arbitra- tion commission which should run the boundary. For a time it was feared that a war with England would follow, but England receded from her position, an arbitration commission was appointed, and the boundaries were finally fixed in accordance with the claims of Great Britain. 467. The Election of 1896. — In this sharply contested election, the currency question w^as the prominent issue. The Democrats declared for the '^free and unlimited coinage of silver" at the rate of sixteen to one,^ and nominated for Presi- dent William J. Byran of Nebraska, and for Vice-President Arthur Sewall of Maine. The platform of the Republican party advocated a protective tariff and international bi- metallism. This party nominated for President William McKinley of Ohio, and for Vice-President Garrett A. Hobart of New Jersey. The Populists nominated for President Mr. Bryan, and for Vice-President Thomas E. Watson of Georgia. The ^'silver Republicans" ratified the Democratic ticket. A wing of the Democratic party, opposed to free silver, named General John M. Palmer of Illinois, and General Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky. The election resulted in two hundred and seventy-one votes for McKinley, and one hundred and seventy-six for Bryan. SUMMARY A dispute arose between the United States and Great Britain in regard to the seal fisheries in Bering Sea, and was settled 1 By sixteen to one was meant that in coining money in the United States, sixteen ounces of silver would be equal to one ounce of gold, or that a silver dollar would be sixteen times as heavy as a gold dollar. The Republicans believed that since the principal European nations had gold only as the fixed standard for money, it would be unwise for the Vnited States to have both gold and silver, unless all nations agreed to adopt bimetallism. 346 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY by arbitration. The country was disturbed by many strikes and riots and by a financial panic. The Columbian Expo- sition celebrated the discovery of America. The annexation of the Hawaiian Islands was proposed, but led to a difference of opinion in the United States and w^as postponed for further investigation. The presidential campaign was spirited, as the people were divided on the currency question. CHAPTER XXXVIII McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 468. Troubles in Cuba. — In early times Spaiu was one of the strong powders of Europe. About one hundred years ago she held a large portion of the American continent, which had been in her possession for two centuries. In 1821 she lost the control of Mexico, and soon all her other possessions on this continent slipped awa}^ from her. In the West Indies, as early as 1S25, Spain retained only Cuba, Porto Rico, and a few small outlying islands. Cuba and Porto Rico might have been of great value, had Spain given them just and liberal treatment. The soil was very fertile, large areas were covered by dense forests of timber, and the mines were valuable. But the people were kept in poverty, while Spain profited by an exorbitant system of taxation. An intense hatred of everything Spanish soon possessed the minds of all the natives. In 1868 an insurrection broke out in Cuba, which lasted for ten years. After that, Spain broke her promises, and in 1895 another revolt followed. Spain sent over an army and a long war resulted. Captain- General Weyler issued what was known as his ''reconcen- tration order." This was a command that all the people of each district should be collected at some place near the McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 347 Spanish troops and be kept under guard. The object was to make it more difficult for the people to supply the Cuban army with food, and for that army to get information of the Spanish military movements. It was reported that more than three hundred thousand persons were thus herded together. Farmers and planters were driven from their homes and their industries, their houses were burned and their farms destroyed. The result was untold suffer- Spanish Soldiers Driving the Cubans into Camp. ing. Crowded together, destitute of food and proper shelter, thousands of the Cubans died of hunger and sickness. 469. The United States and Cuba. — American citizens had invested vast sums of money in sugar and other industries in Cuba, and our trade with the island had become very large. Owing to the war, and especially to General Weyler's method of conducting it, these industries were destroyed and our trade with the island was ruined. 348 • ESSENTIAT.8 OF I'NITED STATES HISTORY Si)aiii recalled WVylei-, sent (leneral Blanco to succeed Spain re- ^^'^^^^, ^^^d promised reforms. The Cubans, how- fuses Inde- ever, could not trust these promises and insisted pendence. qj^ absolute independence. To this Spain would not consent. 470. The Destruction of the Maine. — In February, 1898, the United States battleship Maine, lying in the harbor of Havana on a friendly visit, was blown up at night and more than two hundred and fifty men perished. A United States naval board of inquiry appointed by President McKinley re- ported that the ship was blown up by a mine placed \mder her by unknown persons. The Spanish government, how- ever, reported that the cause of the explosion was from within the vessel. The public feeling all over the United States was at fever heat against Spain. 471. President McKinley's Message. ^ — Members of both houses of Congress were urging warlike measures, and in April the President sent a message to Congress, in which he said: ^'It is plain the insurrection cannot be extinguished by present methods. In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in the behalf of endangered American interests, which give us the right and duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop." The message requested Congress to give him sufficient power to adopt such measures as would stop the war in Cuba. 472. Congress Acts. — Congress acted at once, and on the 19th of April adopted the following resolutions : 1. That the people of Cuba are, and of right ought to be, free and independent. 2. That it is the duty of the United States to demand that Spain should give up Cuba and withdraw its forces from the island. 3. That the President is directed and empowered to use McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 349 all the forces of the United States and to call upon the miUtia to carry out these resolutions. 4. That the United States disclaims any intention of con- trol over said island except for the pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and the control of the island to its people. Spain immediately gave passports to our minister at War Madrid. This meant Declared, war. Hence, on April 25, 1898, Congress formally de- clared war against Spain. 473. Beginning of the War. — Congress at once authorized the borrowing of two hundred million dollars. As soon as the loan was advertised, more than seven times that sum was offered. The President gave orders to blockade the coast of Cuba and to put in defensive condition our whole sea line, from Maine to the Gulf of Mexico. 474. Spain's Colonial Possessions. — Besides Cuba and Porto Rico, the principal colonial possession still belonging to Spain was the Philippine Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, east of China. These islands contained a mixed population of perhaps eight million inhabitants. The largest island was Luzon (loo-zon') and its principal city was Manila, where was stationed a large Spanish fleet. 475. The War in the Pacific. — The United States Asiatic Squadron was lying off Hong Kong, China, under command of Commodore George Dewey. On receiving orders by William McKinley. 350 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY cable to ''capture or destroy the Spanish fleet," Dewey and his squadron at once steamed away for Manila. Early on Sunday morning, May 1, 1898, they entered Manila Bay. Annihil - There the Spanish fleet lay, protected by the guns tion of of the batteries at Cavite (ka-ve' ta), a few miles Spanish distant. Then occurred a most notable naval en- ^^ ' gagement. The cannonading was fierce and vig- orous, both from the fleets and from the forts. After two i UK \\ i;k( KED Spanish Squadron at Cavitk. hours of fighting Commodore Dewey withdrew his ships, rested his men, gave them breakfast, and studied the ques- tion of ammunition. He then steamed back, and the can- nonading which followed was even more terrific than before. In a single hour the return fire, from both the Spanish fleet and the forts, ceased. Every ship of the enemy was burned, sunk, or deserted. Their loss was reported four hundred McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 351 Admifjal Dewey. killed and six hundred wounded. The Spanish Asiatic Squadron was annihilated. The Americans on their part had not lost a man. Only six of their men were wounded and none of their vessels suf- fered serious injury. Dewey was made Rear Admiral and a sword was given him by Congress with a vote of thanks. The next year ho was made Admiral. 476. Cervera's Fleet. — Spain had another strong fleet, which was lying in the neighborhood of the Cape Verde Islands. Soon after the war commenced, this fleet, under the command of Admiral Cervera (thar-va' ra), left these islands. Its destination was uncertain, and natu- rally enough the people on our Atlantic coast feared that it might suddenly appear and bombard their cities. The news that Cervera's ships had been seen on tlie southern coast of Cuba, and that they had anchored in the harbor of San- tiago-de-Cuba, quieted all this alarm. The whole American nation, however, anxiously awaited the movements of our North Atlantic Squadron, under Rear Admiral Sampson and Commodore Schley (sll). The delay was not long. Sampson and Schley quickly went to meet Cervera. Arrived before Santiago, they at once proceeded to blockade the harbor and prepare for action. 477. Lieutenant Hobson and the Merrimac. — The entrance to Santiago liai'bor is a narrow winding passage, protected on both sides by fortified hills. The Americans proposed 352 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY to '^ bottle up" the Spanish fleet so that it could not pos- sibly get out into the open sea. This was to be done by sinking a vessel in the narrowest part of the channel. The plan was devised by Naval Constructor Richmond P. Hob- son, and to him the task was intrusted. In the early morn- ing Lieutenant Hobson with six brave volunteers, under a heavy fire, navigated the huge collier Merrimac through the channel. A shot from one of the forts carried away her rudder, so that she could not be moved to the exact spot that would blockade the channel. She was sunk, however, and her crew were now defenseless in the water. They were picked up by a Spanish vessel and made prisoners of war. Admiral Cervera himself was on the launch which rescued them. He was so moved by their bravery that he at once notified Admiral Sampson of the safety of the men. In this message he said: ^^ Daring like theirs makes the bitterest enemy proud that his fellowmen can be such heroes." Hobson and his companions remained prisoners-of-war for several weeks and were then exchanged. 478. Cervera's Fleet Destroyed. — On the morning of July 3d, Admiral Cervera, in obedience to positive orders from Spain, made a hurried and bold attempt to leave the harbor and take his vessels out to sea. The American fleet at once gave chase and opened fire upon the Spanish vessels, one by one. Cervera believed that his boats were swifter than the American vessels and that he could outsail them and escape. Here he was deceived. In less than four hours every Spanish ship was destroyed and every member of the Spanish crews was either killed or captured. The American loss was one man killed and three wounded. Several years afterwards, in an address to young men, Admiral Sampson said that two questions regarding this destruction of the Spanish fleet were frequently asked him. McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 353 One was how had it happened that his guns could liit the Spanish vessels every time, while so few of the Sampson's Spanish shots struck our ships at all. The Admiral Explana- explained that the reason was very simple : he had *^°°- known that the Spanish crews had been practicing target firing while lying in the harbor of Santiago. They had been firing at the hull of an abandoned vessel, lying about a mile away. Sampson had, therefore, given orders to his fleet to get within half a mile of the enemy before firing. Thus it was easy to hit the Spaniards, but they, being used to a full mile distance, shot over our vessels. The other ques- tion was how could it happen that his shot would almost inevitably set the Spanish vessels on fire, while ours, even when hit, did not take fire. The Admiral showed that the reason for this was easy also : before the battle he had ordered all cabinet work, which could be set on fire, to be stripped off and thrown overboard. Hence the Spanish shot reached nothing combustible. The Spaniards, however, had not thus prepared their vessels, which, therefore, easily took fire. 479. The Santiago Campaign. — Meanwhile hurried prepa- rations had been made to increase the regular army and to equip it for active service. The President had issued a call for one hundred and twenty-five thousand volunteers and later for seventy-five thousand more. Men from every walk in life, from the South as w^ell as from the North, had im- mediately responded, and great camps had been formed, where these recruits were drilled by army officers. The first campaign was against Santiago-de-Cuba. Fifteen thou- sand troops, mostly regulars, under the command of General Shaffer, landed on the southern coast of Cuba. They then marched, sometimes under the hot tropical sun, sometimes in the pouring rain, over a rough, hilly country towards Santiago. On July 1st, El Caney was captured by Generals 354 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Lawton and Chaffee, and on the same day San Juan hill was taken by Colonel Roosevelt and his ''Rough Riders." The loss was heavy, for at all times the Americans were exposed to the guns of hidden Spanish soldiers. General Shafter was then able to place his lines about the city, which finally surrendered , . on the 17th of July. 480. Porto Rico Campaign. — General Miles now landed a strong force on the southern side of Porto Rico, where he was not expected, and with lit- tle opposition made a t r i u m p h a n t march through the island. The Spanish forces re- treated before him, and the inhabitants wel- comed our troops. The Americans took pos- session of the island. 481. Manila Sur- renders. — After the destructioil of the Spanish Asiatic fleet at Manila, Admiral Dewey continued to blockade the harbor, but he had not a sufficient land force to warrant an attack upon the city. Finally troops arrived from San Francisco, and Admiral Dewey and Major-General Mer- ritt together decided to make the attack. They were suc- cessful and Manila surrendered on the 13th of August. American Gunners in the Sea-Fight. McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 355 General Miles. General Shafter. Admiral SaxMpson. Admiral Schley. 482. The Treaty of Peace. — Active hostilities had been carried on a httle over three months when Spain sued for peace. Our Congress had declared war on the 22d of April, 356 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1898, and on the 26th of July the French ambassador at Washington asked, in behalf of Spain, on what terms the United States would make peace. Two weeks later Spain signified her willingness to agree to our terms. Accordingly orders were given to cease hostilities. Before these reached the Philippines, however, the city of Manila had fallen. In October, Peace Commissioners met at Paris, and on the 10th of December the treaty of peace was signed. It em- bodied the following terms: 1. Spain to give up all claims upon Cuba. 2. Spain to cede to the United States Porto Rico, all her other small islands in the West Indies, and the island Guam in the Pacific Ocean. 3. Spain to cede to the United States also the entire group of islands east of the China Sea, called the Philippine Islands ; and the United States to pay Spain twenty million dollars. The treaty did not specify for what this sum was to be paid, but the inference seemed to be that it was to reimburse Spain for her public works in the Philippines, which were by the treaty turned over to the United States. 483. The Treaty Ratified. — The President sent the treaty to the Senate on the 4th of January, 1899, and that body ratified it by a vote of fifty-seven in favor, just one vote more than the required two- thirds majority. 484. Some Reflections Concerning the War. — The war was a remarkably short one. From beginning to end the United States forces were successful on land and sea. The direct cost of army and navy to our government was over one hundred million dollars. The other departments of gov- ernment had their expenditures greatly increased. The loss of life on our side from first to last w^as very small. We lost no flag, gun, or vessel, and no. prisoners were taken except Lieutenant Hobson and his companions. The entire num- Eh n Q Eh i— ( t— I CO >— < O I— I G < I— I O CH I— I r^ 1—1 McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 357 her of men enlisted in om' army was nearly three hundred thousand. The losses in battle numbered about four hun- dred, and from disease nearly three thousand. The Red Cross Society did a noble work in caring for the wounded, the sick, and the suffering. Our decided and rapid success in the w^ar clearly showed to the nations of Europe that the United States was a power to be respected, indeed one of the great world powders. 485. The Philippine Insurrection. — A portion of the people of the Philippine Islands were at war with the Spanish authorities before we obtained possession. Their leader and military commander was General Emilio Aguinaldo (a-ge-nar do) . The insurrection against Spain, with Aguinaldo at its head, began in 1896. Spain, by the payment of a large sum of money, procured Aguinaldo's exile from the islands. He went to Hong Kong. Two years later he re- turned to Manila for the purpose, it was said, of aiding the United States in the war against Spain. He soon raised another insurrection, and later organized a provisional gov- ernment, of which he w^as made president. The contest was mainly confined to the island of Luzon. A sort of guerrilla warfare continued for several years, until military forces of the United States had reduced his army to a mere body- guard, and in March, 1901, he was captured and brought to Manila. Ten days later he took the oath of allegiance to the United States. Under the control of the United States the industries of these islands have been rapidly developed and jje^giQ^- the condition of the inhabitants has improved, ment Schools have been estabhshed by the government, of the and many reforms undertaken. The military rule ^^^ s- gave way to a civil government in 1901, and the first gover- nor was William H. Taft. Four departments of government 358 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY have been organized, tlie Department of the Interior, of Commerce and Pohce, of Justice and Finance, and of Public Instruction. 486. The Hawaiian Islands. — These islands, formerly called the Sandwich Islands, are situated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, in about twenty degrees of north lati- tude. They were discovered by Captain Cook, an English navigator, in 1778. The government there was at first a Raising the United States Flag at Honolulu, 1898. monarchy. In 1893, however, the revolution occurred of which mention has already been made, a repubUcan govern- ment was established, and Sanford B. Dole, the son of an American missionary, was elected president. The islands had then, as we know, asked to be joined to the United States, but their request had not been granted. Again they applied to be admitted to our republic, and in July, 1898, McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 359 were formally annexed to the United States by an Act of Congress. Later they were organized with a regular terri- torial government as the Territory of Hawaii (ha-wi' e), w^iich has a delegate upon the floor of the House of Repre- sentatives. A submarine cable was laid in 1903, from San Francisco across the Pacific, with offices in Honolulu, Guam, Submarine and the Philippine Islands. Cable. 487. Guam and Other Island Possessions. — Guam is the largest and the most southern of the Ladrone Islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is some thirty-four miles long and one hun- dred miles in circumference, and is surrounded by coral reefs. The island has a population of about ten thousand. Our country took formal possession of it in February, 1899. Wake Island is a small island midway between Hawaii and Hong Kong. Our flag was raisea there in January, 1899. Tutuila (tod' tdd-f la) became one of the possessions of the United States in 1899, in accordance with the treaty of Ber- lin. By this treaty Great Britain, Germany, and the United States agreed that the Samoan Islands should be divided between Germany and the United States, the latter taking Tutuila and several adjacent small islands, and Germany taking the rest of the group. This treaty was ratified by the Senate in January, 1900. Tutuila is valuable to our country both because it serves as a coaling station and also because it has a well-sheltered harbor called Pago-Pago, the finest harbor in the South Pacific Ocean. The island covers fifty-four square miles and has about six thousand inhabitants. It lies in the latitude of thirteen to fifteen de- grees south. 488. Our Possessions in the Torrid Zone. — Thus it may be seen that since the Spanish War we have acquired large jwssessions within the tropics. Formerly the territory of 360 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ilic TTiiitod States was entirely confined to the north tem- perate zone. To-day we have Porto Rico, the Phihppines, Hawaii, Guam, Wake Island, and Tutuila, with several smaller islands, all lying within about twenty degrees of the equator. Hitherto all tropical fruits and other productions had to be imported from foreign countries. Now we can have them all from our own possessions. 489. The Status of Cuba. — At the beginning of the Span- ish War our government stated distinctly that we had no intention of annexing Cuba, but only of aiding her to secure her independence. After the war closed, we continued our military occupation of the island, but only to preserve order till the people could establish a government of their own. In February, 1901, the Cubans organized a republic patterned largely after our own. They drew up a constitution, which provided for a president elected for four years by the people, who might be reelected once, and once only. This consti- tution provided also for a Congress of two houses, like ours, and a similar judiciary. As soon as this constitution had been adopted and officials elected under it, the island was turned over to the Cubans, and the new government went into effect in May, 1902. 490. The Hague Conference. — In May, 1899, delegates from twenty-six nations met at the Hague for a Peace Confer- ence. This movement was the result of a suggestion of Nicholas II, the Czar of Russia. Its object was to discuss the possibility of settling international disputes without resorting to war. One hundred delegates were present. The conference lasted about ten weeks. It was decided to recommend a permanent international Court of Arbitration, to which disputes between nations which could not be settled by ordinary diplomacy might be referred, and thus avoid the expensive and destructive 100* 120° 140° 80 Cape ChelyuaUn 160° 160° 140" X I THE WORLD Showing UISriTED STATES AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. United States Dependencies thus: porto rico Longitude Wett/r m Oreemoieh 2I0IE. — The total dln&noe from San Vr to Manila, ria Hawaii and Guam,j Statute Miles, rroin Porto Rico to the Philippln* or half around the Globe, ^e total distance from San Juan. PI to Manila,Tia New York & San IS 13,000 milea. ' 100* 120° 180° 160° 100O 2000 KILOME.TERS NAUTICAL MILES I THe[m.-N.CO., BUffALO, W.V. McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 361 arbitrament of war. This conference voted that 'Hhe mih- tary burdens which now weigh so heavily upon the world" ought to be lightened. 491. A Permanent Court of Arbitration. — The tribunal thus recommended has been established and agreed to by various nations of Europe and America. It is composed of persons eminent for their knowledge of international law, and chosen by the parties concerned from a permanent hst of arbitrators nominated by the several nations. Upon occasion a special court may be organized in the following way: ''Each party to the controversy chooses two arbitrators, either from the list of permanent members, or from persons who are not members, and these choose an umpire." A per- manent council is always on hand at the Hague. 492. Cases Already Before the Court. — The first case settled by this court was a controversy between the United States and Mexico in regard to the Pius Fund Claims, so called. Several other cases have already been determined by this tribunal, and its permanence and success are to-day unquestioned. 493. The Chinese Insurrection. — In the spring of 1900 a wide-spread insurrection took place in China against foreigners and foreign influence. The fury of the mob was principally against Americans and Englishmen, and to some extent against the French, Germans, and Russians. Many were murdered without provocation. Troops from our country, from England, and several European countries, were hurried to Pekin to protect the foreigners there. When the rioters were put down and terms were discussed for the settlement of damages, our government proposed a poUcy quite different from that advocated by the European powers. There was danger that a part of the territory would be de- manded by the nations whose subjects had suffered. But 362 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the United States firmly insisted that the territory of China should remain intact; that China must pay a suitable indem- nity for property destroyed and lives lost, and must punish the instigators of the insurrection, but that she should lose no territory. This policy prevailed, and finally the whole affair was settled in accordance with the wishes of our govern- ment. An understanding had already been reached with those nations which had obtained territory in China that all ports should be opened to the trade of all nations. This ar- rangement, called the ^^open door," was a brilliant diplo- matic achievement. It was the work of John Hay, our secretary of state, whose course through- out all this difficulty with China reflected great credit upon our country. 494. The Election of 1900. The two most important ques- tions which divided tlie Ameri- can people in this campaign, were the free and unlimited coinage of silver at the rate of sixteen to one, and what was termed ^^anti-imperial- ism." The silver question was the same that divided the country four years before. The other, and the more impor- tant problem, had grown out of the treaty with Spain at the close of the war. It will be remembered that by that treaty Spain ceded to us the island of Porto Rico and the entire group of the Philippines. We had also annexed the Hawaiian Islands. The acquisition of an important island in the Atlantic JohjN Hay. McKINLEY'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) g6.^ and groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean occasioned a decided change in our national affairs. Were these islands to become states in our Union? Or were they, by the adop- tion of a colonial system, to become dependencies? Would the latter plan, called by some 'imperialism," be con- imperial- sistent with our ideas of republican institutions? ism. Here arose a difference of political views. Many thought that 'imperialism abroad would lead quickly and inevitably to despotism at home." The Democrats in their platform advocated ''free silver"^ and "anti-imperialism," and nominated for President Wil- liam J. Bryan of Nebraska, and for Vice-President Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois. The Republicans advocated the gold standard, and ap- proved of the new system of island dependencies. They nominated for President William McKinley of Ohio, and for Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt of New York. Mc- Kinley had already served four years and had made himself a favorite in all parts of the country. Theodore Roosevelt was brilliant and popular. He had already had a broad and varied experience. He was a trained literary man, a volu- minous writer, had served in the New York legislature, had been national civil service commissioner, president of the New York police board, assistant secretary of the navy in McKinley's Cabinet, was colonel of the cavalry regiment of "Rough Riders" in the Spanish War, and at the time of this election was serving his second year as governor of the state of New York. The People's party, or Populists, nominated William J. Bryan for President, and Charles A. Towne for Vice-President. 1 By "free silver" is meant the free coinage of silver; that is, when individuals carry silver bullion to the mint, the government must make it into coin without expense to the owner. 364 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The election was a decisive one. The electoral vote was two hundred and ninety-two for McKinley, and one hun- dred and fifty-five for Bryan. The total popular vote gave McKinley a plurality of about eight hundred and fifty thousand. This vote of the people determined the course of the United States in regard to the colonial policy. SUMMARY The sufferings of the Cubans in their struggles for indepen- dence had long enlisted the sympathies of the people of the United States, but no action was taken until after the destruc- tion of the Maine. Then war was declared against Spain. The conflict was sharp but decisive, and resulted in the destruc- tion of two Spanish fleets, the capture of Manila, the surrender of Santiago, and the occupation of Porto Rico. By the treaty of peace, Spain ceded to the United States all her American possessions, and the Philippines and other islands in the Pacific Ocean. Our territory was further enlarged by the annexation of Hawaii and Tutuila. An arbitration conference at the Hague resulted in the for- mation of a permanent International Court of Arbitration, which has already settled important international disputes. The policy of the United States in the Chinese insurrection against foreigners widened our influence with Asiatic as well as European countries. — '^' — CHAPTER XXXIX McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1901-1905) 495. The Census of 1900. — The twelfth census was taken this centennial year. It reported the population of the United States as 76,304,799, being an increase of more than twenty per cent over the number ten years before. It showed that the center of population had moved west- McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 365 ward fourteen miles, and southward about two and a half miles. The central point is now near Columbus, Indiana. The United States now takes its place among the nations of the world as the richest, most prosperous, and most rapidly progressive of them all. It has the broadest and America's most varied industries. No other country has Place made such a rapid advance in so short a time, among the T • , IT • J. • ' • 4.- • Nations. In mtelhgence, m enterprise, m mventions, m the comforts and luxuries of life, no nation excels us. But we have great responsibilities before us and difficult prob- lems to be solved. The outcome is uncertain and rests with coming generations. A century and a quarter is but a short time to determine whether a nation is to have perma- nent success. Yet certainly we may look toward the future with high hope and joyful expectation. 496. The Pan-American Exposition. — This exposition was officially opened at Buffalo, New York, on the 20th of May, 1901, It was designed to bring more closely together the various nations of America, by showing their progress in manufactures, the arts, and various industries. America had held many such exhibitions, and this was in many re- spects quite the equal of them all. In September President McKinley attended the exposi- tion, where he made an elaborate address, speak- jj^g ing in favor of liberal trade relations with other President's countries, and above all expressing the hope that Speech, peace would be maintained between all nations of the earth. 497. The President Assassinated. — The very next day after his dehvery of this great speech, the President was shot by an anarchist, and died a week later, sincerely mourned by his own people and by all nations of the world. On the day of the funeral, services were held in almost every village of this broad land and in nearly all of the large cities of the world. 366 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 498. President Roosevelt. — The Vice-President was quietly sworn into office, at Buffalo. Thus, for the fifth time in the history of our country, by the death of the President, and for the third time by the assassination of the President, the Vice- President became the chief executive officer of the nation. President Roosevelt pledged himself '' to continue abso- lutely unbroken the policy of President McKinley, for the peace, prosperity, and honor of the country," and invited each and every member of the late President's Cabinet to remain. By this course he at once won the confidence of the people, and no financial disturbance followed his acces- sion to office. 499. The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. — In the year 1850 our government had made a treaty with Great Britain called the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, which ^^ guaranteed the strict neutrality of any interoceanic canal that might be built across the American Isthmus." This treaty agreed that ^'neither power was ever to obtain or maintain for itself an exclusive control over said ship-canal, or to occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise, any dominion over Nica- ragua ... or any part of . . . Central America." This treaty was annulled and superseded by the Hay- Pauncefote Treaty, of December, 1901. The new treaty provided that the canal, when built, should be controlled b}^ the United States, but that it should be opened to 'Vessels of commerce and of war of all nations on terms of entire equality." Thus the way was opened for our government to under- take the building of a water route between the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans. At first the Nicaragua route was favored, but afterwards authority was granted by Congress to buy the franchise of the French Panama Canal Com- pany for forty million dollars. A treaty was made with McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 367 Colombia, by which she was to cede to us all rights to the canal, and our government was to pay to her ten miUion dollars and an annuity of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, beginning nine years after the ratification of the treaty. The Colombian Congress refused to ratify the Treaty treaty. At that Panama rebelled and set up an with independent repubhcan government. The Repub- Manama, lie of Panama was recognized by our government, and a Used by courtesy of T. C. Muller. At Work on the Panama Canal. treaty was made with it, by which we obtained the ''use, occu- pation, and control of the zone of land, and land under water, for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitation, and protection of said canal of the width of ten miles." We agreed to pay to Panama the sum of ten million dollars. This treaty was ratified by our Senate February 23, 1904.' The building of the canal is now in the hands of a 368 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY commission of seven men, appointed by the President. The Building forty milHon dollars has been paid to the Panama the Canal. Canal Company, and the ten miUion dollars paid to the Republic of Panama. This important ship-canal will prove of immense advantage, not only to our country but to the commercial world. Used by courtesy of T. C. MuUer. CULEBRA, THE BiGGEST CuT ON THE CaNAL. 500. Tendencies toward International Peace. — The gen- eral trend of public sentiment among civilized nations is, each year, stronger toward peaceful means of settling inter- national difficulties. Many treaties have been made by which the nations concerned have agreed to refer to the Hague court such questions as they may be unable to deter- mine by the ordinary course of diplomatic procedure. At the present time there is a strong sentiment among many nations in favor of a regular, international advisory Con- McKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 369 gress, which may help adjust important questions of inter- national law and propose needed legislation to the nations. 501. International Courtesies. — A friendlier spirit than has ever before been known now pre- vails among nations. The United States has had proof of this spirit, as shown in the various courtesies which she has received from foreign nations. In 1886 the Republic of France pre- sented to the United States a bronze statue called ^^ Liberty Enlightening the World." It stands on Liberty Island, formerly called Bedloe's Island, in New York Harbor. It is more than one hundred and fifty feet in height and stands on a pedestal of granite, which is also more than one hundred and fifty feet high. In 1902 Prince Henry, of Prussia, visited the United States and went as far west as St. Louis. He received everywhere a most cordial welcome from the people. To commemorate this visit. Emperor William, in 1904, pre- sented to the United States a fine bronze statue of Frederick the Great, who was friendly to the colonies during the Revo- lution. This beautiful statue has been placed in a conspicu- ous position in the city of Washington. Another French gift, a statue of Rochambeau (ro-shan-bo'), who commanded the French troops in our Revolution, was unveiled in Wash- ington in May, 1904. 502. Election of 1904. — We have already noted that Theodore Roosevelt was the fifth Vice-President called to the presidential chair by the death of the President. In The Statue of Liberty. 370 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY no one of the four preceding cases was the accidental Presi- dent elected for another term. The present case, however, was an exception to this rule. The Repubhcan party nomi- nated Theodore Roosevelt for President, and Charles W. Fairbanks of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Democratic party named Alton B. Parker of New York, and Henry G. Davis of West Virginia. Roosevelt received three hundred and thirty-six electoral votes and Parker one hundred and forty. The popular vote for Roosevelt was over seven mil- lion six hundred thousand, and the vote for Parker was a little over five million. It is worthy of note that in the forty-five states more than thirteen and one half million votes were cast. SUMMARY President McKinley was assassinated while attending the Pan-American Exposition. He was succeeded by the Vice- President, Theodore Roosevelt, who continued his policy and won the confidence of the nation. By the adoption of the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, the United States was free to build a canal connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific. It was decided to build it across the Isthmus of Panama, and a treaty was made by which the United States came into possession of the strip of land required for its con- struction. CHAPTER XL ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1905-1909) 503. The Inauguration. — On the 4th of March, 1905, Theodore Roosevelt was inaugurated President, and Charles W. Fairbanks Vice-President. The ceremonies connected with this inauguration were imposing; the procession from the White House to the Capitol was unusually long and ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1905 -) 371 brilliant; the concourse of citizens gathered near the east front of the Capitol to witness the President taking the oath of office and to listen to his inaugural address was very great; the address was dignified and stately; it did not discuss the current questions of the day. 504. Proposed Arbitration Treaties. — Treaties with several of the leading nations of Europe had been framed by the State Department. By these treaties it was agreed to submit ques- tions in dispute to arbitration; in other words, to the Hague court. These treaties were sent to the Senate in March, 1905, for confirmation, but the Senate made some radical amendments which the President was un- willing to recommend to the several governments concerned. Hence they were not ratified. 505. Santo Domingo. — Serious troubles existed in the little republic of Santo Domingo and the government became deeply involved in debt. Its creditors were citizens of the United States and subjects of various European governments. To protect our citizens and to prevent foreign nations from interfering contrary to the Monroe Doctrine, a treaty was made between the Santo Domingan government and the United States, by which it was agreed that we should take charge of their custom houses, collect the revenue, and hold the same to be paid out, a part to sustain the government of the little republic and the rest to the foreign creditors whose claims could be proved. This treaty went to the Senate for Theodore Roosevelt. 372 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ratification, but that body, disagreeing with the President, adjourned without taking action. 506. The Treaty of Portsmouth. — After the Chinese in- surrection (§493) had been put down and the country had become quiet, all the foreign nations that had sent troops to China to protect their citizens withdrew their forces, according to agreement, except Russia. Japan feared that Russia intended to hold permanently the Chinese province of Manchuria. As this would seriously interfere with her commerce and development and her influence in China, Japan sent a protest to the Czar asking that the Russian troops be removed. The Czar refused to heed this request and therefore Japan declared war against Russia in February, 1904. The world is so closely bound together by treaties and common interests that whatever disturbs one country dis- turbs all. For a time it was feared that all the great European nations would become involved in the conflict. That the most terrible war of all time did not follow was due to the wisdom of the great diplomats, and as much, at least, to John Hay, our secretary of state, as to any other. Th.p. United States, through the efforts of President Roosevelt, was also instrumental in bringing the Russian-Japanese war to a close. In the summer of 1905, envoys from Russia and Japan met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Terms of peace were drawn up, agreed upon, and finally ratified by the governments of the two nations. In 1906 Congress passed the Pure Food and Drug Bill and the Meat Inspection Bill. These laws are intended to keep food products free from adulteration, and thus to safeguard the health of the public. In 1907 Oklahoma, embracing the entire area of the Okla- homa and Indian Territories, was admitted as the forty-sixth state. 55 ■Tanipi UNITED STATJ^ IN 1911 SCALE OF MILES -60 li)i] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1905-1909) .373 507. The Election of 1908. — On Tuesday, November 3, 1908, came the election of presidential electors who should make choice of the twenty-seventh President of the United States. The Republican party had nominated for President William Howard Taft ^ of Ohio, and for Vice-President James School- craft Sherman of New York. The Democratic party had selected for President William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska, and John Worth Kern of Indiana for Vice-President. The electors favoring the Republicans were in the majority, and on Monday, January 11, the vote was cast. Taft and Sherman had a majority of 159 electors over Bryan and Kern. SUMMARY The Senate failed to ratify the arbitration treaties as recom- mended by the President. Through the intervention of President Roosevelt the Russian- Japanese war was ended. Terms of peace were signed by representatives of both countries at Portsmouth, N. H., in 1905. Oklahoma came into the Union in 1907 as the forty-sixth state. 1 William Howard Taft rose rapidly among the leading statesmen of our country. His graduation from college was in his twenty-first year. He was admitted to the Ohio bar when he was twenty-three; was made judge of the United States Circuit Court at the age of thirty-five, which office he filled for eight years; held various offices, including the governor- ship of the Philippine Islands; declined the appointment of Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States; was Secretary of War under President Roosevelt; and became President at the age of fifty-two years. 374 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY CHAPTER XLI TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION (1909-1913) 508. The Inauguration. — On Thursday, March 4, the President and Vice-President were inaugurated. The Tariff Question. —The question of protective tariffs has ahvays been a bone of contention between the two parties. The Dingley Tariff was unsatisfactory to a large part of the population of the country, and in 1909 Congress passed the Payne Tariff' Bill, sometimes calletl the '^Payne- Aldrich Tariff Bill." The dis- cussion continued and objec- tions were numerous. Near the close of the sixty-first Con- gress the President recommended the enactment of a bill giv- ing effect to a reciprocity agreement with Canada, which he thought would increase trade and cement the friendly feelings between the two peoples. The Senate, however, failed to pass the bill and the President immediately called an extra session of Congress to convene April 4 to reconsider the mat- ter. This Congress passed the bill and it was sent to the Canadian Parliament for their approval, but there was so much feeling on both sides that the Parliament left it to the people and it was rejected. Congress also failed to pass a permanent tariff board bill. Copyright, 1908, by E. Chickering. President Taft. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION (1909-1913) 375 509. The Sixteenth Amendment. — In the summer of 1909 Congress proposed to the states an amendment to the National Constitution, designed to give Congress the power to levy taxes on incomes without regard to appor- tionment among the several states and without regard to the census. This amendment thus proposed by Congress could not become valid till it had been ratified by three fourths of the several states. It was so ratified by January, 1913, and thus became a part of the Constitution of the United States. 510. The Thirteenth Census. — In April, 1910, the new census was taken, showing us that in our 48 states we now have a population of nearly 92,000,000, besides the out-lying possessions. This census is probably the most complete and most nearly perfect ever taken. 511. Treaty with Japan. — During the session of the sixty- first Congress a treaty of great importance was negotiated with Japan. It is designed to secure peace and friendship between the two nations, and especially to increase com- merce between them. By it Japan proposes to regulate the emigration of her laboring classes to our satisfaction. 512. Other Advance Movements. — In 1911 Congress created forest preserves in the White Mountains and farther south in the Appalachians; provided for houses for our ambassadors and ministers in foreign countries; voted for two new battleships, and for fortifying the Panama Canal. 513. Improvements in Travel and Transportation. — Dur- ing the two years (1909 and 1910) great attention has been given by Americans to various styles of machines to travel in the air. Much success has attended these new inventions and great improvements are now^ being made in "airships." 376 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Photo by Aram Studio. An American Biplane in Flight. In 1910 Congress passed an act requiring ocean-going steamships carrying over fifty passengers to be equipped with wireless telegraph apparatus. By this telegraph, messages are sent directly through the air "w^ithout the use of wires. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company has succeeded in tunneling the Hudson River and the East River, and send- ing their railroad trains through under the river from New Jersey to New York City and from New York to Long Island. This company, too, has erected between 31st and 33rd streets a magnificent station of gigantic proportions. It is not at all improbable that before many years cars may be loaded with tropical fruits at the city of Havana, Cuba, and transported without change of cars by ferry across to Florida, and by rail from there to New York City and Boston. TAFT'S ADMINIISTRATION (1909-1913) 377 514. Postal Savings Banks. — Another important act of. Congress was passed in 1910. This act authorized the estabhshment of savings banks in certain post offices which shall receive money from depositors, for which the banks shall pay two per cent interest on money thus deposited. This will prove a matter of great advantage to such. as have no other convenient place of deposit, and to such as have only small sums to save, as it furnishes an absolutely safe place to deposit. Since the establish- ment of the Postal Savings Banks much money has been deposited in them. 515. The Seventeenth Amendment. - — In 1911 Congress proposed another amendment to the Constitution which changes the methods of electing United States Senators. Heretofore, the Constitution provided that the Senators should be chosen by the legislatures of the several states. This amendment provides that they be elected by the people, each state sending its own Senators by popular vote. This amendment has been ratified by three fourths of the states and thus has become the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution. 516. Enforcement of Sherman Anti-Trust Law. — A num- ber of years ago Congress passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Law, to prevent dishonest practices by trusts and other business combinations. President Taft made a decided stand against trusts and monopolies that existed in defiance of this law. The acceptance of money for party purposes with the expectation of obtaining influence, and the use of official position for private gain, were per- sistently frowned upon. It was impossible to restrain or dissolve the trusts entirely, but a brave fight was made and much good resulted therefrom. The terms '^ grafts " and " grafters " became common throughout the country. 378 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 517. Discoveries of the North and South Poles. — During the last half century several of the nations have vied with each other in sending out expeditions to search for the North Pole. The honor of this discovery came to the United States through the successful result of an expedition under the command of Robert E. Peary, of the United States Navy, who planted the Stars and Stripes there April 6, 1909. The South Pole has not been sought by as many expeditions, but was reached by Captain Amundsen, a Norwegian, in December, 1911. 518. Admission of New States. — The territories of Arizona and New Mexico were admitted into the Union in 1912. We now have forty-eight states, comprising the entire country between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, and between Canada and the Mexican frontier. Our other possessions are under governors appointed by the President. 519. Parcel Post. — The Post-Office Department issued a new ruling by which packages might be sent by mail. The country was divided into zones and the rate of postage per pound is uniform in the various zones. In the first two zones the limit of weight is fifty pounds, and it is twenty pounds in the other zones. This took effect January 1, 1913. 520. Government Improvements. — President Taft was instrumental in introducing methods of economy and efficiency which greatly lessened the expense of carrying on our national government. Through his efforts a deficit of $58,000,000 was converted into an annual surplus of nearly $50,000,000. He was particularly successful in appointing to the office of judge many men of exceptionally high character. During President Taft's administration much was done TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION (190^)-1913) 379 for the promotion of international arbitration and univer- sal peace, and the whole conduct of the affairs of the nation with regard to foreign powers was of such a character as to add to the pleasant relations that our country bears to other governments. 521. Philanthropy. — Within the past few years many wealthy men have given large sums of money to religious, educational, and other philanthropic causes. In ancient times King Croesus was esteemed the richest man in the world, but it has been estimated that his entire wealth was not more than $20,000,000 of our money. During the past few years two citizens of America have given for philanthropic purposes more than $300,000,000. 522. Presidential Election. — The next presidential election came in the year 1912. Popular sentiment was greatly divided. The Republican party had been in power the greater part of the time for fifty years. The party was divided into Progressives and Conservatives. The Conservatives wished to nominate President Taft for reelection. The Progressives favored the nomina- tion of Mr. Roosevelt. Hence a split in the party could not be prevented. The regular Republican convention nominated Taft, and a new party called " The Progres- sives " nominated Roosevelt. The Democrats nominated Woodrow Wilson, the governor of New Jersey, for Presi- dent, and Thomas R. Marshall, of Indiana, for Vice- President. Wilson and Marshall were elected, receiving the electoral vote of forty-one states. SUMMARY The North Pole was discovered in 1909. Two now states were admitted, making in all forty-eight. 380 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Many improvemonts have bcc^ii iiuulc in tlie government, in the upholding of its laws, and in relations with foreign powers. In 1909 the Payne-Aldrich Tariff was passed by Congress. The President recommended to Congress a reciprocity agree- ment with Canada. The thirteenth census was taken in 1910, and showed a marked increase in the population of the country. A commercial treaty \Adth Japan was ratified by Congress, and acts providing for the preservation of our forests, and the fortification of the Panama Canal, became laws. Great progress has been made in the improvement of " air- ships," and in the methods of handling traffic in New York City. Philanthropy has increased within a few years until it now exceeds that of all former times, WILSON'i^ ADMINISTRATION (1913- 381 CH.APTER XLII . WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1913 — 523. Extra Session of Congress. — Wilson was inaugu- rated on the fourth of March, 1913, as the twenty-eighth President of the United States. He at once called an extra session of Congress to consider the passage of a new tariff law. By the platform of the National Con- vention the Democratic party was pledged to a lower schedule of import duties; in other words, a tariff for revenue to replace the Republican protective tariff. This session lasted all summer and even to the first Monday in December, when the regular first session of the sixty-third Congress should by law convene. This sixty-third Congress in December passed the new Demo- cratic tariff bill and it was at once signed by the President and became a law. This bill made great changes in import duties, lowering the rates largely on necessities, but retaining higher rates on many luxuries. 524. PresMent's Messages. — The custom of delivering a message to Congress in person was inaugurated by Washington and continued by John Adams. President Jefferson changed the method and sent his messages to Congress in writing, to be read by the clerks of the two houses. His view of it was that for the President to appear before the assembled two houses of Congress and read his message in person was following the custom of the King of England, and therefore was not democratic. Hence he inaugurated the method of sending his mes- sages to be read to the two houses. This plan has been followed by all the succeeding presidents including President Taft. President Wilson, however, returned to the original plan of Washington, and has read his 382 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY messages to the two houses in person. The custom seems to have proved popular with both Congress and the people of the country. 525. Trouble with Mexico. — Previous to the time when Wilson became President, serious internal dissen- sions in Mexico had resulted in rebellion against the Madero government. President Madero was murdered and Huerta became president. His government was promptly recognized by several European nations. Wilson, however, did not regard it as legitimate and refused to grant it recognition. He called upon Huerta to resign and a new election by the people to follow. This Huerta refused to do, and as the rebellion against the Huerta government grew and became dominant in all northern Mexico, Wilson recommended all Americans in Mexico, who could reasonably leave that country, to return to the States. No decisive events have, up to the present time (1914), taken place, although Huerta has declared himself dic- tator, has dissolved the Congress, and had a new Con- gress elected. No end to the trouble has yet appeared, and the outcome, no one can foretell. 526. Regional Banks. — The new bill provides for banks to serve as centers for various regions of the country, which shall be able to draw on each other in time of need, thus equalizing the monetary condition of the country. SUMMARY An extra session of Congress was called to consider the pas- sage of a new tariff bill. The sixty-third Congress passed such a bill in December, 1913. President's messages were delivered in person. Trouble in Mexico has resulted in much discussion as to what stand the United States shoukl take in the matter. A new and important currency bill was passed. BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 383 CHAPTER XLIII THE UNITED STATES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 527. Extent of Territory. — In 1800 the United States was wholly east of the Mississippi River. Now it extends from ocean to ocean and from near the equator practically to the north pole. While the greater part of this territory lies in the north temperate zone, yet the United States pos- sesses a number of islands in the torrid zone, which produce every variety of tropical fruits. 528. Growth in a Century. — One hundred years ago the population of the United States was between five and six millions. Now it is over ninety-one millions. These figures show an increase of over eighteen hundred per cent. The area in 1800 was about eight hundred thousand square miles. The entire territory in 1910 was more than three million six hundred thousand square miles, a country greater than four times the original area, greater even than all the countries of Europe. Wealth has increased from one thousand million dollars to one hundred thousand million. Gold and silver coin in circulation has changed from sixteen million dollars to seven hundred and fifty millions. But the growth is most noticeable in the industries, pro- ductions and manufactures, exports and imports. At the beginning of the last century our annual imports were of the value of only a few million dollars, and now they are worth nearly two thousand millions. The exports were then less than fifty millions, and now they exceed tw^enty-six hundred millions. We had no railroads till almost the middle of the last century. Now the United States has 384 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY two hundred thousand miles of railroad, about one half of the mileage of the whole world. In 1792 there were about two hundred post-offices, now there are sixty thousand. 529. The Mississippi Valley. — The growth and develop- ment of the valley of the Mississippi, which extends from the Alleghenies to the Rocky Mountains, has been marvel- ous. Here are to-day more than twenty important states which contain fine agricultural soil and good means of transportation at slight cost because of the river. This great and fertile valley, of more than a million and a half square miles, has, at the beginning of this century, a population of about forty million, or more than one half of the number in the entire country. Here is our second city, Chicago, with a population of over two mil- lion. Here are our largest wheat and corn fields, rich copper and iron mines, coal fields and oil wells. It is difficult to realize that little more than a century ago there were but few white families in all this region. 530. The Pacific Slope. — Within the last century we have obtained on the Pacific slope new territory to the extent of more than a million square miles, and have organ- ized there seven states, which to-day have a population of over five million souls. This region has already be- come of immense value to our republic. Its gold and silver mines have been the source of great wealth. Within the last half century the mines of California have pro- duced fully fifteen hundred milUon dollars worth of gold. Fruit, wheat, lumber, and various other products are now exported from this section to all the states of the Union and to other countries. The foreign commerce has of late rapidly increased. 531. Irrigation. — Within the memory of persons now BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 385 living a large part of our western territory was marked on the maps as the '^ Great American Desert/' and the land was supposed to be worthless, capable of producing nothing but cactus and sage brush. Quite recently it has been dis- covered that this land, when fertilized by water from the mountains, is capable of producing immense crops. It has therefore come to pass that many thousands of acres of sandy plains, hitherto worthless, have become fertile. The country around Salt Lake City, in southern California, in Colorado, and other sections has been reclaimed and made valuable by this simple process of irrigation. Many believe that the fer- tilizing of barren land by this method has but just begun. 532. Immigration. — Civihzation has repeatedly been promoted by migrations. The settlements along the Atlantic shores were made by immigration from Europe, chiefly England. The peopling of the Mississippi Valley was done by immigrants, mostly from the Atlantic slope. In a similar way the Pacific coast was settled. Indeed, without important additions from foreign shores, the United States to-day would have a sparse population. The average number of persons to the square mile in Eng- land is about six hundred and fifty. The average of Europe is more than one hundred to the square mile. That for the whole world is thirty to the square mile. The average for the United States proper is twenty-five, which is less than the average of the whole world. Within the last eighty years we have received from European countries large additions to our population. For- eigners have been attracted to these shores by the Foreign free institutions, the fertility of the soil, the varied Popula- manufacturing establishments, and the high wages. •*^°^- To-day the United States has nearly, if not fully, ten millions who were born in foreign countries, but our system of free 386 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY schools is rapidly unifying all these diverse peoples.^ The future of the great republic will be immensely enriched by this mixture of races and peoples growing up together under the same government and by the aid of the same institutions. 533- Industries and Inventions. — In the broadening and the rapid increase of industries and in the amount and value of inventions the United States is far ahead of all other nations. Our patent ofhce has issued over a million and a quarter patents, of which more than thirty-five thousand have been granted in a single year. When we consider that the principal improvements in agriculture and the mechanic arts, in manufactures of all sorts, in methods of transportation and communication are due to patent devices, we may form some idea of the great utility of these inventions. No one can estimate fully the advantages that have been gained by the cotton gin, the steamboat, the railroad, by McCormick's reaper, by Howie's sewing-machine and its improvements, by Goodyear's vul- canized rubber, by Morse's telegraph and Bell's telephone; nor can one realize the time that has been saved by Hoe's cylinder press, by the typewriter, the type-setting machine, the bicycle, the automobile, and wireless telegraphy. 534- The Elevator. — The simple invention of the eleva- tor, called in England the lift, has done much to change the place and to improve the methods of doing business in our large towns. Formerly the first floor was the only I For more than forty years this influx of foreign population has been largely increased by the Homestead Act, which was passed by Congress in 1862. The Act provided that any citizen could settle on one hun- dred and sixty acres of public land and after living on it five years could own it by paying one dollar and a quarter an acre. This Act has proved of decided advantage in hastening the settlement of the great West. BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 387 desirable place for many kinds of business. Hence most business blocks were only three or four stories in height. Now, by means of the modern, improved elevator, buildings are erected, in the more compact parts of the great cities, from ten to twenty stories or even more in height, and for many kinds of business the upper stories are considered the best. This single and simple invention brings a larger share of the business within a small area in the denser portions of the cities. It has also decidedly raised the price of rents. 535. Trolley Cars. — Within a few years past electric- ity has been successfully appUed to the transaction of business in various directions. The use of the telephone is really something surprising. The Marconi wireless tele- graph is but just coming into use, but it has already convinced everybody of its reality and of its usefulness. The trolley car has made changes not dreamed of a few years ago. Rails have been laid and cars are running, not only along the streets of our large towns and cities, but from these centers out into the country in every direction. With cheap fares and stopping at frequent intervals, people who formerly lived in the cities can now live in the suburban sections, paying lower rents and enjoying country homes, instead of being confined in close quarters in the cities. 536. Education. — In the department of education the recent advancement has been more rapid than ever before. Money has been given in large sums and by many donors to colleges and professional schools. Public libraries and schools for the blind and deaf have been endowed. Since the Civil War a complete system of public schools for both the white and the black races has been established in the Southern states. The education of the negro has received much attention in both public and private schools. A large percentage of the colored race in the South can now read 388 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY and write, and their schools are rapidly improving. The common schools throughout the country have been sys- tematized and developed. Daily and weekly papers are far better than they were and are more widely read. Magazines and books have fully kept pace with the spirit of modern improvement. Many public-spirited Americans in the past have given generously to educational institutions and to various enter- prises for the public good. Notable among such givers are George Peabody, John F. Slater, and Peter Cooper. Today, no less, are men and women giving largely of their wealth for the good of the nation. 537' Labor and Capital. — Of late years the industries of the United States have been disturbed by conflicts between labor and capital. But the difficulties which have hereto- fore been experienced are gradually being adjusted, and we may hope before long to see a oneness of interests between the employers and the employees. American civilization will certainly show itself able to cope with all complicated questions, and to settle them on a higher and more just basis than has ever before prevailed. SUMMARY The United States has invaded the torrid zone and secured large island accessions. It has had a rapid growth in wealth and industries. It has half of the railroad mileage of the world. The growth of the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific slope has been rapid. Immigration has been important. Inventions have made great changes in our industries. Education has made rapid strides. Conflicts between labor and capital have increasedo APPENDICES APPENDIX A BIBLIOGRAPHY (The books marked by an asterisk (*) are especially adapted to the use of the younger readers.) Methods and Aids Barnes, M. S Studies in Historical Method, Heath. Bourne, H. E The Teaching of History and Civics in the Ele- mentary and Secondary Schools, Longmans. Channing and Hart Guide to the Study of American History, Ginn. Gordy and Twitchell A Pathfinder in American History, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. Hall, G. Stanley Methods of Teaching and Study in History, Heath. Hinsdale, B, A How to Teach and Study History, with par- ticular reference to the History of the United States, Appleton. New England History Teachers' Association. A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Heath. Sargent, J. F Reading for the Young, Library Bureau. The Study of History in Schools. Report of Committee of Seven to American Historical Association, Macmillan. World Almanac, New York. Original Documents and Sources Hart, A. B American History told by Contemporaries, 4 vol., Macmillan. Hart, A. B Source Book of American History, Macmillan. Hart and Channing American History Leaflets, Lovell. McDonald, W Select Charters, 1616-1775, Macmillan. McDonald, W Select Documents, 1776-1861, Macmillan. McDonald. W Select Statutes, 1861-1898, Macmillan. Mead, E. D Old South Leaflets, Heath. Preston, H. W Documents Illustrative of American History, Putnum. 3 4 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Maps Hart, A. B Epoch Maps, illustrating American History, Longmans. Hart and Channing Outline Maps of the United States, Heath. MacCoun, T An Historical Geography of the United States, Silver, Burdett. General Histories Bancroft, G A History of the United States, 6 vol., Appleton. *Bonner, J Child's History of the United States, 2 vol., Harper. Brigham, A. P Geographic Influences in American History, Ginn. *Bryant and Gay Popular History of the United States, 5 vol., Scribner. Eggleston, E A History of Life in the United States, Appleton. Elson, H. W History of the LTnited States of Americaj Macmillan. Frothingham, R The Rise of the Republic of the United States Little, Brown. Higginson, T, W Larger History of the United States, Harper. Hildreth, R A History of the United States, 6 vol., Harper. *Johonnot, J Stories of our Country, American Book Company. *Mowry, W. A. and A.M. .American Heroes and Heroism, Silver, Burdett. *Mowry,W. A. and A. M. .American Inventions and Inventors, Silver, Burdett. *Mowry, W. A. and B. S.. American Pioneers, Silver, Burdett. Winsor, J Narrative and Critical History of America, 8 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. THE COLONIAL PERIOD Histories Brooks, E. S The Story of the American Indian, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. *Chandler, J. A. C Makers of Virginia History, Silver, Burdett. *Coffin, C. C Old Times in the Colonies, Harper. Cooke, J. E Virginia (American Commonwealths), Houghton, Mifflin. Doyle, J. A English Colonies in America, 3 vol.. Holt. *Drake, S. A The Making of New England, Scribner. *Drake, S. A The Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies, Scribner. BIBLIOGRAPHY 5 Fisher, G. P The Colonial Era (American Historical Series) Scribner. Fiske, J Old Virginia and her Neighbors, 2 vol., Hough- ton, Mifflin. Fiske, J The Beginnings of New England, Houghton, Mifflin. Fiske, J The Discovery of America, 2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. Fiske, J The Dutch and Quaker Colonies, 2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. *Gilman, A Boston, Putnam. *Hale, E. E Stories of Discovery, Roberts. Higginson, T. W American Explorers, Longmans. Johnston, A History of Connecticut (American Common- wealths), Houghton, Mifflin. Lodge, H. C A Short History of the English Colonies, Harper. Markham, R King PhiUp's War, Dodd, Mead. Parkman, F French and English Colonies in America, 12 vol., Little, Brown. Parkman, F The Struggle for a Continent (edited by T. Edgar), Little, Brown. Roberts, E. H New York (American Commonwealths), Houghton, Mifflin. Roosevelt, T New York (Historic Towns), Longmans. *Scudder, H. E Boston Town, Houghton, Mifflin. Sloane, W. M The French War and the Revolution (American Historical Series), Scribner. Thwaites, R. G The Colonies (Epochs of American History), Longmans. Weeden, W. B Economic and Social History of New England, 2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. Biography *Higginson, T. W Book of American Explorers, Lothrop, Lee cfc Shepard. Janney, S. M The Life of Sir William Penn, Friends^ Book Association. Sedgwick, H. D Samuel de Champlain (Riverside Biographies), Houghton, Mifflin. Sparks, J Library of American Biography, 25 vol., Little, Brown. Thwaites, R. G Father Marquette, Appleton. 6 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY *Towle, G. M Drake, the Sea King of Devon, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. *Towle, G. M Sir Walter Raleigh, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. Tuckerman, B Peter Stuyvesant (Makers of America), Dodd, Mead. Twichell, J. H Life of Winthrop (Makers of America), Dodd, Mead. Walker, G. L Thomas Hooker (Makers of America), Dodd, Mead. Warner, C. D. , Captain John Smith (American Worthies), Putnam . Winsor, J Christopher Columbus, Houghton, Mifflin. Fiction *Austin, J. G A Nameless Nobleman (Plymouth). *Austin, J: G Betty Alden (Plymouth). *Austin, J. G Dr. Le Baron and his Daughters (Plymouth) *Austin, J. G Standish of Standish (Plymouth). *Brooks, E. S In Leisler's Times (New York). Catherwood, M. H Mackinac and Lake Stories. Cooke, J. E My Lady Pocahontas (Virginia). Cooke, J. E Stories of the Old Dominion (Virginia). Cooper, J. F Leather Stocking Tales (1750-1800). *Drake, S. A New England Legends and Folk Lore. * Faith White's Letter Book (New England). *Hawthorne, N Grandfather's Chair (New England). *Hawthorne, N Legends of the Province House (Boston). *Hawthorne, N Twice Told Tales (New England). Holland, J. G Bay Path (Witchcraft). Irving, W Knickerbocker History of New York. Johnston, M To Have and to Hold (Virginia). *Kellogg, E Good Old Times (Maine). Major, C Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (Virginia). *Markham, R Colonial Days. Simms, W. G Vasconselos (De Soto). *Thompson, D. P Green Mountain Boys (Vennont). Thackeray, W. M The Virginians. THE REVOLUTION Histories *Abbott, W. J Blue Jackets of 76, Dodd, Mead. Carrington, H. B Battles of the American Revolution, Barnes. - BIBLIOGRAPHY 7 *Coffin, C. C Boys of 76, Harper. *Cooke, J. E Stories of the Old Dominion, Harper. *Drake, S. A Burgoyne's Invasion, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. Fiske, J The American Revolution, 2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. Lodge, H. C The Story of the American Revolution, 2 vol., Scribner. Lossing, B. J Field Book of the Revolution, 2 vol.. Harper. Preble, G. H History of the Flag of the United States, Houghton, Mifflin. Roosevelt, T Winning the West, Putnam. Sloane, W. M The French War and the Revolution (American Historical Series), Scribner. * Watson, H. C Boston Tea Party, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. Biography Butterfield, C. W History of the George Rogers Clark Conquest, (Ohio Historical Society) . Ford, P. L The Many-sided Franklin, Century. Greene, F. V General Greene (Great Commanders), Appleton. Hosmer, J. K Samuel Adams (American Statesmen), Hough- — ton, Mifflin. Lodge, H. C George Washington (American Statesmen), Houghton, Mifflin. Lossing, B. J Mary and Martha Washington, Harper. *Mayhew, H Young Benjamin Franklin, Harper. *Scudder, H. E George Washington, Houghton, Mifflin. Thwaites, R. G Daniel Boone, Appleton. Tyler, M. C Patrick Henry (American Statesmen), Hough- ton, Mifflin. Fiction Catherwood, M. H Old Kaskaskia. Churchill, W The Crossing. Cooper, J. F The Pilot. Cooper, J. F The Spy. Ellis, E. S Wyoming. *Harte, B Thankful Blossom. *Henty, G. A True to the Flag. Kennedy, J. P Horse Shoe Robinson. Simms, W. G American Spy. 8 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Simms, W. G The Partisan. Thompson, D. P The Rangers. Thompson, M AHce of Old Vincennes. THE NATION Histories Adams, H History of the United States, 1801-1817, 9 vol., Scribner. *Abbott, W. J Blue Jackets of 1812, Dodd, Mead. *Black, A The Story of Ohio, Lothrop. Bryce, J American Commonwealth, 2 vol., Macmillan. Burgess, J. W The Middle Period (American History Series), Scribner. *Coffin, C. C Building the Nation, Harper. *Dole, C. F The American Citizen, Heath. Dunn, J. P Indiana (American Commonwealths), Houghton, Mifflin. Ellet, E. F Pioneer Women of the West, Coates. Fiske, J The Critical Period of American History, 2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. Hart, A. B Formation of the Union (Epochs of American History), Longmans. Hinsdale, B. A Old Northwest, Silver, Burdett. Hopkins, C. T Manual of American Ideas, Heath. Hosmer, J. K Short History of the Mississippi Valley, Hough- ton, Mifflin. Hosmer, J. K The Louisiana Purchase, Appleton. Irving, W Astoria, Alden. Johnson, W. F A Century of Expansion, Macmillan. Johnston, A History of American Politics, Holt. King, R Ohio (American Commonwealths), Houghton, Mifflin. MacMaster, J. B History of the People of the United States 6 vol., Appleton. *Mowry, W. A Elements of Civil Government, Silver, Burdett. Mowry, W. A Studies in Civil Government, Silver, Burdett. Mowry, W. A Territorial Growth of the United States, Silver, Burdett. Royce, J California (American Commonwealths), Hough- ton, Mifflin. Schouler, J History of the United States under the Con- stitution, 6 vol., Dodd, Mead. BIBLIOGRAPHY 9 Schuyler, E American Diplomacy, Scrihner. *Scudder, H. E Men and Manners in America, Scribner. Shaler, N. S Kentucky (American Commonwealths), Hough- ton, Mifflin. *Sparks, E. E Men who Made the Nation, Macmillan. Sparks, E. E The Expansion of the American People, Scott, Foresman. Spring, L. W Kansas (American Commonwealths), Houghton, Mifflin. Thorpe, F. N The Constitutional History of the United States, Harper. *Towle, G. M Heroes and Martyrs of Invention, Lothrop, Lee <& Shepard. Walker, F. A The Making of the Nation (American History Series), Scribner. Biography *Bowne, E. S A Girl's Life Eighty Years Ago, Scribner. Brady, C. T Stephen Decatur (Beacon Biographies), Howe. Bruce, H General Houston (Makers of America), Dodd, Mead. Gay, S. H James Madison, 2 vol. (American Statesmen), Houghton, Mifflin. *Larcom, L A New England Girlhood, Houghton, Mifflin. Leighton, W. R Lewis and Clark (Riverside Biographies), Houghton, Mifflin. Lodge, H. C Alexander Hamilton (American Statesmen), Houghton, Mifflin. Lodge, H. C Daniel Webster (American Statesmen), Hough- ton, Mifflin. Morse, J. T John Adams, Houghton, Mifflin. Morse, J. T John Quincy Adams, Houghton, Mifflin. Morse, J. T Thomas Jefferson, Houghton, Mifflin. Shurtz, C Henry Clay, 2 vol., Houghton, Mifflin. Sumner, W. G Alexander Hamilton (Makers of America), Dodd, Mead. Sumner, W. G Andrew Jackson (American Statesmen), Hough- ton, Mifflin. Von Hoist, H John C. Calhoun, Houghton, Mifflin. 10 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Fiction Atherton, G The Conquest (Hamilton). Bynner, E. L Zachary Phips (Burr's Treason). Craddock, C. E Prophet of Great Smoky Mountain (Tennessee). (M. N. Murfree). Eggleston, E Hoosier Schoolboy. Eggleston, E Hoosier Schoolmaster. Hale, E. E Philip Nolan's Friends (Louisiana Purchase). *Hale, E. E The Man without a Country (Burr's Treason). Jackson, H. H Ramona (Indians). THE CIVIL WAR AND SUBSEQUENT PERIOD Histories * Abbott, W. J Blue Jackets of '61, Dodd, Mead. *Abbott, W. J The Battlefields of '61, Dodd, Mead. Andrews, E. B . .The Last Quarter of a Century, 2 vol., Scrihner. Andrews, E. B The United States in our own Times, Scribner. *Blaisdell, A. F Stories of the Civil War, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. *Brooks, E. S Story of our War with Spain, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. Brooks, N Washington in Lincoln's Time, Century. Burgess, J. W The Civil W^ar and the Constitution, 2 vol. (American History Series), Scribner. *Champlin, J. D. J Young Folks' History of the War for the Union, Holt. *Coffin, C. C .Boys of '61, Harper. *Coffin, C. C Marching to Victory, Harper. Custer, G. A Boots and Saddle, Harper. Custer, G. A Tenting on the Plains, Webster. Dodge, T. A Bird's-Eye View of our Civil War, Houghton, Mifflin. Draper, A. S The Rescue of Cuba, Silver, Burdett. Dunning, W. A Civil War and Reconstruction, Macmillan. Eggleston, G. C A Rebel's Recollections, Pidnam. Gordon, J. B Reminiscences of the Civil War, Scribner. Greeley, H The American Conflict, 2 vol.. Case. Campaigns of the Civil War, 13 vol., Scribner. *Kieffer, H. M Recollections of a Drummer Boy, Houghton, Mifflin. Longstreet, J. . . . , From Manassas to Appomattox, Lippincott. Rhodes, J. H History of the United States from the Com- promise of 1850, 5 vol.. Harper. BIBLIOGRAPHY 11 Roosevelt, T The Rough Riders, Scribner. *Soley, J. R Sailor Boys of '61, Dana Estes. *Twombley, A. S Hawaii and its People, Silver, Burdett. Wilson, W Division and Reunion (Epochs of American History), Longmans. Biography Barnes, J David G. Farragut (Beacon Biographies), Howe. Cooke, J. E Life of General R. E. Lee, Appleton. Grant, U. S Personal Memoirs, 2 vol., Webster. *Headley, P. C Fighting Phil, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. Nicolay and Hay Life of Abraham Lincoln, 10 vol.. Century. Morse, J. T Abraham Lincoln, 2 vol. (American Statesmen), Houghton, Mifjiin. Randolph, S. N Life of Stonewall Jackson, Lippincott. Sheridan, P Memoirs, Webster. Sherman, W. T Memoirs, Webster. *Stratemyer, E Boys' Life of William McKinley, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. *Stratemyer, E Boys' Life of Theodore Roosevelt, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard. Washington, B. T Up from Slavery, Doubleday, Page. Wister, O Ulysses S. Grant (Beacon Biographies), Howe. Fiction Churchill, W The Crisis. *Coffin, C. C Winning his W^ay. *Page, T.N Two Little Confederates. *Thomas, M. M Captain Phil. Stoddard, W. O The Boy Lincoln. *Trowbridge, J. T Cudjo's Cave. *Trowbridge, J. T Three Scouts. APPENDIX B CHRONOLOGY From the Year One Thousand 1000. Voyage of Norsemen to America. 1453. Constantinople captured by the Turks. 1487. Diaz reaches Cape of Good Hope. 1492. Columbus discovers San Salvador, August 12. 1493. Pope Alexander VI divides the unexplored world. 1497. Vasco da Gama reaches India. John Cabot discovers North America, June. First vogaye of Amerigo Vespucci. 1498. Second voyage of John Cabot. Columbus reaches South America, August. 1499. Second voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. 1507. The new world called America by Waldseemiiller. 1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 1522. Sebastian del Cano completes first voyage around the world. 1524. Voyage of Verrazzano. 1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier. 1540. Second voyage of Jacques Cartier. 1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 1562. French settlement at Port Royal. 1563. Hawkins carries first slaves to West Indies. 1564. Fort Caroline built. 1565. St. Augustine founded. 1568. De Gourgues massacres the Spaniards. 1576. First voyage of Martin Frobisher. 1578. Frobisher attempts to colonize Labrador. 1580. Sir Francis Drake completes voyage around the world. 1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert attempts to colonize Newfoundland. 1584. Enghsh explore Virginia. 1585. Raleigh sends colony to Roanoke Island, 1587. Raleigh sends second colony to Ameri/^a. 12 CHRONOLOGY 13 The Seventeenth Century. 1605. Santa Fe founded by Spaniards. 1606. London and Plymouth companies formed. 1607. Settlement at Jamestown, May 13. 1608. Scrooby Pilgrims move to Holland. Champlain founds Quebec, July. 1609. Henry Hudson explores the Hudson River. Champlain explores Lake Champlain. 1610. Hudson discovers Hudson Bay. 1612. Cultivation of tobacco begun in Virginia. 1615. Champlain reaches Lake Huron. 1619. First slaves brought to Virginia. First assembly of House of Burgesses, July. 1620. Settlement at Plymouth, December 21. 1623. Dutch settle at Manhattan. Settlements at Dover and Portsmouth. Lord Baltimore attempts to colonize Newfoundland. Fishing settlement at Cape Ann. 1624. Virginia becomes a royal colony. 1625. Jesuits arrive in Canada. 1626. Roger Conant settles at Naumkeag. Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island. 1628. John Endicott arrives at Salem. Lord Baltimore visits Virginia. 1629. Charter granted to Company of Massachusetts Bay. 1630. Settlement at Boston, August. 1632. Maryland granted to Cecil Calvert. 1634. Settlement at St. Mary's, March. 1635-6. Settlements at Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford. 1636. Settlement at Providence. Harvard College founded. 1637. Pequot war. 1638. Swedes settle Delaware. Settlement at Newport. Settlement at New Haven. 1639. Connecticut Constitution adopted. 1643. New England Union formed. New Hampshire joined to Massachusetts. 1644. Union of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 1647. Peter Stuyvesant becomes governor of New Netherland. Free School Act passed in Massachusetts. 1649. Baltimore frames the Toleration Act, April 14 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1651. First Navigation Act passed. 1653. Settlement at Albemarle. Settlement at Clarendon. 1655. Dutch conquer New Sweden. 1659. Quakers hanged on Boston Common. 1663. Ehot's Bible published. Carolina given to eight proprietors. Navigation Acts destroy New England commerce. 1664. New Netherland conquered by the English, September. New Jersey granted to Carteret and Berkeley, 1665. Settlement at Elizabethtown. New Haven and Connecticut united. 1670. Settlement at Charleston. 1673. Marquette and Joliet explore the Mississippi. 1674. New Jersey divided. 1675-6. King Philip's war. 1676. Bacon's rebellion. 1679. New Hampshire made a royal province. 1681. Pennsylvania granted to William Penn. 1682. Philadelphia founded. La Salle reaches the mouth of the Mississippi. 1684. Massachusetts charter annulled. La Salle attempts to colonize Louisiana. 1686. Sir Edmund Andros becomes governor of New England. 1687. Andros demands Connecticut charter. 1689. Restoration of Massachusetts charter. King William's w^ar begun. 1692. Massachusetts becomes a royal colony. 1693. William and Mary College opened. 1695. Settlement at Kaskaskia. 1697. King William's war closed by treaty of Ryswick. 1699. Settlement at Biloxi. 1700. Yale College founded. The Eighteenth Century. 1702. New Jersey becomes a royal province. Queen Anne's war begun. 1705. Settlement at Vincennes. 1713. Queen Anne's war ended by treaty of Utrecht. 1718. Settlement at New Orleans. 1729. North and South Carolina divided. 1733. Settlement at Savannah, February. 1738. Princeton College founded. CHRONOLOGY 15 1744. King George's war begun. 1748. King George's war ended by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Ohio C.ompany formed. 1749. Frencli take possession of Ohio Valley. 1750. First expedition of Ohio Company. 1752. Georgia becomes royal province. 1754. Battle at Fort Duquesne. French and Indian war begun. Meeting of Albany Convention, June. 1755. Braddock's defeat, July. 1756. War declared. 1757. William Pitt becomes Secretary for Foreign Affairs. 1758. Battle of Ticonderoga, July. Capture of Louisburg, July. Capture of Fort Duquesne, November. 1759. Capture of Fort Niagara, July. Capture of Ticonderoga, July. Battle of the Plains of Abraham, September 13. Surrender of Quebec, September 18. 1763. French and Indian war closed by treaty of Paris, February. 1765. Parliament passes the Stamp Act, March. 1766. Stamp Act repealed. 1767. Parliament taxes tea, ^tc. 1768. British troops arrive in Boston, 1770. Boston Massacre, March 5. Parliament removes taxes except on tea. 1772. Burning of the Gaspee, June 9. 1773. Boston Tea Party, December 16. 1774. First Continental Congress, September 5. Burning of the Peggy Stewart, October. First settlement in Kentucky. Parliament passes Quebec Act. 1775. Salem resists British soldiers, February 26. Battle of Lexington and Concord, April 19. Mecklenburg declaration of independence. May 31. Congress elects commander-in-chief of army, June 15. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. Washington assumes command of army, July 3. 1776. Washington fortifies Dorchester Heights, March. British evacuate Boston, March 17. Rhode Island declares independence, May. Declaration of Independence, July 4. Battle of Long Island, August 27. 16 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1776. Battle of White Plains, October 28. Surrender of Fort Washington, November 17« Battle of Trenton, December 26. 1777. Battle of Princeton, January 3. Burgoyne captures Ticonderoga, July 6. Capture of General Prescott, July 20. Howe sails for Philadelphia, July 23. Battle of Bennington, August 16. Battle of the Brandy wine, September 11. Battle of Freeman's Farm (Stillwater), September 19. Philadelphia occupied by British, September 26. Battle of Germantown, October 4. Battle of Bemis's Heights, October 7. Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17. 1777-8. Winter quarters at Valley Forge. 1778. Treaty of alliance with France, February 6. British evacuate Philadelphia, June 18. Battle of Monmouth, June 28. Clarke captures Kaskaskia. British capture Savannah, December 29. 1779. Vincennes captured, February 24. Capture of Stony Point, July 16. Capture of Paulus Hook, August 19. Paul Jones captures the Serapis, September 23. 1780. Clinton overruns the South. Battle of Camden, August 16. Arnold's treason, September. Death of Andre, October 2. Battle of King's Mountain, October 7. 1781. Battle of Cowpens, January 17. Articles of Confederation go into effect, March. Battle of Guilford Court-house, March 15. Battle of Hobkirk Hill, April 25. New London burned, September 6. Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8. Siege of Yorktown, October. Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19. 1782. Provisional treaty of peace, November 30. 1783. Treaty of peace, September 3. 1787 .Convention to revise Articles of Confederation, May. Northwest Territory organized. Constitution of the United States signed, September 17c 1788. Settlement at Marietta. CHRONOLOGY 17 1788. Constitution ratified by ninth State, June. 1789. Washington inaugurated President, April 30. 1790. The first census. Cotton goods first manufactured by ma,chinery. Rhode Island ratifies the Constitution. 1791. First bank of the United States estabHshed. Vermont admitted to Union. First ten amendments to Constitution. 1792. Captain Grey discovers the Columbia River. Kentucky admitted. 1793. Washington issues neutrality proclamation. Cotton-gin invented. Corner-stone of Capitol laid at Washington. 1795. Jay's treaty ratified. Treaty with Spain securing free navigation of the Mississippi. 1796. Tennessee admitted. 1797. John Adams inaugurated, March 4. Difficulties with France. 1798. Alien and Sedition Laws. Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. 1799. Death of Washington, December 14. 1800. Treaty with France. Congress meets in Washington. The Nineteenth Century. 1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated. War with Tripoli. 1802. Ohio admitted. 1803. Twelfth amendment to Constitution ratified. Purchase of Louisiana. 1804-6. Lewis and Clark explore the Columbia River to the Pacific 1804. Death of Alexander Hamilton. 1805. Peace with Tripoli. 1806. Burr's conspiracy. 1807. British ship fires upon the Chesapeake. Invention of steamboat. Embargo Act, December. 1808. Slave trade prohibited. 1809. Non-intercourse Act, February. James Madison inaugurated. 1811. Settlement at Astoria. Battle between the Little Belt and the President, May. Battle of Tippecanoe, November. 18 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1812. Louisiana admitted. War with Great Britain declared, June. Battle between the Constitution and the Gucrriere, August. Battle between the Wasp and the Frolic, October. Battle between the United States and the Macedonian, October. Battle between the Constitution and the Java, December. Capture of the Chesapeake, June. Massacre at Fort Mims, August. Battle of Lake Erie, September. 1814. Washington burned, August. Battle of Lake Champlain, September. Attack of Fort McHenry, September. The Hartford Convention, December. Treaty of peace, December. 1815. Battle of New^ Orleans, January. 1816. Second United States bank chartered. Indiana admitted. 1817. James Monroe inaugurated. Mississippi admitted. 1818. Seminole war. Illinois admitted. 1819. Purchase of Florida. Alabama admitted. 1820. Maine admitted. Missouri Compromise. First pair of rubber shoes brought from BraziL 1821. Missouri admitted. 1823. The Monroe Doctrine. 1824. New protective tariff. 1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated. Erie Canal completed. 1826. American Society for the Promotion of Temperance formed. Deaths of Jefferson and Adams, July 4. 1828. Tariff of Abominations. 1829. Andrew Jackson inaugurated. Beginning of the "Spoils System." First steam railroad. 1830. Webster-Hayne debate. 1831. Invention of reaping machine (patented 1834). 1832. New protective tariff. Ordinance of nullification, November. Revenue Collection bill. 1833. CamDromise tariff. CHRONOLOGY 19 1833. Removal of bank deposits. 1836. Invention of friction matches. Anthracite coal used. Texas declares independence. Arkansas admitted. 1837. Michigan admitted. Martin Van Buren inaugurated. Financial panic. 1838. Cherokees removed. Gag Law passed. 1840. Washington ian Temperance Society formed. Sub-treasuries established. Beginning of European immigration. 1841. William Henry Harrison inaugurated. Death of Harrison, April. 1842. Webster-Ashburton treaty, August. Dorr rebellion. 1843. Immigration to Oregon. 1844. First electric telegraph. Vulcanized rubber invented. 1845. Florida admitted. Annexation of Texas. James K. Polk inaugurated. 1846. Ether used in surgical operations. Sewing-machine invented. Oregon treaty. Iowa admitted. Battle of Palo Alto, May. Mexican war declared, May. . Conquest of California. Capture of New Mexico. Wilmot proviso defeated. Capture of Monterey. 1847. Postage stamps adopted. Battle of Buena Vista, February. Battle of Vera Cruz, March. Capture of Mexico, September. 1848. Gold discovered in California. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February. Wisconsin admitted. 1849. Zachary Taylor inaugurated. 1850. Webster's speech, March. Clayton-Bulwer treaty, April. 20 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1S50. Death of President Taylor, July. Compromise of 1850, September. California admitted. Fugitive slave law. 1851. Postal rates reduced. 1852. Franklin Pierce inaugurated. 1853. World's Fair at New York. Commodore Perry in Japan. Gadsden purchase. 1854. Treaty with Japan. Kansas-Nebraska bill. Civil war in Kansas. 1856. Formation of Republican party. Assault on Charles Sumner. 1857. James Buchanan inaugurated. Dred Scott decision. First Atlantic cable. 1858. Minnesota admitted. Lincoln-Douglas debates. 1859. Oregon admitted. First profitable oil well sunk. John Brown's raid, October. 1860. Abraham Lincoln elected. South Carolina secedes, December 20. 1861. Six Southern States secede, January. Confederate States of America formed, February. Kansas admitted. 1861. Abraham Lincoln inaugurated, March 4. Fort Sumter evacuated, April 14. Call for troops issued, April 15. Mob at Baltimore, April 19. Four more States secede. Great Britain recognizes Confederate States as belligerents, May. Battle of Bull Run, July 21. Battle of Wilson's Creek, August 10. Capture of Fort Hatteras, August 29. Battle of Ball's Bluff, October 21. Capture of Port Royal, November 7. The Trent Affair, November 8. 1862. Capture of Fort Henry, February 6. Capture of Roanoke Island, February 8. ' Capture of Bowling Green, February 8. Capture of Fort Donelson, February 16. CHRONOLOGY 21 1862. Battle between the Merrimac and the Monitor, March 9. Capture of New Madrid, March 13. Battle of Shiloh, April 6, 7. Capture of Island No. 10, April 8. Capture of Fort Pulaksi, April 11. Capture of New Orleans, April 25. Capture of Yorktown, May 4. Battle of Williamsburg, May 5. Capture of Fort Pillow, June 4. Jackson's raid, June. Seven Days' Battles, June 25- July 1. Second Battle of Bull Run, August 29, 30. Battle of South Mountain, September 14. Capture of Harper's Ferry, September 15. Battle of Antietam, September 17. Battle of luka, September 19, 20. Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, September 22. Battle of Corinth, October 3, 4. Battle of Perry ville, October 8. Battle of Fredericksburg, December I'd. 1863. Emancipation Proclamation, January 1. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 3. West Virginia admitted, June. Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3. Capture of Vicksburg, July 4. Capture of Port Hudson, July 9. Battle of Chickamauga, September 19, 20. Battle of Chattanooga, November 23-25. 1864. Grant made lieutenant-general, March. Battles of the Wilderness, May 5-7. Battle of Dalton, May 9. Battle of Resaca, May 13-16. Battle of Dallas, May 25- June 4. Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, June 9-30. Battle between the Kearsage and Alabama, June 19. Battle of Mobile Bay, August 5-23. Capture of the Georgia August. Capture of Atlanta, September 2. Battle of Winchester, September 19. Battle of Fisher Hill, September 22. Battle of Cedar Creek, October 19. Nevada admitted, November. Sherman begins march to the sea, November 12. 22 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1864. Battle of Franklin, November 30. Battle of Nashville, December 15, 16. Capture of Savannah, December 21. 1865. Battle of Five Forks, April 1. Petersburg captured, April 2. Fall of Richmond, April 3. Lee surrenders at Appomattox, April 9. Flag raised over Sumter, April 14. Death of President Lincoln, April 15. Johnston surrenders, April 26. Taylor surrenders, May 4. Capture of Jefferson Davis, May 11. Review of Union armies, May 23, 24. Thirteenth amendment ratified, December 18= 1866. Atlantic cable completed, July 27. 1867. Alaska purchased, March. Nebraska admitted. 1868. Impeachment of President Johnson. Fourteenth amendment ratified. Treaty with China. 1869. Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated. Pacific railroad completed. May 10. 1870. Fifteenth amendment ratified. Weather Bureau established. 1871. Treaty of Washington, May 8. Chicago fire, October. 1872. Geneva awards, September. Boston fire, November. Modoc war. 1873. Beginning of business depression. 1875. Postal cards first used. 1876. Opening of Centennial Exhibition, May. Sioux war. Invention of the telephone. Colorado admitted, August. 1877. Electoral Commission, February. Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated. United States troops withdrawn from the South. 1878. Bland-Allison Act passed. 1879. Resumption of specie payments, January. Mississippi jetties completed. 1881. James A. Garfield inaugurated, March. Death of President Garfield, September 19. CHRONOLOGY 23 1882. Anti-polygamy bill passed. 1883. Pendleton Civil Service bill passed, January. Postal rates reduced. Railroad time adopted. 1885. Grover Cleveland inaugurated. 1886. Presidential Succession bill passed. Anarchist riots in Chicago. Statue of Liberty presented by France. 1887. Interstate Commerce Act. Electoral Count bill. 1888. Chinese Expulsion Act. 1889. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated. Oklahoma territory opened. South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, and Washington admitted. 1889-90. Pan-American Congress. 1890. Idaho and Wyoming admitted. Sherman Silver law. Difficulties with Italy and Chile. 1891. International Coypright Act. 1892. Homestead strike. Australian ballot adopted. Naval parade, October 12. 1893. Hawaiian revolution, January. Grover Cleveland inaugurated, March. Columbian World's Fair opened. May. Bering Sea decision, August. Business panic. 1894. Railroad strike. 1897. William McKinley inaugurated, March. 1898. The Maine blown up in Havana, February 15. War declared with Spain, April 25. Battle of Manila, May 1. Merrimac sunk at Santiago, June 3. Destruction of Cervera's fleet, July 3. Hawaiian Islands annexed, July 7. Surrender of Santiago, July 17. Porto Rican campaign. Surrender of Manila, August 13. 1899. Treaty of peace ratified, February 6. Philippine insurrection. 1900. Treaty of Berlin ratified, January. Hawaii becomes a territory, April. Hague Peace Conference, May. 24 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1900. Chinese insurrection, June. President McKinley reelected, Noveml)er. 1901. Aguinaldo captured, March. Pan-American Exposition, May 20. President McKinley assassinated, September 6. Theodore Roosevelt takes oath of office, September 14. Hay-Pauncefote treaty, December 16. 1902. Prince Henry visits the United States. Beginning of anthracite coal workers' strike. May 15. Cuba becomes an independent republic. May 20. " Pius Fund " decision rendered, October 14. 1903. Department of Commerce and Labor created, February 14. Spooner bill authorizing President to buy Panama canal route. Completion of Pacific cable, July 4. Alaskan boundary award, October 20. End of the coal miners' strike, Oct. 24. Revolt of Panama, Nov. 3. Commercial treaty with China, December 18. 1904. Treaty with Panama ratified by the Senate, February 23. Cuban reciprocity treaty ratified, March 22. Louisiana Purchase Exposition opened, April 30. 1905. Supreme Court declares the beef trust illegal, January 30. President Roosevelt inaugurated, March 4. Treaty of Portsmouth, September 5. 1906. Earthquake and fire destroy most of San Francisco, April 18-19. United States intervenes in government of Cuba, October 12. 1907. Jamestown Tercentenary Exposition opened, April 26. Philippine assembly opened by Secretary Taft, October 16. Oklahoma admitted as a State, November 16. American battleship fleet departs on trip around the world, Dec. 16. 1908. Conference of governors for conservation of resources, May 13-15. 1909. William H. Taft inaugurated, March 4. Discovery of North Pole, April 16. Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition opened, June 1. Payne Tariff bill passed, August 5. 1910. Treaty with Japan. Postal savings banks. Thirteenth Census. Pure food law. 1911. Appalachian forest preserve. Bill providing for fortifying Panama Canal. 1912. Admission of Arizona and New Mexico. 1913. Parcel Post, January 1. Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments ratified. Woodrow Wilson inaugurated, March 4. New tariff. New currency bill. APPENDIX C THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress, July 4, 1776. A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF TITE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organ- ising its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- tomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity that constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is 25 26 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, un- comfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our jjeople and eat out their substance. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 27 to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states ; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; For imposing taxes on us without our consent; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences ; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing there an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives ^f our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeav- ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to ])e the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 28 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legis- lature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation; and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare : — That these united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. APPENDIX D THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, estabhsh Justice, insure domestic TranquilHty, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves aikl our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I [Note. — The small figures in brackets are not in the original, but have been added subsequently, to mark the different clauses in a section. In reprinting the Constitution here, the spelling, punctuation, and capitalization of the original have been preserved.] Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. ^^^ The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. ^^^ No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. ^^^ Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, 29 30 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every Thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massa- chusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Con- necticut five, New-York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. f^^ When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. ^^^ The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section 3. ^^^ The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. t^l Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of f.he first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expi- ration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legis- lature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. f^^ No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. ^^^ The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. f^^ The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. ^^^ The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 31 shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- rence of two thirds of the Members present. ^"^^ Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and Disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honour, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. Section 4. ^^^ The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the places of chusing Senators. f^^ The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section 5. ^^^ Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. ^^^ Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. t^^ Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. ^^^ Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section 6. ^^^ The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, ex- cept Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or de- bate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 32 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ^^^ No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emolu- ments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Membei of either House during his Continuance in Office. Section 7. '•^^ All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. f^^ Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. f^^ Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have Power ^^^ To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; ^^^ To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 33 ^'^^ To regulate Commerce with foi*eign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; ^^^ To estabhsh an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; ^^^ To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; » f^'^ To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States; ^^^ To establish Post Offices and post Roads; f^^ To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; f^^ To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; '•^^^ To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; f^^^ To declare War, grant letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; ^^'^^ To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; ^^^^ To provide and maintain a Navy; f^^^ To make Rules for ^:he Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces; ^^^^ To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; [16] 'Yq provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the Discipline prescribed by Congress; ^^^^ To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legis- lature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And ^^^^ To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers 34 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Section 9. ^^^ The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight,, but a Tax or Duty may be imposed on sucli Im- portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. f"^ The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may 'require it. f^l No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. ^"^^ No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Pro- portion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. f^^ No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. ^^^ No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obhged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. f^ No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- lished from time to time. t^^ No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolu- ment, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Section 10. ^^^ No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. ^^^ No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be abso- lutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 35 and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. ^^^ No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of Delay. ARTICLE II Section 1. ^^^ The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows f^^ Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. * ^^^ The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority and have an equal number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote ; a Quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members *This clause has been superseded by the 12th amendment, see page 42 36 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the Presi- dent, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. [^^ The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. [5] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. f^^ In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officei shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. t^^ The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the U^nited States, or any of them. f^^ Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation : — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. f^^ The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 37 Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. ^^^ He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. ^^1 The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- ation such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other pubHc Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the officers of the United States. Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Mis- demeanors. ARTICLE III Section L The Judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section 2. ^^^ The Judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law 38 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY and Equity; arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- ity; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls ; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Partj^ ; — to Controversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State; — between Citizens of different States, — oetween Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. f^^ In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before men- tioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. f^^ The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section 3. ^^^ Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. ^^^ The Congress . shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. ARTICLE IV Section 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records, and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2. ^^^ The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. ^'^^ A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 39 Crime, who shall flee iroin Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. ■•^^ No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section 3. ^^^ New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislature of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. ^^^ The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion, and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. ARTICLE V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Con- stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. 40 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ARTICLE VI f^l All Debts contraotcd and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. f^l This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstan ding. f^l The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States, ARTICLE VII The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. Articles in Addition to, and Amendment of, the Con- stitution OF THE United States of America, Proposed by Congress, and ratified hy the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution ARTICLE I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 41 ARTICLE III No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infa- mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a w^itness against himself, nor be deprived of fife, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have Compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favour, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 42 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ARTICLE VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- tively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. ARTICLE XII The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 43 by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. — The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in 44 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crimes, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the pro- portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens, twenty-one years of age, in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Con- gress, or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitu- tion of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebel- lion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each house remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the pubHc debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur- rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XVI The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 45 ARTICLE XVII The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. APPENDIX E LINCOLN'S ADDRESS AT GETTYSBURG The short address made by President Lincoln, November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the National Cemetery on the battlefield of Gettysburg, has become a classic, and is justly entitled to be ranked as one of the choicest gems of literature in the English language. It embodies in brief the philosophy of the whole great struggle. Various reports have been made as to how, when, and under what circumstances the President wrote the address. In the note of invi- tation to the President, written November 2 by the master of cere- monies, occurs this sentence: " It is the desire that, after the oration, you, as Chief Executive of the Nation, formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use by a few appropriate remarks." It was probable, therefore, that the President had given some thought to the subject before the day arrived, but there is conclusive evidence that the words of the address were not written out mitil after the Presidential party had arrived upon the ground. The following account of the writing of the address was received directly from the lips of ex-Governor Curtin, of Pennsylvania, who was present on the occasion and knew whereof he affirmed. Governor 46 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Curtin said that after the arrival of the party from Washington, while the President and his Cabinet, Edward Everett, the orator of the day, Governor Curtin, and others were sitting in the parlor of the hotel, the President remarked that he understood the committee expected him to say something and that he would, therefore, if they would excuse him, retire to the next room and see if he could write out something. He was absent some time, and upon returning to the company had in his hand a large-sized yellow government envelope. The President sat down and remarked that he had written something, and with their permission he would like to read it to them, and invited them to criticise it. After reading what he had written upon the envelope, he asked for any suggestions they might make. Secretary Seward volunteered one or two comments, which Mr. Lincoln accepted and incorporated. Then he said, " Now, gentlemen, if you will excuse me again, I will copy this off," and retiring again made a fresh copy to read from. " Ah! " said Governor Curtin, " if I had begged that yellow envelope, which contained the original draft of ^this justly famous speech, how valuable it would have proved for the fairs which were, soon after, the order of the day." The following is a complete copy of this famous address : — " Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so con- ceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remem- ber, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion COLONIAL POSSESSIONS 47 to that cause for which they ga\'e the last full measure of devotion, — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." APPENDIX F COLONIAL POSSESSIONS Akea in SQUARE MILES. Population, 1910. Largest city. Philippine Islands Porto Rico Islands of Guam, Samoa and the Canal Zone Persons in military and naval service stationed abroad 127,853* 3,676 275* 131,804 7,635,426t 1,118,012 62,423* 55,608 8,871,469 Manila San Juan * Estimated. t According to the census of 1903. 48 ESSENTIALS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY C w o o H t— I 0:3 H Q CO H <: Ph PLH fa •II OH Z 00 ;/; ti M U U ffl u « CQ u O ?! OS % |-i Ph H O 2; 00 fc Z ^ 5 OSS'* B. U "^ 15 a . 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Adams, John Quincy, administra- tion of, 223. Airships, 376. Alabama, Confederate cruiser, 308. Alamance, 108. Alaska, purchase of, 320. Albany plan of Union, 92. Albemarle, Confederate cruiser, 309. Alien Law, 195. Andre, Major, 152. Andros, Sir Edmund, 54. Antietam, battle of, 283. Arbitration treaties proposed, 371. Arkansas admitted 1836, 232. Arnold, Benedict, 139, 152; his trea- son, 152. Arthur, Chester A., administration of, 334. Atlanta, capture of, 304. Australian ballot, 340. B Bacon's rebellion, 34. Baltimore, Lord, 35. Bank, the United States, 230; Jackson removes deposits of, 230 Barton, Colonel William, 136. Bell, Alexander Graham, 328. Bemis's Heights, battle of, 140. Bering Sea case, 341. Berkeley, Sir William, 34. Blanco, General, 348. Block, Adrian, 57. Blockade in Civil War, the, 274. Bon Homme Richard, the, 149. Boone, Daniel, 146. Boston, John Winthrop, 48; gov- ernment, 49; Roger Williams, 49; riot, 106; tea party, 109. Braddock, General, 93. Brandywine, battle of, 137. Bread riots in New York, 234. British troops in Boston, 106; leave Boston, 122. Brown, John, 259. Buchanan, James, administration of, 257. Buffalo, Pan-American exposition at, 365. Bull Run, battle of, 275. Bunker Hill, battle of, 118. Burgoyne, expedition of, 139; sur- render of, 140. Burlingame, Anson, 321. Burr, Aaron, 205, 206. Business depression in 1873, 326, Cable, the Atlantic, 321. Cabot, John, 14-16. Cabot, Sebastian, 16. California, adopts constitution, 248; gold discovered in, 247. Campbell, Colonel, 150. Capitol at Washington burned, 211. Carolinas, the, 38; early settlers, 38; North and South Carolina, 39; agriculture, 39; rice and cotton, 40. Carpet-baggers, 319. Cartier, Jacques (zhak kar'tya'), 80. Cavite (ka-ve'ta), 350. Census, the first. 1790, 188j of 1900. 364 ; of 1910, 374. Centennial at Philadelphia, 327. Cervera, Admiral (thar-va'ra'), 351; his fleet destroyed, 352. Champe, John, 153. Champlain, Samuel de, 80. Chancellorsville, battle of, 294. 50 INDEX 51 Chattanooga, battle of, 299. Cherokees in Georgia, 231. Chickamauga, battle of, 299. China, treaty with, 321. Chinese Exclusion Act, 338; insur- rection, 361. Christian Commission, 315. Civil Service bill, 334; reform, 330, 336. Civil War, 268-312; end of, 311; results of, 317. Clark, George Rogers, 147. Clark, William, 201, 203. Clay's compromise tariff, 229. Clermont, the, 206. Cleveland, Grover, first administra- tion of, 336; second adminis- tration of, 341. Clinton, DeWitt, 221. Clinton, General, at New York, 129. Clocks and watches, 335. Coligny, Gaspard de (ko-len'ye), 21. Colonial commerce, 101; industries, restriction on, 102. Columbus, Christopher, 10-14. Compromise of 1850, 249. Concord, battle at, 115. Confederate cruisers, Florida, Shen- andoah, and Alabama, 308; Geor- gia, Albemarle, 309. Confederate states, 269. Confederation, Articles of, 164; weakness of, 165. Connecticut, 51; the first constitu- tion, 52; New Haven, 52; Rev. John Davenport, 52; Theophilus Eaton, 52. Constitution framed, 167; adopted, 168; Preamble, 170; provisions for legislative power, 170, con- gress, 170, executive power, 172, President, powers and duties of, 172, judicial power, 174; amend- ments of, 187. 318. Constitution, frigate, 210. Conway Cabal, 142. Copyright, international, 340. Cornwallis, General, 158; surrender of, 160. Courtesies, international, 369. Cowpens, battle of, 157. Cuba, troubles in, 346; Congress acts on, 348. Cumberland Road, 221, 223. D Da Gama, Vasco da (vas'ko da ga'ma), 9. Dale, Thomas, 31. Dare, Virginia, 26. Davenport, Rev. John, 52. Davis, Jefferson, 269; arrested, 314, DeGrasse, Count (de-gras'), 159. DeKalb, 135. Delaware, 60. Delaware, Lord, 31. D'Estaing, Count (das'-tan), 144 150. Dewey, Commodore, 349, 350. Donelson, Fort, 286. Dorr War, 238. Drake, Sir Francis, 23. Dred Scott Decision, 257. Duquesne, Fort, 92, E Eaton, Theophilus, 52. Electoral count bill, 337. Eliot, John, 88. Elsworth, Oliver, 187. Emancipation, 292. Embargo act, 204. English explorers, 22. Erie canal, 221. Ether as an anaesthetic, 264. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 157. F Farragut, Admiral, 308; at New Orleans, 289. Federal convention of 1787, 166. Ferguson, Major. 151. Fillmore, Millard, administration of, 2.50. Fires in Chicago and Boston, 326. First Continental Congress, Ill- Fishery dispute, 324. Florida admitted, 1845, 248. 52 INDEX Florida, Confederate cruiser, 308. Force bill, 229. Forest preserves, Appalachian, 375. Fox, Charles James, 157. Fredericksburg, battle of, 284. Freeman's Farm, battle of, 140. Freesoil party, 248. French and Indian wars, 91; re- sults of, 100. French forts, 92. French in Canada, 79; Cartier, Jacques, 80; founding of Quebec, 80; Samuel de Champlain, 80; Jesuits, 81; Marquette and Joliet, 81; La Salle, 83. French Revolution, 189. French settlements in North Amer- ica, 20-22. Frobisher, Martin, 22. Fulton, Robert, 206. G Gadsden Purchase, 245. Gag rule, 261. Garfield and Arthur's administra- tion, 333. Garfield assassinated, 333. Gaspee, burning of the, 108. Georgia, Confederate cruiser, 309. Georgia, royal province, 41. Germantown, battle of, 138. Gettysburg, battle of, 295. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 23. Gold discovered in California, 247. Goodyear, Charles, 263. Gorges, Ferdinando, 53. Gourgues, Dominique de (do'me- nek' da goorg), 22. Grant, Ulysses S., 286, 298-303, 309-311; administration of, 323. Greene, General, in the South, 156. Grey, Captain, 239. Guam, 359. Guilford Court House, battle of, 157. H Hague conference, 360; court of arbitration, 361; cases before the court, 361. Hamilton, Alexander, 186, 190, 191, 205. Harrison, Benjamin, administration of, 339. Harrison, William Henry, adminis- tration of, 236. Harrodsburg, fort at, 146.' Hartford convention, 214. Hawaii (ha-wie'), 344, 358; terri- tory of, 359. Hawkins, Sir William, 22. Hawley, Joseph, for revolution and independence, 124. Hay, John, 362. Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 366. Hayes, Rutherford B., administra- tion of, 330. Hayne's and Webster's speeches, 227. Henry, Fort, 286. Henry, Patrick, 104, 112. Hessians, 133. Higginson, Francis, 47. Hilton Head, capture of, 284. Hobson, Lieutenant, 351. Hood invades Tennessee, 306. Howe and Clinton at New York, 129. Howe, Elias, 263. Howe, Robert, 150. Hudson, Henry, 56. Hull, Captain, 210. Iberville, Lemoyne (le-mwan' de'-bar-vel'), 85. Immigration, 265, 266. . Independence, trend towards, 123; declared l^y Rhode Island, 123; by Virginia, 124; by Congress, 125. India rubber, 262. Indian homes, 3; occupations, 4; women, 5; religion, 6. Indiana admitted as a state, 1816, 216. Indians and the French, 87; and the English, 88. International copyright, 340. International peace, tendencies towards, 368. Interstate commerce bill, 337. INDEX 53 Iowa admitted 1846, 248. Iroquois, 89. Jackson, Andrew, administration of, 227. Jamestown, 29; difficulties at, 29; John Smith, 30; the starving time, 30; Lord Delaware, 31; Thomas Dale, 31; tobacco, 32; slavery, 33; the first assembly, 33; Bacon's rebellion, 34. Japa,n, treaty with, 375. Jay, John, 187, 190. Jefferson, Thomas, and the Decla- ration of Independence, 126; acquirements of 198; administra- tion of, 198. Jesuits, 81. Johnston, Albert Sidney, 285. Joliet (zho'lya'), 81. Jones, Paul, 149. K Kansas border war, 254; Kansas- Nebraska act, 253. Kaskaskia captured, 148. Kentucky admitted 1792, 189; reso- lutions of nullification, 196. Key, Francis S., 213. King Philip, 89. King's Mountain, battle of, 151. Kosciusko (kos-si-us'ko), 135. Labor troubles, 342. Lafayette, General, 135. La Salle, 83. Laudonniere, Rene (lo'do'nyar') ,21. Lee, General Charles, disobedience of, 131; captured, 132. Lee, Major Henry, 149. Lee, Richard Henry, 125. Lee, Robert E., 281-284, 294-297, 301-303; surrender of, 309. Leslie, Colonel, at Salem, 113. Lewis and Clark expedition, 202. Lewis, Meriwether, 203. Lexington and Concord, 114. Liberty Bell, 127. Life in the colonies, 65; the people, 66; social conditions, 66; Dutch patroons, 67; servants, 68; slaves, 68; cities, 68; travel, 70; houses, 71; utensils, 72; home industries, 73; amusements, 74; Sunday, 74; punishments, 75; schools, 77; colleges, 77. Lincoln, Abraham, first administra- tion of, 268; inaugurated, 271; call for troops, 273; second ad- ministration of, 313; assassinated, 314. Lincoln and Douglas debates, 258. Livingston, Robert R., 206. London Company, 27. Long Island, battle of, 129. Lousiana, under Spain and France, 200; purchase of, 200; admitted as a state, 1812,216. M MacDonough, Commodore, 210. Madison, James, administration of, 208. Magellan, Fernando, 18, 19. Maine, the, destruction of, 348. Malvern Hill, battle of, 282. Manila surrenders, 354. Marietta, Ohio, 183. Marion, General, 150. Marquette (mar'ket'), 81. Marshall, John, 187. Maryland, charter, 35; settlement, 36; government, 36; religious toleration, 37. Mason and Slidell, capture of, 277. Mason, John, 53. Maximilian in Mexico, 322. Mayfloiver compact, 45. McClellan, George B., 276. McCormick's reaper, 263. McKinley, William, first adminis- tration of, 346; second adminis- tration of, 364; assassinated, 365. Men of letters, 265. Menendez de Aviles, Pedro (ma- nan'dath da a'velas'), 21. Merrimac and Monitor, 278. Merritt, General, 354. 54 INDEX Mexico, war declared with, 243; treaty of peace with, 244. Michigan admitted 1837, 232. Miles, General, 354. Military review at Washington, 316. Mims, Fort, massacre at, 210. Mississippi River, opening of, 290; jetties, 331. Missouri Compromise, 219. Mobile Bay, battle of, 307. Money, coinage of, 188. Monmouth, battle of, 145. Monroe Doctrine, 219. Monroe, James, administration of, 217. Montcalm, the Marquis de, 95. Morgan, General, 156. Morris, Robert, 135. Morse, Samuel F. B., 127, 240. N Naval force on the Great Lakes, 221. Navigation laws, colonial, 101. New England, colonies, 43; United Colonies of, 53. New France, 84. New Hampshire, Ferdinando Gor- ges and John Mason, 53. New Haven, 52. New Jersey, 60. New Orleans, battle of, 213. New York, 57, 58; taken by the English, 59. Non-Intercourse Act, 204. Norse voyages, 7. North and South, population and advantages in 1860, 270. Northwest boundary, 324. Nullification, 228. O Oglethorpe (o'g'l-thorp), James Ed- ward, 40. Ohio, first settlement in. 184. Oklahoma, 372. Ordinance of 1787, 183. Oregon Country, 239. Pacific Railroad, 323, Pago-Pago, 359. Pakenham, Edward, 214. Panama Canal, 367, 375. Pan-American Congress, 339. Pan-American exposition, BuffalOj 365. Peninsular campaign, 280. Penn, William, 62; receives grant from the king, 62; founds Penn- sylvania, 63; his colony, 63; Indian receipt for land, 64. Pequots, the, 89. Perry, Oliver H., 210. Perry's treaty w^th Japan, 252. Petroleum, 264. Philanthropy, 376. PhiHppine Islands, 349, 354, 356; insurrection, 357. Pickens, Andrew, 150. Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, 297. Pierce, Franklin, administration of, 252. Pilgrims, in Holland, 44; their re- moval to America, 44; the voy- age, 45; Mayflower compact, 45. Pine-tree shilling, 54. Pitt, William, 94, 106. Plains of Abraham, 96. Plymouth Company, the, 28. Polk, James K., administration of, 242. Polygamy, Anti-, bill, 334. Pope, General John, 282. Porto Rico Campaign, 354. Portsmouth, Treaty of, 372. Postage rates, 261. Prescott, General, captured, 136. Presidential election, 1800, 197 1808, 207; 1812, 216; 1816, 216 1820, 217; 1824, 222; 1828, 226 1832, 229; 1836, 233; 1840, 235 1844, 241; 1848, 248; 1852, 251 1856, 256; 1860, 267; 1864, 312 1868, 322; 1872, 326; 1876, 328 1880, 332; 1884, 335; 1888, 338 1892, 341; 1896, 345; 1900, 362 1904, 369; 1908,373. Presidential Succession Bill, 336. Presidents, list of, 173. Princeton, battle of, 133. Pure Food Law, 372. I INDEX 55 Q Quakers, the, 61. Quebec, battle of, 95. R Railroad, first in America, 1831, 232. Raleigh (ra'li), Sir Walter, 24. Read, Thomas Buchanan, poem by, 304. Reconstruction, 318. Republican party, 255. Revolution, 100-164; who first foresaw it, 112. Rhode Island, 51; declared her independence, 123. Richmond, fall of, 309. Roanoke Island, 24, 284. Rochambeau, Count (ro-shon'-bo'), 159. Roosevelt, Theodore, in Spanish War, 354; Vice-President, 363; President, 366, 370. Rutledge, John, 187. S Saint Marys, 36. Salem, settlement of, 47; Francis Higginson at, 47. Sampson, Rear-Admiral, 351. Santo Domingo troubles, 371. Sanitary Commission, 315. Santiago campaign, 353. Schley (sll). Commodore, 351, Secession, 268. Sedition Law, 195. Separatists, 43. Sequoyah (se-quoi'ah), 231. Sewing-machine, 263. Shenandoah, Confederate cruiser, 308. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, 303. Sherman, before Atlanta, 304; his march to the sea, 306. Shiloh, battle of, 288. Sioux Indians, 325. Slater, Samuel, 179. Slave states and free states, 218. Slavery, end of, 293. Smith, John, 30. South Mountain, battle of, 283. Spain, treaty with, 1819, 218. Spanish settlements, 20. Specie circular, 234. Specie payment, resumption of, 331. Stamp Act, 104. Star-Spangled Banner, 213. States admitted, California, Minne- sota, Oregon, Kansas, West Vir- ginia, Nevada, Nebraska, Colo- rado, 328; North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana. Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, 328, 339 ; Oklahoma, 339, 372. (See also names of states.) Steamboat, the first, 206. Steuben, Baron, 135. Steivart, Peggy, the, 110. Stuart's portrait of Washington, 189, 212. Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), Peter, 58. Sub-treasuries established, 234. Succession Bill, Presidential, 336. Sumner beaten by Brooks, 255. Sumter, Fort, 272; flag raised over, 313. Sumter, Thomas, 150. Supreme Court under Washington, 186. Surplus revenue distributed among the states, 231. Taft, William H., 357, 373, 374. Tariff of 1816, 220; of 1828, 225; of 1909, 374. Tarleton, Colonel, 157. Tax on tea, 105, 108. Taxation, American theory of, 103; English theory of, 102. Taylor, Zachary, in Mexican War, 242; administration of, 249; death of, 250. Tecumseh, 208. Telegraph, Morse's, 240. Telephone, the, 328. Temperance societies, 262. Tennessee admitted 1796, 189. 56 INDEX Texas, Republic of, 237; admitted, 1845, 248. Time, standard railroad, 335. Tippecanoe, 208. Transportation, 375. Treaties, arbitration, proposed, 371. Treaty, between England and France, 1763, 98; with France, 143; of 1783, 161-163; of 1814, 215; of Washington regarding the Alabama claims, 324; with Spain, 355; Hay-Pauncefote, 366; of Portsmouth, 372; with Japan, 375 Trent affair, the, 277. Tripoli, war with, 204. Troops withdrawn from the South, 330. Tryon, General, raided Connecticut, 149. Tunnels, New York City, 376. Turks in Europe, 8. Tutuila (too too-i'la), 359. U United Netherland company, 57. United States in 1790, 175; popula- tion, 176; how the people lived, 176; industries, 178; manufac- tures, 178; commerce, 180; fish- eries, 181; whaling, 181; wealth, 182; paper money, 182. United States in 1825, 223; indus- tries, education, church and state, 224; the Era of Good Feeling, 225. Ur'ted States in the twentieth cen- tury, 377; extent of territory, growth in a century, 377; Mis- sissippi Valley, Pacific slope, 378; irrigation, 378; immigration, and foreign population, 379; indus- tries and inventions, the elevator, 380; trolley cars, education, 381. United States of America, name adopted, 128. Valley Forge, winter at, 141. Van Buren, Martin, administration of, 234. Venezuela, 344. Vermont admitted 1791, 189. Vespucci (ves-poot'che), Amerigo, 16-18. Vicksburg, siege of, 298. Vincennes (vin-senz'), capture of, 148. Virginia, resolution of nullification, 196. W Wake Island, 359. Waldsemiiller (valt'za-miil-ler), 17. War, of 1812, 208; declared against Spain, 349; in the Philippine Islands, 349. {See also French and Indian, Revolution, Mexico, Civil.) Washington, at Fort Duquesne, 92; commander-in-chief, 121; crosses the Delaware, 133; administra- tion of, 186; first cabinet, 186; farewell address of, 192; death of, 196. Washington, capture of Fort, 131. Wayne, Anthony, 149. Weather bureau, 327. Weathersford, 210. Webster-Ashburton treaty, 237. Webster, debate with Hayne, 227; 7th of March speech of, 250. Weyler, General, 347. Whitman, Marcus, 239. Whitney's cotton gin, 179. Wild-cat banks, 234. Wilderness, the, 301. Williams, Roger, 49. Wilmot Proviso, the, 246. Wilson, Woodrow, 381. Winter quarters, 1776, 134. Winthrop, John, 48. Wireless telegraph, 376. Wolfe, General James, 95. World's Fair, at London, 1851, at New York, 1853, 252 ; at Phila- delphia, 1876, 327 ; at Chicago, 342. Yorktown, 159. 14