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A 
 
 COMPLETE GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE, 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 ALL THE RULES AND PECULIARITIES 
 OF THE SAID LANGUAGE, 
 
 EXPLAINED 
 
 IN THE BEST AND SIMPLEST MANNER, 
 
 WITH 
 
 NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS, 
 
 AND 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BY NUMEROUS AND APPROPRIATE EXAMPLES FROM THE .MOST 
 CELEBRATED WRITERS. 
 
 By M. SANTAGNELLO, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION, 
 
 REVISED, IMPROVED, AND ENLARGED. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, REES, ORME, AND CO. ; HURST, 
 CHANCE, AND CO.; H. COLBURN ; GEO. B. WHITTAKER; 
 
 t j. souter; \nd simpkin and Marshall. 
 
 i 
 
 1828. 
 
{ \o°\ 
 
 4>^ 
 
 LONDON- 
 
 SHACKEIX AND BAYLTS, JOHNSON^- COURT*, FLEET-STREET 
 
TO THE 
 
 MISSES KNIGHT, 
 
 OF 
 
 MONTAGUE SQUARE. 
 
 THIS GRAMMAR 
 
 IS 
 RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
 BY 
 THELR OBEDIENT SERVANT, 
 
 M. SANT AGNELLG 
 
Signor Santagnello continues to teach the Italian 
 Language, grammatically. 
 
 Miss Santagnello teaches the Italian Language 
 grammatically, and likewise gives instruction in Land- 
 scape Drawing in a finished style, both in chalk and pencil, 
 
 No. 7, Nutford-place, Bryanstone-square, 
 
TO THE READER. 
 
 People in this country entertain an idea, namely, 
 that by learning a foreign language through the medium 
 of another which is likewise foreign, a person may 
 become acquainted with both languages at once. This, 
 however, is an erroneous idea, and even if adopted by 
 sensible persons, it is not the result of their own reflec- 
 tion, but the insinuation of foreigners, who, coming 
 hither without knowing English, have introduced a new 
 method of communicating the rules of the language 
 they are to teach, in another more familiar to themselves 
 than to the learner. 
 
 A person can never become well acquainted with the 
 rules and idioms of a foreign language, unless these very 
 rules and idioms be explained in his ow r n mother tongue ; 
 for if they are set down in a language with which he is 
 not conversant, it is next to impossible for him to make 
 a progress in his favourite pursuit : and although he be 
 well acquainted with it, so as to be able to proceed in his 
 
VI TO THE KEADEK. 
 
 study, yet, besides his being always apt to make bar- 
 barisms, this study will be attended with infinite trouble, 
 and the progress of the learner considerably delayed. 
 
 A similar circumstance occurs in learning Italian. 
 As the English of all ranks and all classes are more or 
 less proficient in the French language, foreigners, unac- 
 quainted with the English language, in order to remove 
 the difficulty which would attend their teaching Italian 
 with an English grammar, persuade the inexperienced 
 student to learn Italian by means of rules written in 
 French ; who, flattered by the hope of learning two lan- 
 guages at once, will perceive but too late that he has 
 only learned at once to make Gallicisms in speaking 
 Italian, and Italicisms in speaking French. 
 
 In order to prevent the evils which I knew by expe- 
 rience would result from so absurd a practice, although 
 I could speak but very little English when I began to 
 teach Italian, I advised my pupils to learn Italian with 
 a grammar written in English. My advice was soon 
 put into execution, and those learners who had studied 
 with a French grammar for a considerable time, but 
 with little success, began to improve rapidly as soon as 
 they made use of an English one. 
 
 The English grammars of the Italian language, how- 
 ever, which were then in use, being Veneron^s and Bar- 
 rettfs, both old, deficient in rules, and, what is worse, with- 
 out exercises, I formed the design* so soon as I should be 
 better acquainted with the language, of making a com- 
 pilation on the subject which should answer the expec- 
 tation of students. It was not long before I felt capable 
 
TO THE HEADER. Vll 
 
 of the undertaking, and accordingly having succeeded 
 in the completion of my task, I published it with every 
 mark of approbation. It has since gone through three 
 editions in a few years> and is still in frequent demand, 
 which is an evident proof of its merit. 
 
 Encouraged by the favour of the public, and solicited 
 by the students of Italian, to compose another on the 
 same plan, but on a more enlarged scale, which would 
 leave the learner of this fine language nothing farther to 
 desire for the attainment of it, I have now compiled one, 
 (the subject of the following pages,) which I feel confi- 
 dent will answer their expectations. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 As the number of Italian Grammars now extant is 
 very great, a new compilation might be considered as 
 unnecessary and useless. This would certainly be the 
 case if these grammars were written in English, and 
 were complete; but as most of them are written in 
 French, and do not contain all that is necessary for the 
 attainment of the Italian language, as their different 
 titles of Abridgment, Abbreviator, Lessons, &c. import, 
 a new and complete compilation, abundant in rules 
 and examples, written in English, will undoubtedly 
 be a desirable object to the learner of this beautiful 
 language. 
 
 The author of this volume some years back offered 
 to the public a concise Italian Grammar, which, on 
 account of its clearness and precision, was received with 
 every mark of approbation by the learners. It was, 
 however, noticed by some fastidious critics, who, either 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 through ignorance of the subject in question, or envy 
 for its unprecedented success, directed their censures 
 against some innovations, which were introduced for the 
 better information of learners, and which subsequent ex- 
 perience has proved to be necessary as well as useful. 
 
 Of these innovations, and of the criticisms which they 
 have incurred, the author does not intend to speak in 
 this place, as he has given proper reasons for his pro- 
 ceedings in their respective places, when necessity 
 prompted him to vindicate his cause, and to recriminate 
 on those who were so bold as to condemn what perhaps 
 they (though Italians) could or would not under- 
 stand. 
 
 The present compilation is divided into four parts, 
 viz. : — 
 
 The first consists of an ample treatise on Pronuncia- 
 tion, which, through the medium of a parallel drawn 
 between the Italian and English languages, will com- 
 municate to the student the right sound of the 
 most difficult syllables and words,* as well as can be 
 done without the assistance of a master, and will like- 
 wise prove serviceable to any teacher of Italian who is 
 not a native of Italy. 
 
 The second treats of all the Parts of Speech in their 
 
 * It is certain that a great analogy in the pronunciation of an 
 infinite number of syllables and words, exists between the Italian 
 and English languages, which does not appear between the Italian 
 and French, and that may clearly be perceived by comparing the said 
 treatise with any other introduced in a French grammar. 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 simple or natural state, exhibiting articles, nouns, pro- 
 nouns, according to their diversified uses ; a new clas- 
 sification of the irregular verbs, which will save the 
 student infinite trouble in committing them to memory; 
 and also exact and proper rules concerning the uses of 
 the tenses, with appropriate examples from the best 
 authorities. 
 
 The third contains the Syntax, or construction of all 
 the said parts of speech, divided into rules which are 
 enforced by analogous examples, and attended with suit- 
 able remarks, so as to give satisfaction to the learner, 
 and at the same time make him acquainted with those 
 niceties and modes of expression, which are so essential 
 in learning a language. 
 
 The fourth and last part comprehends Orthography, 
 with all its appurtenances, such as the retrenching, aug- 
 menting, syncopating, dividing, and compounding of 
 words, together with prosody and its concomitants. 
 
 Lastly, the work concludes with an Appendix, which 
 not only teaches to read and understand the writings of 
 the best authors in prose ; but also points out just rules 
 for composing in a similar style of elegance. This 
 Appendix, which is not to be found in any other Gram- 
 mar compiled for the use of foreigners, the author has 
 explained in so peculiar a manner, as to make the student 
 easily acquainted with its rules. 
 
 In short, this Work, which is essentially different from 
 any other of its kind that has hitherto been offered to 
 the public, contains not only all that is to found in the 
 most celebrated Italian Grammars, such as Buommattei^ 
 
Xil PREFACE. 
 
 Corticelli's, Soave's, Cinonio , s, Dolce's, and others, which 
 have been written for Italians ; but also a great number 
 of rules and observations, which »no Italian could point 
 out, if unacquainted with the English language. It has 
 also the advantage over all other grammars, mentioned 
 in the beginning of this Preface, as the author has not 
 set down the smallest rule, nor made the most minute 
 observation, without enforcing it by analogous examples 
 drawn from the best authorities, with a correct, though 
 not literal, translation of the passages in English, which 
 will at once show the right sense of the sentences, and 
 the proper mode of translating from one language to 
 another. 
 
 In addition to all these advantages, this Grammar is 
 accompanied with Exercises on a new plan, which being 
 generally composed of sentences extracted from the 
 English and Roman histories, and other works of merit, 
 will, the author presumes, prove both useful and in- 
 structive. 
 
 Finally, this Grammar, together with its Exercises, is 
 so compiled as to be useful to those students who either 
 have not the means of employing a master, or who live 
 too far from those places where any may be found. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Grammar 1 
 
 Italian grammar • ib. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Ofletters, syllables, and words i...,. Z 
 
 Of the alphabet *.. ib. 
 
 Observations on the alphabet 4 
 
 Of the divisions ofletters 5 
 
 General observations on the sounds of letters ib* 
 
 -A 6 
 
 B ? 
 
 C, and its different sounds when accompanied with other 
 
 letters . .. ,, # .. ib. 
 
 D,E , 10 
 
 List of words in which e is differently sounded 12 
 
 F . 15 
 
 G, and its different sounds when accompanied with other 
 
 letters ib. 
 
 H,I 18 
 
 J,L,M . 19 
 
 N .,.._. so 
 
 O „„ 21 
 
 List of words in which o is differently sounded 23 
 
 P,Q 26 
 
 R 27 
 
 S, and its different sounds ib. 
 
 T.. ..„ 29 
 
XIV INDEX. 
 
 Pao;e 
 
 U, V.. 30 
 
 Z, and its different sounds 31 
 
 List of words in which % is sounded strong likefc 33 
 
 List of words in which zis sounded likecte ib. 
 
 List of words in which two z 9 s are sounded like ts 34 
 
 List of words in which two s's are sounded like ds 35 
 
 Ph,K,X,Y 36 
 
 Observations on the letters .. 37 
 
 Diphthongs 38 
 
 Of the number of diphthongs ib. 
 
 Observations on diphthongs 39 
 
 Of the division of diphthongs „. 40 
 
 Of the genders of letters , 41 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Chap.I. A general view of the parts of speech 43 
 
 Chap. II. Of articles in general 45 
 
 Declension of the article/o 47 
 
 the article il 48 
 
 the article la 49 
 
 General observations on lo, il, la, i, gli 9 le, as articles 
 
 and relative pronouns 50 
 
 Of the indefinite article 53 
 
 Declension of the indefinite article with a substan- 
 tive , 54 
 
 Of the numeral uno .. ib. 
 
 Declension of uno with a substantive 55 
 
 Chap. III. Of nouns in general ..„ 56 
 
 Of the gender of substantives ending in a 57 
 
 substantives ending in e 59 
 
 substantives ending in i 60 
 
 substantives ending in o 61 
 
 substantives ending in u 62 
 
 Of the number ,. ib. 
 
 Rules to form the plural of nouns ending in a 63 
 
 r — nouns ending in e 64 
 
 nouns ending in i 65 
 
 r — — nouns ending in o ...... ib. 
 
 . , nouns ending in u ...... 69 
 
 Of heteroclite nouns ib. 
 
 Of nouns having two singulars and two plurals 70 
 
 S three singulars and one plural .... ib. 
 
 — : one singular of the masculine 
 
 gender and two plurals, one masculine and 
 
 another feminine 71 
 
pi. 
 
 Of d 
 
 INDEX. XV 
 
 Page 
 Chap. III. Of nouns being masculine in the singular, and femi- 
 nine in the plural 75 
 
 having one masculine singular and three 
 
 plurals,&c ib, 
 
 defective nouns 74 
 
 Of collective nouns ib. 
 
 Of adjectives and the degrees of comparison in 
 
 general . 75 
 
 Of adjectives or positives 76 
 
 Of comparatives 77 
 
 Of superlatives 79 
 
 Of augmentatives and diminutives 81 
 
 Of numeral nouns in general 85 
 
 Of the cardinal or principal numbers 84 
 
 Observations on cardinal numbers 85 
 
 Of ordinal numbers 87 
 
 Of collective or distributive numbers * 89 
 
 Chap. IV. Of pronouns in general 90 
 
 Of personal pronouns ib. 
 
 Declension of personal pronouns... 91 
 
 Observations on the personal pronouns in their first 
 
 state 94 
 
 disjunctive pronouns 95 
 
 conjunctive pronouns ib. 
 
 Of possessive pronouns 98 
 
 Declension of possessive pronouns 99 
 
 Of demonstrative pronouns ib. 
 
 Observations on demonstrative pronouns 101 
 
 Of relative pronouns 102 
 
 Of interrogative pronouns 105 
 
 Ofimproper pronouns 107 
 
 Chap. V. Of the nature of verbs in general Ill 
 
 Of numbers and persons 112 
 
 Of the moods 113 
 
 Of the tenses 115 
 
 Of the present tense ib. 
 
 Of the past tense 117 
 
 Of the future tense , 122 
 
 Of the subjunctive 124 
 
 Of the imperative 125 
 
 Remarks on the tenses 126 
 
 Of the conjugation of personal verbs 128 
 
 Conjugation of avere ib. 
 
 : essere 133 
 
 Observations on avere and essere 137 
 
 Conjugation of regular verbs 138 
 
 First conjugation.. ,. 139 
 
XVI INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Chap. V. Remarks on verbs ending in are 143 
 
 Second conjugation . 145 
 
 List of regular verbs ending in ere 149 
 
 Third conjugation 150 
 
 List of verbs ending in ire 155 
 
 Of irregular verbs ending in are, andare, dare, fare, 
 
 and stare,ixom 157 to 161 
 
 Of irregular verbs ending in ere long, from 162 to 176 
 
 short ... 177 
 
 Table of the classes of verbs ending in ere short .. .. 173 
 
 First class 181 
 
 Second class 182 
 
 Third class .. 185 
 
 Fourth class 187 
 
 Fifth class .. 191 
 
 List of verbs ending in ere, not included in the classes 193 
 
 Of irregular verbs ending in ire .. 194 
 
 List of verbs conjugated like sentire 195 
 
 Observations on verbs ending in ire .. 196 
 
 Of passive verbs 201 
 
 Of reflective verbs 202 
 
 Of reciprocal verbs J204 
 
 Of impersonal verbs ., 210 
 
 List of half impersonal verbs 211 
 
 Chap. VI. Of the participle . 212 
 
 Genders of the participle 215 
 
 Of the formation of participles ib. 
 
 List of syncopated participles 214 
 
 Chap. VII. Of adverbs 217 
 
 Of the formation of adverbs 218 
 
 Lkt of adverbs 219 
 
 Chap. VIILOf prepositions 226 
 
 List of prepositions governing different cases ib. 
 
 Chap.IX. Of conjunctions 229 
 
 Chap. X. Of interjections 233 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Of syntax in general ,.. 235 
 
 Syntax of the article, from 237 to 249 
 
 Of the repetition of articles 250 
 
 Syntax of adjectives, from . 251 to 262 
 
 comparatives , 265 
 
 Remarks on tanto with the correspondence ofquanto , .. 265 
 
 - piu. 
 
 270 
 
 Syntax of superlatives and their position 271 
 
IXDEX. XV11 
 
 Pae-e 
 
 Of the government of superlatives 273 
 
 Remarks on piii with the article 275 
 
 Syntax of numeral nouns ..... 276 
 
 Remarks on uno, ventuno, and all numbers ending in uno 277 
 
 Syntax of personal pronouns in their first state 281 
 
 — disjunctive pronouns 287 
 
 conjunctive and relative pronouns, from 293 to 304 
 
 Remarkson the different modes of address in Italian 305 
 
 Syntax of possessive pronouns ,. 309 
 
 demonstrative pronouns used as substantives 319 
 
 Remarks on questi, quegli, costui, &c 321 
 
 Syntax of demonstrative pronouns used as adjectives 323 
 
 Remarks on questo, qaello, cotesto,cio 324 
 
 Syntax of the relative pronouns die, quale, chi 326 
 
 Remarks on che and quale 332 
 
 Syntax of interrogative pronouns 336 
 
 Remarks on the interrogative pronouns 338 
 
 Syntax of indeterminate or improper pronouns, from .. 338 to 357 
 
 verbs .c 358 
 
 Of the agreement of the verb with its nominative case, from 
 
 358 to 367 
 Of the position of the verb finite, when accompanied with its 
 
 nominative case expressed or understood 368 
 
 Of the government of verbs ,.... 372 
 
 Active verbs governing an accusative and a genitive , .. .. 373 
 
 Verbs governing an accusative and a genitive 374 
 
 — '- ■ an ablative 375 
 
 Neuter verbs having two nominative cases 377 
 
 — governing a genitive ib. 
 
 — dative 378 
 
 ablative ,, ib. 
 
 Reflective verbs governing a genitive 379 
 
 dative ib. 
 
 an ablative 380 
 
 ■ _ different prepositions ib. 
 
 Verbs governing the infinitive with di before it , 382 
 
 a before it 584 
 
 without a preposition ib. 
 
 Construction of the infinitive 387 
 
 Nature and construction of the gerund 388 
 
 Syntax of participles 392 
 
 Of the participle present ib. 
 
 past, from 394 to 401 
 
 past, accompanied with the verb avere ib. 
 
 Of participles followed by an infinitive without a preposition ... 405 
 Of the agreement of participles with more substantives than one 407 
 Syntax of adverbs .... 409 
 
XY11I INDEX. 
 
 Remarks on non, no, si , ....................... 411 
 
 .qua, qui 413 
 
 — costi, costa . .. » . <. .. •• ib. 
 
 la, cold,ivi, quivi, ci,&i * 414 
 
 donde,onde 415 
 
 Syntax of prepositions 416 
 
 Remarks on some prepositions d 418 
 
 Syntax of conjunctions 420 
 
 Conjunctions governing the subjunctive...^ 421 
 
 sometimes the indicative, and some- 
 times the subjunctive 423 
 
 Syntax of interjections ., 427 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 Chap. I. Rules for retrenching words 429 
 
 Rules for abridging verbs 431 
 
 General remarks on the abridgment of words ...... 452' 
 
 Chap. II. Rules for augmenting words 434 
 
 Chap. III. Rules for syncopating words 436 
 
 Chap. IV. Rules for dividing words 437 
 
 Chap. V. Of compounded words 439 
 
 Observations on compounded words 440 
 
 Chap. VI. Rules for placing the accent 441 
 
 Chap. VII. Rules for placing the apostrophe 445 
 
 Chap. VIII. Of quantity 444 
 
 Chap. IX. Of punctuation 447 
 
 Of the comma 448 
 
 Of the semicolon, colon, and full stop 453 
 
 Of the interrogative point 454 
 
 Of the exclamatory point ib. 
 
 Of the dash 455 
 
 Of the parenthesis ib. 
 
 Chap. X. Of the capital letters 456 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Of the figurative syntax 459 
 
 Of the ellipsis ib. 
 
 Of the pleonasm 462 
 
 Oftheenallage 4 ^ 5 
 
 Of the hyperbate 466 
 
GRAMMAR. 
 
 Grammar may be considered as consisting of two 
 species, universal and particular. 
 
 Grammar in general, or universal grammar, explains 
 the principles which are common to all languages. 
 
 Particular grammar applies those general principles to 
 a particular language, modifying them according to the 
 genius of that language, and the established practice of 
 the best speakers and writers by whom it is used 
 
 ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 Italian Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
 the Italian language with propriety. 
 
 This is the definition of grammarians respecting 
 grammar, and, according to its import, every one may 
 easily perceive that it is not poetry of which they speak : 
 yet we see a great number of grammars abounding with 
 examples, extracted from poetical works, intended to 
 give authority to the rules which they set down for 
 speaking in prose. Now, if, instead of saying, Datemi 
 un poco d'acqua fresca^ Give me a drop of cold w T ater, 
 we were to say, Datemi qualche stilla di fresco umore i 
 we should perhaps be understood; but as it is an expres* 
 
 B 
 
% INTRODUCTION. 
 
 sion used by poets only, we should be thought pedantic, 
 or as persons who are speaking in jest. 
 
 In teaching, therefore, a language, a grammarian is 
 to consider, that he is to teach speaking in prose, not in 
 poetry; that he is to give rules for composing a dis- 
 course, not for making verses ; that all the examples 
 which serve to illustrate these rules are to be taken from 
 prose writers ; and that the least poetical expression, 
 however beautiful and elegant in poetry, would become 
 ridiculous, were it to be used in prose. 
 
 With these considerations in view, we have, in com- 
 piling this work, refrained from making extracts from 
 poets, to exemplify the different rules ; a practice not 
 allowed in Italian, in which the fervid language of 
 poetry is rather incompatible with the sober ornaments 
 of prose : however, if the student finds, sometimes, any 
 example extracted from poetical works in this grammar, 
 he may be assured, that those extracts are inserted, 
 because we could find in prose none analogous to the 
 rule in question, or because we thought them proper to 
 be applied in prose. 
 
 We have divided this grammar into four parts, 
 treating, 
 
 Ora- 
 
 In dividing this grammar, we have not had in view 
 the right order of the subject, but the conveniency of 
 the English student, or any foreigner who wishes to 
 study Italian ; for, had we written for Italians, orthogra- 
 phy should have been placed with pronunciation: but 
 for a foreigner, it would be absurd to tell him the 
 manner of spelling a word which he has never seen or 
 heard. We, therefore, shall begin with the pronuncia- 
 tion, in order that the learner may find assistance in 
 
 1. 
 
 Of Pronunciation. 
 
 Delia Pronuncia. 
 
 % 
 
 Of the Parts of 
 
 Delle Parti dell* 
 
 
 Speech. 
 
 ZIONE. 
 
 8. 
 
 Of Syntax. 
 
 Delia Sintassi. 
 
 4. 
 
 Of Orthography. 
 
 Dell' Ortografia 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION, 3 
 
 learning by heart those words which are necessary to 
 begin the study of Italian. These words we have ac- 
 cented throughout the grammar, to render their pro- 
 nunciation easy ; but the student, in writing exercises in 
 Italian, is only to make use of the grave accent, which is 
 found on the last vowel of a word. 
 
 PART I. 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 OF LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND WORDS. 
 
 A letter, tettera, is the first principle or least part of a 
 word. 
 
 The letters of the Italian language, called the alphabet, 
 alfabeto, or abbicci, are twenty-two. 
 
 These letters are the representation of certain articu- 
 late sounds, the elements of the language. 
 
 An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, 
 formed by the organs of speech. 
 
 The elementary sounds, under their smallest combina- 
 tion, produce a syllable. 
 
 A syllable, sittaba, is a sound either simple or com- 
 pound, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and 
 constituting a word, or part of a word. 
 
 Words are articulate sounds, and are used, by common 
 consent, as signs of our ideas. 
 
 A word, parola, of one letter, is called a monogram, 
 monogramma ; of one syllable, composed of two or more 
 letters, a monosyllable, monosillabo ; of two syllables, 
 diss'illabo ; of three syllables, trisillabo ; and, lastly, of 
 four or more syllables, polysyllable, polisillabo. 
 
 OF THE ALPHABET. 
 
 Alphabet is a word which comprehends all the letters 
 necessary to speak a language. 
 
 b2 
 
4 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 The alphabet, in Italian, consists of twenty-two letters, 
 which are sounded thus : — 
 
 A a is sounded like a, in a-rm. 
 
 B b bi, in bi-scuit. 
 
 C c chi, in chi-cane. 
 
 D d di, in di-lute. 
 
 E e e, in ever. 
 
 F f , e'ffay. 
 
 G g gi, ingin. 
 
 H h ,..,... ahccah. 
 
 j • > i, in Italy. 
 
 L 1 [\\\"\\\\".\\.... ellay. 
 
 M m , emmay. 
 
 N n ennay. 
 
 O o ,. o, in o-range. 
 
 P p pi, in pi -ty. 
 
 Q q coo, in coo-k. 
 
 R r erray. 
 
 S s essay. 
 
 T t ti, in timid. 
 
 U u oo, in oo-ze,, 
 
 V v voo. 
 
 Z z „ tzaytah. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The capital letters are called, in Italian, lettere 
 mpjuscole, and the small, minuscule. 
 
 2. These six letters, b, c, d, g, p, t, which the Floren- 
 tines sound bi, chi, di, as in the alphabet, are sounded 
 bay, chay, day, jay, pay, tay, by the Romans, and the 
 inhabitants of almost all the other provinces of Italy ; 
 but as this regards only their name, and not their pro- 
 nunciation when united to other letters, we think it is of 
 little or no consequence to know their real name. 
 
 3. Some grammarians give only twenty letters, sup- 
 pressing j and v ; but as we think that the alphabet 
 would be incorrect without them, we set them down at 
 once, to save trouble and useless explanations. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 OF THE DIVISIONS OF LETTERS. 
 
 Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 
 
 A vowel, vocale, is an articulate sound, that can be 
 perfectly uttered by itself, and is formed without the 
 help of any other sound. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. 
 
 A consonant, consonante, is an articulate sound, which 
 cannot be perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel, 
 but requires a vowel to express it fully. 
 
 Consonants are divided into mutes and serai- vowels. 
 
 The mutes, mute, cannot be sounded at all, without 
 the aid of a vowel, or rather they are those whose sounds 
 cannot be protracted. They are 6, c, d, g, p, q, tf, z. 
 
 The semi-vowels, semivocdli, have an imperfect sound 
 of themselves, or rather they are those whose sounds can 
 be continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of 
 vowels, from which they derive their name. They are 
 f y h* Z, 7?2 ? n, r, s. 
 
 Four of the semi-vowels, namely, Z, m, n, r, are also 
 distinguished by the name of liquids, liquide, from their 
 readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it 
 were, into their sounds. 
 
 The. letters J and v are consonants when they meet 
 another vowel, otherwise they are vowels, the same as i 
 and u; and thus they are to be spelled. 
 
 A diphthong, dittongo, is the union of two or more 
 vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, 
 without losing their natural and particular sounds. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS, 
 AND ON THE MOST DIFFICULT SYLLABLES AND WORDS 
 IN THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 Before we proceed on this subject, we think it is our 
 duty to shew how false is the assertion of a modern 
 grammarian, who, feeling unable, as it appears, to write 
 down rules to communicate pronunciation to foreigners, 
 
O OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 concludes the introduction of his grammar thus : — " Je 
 ne dirai pas un seul mot sur la prononciation, dont on a 
 beaucoup parle dans plusieurs autres grammaires, car 
 j'ai Texperience que toutes regies donnees sur ce point 
 sont inutiles " 
 
 It is certainly a great undertaking to teach pronuncia- 
 tion to foreigners by description alone, and especially for 
 those who are either unacquainted, or imperfectly ac- 
 quainted, with foreign languages ; but for those whose 
 principal study is that of learning diem well, it is easy to 
 give proper rules for it ; and though a few impediments 
 will obstruct their way, such as the double sound of some 
 letters, they are of such a nature as not to affect the 
 principal object which they have in view. 
 
 We do not intend to assert, that it is better to learn 
 pronunciation by description than by learning it from 
 the mouth of a native ; but we dare affirm, that 
 proper rules on this subject are not at all useless, but 
 beneficial, not only to those who cannot employ a master, 
 but also to those who have the means of doing so, as, m 
 the absence of their teachers, they may, if necessity 
 requires, have recourse to them. 
 
 Persuaded by these reasons, we laid down rules to 
 communicate pronunciation, in our small grammar ; and 
 finding that they have been attended with due benefit to 
 students of all descriptions, either assisted by a master or 
 not, we will set them down again in this new work, with 
 more additions and improvements ; and hope that the 
 discerning student, convinced of the utility of our plan, 
 after a perusal of it, will give to it that approbation 
 which it deserves. To proceed. 
 
 A. 
 
 The sound of a, in Italian, is that which is heard in 
 uttering the English a, in the word arm ; and is effected 
 by opening the mouth rather widely, and pushing the 
 breath outwards, without any motion of the tongue. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 When, however, a is marked with the grave accent^ it is 
 sounded a little sharper. 
 
 citta city 
 
 dara „ he will give 
 
 fara he will make 
 
 ama he i 
 
 aria air 
 
 arma .weapon 
 
 B. 
 
 This letter keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning 
 and the middle of words, and is uttered exactly as in 
 English. 
 
 barba beard 
 
 bambola doll 
 
 bambino ...... infant 
 
 back) hiss 
 
 bevve he drank 
 
 buono good 
 
 C, preceding a 9 o, w, Z, r, thus, ca 9 co, cu, cl 9 cr, has a 
 hard sound, suono rotondo, and it is pronounced as in 
 English. 
 
 cane,.... dog 
 
 come hom 
 
 cura care 
 
 clamore clamour 
 
 cresce he grows 
 
 cuoca cook 
 
 poco little 
 
 sicuro sure 
 
 declama he declaims 
 
 rincr&cere.. ..to be sorry 
 
 C, preceding e, i, or ia, ie, io, iu, thus, ce, ci, cia y tie, 
 cio, ciu, has a soft sound, suono chiaro, or sonante. 
 Ce is sounded like che, in the word chess. 
 
 diceva he said 
 
 voce voice 
 
 cena supper 
 
 cera wax 
 
 riceve , . . he receives 
 
 croce cross 
 
 Ci is sounded like chi, in the word chi-cane. 
 
 cifra cypher 
 
 cigno swan 
 
 vicino neighbour 
 
 Cia is sounded like cha, in the word charm. 
 
 decima tenth 
 
 amici .friends 
 
 nemici enemies 
 
 ciabatta old shoe 
 
 ciabattino ....co&ler 
 baciare to kiss 
 
 bacia he kisses 
 
 ciancia *f°ppery 
 
 marcia .matter 
 
8 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Cie is sounded as if it were spelled cheeay, or rather like 
 chee, in the word cheer; pronouncing, however, the ie 
 with a single impulse of the voice, and putting the 
 emphasis on e. 
 
 cielo . heaven 
 
 cieco blind 
 
 ciera , 
 
 .look 
 
 ciecolina grig, eel 
 
 ciecamente .Mindly 
 
 cieca blind woman *J 
 
 Cie, at the end of words, is either pronounced in two 
 syllables, or loses its i. See nouns in a. 
 Cio is sounded like cho, in the word chop. 
 
 acciocche ....that 
 
 cacio ...cheese 
 
 bacio hiss 
 
 cio tola ........cup 
 
 ci otole tta .... small cup 
 
 baciollo he kissed him 
 
 Ciu is sounded like choo, in the word choose. 
 
 ciuffole trifles 
 
 cix\ffolo........flfe 
 
 ciulla girl 
 
 ciurma crowd 
 
 fanciullo boy 
 
 fan ciulla girl 
 
 Che is sounded like ke, in the word 'kept. 
 
 chente ....which 
 
 ch el e claws of a scorpion 
 
 cheto quiet 
 
 ciocche that which, 
 
 perchb ..wherefore 
 
 poiche since 
 
 chinare ..to bend 
 
 chilo ...chyle 
 
 inchino .Ibow 
 
 Chi, absolute, or followed by a consonant, is sounded 
 like kee, in the word keep. 
 
 dechino declivity 
 
 pochi .few 
 
 cuochi cooks 
 
 Chi, followed by another vowel, thus, chia, chie, chj, 
 chiO) chiu, has a flat sound, suono schiacciato, as if they 
 were spelled in English, Jceeah, keeay^ keeye, keeo, kew; 
 pronouncing both vowels with a single impulse of the 
 voice, and putting the tongue rather flat under the roof 
 of the mouth. 
 
 chiaro clear 
 
 chiedo ...I ask 
 
 chiodo nail 
 
 chiudo I shut 
 
 chiudere to shut 
 
 di chiaro I declare 
 
 richiedo / request 
 
 occhj eyes 
 
 inchiodo / nail 
 
 rinchiudo ....I shut again 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Q 
 
 Ce 9 ci, cia, tie, cio, cm, preceded by an s 3 are sounded 
 in the following manner : — 
 
 See, like she, in the word she-riff'. 
 
 scena scene 
 
 scemo silly 
 
 discern ere to discern 
 
 disceYne he discerns 
 
 nasce he is born 
 
 pasce ........he feeds 
 
 Sci, like shi, in the word shiver. 
 
 discifra he deciphers 
 
 nasci thou art born 
 
 pasci .. thoufeedest 
 
 scimia ape 
 
 scilla ....squill 
 
 discifrare ...... ..to decipher 
 
 Scia, like sha, in the word sharp 
 
 sciabla sabre 
 
 sciamo swarm 
 
 fasciare to bind 
 
 lasciare to leave 
 
 poscia afterwards 
 
 striscia streak 
 
 Scie is sounded rather like shea, in the word shear ; 
 pronouncing, however, the two vowels ie with a single 
 impulse of the voice, and putting the emphasis on the 
 vowel e. 
 
 scienza science 
 
 scienziato learned 
 
 prescienza . 
 eoscienza , 
 
 ..prescience 
 ..conscience 
 
 Scie, at the end of words, is changed into see, d&fasce, 
 bindings, instead of fdscie ; unless it is pronounced in 
 two syllables. See nouns in a. 
 
 Scio is sounded like sho, in the word shop. 
 
 sciocco .foolish disci oglio ....I loosen 
 
 scioglio I loosen croscio crushing 
 
 disciolto loosened scoscio steep place 
 
 Sciu is sounded like shoo, in the word shoot. 
 
 sciupato wasted 
 
 sciugato wiped 
 
 asciugare to dry 
 
 rasciutto.. ... ..dried i* 
 
 Ca, che, chi, co, cu, cl, cr, chia, chie, chj, chio, chia, 
 preceded by the letter s, retain the same sound as we 
 said above. 
 
 scala ladder 
 
 scherma .fencing 
 
 schifo dirty 
 
 scopo scope 
 
 scudo shield 
 
 sclamare to exclaim 
 
 b3 
 
 scrlgno........ chest 
 
 schiavo slave 
 
 schiena back 
 
 rischj risks 
 
 schioppo gun 
 
 schiuma froth 
 
10 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 D. 
 
 D is sounded by striking the tongue behind the upper 
 teeth — not as the English do, who strike it against that 
 part of the palate which comes in contact with the 
 teeth. 
 
 This letter keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, 
 middle, and end of words. 
 
 dopo after 
 
 dove where 
 
 cadere to fall 
 
 vedere to see 
 
 ad to 
 
 ed ..and 
 
 E. 
 
 E has two sounds, one open {apertd), like the first e 
 of the word ever, as we said in the alphabet, and another 
 close (chiusd), like the a of the word cake. 
 
 CLOSE. 
 
 erba herb 
 
 eVmo solitary 
 
 esca he goes out 
 
 degno 
 
 legno.. 
 
 segno.. 
 
 .worthy 
 
 .wood 
 
 .mark 
 
 Some general rides respecting the sounds of e. 
 
 1. E is generally sounded open in the beginning of 
 words. 
 
 ^mulo rival 
 
 erran te wandering 
 
 ebriaco drunk 
 
 eclissi eclipse 
 
 editto ........edict 
 
 edu care to bring up 
 
 We say generally, because it is in the majority of 
 words that e is sounded open ; but there is also a great » 
 number in which this letter is sounded close: such as 
 egli, he ; essa, she ; esca, food, &c. 
 
 2. E is sounded open in all the words in which e is 
 preceded by i. 
 
 altiero proud 
 
 pieno .full 
 
 quiete rest 
 
 siedo I sit down 
 
 spiego / explain 
 
 viene „he comes 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 11 
 
 3. E is sounded open in words ending in e accented, 
 which are not derivatives of verbs. 
 
 aloe ..aloe 
 
 Giosue Joshua 
 
 Moise Moses 
 
 canape sofa 
 
 ohime alas! 
 
 ohise alas I 
 
 4. E is sounded open in the beginning of the termina- 
 tions of the first and third persons singular of the second 
 imperfect of verbs ending in ere, which are etti 9 ette, 
 ettero; and also of the same persons, and that of the 
 participles of irregular verbs ending in eggere and edere,^ 
 which are essi, esse, essero, etto, esso. 
 
 corr-etto corrected 
 
 1-etto read 
 
 r-etto ruled 
 
 conc-esso ....granted 
 proc-esso . . . .proceeded 
 succ-esso succeeded 
 
 cred etti I believed 
 
 tem-ette he feared 
 
 god- ettero ....they enjoyed 
 
 1-essi I read 
 
 r*esse he ruled 
 
 cor r-e'ssero.... they corrected 
 
 5. E is sounded close in the beginning of all the 
 terminations of the conditionals, which are erei, eresti, 
 erebbe, eremmo, ereste, erebbero. 
 
 am-erei I should love 
 
 port-eresti thou shouldst bring 
 
 parl-erebbe he should speak 
 
 cred-eremmo we should believe 
 
 vend-ereste you should sell 
 
 tem-erebbero they should fear 
 
 6. E is sounded close at the end of all words. 
 
 dolce ...sweet 
 
 dolore pain 
 
 ponte bridge 
 
 rende he renders 
 
 stende he stretches 
 
 cuore heart 
 
 7. E is sounded close in the beginning of all the ter- 
 minations of the imperfect, second imperfect, future, 
 and imperfect of the subjunctive, of verbs ending in ere. 
 
 av-eva I had 
 
 cred-evi thou believedst 
 
 ved-eva he saw 
 
 ten-evamo ....we held 
 tem-evate ....you feared 
 ved-evano ....they saw 
 pot-& I could 
 
 cred-ero / shall believe 
 
 batt-erai thou shalt beat 
 
 go d-era he will enjoy 
 
 rend-eremo ..we shall restore 
 vend-erete .. ..you will sell 
 ced-eranno . . they shall yield 
 av-essi / might have 
 
12 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 frem-esti .... ..thou didst fret 
 
 tem-e he feared 
 
 rend-emmo ..ice rendered 
 vend-este ....you sold 
 tess-erono ....they wove 
 
 batt-essi thou mightst beat 
 
 dic-e sse he might say 
 
 ced-essimo we might yield 
 
 splend-este....^0M might shine 
 vend-essero ..they might sell 
 
 It is to be observed, that in verbs ending in are, whose 
 terminations in the future and imperfect of the subjunc- 
 tive begin v/ith e 9 e is sounded close, as in the verbs in 
 ere. 
 
 am-ero I shall love 
 
 port-erai thou shall bring 
 
 perdon-era he shall forgive 
 
 d-essimo we might give 
 
 fac-este you might make 
 
 st-essero they might stand. 
 
 8. Both e's, in the termination ere of verbs, are sounded 
 close. 
 
 tern- ere to fear 
 
 ved-ere to see 
 
 legg-ere to read 
 
 prend-ere ....to take 
 
 cred-ere to believe 
 
 conced-ere.. ..to grant. 
 
 These are all the rules concerning the different sounds 
 of e 9 which comprise the greatest part of the words 
 having e ; and with regard to other words, we can assure 
 the student, that the difficulty with which the sound of 
 e is attended is not so great as it is represented by some 
 grammarians ; for if no ambiguity occur in sounding e 
 open or close, it is, if we may say so, of no great conse- 
 quence. I say, if no ambiguity occur ; because there is 
 a great number of words whose signification is known 
 by the sound of this letter 
 them. 
 
 The following is a list of 
 
 E, SOUNDED OPEN. 
 
 accetta he accepts 
 
 affetta he affects 
 
 ammezza he cuts in two 
 
 bei ( 1 ) handsome 
 
 berla ...a sort of herb 
 
 cappello hat 
 
 E, SOUNDED CLOSE 
 
 accetta axe 
 
 affetta he cuts in slices 
 
 ammezza it ripens 
 
 bei thou drinkest 
 
 berla to drink it 
 
 capello hair 
 
 (l) Bei for belli. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 13 
 
 E, SOUNDED OPEN. 
 
 cera mien 
 
 cetera $c. 
 
 ch'e(l) that is 
 
 colletto collected 
 
 Creta Isle of Candia 
 
 de' (2) he owes \ 
 
 deh! alas! 
 
 dea.. , ..goddess 
 
 dei gods 
 
 dessi(5) one ought 1 
 
 dessi I might give > 
 
 desse he might give 3 
 
 desti thou gave st 
 
 deste you gave 
 
 detti I gave 
 
 detle he gave 
 
 e is } 
 
 e and> 
 
 eh eh'S 
 
 egli (9) it is to him 
 
 elle ( 10) ., .. ..it is to her ) 
 
 elle the letter I \ 
 
 esca let him go out 
 
 esse..... the letter s 
 
 essi (u) one is 
 
 Este a family name 
 
 fella/. .felon 
 
 fello m .felon 
 
 felle f p .felons 
 
 felli m. p felons 
 
 fero (17J ......fierce 
 
 feste .fasts 
 
 Pe it is so 
 
 1 ega three m iles 
 
 legge „ he reads 
 
 lessi I read 
 
 E, SOUNDED CLOSE. 
 
 cera wax 
 
 cetera guitar 
 
 che who, which 
 
 colletto ...... hillock 
 
 creta clay 
 
 de'(3) of the 
 
 dea (4) he may give 
 
 dei of the 
 
 desse } the y themselves 
 
 desti (6), m. ..awaken 
 deste ( 7 ) /. . . . awaken 
 
 detti, wz «5ot;^ s<zzYZ 
 
 dette,/. a&cwe 1 sai^/ 
 
 e' (8) he, they 
 
 egli he 
 
 elle they,?. 
 
 esca ./boc? 
 
 esse they, f. 
 
 essi they, m. 
 
 este (12) ....these 
 
 fella (13) ^tf ftzacfe it 
 
 fello (14) ^e made it 
 
 felle ( 1 5 1 . . ,v . . he made them 
 
 felli (16) he made them 
 
 fero (17) they made 
 
 feste (18) .. ..you made 
 
 le the, or £0 her 
 
 lega he ties 
 
 legge /aw 
 
 lessi, wz boiled 
 
 (1) C%'e for c^e e. (2) IV for efew?. (3) 2V for efei. 
 
 (4) I)ea for cfoz. (5) Xtessz for si deve. (6) Desti for desiati, 
 
 a participle plural from destare. (7) JDesfe for destate. (8) JE J 
 for ei. (9) Egli for g/i £, used in poetry. (10) Elle for le e, 
 
 used in poetry. (14) Essi, used in poetry for si e. (12) 2&fe, 
 used in poetry for queste. (13) Fella for lafece. (14) _FW/o 
 
 for lofece. (15) jFWe for lefece. (16) -Fe//i for /i^k*?. 
 
 (17) JFero, used in poetry for fero. (17) -Fero, used in poetry for 
 fecero. (18) Feste for faceste. 
 
u 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 E, SOUNDED OFEN. 
 
 lesse he read 
 
 me' (l) better 
 
 m6\e honey 
 
 Menalo a mountain 
 
 me'nola a fish 
 
 m'esce it comes out 
 
 rnesse.. .. harvest 
 
 mezzo half 
 
 pera, (2) let him perish 
 
 pere, (3) he perishes 
 
 pesca peach 
 
 pesco peach tree 
 
 peste plague 
 
 se'(4) thou art 
 
 ' s£te, (5) you are 
 
 s telle, ( 6 ) it stood to her 
 
 stesso I unweave 
 
 stessa unweave thou 
 
 stessi thou unweavest 
 
 stesse he unweaves 
 
 te', (7) hold thou \ 
 
 te.. tea 5 
 
 telo, (8) dart 
 
 teli, (8) darts 
 
 tema theme 
 
 veggia hogshead 
 
 veglia, (9) old woman 
 
 veglio, (9) ....old man 
 
 veile he plucks 
 
 vello .fleece 
 
 velli .fleeces 
 
 ve*na pipe or reed 
 
 vene pipes 
 
 venti winds 
 
 vergola bark 
 
 E, SOUNDED CLOSE. 
 
 lesse,/. boiled 
 
 me me '. 
 
 mele apples 
 
 m enalo take him 
 
 menola I take her 
 
 mesce he pours out 
 
 messe masses 
 
 mezzo very ripe 
 
 pera pear 
 
 pere pears 
 
 pesca .fishery 
 
 pesco I fish 
 
 peste,/. pi.... .pounded 
 ^se* if the 
 
 se if 
 
 [ se himself 
 
 sete thirst 
 
 stelle stars 
 
 stesso himself 
 
 stessa herself 
 
 stessi, m. pi.... themselves, or thou 
 mightst stand 
 
 stesse,/. pi. . . . themselves, or he 
 might stand 
 
 te thee 
 
 telo it to thee 
 
 teli them to thee 
 
 tema .fear 
 
 veggia ..he may see 
 
 veglia he watches 
 
 veglio I watch 
 
 velle (10) ....see them 
 
 vello (11) ....see it, or I pluck 
 
 velli (12) see them, or thou 
 
 pluckest 
 
 vena vein 
 
 vene veins 
 
 venti ........ ..twenty 
 
 vergola (15) ..rod 
 
 (1) Me\ used in poetry for meglio. (2) Pera for perisca. 
 
 (5) Pere for perisce. (4) &?' for ^z. (5) &?fe for siete. 
 
 (6) £fe//<? for le stette. (7j TV for tienl (8) 7V/o and te/i, 
 words used in poetry. (9) Veglio and veglia, used in poetry for 
 vecchio and vecchia. (10) Fe/fe for vedile. (11) Fe//o for vedilo. 
 (12) Fe//i for vftft/i. (15) Vergola, used in poetry for wrga. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 15 
 
 F is sounded exactly as in English, and keeps one 
 unvaried sound at the beginning or the middle of 
 words. 
 
 fame hunger 
 
 fallo .fault 
 
 foglio leaf 
 
 difetto defect 
 
 conform e .... congenial 
 riforma ......reform 
 
 G. 
 
 G has two sounds^ one hard (rotondo), and the other 
 soft (chiaro, sonante). 
 
 When it is followed by a> o, a, r, it is sounded hard ? 
 as in English. 
 
 gala gala 
 
 gola throat 
 
 gufo owl 
 
 paga .....he pays 
 
 prego I pray 
 
 guglia obelisk 
 
 grazia ...grace 
 
 grave. 
 
 .grave 
 
 When g is followed by £, i, or ia, j, io, iu, thus, ge 9 
 gi> gia, gj, gio, giu, it is sounded soft. 
 
 Ge is sounded like ge 9 in the word gender. 
 
 gelos o .jealous 
 
 gelato .frozen 
 
 congelare ...Jo congeal 
 
 digerire to digest 
 
 frange he breaks 
 
 Gange Ganges 
 
 Gi is sounded like gi, in the word gingle. 
 
 gira he turns 
 
 gire to go 
 
 rigiro subterfuge 
 
 presagire toforetel 
 
 astrologi astrologers 
 
 raggi rays 
 
 Gia is sounded like ja 9 in the word Jar. 
 
 giacinto hyacinth 
 
 giaco coat of mail 
 
 giacere ........to lie down 
 
 Gj is sounded as if it were spelled with two &% 
 
 giace he lies down 
 
 spiaggia shore 
 
 saggia wise woman 
 
 palagj palaces 
 
 naufragj shipwrecks 
 
 el ogj . . eulogies 
 
 disagj fatigues 
 
16 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Gio is sounded like Jo, in the word John. 
 
 Giove Jupiter 
 
 gioja .joy 
 
 gioire to enjoy 
 
 magione nolle house 
 
 contagione ..contagion 
 cacciagione ..game 
 
 Gio sometimes makes two syllables at the end of words, 
 thus, naiifragi-o, shipwreck. 
 
 Giu is sounded like jV, in the word Judas. 
 
 Giuda Judas 
 
 Giudeo Jew 
 
 digiuno .......... fast 
 
 disgiunto disjoined 
 
 laggift there below 
 
 quaggift here below 
 
 Ghe is sounded like ge, in the word get. 
 
 ghembo crooked 
 
 gheppo ....bird of prey 
 
 vagheggia he admires 
 
 agghermigliare to hold 
 
 vaghe charming 
 
 streghe witches 
 
 Ghi is sounded like gi, in the word give. 
 
 ghigno smile 
 
 ghiro dormouse 
 
 inghirlandare to surround 
 
 aghi needles 
 
 laghi lakes 
 
 luoghi places 
 
 Ghi is also followed by a, e, o, thus, ghia, ghie,ghio i 
 which are sounded as if they were spelled geeah, geeay, 
 geeio, pronouncing the g hard, as in give, and the two 
 vowels with a single impulse of the voice. 
 
 ghiotto glutton 
 
 ghiaja.....» gravel 
 
 ghiado sword 
 
 ghiera quiver 
 
 ghierabaldana .Joy 
 
 ghiotta dripping pan 
 
 agghiacciare. . to freeze 
 agghiadare. . . . to benumb 
 av vinghia ....he encompasses 
 ringhia he frowns 
 
 Gl has two sounds, one hard, and the other soft. It 
 is sounded hard as in English, when the English words 
 have gl, as the Italian. 
 
 glebe glebe 
 
 globo globe 
 
 gloria , glory 
 
 Ingle'se English 
 
 negletto neglected 
 
 negligente .... negligent 
 
 In these words gl is seen both in Italian and English, 
 consequently it is to be pronounced hard, as in English ; 
 but when the English words are differently spelled from 
 the Italian, gl is sounded somewhat like the U's in the 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 17 
 
 English word billiards, or rather like the /Z's in the French 
 word fille, or like the ZZ's in the Spanish word llorar. 
 
 It is to be observed, that gl can be pronounced soft 
 only before i, or ia, ie, io, iuo : thus, gli, glia, glie, glio, 
 gliuo. 
 
 f igli children 
 
 tf gli linden trees 
 
 pigliare to take 
 
 tagliare to cut 
 
 paglia straw 
 
 figlia girl 
 
 t6gliere to take 
 
 cogliere to gather 
 
 foglie ., leaves 
 
 megliorare.. ..to better 
 
 taglione the talion law 
 
 figlio child 
 
 tagliuzzare....£o mince 
 pagliuzza .. ..bit of straw 
 
 miglio mile 
 
 figliuolo son 
 
 pagliuola ....spangle 
 tagliuola snare 
 
 Gn is sounded somewhat like the first n of the word 
 onion, or rather like gn in the French words Espagne, 
 Allemagne, or like n in the Spanish word anadir. 
 
 gnaffe truly 
 
 gnocco dunce 
 
 degno worthy 
 
 legno wood 
 
 degnare to deign 
 
 signore sir 
 
 Of the sounds of gl and gn, the English language, 
 strictly speaking, is destitute ; and on that account we 
 compared them with French and Spanish terms : but if 
 a student be not acquainted with those languages, he 
 may produce such sounds as those of gl and gn, by 
 opening the mouth, as if he were to pronounce e, with- 
 out, however, sounding it, and placing the tongue flat 
 under the roof of the mouth, in contact with the upper 
 teeth ; and thus, having always in view the Z/'s of billiards, 
 and the first n of onions, he will sound them as in 
 Italian. 
 
 Gua, gue, gui, guo, are sounded in one syllable, 
 sliding, as it were, on the letter u, and putting the 
 emphasis on the following vowel, exactly as the English 
 do in pronouncing gui, in the words extinguish and 
 distinguish. 
 
 guida guide 
 
 guai woes 
 
 distingue „+.he distinguishes 
 
 estinguere.. .. to put out 
 
 seguire to follow 
 
 adeguare ....to equal 
 
18 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 From this rule are excepted 
 
 contigu-o . . * . contiguous 
 
 ambigu-o ambiguous 
 
 argu-ire to argue 
 
 and all their derivatives, in which guo and gui are pro- 
 nounced in two syllables, as they are marked. 
 
 H. 
 
 This letter has no sound in Italian, nor is there, at 
 present, any word that begins with it, except ho, I have ; 
 hai, thou hast ; ha, he has ; hanno, they have : and that 
 is done to distinguish those words from o, signifying or ; 
 ai, to the ; a, to ; and anno, a year. Some writers have 
 attempted to introduce the writing of these four words 
 as part of the verb averc, to have, without an h, and 
 putting an accent on the first vowels, thus, o, ai, a, anno; 
 but they found no imitators. H, however, is necessary 
 in the Italian language, because it serves to alter the 
 sounds of c and g, preceding e and i : thus, ci and gi 
 are sounded soft, as we said, like chi, in the word 
 chicane, and gi, in the word gin ; but if an h is put 
 between c or g, and the vowels e or i, thus, che, chi, ghe, 
 ghi, the sound of c and g becomes hard. When h is found 
 at the end of words, which happens only with interjec- 
 tions, thus, ah ! eh ! ih ! oh ! uh ! deh ! &c, it is not to 
 be pronounced ; but it serves to indicate, that the sound 
 of the preceding vowel is to be pronounced longer than 
 if it were spelled without an h. 
 
 This vowel is pronounced like i in the word ignorant. 
 Its sound is unvaried at the beginning, the middle, and 
 the end of words ; except when it is marked with a 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 19 
 
 grave accent, which happens only at the end of words, 
 and then it is sounded with a stronger emphasis. 
 
 baci 
 
 jra ire 
 
 irato angry 
 
 diamo we give 
 
 mira aim 
 
 denti teeth 
 
 di day 
 
 lunedi Monday 
 
 J. 
 
 The sound of this letter is the same as that of i ; but 
 when it makes a syllable with the following vowel, it is 
 sounded like y 9 in the English words yet, you. 
 
 jena hyena 
 
 jeri yesterday 
 
 jernotte last night 
 
 ajo ... 
 
 Cajo . 
 ajuto. 
 
 . tutor 
 . Caius 
 .help 
 
 This is the most approved method of writing these 
 words, and those who write iena, ieri, &c. are not to be 
 imitated ; for if they were spelled with an i instead of j 9 
 the pronunciation would be different, as i cannot be 
 joined with another vowel, unless like a diphthong, 
 when it should be pronounced separately from the other 
 vowel, but with a single impulse of the voice. See 
 Diphthongs.—-^' also serves to express two i's. See 
 Orthography. 
 
 L. 
 
 L is sounded as in English, in the beginning, the 
 middle, and the end of words. 
 
 loro them 
 
 legno wood 
 
 ealore heat 
 
 palo ....... 
 
 col with the 
 
 nel in the 
 
 M. 
 
 M is sounded as in English. 
 
 mano hand 
 
 meno less 
 
 Romano Roman 
 
 comune common 
 
 baciam let us hiss 
 
 andiam let us go 
 
20 Or PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 M, however, is sounded like n, when it ends a word 
 to which ne is joined. 
 
 andiamne) n ^ nMmna ( andianne 
 baciamne* P ron <™ ^ bacianne 
 
 For further observations on this letter, see Ortho- 
 graphy. 
 
 N. 
 
 N is generally sounded as in English, and keeps one 
 unvaried sound at the beginning, the middle, and the 
 end of words. 
 
 nome name 
 
 nota note 
 
 dinota he denotes 
 
 anima soul 
 
 con . with 
 
 non not 
 
 When n, however, ends a word, and the following 
 word begins with a labial, or, rather to say, with a letter 
 that is pronounced with the lips, such as b, m, p, that n 
 takes the sound of m. 
 
 un bambino^! Turn bambino „„ababy 
 
 non posso > pronounce < nom posso I cannot 
 
 non meno J l^nom meno not less 
 
 It is to be observed, that in this case m is not to be 
 sounded with its full sound, but it must be blended with 
 the following 5, m, p, so as to make almost one sound 
 with them. N, in short, ending a word, and preceding 
 another word beginning with a consonant, is never to be 
 sounded full, as when it precedes a word beginning with 
 a vowel : therefore, the student is not to pronounce 
 conn questo, for con questo, with this ; nonn dico, for non 
 dico, I don't say ; but he is to sound it as it were half n, 
 if we may use such an expression. This is, perhaps, 
 the reason that con, with, and non, not, preceding the 
 articles il, lo, la, li, le, are sometimes made to coalesce with 
 them, making col, collo, colla, colli, colle, signifying with 
 the ; and not, nollo, nolla, &c, signifying not it or them. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 21 
 
 o. 
 
 O, like £, has likewise two sounds ; one open {aperlo) y 
 like o, in the word orange^ as we said in the alphabet, 
 and the other close (chiuso), like o, in the word bone. 
 
 OPEN. 
 
 6ra .pray thou 
 
 volto turned 
 
 torre to take away 
 
 rosa rose 
 
 CLOSE. 
 
 ora now 
 
 volto .face 
 
 torre tower 
 
 rosa gnawed 
 
 Some general rules respecting the sound of o. 
 
 1. O is sounded open, in all words that are derived 
 from Latin, of which au is changed into o. 
 
 LATIN. ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 
 
 «wrum.. oro gold 
 
 audio odo I hear 
 
 ttwdeo oso / dare 
 
 prtwllulum poco little 
 
 tawrus toro bull 
 
 thesaurus tesoro treasure 
 
 2. 6, accented, is sounded open at the end of words, 
 which generally happens in the third person of the 
 second imperfect of verbs belonging to the first conjuga- 
 tion, and likewise the first person of the future of all 
 verbs in general. 
 
 SECOND IMPERFECT. 
 
 amo he loved 
 
 portd he brought 
 
 perdono he forgave 
 
 regnd he reigned 
 
 visitd he visited 
 
 or dino he ordered 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 amero I shall love 
 
 credero / shall believe 
 
 leggero / shall read 
 
 vivro / shall live 
 
 torro / shall take 
 
 corro 2" shall gather 
 
 3. () is sounded open, in all words in which it is pre- 
 ceded by u, with which it forms a diphthong. 
 
 buona good cuoca cook 
 
 cuore heart giuoca he plays 
 
 suona he plays puote he can 
 
2S OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 4. Another rule may be added to these, which is, to 
 sound o open in the middle of words in which it has the 
 acute accent, or rather to say, on which the voice rests 
 more than on any other letter. 
 
 popolo people 
 
 monaco monk 
 
 possono they can 
 
 cogliono .they gather 
 
 godono they enjoy 
 
 an cor a ..„....yet 
 
 tesoro treasure 
 
 mordono they bite 
 
 In these words, the voice rests upon the o's, which are 
 marked with the acute accent ; consequently, they are to 
 be sounded open, and the others close : but this rule is 
 attended with many exceptions. 
 
 5. O is sounded close in all words that are derived 
 from Latin, the u of which is changed into o. 
 
 LATIN. ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 
 
 vulgus volgo rabble 
 
 multus molto ..much 
 
 super sopra ,. k vpon 
 
 cursus corso course 
 
 vultus.... volto .face 
 
 dulcis dolce sweet 
 
 6. O is sounded close, at the end of all words, when it 
 is not marked with an accent; for in that case, it is 
 sounded open, as we said in the second rule. 
 
 amo I love 
 
 porto I bring 
 
 perdono I forgive 
 
 regno / reign 
 
 visito .....I visit 
 
 ordino / order 
 
 mano hand 
 
 sano wholesome 
 
 santo holy 
 
 canto canto 
 
 pero pear 
 
 dardo dart 
 
 7. O is sounded close, in all words ending in one and 
 ore, when it is not preceded by u. 
 
 Antigone ....Antigone [ am ore love 
 
 Tesifone Tisiphone dolore grief 
 
 Amazzone.. ..Amazon | pudore modesty 
 
 8. O is sounded close in all terminations of the third 
 person plural of the present tense of verbs, whose infini- 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 23 
 
 tives end in ere and ire ; and the third person of the 
 conditional, ending in erebbono, of all verbs. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE, THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 
 
 c re don o they believe 
 
 se'ntono they hear 
 
 temono they fear 
 
 vedono they see 
 
 prendono ... .they lose 
 
 vogliono they will 
 
 tengono they hold 
 
 ridono they laugh 
 
 godono they enjoy 
 
 dormono.,.,..^y sleep 
 
 CONDITIONAL, THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 
 
 eglino amerel)bono they should love 
 
 eglino crederebbono they should believe 
 
 eglino sentirebbono ....,....♦ ..they should hear 
 
 We cannot give any more rules respecting the sound 
 of o, on account of their being attended with exceptions; 
 but if the learner pays attention to those we have laid 
 down, the greatest part of the difficulty respecting this 
 letter, will be removed. There is, however, a number 
 of words, which, though spelled alike, have a double or 
 triple signification, according to the sound which is given 
 to o, and these we will subjoin for the use of the 
 student. 
 
 0, SOUNDED OPEN. 
 
 accorre he welcomes 
 
 accorsi ( 1 ) . . . . / perceived 
 
 accorse he perceived 
 
 accorsero .... they perceived 
 
 accorto cautious 
 
 alloro laurel 
 
 apporti thou bringest 
 
 arroto I sharpen 
 
 botte strokes, or toads 
 
 co' (3) gather thou 
 
 cogli thou gather est 
 
 0, SOUNDED CLOSE. 
 
 accorre he runs to 
 
 accorsi I ran to 
 
 accorse he ran to 
 
 accorsero ....they ran to 
 
 accorto I shorten 
 
 alloro (2) to them 
 
 apporti thou guessest 
 
 arroto, m added 
 
 botte ....butt 
 
 co', m.p with the 
 
 cogli, m.p with the 
 
 (1) Accorsi, accorse, accorsero, being derivatives of accorgersi, 
 a reflective verb — require the particles mi, si, before them ; thus 
 mi accorsi, si accorse, si accorsero. (2) Alloro for a loro. (J) Co* 
 used in poetry, instead of cogli. 
 
24 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 0, SOUNDED OPEN 1 . 
 
 cola ( 1 ) he worships 
 
 colla glue 
 
 colle hill 
 
 colli hills 
 
 collo neck 
 
 coloro those 
 
 col to gathered 
 
 coppa cup 
 
 corre to gather 
 
 Corso a Corsican 
 
 Corsi Corsicans 
 
 corti to gather for thee 
 
 costa .....rib or hill 
 
 costo name of a plant 
 
 dogl io / grieve 
 
 folia (2) / make it 
 
 folle (3) I make them, or 
 
 a madman 
 
 fora (4) he should be 
 
 fosse ..ditches 
 
 gomito an officer of a 
 
 ship, who pre- 
 
 sides over the 
 
 rowers 
 
 Gotta a female Goth 
 
 Gotto a Goth 
 
 importi thou meanest 
 
 incolto overtaken 
 
 indotto ignorant 
 
 l'ho I have it 
 
 loro gold 
 
 loto herb 
 
 morse he bit 
 
 noce(5) he hurts 
 
 ora (6) air, or he prays 
 
 orno wild ash 
 
 poppa breast 
 
 porci pigs 
 
 porsi I o] 
 
 O, SOUNDED CLOSE. 
 
 cola it flows 
 
 coll a, /. s with the 
 
 colle, fp. .... with the 
 
 colli, m.p with the 
 
 collo, m.s with the 
 
 coloro I colour 
 
 col to cultivated 
 
 coppa the hind part of 
 
 the head 
 
 corre he runs 
 
 corso run, or course 
 
 corsi / ran, or courses 
 
 corti courts 
 
 costa,... it costs 
 
 costo expense 
 
 doglio .jar 
 
 folia ...crowd 
 
 folle crowds 
 
 fora he robs 
 
 fosse .he might be 
 
 gomito elbow 
 
 gotta gout 
 
 gotto glass 
 
 importi, to impose upon 
 
 thee 
 
 incolto ,. uncidtivated 
 
 indotto induced 
 
 lo the 
 
 loro them 
 
 loto mud 
 
 morse pincers 
 
 noce nut tree 
 
 ora hour, now 
 
 orno I adorn 
 
 poppa the stern of a ship 
 
 porci to put us 
 
 porsi to put one^s-self. 
 
 (l) Cola, used in poetry, instead of adora. (2) Folia, for la fo. 
 (5) Folle for lefo. (4) Fora, used in poetry, instead of sarebbe. 
 (5) Noce for nuoce. (6) Ora, used in poetry, instead of aura. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 25 
 
 0, SOUNDED OPEN. 
 
 pose pauses 
 
 ricorre to gather 
 
 riporti thou bringest 
 
 again 
 ritorne (1).... to take from it 
 
 again 
 
 rocca castle 
 
 Rodano the river Rhoda- 
 
 nus 
 
 Rodi Rhodes, Island 
 
 rogo .funeral pile 
 
 rosa rose 
 
 roso ... plant 
 
 rozza .jade 
 
 scola (3) school 
 
 scopo scope 
 
 scorsi I perceived 
 
 scorta a guide 
 
 scorto guided 
 
 sole (4) he is wont 
 
 soli (5) thou art wont 
 
 solla(6) I know it 
 
 sollo (7) I know it 
 
 sola great boat 
 
 solo (8) ground, soil 
 
 Somma a mountain near 
 
 Naples 
 sono,or son{9)sound, or I play 
 sonne(lO)...,! know of it 
 
 sorta a kind 
 
 sorte destiny 
 
 sorti kinds 
 
 stolto diverted 
 
 stoppa he stops with tow 
 
 tocca silk band 
 
 tomo volume 
 
 tomi volumes 
 
 0, SOUNDED CLOSE. 
 
 pose heput 
 
 ricorre he has recourse 
 
 riporti to put thyself 
 
 again 
 ritorne (2) .. ..thou returnest 
 
 rocca distaff 
 
 rodano let them gnaw 
 
 rodi thougnawest 
 
 rogo a bramble 
 
 rosa, /. gnawed 
 
 roso, m gnawed 
 
 rozza,/. rough 
 
 scola it drains 
 
 scopo I sweep 
 
 scorsi I wandered 
 
 scorta he shortens 
 
 scorto I shorten 
 
 sole sun 
 
 soli, m.p alone 
 
 solla,/. soft 
 
 sollo, m soft 
 
 sola,/. alone 
 
 solo, m alone 
 
 somma sum 
 
 sono, or son ..7 am, or they are 
 
 sonne (11)..../ am of it, or 
 
 there are some 
 
 sorta,/. s risen 
 
 sorte,/. p risen 
 
 sorti, m.p risen 
 
 stolto .foolish 
 
 stoppa .tow 
 
 tocca ,. ..he touches 
 
 tomo .....a fall 
 
 tomi .falls 
 
 (1) Ritorne for rii or gliene. (2) Ritorne for tu ritorni. (3) Scola 
 for scuola, (4) Sole used in poetry for suole. (5) Soli used in 
 poetry for suSli. (6) Sollafov la so. (7) Sollo for lo so. (8) Solo 
 for suolo. (9) Sono for suono, or io suono. (10) Sonne for ne so* 
 (11) Sonne for ne sono. 
 
 C 
 
26 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 0, SOUNDED OPEN. 
 
 torme ( l) .. ..to take from me 
 
 tome (2) to take from us 
 
 torre (4) to take away 
 
 torsi / twisted 
 
 t6rta,y. crooked 
 
 torvi to take from you 
 
 tosco .poison 
 
 trotta he trots 
 
 volgo I turn 
 
 voto .....empty 
 
 0, SOUNDED CLOSE. 
 
 torme crowds 
 
 torne(3) thou returnest 
 
 torre tower 
 
 torsi stumps of a cab' 
 
 bage 
 
 torta tart 
 
 torvi cruel men 
 
 Tosco a Tuscan 
 
 trotta trout 
 
 volgo rabble 
 
 voto a vow 
 
 P is sounded as in English, and keeps one unvaried 
 sound at the beginning and the middle of a word. 
 
 pane bread capo ... 
 
 padre .father dopo .. . 
 
 porto.. port rapa ... 
 
 .head 
 .after 
 . turnip 
 
 Q. 
 
 Q, though it sounds, as we said, like coo, in the 
 English word cook, cannot be used in Italian, without 
 the assistance of the letter u, and another vowel, thus ; 
 qua, que, qui, quo, which are are always to be pronounced 
 in one syllable, as the English do, in the words quack, 
 quaker, queen, quoits. 
 
 quale., 
 queto.. 
 questo 
 quinto 
 quivi .. 
 quota . 
 
 ..which 
 
 ..quiet 
 
 ..this 
 
 ..fifth 
 
 ..there 
 . . share 
 
 quoziente ....quotient 
 quanto how much 
 
 alquanto some 
 
 dunque then 
 
 chiunque ....whoever 
 quantunque ..although 
 
 equa,/. s .just 
 
 eque,/./? .just 
 
 equi, m p. ....just 
 equo, m. s. . 
 
 (l) Torme, used in poetry for togliermi. (2) Tome, used in 
 poetry for toglierci. (3) Tome, used in poetry for tbrni. (4) Torre, 
 for togliere. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 27 
 
 Q might appear to some a useless letter in the Italian 
 language, and not unlike c ; but it is not so, because 
 there are words, which being spelled with this letter, 
 have a different signification from those spelled with c. 
 Besides qu is always pronounced in one syllable with the 
 following vowel, and cu is separated from it. 
 
 Qui, pronounced in one syllable — here, 
 Cu-i, pronounced in two syllables — which. 
 
 R. 
 
 R is not sounded as in English, as some modern 
 grammarians pretend, but with a stronger emphasis; 
 which is effected by striking the tip of the tongue under 
 the palate, before a consonant only : but it is sounded 
 rather soft before a vowel. 
 
 BEFORE A CONSONANT. 
 
 sarto tailor 
 
 serto crown 
 
 sorto I go out 
 
 parto / depart 
 
 ridere to laugh 
 
 riposo ,rest 
 
 BEFORE A VOWEL. 
 
 rima rhyme 
 
 risa laughter 
 
 amore love 
 
 dolore pain 
 
 favore /favour 
 
 cuore heart 
 
 s. 
 
 S has two sounds in Italian ; one strong (gagliardo), 
 and another soft (rimesso). The strong sound is like 
 that of <?, in the English words seldom^ salt ; and the soft 
 is like that of s, in the words cause, please. 
 
 STRONG SOUND. 
 
 sale salt 
 
 senno sense 
 
 sole sun 
 
 rosa gnawed 
 
 casa house 
 
 raso satin 
 
 studio study 
 
 spada sword 
 
 spirito spirit 
 
 resto / remain 
 
 me sto sorrowful 
 
 c2 
 
 SOFT SOUND. 
 
 guisa guise 
 
 tesoro treasure 
 
 usura usuiy 
 
 rosa rose 
 
 musa muse 
 
 usare to use 
 
 muso snout 
 
 posa pause 
 
 uso use 
 
 accusa charge 
 
 ottuso blunt 
 
28 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 It is rather difficult to lay down sure rules for knowing 
 when s is sounded strong, and when soft ; however, the 
 following ones, if they do not remove the difficulty, will 
 at least give the student some light upon the subject in 
 question. 
 
 1. S, either in the beginning or the middle of words, 
 being followed by a consonant, is sounded strong, as we 
 said above, like s, in the words seldom, salt. 
 
 sbarra bar 
 
 Scarpa shoe 
 
 sfogo vent 
 
 sgabello stool 
 
 smemorato ...dull 
 
 snervato weakened 
 
 sparo report 
 
 sregolato immoderate 
 
 stolto .foolish 
 
 svenlre .. co .. ..to faint away 
 
 di sperare to despair 
 
 disvellere ...Jo pluck 
 distendere ...Jo stretch 
 
 espellere to expel 
 
 ristaurare ...Jo restore 
 ristudiare ...Jo study again 
 
 It is to be observed, that s is sounded strong, as above, 
 before c, when c is followed by a, o, u, Z, r ; but if c is 
 followed by e, or i, s has another sound, quite different 
 from the soft or the strong. See page 9. 
 
 2. S, preceding a vowel, in the beginning of a word, 
 is sounded strong, as we said above, and there is no need 
 of more examples ; but from this rule we must except 
 proper names beginning with X in Latin or English, in 
 which s is sounded softer. 
 
 Serse Xerxes 
 
 Senocrate ....Xenocrates 
 
 Senofane Xenophanes 
 
 Senofonte .... Xenophon 
 
 3. In words compounded with prepositions, or in 
 words to which the particle si of impersonal or reflective 
 verbs, signifying it is, it was, &c, or himself, herself 
 itself, is annexed, the s of si is sounded strong. 
 
 dis-ubbidire .Jo disobey crede si it is believed 
 
 dis usare to disuse dice va-si it was said 
 
 con-seguire . . to obtain vetle-si it is seen 
 
 tras-mettere ..to transmit amar-si to love oneself 
 
 ri-soluto resolute creder-s to believe oneself 
 
 pre-sumere ..Jo presume sentir-si to feel 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 29 
 
 4. S has a soft sound between two vowels : as we said 
 above, it is sounded like s, in the words cause > please. 
 
 From this rule are excepted the following words, in 
 which <?, though between two vowels, is sounded strong. 
 
 cosi thus 
 
 altresl also 
 
 maisl yes 
 
 cosa thing 
 
 casa house 
 
 caso chance 
 
 raso satin 
 
 rosa,/. gnawed 
 
 rosi, m. p gnawed 
 
 rose,/, p. .... gnawed 
 
 5. In all words ending in oso, and their plurals osi, 
 5, though between two vowels, is sounded strong. 
 
 riposo rest 
 
 peloso hairy 
 
 virtuoso virtuous 
 
 tortuoso winding 
 
 suntuosi sumptuous 
 
 spiritosi witty 
 
 maestosi majestic 
 
 ingegnosi .... ingenious 
 
 To which may be added the three irregular persons of 
 the second imperfect of the verb rispondere^ to answer, 
 and rodere, to gnaw, and also the participle of the latter, 
 in which s is sounded strong. 
 
 risposi i* answered 
 
 rispose he answered 
 
 risposero .. ....they answered 
 
 rosi I gnawed 
 
 rose ....he gnawed 
 
 rosero they gnawed 
 
 rose gnawed 
 
 6. Two s's are always sounded strong. 
 
 cossi I baked 
 
 posso I can 
 
 rosso .. ; ..red 
 
 fosso ditch 
 
 sasso stone 
 
 tosse cough 
 
 T. 
 
 This letter is not sounded as in English, as some 
 grammarians affirm. The English sound it by striking 
 the tongue against that part of the palate which comes in 
 contact with the teeth, which produces a sound rather 
 blunt; but the Italians strike the tongue behind the teeth, 
 which produces a sound clearer and more distinct. 
 
30 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 T keeps one unvaried sound at the beginning or 
 middle of words. 
 
 tuo thine 
 
 tosto soon 
 
 tratto tract 
 
 canto canto 
 
 stato been 
 
 avuto ...had 
 
 Formerly, this letter was put in the middle of some 
 words, derived from Latin, instead of z, and pronounced 
 as such. 
 
 gratia .for grazia grace 
 
 letione .for lezione lesson 
 
 oratione .for orazione oration 
 
 At present, however, it would be a fault to spell those 
 words with t. 
 
 U. 
 
 The sound of u is that which is heard in uttering 00, 
 in the English word ooze, which sound is effected by 
 projecting the lips forward, and pressing the breath in a 
 moderate way without any motion of the tongue. When 
 it is found at the end of words, which are not numerous 
 in Italian, it is sounded like u in the word bull. 
 
 uno. one 
 
 unire to unite 
 
 unione union 
 
 cupo hollow 
 
 busto..... bust 
 
 gusto.... taste 
 
 tu thou 
 
 su upon 
 
 virt^ virtue 
 
 tribil tribe 
 
 laggi & there below 
 
 lassu upon there 
 
 U is sounded like u in the words quaJcer, queens, 
 distinguish. See the letter Q. 
 
 This letter also, like many others to which modern 
 grammarians have given the English sound, is sounded 
 differently. The English indeed sound it by putting 
 the under lip in contact with the upper teeth, as the 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 31 
 
 Italians do ; but in forcing the breath, the former do it 
 in such a manner as to produce a sound resembling that 
 of/"; and the latter touch the lips with the teeth so 
 lightly, that not the least sound of f is heard. 
 
 V is always followed by a vowel, with which it makes 
 one single sound, thus, va, ve> vi, vo, vu, whether in 
 the beginning or middle of words, which are sounded 
 exactly as they are by the English in the word valour, 
 vein* village, void, vulture, always taking care not to 
 sound v likej^ 
 
 vano vain 
 
 vedo I see 
 
 vino mine 
 
 volo -flight 
 
 vulgo rabble 
 
 mvano in vain 
 
 rivedo I see < 
 
 divlno divine 
 
 rivolo I fly again 
 
 di v ulgo / divulge 
 
 z. 
 
 Some grammarians have given four sounds ta this 
 letter, others three; but Buommattei, whose footsteps 
 we have resolved strictly to follow in compiling this 
 work, says that z 9 accurately speaking, has but two 
 sounds, one strong (gagliardo), like that produced in 
 uttering s, preceded by t, thus, ts ; and the other soft, 
 (rimesso), like that produced in sounding ds strong. 
 
 zampa 
 zecca 
 
 zitella 
 zoppo 
 zuppa J 
 
 STRONG. 
 
 pronounce 
 
 tsampa paw 
 
 tsecca mint 
 
 -^ tsitella maid 
 
 | tsoppo lame 
 
 ttsuppa soup 
 
 zanni "J 
 zeffiro | 
 zibibbo ^ 
 zotico 
 zurlo 
 
 fdsanni buffoon 
 
 \ dseffiro zephyr 
 
 pronounce < dsibibbo raisin 
 
 ] dsotico rude 
 
 Ldsurlo mirth 
 
 These two sounds are easy to be learned, but the 
 difficulty is to find what are the words in which this 
 
32 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 letter is to be pronounced strong, as well as those in 
 which it is soft. 
 
 The general rules on this subject are numerous, and 
 these are subject to numberless exceptions; this, how- 
 ever, shall not prevent us from laying some of them 
 down. But as we cannot entirely remove the difficulty 
 by this means, we shall subjoin a list of a great number 
 of words, with the proper pronunciation of this letter, 
 which we have extracted from the works of those 
 authors who have written on this subject. 
 
 1. Z then in the middle of words, followed by the 
 letter i and another vowel, is sounded strong like ts. 
 
 grazia grace 
 
 milizia militia 
 
 pronunzia ....pronunciation 
 
 azione action 
 
 meditazione ..meditation 
 pretenzione ..pretension 
 
 2. Z in the middle of words, preceded by I and r, is 
 likewise sounded strong like ts. 
 
 milza... spleen 
 
 scorza rind 
 
 sforzo effort 
 
 calza stocking 
 
 forza strength 
 
 scherzo .joke 
 
 From this rule are excepted gar zone *, boy, orzo, 
 barley, in which z is sounded rather soft. 
 
 3. Z, in words ending in anza, arize, anzi, enza, enze, 
 inza, inze, is sounded strong like ts. 
 
 diligenza .... diligence 
 
 senza.. without 
 
 prudenza ....prudence 
 
 speranza hope 
 
 costanza constancy 
 
 stanze rooms 
 
 anzi nay 
 
 innanzi before 
 
 grinza wrinkle 
 
 grinze wrinkles 
 
 4. Two afs in all words ending in ezza, and likewise 
 in all diminutives ending in ozzo, ozza, uzzo, uzza, are 
 sounded strong like ts. 
 
 foresozzo ....peasant 
 foresozza .... country girl 
 
 omuzzo a mean little man 
 
 feminuzza ....a mean little wo- 
 man 
 
 bellezza beauty 
 
 lentezza slowness 
 
 prestezza ....quickness 
 contezza information 
 
OF PKONUNCJATION, 
 
 38 
 
 A List of Familiar Words most commonly used. 
 
 In the following words, z is to be sounded strong 
 like ts. 
 
 zampa ....... .paw 
 
 zampillo a water-spout 
 
 zampogna .... bagpipe 
 
 zana cradle 
 
 zanata a basketful 
 
 zanga leg 
 
 zan co left-handed 
 
 zanna ..tusk 
 
 zappa spade 
 
 zappare to dig 
 
 zecca mint 
 
 zebro zebra 
 
 zecchiere ....director of the 
 mint 
 
 zecchino sequin 
 
 zecco he-goat 
 
 zeppa wedge 
 
 zeppo .full 
 
 zio uncle 
 
 zimarra ...... morning gown 
 
 zimbello bird-call 
 
 zingaro gipsy 
 
 zinna... breast 
 
 zitella maid 
 
 zitto hush 
 
 zoccolo wooden shoe 
 
 zolfo sulphur 
 
 zolla clod 
 
 zombare to beat 
 
 zoppo lame 
 
 zucca pumpkin 
 
 zucchero sugar 
 
 zuccolo the crown of the 
 
 head 
 
 zufolo .flageolet 
 
 zuffa a ff ra y 
 
 zugo .juice 
 
 zuppa soup 
 
 In the following words, z is sounded like ds. 
 
 zacchera .trifle 
 
 zaftar e to stop up 
 
 zafferano .... saffron 
 
 zaffetica asafcetida 
 
 zafFiro sapphire 
 
 zaffo ...., bung 
 
 zagaglia .javelin 
 
 zaino wallet 
 
 zambra wardrobe 
 
 zanni .'.buffoon 
 
 zanzara gnat 
 
 zara risk 
 
 zatta ,melon 
 
 zattera raft 
 
 zavorra ballast 
 
 zazzera head of hair 
 
 zeffiro zephyr 
 
 zelamina calamine 
 
 zelo zeal 
 
 zendado silk stuff 
 
 zenzero ginger 
 
 zenzara gnat 
 
 zenzovero ....ginger 
 
 zerbino dandy 
 
 ze'zzolo teat 
 
 zero zero 
 
 zibaldone ....a mixture of 
 
 writings 
 
 zibellino zibelline 
 
 zibibbo ....... raisin 
 
 zirlo the whistling of a 
 
 thrush 
 zizzania ... ...choke-weed 
 
 zodiaco zodiac 
 
 zona zone 
 
 zotico rude 
 
 zurlo mirth 
 
 zurlare to play 
 
 zurro .joke 
 
 c3 
 
34 
 
 OF VROKUNCTATIOK. 
 
 In the following words, the two s's are sounded strong 
 ike ts. 
 
 abbozzare ...Jo sketch 
 
 abbozzo sketch 
 
 abbuzzago .. ..buzzard 
 accarezzare ..to caress 
 accozzare ....to heap up 
 
 adizzare to exasperate 
 
 affazzonare ..to adorn 
 
 aguzzare to sharpen 
 
 aguzzo sharp 
 
 aizzare to excite 
 
 ammazzare ..to kill 
 apprezzare ..to value 
 
 arazzo * . . tapestry 
 
 attizzare .to stir the fire 
 
 attrezzo tool 
 
 avvezzare ....to accustom 
 
 av vezzo accustomed 
 
 azzannare ....to snap 
 azzuffare . . * . to fight 
 bacherozzo ...a little silk-worm 
 
 baciozzo hearty kiss 
 
 biscazza a gambling-house 
 
 bozzolo ...... the pod of a silk- 
 worm 
 
 cagnazzo nasty dog 
 
 carrozza coach 
 
 capezzale ....bolster 
 
 cavezza ..... ..halter 
 
 cocuzzolo ....summit 
 
 corazza cuirass 
 
 cozzare to butt 
 
 cozzo butting 
 
 dassezzo at last 
 
 diguazzare ....to shake 
 
 disprezzo .... contempt 
 
 disprezzarc.^o despise 
 dirizzare.. ....to make straight 
 
 fazzoletto .... handkerchief 
 
 frizzo an itching 
 
 gavazzare ....to dance for joy 
 
 gazza magpie 
 
 ghiozzo drop 
 
 gozzo , . . bird's crop 
 
 guazzetto ....ragout 
 
 guazzo ..ford 
 
 guazzare ......to beat any thing 
 
 liquid in a vessel 
 
 guizzo decrepid 
 
 irabarazzo .... embarrassment 
 impazzare ....to become mad 
 
 indirizzo direction 
 
 ingalluzzare . . to swell with pride 
 ingozzare ....to swallow 
 intirizzire ....to grow stiff 
 
 lazzo sour 
 
 lezzo stench 
 
 lizza career 
 
 mazza ».. stick 
 
 mazzo a bunch, a pack 
 
 merluzzo cod 
 
 mezzo ripe 
 
 mozzo cutoff 
 
 nozze wedding 
 
 palazzo .palace 
 
 paonazzo purple 
 
 pazzo • mad 
 
 pezzo a bit, a piece 
 
 piazza square 
 
 pizzicore itching 
 
 pozzetta dimple 
 
 pozzo a well 
 
 prezzo .price 
 
 prezzolare ....to haggle 
 
 puzzo stench 
 
 ragazza girl 
 
 razza race 
 
 rintuzzare ....to resist 
 
 ruzzola truckle 
 
 scozzonare ..to break in a 
 
 horse 
 
 sgozzare to cut one's throat 
 
 singhiozzare..£o sob 
 singhiozzo ....hiccough 
 sollazzare ....to recreate 
 
 sollazzo recreation 
 
 sminuzzare ..to mince 
 
 sozzo dirty 
 
 spazzare .to sweep 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 spazzuola ....brush 
 schiamazzo ..noise 
 sergozzone ..modillon 
 
 sezzajo last 
 
 sezzo last 
 
 schizzo sketch 
 
 sorgozzone ..prop 
 
 spezzare to cut in pieces 
 
 spruzzo sprinkling 
 
 stizza wrath 
 
 strapazzare ..to ill-use 
 strapazzo ....contempt 
 stravizzare....fo make merry 
 
 stravizzo . . . .feast 
 
 strozzare to strangle 
 
 strozzo throat 
 
 struz zo ostrich 
 
 stuzzicare ....to pick 
 
 tazza cup 
 
 terrazza terrace 
 
 tizzone .firebrand 
 
 tozzo a bit 
 
 vezzeggiare ..to caress 
 
 vezzo charm 
 
 vizzo withered 
 
 zazzera head of hair 
 
 In the following words, the two z's are sounded soft 
 like ds. 
 
 lazzo drollery 
 
 magazzino.. ..magazine 
 martirizzare..2o martyr 
 
 mezzano middle 
 
 mezzo means 
 
 moralizzare ..to moralise 
 
 mozzo bit 
 
 notomizzarcfo anatomise 
 organizzare ..to organise 
 orizzonte ....horizon 
 particolariz- to give a particu* 
 
 zare lar account of 
 
 polizza bitt 
 
 polverizzare ..to pulverise 
 profetizzare . . to foretell 
 
 razza thornback 
 
 razzo squib 
 
 rezzo shady place 
 
 ribrezzo .fear 
 
 rozza .jade 
 
 rozzo ..rude 
 
 ruzzare to play 
 
 sbizzarrire....fo grow complai- 
 sant 
 scandalizzare to scandalise 
 sollennizzare to solemnise 
 tesaurizzare .. to hoar dup money 
 tramezzare ..to put between 
 
 zizzania choke-weed 
 
 Gazza ........ Gaza (city) 
 
 addirizzatqjo 
 
 he who straightens 
 
 agonizzare... 
 
 .to agonise 
 
 amraezzamen 
 
 -the act of cutting 
 
 to 
 
 in the middle 
 
 ammozzarsi . 
 
 .to grow hard 
 
 ammozzicare 
 
 to cut in pieces 
 
 ammezzare . 
 
 .to cut in two 
 
 Amazzone... 
 
 .Amazon 
 
 analizzare ... 
 
 .to analyse 
 
 autorizzare . 
 
 . authorise 
 
 azzimo 
 
 .unleavened 
 
 azzurro 
 
 .azure 
 
 battezzare .. 
 
 . to baptise 
 
 bizzarria 
 
 . whim 
 
 bizzarro .... 
 
 .odd 
 
 bizzoco .... 
 
 .bigot 
 
 canonizzare 
 
 .to canonise 
 
 caratterizzare characterise 
 
 catechizzare 
 
 ..catechise 
 
 dimezzare .. 
 
 .to part by the 
 
 
 middle 
 
 dirozzare .. 
 
 ..to polish 
 
 dozzina .... 
 
 ..dozen 
 
 dozzinale .. 
 
 ..vulgar 
 
 esorcizzare 
 
 ..to exorcise 
 
 gargarizzare 
 
 ..to gargle 
 
 gazzetta .... 
 
 ..gazette 
 
 ghiozzo .... 
 
 ..gudgeon 
 
 ghiribizzo .. 
 
 ..caprice 
 
 latinizzare .. 
 
 ..latinise 
 
 Lazzaro .... 
 
 ..Lazarus 
 
36 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 It is to be observed, that all the derivatives of the 
 above words follow the nature of their primitives; 
 thus, the z of zappa being sounded like ts 9 is sounded 
 the same in zappare, its derivative, and likewise in all its 
 tenses, such as zappo, zappi, zappa, zappiamo, zappate, 
 zappanoi I dig, &c, and so on of all other tenses. And 
 again, the two z*s of agonizzare are sounded like ds ; 
 consequently, in all its derivatives, such as agonizzo, 
 agonizzi, agonizza, agonizzidmo, agonizzate, agonizzano, 
 the two #'s are pronounced ds 9 and so on of the other 
 words. 
 
 Ph, K, X, Y. 
 
 These four characters, which belong to the Latin as 
 well as to the English language, the Italians have not 
 adopted, but they supply their places with other 
 letters. 
 
 Ph is changed intoy in Italian. 
 
 LATIN. ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 
 
 phantasraa fantasma phantom 
 
 phasianus fagiano pheasant 
 
 philosophia filosof ia philosophy 
 
 K is changed into c. 
 
 kalendae calende calends 
 
 kalendarium calendario almanack 
 
 X is changed into a single or double s. 
 
 Xerxes Serse Xerxes 
 
 Xenocrates Senocrate Xenocrates 
 
 axioma assioma axiom 
 
 X is sometimes changed into c, as in the following 
 words. 
 
 excedere eccedere to exceed 
 
 excellens eccellente excellent 
 
 excelsus eccelso noble 
 
OF PItONtJNClATION. 37 
 
 X of Xante*, a river, is not changed into s, because it 
 would be confounded with santo^ saint ; nor that of cer- 
 tain Latin expressions used by some authors as they are 
 in their original language. Such are, 
 
 eximproviso ..*, at unawares 
 
 exte mpore immediately 
 
 exprofesso professedly 
 
 Y is changed into i. 
 
 ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 
 
 Elysium r ....Eliso Elysium 
 
 embryon embrio embryo 
 
 hyperbole iperbole hyperbole 
 
 gyrus giro circle, turn 
 
 Observations on the Letters. 
 
 Two vowels of the same name, viz. — two as, two es, 
 two i's, &c. form a diphthong, which see page 39. 
 
 Two consonants of the same name, viz. — two J's, two 
 ef s, two t^s, &c. have the same sound as a single one ; 
 but they are to be pronounced with a stronger impulse 
 of the voice, and without being separated. 
 
 abbandonare .to abandon 
 addolcire . . . . to soften 
 
 afferrare to seize 
 
 allettare to allure 
 
 ammainare ..to lower the sails 
 
 annoverare ..to reckon 
 appannare ....to cloud 
 
 atterrare to knock doum 
 
 avvelenare. ...to poison 
 azzardare ...Jo risk 
 
 With respect to the two consonants, c and ^, it is to 
 be observed that, as they have two sounds, one strong and 
 another soft, as we said in pages 7 and 15, being dou- 
 bled, the first is sounded like the second : thus, if these 
 two letters, being followed by a, o, u, Z, r, are sounded 
 hard when single, being double they retain the same 
 sound ; and being followed by e and z, they are sounded 
 soft when single ; and when they are doubled, they 
 retain the same sound. 
 
38 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Two e's before a, o, u, Z, r — Two g*s before a, o, w, I, r- 
 are sounded as in English. 
 
 accattare to beg 
 
 accorrere to run to 
 
 accumulare...£o heap up 
 acclamare .. ..to proclaim 
 accrescere ...Jo augment 
 
 aggaffare to catch 
 
 aggottare to pump up 
 
 aggustare to taste 
 
 aggradire ....to please 
 aggran di re .... to increase 
 
 Two (?s before e or i, sound- Two g's before e or i, sound- 
 ed like ch in cheese, ed like g in the word gipsy. 
 
 accettare to accept 
 
 accendere ....to light 
 accelerare . . . . tc hasten 
 accingere ....to prepare 
 accidia sloth 
 
 aggettivo adjective 
 
 aggelare to freeze 
 
 aggirare to go about 
 
 aggirarsi to wander 
 
 aggirato wandered 
 
 Of Diphthongs. 
 
 A diphthong, dittongo, is the union of two vowels, 
 pronounced with a single impulse of the voice, in such 
 a manner that both vowels may be heard ; but the 
 emphasis or accent is sometimes on the first, and some- 
 times on the second vowel. 
 
 ON THE FIRST. 
 
 P-aolo Paul 
 
 b-eo-no they drink 
 
 d-ia-no they give 
 
 ON THE SECOND. 
 
 p-ia-ga wound 
 
 t-uo-no thunder 
 
 p-ia-no softly 
 
 Of the Number of Diphthongs. 
 
 Grammarians are at variance in reckoning the diph- 
 thongs ; but we, to avoid discussions and trouble, will 
 follow Buommattei, who says, that there are as many 
 diphthongs in Italian as syllables of two vowels, and he 
 lays down the following eighteen. 
 
 ae aere air 
 
 ai maisi yes 
 
 ao Paolo ..Paul 
 
 au , Aurora ..Aurora 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 39 
 
 ea Borea north-wind 
 
 ee; idee..** ideas 
 
 ei reina queen 
 
 eo Eolo Eolus 
 
 eu Europa Europe 
 
 ia fiato breath 
 
 ie piede .foot 
 
 io piove it rains 
 
 iu schiuma .froth 
 
 oi oime ...alas! 
 
 ua guado ford 
 
 ue guerito cured 
 
 ui altrui others 
 
 uo tuono thunder 
 
 To these we may safely add five more, which are — 
 
 aa Baal Baal 
 
 ii dii gods 
 
 oa Boadicea Boadicea 
 
 oe Boemia Bohemia 
 
 oo Demofoonte Demofoontc 
 
 The union of three vowels is called trittongo, triph- 
 thong, and of four vowels, quadrittongo. 
 The trittongo is as in the following words. 
 
 miei mine 
 
 suoi his 
 
 puoi thou canst 
 
 vuoi thou wilt' 
 
 tuoi thine 
 
 cuoi leathers 
 
 But the existence of the quadrittongo has been dis- 
 puted, and the four vowels in the words figliuoi, chil- 
 dren, and lacciuoi) snares, syncopated of jigliuoli and 
 lacciuolis are not quadrittonghi, as the i that precedes u 
 does not belong to the four vowels ; but it is inserted to 
 render the sound of gl liquid, and that of c soft. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 1. /a, io, iw, being preceded by c or g, thus, cia, cio 9 
 ciu, gia, gio, giu, ana making one syllable with it, are 
 not diphthongs ; as the i that is put there serves only to 
 give a soft sound to c or g, for, without i, the sound of 
 
40 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 c and g would be hard. But if cia, cio, gia, gio, are 
 pronounced in two syllables, ia 9 io, are diphthongs — 
 
 Cia, cioy cm, gia, gio, giu 
 
 MAKING ONE SYLLABLE. MAKING TWO SYLLABLES. 
 
 audaci-a audacity 
 
 ciacco hog 
 
 cionco drunken 
 
 ciullo rude 
 
 giaco coat of mail 
 
 giorno day 
 
 giusto ......... just 
 
 edifici-o edifice 
 
 sudici-o dirty 
 
 elegi-a elegy 
 
 vestigi-o .footstep 
 
 p restigi-o ...» illusion 
 
 2. Ie, preceded by c or g, different from ia, io, iu, is 
 always a diphthong, as the i is put there to be sounded, 
 and not to soften the sound of c and g. Besides, if that 
 i were put to soften the sound of c and g, the i of cie 
 and gie would scarcely be audible ; and then the words 
 of which they are a part would have a different significa- 
 tion, as it is seen in the following words. 
 
 cielo heaven 
 
 cieco blind 
 
 ciera mien 
 
 gielo .frost 
 
 gielone a kind of mush* 
 
 celo I hide 
 
 ceco I blind 
 
 cera wax 
 
 gelo I shudder 
 
 gelone a very hard frost 
 
 3. Ja>je,jo,ju> as well as va, ve, vi, vo, vu, are ngt 
 diphthongs, according to the opinions of some gram- 
 marians, as j and v are consonants. 
 
 Of the Division of Diphthongs. 
 
 Diphthongs are divided into two classes, namely, distesi, 
 extended, and raccolti^ compressed. 
 
 The distesi are those in which the vowels are pro- 
 nounced separately, as if each vowel formed a syllable ; 
 and the principal vowel on which the emphasis lies is 
 the first. 
 
 da-i .from the 
 
 ma-i never 
 
 vo-i you 
 
 ml-o mine 
 
 de-i gods 
 
 co-i with the 
 
 tu-o thine 
 
 zi-o uncle 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 41 
 
 The racccolti are those of which the first vowel is 
 scarcely audible on being pronounced, and its sound is 
 confused with that of the next vowel, on which lays the 
 emphasis. 
 
 fiato breath 
 
 miele honey 
 
 niente not king 
 
 questo this 
 
 guasto spoiled 
 
 pieno .full 
 
 Of the Genders of Letters. 
 
 Letters in Italian have, like all other substantives, 
 their genders, which are known thus : — 
 
 The vowels &, £, and all those consonants which cannot 
 be uttered without their aid, such as^/J h 9 I, m, n> r, s, z 9 
 are of the feminine gender. Thus, we say, 
 
 una bella a ajfinea, 
 
 una e aperta an e sounded open 
 
 una/ ben formata an {well formed 
 
 un' h majuscola a capital h 
 
 The vowels i, o, w, and all other consonants, are of the 
 masculine gender. Thus, we say, 
 
 un i corto a short i 
 
 un^* lungo a long] 
 
 un o aperto an o sounded open 
 
 un u majuscolo a capital u 
 
 un d minuscolo a small d 
 
 In these examples the termination in a of the adjec- 
 tives, shews that the letters with which they are accom- 
 panied are of the feminine gender ; and that in o shews 
 that the letters are of the masculine gender ; besides 
 that, the gender may also be known by the articles ; una 
 or wri! with an apostrophe serves for the feminine, and 
 an for the masculine. 
 
 Letters have no plural, and we say dice a, two a's, 
 tre 6, three 6's, quattro g, four ^'s, &c. 
 
4$ OF PRONUNCIATION'. 
 
 These are all the rules respecting pronunciation 
 which we think necessary for a student to be acquainted 
 with, and without which no learner, unprovided with a 
 master, will ever be able to go on in his favourite study ; 
 and with regard to the division of words, quantity, &c. 
 the student will find them treated of at length in the 
 fourth part of this work, the Orthography* 
 
 END OF THE FIRST PART. 
 
OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 PART II. 
 
 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The second part of grammar treats of the different 
 sorts of words, their various modifications, and their 
 derivation. 
 
 There are in Italian nine sorts of words; or, as they 
 are commonly called, Parts of Speech, ngmely : — 
 
 1. Articolo Article 
 
 2. Nome Noun 
 
 3. Pronorae Pronoun 
 
 4 Verbo Verb 
 
 5. Participio Participle 
 
 6. Awerbio Adverb 
 
 7. Preposizione Preposition 
 
 8. Congiunzione Conjunction 
 
 9. Interiezione ...Interjection 
 
 1. An article is a word prefixed to substantives, to 
 point them out, and to show how far their signification 
 extends ; as, the spirit, lo spirito ; the book, il libro ; the 
 house, la casa. 
 
 2. A noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of 
 which we have any notion, as man, uomo ; woman, 
 donna ; London, Londra. 
 
 8. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
 avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, 
 a man is happy because he is benevolent, l'uomo e felice, 
 perche egli e benevolo. 
 
44 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 4. A verb is a word which signifies to be, essere, to 
 do, fare, to suffer, soffrire ; as, I am, io sono ; we 
 love, noi amiamo ; they are beaten, eglino sono battidi. 
 
 5. A participle is a word so called, as it partakes of 
 the nature of the verb and the adjective ; as loved, 
 amato ; spoken, parlato ; believed, creduto. 
 
 6. An adverb is a word joined to verbs and adjec- 
 tives, to express some quality or circumstance respecting 
 them ; as ? he reads well, egli legge bene ; he is a very 
 good man, egli e un uomo molto buono, or buonissimo. 
 
 ?. Prepositions serve to connect words with one 
 another, and to show the relation which exists between 
 them ; as, before the house, avanti la casa ; behind the 
 church, diecro della chiesa. 
 
 8. A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
 used to connect sentences, so as out of two or more sen- 
 tences to make but one ; as, you and she are happy, tu 
 ed ella sietefelici ; I see that you are clever, vedo che voi 
 siete abile. 
 
 9. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
 of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the 
 speaker ; as, alas ! who could imagine it ? alii ! chi rnai 
 potea immaginarlo. 
 
 The number of the parts of speech has been variously 
 fixed by different grammarians. Some have enume- 
 rated ten, others eight, and others more or less. We, 
 however, have followed those authors who appear to 
 have adopted the most natural and intelligible distri- 
 bution. 
 
OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. ^ 45 
 
 CHAPTER II. * 
 
 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 
 
 The Articles, in Italian, are words prefixed to sub- 
 stantives, to point out their gender, genere, number, 
 numero, and case, caso; and likewise to shew how 
 far their signification extends. 
 
 The genders are two, viz. the masculine, masculino, 
 and the feminine, femminino. 
 
 The numbers are two, viz. the singular, singoldre, or 
 numero del me no, and the plural, plurdle, or numero del 
 piu. 
 
 The cases are six, viz. 
 
 I. The nominative, nominativo, or caso retto, ovprimo 
 caso. 
 
 II. The genitive, genitivo, caso obliquo, secondo caso. 
 
 III. The dative, dativo, caso obliquo, terzo caso. 
 
 IV. The accusative, accusativo, caso obliquo, quarto 
 caso. 
 
 V. The vocative, vocativo, caso obliquo^ quinto caso. 
 
 VI. The ablative, ablativo, caso obliquo> sesto caso. 
 
 For the sake of young pupils, who are often at a loss 
 about the meaning of the cases, we will here insert a 
 brief explanation of them. 
 
 The nominative case, which is generally distinguished 
 by one of these particles, fo, i/, la, gli, i, le, is so called, 
 because it declares the name of any thing, as heaven, 
 cielo ; earth, terra; man, uomo ; woman,, donna; and 
 likewise because it designs the person or thing which 
 forms the subject of any phrase ; as, Peter teaches, Pietro 
 msegna; the table is good, la tavola e buona. 
 
 The genitive or possessive case, which is distinguished 
 by one of these particles, di, dello, del, delta, degli, de\ 
 delle, generally indicates the possessor or the quality of 
 the substantive by which it is governed, or the subject 
 of which we speak ; as, Peter's hat, it cappello di Pietro ; 
 
\ 
 
 46 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 
 
 a straw hat, un cappello di paglia; I speak of what 
 happened, io pdrlo di quel che e arrivdto. Di Pietro : 
 Pietro is the possessor of the hat. Di paglia : paglia is 
 the quality of the hat. Diquel: quel is the subject of 
 which we speak. 
 
 The dative, which is distinguished by one of these 
 particles, a, alio, al, alia* agli, ai, alle, shews the per- 
 son to whom we give, speaks write, fyc. ; as, to give to 
 the poor, dare a? poveri ; to speak to our friends, parldre 
 a! nostri amici; to go to London, anddre a Londra; to 
 approach the house, avvicindrsi alia cdsa. A y poveri, a? 
 nostri amici, a Londra, alia casa, are the datives after 
 the verbs to give, to speak, to go, to approach. 
 
 The accusative or objective case is the same as the 
 nominative, and expresses the object acted upon ; as 
 Peter likes study, Pietro ama lo studio ; Maria loves 
 x virtue, Maria arna la virtu: studio, and virtu, are accu- 
 satives, because they are the objects acted upon by Pietro 
 and Maria. 
 
 The vocative case serves to address or call people, 
 and is generally preceded by o, and very often without 
 any mark, as, Oh! my beloved heart, o amdto cuore ; 
 oh ! sweet friend, o dolce amico ; Gentlemen, I tell you 
 that, &c, Signori rriiei, io vi dico che, ecc. ; my chil- 
 dren, be good, figli miei, sidte buoni. 
 
 The ablative case, which is distinguished by one of 
 these particles, da, dallo, dal, dalla, dagli, dai, dalle, 
 marks the separation, distance, and is the case coming 
 after all passive verbs; as, separated from the world, 
 separdto dal mondo; far from London, lungi da Londra ; 
 he is loved by her, egli e amdto da lei. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 There are in Italian two kinds of articles, one definite, 
 the other indefinite. 
 
 The definite article, as we said, serves to mark the 
 gender, number, and case, and is expressed three ways, 
 
OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 47 
 
 viz. lo, il, la; lo and il are prefixed to masculine nouns, 
 and la to the feminine. 
 
 Declension of lo. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. (l)lo the gli 
 
 Gen. dello (2) of the degli 
 
 Dat. alio toihe agli 
 
 Ace. lo the gli 
 
 Abl. dallo , .from, or by the dagli 
 
 This article and all its inflections are prefixed to mas- 
 culine nouns beginning with z, or with s, when s is 
 followed by another consonant, which is called s impura: 
 Ex. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. lo zingaro(s) ....the gipsy gli zingari 
 
 Gen. dello zingaro of the gipsy degli zingari 
 
 Dat alio zingaro to the gipsy agli zingari 
 
 Ace. lo zingaro the gipsy gli zingari 
 
 Abl. dallo zingaro.... from or by the gipsy ....dagli zingari 
 
 Nom. lo sprone the spur gli sproni 
 
 Gen. dello sprone of the spur degli sproni 
 
 Dat. alio sprone to the spur agli sproni 
 
 Ace. lo sprone the spur gli sproni 
 
 Abl. dallo sprone .from or by the spur dagli sproni 
 
 Zo, and its singular inflections, lose their Jast vowel 
 o, and take an apostrophe, before masculine nouns be- 
 ginning with a vowel; thei, however, of the plural inflec- 
 
 (1) In declining nouns, pronouns, &c. throughout this work, we 
 have omitted the vocative, as it is either expressed by o, or with no 
 mark at all. 
 
 (2) Poets have often made use of de lo, a lo, da lo, de gli, a gli, 
 da gli, instead of the above : not to be imitated in prose. 
 
 (3) Some grammarians have prefixed il to masculine nouns be- 
 ginning with z in the singular, and gli in the plural ; others have 
 given to these nouns the article il, and all its inflections; we, how- 
 ever, agree with those who have prefixed to them lo and all its 
 inflections, for il would sound rather harshly. 
 
43 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 
 
 tions, is not to be suppressed unless the nouns begin 
 with an i. Ex. 
 
 SINGULAR. * PLURAL. 
 
 Norn, l'amico(l) the friend gli amici(2) 
 
 Gen. dell'amico of the friend degli amici 
 
 Dat. alPamico to the friend agli amici 
 
 Ace. l'amico the friend gli amici 
 
 Abl. dalPamico .from or by the friend .. .. dagli amici 
 
 Nom. llnglese the Englishman (5)gPInglesi 
 
 Gen. dell'Inglese of the Englishman degl'Inglesi 
 
 Dat. alllnglese to the Englishman agPInglesi 
 
 Ace. l'Inglese the Englishman gl'Inglesi 
 
 Abl. dall'Inglese .....from or by the Englishman dagPInglesi 
 
 Declension of il. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. il 4) the i or li 
 
 Gen, del of the de' or dei (5) 
 
 Dat. al tothe ..'a' or ai 
 
 Ace. il the i or li 
 
 Abl. dal .from or by the ...., da' or dai 
 
 This article, and all its inflections but Zi 5 are pre- 
 fixed to all masculine nouns beginning with a consonant 
 which is not z or s impara. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. il padre the father i padri 
 
 Gen. del padre of the father dei padri 
 
 Dat. al padre to the father ai padri 
 
 Ace. il padre the father i padri 
 
 Abl. dal padre .from or by the father dai padri 
 
 (1) Lo may be put before masculine nouns beginning with any 
 vowel but o, as, lo amico, dello amico, &c. but not lo ordine, the 
 order. Lo, before masculine nouns, beginning with a vowel, is often 
 found in ancient and modern authors, but we think it is better not 
 to depart from the above rules. 
 
 (2) Beware of writing gP amici, degP amici, &c. 
 (5) Never write gli Inglesi, degli Inglesi, &c. 
 
 (4) // for lo, and lo for il, are often found in poetry, and even in 
 prosaic authors of old date ; but such examples are not to be 
 imitated. , 
 
 (5) Instead of de*, dei, a\ ai % da 9 , dai, we find in poetical and 
 prosaic works de i, de li, delli, ai, a li, alii, da i, da li, dalli ; but they 
 are to be avoided. 
 
OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 49 
 
 Observations. 
 
 II may sometimes lose the u and take an apostrophe ; 
 as, e 1 ! padre disse, and his father said. 
 
 / is generally suppressed at the end of several words, 
 and an apostrophe is inserted in its place ; as, nei, ne\ 
 in the; sid, su\ upon the. 
 
 Lu though often used by ancient writers, instead of i, 
 is now, and that very seldom, only used with words 
 indicating the date of the month ; and also before quali. 
 Metastasio says in his letters : Vienna^, li 27 giugno 1768, 
 Vienna, the 27th of June, 1768. — Boca 46: Li quali 
 tutti senza alcuna cosa in capo standogli^ who were 
 standing before him with their heads bare ; and again, 
 di due si fa menzione, li quali. ec, they mention two, 
 that, &c. 
 
 Declension of la. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. la the le 
 
 Gen. della of the delle 
 
 Dat. alia to the alle 
 
 Ace. la the le 
 
 Abl. dalla .from ox by the dalle 
 
 This article and all its inflexions ai*e prefixed to femi- 
 nine nouns beginning with a consonant, Ex. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. la madre themother le madri 
 
 Gen. della madre. .....of themother delle madri 
 
 Dat. alia madre to the mother alle madri 
 
 Ace. la madre themother le madri 
 
 Abl. dalla madre .from or by the mother . ... dalle madri 
 
 Za, and all its singular inflections, drop their last 
 vowel a, and take an apostrophe, before feminine nouns 
 beginning with a vowel ; the £, however, of the plural 
 inflections, is not dropped, except when the nouns begin 
 with an e. Ex. 
 
 D 
 
50 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. Parte the art le arti 
 
 Gen. dell'arte of the art delle arti 
 
 Dat. alParte to the art alle arti 
 
 Ace. Parte the art ,.le arti 
 
 Abl. dall'arte .from or by the art dalle arti 
 
 Nom. Perba the herb Perbe 
 
 Gen. delPerba of the herb delPerbe 
 
 Dat. alPerba totheherb all'erbe 
 
 Ace. Perba the herb Perbe 
 
 Abl. dalP erba .from or by the herb dall'erbe 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Feminine nouns beginning with any vowel but a, may 
 take the article la without elision, in the singular, and 
 without the e in the plural ; but we think it is better to 
 use I with an apostrophe in the singular, and le in the 
 plural, unless the nouns begin with an e, as we have said ; 
 even in that case, however, if the feminine nouns begin 
 with an e, and have the same termination in the plural 
 as in the singular, the article in the plural is to be le, and 
 not I with an apostrophe ; as, Veta, the age, le eta ; 
 Teffigie, the effigy, le effigie. For if otherwise, the 
 plural would be the same as the singular, without any 
 distinction. 
 
 General Observations on the Articles lo, il, la, gli, i, le. 
 
 When any of these words but i, are found before a 
 verb, they are not articles, but pronouns relative, signi- 
 fying him, her, it, them ; io lo vedo, I see him ; io il 
 credo, I believe it; egli la stima, he esteems her, &c. 
 See relative pronouns for their construction. 
 
 These words, preceded by the preposition i?i, coalesce 
 with it, making nello, nel, nella, negli, nei or ne\ nelle ; 
 which are subject to the same rules as those words ; that 
 is to say, they are put before the same nouns as the 
 articles are, and $re abridged whenever the nouns begin 
 with a vowel ; as — 
 
OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 51 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 nello ( 1 ) specchio.. ..in the looking-glass negli specchj 
 
 nell'occhio .. ..in the eye negli occhj 
 
 nel llbro in the booh nei or ne'libri 
 
 nella cassa in the box nelle casse 
 
 nell'anima in the soul nelle anime 
 
 These examples will suffice, and there is no need of 
 greater authority. 
 
 When lo, il, la, gli, i, le, are preceded by the pre- 
 position con, they coalesce with it, making collo, col, collti, 
 cogli, coi, or co\ colle. 
 
 Lo and gli before a noun beginning with s followed 
 by a consonant, and la, le, before nouns beginning 
 with a consonant, preceded by con, are better spelled 
 con lo, con gli, con la, con le. The student, however, 
 may use them either w r ay without committing a fault, as 
 the best writers, and even grammarians, both ancient 
 and modern, have used them indifferently. Here are a 
 few examples to give authority to this assertion. 
 
 Bocc. 3. 9. says : lo non viedico colla mia scienza, anzi 
 collo ajuto di Dio, e colla scienza di Maestro Gerdrdo 
 Narbonese, I do not pretend to cure you by my own 
 ability, but I rely upon the help of God, and the 
 science of Mr. Gerard Narbonese; and again : Bocc. Lett. 
 E quelle colla fante, colla fornaja, e colla trecca, o colla 
 lavandaja, berlingano senza resiare ; and they prate over 
 their cups with the servant, baker, fruiterer, or washer- 
 woman, without intermission. 
 
 Soave, one of our best writers, and a grammarian, says : 
 Ma nonfu liber ato, se non dopo die Elvira collo sposo 
 furonpartiti per V Indie, but he was not set at liberty before 
 Elvira, together with her husband, had gone to India ; 
 and again : Stringendosi in parentela colla famiglia 
 Suarez, by uniting himself w r ith the family of Suarez ; 
 
 (l) Poets are wont to spell these words thus : — ne lo,nela, negli, 
 ne le. In some poets of old date, we also find in lo, in la ; not to be 
 imitated in prose. 
 
 TS 9. 
 
52 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 
 
 and Gang. Le sue jiglie, se pensa ad opprimerle colle 
 molte istruzioni, ec. If you wish to burthen your 
 daughters with too much instruction, &c. ; and again : 
 Ma noi viviamo in un certo secolo, nel quale sHmpone 
 colle belle parole, but we live in a peculiar age, in winch 
 people adorn their commands with fine words. There 
 are innumerable examples, but the above will be suffi- 
 cient to assure the student of the truth of our asser- 
 tion. 
 
 Out of these words, il and i only, preceded by the 
 preposition per, coalesce with it, making pel, and pei or 
 pe\ the other words remaining as they are, when preceded 
 by per. 
 
 Instead of pel and pei or pe\ we find per lo, per li, in 
 authors of note, and we think it is more elegant. Ex. 
 Bocc. 
 
 E che voi del suo esilio, e dell 9 essere andato tapmo per 
 lo mondo sette anni non siate cagione, questo non si pud 
 negare ; you cannot deny that you have been the cause 
 of his banishment, and of his wandering along through 
 the world for seven whole years. 
 
 Lo, il, la, gli, i, le, preceded by the preposition su, 
 coalesce with it, making sullo, sul, sulla, sugli, sui or 
 su\ sulle, and are subject to the same rules as those 
 words are. Ex. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 sullo spirito on the mind sugli spiriti 
 
 sull'opinione on the opinion sulle opinioni 
 
 sul tetto on the roof sui or su'tetti 
 
 sulla casa on the house sulle case 
 
 suH'anima on the soul sulleanime 
 
 These words, except sul and sui, may be spelled su h, 
 su la, su gli, su le, without committing a fault. 
 
 There is no need of more examples, as all gram- 
 marians agree in this case. 
 
 Lo, il, la, gli, i, le^ preceded by other prepositions, 
 remain unaltered, and are spelled separately from them, 
 except il and i, the i's of which may be dropped, and an 
 
OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 53 
 
 apostrophe inserted, as trdl or tra! between the, or 
 JtoHl, oxfrcH, instead of tra il, or tra ir—fra il, oxfra i ; 
 as, fra'l or trdl padre e ilfiglio, between the father and 
 the son ; Jra 1 or tra 1 Jratelli e le sorelle, between the 
 brothers and the sisters ; instead oifra il, tra il,fra i, 
 tra i, &c. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE, 
 
 This article has but three cases, the genitive, the 
 dative, and the ablative, which serve for both genders 
 and numbers; and the nominative and accusative of 
 those nouns that are declined with this article are not 
 distinguished by any mark. It is declined as follows :— 
 
 Gen. di (1) ...of 
 
 Dat. a to 
 
 Abl. da ...from or by 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Di may drop the i and take an apostrophe, before 
 Kouns beginning with a vowel ; as, di Antonio, or d" An- 
 tonio. Before nouns beginning with an i, the i of di is 
 always suppressed ; as, effetto d'ira, and not di ira, effect 
 of wrath ; azion dlingrato, and not di ingrdto, action of 
 an ungrateful man. 
 
 A may take d, making ad, before nouns beginning 
 with a vowel; as, a Ugo, or ad Ugo, to Hugh. Before 
 nouns beginning with an a, ad is always to be used, and 
 never a ; as, ad Antonio, to Anthony, ad Anna, to Anna., 
 and not a Antonio, a Anna. 
 
 (l) Grammarians do not agree about the name of these words. 
 Some call them indefinite articles, others call them prepositions, 
 and others other names ; but as the name does not alter their 
 import, we shall call them articles when they precede a noun, and 
 prepositions when they precede a verb. 
 
54 OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 Da is never altered, though the nouns begin with a 
 vowel. The reason is, that if the a were to be dropped^ 
 it could not be distinguished whether it is the ablative 
 or the genitive. 
 
 Declension of the Indefinite Article with a Noun begin- 
 ning with a Consonant. 
 
 Nom. Pietro ...^.... Peter Roma Rome 
 
 Gen. di Pietro of Peter di Roma of Rome 
 
 Dat. a Pietro to Peter a Roma to Rome 
 
 Ace. Pietro Peter Roma Rome 
 
 Abl. da Pietro .from or by da Roma .from or by 
 
 Peter Rome 
 
 Nom. Ugo Hugh Anna Ann 
 
 Gen. di or d'Ugo ..of Hugh di or d' Anna.. of Ann 
 
 jDat. a or ad Ugo . . to Hugh a or ad Anna to Ann 
 
 Ace. Ugo .Hugh Anna Ann 
 
 Abl. da Ugo .from or by da Anna .from or by 
 
 Hush Ann 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 OF THE NUMERAL UNO, ONE. 
 
 As this word cannot be called an article, being the 
 first of numbers, we should have omitted it in this part 
 of the grammar ; but as it is generally used as an article 
 by English grammarians, though in a different sense, we 
 thought proper to insert it here. 
 
 Uno is declined with the indefinite article. 
 
 Nom. uno a, or an, or one 
 
 Gen. di or d' uno of a, of an, of one 
 
 Dat. a or ad uno to a, to an, to one 
 
 Ace. uno a,an,one 
 
 Abl . da uno .from a, by an, from one 
 
 Observations. 
 Uno is put before masculine nouns beginning with z 
 or s impura; as, uno zio, an uncle; uno spirito, a 
 spirit. 
 
OF THE NUMERAL UNO, ONE. 55 
 
 Uno loses its o before all those masculine nouns that 
 do not begin with z or s impura, whether they begin with 
 a vowel or a consonant ; as, un libro > el book ; un angelo ^ 
 an angel. 
 
 Uno becomes una before feminine nouns beginning 
 with a consonant ; as, una donna, a woman ; una signora, 
 a lady. 
 
 Uno loses its o, and takes an apostrophe, before feminine 
 nouns, beginning with a vowel. Ex. 
 
 Declension of Uno before Words beginning with z or s 
 
 impura. 
 
 Nom. uno zio anuncle uno sposo ....ahusband 
 
 Gen. d'uno zio of an uncle d' uno sposo.. of a husband 
 
 Dat. ad uno zio ...Jo an uncle ad uno sposo. Jo a husband 
 Ace. uno zio. ...... .aw uncle uno sposo ....a husband 
 
 Abl. da uno zio.... from an uncle da uno sposo., from or by a 
 
 husband 
 
 Declension of 'Un before Masculine Nouns beginning either 
 with a Consonant or Vowel. 
 
 Nom, un libro a booh un angelo .. ..an angel 
 
 Gen. d'un libro ....of a booh di un angelo.. of an angel 
 
 Dat. ad un libro ....to a booh a un angelo ..to an angel 
 
 Ace. un libro a booh un angelo ....an angel 
 
 Abl. da un libro.. ..from a booh da un angelo.. from or by an 
 
 angel 
 
 Declension of Una before Feminine Nouns beginnmg 
 with a Consonant, and of Un with an Apostrophe 
 before those that begin with a Vowel. 
 
 Nom. una donna .♦ .. a woman un' ora an hour 
 
 Gen. d'una donna ..of a woman d'un' ora of an hour 
 
 Dat. ad una donna., to a woman ad un' ora ....to an hour 
 
 Ace. una donna ....a woman un' ora an hour 
 
 Abl. da una donna, .from a woman da un' ora ....from or by an 
 
 hour 
 
56 OF NOUNS IN GENERAL. 
 
 CHAPTER IIL 
 
 OF NOUNS IN GENERAL. 
 
 Nouns are divided into substantives and adjectives. 
 
 A substantive, sostantivo, is the name of any thing 
 that exists, or of which we have any notion ; as, heaven, 
 cielo ; earth, terra ; universe, universe*. 
 
 A substantive may, in general, be distinguished by 
 its taking an article before it, or by making sense of 
 itself; as, il libro, the book; la edsa, the house; it 
 cavdllo, the horse, are substantives which have no need 
 of any other word to make sense. 
 
 Substantives are either proper, proprj v or common, 
 communL 
 
 Proper substantives are names appropriated to indi- 
 viduals in particular; as, Tito, Titus; Roma, Rome; 
 Frdncia, France. 
 
 Common substantives stand for kinds containing many 
 sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals under 
 them ; as, animate, animal ; uomo, man. 
 
 Italian infinitives, taken substantively, may be classed 
 among common substantives ; as, il parlare, speaking ; 
 il leggere, reading. 
 
 Collective names also, which contain several indi- 
 viduals or things under a singular noun, such as nazione, 
 nation ; popolo, people ; moltitudine, multitude ; are 
 placed among common substantives by grammarians. 
 
 To substantives belong gender, genere, and number, 
 numero ; and they are all of the third person when 
 spoken of : as, Dio e il creatore delV universo, God is the 
 creator of the universe. Dio here is of the third per- 
 son, because Dio is spoken of. They are of the second 
 person when addressed : as, Dio mio, abbi pieta di me, God 
 have pity on me. Dio in this phrase is of the second 
 person, because Dio is addressed. 
 
OF THE GENDER. 57 
 
 Section I. 
 
 OF THE GENDER. 
 
 The Italian language has two genders, the masculine 
 and the feminine, which are applied both to persons and 
 things. 
 
 The gender and number of substantives may be dis-' 
 tinguished in Italian by their terminations, a, £, i, o, u, 
 which we shall treat separately. 
 
 Of the Gender of Substantives ending in a. 
 
 Nouns ending in a 9 in general, are feminine, whether 
 they belong to women or things. Ex. 
 
 la donna the woman 
 
 la terra the earth 
 
 la dama the lady 
 
 la casa the house 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1.(1) Among names of things, we may reckon those 
 of the four quarters of the world, of empires, cities, and 
 islands. Ex. 
 
 PA'sia Asia 
 
 FEuropa Europe 
 
 la Russia.. .. ...Russia 
 
 Roma Rome 
 
 Sicilia Sicily 
 
 PA'frica 1 Africa 
 
 P America ....America 
 la Francia ....France 
 
 Londra London 
 
 Malta Malta 
 
 2. Nouns ending in a, expressing dignities, profes- 
 sion, and religion, belonging to men, are masculine. 
 
 il papa pope 
 
 il legista .... lawyer 
 il calvinista ..calvinist 
 
 il duca uke 
 
 il poeta poet 
 
 U battista baptist 
 
 Except la guardia, guard ; la sentinella, sentinel ; la 
 guida, guide ; la scoria, escort, and perhaps a few more, 
 
 (l) Though this observation is a repetition of what we said above, 
 yet we think it is not needless for the student. 
 
 d8 
 
58 OF THE GENDER. 
 
 which are feminine, as their article imports, though they 
 may belong to men. 
 
 3. Proper names of men ending in a are masculine. 
 Ex. 
 
 Enea JEneas Luca Lucas 
 
 • 4 The following nouns are of the masculine gender, 
 though they do not belong to men. 
 
 Panatema .... anathema 
 
 Passiom a axiom 
 
 Panagramma .anagram 
 
 il baccala dried cod 
 
 il clima climate 
 
 il diadema .. ..diadem 
 
 il dogma dogma 
 
 il dramma ....drama 
 
 Fenimma enigma 
 
 Pepigramma. . epigram 
 il fantasma ...phantom 
 
 il monogramma..?wo;2og7 , aw* 
 
 il pianeta .planet 
 
 il poema poem 
 
 il problema problem 
 
 il programma .... .proposal 
 
 il sistema si/stem 
 
 il sofa sofa 
 
 lo stratagemma ..stratagem 
 
 il tema theme 
 
 il teorem a theorem 
 
 and perhaps a few more. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Drammq, signifying a drachm, is of the feminine 
 gender. 
 
 Fantasma is common to both genders ; and we say, il 
 fantasma, or la fantasma. 
 
 Terna^ signifyingj^ar, is of the feminine gender. 
 
 Of the Gender of Substantives ending in e. 
 
 [It is a difficult task to give infallible rules for knowing 
 the right gender of nouns ending in e, yet the following 
 ones will 9 if they do not entirely remove the difficidty, at 
 least save the student some trouble.] 
 
 I. Nouns denoting men, states, rivers, and the car- 
 dinal points, ending in e, are of the masculine gender, 
 and names of cities are of the feminine. Ex. 
 
 Michele Michael 
 
 II Modonese The State of Modena 
 
 IlTevere,, , The Tiber 
 
OF THE GENDER. 59 
 
 II ponente, or l'occidente west 
 
 il levante, or l'oriente east 
 
 il norte 5 or il settentrione north 
 
 Avignone Avignon 
 
 Rafaele Raphael 
 
 l'A'dige the Adige 
 
 Tebe Thebes 
 
 2. Nouns ending in ie and udine, are feminine without 
 exception. Ex. 
 
 la specie sort 
 
 la moltitudine.. multitude 
 
 Peffigie ef) 
 
 l'ingratitudine . , ingratitude 
 
 3. Nouns ending in ere and ole, which terminations 
 may change in ero and oh, are masculine. Ex. 
 
 il pensiere, or pensiero thought 
 
 il sentiere, or sentiero .path 
 
 il console, or consolo consul 
 
 il proconsole, or proconsolo .proconsul 
 
 4. Nouns ending in ore are masculine, without ex- 
 ceptions. Ex. 
 
 il cuore heart | il fiore ..flower 
 
 5. The following nouns are of both genders : — 
 
 aere *....air 
 
 arbore tree 
 
 carcere ....... .prison 
 
 cenere ashes 
 
 dimane to-morrow 
 
 folgore thunderbolt 
 
 font e .fountain 
 
 fronte .forehead 
 
 fune rope 
 
 fine end 
 
 grandine hail 
 
 gregge .flock or herd 
 
 lepre hare 
 
 margine margin 
 
 noce nut-tree 
 
 ordine order 
 
 oste inn-keeper ', host 
 
 serpe serpent 
 
 tigre tiger 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Arbore, more used in the feminine. 
 Carcere, and gregge, used in both genders in the sin- 
 gular, and in the feminine in the plural. 
 
 Dimane, signifying the morning, is only feminine. 
 
60 OF THE GENDER. 
 
 Fonte, signifying a spring, is feminine only. 
 
 Fune, better used in the feminine. 
 
 Fine, signifying aim or design, is masculine only. 
 
 Fronte, better used in the feminine. 
 
 Noce, signifying the fruity is feminine ; when it signifies 
 the tree, it is masculine. 
 
 Oste, signifying host, as above, is masculine only; 
 meaning an army, it is feminine only. 
 
 There are many more nouns ending in e of both gen- 
 ders, such as giovane, a youth ; erede, heir ; parente, 
 relation ; fante, a servant, which are masculine when 
 they belong to men, and feminine when they belong to 
 women. Ex. 
 
 il giovane ..a young man 
 
 la giovane a young woman 
 
 ilfante a manservant 
 
 la fante ..a woman servant 
 
 %* To find out the gender of other nouns ending 
 in e r no other resource is left the student but to consult 
 a dictionary. 
 
 Of the Gender of Substantives ending in i. 
 
 Nouns denoting men, rivers, and states, ending in i, 
 are of the masculine gender. Ex. 
 
 Giovanni John 
 
 il Mississippi.. the Mississippi 
 il Paraguai Paraguay 
 
 Lirigi Louis 
 
 il'Tamigi the Thames 
 
 il Chili Chili 
 
 To which may be added the following ones: — 
 
 il di day 
 
 il Martedi .... Tuesday 
 il Mercoledi.. Wednesday 
 il Giovedi .... Thursday 
 ilLunedi Monday 
 
 il Venerdi ....Friday 
 
 il brindisi ....toast in drinking 
 
 il bassotti ....dish ofmaccaroni 
 
 il pari a peer ^a nobleman 
 
 il barbaftiani ..eade-owl 
 
 To which may be added compounded words, such as 
 lo stuzzicadcnii, tooth-pick; il cacciadidvoli, exorcist ; 
 
OF THE GENDER. 61 
 
 il casticamatti, rod; which are composed of stuzzica, 
 present tense of stuzzicare, to pick, and dentin teeth ; 
 caccia, present tense of cacciare, to drive, and diavoli, 
 devils ; castica, present tense of casticdre, to punish, 
 and matti, fools, &c. 
 
 Names of cities and islands ending in i, are of the 
 feminine gender. Ex. 
 
 Napoli Naples Cipri Cyprus 
 
 Algieri Algiers j Tunisi Tunis 
 
 All other nouns ending in i, are of the feminine 
 gender. 
 
 Of the Gender of Substantives ending in o. 
 
 Nouns ending in o, whether belonging to men or 
 things, are masculine. Ex. 
 
 Pietro Peter 
 
 il libro book 
 
 il cielo heaven 
 
 Except la mdno, hand. 
 
 il maestro ....master 
 
 il capo head 
 
 il nido nest 
 
 Nouns belonging to women, fates ', furies ', muses, &c. 
 and cities (1), ending in o, are of the feminine gender. 
 Ex. 
 
 Saffo Sappho 
 
 A'tropo Atropos 
 
 Clio Clio 
 
 Aletto Alecto 
 
 Dublino Dublin 
 
 Cairo only is masculine. 
 
 Dido Dido 
 
 Cloto Clotho 
 
 Erato Erato 
 
 Corinto Corinth 
 
 (l) Cartago, Carthage, and immdgo, image, are also feminine, accord- 
 ing to the general rule ; but they are used by poets only. In prose 
 we say Cartagine, immdgine* 
 
62 OF THE GENDER. 
 
 Of the Gender of Substantives ending in u. 
 
 Nouns ending in u are but few, and generally of the 
 feminine gender. Ex. 
 
 la virtu .virtue la gru .crane 
 
 Proper names of men, angels, &c. ending in u 9 are 
 masculine. Ragil 9 however, though not a proper 
 name, is likewise masculine, and signifies a ragout, or 
 fricassee. 
 
 General Rule to find out the Gender of some particular 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Proper names of men, angels, infernal deities, repre- 
 sented under the figure of man, no matter what termi- 
 nation they have, are of the masculine gender ; and 
 names of women, and deities represented under the figure 
 of women, are of the feminine gender. 
 
 Proper names of rivers, kingdoms, and states, are of 
 the masculine gender ; and those of cities, islands, and 
 empires, of the feminine gender. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 OF THE NUMBER. 
 
 Before we begin to set down rules for the formation 
 of plurals, let us observe that masculine nouns of all 
 terminations but ^, make their plural in i ; as— 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il profeta .....prophet i profeti 
 
 11 mare sea i mari 
 
 il di - 7 ay i di 
 
 il maestro ........master i maestri 
 
OF THE NUMBER. 63 
 
 That feminine nouns ending in a make their plural in 
 e 9 and those in e and in o make it in i ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 la donna .. ••• 
 
 woman ...... 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 le donne 
 
 la voce 
 
 voice 
 
 le voci 
 
 la tesi 
 
 la mano 
 
 thesis 
 
 the hand 
 
 le tesi 
 
 le mani 
 
 That nouns ending in u, and all those whose last 
 vowel is accented, only change the article to form their 
 plural ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL* 
 
 la virtu virtue le virtu 
 
 il sofa sofa i sofa 
 
 ii di day i di 
 
 il canape sofa i canape 
 
 Rules iojbrm the Plural of Nouns ending in a. 
 
 Observe, that in speaking of the plurals, we intend 
 to speak both of substantives and adjectives. 
 
 1. Masculine nouns in a make their plural by changing 
 a into i ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il papa .pope i papi 
 
 il poeta poet..... i poeti 
 
 2. Masculine nouns ending in ca and ga, make their 
 plural by changing ca and ga into chi and ghi ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 ii duca duke i duchi 
 
 il collega colleague a .i colleghi 
 
 3. Feminine nouns ending in a make their plural by 
 changing a into e ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 la signora lady * le signore 
 
 la casa house le case 
 
 buona..... good..,* buone 
 
64 OF THE DUMBER. 
 
 4. Feminine nouns ending in ca and ga 9 make their 
 plural by changing ca and ga into die and ghe ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 la vacca .cow.* ....levacche 
 
 la ruga wrinkle le rughe 
 
 ricca rich ricche 
 
 vaga.. charming vaghe 
 
 5. Nouns ending in ta with an accent, make their 
 plural by changing the article only ; as— 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 la citta ; city le citta, 
 
 l'antichita antiquity le antichita(l) 
 
 6. Nouns in cia and gia, make their plural by chang- 
 ing cia and gia into ce and ge, provided cia and gia make 
 but one syllable ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 la faccia .face le facce 
 
 la pioggia rain le piogge 
 
 concia .fitted conce 
 
 saggia wise sagge 
 
 Rules to form the Plural of Nouns ending in e. 
 
 1. Nouns ending in e i whether substantives or adjec- 
 tives, masculine or feminine, form their plural by chang- 
 ing e into i ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il fiume river i fiumi 
 
 la croce ...cross .....lecroci 
 
 felice ..happy .. felici 
 
 amante loving amanti 
 
 (1) Nouns in ta, formerly ended in tate and tade for the singular, 
 and in tati and tadi for the plural ; as cittdte, cittade, cittati, cittadi, 
 antichitate, antichitade, antichitati^ antichitadi ; but at present the ter- 
 mination ta is preferable. , 
 
OF THE DUMBER. 65 
 
 2. Nouns ending in ie 9 in e accented, and the word>£, 
 only change the article for the formation of their plural ; 
 as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 la specie sort ...le specie 
 
 il canape sofa i canape 
 
 il re king ire 
 
 3. The following nouns are irregular in the forma- 
 tion of their plural. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 la moglie wife le reogli 
 
 il bue ox i bovi, or buoi 
 
 mille thousand mila(l) 
 
 Rules to form the Plural of Nouns ending in i. 
 
 Nouns ending in i, whether masculine or feminine, 
 whether their last vowel is accented or not, or whether 
 they are substantives or adjectives, become plural by 
 changing the article only ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il pari peer i pari 
 
 la tesi thesis le tesi 
 
 il di day i di^ 
 
 pari. ,„equal pari 
 
 Rules to form the Plural of Nouns ending in o. 
 
 1. Nouns ending in o, whether masculine or feminine, 
 substantives or adjectives, are rendered plural by chang- 
 ing o into i ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il libro boolc i libri 
 
 la mano hand le mani 
 
 buono ..good buoni 
 
 dotto learned dotti 
 
 (l) Milia, instead of mila y h often found in poetry and prose, but 
 at present is rather obsolete. 
 
66 OF THE NUMBER. 
 
 Except the following, which deviate from the general 
 rule. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 l'uomo man gli uomini 
 
 Dio God.. .gli Dei, or Dii 
 
 Observation. 
 
 There are some possessive and demonstrative pro- 
 nouns ending in o, of which the plural is irregular ; but 
 we refrain from speaking of them here, because we are 
 treating of nouns. 
 
 2. Nouns ending in chio and ccliio are rendered 
 plural by changing those terminations into chj and 
 cchj (1) ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il tor chio ......... .printing press . . . . i tor chj 
 
 1'occhio.. eye gli occhj 
 
 3. Nouns ending in cio, ccio> glio, gio, ggio^jo, be- 
 come plural by dropping the o, provided those termina- 
 tions form one syllable ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il bacio kiss i baci 
 
 lo staccio.. sieve gli stacci 
 
 il ventaglio .fan i ventagli 
 
 il raggio ray i raggi 
 
 il fornajo baker i fornaj (2) 
 
 When some of the above mentioned terminations and 
 others ending in io, such as pio, vio, sio, rio, &c. form 
 two syllables, the nouns to which they belong become 
 plural by changing the last letter o into i, if the accent 
 
 (1) Some writers have often made use of chi and cchi, instead of 
 chj and cchj. But the student would do better to adhere to the 
 above rules ; for chi and cchi are the plural of nouns ending in co or 
 ceo, which see in the next page. 
 
 (2) Nouns in ajo may change into aro, but this is not so much 
 used as ajo. 
 
OF THE NUMBER. 67 
 
 falls upon the i ; and by changing io intoj, if the accent 
 falls upon any other letter than i ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il benefici-o benefit i benefic-j 
 
 lo stropicci-o .friction gli stroppicci-i 
 
 il tempi-o temple , i temp-j 
 
 pi-o pious pi-i 
 
 Pavversari-o adversary gli avversar-j 
 
 il mormori-o murmuring i mormori-i 
 
 l'edifizi-o building ...gli edifiz-j 
 
 il desi-o desire i desi-i 
 
 lo zi-o uncle glizi-i(l) 
 
 We have no certain rules to give for finding the pro- 
 nunciation of the above words, and the student has no 
 other means left to be acquainted with it than practice, 
 or the consultation of some good dictionary containing 
 accented words. 
 
 4. Nouns in co of two syllables, whether substantives 
 or adjectives, become plural by changing that termina- 
 tion into chi ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL, 
 
 il cuoco cook i cuochi 
 
 il fico .fig i fichi 
 
 bianco white bianchi 
 
 ricco rich ricchi 
 
 The following ones, though of two syllables, make el 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il porco pig i porci 
 
 il Greco Greek.. i Greci 
 
 (1) We have given to the above-mentioned nouns the plurals 
 most in use at the present time ; yet a great many authors, whose 
 works we have attentively read and examined, have, as we found, 
 not been so particular in that respect. The following examples will 
 confirm what we say, but they are not to be imitated. Buommattei 
 says: Onde tutti gli orecchi intendono, Therefore all the ears hear it; 
 instead of orecchj or orecchia. Macchiavelli says : Nella copia degli 
 edifizi, in the great number of buildings; instead of edifizj. Borghini 
 says: Non erano gli operai, the workmen were not; instead of 
 operaj. 
 
68 OF THE NUMBER--- 
 
 5. Nouns ending in co, of more than two syllables, ate 
 generally rendered plural by changing co into ci, when. 
 that termination is preceded by a vowel, and into chi 
 when co is preceded by a consonant ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Tamico .friend ..gli amici 
 
 il nemico enemy i nemici 
 
 il clerico clerk i clerici 
 
 il bifolco labourer ..i bifolchi 
 
 il Tedesco German i Tedeschi 
 
 il lambicco still i lambicchi 
 
 6. The following nouns in co become plural by chang- 
 ing co into chi, though that termination is preceded by a 
 vowel ; as — 
 
 1'abaco abacus 
 
 antico •.. ., ancient 
 
 carico laden 
 
 dim entico . . . .forgetful 
 
 aprico exposed to the sun 
 
 il beccafico ..Jig pecker 
 pudico chaste 
 
 il rammarico .regret 
 
 il manico handle 
 
 opaco dark 
 
 stitico sullen 
 
 il fondaco ....warehouse 
 
 il traffico trade 
 
 ubbriaco drunk 
 
 7. Nouns in go are rendered plural, by changing go 
 into ghi ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLERAL. 
 
 l'albergo ...Ann gli alberghi 
 
 l'usbergo corslet gli usberghi 
 
 il catalogo catalogue i cataloghi 
 
 Except the following ones, which make gL 
 
 il teologo theologist i teologi 
 
 Tasparago asparagus gli asparagi 
 
 8. The following nouns ending in co and go, make ci 
 and gi, chi, and ghi, in the plural ; as — 
 
 1'apologo apologue 
 
 analogo analagous 
 
 l'astrologo .. ..astrologer 
 il chirdrgo ....surgeon 
 
 il dialogo dialogue 
 
 il domestico ..servant 
 il dittongo .. ..diphthong 
 
 mendico beggar 
 
 monaco monk 
 
 pratico skilful 
 
 reciproco reciprocal 
 
 lo stomaco.... stomach 
 &elvatico wild, 
 
OF THE NUMBER. 69 
 
 All of which make apologia apologhi, monachi, rnma- 
 ci % astrologhi, astrology pratichi, pratici y &c. in the 
 plural. 
 
 Rule to form the Plural of Nouns ending in u. 
 
 Nouns # in u become plural by changing only the 
 article; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 la virtu (1) virtue....* ie virtu 
 
 Section III. 
 
 OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 
 
 Heteroclite nouns are those which vary from the 
 common forms of declension. 
 
 Some of these have two singulars and one plural, 
 others have two singulars and two plurals ; others again 
 have one singular and two plurals ; and some even three, 
 of all of which we shall treat separately. 
 
 1. Of Nouns having two Singula?^ and one Plural. 
 
 Nouns ending in ere of the masculine gender, may 
 change that termination into ero, but their plural is 
 always in eri ; as — 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il (2J pensiere, or pensiero ..thought i pensieri 
 
 il corriere, or corriero courier i corrieri 
 
 To which may be added the following ones : — 
 
 loscolare, orscolaro scholar gli scolari 
 
 il console, or consolo consul i consoli 
 
 ( 1 ) Nouns in il of the feminine gender, formerly ended also in ute 
 and ude, and in the plural, in uti and udi; as, virtute, virtude,virtuti, 
 virtudi ; but at present these are never used, 
 
 (2) We shall put the article to all these nouns, in order that the 
 student, in committing them to memory, may be acquainted with 
 their gender. 
 
70 OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 We said that nouns in ere might be changed into ero, 
 which terminations may be indifferently used ; but those 
 that naturally end in ero cannot be changed into ere, as 
 suocero, father-in-law ; zucchero, sugar, &c. cannot be 
 changed into suocere, zucchere. 
 
 %. Of Nouns having two Singulars and two Plurals. 
 
 The following nouns have two singulars and two 
 plurals ; but as some of them are not so much used as 
 others, they will be distinguished by an asterisk. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Pala and Pale wing le ale, ali 
 
 Parma*, Parme weapon le arme, armi 
 
 la canzona, canzone ..song le canzone*, canzoni 
 
 la dota*, dote dowry le dote*, doti 
 
 la froda, frode ..fraud le frode, frodi 
 
 la fronda, fronde leaf le fronde, frondi 
 
 la greggia, gregge ....flock . le greggie, greggi 
 
 la loda*, lode praise le lode*, lodi 
 
 la marina, marine* ..millstone^ le marine, macini 
 
 la redina*, redine rein le redine, redini 
 
 la scura*, scure axe le scure*, scuri 
 
 la sorta, sorte kind le sorte, sorti 
 
 la tossa*, tosse cough le tosse*, tossi 
 
 la vesta, veste dress le veste, vesti 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Sorta y singular, and sorte, or sorti, plural, are used in 
 speaking of ~kind, species, or sort ; and sorte, singular, 
 is used only in speaking of destiny. 
 
 3. Of Nouns having three Singulars cmd one Plural. 
 
 The following nouns have three singulars ending 
 in e, in o, and in i ; the latter, however, though often 
 
OF HETEROCL1TE NOUNS. 71 
 
 found in good authors, is at present considered as 
 obsolete. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il destriere, destriero, destrieri steed i destrieri 
 
 il mestiere, mestiero, mestieri trade .i mestieri 
 
 il mulattiere, mulattiero, mulattieri ..mule driver.. i mulattieri 
 il barbiere, barbiero, barbieri barber .i barbieri 
 
 And perhaps a few more. 
 
 4. Of Nouns having one Singular of the Masculine 
 Gender \ and two Plurals^ one Masculine^ and the otheV 
 Feminine. 
 
 As some of the following nouns have one plural not 
 so much in use as the other, we shall distinguish those 
 that are rather obsolete by an asterisk. 
 
 MASC. SINGULAR. MASC. PLURAL. FEM. FLURAL. 
 
 l'anello ring gli anelli le anella 
 
 il bisogno need, i bisogni le bisogna* 
 
 il braccio arm i bracci* le braccia 
 
 il budello gut i budelli* le budella ' 
 
 il calcagno heel i calcagni le calcagna 
 
 il carro car i carri le carra 
 
 il castello castle i castelli le castella 
 
 il ciglio eye-brow i cigli le ciglia 
 
 il coltello knife i coltelli le coltella 
 
 il comanda- ) . , ,. S le comanda- 
 
 / . } precept 1 comandamenti I .2 
 
 mento .... S I menta* 
 
 il corno horn i corni le corna 
 
 il demonio demon i demonj le demonia* 
 
 il dito .finger i diti* le dita 
 
 il filo thread i fili le fila 
 
 il fondamento.. foundation i fondamenti....le fondamenta 
 
 il fuso spindle i fusi ...lefusa 
 
 il gomito elbow i gomiti le gomita 
 
 il ginocchio ....knee i ginocchj v .le ginocchia 
 
 il granello grain i granelli le granella 
 
 il grido cry i gridi le grida 
 
 il labbro lip i labbri le labbra 
 
 il lenzuolo sheet i lenzuoli le lenzuola 
 
 il letto bed i letti le letta* 
 
 il membro limb i membri le membra 
 
72 OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 
 
 MASG. SINGULAR. MASC. PLURAL. FEM. PLURAL. 
 
 il mulino mill i mulini le mulina* 
 
 il muro wall i muri le mura 
 
 l'orecchio ear gli orecchj Je orecchia 
 
 il peccato sin ..i peccati le peccata* 
 
 il pugno .fist i pugni le pugna 
 
 il prato meadow i prati le prata* 
 
 il quadrello ....arrow ... i quadrelli* le quadrella 
 
 il sacco bag i sacchi le sacca 
 
 lo strido shriek .gli stridi le strida 
 
 il vestimento ...dress i vestimenti ....le vestimenta 
 
 , l'urlo howl ...gliurli le urla* 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Gli anelli is used in speaking of the links of a chain, 
 as in Ganganelli ; dal cielo alia terra vi e una catena tale 
 die se non sene tengono bene tutti gli anelli, gV increduli 
 non si vinceranno rnai, there is such a chain from heaven 
 to earth, that if we do not catch hold of all the links of 
 it, misbelievers will never be overcome ; and le anella, in 
 speaking of golden rings, as in Bocc. 10. 9. epoi...fe y 
 porre, e molti reli di pei~le, e anella> e cinture, ec, and 
 then he caused to be put there rows of pearls, rings, and 
 girdles. 
 
 Bracci is seldom used for arms, but it may be used 
 for yards or ells. 
 
 I carri means carts. 
 
 I cigli is seldom used for eyebrows, but it may be 
 used for ridges. 
 
 I corni is only used for French horns. 
 
 I diti is used in speaking of a measure — inch. 
 
 I gomiti means creeks, or a measure of a foot and a 
 half. 
 
 / membri is used in speaking of the members of a 
 society, not of limbs. 
 
 Some grammarians have given to labbro, membro, 
 besides the above plurals, another ending in e, such as 
 le labbre, le membre, but these are better used in 
 poetry. 
 
OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 73 
 
 To the above nouns, which have one singular and two 
 plurals, the following may be added, as found in ancient 
 prosaic writers. 
 
 MASC. SING. MASC. PLURAL. FEM. PLURAL. 
 
 Pago needle gli aghi le agora 
 
 il borgo borough i borghi le borgora 
 
 il corpo body i corpi le corpora 
 
 il dono gift i doni le donora 
 
 il lato side i lati le latora 
 
 il palco scaffold i palchi le palcora 
 
 il tempo time i tempi le tempora 
 
 il tetto roof i tetti le tettora 
 
 These feminine plurals, however, are not used at pre- 
 sent, except tempora, which is used in speaking of the 
 fasting days, three of which happen in each season of 
 the year, saying, le quattro tempora. 
 
 5. Of Nouns being Masculine in the Singular, and 
 Feminine in the Plural, and ending in a instead qfo. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 il cantajo weight of \50lbs ..le cantaja 
 
 il centinajo hundred le centinaja 
 
 il migliajo thousand le migliaja 
 
 il miglio mile le miglia 
 
 il moggio acre le moggia 
 
 il pajo pair le paja 
 
 lo stajo bushel le staja 
 
 il riso laughter le risa 
 
 Puovo ess le uova 
 
 6. Of Nouns having one Masculine Singular, and three 
 Plurals, one ending in i of the Masculine Gender, and 
 izoo ending in e and in a of the Feminine. 
 
 MASC. SING.' MASC. PLUR. FEMININE PLURALS. 
 
 il frutto..... /rm£ i frutti le frutta..,.le frutte 
 
 il gesto exploit e .i gesti le gesta ....le geste 
 
 il legno wood i legni le legna....le legne 
 
 l'osso bone gli ossi le ossa le esse 
 
 il vestigio ..footstep i vestigj le vestigia.. le vestigie 
 
74 OF HETEKOCLITE NOUNS. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Ifrutti means fruits of labour, revenue, profit ; le 
 frutta and lefrutte signify both the production of trees 
 and plants, and the dessert, signifying the fruit eaten 
 after dinner. 
 
 I gesti means gestures. 
 
 Legni means any kind of ships, and also carriages. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 OF DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
 
 Defective nouns are those that, from the nature of 
 the things they express, have one number only, either 
 singular or plural. 
 
 The following ones have no singular. 
 
 le nozze wedding 
 
 le spezie spices 
 
 parecchj, m. parecchie,/ ..several 
 
 le rene, le reni the reins of the back 
 
 le esequie , .funeral 
 
 le froge .....the skin over the nostrils of a hoi % se 
 
 To which may be added i vaniii, wings or feathers, 
 which is used in poetry only. 
 
 Those used only in the singular are — 
 
 la prole offspring 
 
 la progenie progeny 
 
 la mane morning 
 
 la stirpe race 
 
 To which may added, names of metals, virtues, vices, 
 &c. such as oro, gold; argento, silver; orgoglio, pride; 
 pigrizia, laziness, &c. 
 
 Of Collective Nouns. 
 
 Collectives, as we have said, page 56, are those nouns 
 which designate several individuals under a singular 
 noun, and are divided into general and partitive. 
 
OF DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 75 
 
 The general collectives are those which comprise an 
 entire collection of individuals or objects, as esercito, 
 army ; nazione, nation. 
 
 The partitive collectives are those which comprise a 
 part of a collection of individuals or objects ; as, parte, a 
 part; quantita, quantity. 
 
 Respecting the concordance of the adjective, verb, and 
 participle, with these nouns, see Syntax of Verbs. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES, AND THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON 
 IN GENERAL. 
 
 Adjectives are words which serve to express the qua- 
 lity of substantives ; as — 
 
 uomo dotto a learned man 
 
 donna bella a handsome woman 
 
 str&da lunga a long street 
 
 Adjectives in general are accompanied with substan- 
 tives, but in Italian an adjective may stand alone with 
 its article, and then the substantive is understood ; as — 
 
 lo scelerato the wicked man 
 
 il giusto the upright man 
 
 Adjectives have three degrees of comparison or signi- 
 fication : the positive, il positivo ; the comparative, il 
 comparative) ; and the superlative, il snperlativo (1). 
 
 The positive, which is nothing else but the adjective, 
 expresses the quality of the substantive, without increase 
 or diminution ; as — 
 
 bello handsome brutto ugly 
 
 dotto learned saggio wise 
 
 (1) Grammarians have given the above names to the adjectives; 
 but we are of opinion that the positive cannot be enumerated 
 among the degrees of comparison ; because in saying uomo bello, a 
 handsome man, we only express, by the positive bello, the quality, or 
 rather the beauty of uomo, but do not compare him with another. 
 However, as that cannot alter our purpose, we have followed the 
 example of our predecessors. 
 
 E 2 
 
76 OF DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
 
 The comparative, by the aid of some particles, com- 
 pares, augments, and diminishes the positive in significa- 
 tion ; as — 
 
 tanto dotto as learned 
 
 piu dolce sweeter 
 
 meno bianco less white 
 
 The superlative, by the addition of some letter to 
 the positive, increases or lessens it to the highest or 
 lowest degree ; as — 
 
 dolce, dolclssimo very sweet 
 
 bello, bellissimo very handsome 
 
 ^ 
 
 Section I. 
 of adjectives or positives. 
 
 Adjectives in Italian end different ways, and have 
 their gender and number, which change according to the 
 nature of the substantive of which they expi*ess the qua- 
 lity ; so that if the substantive is of the masculine 
 gender, the adjective is to be masculine ; if it is of the 
 feminine gender, the adjective is to be feminine ; and, 
 finally, if the substantive is singular or plural, the adjec- 
 tive is to be singular or plural ; as — 
 
 uomo giusto an upright man 
 
 donna giusta an upright woman 
 
 uomini giusti upright men 
 
 donne giuste upright women 
 
 By these examples it is easily seen that giusto is mas- 
 culine, because uomo is masculine; giusta is faminine, 
 because donna is feminine ; and giusti and giuste are 
 plural, because uomini and donne are plural . 
 
 Adjectives, in their primitive state, end three ways in 
 Italian* viz. o, £, i. 
 
OF ADJECTIVES OR POSITIVES. 77 
 
 1. Those in o are of the masculine gender ; and by 
 changing o into #, they become feminine. They are 
 rendered plural by changing o into i, and a into e ; as — 
 
 MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS P. FEM, P. 
 
 bello bella belli belle handsome 
 
 buono buona .'buoni buone good 
 
 dotto dotta dotti dotte .......Jearned 
 
 2. Those ending in e are of both genders, and become 
 plural by changing e into i ; as — 
 
 un uorao felice a happy man 
 
 una donna felice a happy woman 
 
 uomini felici happy men 
 
 donne felici , happy women 
 
 3. There is but one adjective ending in i 9 pari, which 
 is of both genders and numbers ; as— 
 
 pari studio equal study 
 
 pari eta the same age 
 
 pari esempj ,.,the same examples 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The plural of adjectives ending in co, chk), cio 9 glio, 
 &c is formed according to the rules laid down for the 
 formation of the plural of substantives ending the same 
 ways. See page 66. 
 
 Section II. 
 of comparatives. 
 
 Comparatives serve to compare one object with ano- 
 ther ; and, as a comparison may be effected in three 
 ways, we shall distinguish them by three names, viz. — - 
 comparatives of equality, comparatives of superiority^ 
 and comparatives of inferiority. 
 
78 OF COMPARATIVES. 
 
 1. Comparatives of equality compare one thing with 
 another, without increase or diminution ; and are formed 
 by means of these adverbs, tanto .... quanto, cosi .... 
 come, or only quanta or come, signifying so . . . . as, or as 
 . ... as, which are accompanied with the positive as 
 follows : — 
 
 Pietro e tanto dotto quanta suo fratello 
 Pietro e cosi dotto come suo fratello 
 Pietro e dotto quanto suo fratello 
 Pietro e dotto come suo fratello 
 Peter is as learned as his brother 
 
 2. Comparatives of superiority compare one thing 
 with another, with increase ; and are formed by means 
 of the adverb piu, more, which is put before the posi- 
 tive; as — 
 
 Pietro e piu dotto di suo fratello 
 Peter is more learned than his brother 
 
 Anna e piu bella di sua sorella 
 
 Anna is more handsome, or handsomer, than her sister 
 
 3. Comparatives of inferiority compare one thing with 
 another, with diminution ; and are formed by means of 
 the adverb meno, less, which is put before the positive ; 
 as— 
 
 Pietro e meno dotto di suo fratello 
 Peter is less learned than his brother 
 
 Anna e meno bella di sua sorella 
 Anna is less handsome than her sister 
 
 Observation. 
 
 To increase the comparison, both of superiority and 
 inferiority, we put before piu and meno the following 
 adverbial particles, via, vie, assdi, molto, still or much, of 
 which via and vie are sometimes spelled separately, and 
 sometimes joined to piu, thus ; viappiu, vieppiu. Ex. 
 
 Pietro e via piu, or viappiu, dotto di suo fratello 
 Pietro e vie piu, or vieppiu, dotto di suo fratello 
 Peter is still or much more learned than his brother 
 
OF COMPARATIVES. 79 
 
 Anna e via meno, or vie meno, bella di sua sorella 
 Anna e assai, or molto, meno bella di sua sorella 
 Anna is still or much less handsome than her sister 
 
 There are four adjectives, which, besides the common 
 way of becoming comparatives by the aid of piu and 
 meno, may also become such without the aid of those 
 particles : — 
 
 grande great piu grande, or maggiore ....greater 
 
 piccolo ....small piu piccolo, or minore smaller 
 
 buono good piu buono, or migliore „ better 
 
 cattivo bad piu cattivo, or peggiore worse 
 
 These four comparatives may also be increased by the 
 aid of via, vie, assai, motto, as we have said above ; thus, 
 vie maggiore, assai minore, molto peggiore, &c. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 OF SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 The superlative increases or lessens the positive to 
 the highest or lowest degree, as altissimo, very tall ; pic- 
 colissimo, very small. 
 
 Superlatives, in Italian, are divided into comparative 
 and absolute. 
 
 The superlative comparative is formed by putting il 
 piil, la piu, i piit, le piit, the most, before the adjective or 
 positive; as — 
 
 il piii dotto the most learned man 
 
 la piu virtuosa the most virtuous woman 
 
 i piu vecchj the most old, or oldest, men 
 
 le piu brutte the most ugly women 
 
 The superlative absolute is formed by changing the 
 
80 OF SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 last letter of the masculine plural (1) of adjectives into 
 
 issimo ; as— 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 caro cari dear car-issimo very dear 
 
 poco pochi little poch-issimo very little 
 
 vario varj different,, . . var-issimo very different 
 
 Instead of issimo, the adverb rnolto, and sometimes 
 assail may be put before the adjective to form the super- 
 lative ; as — 
 
 carissimo, or molto caro very dear 
 
 pochissimo, or molto poco vert/ few 
 
 varissimo, or mol to vario very different 
 
 There are some adjectives that may be rendered super- 
 latives in another way ; as — 
 
 POSITIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 acre ..sharp acerrimo very sharp 
 
 buono good ottimo very good 
 
 cattivo , .. ..bad pessimo very bad 
 
 celebre renowned celeberrimo much renowned 
 
 grande great massimo very great 
 
 integro upright integerrimo very upright j 
 
 piccolo small minimo very small 
 
 salubre healthy saluberrimo very healthy 
 
 Superlatives, like adjectives, have their gender and 
 number. They end in o for the masculine, in a for 
 the feminine, in i for the masculine plural, and in e for 
 the feminine plural. 
 
 MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS. P. FEM. P. 
 
 dottissimo..dottissima..dottissimi..dottissime very learned 
 
 acerrimo ...acerrima ...acerrimi ...acerrime very sharp 
 
 (l) Grammarians have given a rule to form superlatives, by 
 changing the last letter of the singular of adjectives into issimo. 
 But as that rule admits of many exceptions, we have made this 
 alteration^ which answers our purpose without confusion. 
 
OP SUPERLATIVES. 81 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Among superlatives, we may enumerate others which 
 are formed, either by repeating the positive, as hello hello*, 
 very handsome ; buono buono, very good ; or by the 
 aid of some adverbs which are put before the adjective. 
 These adverbs are oltre misura, beyond measure ; oltre 
 ogni credere, beyond belief; oltremodo, estremamente, 
 senza fine, extremely ; fuor di misura, senza modo, ex- 
 cessively ; and others which may be learned by practice, 
 and the perusal of good authors. Ex. 
 
 grande fuor di misura excessively large 
 
 ricco oltre ogni credere ....rich beyond belief 
 estremame'nte bello extremely handsome 
 
 These expressions, when well applied, add much grace 
 and energy to composition. 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 OF AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 
 
 The Italian language has a peculiarity, which is, to 
 augment or diminish the signification of nouns, whether 
 substantives or adjectives, by the addition of a few let- 
 ters ; and then they are called augmentatives, aumenta- 
 tivi, or accrescitivi ; or diminutives, diminutivi. 
 
 Nouns become augmentatives, 
 
 1. By changing their last letter into one for both gen- 
 ders ; and then they denote something large or great. 
 Ex. 
 
 un libro a book un librone a large book 
 
 un coltello ....« knife un coltellone ....a large knife 
 
 un cappello....a^«£ un cappellone ...a large hat 
 
 una donna ....a woman un donnone a large woman 
 
 una casa a house un casone a large house 
 
 una porta a door.,,, un portone a large door 
 
 *3 
 
82 OF AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 
 
 %. By changing their last letter into actio, for the 
 masculine, and accia, for the feminine ; and then they 
 denote something large or great, and, at the same time, 
 ugly, contemptible, bad, old, &c. 
 
 libraccio a large old book 
 
 coltellaccio a great clumsy knife 
 
 cappellaccio a large ugly hat 
 
 donnaccia an ugly woman 
 
 casaccia a large old house 
 
 portaccia an old ponderous door 
 
 Nouns are rendered diminutives, 
 
 1. By changing their last letter into ino, etto, ello, for 
 the masculine, and ina, etta, ella, for the feminine ; and 
 then they denote something small or young, and some- 
 times small and pretty. 
 
 leone lion leoncino ...lion's whelp 
 
 gatto cat gattino kitten 
 
 car a,. dear carina pretty little dear 
 
 mano hand.., manina pretty little hand 
 
 libro book libretto ....a small book 
 
 donna woman donnetta...a neat little woman 
 
 pastore ....shepherd pastorello..« young shepherd 
 
 pastora ,. < . shepherdess .. pastor ella.. a young shepherdess 
 
 2. By changing their last letter into uccio, uzzo, icci- 
 nolo, for the masculine, and uccia, uzza, icciuola, for the 
 feminine ; and then they denote something small or 
 little, but at the same time mean or contemptible ; as — 
 
 C uomuzzo a mean or an ill— 
 
 uomo man -?uomuccio looking little 
 
 £ omicciuolo man 
 
 verme worm vermicciuolo .a small worm 
 
 , { donnuccia. ...a mean or ill-look- 
 
 donna woman.... < , • • / } • r ,.i 
 
 ( donnicciuola mg little woman 
 
 Except proper names of men and women, which, 
 though ending in uccio, or uccia. in being made diminu- 
 tives, denote something little or pretty ; and sometimes 
 it is used only by habit ; as it happens also in English, 
 
OF AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 8S 
 
 that an old man is called by the diminutive name which 
 they gave him when a boy — 
 
 Andrea Andrew Andreuccio 
 
 Anna Ann Aunuccia 
 
 To which may be added — 
 bocca ..mouth boccuzza pretty little mouth 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Augmentatives ending in one, may also end in ma for 
 the feminine ; but the termination in one is preferable, 
 
 Nouns ending naturally in one, accio, ino, etto, ello, 
 uccio, uzzo 9 icciuolo, cannot be made augmentatives and 
 diminutives as above ; but by the aid of some other 
 words which are put either before or after them. 
 
 bastone stick gran bastone ....large stick ] 
 
 braccio arm braccio mal fatto.e'// made arm 
 
 vino vjine vino picciolo ....small wine 
 
 There are other augmentatives and diminutives, ending 
 different ways ; but as they cannot be reduced to a 
 general rule, and as they may be found in all dictionaries, 
 we thought proper to omit speaking of them at length. 
 
 OF NUMERAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 
 
 Numeral nouns are of three sorts ; viz. — the cardinal, 
 or principal ? i cardinally or principali ■■; the ordinal, gli 
 ordinativi ; and the collective, or distributive, collettivi, 
 or distributivi. 
 
 The cardinal, or principal numbers, are those which 
 mark.no order ; as, one, two, three, uno, due, tre. 
 
 The ordinal numbers are those which mark order ; as, 
 first, second, third, prbno, secondo, terzo. 
 
 Distributives, or collectives, are those numbers which 
 signify a numbered quantity ; as, a dozen, a score, a 
 thousand, una dozzina, ana ventina, iin migliajo. 
 
84? OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 OF THE CARDINAL OR PRINCIPAL NUMBERS. 
 
 These numbers are called cardinal, or principal, be- 
 cause they mark a number without order. 
 
 uno one 
 
 s due(l) two 
 
 tre three 
 
 quattro .four 
 
 cinque .five 
 
 sei six 
 
 sette * seven 
 
 otto eight 
 
 nove nine 
 
 died ten 
 
 undid eleven 
 
 dodici twelve 
 
 tre'dici thirteen 
 
 quattordici .fourteen 
 
 quindid .fifteen 
 
 sedici sixteen 
 
 diciassette seventeen 
 
 diciotto eighteen 
 
 diciannove nineteen 
 
 venti twenty 
 
 ventuno twenty-one 
 
 ventidue twenty-two 
 
 ventitre twenty-three 
 
 ventiquattro twenty-four 
 
 venticinque twenty-five 
 
 ventisei twenty-six 
 
 ventisette twenty -seven 
 
 ventotto twenty-eight 
 
 ventinove twenty-nine 
 
 trenta ». .. thirty 
 
 trentuno thirty-one 
 
 trentadue, ec thirty-two, $c. 
 
 quaranta -forty 
 
 cinquanta .fifty 
 
 (O Poets make use of duo and duoi, and the Florentines of dua, 
 all of which are to be avoided, as well in composition as in familiar 
 conversation. 
 
OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS, 85 
 
 sessanta sixty 
 
 settanta seventy 
 
 ottanta eighty 
 
 novanta ninety 
 
 cento a hundred 
 
 dugento two hundred 
 
 trecento three hundred 
 
 quattrocento, ec four hundred, fyc. 
 
 mille a thousand 
 
 dumila, ec two thousand, $c. 
 
 un milione ..* a million 
 
 duemilioni, ec .....two millions, $c. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Cardinal numbers are generally adjectives of both 
 genders ; but have no singular. Ex. 
 
 tre uomini three men 
 
 nove donne nine women 
 
 quaranta cavalli 'forty horses 
 
 cento vacche a hundred cotus 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 Uno, as an adjective, makes una for the feminine, and 
 has no plural, see page 54; but as a substantive, it 
 makes wni and une in the plural. See Syntax of Numeral 
 Nouns. 
 
 Ventiino, trentuno^ and all numbers ending in uno, 
 make ventuna, trentuna for the feminine ; but they have 
 no plural ; as — 
 
 ventuno uomo twenty-one men 
 
 trentuna donna thirty-one women 
 
 See Syntax of Numeral Nouns for more particulars. 
 
 Mille is of both genders, and makes mUa in the 
 plural. 
 
 mille uomini a thousand men 
 
 dumila uomini two thousand men 
 
 mille donne a thousand women 
 
 tre mila donne . , three thousand women 
 
86 OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 Milione, which may be called rather a distributive or 
 collective, than a cardinal, makes milioni in the plural ; 
 and, as it is always a substantive, it governs the genitive ; 
 so that we cannot say milione uomini, but un milione, 
 or due milioni, d'uomini, a million or two millions of 
 men. 
 
 Instead of due cento and due mila, we say dugento, 
 dumila. 
 
 We never say undid cento, for eleven hundred, dodici 
 cento, for twelve hundred, tredici cento, for thirteen hun- 
 dred, &c, but mille e cento, mille e dugento, rattle e tre- 
 cento ; and if a smaller number follows, the conjunction 
 e is to be put before it ; as, mille tfugento e tre, one 
 thousand two hundred and three ; tre mila quattro cento 
 e quattro, three thousand four hundred and four ; ex- 
 cept, however, when we speak of the date of the year, 
 as, mille otto cento ventiquattro. 
 
 We never say uno e venti, one and twenty ; due e 
 trenta, two and thirty ; tre e quarania, three and forty ; 
 but we always put the tens first, as, ventuno, trentadue, 
 quarantatre, &c. 
 
 In playing at cards or dice, the numbers from two to 
 ten, (as the first number in speaking of cards and dice 
 is called assd), become substantives of the masculine 
 gender, and have their plural (1); as — 
 
 Un due, a two ; tre dm, three twos ; un quattro, a 
 four ; tre quattri, three fours ; un cinque, a five ; quattro 
 cinqui, four fives ; un otto, an eight ; due otti, two 
 eights ; un nove, a nine ; due novi, two nines. 
 
 Except tre, sei, and died, which have no plural, be- 
 cause tre is an accented word, and sei and died end in i 9 
 which words, as we have said in speaking of the sub- 
 stantives, have no plural. 
 
 (1) Notwithstanding this rule, which is given by Buommattei, 
 we continually hear Italians say, tre sette, quattro due, due quattro. 
 We think it better to follow the rule of Buommattei. 
 
OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 87 
 
 In putting the date of the month in letters, we say i 
 or ai 2, i or ai 3, i or ai 4, i or ai 5, i or ai 6, i or 
 «i 7, g$ or agli 8, i or ai 9, « or ai 10, gli or a^Zi 11, 
 the second, the third, &c. ; except, however, the first and 
 the last, which we express il prima e V ultimo. 
 
 In counting the hours of the day, the cardinal num- 
 bers, from one to twelve, take the definite article femi- 
 nine. Ex. 
 
 Tuna ,.le due....le tre....le quattro....le cinque,.. ..Ie sei 
 one two three., ..four ..Jive six o'clock 
 
 Twelve o'clock, however, may be expressed by mez- 
 zodi and mezzanotte. 
 
 If they are in the dative, alia or alle is to be used ; 
 and if in the ablative, dalla, or dalle. Ex. 
 
 egli e venuto alle tre he came at three o'clock 
 
 e state qui dalle tre alle sette.'...he has been here from three to 
 
 seven o'clock 
 
 Section II. 
 
 OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 These numbers are called ordinal., because they mark 
 
 order. 
 
 primo .first 
 
 secondo second 
 
 terzo third 
 
 quarto .fourth 
 
 quinto .fifth 
 
 sesto sixth 
 
 settimo seventh 
 
 ottavo eighth 
 
 nono ninth 
 
 decinio tenth 
 
 undecimo ♦*. .eleventh 
 
 duodecimo twelfth 
 
88 OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 decimoterzo . . thirteenth 
 
 decimoquarto, ec .fourteenth, §c. 
 
 ventesimo twentieth 
 
 ventesimo primo twenty-first 
 
 ventesimo secondo, ec twenty- second, fyc. 
 
 trentesimo thirtieth 
 
 quarantesimo .fortieth 
 
 cinquantesimo .fiftieth 
 
 sessante'simo sixtieth 
 
 settantesimo seventieth 
 
 ottantesimo eightieth 
 
 novantesimo ninetieth 
 
 centesimo hundredth 
 
 dugente'simo two hundredth 
 
 trecentesimo three hundredth 
 
 quattrocentesimo four hundredth 
 
 cinquecentesimo .five hundredth 
 
 seicentesimo, ec six hundredth, fyc. 
 
 imllesimo thousandth 
 
 Obsei-vations. 
 
 Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, have both genders 
 and numbers. Their natural termination in o is mas- 
 culine, and by changing o into «, they become feminine ; 
 as for their plural, o is changed into i, and a into e ; 
 as — 
 
 MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS. P. FEM. P. 
 
 primo .....prima primi prime 
 
 secondo seconda secondi seconde i 
 
 When some of these numbers mean a part of a whole, 
 they are substantives ; as — 
 
 un terzo a third un quarto a fourth 
 
 un quinto a fifth un sesto * a sixth 
 
OF COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. 89 
 
 Section III. 
 
 OF COLLECTIVE OR DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS. 
 
 These numbers are called collective or distributive^ 
 because they signify a numerical quantity. 
 
 un pajo a pair 
 
 mezza dozzina half a dozen 
 
 una decina half a score 
 
 una dozzina a dozen 
 
 una quindicina .fifteen 
 
 una ventina a score 
 
 una trentina one score and a half 
 
 una quarantina two score 
 
 una cinquantina, ec two score and a halftyc* 
 
 un centinajo a hundred 
 
 due centinaja two hundred 
 
 un migliajo a thousand 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Pajo, dozzina, centinajo, and migliajo^ have a plural, 
 but not the other numbers ; thus — 
 
 un pajo a pair 
 
 due paja two pair 
 
 una dozzina a dozen 
 
 due dozzine ..two dozen 
 
 un centinajo a hundred 
 
 due centinaja two hundred 
 
 un migliajo a thousand 
 
 due migliaja two thousand 
 
90 OF PRONOUNS IN GENERAL. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF PRONOUNS IN GENERAL. 
 
 A pronoun, pronome^ or vicenome^ is a word used 
 instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of 
 the same word : as, Vuomo e mortale, eppure egli non 
 pensa alia morte, man is mortal, yet he does not think of 
 death. 
 
 As to the division of pronouns, grammarians are at 
 variance. Some have classed them in one way, some in 
 another, and some have called them by different names; 
 but as names do not alter the signification of things, and 
 as, in teaching, the easiest rules are the best, we, in order 
 to render this treatise on pronouns clearer, have, in a few 
 instances, deviated from our predecessors. 
 
 We say, therefore, that there are six sorts of pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 the personal i personali 
 
 or primitive or primitivi 
 
 the possessive .. ..i possess! vi 
 the demonstrative i dimostrativi 
 
 the relative i relativi 
 
 the interrogative. ^'mievrogpiivi 
 the improper ....gl'improprj 
 or indefinite or gl'indefiniti 
 
 Section I. 
 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal pronouns are so called, because they mark 
 persons; and they admit of genders, numbers, and cases. 
 
 These pronouns have three persons, who may be the 
 subject of any discourse ; the first is the person who 
 speaks, the second is the person spoken to, and the third 
 is the person spoken of; and as the speakers and the 
 persons spoken to or of may be more than one, so 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 91 
 
 each of these persons must, of course, admit of a plural 
 number. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 First person Io I noi we 
 
 Second tu thou voi. ye or you 
 
 rpi • , ( egli....^ eglino they, masc. 
 
 (ella....^ elleno they, fern. 
 
 The persons speaking and spoken to, or rather the 
 first and second persons, both of the singular and plural, 
 are of both genders ; but the persons or things spoken 
 of, or rather the third persons, are marked by a distinc- 
 tion of gender : so that egli, he, marks the masculine 
 gender, and ella, she, the feminine, in the singular ; 
 eglino marks the masculine, and elleno the feminine, in 
 the plural. 
 
 Declension of Personal Pronouns. 
 
 From the personal pronouns are derived — 
 
 the disjunctive i disgiuntivi, or i separativi 
 
 the conjunctive i congiuntivi, or gli affissi 
 
 the relative i relativi, or gli affissi 
 
 As these pronouns are derivations, they are also called 
 derivatives, derivativi. 
 
 These pronouns are declined with the indefinite arti- 
 cle, di } a, da. 
 
 First person singular. 
 
 DISJ. CONJ. REL. 
 
 Nom. I Io(l) 
 
 Gen. of me di me ne(2) 
 
 Dat. to me a me mi 
 
 Ace. me me .....mi 
 
 Abl. from me ....da me ne 
 
 (1) Instead of io we find i' in prose and poetry ; but we think it 
 is better to leave this licence to poets only. 
 
 (2) The relative ne, which we have affixed to all genitives and 
 ablatives in the declension of these pronouns, has been but indiffe- 
 
92 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Tlural. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. EEL. 
 
 Nom. we noi 
 
 Gen. of us di noi ne 
 
 Dat. tons a noi ci, ne(l) 
 
 Ace. us noi ci, ne(l) 
 
 Abl. from us da noi ne 
 
 Second person singular. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. EEL. 
 
 Nom. thou tu(2) 
 
 Gen. of thee di te ne 
 
 Dat. to thee a te ti 
 
 Ace. thee te ,.....^....ti 
 
 Abl. from thee ...da te .ne 
 
 Plural. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. EEL. 
 
 Nom. you voi(2) 
 
 Gen. of you di voi ••••••»ns 
 
 Dat. to you a voi vi 
 
 Ace. you voi vi 
 
 Abl. from you.... da voi .... ••••..ne 
 
 Third person masculine singular. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. EEL. 
 
 Nom. he or &....egli {3), esso 
 
 Gen. of him, i£...dilui, d'esso ....ne 
 
 Dat. to him, it. ..a lui, ad esso U,(4) gli (5) 
 
 rently explained by modern grammarians. They have indeed said 
 something about it ; but they have applied it to things only ; such 
 as, of it or of them, from it or from them, and not to persons, as above. 
 The examples which we have given in the syntax of personal 
 pronouns, will justify us for this bold insertion, as some have been 
 pleased to term it, in order to appear critics. 
 
 (1) Ne instead of ci is rather pedantic in familiar conversation ; 
 but in composition it is elegant. 
 
 (2) Instead of tu and voi, poets and ancient writers have used tue 
 and vui ; but the student is not to pay attention to them. 
 
 (3) EM, ello, for egli ; elli, ellino, for eglino, have been used by 
 poets and ancient writers, but they are now obsolete. 
 
 (4) Li instead of gli dative, is seldom used in prose, much less in 
 familiar conversation. 
 
 (5) Gli has been used for a loro, to them; but the student 16 to 
 avoid it as incorrect. 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 93 
 
 DIS. CONJ. EEL, 
 
 Acc. himorit....\u\(\), esso .il, lo 
 
 Abl. from him, it da lui, da esso ne 
 
 Plural. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. REL. 
 
 Nom. they eglino, essi 
 
 Gen. of them di loro, di essi ne 
 
 Dat. to them a loro, ad essi . 
 
 Acc. them loro (2), essi gli, li 
 
 Abl. from them ..da loro, da essi , ne 
 
 Third person feminine singular. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. REL. 
 
 Nom. she or it ....ella, essa 
 
 Gen. of her, it...&\ lei, di essa ne 
 
 Dat. to her, it ..a lei, ad essa le % 
 
 Acc. her or tf ....lei, (2) essa r la 
 
 Abl. fromher, i^.dalei, da essa ne 
 
 Plural. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. EEL. 
 
 Nom. they elleno, esse 
 
 Gen. of them di loro, di esse ne 
 
 Dat. to them a loro, ad esse 
 
 Acc. them loro, esse le 
 
 Abl. from them. .da loro, da esse ne 
 
 Of the Pronoun se, which is of both Genders. 
 
 DIS. CONJ. REL. 
 
 Nom. caret 
 
 Gen. of himself, herself . ..di se ne 
 
 Dat. to himself her 'self.... a se „.si 
 
 Acc. himself herself se si 
 
 Abl. from himself herself da se ne 
 
 (1) Lui, him ; gli, to him ; lei, to her ; la, her, are on no account 
 to be used instead of egli, he, and ella, she ; and though we often 
 hear well educated Italians say, luihafatto,he has done; glie partito, 
 he is gone away ; lei mi scusi, excuse me i la mi dia, give me ; instead 
 of egli hafatto, egli e partito, ella mi scusi, ella mi dia ; yet the student 
 who wishes to speak correctly, is to avoid that manner of speaking, 
 as faulty, and contrary to grammatical rules. 
 
 (2) Lui, lei, loro, have been used by good prosaic writers, but the 
 practice of using them for colui, colei, coloro, is not to be imitated. . 
 
94 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Observations on the Personal Pronouns in their first state. 
 
 1. Egli) he, may be either abridged or syncopated 
 thus, e* ei, which are used both in prose and poetry ; 
 and especially when gli> signifying to him or them, fol- 
 lows; as — 
 
 e'gli disse he told them .for... . egli gli disse 
 
 ei gli ama he loves them ....for.... egli gli araa 
 
 2. Egli) e\ ei 9 though singular, have been used for 
 plural by good writers ; but in that point they are not 
 to be imitated. 
 
 Ella, she, and elle, its plural, as an abbreviation of 
 ellenO) have often been used by poets in the oblique cases 
 for lei and loro ; but it is a poetical licence, and not to 
 be imitated. 
 
 3. Egli) he, and ella) she, with all their derivatives, 
 both singular and plural, are used in speaking of ani- 
 mated or rational objects, such as gods, goddesses, 
 planets, angels, &c. Ex. 
 
 Io vidi Francesco, egli era afHitto. 
 
 I saw Francis , he was sorrowful.' 
 
 Parlai con Anna, ella e bellissima. 
 
 7" spoke to Anna, she is very handsome. 
 
 Ho comprato un cavallo, egli e forte. 
 
 / bought a horse, he is strong. 
 
 Ho una gatta, ella e piccolissima. 
 
 / have a eat, she is very small. 
 
 Ecco un bel Cupido, egli e ben dipinto. 
 
 There is a fine Cupid, he is well painted. 
 
 Ecco Diana, ella e la dea de' boschi. 
 
 There is Diana, she is the goddess of the woods. 
 
 4. EssO) he, and essa, she, with all their derivatives, 
 both singular and plural, are used in speaking of ani- 
 mals, things, deities, &c. without exception. 
 
 5. Egli) he, ella) she, eglino and ellenO) they, are 
 never to precede cite or il quale ; therefore, where the 
 student finds he who or wftom, dhe who, they zvhO) &c, 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 95 
 
 he is to translate them quegli che or il quale ; quella che 
 or la quale ; quel che or i quali ; quelle che or le qualL 
 See demonstrative pronouns. 
 
 Observations on Disjunctive Pronouns. 
 
 1. These pronouns are so called, because they are 
 never joined to the verb, whether they are put before or 
 after it. 
 
 2. A lui, to him, a lei, to her, a loro, to them, have 
 often been used without a ; as — 
 
 Io dissi lui I told kim 
 
 egli diede lei he gave her 
 
 noi parliamo loro we speak to them 
 
 3. Me* me, te, thee, se, himself, accompanied with con, 
 are expressed — 
 
 meco con meco ....con me ....withme 
 
 te'co con teco con te with thee 
 
 seco con seco con se with himself 
 
 Meco, teco, seco, however, are preferable. 
 
 Observations on Conjunctive and Relative Pronouns. 
 
 1. The pronouns conjunctive are so called, because 
 they may be joined to a verb when put after it, and 
 make one word with it ; as — 
 
 ella amavami she loved me 
 
 egli parlavati he spoke to thee 
 
 per vederci in order to see us 
 
 2. The pronouns relative are so called, because they 
 refer to some persons or things spoken of before ; as — 
 
 Pietro e venuto ed io non Pho visto. 
 Peter is come and I have not seen him. 
 Gioanna e bella, eppure egli non Tama. 
 Jane is handsome^ yet he does not love hei\ 
 
96 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 3. These pronouns may also be called conjunctive, 
 because they may, like conjunctive pronouns, be joined 
 to the verb, when they are put after it, and make one 
 word with it. 
 
 per vederlo in order to see him 
 
 egli amavala he loved her 
 
 chiudeteli shut them 
 
 4. Ci, and vi, signifying there, thither, with it, or, 
 tliem, in it, m them, &c. are reckoned among the con- 
 junctive pronouns. Ex. 
 
 egli andavaci he went thither 
 
 egli davaci he gave us 
 
 ella non vi era she was not there 
 
 ella non vi dava she did not give you 
 
 mettici la mano .put thy hand upon it 
 
 dateci la mano give us your hand 
 
 5. Mi, ti, vi, si, ne, may or rnay not drop their last 
 letter, and take an apostrophe, before a verb beginning 
 with any vowel but i ; for in that case the i must always 
 be dropped. Ex. 
 
 egli m'cnora, or mi onora he honours me 
 
 egli t'ama, or ti ama he loves thee 
 
 noi v'adoriamo, or vi adoriamo ...we adore you 
 
 io m'ingegno, not mi ingegno I endeavour 
 
 ei v' irrita, not vi rita he irritates you 
 
 6. Ci, and gli, drop their last vowel only before verbs 
 beginning with an i; as — 
 
 egli c'intende he understands us 
 
 ella gl'insegna sheteaclies him 
 
 C\ is often found before verbs beginning with e ; as, 
 cevita, he avoids us. But we think it is better to spell 
 it whole, thus, ci evita. 
 
 7. Lo, and la, may drop their last letter, and take an 
 apostrophe, before a verb in its compound tense ; for 
 
OF TERSONAL PRONOUNS. 97 
 
 if otherwise, the gender could not be distinguished. 
 
 Ex. 
 
 io Pho amata I have loved her 
 
 ella l'ha veduto she has seen him 
 
 In these examples, amata and veduto mark the gen- 
 ders of V with an apostrophe ; but if the verb is not in 
 its compound tense, lo and la are not to drop their last 
 letter, unless the verb, preceded by lo, begins with o, and 
 that preceded by la, begins with a. Ex. 
 
 io la onoro I honour her 
 
 ella lo adora she adores him 
 
 io l'addro I adore her 
 
 ellal'onora she honours him 
 
 In these last examples, io V adoro, ella V onora, the a 
 and o of the pronouns lo and Za, are dropped, to avoid 
 the meeting of two a's and two o^s. 
 
 8. II, and lo. II is put before verbs beginning with 
 any consonant but s followed by another consonant ; 
 as — 
 
 io il conosco I know him 
 
 ella il diceVa she said it or so 
 
 eglino il credono they believe it 
 
 Lo is put before verbs beginning with any consonant 
 or vowel, as we said above. Ex. 
 
 ei lo portava he brought him 
 
 ella lo estimava she esteemed him 
 
 eglino lo dicono they say so 
 
 9. Li, and gli. Li is put before verbs beginning 
 with a consonant only. Ex. 
 
 ei li vedeva he saw them 
 
 ella li lodava she praised them 
 
 eglino li stimaHo they esteem them 
 
 Gli is put before verbs beginning with consonants and 
 vowels, with the exception which we gave above. Ex. 
 
 ei gl Wedeva he saw them 
 
 ella' gS amava i she loved them 
 
 eglino gli adorano they adore them 
 
 F 
 
98 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 These pronouns are called possessive, because they 
 relate to possession or property ; for the expressions il 
 mio oriiwlo, my watch ; la mia casa> my house, mean 
 the same as, the watch which belongs to me, the house I 
 dm possessed of. 
 
 Possessive pronouns are either copulative, copulativi ; 
 or absolute, assoluti. 
 
 They are called copulative, when, like adjectives, they 
 agree with the substantives with which they are accom- 
 panied, in gender and number. Ex. 
 
 mio padre my father 
 
 sua madre his mother 
 
 suoi fratelli his brothers 
 
 nostre sorelle our i 
 
 They are called absolute, when, like substantives, they 
 subsist by themselves without any support ; as — 
 
 Dammi il mio , give me mine 
 
 Prendiil tuo take thine 
 
 These pronouns are six in number, and have genders 
 and numbers, viz. : — 
 
 MAS. SING. FEM. SING. MAS. PLUR. FEM. PLUR. 
 
 my or mine mio mia(l) miei mie 
 
 thy, thine tuo tua tuoi tue 
 
 his/her, hers suo sua suoi sue 
 
 our, ours nostro nostra nostri nostre 
 
 your, yours vostro vostra vostri vostre 
 
 their, theirs....... lor o, for both genders and numbers 
 
 (l) The Tuscans often use mia, tua, sua, for miei, tuoi, suoi, mie, 
 tue, sue ; saying, i mia capelli, for i miei capelli, my hair ; le tua sorelle, 
 for le tue sorelle, thy sisters ; i sua parenti, for i suoi parenti, his rela- 
 tions ; but this idiotism is to be avoided with great care. 
 
OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 99 
 
 Declension of Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 These pronouns are declined with the definite article ; 
 
 il and la, for the singular; and i and le, for the 
 
 plural. 
 
 MAS. s:ng. fem. sing. mas. plur. fem. plur. 
 
 Nom. il mio la mia i miei le mie. .....mine 
 
 Gen. del mio della mia...dei miei ...delle mie.. of mine 
 
 Dat. al mio alia mia....ai miei ....alle mie ...to mine 
 
 Ace. il mio la mia i miei le mie mine 
 
 Abl. dal mio dalla mia...dai mie'i ...dalle mie.. from mine 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. These pronouns are to agree with the object or 
 thing possessed, not with the possessor, as in English ; 
 so that, in translating her husband, his wife, you are to 
 say, il suo marito, la sua moglie, and not la sua marito, 
 il suo rnoglie. 
 
 2. Suo, sua, suoi, sue, are changed into di lui and di 
 lei, when they cause ambiguity : as, for example, if one 
 were to speak of a brother and a sister, and say, his 
 Jwuse is elegant, and her garden is full of flowers, his 
 and her should not be translated suo, sua, but di lui and 
 di lei, thus : — la di lui casa e elegante, e il di lei giardino 
 e pieno di fiori. I di lui libri, his books ; le di lei case, 
 her houses. 
 
 3. Loro, as it is seen, has no variation, being of both 
 genders and numbers. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 of demonstrative pronouns. 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns are those which precisely 
 point out the subjects to which they relate; as- — 
 
 questo signore this gentleman 
 
 quella dama ..that lady 
 
 quei libri..... those books 
 
 quelle case .• those houses 
 
 f2 
 
100 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 These pronouns are of three sorts in Italian. 
 
 1. The first comprehends those which point out per- 
 sons or things near the person who speaks; as the 
 following. 
 
 MAS, SING. MAS. PLUR. 
 
 questi this man , questi 
 
 costui . . ..this man ... .„costoro 
 
 questo ......this .♦......., questi 
 
 FEM. SING. FEM . PLUE . 
 
 questa(l) i.,.. this woman.. ............ queste 
 
 costei this woman costoro 
 
 2. The second sort comprehends those which point 
 out persons or things near the person addressed ; as the 
 following. 
 
 MAS. SING. MAS. PLUR. 
 
 cotesti (2) this man cotesti 
 
 cotesto this cotesti 
 
 codesto(3) this codesti 
 
 FEM SING. FEM. PLUR. 
 
 cotesta this woman coteste 
 
 codesta .„ this woman codeste 
 
 3. The third sort comprehends those which point out- 
 persons or things distant from the speaker and the per- 
 son addressed ; viz. — 
 
 MAS. SING. MAS. PLUR. 
 
 quegli .....that man quelli 
 
 colui. that man .coloro 
 
 quello that quelli 
 
 cio that 
 
 FEM. SING. FEM. PLUR. 
 
 quella that woman or thing ....quelle 
 
 colei that woman coloro 
 
 (1) Instead of questo, questa, &c. esto, esta, esti, este, have been 
 used by the poets, but never by prosaic writers. 
 
 (2) Instead of cotesti, cotesta, coteste, &c. we find cotestui, cotestei, 
 cotestoro ; but they are obsolete, and not to be used by those that 
 desire to speak correctly. 
 
 (3) Codesto, codesta, codesti, codeste, are not so frequently used as 
 cotesto, cotesta, &c. 
 
OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 101 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. All these pronouns are declined with the indefinite 
 article, di, a 9 da ; as — 
 
 MAS. SING. FEM. SING. MAS. PLUR. FEM. PLUR. 
 
 Nom. questo qu&ta questi queste this 
 
 Gen. di questo di questa ..di questi ...di queste.... of this 
 
 Dat. a questo a questa ...a questi. ...a queste ....to this 
 
 Ace. questo questa questi queste this 
 
 AbL da questo da questa. .da questi ..da queste ...from this 
 
 2. Questo >, cotesto, questa, cotesta, quella, as adjectives, 
 may lose their last vowel, and admit of an apostrophe, 
 before words beginning with a vowel ; and you may 
 say— 
 
 questo, or quest' uomo this man 
 
 questa, or quest' invenzione this invention 
 
 cotesto, or cotest' ignorante ....that ignorant man 
 
 cotesta, or cotest' orma '.....that footstep 
 
 quella, or quell' intenzione that intention 
 
 But if a substantive masculine begins with an o, the 
 masculine pronouns must drop their o ; and if the sub- 
 stantive feminine begins with an a, the feminine pronouns 
 must likewise drop their a ; as — 
 
 quest' onore, and not questo onore this honour 
 
 Cotest' ordine, and not cotesto ordine that order 
 
 quell' anima, and not quella anima that soul 
 
 3. The plurals of the adjective pronouns may be 
 subjected to the same rules as the singular, without com- 
 mitting a fault ; but we advise the student not to drop 
 their last vowel, unless that vowel is the same as that 
 with which the substantive begins ; as — 
 
 questi onori these honours 
 
 quest' ignorant! these ignorant men 
 
 quelle anime those soids 
 
 quell' emozioni those emotions 
 
 cotesti angeli those angels 
 
 cotest' invidiosi those envious men 
 
102 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 4. QucIIo is put entire before words beginning with 
 s followed by a consonant, and is changed into quegli 
 for the plural ; as — 
 
 quelio SCOgllO that rock 
 
 quegli scogli those rocks 
 
 5. Quelio loses its last syllable h 9 before substantives 
 beginning with any consonant but s followed by 
 another consonant, and makes quc\ quel, qucl/i, in the 
 plural ; as — 
 
 quel padrone that master 
 
 quel cavallo that horse 
 
 quel capitiino that captain 
 
 que' padroni those masters 
 
 quei cavalli those horses 
 
 quelli capitani those captains 
 
 6. Qucllo loses its last vowel at pleasure, and takes an 
 apostrophe in the place of it, before words beginning 
 with any vowel but o. In that case, qucllo is to drop its 
 o without exception ; and in the plural it makes quegli, 
 which, is not to drop the vowel, unless the substantive 
 begins with an i. Ex. 
 
 ^& A 
 
 quelio, or quell' angelo that angel 
 
 quell', not quelio onore that honour 
 
 quegli, not quegl' animi those minds 
 
 quegl', not quegli invidiosi those en vious people 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Relative pronouns are such as relate to some word or 
 phrase spoken of before, which is called the antecedent. 
 
 In Italian these pronouns are two, che 9 and quale ; to 
 which may be added, cui 9 chi (1). 
 
 (l) Some grammarians have added cui and chi; but we think 
 that cui cannot be called a relative by itself, as it is nothing but a 
 
OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 103 
 
 Declension of Relatives. 
 
 Che, referring to persons or things, is declined with 
 the indefinite article, di, a 9 da. 
 
 Nom. che ivho, that, which 
 
 Gen. di cui ( 1 ) . . . of whom, of that, of which 
 
 Dat. a cui to whom, to that, to which 
 
 Ace. che, cui.... whom, that, which 
 
 Abl. da cui from whom, from that, from which 
 
 Che, and all its derivatives, are of both genders and 
 numbers ; as, Vuomo che amo, the man whom I love ; 
 la donna che m'ama, the woman who loves me. 
 
 Che, referring to a whole phrase spoken of before, is 
 declined with the definite article il, and is always of the 
 masculine gender. 
 
 Nom. il che which 
 
 Gen. del che of which 
 
 Dat. al che to which 
 
 Ace. il che which 
 
 Abl. dal che from which 
 
 "Example. 
 
 Egli e partito da Londra, il che me displace molto, he 
 left London, which I am very sorry for. 
 
 Quale is declined with the definite article, il, for the 
 masculine, and la, for the feminine ; and makes quali in 
 the plural, for both genders. 
 
 derivation of che in its oblique cases, as will be seen in its declen- 
 sion ; and chi cannot be called a relative absolute, because it has 
 no antecedent ; but it is a mixture of both ; for when we say, chi 
 dice questo, turn dice la verita, chi expresses both the relative and the 
 antecedent ; as, he or she who says so, does not speak the truth. 
 However, we have inserted them for the sake of facility. 
 
 (1) Instead of di cui, a cui, da cui, we find in good authors, di che, 
 a che, da che ; but they are not to be imitated. 
 
104 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Singular, Masculine, and Feminine. 
 
 Nom. il. or la quale who, that, which 
 
 Gen. del, or della quale ..of whom, of that, of which 
 
 Dat. al, or alia quale to whom, to that, to which 
 
 Ace. il, or la quale whom, that, which 
 
 Abl. dal, or dalla quale ..from whom, from that, from which 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. i, or le quali who, that, which 
 
 Gen. de', or delle quali ...of whom, of that, of which 
 
 Dat. a', or alle quali to whom, to that, to which 
 
 Ace. i, or le quali who, that, which 
 
 Abl. da', or dalle quali ..from whom, from that, from which 
 
 Chi (1), signifying he who, she who, &c, is declined 
 with the indefinite article, di, a, da. 
 
 Nom. chi he, she, they, who 
 
 Gen. di chi of him, her, them, who 
 
 Dat. a chi ....to him, her, them, who 
 
 Ace. chi..... him, her, them, who 
 
 Abl. da chi from him, her, them, who 
 
 Chi, here, is employed only for persons, and stands 
 for quegli che, or, il quale. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Che may drop the last letter, and take an apos- 
 trophe, before any vowel. Ex. Che io, or, cK io amw, 
 which I love ; che aveva, or, cK aveva, which he had. 
 
 % Quale may drop the last vowel, and take an apos- 
 trophe, before a noun beginning with a vowel, only in 
 the singular. In the plural it is never to be abridged ; 
 as — 
 
 il quale amava, or il qual* amava who loved 
 
 la quale andava, or la qual* andava.. who went 
 
 i quali amavano, not i qual* who loved 
 
 le quali andavano, not le qual' who went 
 
 (l) I say chi, signifying he who, &c, because when it signifies who 
 interrogatively, it belongs to the interrogative pronouns. 
 
OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 105 
 
 3. Quale may drop its last vowel without taking an 
 apostrophe, in the singular only, and before a word 
 beginning with a consonant ; as — 
 
 nel qual di on which day 
 
 la qual donna • which ivoman 
 
 Quali may be abridged or syncopated thus, quai, or 
 qua! ; as — 
 
 i quai figliuoli which children 
 
 le qua' donne which women 
 
 But the latter is not frequently used. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 These pronouns are called interrogative, because they 
 serve to ask questions. They are, chi, che, and quale, 
 and are declined with the indefinite article, di, a, da, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Nom. chi... .....who che what 
 
 Gen. di chi ....of who77i di che of what 
 
 Dat. a chi to whom a che ,...,».to what 
 
 Ace. chi whom che what 
 
 Abl. da chi . . . .from whom da che from what 
 
 SINGULAR, PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. quale quali which 
 
 Gen. di quale di quali of which 
 
 Dat. a quale a quali to which 
 
 Ace. quale quali which 
 
 Abl. daquale da quali .from which 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Che (1) may or may not lose its last vowel before 
 a word beginning with a vowel, and take an apostrophe ; 
 as — 
 
 Che, or ch'uomo e colui? . . . .what man is he? 
 
 Che, or ch'e questo ? what is this ? 
 
 (1) Che, in poetry, has sometimes dropped he, but it is not to be 
 imitated. 
 
 F3 
 
106 OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 2, Before a word beginning with an h 9 che is not 
 abridged in prose ; as— 
 
 Che ha egli ? what is the matter with him ? 
 
 Che han fatto? what have they done? 
 
 The student, however, will do better to make use of 
 che entire, before a vowel or a consonant. 
 
 3. Quale may or may not lose its last vowel in the sin- 
 gular, and take an apostrophe at pleasure, before words 
 beginning with a vowel : before words beginning with a 
 consonant, it takes no apostrophe ; as — 
 
 Qual'e la casa? which is the i 
 
 Qual di questi due? which of these two? 
 
 Di qual onor parlate? which honour do you speak of? 
 
 A qual casa appartiene ? .... which house does it belong to? 
 
 See the first examples of quale, underneath. 
 
 4. Chi is used in speaking of persons of both genders 
 and numbers ; as — 
 
 B. 3. 9. Disse Beltramo : e chi e la damigella ? Bel- 
 tram said : and who is the young lady ? 
 
 B. 4. 10. // qual brancolare, sentendo lefemmine die 
 desie erano, cominciarono a dire, chi e la ? The ladies who 
 were awake hearing the noise, said, who is there ? 
 
 Che is used in speaking of persons and things, and is 
 of both genders and numbers. Ex. 
 
 B, 7. 9. Or che avesti, chefai cotal viso f Now, what 
 is the matter with you— why do you make such faces ? 
 
 Quale is used in speaking of persons and things, is of 
 both genders, and makes quail in the plural. Ex. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Qual amore, qual ricchezza, qual par entado 
 avrebbe i sospiri di Tito con tarda efficaciafatti a Gisippo 
 nel cuor sentire, se non costei ? What love, wealth, or 
 affinity, could have wrought so effectually upon the heart 
 of Gisippus, as to make him feel the pangs of Titus, but 
 this (friendship)? 
 
OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 
 
 107 
 
 B. 10. 8. Quali stati, quai meriti avrebbon fatto Gi- 
 sippo non curdr di perdere i suoi parenti per soddisfdre 
 air amico, se non costei ? What greatness, what merits, 
 could make Gisippus heedless of disobliging all his rela- 
 tions to satisfy his friend, but this (friendship) ? 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 
 
 These pronouns are also called indefinite, and indeter- 
 minate, because they express their subjects in an indefinite 
 or general manner. 
 
 Some grammarians have divided these pronouns into 
 different classes ; but as we think that such a division 
 would only tend to puzzle the student without much 
 benefit, we shall put them down alphabetically, and speak 
 of them in the same order. 
 
 alcuno somebody 
 
 alquanto some, a little 
 
 altrettali such ones 
 
 altrettanto ....as much 
 
 altri some, others 
 
 altro other 
 
 altrui others 
 
 checchesia ....whatsoever 
 chicchesia .... whosoever 
 
 chiunque whoever 
 
 ciascuno every one 
 
 ciascheduno *.*every one 
 
 cotale such one 
 
 cotanto so much 
 
 nessuno nobody 
 
 niuno nobody 
 
 nullo no one 
 
 ogni every 
 
 ognuno every one 
 
 parecchj several 
 
 quale ivhich, some 
 
 qualche any 
 
 qualcheduno....sow£ one 
 
 qualcuno some one 
 
 qualsisia.... ) ..whatever, or 
 qualsivoglia > ..whoever, or 
 qualunque ) ..whatsoever 
 
 quanto as much 
 
 tale ^..such 
 
 tanto so much 
 
 tutto all 
 
 verdno .....no one 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Some of these pronouns have no plural, others have 
 no singular, and others have both singular and plural, as 
 we shall presently see. 
 
108 OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 
 
 2. Some of these pronouns are also adverbs, and as 
 such, we shall speak of them in their respective places. 
 
 3. The following pronouns, taken as adjectives, have 
 genders and numbers. 
 
 MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS. P. FEM. P. 
 
 alcuno alcuna alcuni alcune 
 
 alquanto alquanta alquanti alquante 
 
 altrettanto ....altrettanta altrettanti altrettante 
 
 altro altra altri altre 
 
 cotanto... c ....cotanta cotanti cotante 
 
 quanto quanta quanti quante 
 
 tutto tutta tutti tutte 
 
 4. These pronouns are declined with the indefinite 
 article, di, a, da. Altro, however, taken in a determined 
 sense, has the definite article; as, gli altri uomini, le 
 altre donne, the other men, the other women. 
 
 5. All these pronouns may, in the singular, lose their 
 last vowel, and take an apostrophe, before words beginning 
 with a vowel. Alcuno, however, may lose its last vowel 
 before words beginning either with a vowel or a con- 
 sonant, but not in the feminine. 
 
 alcun uorao ....any man 
 alcuna casa, not 
 
 alcun casa .. ..any house 
 
 alcun libro some book 
 
 6. The following pronouns* whether taken as sub- 
 stantives or adjectives, are susceptible of genders only, 
 but have no plural. 
 
 MAS. FEM. MAS. FEM. 
 
 ciascheduno ..ciascheduna 
 
 ciascuno ciascuna 
 
 nessu.no nessuna 
 
 nullo nulla 
 
 niuno niuna 
 
 ognuno ognuna 
 
 qualcuno qualcuna 
 
 qualcheduno ....qualcheduna 
 veruno veruna 
 
 These pronouns are declined with the indefinite article, 
 di 9 a, da. 
 
 All these pronouns, in the masculine, may lose their 
 last vowel o, before words beginning either with a vowel 
 
OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 109 
 
 or a consonant ; but before feminine nouns, when they 
 drop their last vowel a 9 an apostrophe is to be inserted 
 in its place. 
 
 ciascun uomo. .every man ciascun libro ....every book 
 
 ciascun' orma .every footstep ciascun' arme .. ..every iveapon 
 
 7. The following pronouns are indeclinable, admit of 
 both genders, have no plural, and are declined with di, 
 a 9 da. 
 
 chicchesia ..^.chiunque ogni qualche 
 
 qualsisia ., .. ..qualsivoglia qualunque 
 
 These pronouns are never to drop any of their last 
 vowels ; and though ogni and qualche are sometimes 
 found abridged, we think it is better not to imitate those 
 writers who have taken such a liberty. 
 
 8. The following pronouns have no singular. 
 
 altrettali t parecchj 
 
 Altrettali is of both genders, and is declined with the 
 definite article, gli, and le ; and parecchj makes parecchie, 
 for the feminine, and is declined with di, a, da. 
 
 9. The following pronouns are of both genders^ admit 
 of a plural, and are declined with or without the article. 
 
 cotale cotali 
 
 quale quali 
 
 tale tali 
 
 These three pronouns may or may not lose their last 
 letter in the singular ; in the plural, they may be synco- 
 pated or abridged thus : — 
 
 cotali cotai .cota' 
 
 quali quai .., qua' 
 
 tali tai ta' 
 
 The last method, however, that is, the abridged, is 
 rather affected, and is better not to be imitated. 
 
110 OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 
 
 10. Altri is of both genders, and of both numbers, 
 and is declined thus : — 
 
 Nom. altri 
 
 Gen. d' altri, or d'altrui 
 
 Dat. ad altri, or ad altrui 
 
 Ace. altri, altrui 
 
 Abl. da altri, or da altrui 
 
 Altrui is never used in the nominative case, and is 
 also indeclinable ; that is, it may be used with or without 
 di 9 a 9 da. 
 
OF VEPvBS. Ill 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF VERES. 
 
 Section L 
 
 OF THE NATURE OF VERBS IN GENERAL. 
 
 A verb, verbo, is a word which signifies to be, to do, 
 or to suffer ; as, Io sono, I am ; Io amo, I love ; Io 
 soiw amatol I am beloved. 
 
 Verbs in Italian are of two kinds, personal and imper- 
 sonal. 
 
 The personal is that which has three different persons, 
 and is divided into — 
 
 active attivo 
 
 passive passivo 
 
 neuter neutro 
 
 reflective reflettivo 
 
 reciprocal reciproco 
 
 A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily 
 implies an agent, and an object acted upon ; as, to love, 
 amare ; I love God, Io amo Dio. 
 
 A verb passive expresses a passion or a suffering, or 
 the receiving of an action, and necessarily implies an 
 object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted 
 upon ; as, to be loved, essere amato ; Peter is loved by 
 Anna, Pietro e amato da Anna. 
 
 iV verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion, 
 but being, or a state of being ; as, I am, io sano ; I 
 sleep, io dormo ; I sit, io seggo. 
 
 A verb reflective expresses an action in which the 
 agent acts, and is acted upon by himself. I love myself, 
 io mi amo ; he knows himself, egli si conosce. 
 
 A verb reciprocal is when the agent acts, and is acted 
 upon by another agent ; and as two persons are required 
 
112 OF VERBS. 
 
 to act and to be acted upon, this verb has no singular. 
 Feter and Anthony beat each other, Pietro ed Antonio 
 si bdttono ; that is, Peter beats Anthony, and Anthony 
 beats Peter. 
 
 A verb impersonal is that which has not all the per- 
 sons required to conjugate a verb. They are of three 
 sorts — 
 
 1. Those of the first are called impersondli rigorosi, 
 impersonal absolute ; as, tuona, it thunders ; balena, it 
 lightens. 
 
 2. Those of the second sort are called, mezzo imper- 
 sonal^ half impersonal ; which, though they may be used 
 personally, are used impersonally in the third person ; as, 
 mipidce, I like; mi pare, it seems to me, &c. 
 
 3. The third sort contains impersonals formed by 
 verbs personal used in the third person with si before 
 it ; as, si dice, it is said ; si fa, it is done. 
 
 To the signification of the verb are superadded the 
 designation of number, by which it corresponds with the 
 numbers of the noun, either singular or plural ; of per- 
 son, by which it corresponds with the several personal 
 pronouns ; of mood, by which the action, passion, or 
 being is expressed; and, lastly, of time, by which it 
 represents the action, passion, or being, as, present, 
 past, *and future. In a verb, therefore, are to be con- 
 sidered — 
 
 numbers numeri 
 
 persons persone 
 
 moods modi 
 
 tenses .tempi 
 
 Section II. 
 
 OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 
 
 Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the 
 plural: as, I speak, io parlo; we speak, noi parliamo. 
 
OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 113 
 
 Each number has three persons. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 First person I love io amo 
 
 Second thou lovest tu ami 
 
 Third he loves egli ama 
 
 Plural 
 
 First person we love noiamiamo 
 
 Second you love voi araate 
 
 Third they love £glino amano 
 
 Thus, the verb in Italian, throughout all its tenses, 
 varies its endings to express, or agree with, different 
 persons of the same namber ; as, I speak, io parlo ; thou 
 speakest, tu parli ; he speaks, egli parla, &c. ; and also, 
 to express different numbers of the same person ; as, tu 
 parli, thou speakest ; voi parlate, you speak ; egli parla, 
 he speaks; eglino pdrlano, they speak. 
 
 As Italian verbs have different terminations, accord- 
 ing to the difference of persons and numbers, they, by a 
 peculiarity belonging to the language, may, in some 
 cases, be used without the personal pronouns ; thus, in 
 saying amo, I love ; amiamo* we love ; instead of io amo, 
 not amiamo, the student who is acquainted with the 
 terminations of the verb, is not at a loss to find that amo 
 is the first person singular, and amiamo the first person 
 plural. 
 
 Section III. 
 
 OF MOODS. 
 
 Mood, or mode, is a particular form of the verb, 
 shewing the manner in which the being, action, or pas- 
 sion, is represented. 
 
 There are, in Italian, four moods of verbs. 
 
 I. Pinfinito the infinitive 
 
 II. lindicativo the indicative 
 
 III. il soggiontivo the subjunctive 
 
 IV. Pimperativo the imperative 
 
114 OF MOODS. 
 
 We begin to reckon the moods by the infinitive, because 
 all the other moods are derived from the infinitive. 
 
 The infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general and 
 unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or 
 person ; as, amare, to love ; andare, to go ; perdere, to 
 lose. 
 
 The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a 
 thing, or asks a question ; as, egli ama, he loves ; egli e 
 andato, he is gone ; or, ama egli ? does he love ? e egli 
 andato f is he gone ? 
 
 The subjunctive mood represents a thing, under a 
 condition, motive, wish, supposition, command, fear, &c. 
 and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed, or under- 
 stood, and attended by another verb. Egli gode di per- 
 fetta salute, benclie paja ammaldto, he enjoys perfect 
 health, though he seems sickly. Paja is the subjunctive 
 governed by benclie, a conjunction. Io non credo sia 
 partito, I do not think he is gone away. Sia is the 
 subjunctive governed by the verb credo, and the con- 
 junction che which is understood, thus, io non credo 
 che siapartito. 
 
 The imperative mood is used for commanding, ex- 
 horting, entreating, or permitting ; as, vditene, begone ; 
 Jute attenzione ai vostri affdri, mind your business ; pre- 
 ghiumo Iddio, let us pray to God ; anddte in pace, go in 
 peace. 
 
 Though this last mood derives its name from its inti- 
 mation of command, it is used on occasions of a very 
 opposite nature, even in the humblest supplications of an 
 inferior being, to one who is infinitely superior ; as, ddcci 
 oggi il nostro pane quotididno, e rimetti a noi i nostri 
 debiti, give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us 
 our trespasses. 
 
 Some grammarians have reckoned five moods instead 
 of four, but we have been satisfied to exhibit such only 
 as are obviously distinct, and necessary to answer our 
 purposes. 
 
OF THE TENSES. 115 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 OF THE TENSES. 
 
 Tense, tempo, being the distinction of time, admits of 
 present, presente ; past, passdto ; future, futuro. 
 
 The present tense represents an action or event, as 
 passing at the time in which it is mentioned. 
 
 The past tense represents an action or event, as elapsed 
 at the time when it is mentioned. 
 
 The future expresses an action or event as yet to come, 
 either with or without respect to the precise time. 
 
 As every mood is susceptible of tenses, we shall speak 
 of each of them separately. 
 
 The infinitive has three tenses in Italian, the present, 
 the past, and the future, as we observed before ; but 
 without any precise determination of time. 
 
 The present is simply amdre, to love; vedere, to 
 see. The past is formed by the infinitive, avere, and the 
 participle of any verb; as, av'ere amdto, to have loved ; 
 avere creduto, to have believed. And the future is 
 formed by putting the verb, essere per, to be ; avere a, 
 or ad, or da, to have, before any infinitive; as, sono per 
 anddre, I am to go ; ho a dire^ I have to say. 
 
 The indicative has likewise three tenses, present, past, 
 and future. 
 
 The present tense is — 
 
 io amo I love 
 
 tu leggi .....thou readest 
 
 egli dice he says 
 
 noi andiamo we go 
 
 voi credete you think 
 
 eglino vedono they see 
 
 As there are some critics, whom we would rather call 
 cobblers than literary men, that have had something to 
 say about our explanation of the tenses, we will row lay 
 down some examples to give authority to what we 
 advanced in our small Grammar. 
 
116 OF THE TENSES. 
 
 1. This tense is used in speaking of an action or event, 
 as passing at the time in which it is mentioned. 
 
 B. 1 0. 8. Io conosco qudnto possono leforze d 'amore, 
 I know how powerful love is. 
 
 B. JO. 8. I vostri rammarichii piu dafuria, che da 
 ragione incitdti .... vitiiperano, mdrdono, e dannano 
 Gisippo, your complaints, arising more from rage than 
 reason.... re vile, offend, and condemn Gisippus. 
 
 2. The present tense is likewise used in speaking of 
 actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the 
 present time. 
 
 B. 5. 8. Ed avviene, che ogni Verier dX in su quest'' or a, 
 io la giiingo qui, e qui ne fo lo strdzio che vedrdi ; and it 
 happens, that every Friday about this time I overtake 
 her here, and torment her, as you will see. Giungo and 
 fo are the actions taking place with the intermission of a 
 week ; that is, from one Friday to another. 
 
 3. This tense is substituted for the past in animated 
 narrations. 
 
 Albergati. Nov. Esce veloce da quella tomba, corre 
 al paldgio ; riort e piu incerto il suo passo, non e piu 
 dubbia la via, non e piil oscura la notte ; he went quickly 
 out of that tomb, ran to his palace; his steps were no 
 longer uncertain, the way was no longer doubtful, night 
 was no longer dark. Esce, corre, and e, are all in the 
 present tense, instead of the past, usci, corse, era. 
 
 4. The present tense is used in speaking of a future 
 action, as in the following cases : — 
 
 B. 10. 9. Quello che mi dite di fore, sifaccia tosto, 
 perciocche domdne e Tultimo d\ che io debbo essere aspet- 
 tdto ; what is to be done, I beg you will have it done 
 immediately, for to-morrow will be the last day of my 
 being expected. In like manner we say, il mese, la set- 
 timdna, Vanno, la primavera, Testate, Vautunno, V in- 
 verno, che viene, next month, week, year, spring, summer, 
 autumn, winter, instead of ilmese che verrd, la settimdna 
 che verm, &c. 
 
OF THE TENSES. 117 
 
 The past tense represents an action as elapsed at the 
 time when it is mentioned, and is expressed in Italian 
 five different ways, viz. — 
 
 I. preterito imperfetto .first imperfect tense ( 1 ) 
 
 II. preterito indeterminate) second imperfect tense 
 
 III. preterito determinate perfect tense 
 
 IV. trapassato imperfetto .first pluperfect tense 
 
 V. trapassato perfetto second pluperfect tense 
 
 I. II preterito imperfetto », the first imperfect tense, is— 
 
 io aveva I had 
 
 tu amavi thou lovedst 
 
 egli parlava he spoke 
 
 noi dicevamo we said 
 
 voi facevate you did 
 
 eglino scrivevano they wrote 
 
 1. This tense in Italian represents the action or event, 
 as remaining unfinished at a certain time past. 
 
 B. 4. 1. E veggendo* die il padre , per I amor che egli 
 le portava, poco cur a si dava di piii maritarla, ?ie a lei 
 onesta cosa pareva il richiedernelo, ecc. ; and, seeing that 
 her father, on account of the love he bore her, took no 
 care to marry her again, and it seeming not so modest 
 in her to ask it, &c. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Io lavorava un loro giardino, bello e grdnde, 
 e oltre a questo, andava alcuna volta al bosco per le legne, 
 attigneva aequo,, e faceva cotdli altri servigetti ; ma le 
 donne mi davano si poco, che io non ne poteva appena 
 pagare i calzdri; I had the care of a large garden ; and, 
 besides that, I used sometimes to go to the forest for 
 wood, I drew water, and did other services for them ; 
 but my wages were so small, that they would scarcely 
 find my shoes. 
 
 % This tense is used in speaking of the actions, dis- 
 positions, and good or bad qualities of persons or things 
 
 (1) As the English language has only one imperfect, and one 
 pluperfect, we have distinguished them, in this grammar, by first 
 imperfect, second imperfect, first pluperfect, second pluoerfect. 
 
118 OF THE TENSES. 
 
 no longer existing at the time in which they are men- 
 tioned. 
 
 B. 5. 1. La moglie, die Isabella avea nome, his wife, 
 who was called Isabella. 
 
 Bembo. Era questo giardino vdgo molto, this garden 
 was very pleasant. 
 
 B. 5. 10. La moglie era una giovane di pelo rosso, 
 his wife was carroty. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Una vecchia die pareva sdnta Verididna che 
 da beccdre alle serpi, an old woman who appeared St. 
 Veridiana, feeding serpents. 
 
 B. 3. 4. II quale assdi giovane, e bello della persona 
 era, who was a very young and handsome man. 
 
 Aveva, era, pareva, first imperfect, not ebbe, fu, 
 parve ; for in the latter case it would mean an action 
 which took place only once. 
 
 3. This tense is used in speaking of actions inter- 
 rupted. 
 
 B. 1. 3. Mentre stavan cendndo, venne il marito, 
 while they were at supper, her husband came. 
 
 B. L Z. 5. Egli mcontrb la Catella die veniva, he met 
 with Catella, who was coming. 
 
 Stavan and veniva are actions interrupted. 
 
 II. II preterito indeterminate, the second imperfect 
 tense, is — 
 
 io amai I loved 
 
 tu dicesti thou saidst 
 
 egli parlo he spoke 
 
 noi andammo we went 
 
 voi scriveste you wrote 
 
 eglino finirono they finished 
 
 1. This tense represents an action or event past and 
 finished a long time since, though the precise time is not 
 denoted by the verb itself ; or, otherwise, it represents 
 an action or event happening only once, without leaving 
 any traces of it behind, when the verb is accompanied 
 with an adverb of time past. 
 
 B. 5. 8. E dietro a lei vide venire un cavalier bruno, 
 and he saw a knight dressed in black following her. 
 
OF THE TENSES. 119 
 
 B. 5. 8. Ma il cavaliere che questo vide, gli grido di 
 lontano, but the knight who saw it, cried from afar to 
 him. 
 
 Vide and grido show that the actions are past and 
 finished, and no traces ©f them left behind. 
 
 B. 10. 9. E il seguente d\ fece il Saladinjure in una 
 gran sola un bellissimo, e ricco letto 9 the following day 
 the Saladin had a most beautiful and rich bed put up in 
 a grand drawing-room. 
 
 B. 3. 1 . Uno di la Badessa il vide, one day the Abbess 
 saw him. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Se iofossi voluto anddre dietro cH sogni 9 io non 
 ci sarei venuto 9 non tdnto per lo tuo, qudnto per uno^ che 
 io altresi questa notte passdta ne feci ; if I had any faith 
 in dreams, I should not have come here ; and not So 
 much for the sake of your^s, as of one I had last night. 
 
 Fece, vide, fec% and notjuceva, vedeva,facevo, because 
 they are here accompanied with il seguente di 9 ivno di 9 
 notte passata 9 all of which are adverbs of time, thai 
 require this tense instead of the first imperfect. 
 
 III. Ilpreterito determinato 9 the perfect tense, is — 
 
 io ho avuto I have had 
 
 tu sei stato thou hast been 
 
 egli e amato he is loved 
 
 noi abbiamo veduto we have seen 
 
 voi avete scritto you have written 
 
 eglino hanno parlato they have spoken 
 
 1. This tense refers to what has taken place a little 
 while before. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Che ti pare ? Hottf io bene la promessa ser- 
 vata ? Messer 9 no : voi m 1 avete fatto parldr con una 
 stdtua di mdrmo. What do you think of it ? Have I 
 not kept my promise ? No, Sir ; you have made me 
 speak to a marble statue. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Ed or volesse iddio che io fatto Vavessi 9 perciib 
 che voi avete comperato, ed io non V ho venduto ; and 
 now, would to heaven that I had done so ; because you 
 have obtained it by purchase, without my selling it to 
 you. 
 
120 OF THE TENSES. 
 
 Hotf io servata, voi vri avetefatto, avete comperato, ho 
 venduto, show the actions thai have taken place but a little 
 while before, as the promise was made just before. 
 
 2. This tense denotes a thingvthat is past in such a 
 manner that there is still actually remaining some part 
 of the time to slide away, wherein we declare that the 
 thing has been done ; and it is generally accompanied 
 with an adverb of time. » 
 
 B. 3. 5. Anzi £ ho sempre amato, e avuto caro innanzi 
 ad ogni altro ; ma cosi m' e convemito fare per paura 
 d' altrui ; I always loved you far beyond every other 
 person ; but that behaviour was necessary, for fear of 
 other people. 
 
 B. 3. 6. Io 9 misera me, gia sdno otto anni, f ho piii 
 die la mia vita amato. Alas ! for these eight years 
 have I loved you more than my very life. 
 
 In the first example, ho amato, e convenuto, show that 
 the actions are passed ; but a part of the time still 
 remains, that is, she still loves him, and is still afraid. 
 Likewise, ho amato, in the second example, shows that 
 the eight years are not yet elapsed. 
 
 3. In general, the perfect tense may be used when- 
 ever the action is done at a time, the period of which is 
 still continuing when we speak ; and such a time may 
 be a century, a year, a month, a week, a day, or any 
 number of centuries, years, &c. 
 
 Per tre secoli intieri non c'emai stato alcun cangiamento nelle leggi. 
 For three whole centuries no alteration has taken place in the laws, 
 L'ho veduto due volte quest' anno, i" saw him twice this year. 
 Non sono stato all' opera questa settimana. i" have not been to the 
 opera this week. 
 
 With regard to questa mattina, this morning, it is to 
 be observed, that if the morning is already elapsed, we 
 use the second imperfect with questa mattina ; but if the 
 morning is not elapsed when we speak, the perfect tense 
 is used. Thus^ if we speak in the afternoon, we say, 
 lo vidi stamattina, I saw him this morning. If we 
 
OF THE TENSES. 121 
 
 speak iii the same morning, we say, Z'ho veduto sta- 
 mattina. 
 
 IV. II trapassato imperfetto, the first pluperfect tense, 
 is — 
 
 io aveva avuto I had had 
 
 tu eri amato thou wast loved 
 
 egli aveva veduto he had seen 
 
 noi avevamo dato .. .. i we had given 
 
 voi avevate detto you had said 
 
 eglino avevano scritto they had written 
 
 1. This tense represents an action, not only as past, 
 but also, as done prior to another action which is about 
 to begin. 
 
 JB. 3. 8. Qudndo i monaci che detto avevan mattutino, 
 corsono cola, e conobbero la voce di Ferondo ; the monks 
 who had just ended their morning service ran thither, 
 and recognised the voice of Ferondo. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Era Ferondo tutto pdllido, come colui, che 
 tanto tempo era stato senza vedere il cielo ; Ferondo was 
 quite pale, as he had been so long confined, without see- 
 ing day-light. 
 
 In these examples, avevan detto shows an action done 
 before corsono ; and era stato, before he came out of the 
 tomb. 
 
 This tense, however, is subject to the same rules as 
 the first imperfect, always observing the rule as above, 
 namely, of using it in speaking of an action done just 
 before another action is to begin. 
 
 V. II trapassato perfetto, the second pluperfect tense, 
 is — 
 
 io ebbi avuto I had had 
 
 tu fosti amato thou wast loved 
 
 egli ebbe veduto he had seen 
 
 noi avemmo dato ..we had given 
 
 voi aveste detto ..you had said 
 
 eglino ebbero scritto they had wntten 
 
 1. This tense is used as the second imperfect, and is 
 generally accompanied with poiche, quando, dopo che, 
 subito che, &c. 
 
 a 
 
122 OF THE TENSES, 
 
 B. 3. 8. Or a in cost fdtti ragionamenti e in simili...* 
 fu tenuto Ferondo da died mesi ; in this manner was 
 Ferondo kept there about ten months. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Ma poiche la gente alqudnto si fu rassicurata 
 con lui, domanddndolo di indite, cose, ... ei rispondeva ; 
 but when people were convinced of his really being 
 alive, and had asked him questions, he answered. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Ando nella camera alia donna, e quando detto 
 1'ebhe come agevolmente poteva il palqfreno guadagndre, 
 le impose ; he went to his wife's room, and when he had 
 told her how easily he could get the horse ? he enjoined 
 her. 
 
 The future represents an action or event as yet to 
 come, and is expressed two ways in Italian, as well as in 
 English, viz. — 
 
 1 fut uro imperfetto .first future 
 
 2 futuro perfetto secondfuture 
 
 I. II futuro imperfetto, the first future, is — 
 
 lo avro I shall have 
 
 tu sarai thou shalt be 
 
 egli fara he shall do 
 
 noi vedremo we shall see 
 
 voi andrete you shall go 
 
 eglino daranno %...they shall give 
 
 1. This tense is used to express future actions. 
 
 B. 3. 8. E come, disse la donna, vi pot? a anddre vi- 
 vendo ? Disse I abate ; eg li convien ch 7 e' 1 muoja, e cost 
 Sandra ; And what ! go there alive ? said the lady. He 
 must die, answered the abbot, and thus he shall go 
 thither. 
 
 2. This tense is made use of, instead of the present, 
 in doubtful actions. 
 
 Gold. Ver. Am. Eh! via, cdro amico, parra a voi 
 che non vi voglia bene ; Come then, dear friend, perhaps 
 you think she does not like you. 
 
 Gold. Pam. (Jevre.) Che le avete fdtto che piange? 
 (Bonjil.) Un male assdi grdnde ; le ho dondto un anello* 
 
OF THE TENSES. 123 
 
 (Jevre.) Dunqne piangera, (Pallegrezza (Bonfil.) No 9 
 pidnge per verecondia. What have you done to make 
 her cry ? — I did something very bad, I presented her 
 with a ring. — She, then, cries for joy. — No, she cries 
 through bashfulness. 
 
 Jn these two examples, parra and piangera are two 
 actions, shewing doubt in the speaker. In like manner, 
 if any one knocks at the door of a room, those who are 
 within say to each other : Chi mai sard ? Who can it 
 be ? Or, if any one goes out, he who remains at home, 
 says : Dove sard anddto colui ? Where can he be gone ? 
 can, in both examples shewing doubt, is put in the 
 future. 
 
 II. Ilfuturo perfetto, the second future, is — 
 
 avro avuto I shall have had 
 
 sarai stato thou wilt have been 
 
 avra amato he will have loved 
 
 avremo detto we shall have said 
 
 avrete fatto you will have done 
 
 avranno scritto they will have written 
 
 1. This tense intimates that the action will be fully 
 accomplished at or before the time of another future 
 action or event. 
 
 B. 2. 1. Fdtevi dire qudndo, e dove io gli tdgliai la 
 borsa, ed io vi diro quello eke io avro fatto ; order them 
 to say when and where I robbed them, and I will tell 
 you what I have done. 
 
 % This tense is used instead of the perfect tense, in 
 doubtful or contradictory actions. 
 
 Gold. (Beatrice} Ha detto a me che To chiamdva a 
 Venezia una lettera di suo zio, ed ora dice che suo zio 
 sta per rnorire. (Florindo.) Avro detto che ho da anddre 
 per una lettera che trdtta di mio zio. (B.) He told me 
 he was to go to Venice on account of a letter sent to him 
 by his uncle ; and now he says his uncle is on his death- 
 bed. (F.) Perhaps I have said that I am to go for a 
 letter which concerns my uncle, Avrd detto for ho detto. 
 
 g2 
 
124 OF THE TENSES. 
 
 In like manner, if we are told that such a person is come 
 where we are, without knowing the cause of his coming, 
 we say, perche rnai sara venuto ? Wherefore is he come ? 
 Or, if any one were to ask another to guess where he 
 has been, the answer is, Jbrse sarai andato alV Opera- 
 perhaps you have been to the Opera ; sarai, for sei. 
 
 The indicative, then, has eight tenses, namely — 
 
 I. il presente the present tense 
 
 II. il preterito imperfetto the first imperfect tense 
 
 III. il preterito indeterminate) ..the second imperfect 
 
 IV. il preterito determinate ..,. the perfect tense 
 
 V. il trapassato imperfetto ....the first pluperfect tense 
 
 VI . il trapassato perfetto the second pluperfect tense 
 
 VII. il futuro imperfetto the first future tense 
 
 VIII. il futuro perfetto the second future tense 
 
 Many other different names have been given to the 
 tenses, but not to confuse the learner, we have substi- 
 tuted those that are most in use, and approved of by 
 good writers. As to the English names, we have made 
 use of those in Murray's Grammar ; and with respect to 
 il preterito determinato, and trapassato perfetto, which 
 the English language comprehends under the name of 
 imperfect and pluperfect, the second imperfect, and 
 second pluperfect, have been substituted. 
 
 Of the Subjunctive. 
 
 The tenses of this mood express, as the indicative, 
 the present, the past, and the future. \ 
 
 The present is — 
 
 io abbia I may have 
 
 tu sia thou mayst be ^ 
 
 egli vegga he may see 
 
 noi andiamo we may go 
 
 voi facciate you may do 
 
 eglino diano they may give 
 
 1. This tense represents a present and future action, 
 only by the sense of the sentence. 
 
 B. 8. 9. Mi place die voi mi marinate— I am glad you 
 wll get a husband for me. Maritidte here, is future, 
 
OF THE TENSES. 125 
 
 because the lady who speaks, expects that reward after 
 she has cured the king. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Tutta fidta, non voglio che tu creda, che io 
 nelV dnima stdta sia quello che nel viso mi sono dimos- 
 trdta ; yet, do not imagine that I was as hard hearted as 
 I seemed to be. Creda here may be considered as the 
 present tense, because it represents an action going to 
 take place directly. 
 
 The imperfect likewise represents either a future 
 action, or a past one. 
 
 B. 5. 8. E* fdtto fare un grdnde apparecchiamento, 
 come se in Francia...anddre volessc.di Ravenna usci ; 
 and making extraordinary preparations, as if he were 
 going to France, he left Ravenna. Volesse represents a 
 future action, as yet to come. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Questa parola pidcgue molto al cavaliere, il 
 quale, come che buona opinione avesse della donna^ ancora 
 ne laprese migliore ; the knight was much pleased with 
 it ; and if he had a good opinion of his lady before, he 
 had now a better. Avesse here denotes a past action, as 
 the gentleman had a good opinion of his lady. 
 
 The past tense denotes only a past action, and has no 
 need of examples. This mood has also two tenses, 
 simple and compound, which Buommattei calls passato 
 and trapassdto indeterminate) ; but as this name is the 
 same as the pluperfect of the indicative, we will call them 
 condiziondle semplice and composto. See the conjugation 
 of avere, page 129. With respect to the use of the sub- 
 junctive, see the Syntax. 
 
 The imperative has only two tenses ; namely — 
 
 The present and the future, which have no first person 
 singular. 
 
 The present is — 
 
 abbi tu....... have thou 
 
 sia egli , let Mm be 
 
 facciamo noi let us do 
 
 date voi give you 
 
 vadano eglino..... let them go 
 
126 OF THE TENSES. 
 
 1. The present tense is used for commanding, exhort- 
 ing, or entreating. 
 
 B. 2. 2. Va su 9 e guavdafuor del muro a pie di quest 7 
 uscio, chi v* e; go and look over the wall at the door, 
 to see if there is any body there. The mistress com- 
 mands her maid. 
 
 B. 2. 2. Confortatevi, state lietamente^ voi siete in cdsa 
 nostra ; comfort yourself, cheer up : do as if you were at 
 home. A lady exhorts a man not to be afraid. 
 
 B. 4. 8. Deh, per Dio, Girolamo, vattene ; for God's 
 sake, go away, GiroJamo. A lady begs her lover to go 
 away. 
 
 The future is the same as that of the indicative, and 
 is likewise used for commanding, exhorting, and praying, 
 to do an action, not in the present tense, and quickly, 
 but some time after. 
 
 B. 4. 9- Prenderai quel cuor di cinghiale, e fa che tu 
 nefdcci una vivandetta ; take that heart of a wild boar, 
 and make a ragout with it. 
 
 B. 7. 7. Tu prenderai un huon bastone e andratene al 
 giardino .... dirai villania ad Egano, e soneramelo bene 
 col bastone ; take a cudgel, and go into the garden .... 
 give Egan some hard language, and afterwards cudgel 
 him soundly. 
 
 In the above examples, a command, exhortation, or 
 entreaty, is evidently implied. 
 
 Modern grammarians have not made mention of the 
 future of the imperative ; but in this case we follow the 
 example of Buommattei, as we are persuaded that it 
 is quite necessary that the learner should be made ac- 
 quainted with it. 
 
 Remarks on the Tenses. 
 
 In treating of the tenses, there are two things to 
 which attention ought principally to be directed, the 
 relation which the several tenses have to one another in 
 
OF THE TENSES, 127 
 
 respect of time, and the notice which they give of an 
 action's being completed, or not completed. 
 
 The present tense and the first imperfect, both of the 
 indicative and the subjunctive, as well as the first future, 
 may be used either definitely or indefinitely, both with 
 respect to time and action. 
 
 When they denote customs or habits, and not indi- 
 vidual acts, they are applied indefinitely ; as — 
 
 La religione e la base ffogni virtu — religion is the 
 basis of all virtues. Gli antichi Romani avevano un gran 
 numero d? iddii — the ancient Romans had a great number 
 of deities. lo faro ogni mio sforzo per servirvi — I shall 
 do all my efforts to serve you. Pur die sia buono — pro- 
 vided it is good. Benctie v } andasse — although he should 
 go there. 
 
 In these examples, e, avevano, jhro, sia, andasse, are 
 used indefinitely, both with regard to action and time ; 
 for they are not confined to individual actions, nor to 
 any precise points of present, past, or future time. 
 
 When they are applied to signify particular actions, 
 and to ascertain the precise points of time to which they 
 are confined, they are used definitely, and are formed 
 by the simple tenses of stare, not of essere, and the 
 active participles of the verb in question ; as in the fol- 
 lowing instances : — 
 
 Io sto scrivendo una letter a — I am writing a letter. 
 lo venni quando tu lo stavi Jacendo — -I came when thou 
 wast doing it. Credo ctiegli stia scrivendo — I think he 
 is writing. Temevo che egli non istesse scrivendo qualche 
 lettera — I was afraid he was writing some letter. Se 
 staro dormendo, non mi svegliate — if I am sleeping, do 
 not awake me. 
 
 In these examples, sto, stavi, stia, istesse, staro, are 
 the simple tenses of the verb stare, which in English 
 signifies to be. These tenses mark the time ; and the 
 gerund or active participle, with which they are accom- 
 panied, denotes the action. Thus, if we say sto, we 
 mark the present tense without the action ; and by put- 
 
128 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 ting the gerund jacendo, scrivendo, &c. after it, we mark 
 both the time and the action. 
 
 The other tenses of stare are not often used in this 
 acceptation, and even the first future, of which we have 
 given an example, has seldom been employed by good 
 writers. 
 
 Section V. 
 
 OF THE CONJUGATION OF PERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 The conjugation, la congiugazione, of a verb, is the 
 regular combination and arrangement of its several num- 
 bers, persons, moods, and tenses. 
 
 Before we begin to conjugate these verbs, it is neces- 
 sary to state that Italian grammarians have generally 
 conjugated essere, to be, before avere, to have; but the 
 latter being in English used as an auxiliary to the former, 
 and, besides, as we are to speak of active before we speak of 
 passive verbs, we have thought proper to conjugate first 
 avere, and then essere. With respect to the tenses, we 
 place the single ones before the compound ; and this 
 change we think will render it easier for the student to 
 conjugate them. 
 
 Conjugation of Avere, to have. 
 
 Infinitive present . .'. to have avere 
 
 Gerund (l) present .having ..avendo (2) 
 
 Participle had avuto (3) 
 
 Infinitive past to have had ....were avuto 
 
 Gerund past having had avendo avuto 
 
 (1) The gerund in English is also called active participle. 
 
 (2) Avendo, and all gerunds, are changed into infinitives, when- 
 ever a preposition precedes them, thus: in having, 'in avere; for 
 having, per avere; with having, con avere ; and not in avendo, per 
 avendo, and con avendo. 
 
 (-3) Avuto, and all other participles following avere, are indeclin- 
 able, that is to say, they do not alter their terminations; as will be 
 seen in conjugating avere. These participles, however, will be 
 declinable on certain occasions. See Participles. 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERES. 129 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I have to ho(l) 
 
 thou hast tu hai 
 
 he has egli ha 
 
 she has ........ella ha 
 
 it has ..........egli, or ella ha 
 
 Plur. we have , noi abbiamo 
 
 you have voi avete 
 
 they have, m eglino hanno 
 
 they have,/, elleno hanno 
 
 First Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had io aveva (2) 
 
 thou hadst tu aveVi 
 
 he had egli aveva 
 
 Plur. we had noi avevamo 
 
 you had voi avevate 
 
 they had eglino avevano 
 
 Second Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had io e'bbi 
 
 thouhddst tu avesti 
 
 he had egli ebbe 
 
 Plur. we had noi avemmo (3) 
 
 you had voi aveste 
 
 they had eglino ebbero (4) 
 
 (1) Ho, hai, ha, hanno, have been spelt, both by writers and 
 grammarians, without the h; and an accent inserted upon their first 
 vowel, thus : o, di, a, anno ; but that method, though used by several 
 writers of note, has never met with general approbation ; therefore 
 we advise the learner to use L 
 
 (2) This person has been always terminated in a; custom, how- 
 ever, has changed it into o; and though we do not find it in Boc- 
 caccio, or any other ancient writers, we would not blame the learner 
 for using the termination in o, as that distinguishes the first from 
 the third. If, however, io is not dropped, aveva must be used. The 
 same may be said of the first person of the imperfect of all verbs in 
 general. The first and third person singular, and the third plural, 
 of this tense, may lose their last v ; thus, io avea, egli avea, eglino 
 aveano : however, if the first person singular is made to end in o, 
 the syncopation cannot take place. 
 
 (3)Avemo has been sometimes used for avemmo. Not to be imitated. 
 (4) Kbbono and ebbeno have been sometimes used for ebbero* 
 Not to be imitated. 
 
 g3 
 
130 OK AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. I shall have io avrd(i) 
 
 thou wilt have tu avrai 
 
 he will have egli avra 
 
 Plur. we shall have noi avremo 
 
 you will have voi avrdte 
 
 they will have eglino avranno 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Sing, I have had io ho avuto 
 
 thou hast had ..tu hai avuto 
 
 he has had egli ha avuto 
 
 Plur. ive have had noi abbiamo avuto 
 
 you have had .voi avete avuto 
 
 they have had eglino hanno avuto 
 
 First Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had had.... io aveva avuto 
 
 thou hadst had tu avevi avuto 
 
 he had had egli aveva avuto 
 
 Plur. we had had noi avevamo avuto 
 
 you had had voi avevate avuto 
 
 they had had eglino avevano avuto 
 
 Second Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had had ;...... io <£bbi avuto 
 
 thou hadst had tu avesti avuto 
 
 he had had egli ebbe avuto 
 
 Plur. we had had noi avemmo avuto 
 
 you had had voi aveste avuto 
 
 they had had eglino ebbero avuto 
 
 Second Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. I shall have had io avro avuto 
 
 thou wilt have had tu avrai avuto 
 
 he will have had egli avra avuto 
 
 Plur. we shall have had ,. noi avremo avuto 
 
 you will have had voi avrete avuto 
 
 they will have had ..eglino avranno avuto 
 
 (l) All the persons of this tense have been frequently used by 
 some writers without the v, thus : aro, ami, ard,&c; but they are 
 not to be imitated. The first and third persons singular of the 
 future must always have an accent on their last vowel. 
 
W AtrxiLiAnt- VER'fcS. 131 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I may have . ... 8 io abbia 
 
 thou may st have .. tu abbia (I) 
 
 he may have .... egli abbia 
 
 Plur. ite may have noi abbiamo 
 
 you may have voi abbiate 
 
 they may have .. .. ., .. . eglino abbiano 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I might have ...io avessi (2) 
 
 thou mightest have tu avessi 
 
 he might have .........egli avesse 
 
 Plur. we imght have , ....noi avessimo 
 
 you might have voi aveste 
 
 they might have ..eglino avessero 
 
 Conditional Simple. 
 
 Sing. (3) I should have io avrei (4) 
 
 thou shouldst have tu avresti 
 
 he should have egli avrebbe (5) 
 
 Plur. zue should have noi avremmo 
 
 you should have voi avreste 
 
 they should have eglino avrebbero 
 
 Put nvuto to these three tenses, and you will find 
 their compounds, thus : — 
 
 I may have had ..* io abbia avuto, &c. 
 
 / might have had io avessi avuto, &c. 
 
 / should have had io avrei avuto, &c. 
 
 (l) Abbia may also be changed into abbi, only in the second person 
 lingular. 
 ' (2) This tense is very often rendered in English by could, shoidd, 
 ■would have. 
 
 (3) It is quite indifferent to use either could, would, or should, m 
 this tense. 
 
 (4) This tense, like the future, has been used by authors of note, 
 without the letter v, thus : arei, aresti, arebbe, &c; or with another 
 e added to the above, thus : averei, averesti, averebbe, &c. Neither 
 way is to be imitated 
 
 (5) Avrebbe may also be changed into avria, and avrebbero into 
 avr'ebbono, avnano, and avrieno ; all of which maybe used without 
 impropriety. 
 
13& OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Sing. No first person 
 
 have thou ..abbi tu (l) 
 
 let him have abbia egli 
 
 let us have » abbiamo noi 
 
 have you abbiate voi 
 
 let them have abbiano eglino 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. No first person 
 
 thou shalt have.. .......... ..awH tu 
 
 he shall have , avra egli 
 
 Plur. we shall have .avremo noi 
 
 you shall have .avrete voi 
 
 they shall have avranno eglino 
 
 Observations. 
 
 To conjugate a verb interrogatively, is to put the 
 pronoun personal after it, as they do in English ; but 
 sometimes the pronouns are dropped, and the interroga- 
 tion is only distinguished by the inflexion of the voice, 
 to learn which, the assistance of a master is required. 
 
 The English particle not is rendered by non ; which 
 being accompanied with the verb, is to be put between 
 the pronoun personal and the verb, in Italian. Ex. 
 
 Sing. / have not io non ho 
 
 thou hast not tu non hai 
 
 he has not egli non ha 
 
 , Plur. we have not noi non abbiamo 
 
 you have not voi non avete 
 
 they have not eglino non hanno 
 
 But if there be a relative or a conjunctive pronoun 
 (the situation of which being immediately before the 
 
 (1) This person and the second person singular of all imperatives, 
 are changed into infinitives, when accompanied with a negative,- 
 thus : Have thou not ? Non avere. 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 133 
 
 verb), non is put between these pronouns and the per- 
 sonal pronouns. Ex. 
 
 Sing. I have it not ...io non Pho 
 
 thou hast them not tu non glihai 
 
 he has it not egli non Pha 
 
 Plur. we have them not noi non le abbiamo, &c. 
 
 There are more negatives, such as nothing, none, no- 
 body ; which being united to the verb, are resolved by 
 non niente, non alcuno, non nessuno. Non, then, is put 
 before the verb, and wienie, alcuno, &c. after it. Ex. 
 
 I have nothing non ho niente 
 
 thou hast none non ne hai alcuno 
 
 he has nobody non ha nessuno 
 
 Avere, joined with several substantives, forms dif- 
 ferent modes of speaking ; as, avere freddo, to be 
 cold; avere caldo, to be warm; all of which may be 
 found with analogous examples in our Dictionary of 
 Peculiarities. 
 
 Conjugation of Essere, to be. 
 
 Infinitive present ...£b be essere 
 
 Gerund present ....being essendo 
 
 Participle been stato (l) 
 
 Infinitive past to have been.... essere stato 
 
 Gerund past having been ....essendo stato 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I am. , io sono 
 
 thou art tu sei (2) 
 
 he is egli e 
 
 she is ella e 
 
 (1) Stato, and all other participles following essere, are declinable; 
 that is to say, they are to agree with their nominative case, thus : 
 if the nominative case is masculine, stato is used; if feminine, stata ; 
 if masculine plural, stati ; if feminine, state. See the Participle. 
 
 (2) Sei is also spelled se\ Both good. 
 
124 OF AUXILIARY VEIiBS. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plur. we are noi siamo (l) 
 
 you are voi siete (2) 
 
 they are eglino sono 
 
 First Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I was b io era 
 
 thou wast i....tu eri 
 
 lie was egli era 
 
 Plur. we ivere ...... noi eravamo (3) 
 
 you were voi eravate(3) 
 
 they were eglino erano 
 
 Second Imperfect Tense. 
 Sing. I was.... io fui 
 
 thou wast tu fosti (4) (5) 
 
 he was ..egli fu 
 
 Plur, we ivere noi fummo 
 
 you were voi foste 
 
 they were eglino furono 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. I shall be io sard 
 
 thou wilt be tu sarai 
 
 he will be egli sara 
 
 Plur. we will be , ....noi saremo 
 
 you will be voi sarete 
 
 they shall be eglino saranno 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Smg. I have been io sono (6) stato (7) 
 
 thou hast been tu sei stato 
 
 he has been ^..egli e stato 
 
 (1) Instead ofsidmo, semo is also found in good authors. Not to 
 be imitated. 
 
 (2) Instead of siete, sete is often found. Not to be imitated. 
 
 (3) Instead of eravamo and eravate, eramo and erate are sometimes 
 used in a familiar style. Not to be imitated 
 
 (4) Fosti and foste have often been spelt fasti and f teste. Not to 
 be imitated. 
 
 (5) Many authors have made/osft* tu coalesce into one word, thus, 
 fostu; and avesti tu into avestic. Not to be imitated. 
 
 (6) If a lady speaks, she must say sono stata, ero stata,fui siata, &c. 
 
 (7) It is to be observed, that the verb essere has no need of avere b 
 as in English; and that to form the compound tenses, stato. its 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS* 135 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Plur. we have been noi siamo stati 
 
 you have been..,, voi siete stati 
 
 they have been « .. .. ..eglino sono stati 
 
 First Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing I had been ........io era stato 
 
 thou hadst been.... tu eri stato 
 
 he had been egli era stato 
 
 Plur. we had been noi eravamo stati 
 
 you had been .....voi eravate stati 
 
 they had been eglino erano stati 
 
 Second Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had been (l) ...io fui stato 
 
 thou hadst been.. tu fosti stato 
 
 he had been ....egli fu stato 
 
 Plur. we had been noifummo stati 
 
 you had been voi foste stati 
 
 they had been ■. eglino f urono stati 
 
 Second Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. I shall have been io sar6 stato 
 
 thou wilt have been tu sarai stato 
 
 he will have been ..egli sara stato 
 
 Plur. we shall have been noi saremo stati 
 
 you will have been voi sarete stati 
 
 they will have been eglino saranno stati 
 
 participle, is to be put to the simple tenses of the same verb, thus : 
 instead of saying io ho stato, I have been, the student is to say io 
 sono stato, as if it were / am been. Io era stato h I had been, and not 
 io aveva stato ; and so on of all other tenses. 
 
 (1) A certain pedagogue has condemned us for inserting this 
 tense, saying it did not exist in the verb essere ; but we suppose he 
 has never read any good authors, or if he has, it was without atten- 
 tion. Here are some examples, out of the hundreds which we 
 could set down, to confute his assertions. 
 
 B. 1,0.2. L abate poi alqudnto fu stato — when the abbot had been 
 some time. And a^rain : B. 5, 9. La quale, poiche pikna di lagrime 
 ed amaritudine fu stata alquanto — who, after having wept, and been 
 some time afflicted. 
 
136 QF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing I may be io sia 
 
 thou may st be.,, tu sia (1) 
 
 he may be egli sia 
 
 Plur. we may be noi siamo 
 
 you may be voi siate 
 
 they may be eglino siano (2) 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I might be io fossi (3) 
 
 thou mightest be tu fossi 
 
 he might be egli fosse 
 
 Plur. we might be noi fossimo 
 
 you might be voi foste 
 
 they might be eglino fossero 
 
 Conditional Simple. 
 
 Sing. I should be io sarei (4) 
 
 thou shouldst be tu saresti 
 
 he should be egli sarebbe(5) 
 
 Plur. we should be noi saremmo 
 
 you should be voi sareste 
 
 they should be eglino sarebbero (5) 
 
 Put stato to the above tenses, and you will find their 
 compounds, thus : — 
 
 I may have been ....io sia stato, &c. 
 
 I might have been io fossi stato, &c. 
 
 I shoidd have been io sarei stato, &c. 
 
 (1) The second person may be changed into sii. Both good. 
 
 (2) Siano may also be changed into sieno. Both good. 
 
 (3) Some authors have used iofussi, tufussi, eglifusse, noifussimo, 
 fuste,fussero, instead of the above. Not to be imitated. 
 
 (4) Sarei may lose its last letter, and take an apostrophe, when- 
 ever io follows it, thus — sare'io. 
 
 (5) Sarebbe and sarebbero may be changed into saria, sarebbono, 
 sariano, and sarieno. All good. 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 137 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. No first person 
 
 be thou sii tu (l) 
 
 let him be sia egli 
 
 Plur. let us be siamo noi 
 
 be you , siate voi 
 
 let them be siano eglino (2) 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. No first person 
 
 thou shalt be sarai tu (3) 
 
 he shall be sara egli 
 
 Plur. we shall be saremo noi 
 
 you shall be sarete voi 
 
 they shall be saranno eglino 
 
 Observations on avere and essere. 
 
 The verb to be, being impersonally used in English, 
 is rendered in Italian avere \ or essere , when the particle 
 there, by which it is accompanied, is expressed by ci, or 
 vi, which is put before the third person, both singular 
 and plural ; as— 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 ,7 • i ci e, or vi e 
 
 there is { . , ' . , 
 
 ( ci ha, or vi ha 
 
 there are \ ci Sono? or vi S . on ° 
 
 '*"' ( ci hanno, or vi hanno 
 
 (1) Sii may change into sia and sie especially when a pronoun 
 conjunctive follows ; thus, szeti, siami, &c. 
 
 (2) Siano may change into sicno. Both good. 
 
 (3) This person may lose its last letter, whenever a relative or 
 some other pronoun follows, and is joined with it thus ; sardne tmo s 
 thou shalt be one of them. 
 
138 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 there was 5 cj era, or vi era 
 
 ( ci aveva, or vi aveva 
 
 , 7 ( ci erano, or vi erano 
 
 there were .. ., < . ' 
 
 ( ci avevano, or vi avevano 
 
 And so on of all the other tenses. 
 
 It is to be observed, that ci may drop the i and take 
 an apostrophe before a word beginning with any vowel 
 but a and o ; but vi may lose the i before any vowel, 
 without exception. Ex. 
 
 B. 8. 3. Qudnte rniglia ci ha ? Maso rispose, hdccene 
 piil di milldnta ; how many miles are there ? Maso an- 
 swered, there is an infinite number. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Egli ci avra mille modi di fare si, die mai 
 non si sapra ; there will be a thousand ways of managing 
 in such a case, that nobody will ever be the wiser. 
 
 B. 3. 4. La dove ce n' e una^ che e molto corta y where 
 there is one, which is very short (a way). 
 
 B. 3. 3. Egli ci sono delle dltre donne, there are some 
 women. 
 
 All the verbs are conjugated either with avere, or 
 essere, as in English ; that is, the active with avere, the 
 passive with essere ; but as, in Italian, there are many 
 verbs that are not conformable to the English, in giving 
 lists of all those that differ from them, we shall affix a 
 mark to those that are conjugated with essere. 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Some grammarians have made four conjugations of 
 Italian verbs, by reckoning those ending in ere short, 
 for one, and those in ere long, for another. Others 
 have made five, by reckoning those in ire, that end in o 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 139 
 
 in the first person of the present tense, for one, and those 
 that end in isco in the same first person of the present 
 tense, for another. This, however, is not our intention, 
 as so many conjugations are apt to create confusion ; 
 and as constant practice has led us into the most proper 
 method of arranging them, we say that the 
 
 Infinitives of Italian verbs are terminated three several 
 ways, by which three conjugations are formed. 
 
 The first consists of verbs ending in are, such as, 
 parlare, to speak ; portare, to bring ; donare, to make a 
 present of. 
 
 The second contains verbs ending in ere, both short 
 and long ; such as, temere, to fear ; credere, to believe ; 
 vender e, to sell. 
 
 The third comprehends verbs ending in ire ; such 
 as, capire, to understand ; jinire, to finish ; pulire, to 
 clean. 
 
 First Conjugation. 
 
 The regular verbs, the infinitives of which end in 
 are, are terminated, throughout all their tenses, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Infinitive, are Gerund, ando Participle, ato 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 o i a .iarno ate ano 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 avo avi ava avamo,...avate ....avano 
 
 Second Imperfect Tense, 
 ai ,..asti .... 6 ammo ....aste ......arono 
 
 First Future Tense, 
 ero erai ...,era eremo....erete eranno 
 
140 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 i i i iamo iate ino 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 assi assi asse assimo .. ..aste assero 
 
 Conditional, 
 erei eresti...erebbe..eremmo ,.ereste....ere'bbero 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 i a iamo ate ino 
 
 Change are of the infinitive into the above-mentioned 
 terminations, and you will find the simple tenses of the 
 first conjugation, without exception. As to the com- 
 pound tenses, they are formed by putting the participle 
 to the simple tenses of avere. Ex. 
 
 Infinitive present ...to bring portare 
 
 Gerund present ....bringing portando 
 
 Participle brought portato 
 
 Infinitive past to have brought., were portato 
 
 Gerund past having br ought.. avendo portato 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 As the student is now acquainted with the personal 
 pronouns, and as Italians do not always make use of 
 them, (see page 113), we have thought proper to omit 
 them in conjugating the verbs ; we will use them, how- 
 ever, when the terminations of the different persons are 
 alike, such as in the subjunctive, present and imper- 
 fect, &c. in which their being omitted would produce 
 ambiguity. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 141 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I bring io p6rt-o 
 
 thou bringest ..tu port-i 
 
 he brings egli port-a 
 
 Plur. we bring noi port-iamo 
 
 you bring voi port-ate 
 
 they bring eglino port-ano 
 
 First Imperfect. 
 
 Sing. / brought port-avo 
 
 thoubroughtest port-avi 
 
 he brought port-ava 
 
 Plur. we brought port-avamo 
 
 you brought port-avate 
 
 they brought * port-avano 
 
 Second Imperfect. 
 
 Sing. I brought port-ai 
 
 thou broughtest port-asti 
 
 he brought port-6 
 
 Plur. we brought . port-ammo 
 
 you brought port-aste 
 
 they brought port-arono 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. I shall bring (l)port-ero 2) 
 
 thou shalt bring *....port-erai 
 
 he shall bring port-era (2) 
 
 Plur. we shall bring port-eremo 
 
 you shall bring port-erete 
 
 they shall bring port-eranno 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 Sing. I have brought ho portato 
 
 thou hast brought hai portato 
 
 he has brought ha portato 
 
 Plur. we have brought abbiamo portato 
 
 you have brought avete portato 
 
 they have brought hanno portato 
 
 (1) The future and conditional of the verbs of the first conjuga- 
 tion, are never to be terminated in aro and arei ; and if examples to 
 the contrary are met with, they are not to be imitated. 
 
 (2) It is to be observed that the first and third persons singular 
 of the future of all verbs, must have an accent on their last vowel, 
 as above. 
 
142 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 First Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had brought avevo portato 
 
 thou hadst brought avevi portato " 
 
 he had brought aveva portato 
 
 Plur. we had brought avevamo portato 
 
 you had brought avevate portato 
 
 they had brought avevano portato 
 
 Second Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had brought ebbi portato 
 
 thou hadst brought avesti portato 
 
 he had brought ebbe portato 
 
 Plur. we had brought avemmo portato 
 
 you had brought aveste portato 
 
 they had brought ebbero portato 
 
 Second Future. 
 
 Sing. I shall have brought avro portato 
 
 thou shalt have brought avrai portato 
 
 he shall have brought avra portato 
 
 Plur. we shall have brought avremo portato 
 
 you shall have brought avrete portato 
 
 they shall have brought avranno portato 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I may bring io port-i 
 
 thou 7ii ay st bring tu port-i 
 
 he may bring egli port-i 
 
 Plur. we may bring port-iamo 
 
 you may bring port-iate 
 
 they may bring port-ino 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. / might bring io port-assi 
 
 thou mightst bring tu port-assi 
 
 he might b/ing egli port-asse 
 
 Plur. we might bring port-assimo 
 
 you might bring port-aste 
 
 they might bring port-assero 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 143 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Sing. I should bring port-erei (I) 
 
 thou shouldst bring port-eresti 
 
 he should bring port-erebbe (2) 
 
 Plur. we should bring port-eremmo 
 
 you should bring port-eivste 
 
 they should bring port-erebbero (3) 
 
 Put portato to the simple tenses of the auxiliary 
 verb avere, and you will find the compounds of the 
 above three tenses, thus : — 
 
 I may have brought io abbia portato, Szc. 
 
 I might have brought io avessi portato, &c. 
 
 I should have brought io avrei portato, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Sing. No first person 
 
 bring thou port-a 
 
 let him bring port-i 
 
 Plur. let us bring port-iamo 
 
 bring you port-ate 
 
 let them bring port-ino 
 
 As the future of the imperative is like the first future 
 of the indicative, in conjugating the verbs, we will omit 
 it, as we think it sufficient to have conjugated it with the 
 auxiliary verbs avere and essere. 
 
 Remarks on verbs in are. 
 
 When are, of the infinitives of the first conjugation, is 
 preceded by c or g 9 such as care and gare ; before all 
 
 (1) The first person singular of this tense, preceding the personal 
 pronoun io, may drop the i, and take an apostrophe, thus ; por- 
 tere* io. 
 
 (2) The third person singular maybe changed into ria 9 thus; 
 ameria, doneria porteria. 
 
 (5) The third person plural may be changed into porterebbono, 
 portenano. 
 
144 .OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 the terminations above mentioned beginning with e or i 9 
 an h is to be put, to harden the sound of c or g. This 
 happens to be in the present and future of the indicative, 
 in the present of the subjunctive, and the conditional 
 and also the imperative ; as — 
 
 Toccare, to touch. 
 
 Ind. pres. I touchy Sec tocc-o, hi, a, hiamo, ate, ano 
 
 First imp* / touched, fyc tocoavo, avi, ava, avamo, avate, 
 
 avano 
 Sec. imp. I touched, tyc tocc-ai, asti, 6, ammo, aste, . 
 
 arono 
 First fut. I shall touch, $c .. . .tocc-herd, herai, hera, heremo, 
 
 herete, heranno 
 Subj. pres. I may touch, fyc tocc-hi, hi, hi, hiamo, hiate, 
 
 hino 
 Imperfect. I might touch, tyc. ..tocc-assi, assi, asse, assimo, 
 
 aste, assero 
 Conditional. I should touch, $c ..tocc-herei, here'sti, herebbe, 
 
 heremmo, hereste, herebbero 
 Imperative, touch thou tocc-a, hi, hiamo, ate, hino 
 
 Pregare, to pray. 
 
 Ind. pres. I pray, fyc ..... ..preg-o, hi, a, hiamo, ate, ano 
 
 First imp. I prayed, fyc preg-avo, avi, ava, avamo, avate, 
 
 avano 
 Sec. imp. I prayed, fyc -.. ..preg-ai, asti, 6, ammo, aste, arono 
 First fut. I shall pray, #c..preg-hero, herai, hera, heremo, 
 
 herete, heranno 
 Subj. pres. I may pray, #c..preg-hi, hi, hi, hiamo, hiate, hino 
 Imperfect. I might pray .....preg-assi, assi, asse, assimo, aste, 
 
 assero 
 Conditional. I should pray.... preg-hev6\, heresti, herebbe, he- 
 remmo, hereste, herebbero 
 Imperative, pray thou preg-a, hi, hiamo, ate, hino 
 
 Observe, that verbs in ciare and glare lose the i in the 
 future and conditional, &c. 
 
 Cacciare, to drive. 
 
 Future. I shall drive cacc-erd, erai, era, eremo, erete, 
 
 eranno 
 Conditional. I should drive.... cacc erei, eresti, ere'bbe, eremmo, 
 
 ere'ste, erebbero 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 145 
 
 Mangiare 9 to eat. 
 
 Future. / shall eat mang- erd, erai, era, eremo, erete, 
 
 eranno 
 Conditional. I should eat mang-erei, eresti, erebbe, erem- 
 
 mo, ereste, erebbero 
 
 All verbs whose infinitives end in are, except a few, 
 which will be found in the irregular ones, are conjugated 
 as the above. Respecting the present tense, as there are 
 some which are pronounced short and some long, we 
 will insert a list of all of them at the end of the 
 grammar. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 The regular verbs, of which the infinitives end in ere, 
 are terminated throughout all the tenses as follows: — 
 
 Infinitive ere Gerund endo Participle uto. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 Present Tense. 
 o i e iamo ete ono 
 
 First Imperfect Tense, 
 evo ....evi ....eva evamo evate evano 
 
 Second Imperfect Tense, 
 ei esti....e emmo este erono 
 
 First Future Tense, 
 erd erai....era eremo erete eranno 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 Present Tense, 
 .a a iamo iate ano 
 
 Imperfect Tense, 
 .e'ssi ....esse essimo este essero 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 erei .. ..eresti ..erebbe ...eremmo .. ..ereste .. ..erebbero 
 
 H 
 
146 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 i.. a iamo ete .ano 
 
 Change ere of the infinitives into the above-mentioned 
 terminations, and you will find the simple tenses of the 
 second conjugation without exception ; as to the com- 
 pound tenses, they are formed by putting the participle 
 to the simple tenses of the verb avere. Ex. 
 
 Infinitive present do fear temere 
 
 Gerund present .fearing temendo 
 
 Participle .feared temuto 
 
 Infinitive past to have feared.. avere temuto 
 
 Gerund past having feared ..avendo temuto 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I fear tem-o 
 
 thou feared tem-i 
 
 he fears tem-e 
 
 Plur. we fear.. tem-iamo 
 
 you fear tem-ete 
 
 they fear tem-ono 
 
 First Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I feared tem-evo 
 
 thou fearedst tem-e vi 
 
 he feared tem-eva 
 
 Plur. we feared ... tem-evamo 
 
 you feared tem-evate 
 
 they feared tem-evano 
 
 Second Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I feared tem^ei(l) 
 
 thou fearedst tem-esti 
 
 he feared tem-e 
 
 Plur. toe feared ....\ tem-emmo 
 
 you feared tem-este 
 
 they feared tem-erono 
 
 (1) The first and third persons singular, and the third plural, 
 make also temetti, temette > temettero. 
 
•OF REGULAR VERBS 147 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. I shall fear. tem-ero 
 
 thou wilt fear tem-erai 
 
 he will fear tem-era 
 
 Plur. we shall fear , ..tem-eremo 
 
 you will fear., .... tem-ere'te 
 
 they will fear tera-eranno 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I have feared ho tem-uto 
 
 thou hast feared hai temuto 
 
 he has feared ha temuto 
 
 Plur. we have feared ....abbiamo temuto 
 
 you have feared avete temuto 
 
 they have fear ad hanno temuto 
 
 First Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. / had feared ave vo temuto 
 
 thou hadst feared avevi temuto 
 
 he had feared aveva temuto 
 
 Plur. we had feared avevamo temuto 
 
 you had feared avevate temuto 
 
 they had feared avevano temuto 
 
 Second Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had feared ebbi temtito 
 
 thou hadst feared avesti temuto 
 
 he had feared ebbe temuto 
 
 Plur. wp had feared avemmo temuto 
 
 you had feared aveste temuto 
 
 they had feared ebbero temuto 
 
 Second Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. / shall have feared avro temuto 
 
 thou shalt have feared avrai temuto 
 
 he shall have feared avra temuto 
 
 Plur. we shall have feared avremo temuto 
 
 you shall have feared avrete temuto 
 
 they skallhave feared avranno temuto 
 
 h2 
 
148 OF REGULAR VERBS* 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I may fear io tem-a 
 
 thou may st fear tu tern- a 
 
 he may fear egli tem-a 
 
 Plur. we may fear tem-iamo 
 
 you may fear tem-iate 
 
 they may fear tem-ano 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I might fear io tem-e'ssi 
 
 thou mightest fear tu tem-e'ssi 
 
 he might fear egli tem-esse 
 
 Plur. we might fear tem-essimo 
 
 you might fear tem-este 
 
 they might fear tern- essero 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Sing. I should fear tem-erei 
 
 thou shouldstfear tem-eresti 
 
 he should fear tem-erebbe 
 
 Plur. we should fear tem-eremmo 
 
 you should fear tem-ereste 
 
 they should fear tem-erebbero 
 
 Put temuto to the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb 
 avere, and you will find the compounds of the above 
 three tenses, thus :-— 
 
 / may have feared io abbia temuto, &c. 
 
 I might have feared io avessi temuto, &c. 
 
 I should have feared io avrei temuto, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Sing. No first person 
 
 fear thou tem-i 
 
 let him fear tem-a 
 
 Plur. let us fear tem-iamo 
 
 fear you tem-ete 
 
 let them fear ... f tem-ano 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 149 
 
 As the verbs in ere are numerous, and almost all irre- 
 gular, we subjoin the following list of those that are 
 regular, and consequently conjugated like terriere, with 
 remarks for the conveniency of learners; those verbs that 
 are not included are irregular. 
 
 In the following list, all verbs marked with an asterisk 
 make also etti 9 ette, ettero, in the second imperfect, like 
 temere; and the others have only ei, e, erono 9 in the 
 second imperfect. Verbs marked with e are conjugated 
 with essere ; those marked with ae> may be conjugated 
 either with avere, or essere. 
 
 battere to beat 
 
 abbattere ..to throw down 
 combattere to fight 
 
 e imbattersi . do meet with 
 
 e rabbattersi..*o meet 
 ribattere.. . . to beat again 
 strabattere../o torment 
 
 *b£vere to drink 
 
 imbevere .Jo imbibe 
 ribevere....*o drink again 
 strabevercfo drink hard 
 
 cedere to yield 
 
 cernere to sift 
 
 concernere to concern 
 ricernere ...to sift again 
 
 credere to believe 
 
 discredere.. to disbelieve 
 
 erapiere to fill 
 
 adempiere . . to fulfil 
 compiere ..to accomplish 
 riempiere ..to fin again 
 
 r£cere to vomit 
 
 *fendere to cleave 
 
 *fremere to fret 
 
 # g£mere to groan 
 
 *godere to enjoy 
 
 me'scere ...... to pour out 
 
 mietere to reap 
 
 pascere to feed 
 
 premere ..... Jo press 
 ripascere ..to feed again 
 spremere ..to squeeze 
 ripremere ..to press again 
 
 pendere to hang 
 
 ae dipendere ....depend 
 
 ricevere to receive 
 
 ripetere to repeat 
 
 serpere ........ to creep 
 
 cesplendere ...Jo shine (1) 
 ae rlsplendere to shine again (l) 
 
 strl dere to shriek 
 
 tessere to weave 
 
 ritessere....2o weave again 
 contessere. . to join 
 stessere „..to unweave 
 ae succumbere or 
 
 soccombere.fo sink under 
 
 *v£ndere to sell 
 
 rivendere .Jo sell again 
 
 All the above verbs are conjugated like temere. 
 
 (l) These two verbs have no participle. 
 
150 OF REGULx\R VERBS. 
 
 eaccedere to arrive 
 
 *concedere ...do grant 
 
 *ecc^dere to exceed 
 
 ^precedere . . . . to precede 
 *procedere . . . . to proceed 
 *ric£dere Jo recede 
 
 esuccedere ...Jo succeed 
 
 *assolvere (I) ..to absolve 
 
 dissolvere .Jo dissolve 
 
 *risolvere....fo resolve 
 
 perdere to lose 
 
 *rendere to render 
 
 The above twelve verbs are both regular and irre- 
 gular. 
 
 assistere to assist 
 
 <?consistere ,,.Jo consist 
 desistere to leave off 
 
 e esistere. ....... to exist 
 
 resistere to resist 
 
 These verbs are irregular in the participle only, which 
 makes ito, not uto ; thus, assistito, &c. 
 
 Esigere, to exact, is also regular ; except in the par- 
 ticiple, which makes esatto. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 Before we proceed, it is necessary to observe, that the 
 verbs in ire, of which grammarians have properly formed 
 a conjugation, are very few, and mostly irregular; and 
 they have excepted more than two hundred of them, 
 (which are regular), only because they vary from the 
 former ones in the present tense. Hence it comes that 
 the student very often mistakes the one for the other, 
 saying, ubbide, for ubbidisce, he obeys ; fmoiw^ forfeits- 
 cono, they finish, &c. 
 
 To obviate such a difficulty, we have thought proper 
 to make a third conjugation of the great number of 
 verbs in ire, as above mentioned, and to place the others 
 as exceptions ; which alteration we may confidently as- 
 sure learners is more easy, and obviously preferable to 
 the usual mode. 
 
 ( 1 ) Assolvere, dissolvere, risolvere, do not make assolvuto, dissolvuto, 
 risolvuto^ but assolutOy dissoluto, risoluto. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 151 
 
 The regular verbs, of which the infinitives end in 
 ire^ are terminated throughout all their tenses as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Infinitive, ire Gerund, endo Participle, ito 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 isco........isci isce. ...... .iamo, ite iscono 
 
 First Imperfect. 
 ivo ivi iva ivamo ivate.... ivano i 
 
 Second Imperfect, 
 j or ii (l)..isti i immo .iste irono 
 
 First Future, 
 ird irai ira iremo irete ....iranno 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present Tense, 
 isca isca isca iamo iate iscano 
 
 Imperfect, 
 issi issi isse issimo iste issero 
 
 Conditional, 
 irei iresti irebbe ....iremmo ...,ireste....irebbero 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 isci; isca iamo ite iscano 
 
 Change ire of the infinitives into the above mentioned 
 terminations, and you will find the simple tenses of the 
 third conjugation without exception. As to the com- 
 
 (l) ii is preferable. 
 
152 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 pound tenses, they are formed by putting the participle 
 to the simple tenses of the verb avere. Ex. 
 
 Infinitive present to finish finire 
 
 Gerund present .finishing finendo 
 
 Participle .finished finito 
 
 Infinitive past to have finished.. avere finito 
 
 Gerund past having finished ..avendo finito 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I finish fin-isco 
 
 thoufinishest fin-isci 
 
 he finishes fin-isce 
 
 Plur. we finish fin-iamo 
 
 you finish fin-ite 
 
 they finish fin-iscono 
 
 First Imperfect Tense- 
 Sing. I finished fin-ivo 
 
 thou finishedst fin-ivi 
 
 he finished fin-iva 
 
 Plur. we finished fin-ivamo 
 
 you finished fin-ivate 
 
 they finished fin-ivano 
 
 Second Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I finished fin-ii 
 
 thou finishedst „ .. fin-isti 
 
 he finished fin-i 
 
 Plur. we finished fin-immo 
 
 you finished , fin-iste 
 
 they finished fin-irono 
 
 First Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. I shall finish fin-iro 
 
 thou shalt finish fin-irai 
 
 he shall finish fin-ira 
 
 Plur. we shall finish fin-iremo 
 
 you shall finish fin-irete 
 
 they shallfinish fin-iranno 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 153 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. / have finished ho finito 
 
 thou hast finished t .hai finito 
 
 he has finished ha finito 
 
 Plur. we have finished abbiamo finito 
 
 you have finished avete finito 
 
 they have finished hanno finito 
 
 First Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. / had finished. ave vo finito 
 
 thou hadst finished avevi finito 
 
 he had finished aveva finito 
 
 Plur. we had finished avevamo finito 
 
 you had finished avevate finito 
 
 they had finished avevano finito 
 
 Second Pluperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I had finished £bbi finito 
 
 thou hadst finished avesti finito 
 
 he had finished ebbe finito 
 
 Plur. we had finished avemmo finito 
 
 you had finished ..aveste finito 
 
 they had finished ebbero finito 
 
 Second Future Tense. 
 
 Sing. J shall have finished avro finito 
 
 thou shalt have finished avrai finito 
 
 he shall have finished avra finito 
 
 Plur. we shall have finished avremo finito 
 
 you shall have finished ....avrete finito 
 
 they shall have finished^ .. ..avranno finito 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. I may finish io fin-isca 
 
 thou may st finish tu fin-isca 
 
 he may finish egli fin-isca 
 
 Plur. we may finish fin-iamo 
 
 you may finish fin-iate 
 
 they may finish fin-iscano 
 
 H3 
 
154 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. I might finish ...... k . ...... io fin-issi 
 
 thou mightest finish ...... ..tu fin-issi 
 
 he might finish B , egli fin-isse 
 
 Plur. we might finish n oi fin-issimo 
 
 you might finish .. ...... ',% ..fin-iste 
 
 they might finish fin-issero 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Sing. I could finish ....fin irei 
 
 thou shouldst finish ..fin-iresti 
 
 he woidd finish fin -irebbe (l) 
 
 Plur. we could finish fin iremmo 
 
 you should finish fin-ireste 
 
 they woidd Jinish fin-irebbero(l) 
 
 Put jinito to the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb 
 avere, and you will find the compounds of the above 
 three tenses, thus : — 
 
 / may have finished io abbia finito, &c. 
 
 I might have finished io avessi finito, &c. 
 
 I should have finished.,,, ..io avrei finito, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 ing. No first person 
 
 finish thou fin-fsci 
 
 let him finish fin isca 
 
 Plur. let us finish fin-iamo 
 
 finish you fin ite 
 
 let them finish .fin-iscano 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like^mrtf; those 
 marked with e are conjugated with essere, and those 
 marked with ae may be conjugated with either. 
 
 (1) Finirehbe may also make Jinina i and finirebbero, finirebbono, 
 andjiniriano. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 155 
 
 abbellire(l)..£o embellish 
 
 abolire to abolish 
 
 abborrire (2) .to abhor 
 
 e abortire to miscarry 
 
 addolcire to soften 
 
 adempire to fulfil 
 
 aderire to adhere 
 
 aggradire to accept 
 
 alleggerire ...Jo assuage 
 
 ambire to aspire 
 
 aramollire ....to soften 
 
 ammonire ....to admonish 
 
 ammorbidire .to soften 
 
 <&?ammutire.. > , z -, 7 
 
 . |. \ to become dumb 
 ae ammutohre $ 
 
 annichilire,. ..to annihilate 
 
 annobilire to ennoble 
 
 4zeapparire (3).. to appear 
 
 ^appassire to wither 
 
 appetire to desire 
 
 applaudire ....to applaud 
 
 ardire (4) to dare 
 
 arricchire to enrich 
 
 arrossi re to blush 
 
 arrostire to roast 
 
 arrugginire ...to grow rusty 
 
 assalire (5) ..to attack 
 
 asserire to assert 
 
 assopire to set asleep 
 
 assorbire to absorb 
 
 assordire to deafen 
 
 assortire to sort 
 
 atterrire to affright 
 
 attribuire to attribute 
 
 attristire to grieve 
 
 avvilire to vilify 
 
 balbutire... ) . . 
 balbuzzire.r ^""'*'' 
 
 bandire to banish 
 
 bianchire to whiten 
 
 brunire to burnish 
 
 capire to understand 
 
 chiarire to explain 
 
 colorire .. to dye 
 
 colpire ........ to strike 
 
 ecomparire ( 6 )to appear 
 compartire.. ..to divide 
 
 compatire ....to pity 
 
 compire to finish 
 
 concepire to conceive 
 
 condire to season 
 
 conferire to confer 
 
 contribuire ..to contribute 
 costituire .....to constitute 
 
 costruire to construct 
 
 custodire. to guard 
 
 (1) All verbs in ire are long; that is the accent is to be put on 
 the last syllable but one ; or rather on % of ire. 
 
 (2) Abborrire is also irregular in the present, making abborro, 
 abborri, abborre, abborrono. 
 
 (3) Apparire makes also appare, in the third person of the pre- 
 sent tense, and apparvi, in the second imperfect. 
 
 (4) Ardire makes abbiamo ardire in the first person plural of the 
 present of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, instead of 
 ardianiOy which comes from ardere, to burn. The same may be 
 said of the second person plural of the present of the sub- 
 junctive, and also of the gerund, which make abbiate ardire, and 
 avendo ardire. 
 
 (5) Assalire makes also assalgo, assali, assale, assalgono, in the 
 present tense, and assalse in the third person singular of the second 
 imperfect. 
 
 (6) Comparire makes also comparsi, in the second imperfect, and 
 comparso, in the participle. 
 
156 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 definire to define 
 
 differire to differ 
 
 digerire to digest 
 
 diminuire ...do diminish 
 
 esaudire to grant 
 
 eseguire to execute 
 
 esibire to exhibit 
 
 fallire to fail 
 
 favorire to favour 
 
 ferire (1) to wound 
 
 finire to finish 
 
 e fiorire to flourish 
 
 forbire to scrub 
 
 far nir e to furnish 
 
 garantire to warrant 
 
 gemire to groan 
 
 gestir e to gesticulate 
 
 gioire , to enjoy 
 
 gradire to accept 
 
 guarire to cure 
 
 guar nire to garnish 
 
 eimbastardire .do corrupt 
 
 eimbestialire. ..to grow mad 
 
 c imbruttire ....to become ugly 
 immorbidire ..to soften 
 
 eimpadronirsi..fc> seize 
 ae impallidire ...do grow pale 
 impaurire ...do terrify 
 
 e impazzire ...do grow mad 
 
 impedire to hinder 
 
 impiccolire . . do diminish 
 
 e impietrire ...do petrify 
 
 e impigrire to grow lazy 
 
 impoverire.. .do impoverish 
 
 <?impoltronire..fc> groiv idle 
 imputridire . ..to putrify 
 
 einacidire to grow sour 
 
 tfinaridire to wither 
 
 inasprire to exasperate 
 
 e incallire to grow hard 
 
 incenerire ...do burn to ashes 
 incivilire ....... to grow civil 
 
 *incolorirsi ...do colour 
 
 incoraggire....£o encourage 
 
 e incrudelire.. . . to exasperate 
 indebolire ...do weaken 
 
 indurire to harden 
 
 infastidire ...do trouble 
 inferire to infer 
 
 einferocire .. ..to become cruel 
 
 influire to influence 
 
 ingagliardire..£o grow brisk 
 
 tfingelosire ...do grow jealous 
 ingentilire ...do ennoble 
 
 eingerirsi to meddle 
 
 e ingiallire ...do grow yellow 
 
 eingobbire ...do become hump- 
 backed 
 ingrandire ...do increase 
 
 e insipidire ...do become insipid 
 
 einsolentire ...do grow saucy 
 inserire to insert 
 
 e insuperbire .do grow proud 
 inten eri re ...do mollify 
 intiepidire ....to cool 
 intimidire .... to frighten 
 
 e intisichire ...do grow consump - 
 tive 
 in vaghire ...do fall in love 
 
 £ inverdire to grow green 
 
 in vigorire ...do strengthen 
 inumidire ...do moisten 
 
 £ irrugginire .. ..to rust 
 
 emarcire to rot 
 
 mentire to lie 
 
 muggire do bellow 
 
 munire to furnish 
 
 obbedire to obey 
 
 ordire to warp 
 
 patire to endure 
 
 <»partire to depart 
 
 par torire to bring forth 
 
 pr eferire to prefer 
 
 proibire to proh ibit 
 
 profferire to utter 
 
 proseguire ...do pursue 
 
 (l) Ferire makes &\sofero,feri } fere 9 ferono, in the present tense, 
 and feruto in the participle. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 157 
 
 pulire to chart 
 
 punire to punish 
 
 e rancidire . . . . to grow rank 
 
 rapire to ravish 
 
 restituire to restore 
 
 e rimbambire . . to grow childish 
 
 eringio venire ..to grow young 
 
 riverire to respect 
 
 ruggire to roar 
 
 sbalordire .. ..to astonish 
 
 e sbigottire ....to despond 
 
 scaturire to flow 
 
 schermire ....to fence 
 schemire ....to mock 
 
 e scolorire to fade 
 
 seppellire ....to bury 
 smalti re ......to digest 
 
 esmarrire to lose 
 
 smentire to give the lie 
 
 sminuire to diminish 
 
 sorbire to absorb 
 
 e spari re .to disappear 
 
 spedi re to dispatch 
 
 stabilire to establish 
 
 e stordire , to stun 
 
 e stupire to amaze 
 
 e sva nire to vanish 
 
 suggerire ..to suggest 
 
 supplire to supply 
 
 tradire to betray 
 
 tramortire .. ..to faint away 
 trasgredire ....to transgress 
 
 ubbidire to obey 
 
 unire to unite 
 
 Section VII. 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS ENDING IN are. 
 
 Andare, dare^Jare, stare, and their derivatives, are the 
 only irregular verbs of the first conjugation, which are 
 conjugated as follows : — 
 
 Andare. 
 
 Inf. to go... andare I Ger. goiwg....andando 
 
 conjugated with essere | Part, gone ....andato 
 
 Ind. pres. I go, Sfc vo, vai, va, andiamo, andate, vanno 
 
 First imp. I went,fyc and-avo, avi, ava, avamo, avate, 
 
 avano 
 
 Sec. imp. / went, fyc and-ai, asti, 6, ammo, aste, arono 
 
 First tut. I shall go, ^c and-ro, rai, ra, rerao, rete, ranno 
 
 Subj. pres. / may go, fyc. .. ..vada, vada, vada, andiamo, andate 3 
 
 vadano 
 Imperfect. I might go, #c.....and-assi, assi, asse, assimo,, aste, 
 
 assero 
 Conditional. I should go, fyc. ..and-rei, resti, rebbe, remmo, reste, 
 
 rebbero 
 Imperative, go thou, fyc va, vada, andiamo, andate, vadano 
 
158 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN are 
 
 Put the participle andato after the simple tenses of 
 the verb essere, and you will find their compounds. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 I. Vo may be changed into vado. 
 
 II. The future and conditional of andare are often 
 conjugated regularly, thus: — cvndero, anderei : we ad- 
 vise the student to use andro, and andre% as above. For 
 andrebbero, we find andrebbono ; but it is better to use 
 andrebbero. 
 
 III. Instead of andai, ando, andarono, the Flo- 
 rentines say, io andetti, egli andette % eglino andetiero. 
 Others say, io andiedi, egli andiede, eglino andiedero, 
 or andarno ; but we advise the learner to adopt the 
 regular way as the most proper, and free from affec- 
 tation. 
 
 IV: Andare being conjugated with the verb essere, 
 the participle andato is to agree in gender and number 
 with its nominative ; thus, if the person speaking, spoken 
 to or of is a man, andato is to be used; -if a woman, 
 andata ; when men, andati ; women, andate. See Syntax 
 of participles. 
 
 V. This verb is sometimes conjugated with the exple- 
 tives me ne, te ne^ se ne, ce ne, ve ne, se ne. Thus, me ne 
 vado, te ne vai, se ne va, ce ne andiamo, ve ne andate, se 
 ne vanno. 
 
 VI. Riandare, to examine, and trasandare, to go 
 beyond, are to be conjugated like portare. See page 139. 
 ffiandare, however, meaning to go again, is conjugated 
 like its primitive, andare. 
 
 VII. Comandare, tramandare, rimandare, though 
 they seem to be the derivatives of andare, are derivatives 
 of mandare, and consequently they are conjugated like 
 portare. See page 139. 
 
of irregular verbs ix are. 159 
 
 Dare. 
 Inf. to give dare Ger. giving dando 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Part, given dato 
 
 Ind. pres. I give, fyc do, dai, da, diamo, date, danno 
 
 First imp. I gave, fyc davo, davi, dava, davamo, davate, 
 
 davano 
 Sec. imp. I gave, ^c. diedi, desti, diede, demmo, deste, 
 
 diedero 
 First fut. I shall give, $c. ..daro, darai, dara, daremo, darete, 
 
 daranno 
 
 Subj. pres. I may give, fyc dia, dia, dia, diamo, diate, diano 
 
 Imperfect I might give, fyc.dessi, dessi, desse, dessimo, deste, 
 
 dessero 
 Conditional. I should give, fycdnrei, daresti, darebbe, daremmo, 
 
 dareste, darebbero 
 Imperative. Give thou, fyc da, dia, diamo, date, diano 
 
 Put the participle dato to the simple tenses of the 
 verb avere, and you will find all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. For diedi, diede, diedero, we use io detti, egli dette, 
 egiino deitero. Both ways are very good. 
 
 2. For diede, diedero, we use die, diedono. 
 
 3. For dessu dessi, desse, &c. io dassi, tu dassi, egli 
 dasse, are found in good authors. Not to be imitated. 
 
 4. Dia, dia, dia, diano, are often changed into dea, 
 dea, dea, deano. Not to be imitated. 
 
 5. The derivatives of dare are only riddre, to give 
 again ; adddre, or addarsi, to addict one's self ; but cir- 
 conddre, secondare, ricorddre, and such like, are regular, 
 and belong to the first conjugation. 
 
 Fare. 
 
 Fare, properly speaking, ought to belong to the second 
 conjugation, as it formerly made facere ; but as this ter- 
 mination is no longer in use, we have thought proper to 
 
160 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN are. 
 
 follow the method of our predecessors, and put it as an 
 irregular verb of the first conjugation. 
 
 Inf. to make fare Ger. making facendo 
 
 conjugated with avere J Part, made fatto 
 
 Ind. pres. I make, fyc fo, fai, fa, facciamo, f&te, fanno 
 
 First imp. I made, ^c facevo, facevi, faceva, facevamo, 
 
 facevate, facevano 
 Sec imp. I made, tyc feci, facesti, fece, facemmo, faceste, 
 
 fecero 
 First fat. I shall make, fyc.faxb, farai, fara, faremo, farete, 
 
 faranno 
 Subj. pres. I may make, #c.. faccia, faccia, faccia, facciamo, 
 
 facciate, facciano 
 Imperfect. I might make, fyc.facessi, facessi, facesse, facessimo, 
 
 faceste, facessero 
 Conditional. I should make, fyc. farei, faresti, farebbe, faremmo, 
 
 fareste, farebbero 
 Imperative, make thou, fyc fa, faccia, facciamo, fate, facciano 
 
 Put the participle fatto after the sitnple tenses of 
 avere, and you will find all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Instead of fo, faccio is often used in prose. Fo is 
 better. 
 
 2. For facesti and faceste, festi and feste are used. 
 Rather pedantic. 
 
 8. Forfece,fe' is used. Both good. 
 
 4. For fecero, we find feciono andferono. Fecero is 
 better. 
 
 5. The derivatives oifare, such as, contrqffure, to 
 mimic ; disfare, to undo ; r'fare, to make up again ; 
 liquefdre, to melt; strqfdre, to do too much, &c. are 
 conjugated like their primitive, fare ; but oifare, to 
 smell, is regular, and conjugated like portare* See 
 page 139. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN are. 161 
 
 Stare. 
 
 Inf. to stand stare 
 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ger. standing stando 
 
 Part, stood stato 
 
 Ind. pres. I stand, fyc sto, stai, sta, stiamo, state, stanno 
 
 First imp. / stood, fyc stavo,stavi, stava, stavamo, stavate, 
 
 stavano 
 Sec. imp. I stood, tyc stetti, stesti, stette, stemmo, ste*ste, 
 
 stettero 
 First fut. I shall stand, fyc. ..staro, starai,stara, staremo, starete, 
 
 staranno 
 
 Subj. pres. I may stand, fyc stia, stia, stia, stiamo, stiate, stiano 
 
 Imperfect. I might stand, #<?... stessi, stessi, stesse, stessimo, steste, 
 
 stessero 
 Conditional. I should stand, 4-c.starei, staresti, starebbe, staremmo, 
 
 stareste, starebbero 
 Imperative, stand thou, §c sta, stia, stiamo, state, stiano 
 
 Put stato to the simple tenses of the verb essere, and 
 you will find the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Stare, in speaking of the health, signifies to do, or 
 be ; as, come state ? how do you do ? or, how are you ? 
 By adding di cdsa to it, it signifies to live, or dwell; as 
 dove state di cdsa ? where do you live ? Stare signifies 
 also to stop. For more particulars, see our Dictionary 
 of Peculiarities. 
 
 2. Instead of stetti, stette, stettero, some have made 
 use of stiedi, stiede, stiedero. Not to be imitated. 
 
 3. Stea, stea, stea, steano, have been much used 
 instead of stia, stia, stia, stiano. Not to be imitated. 
 
 4. Instead of stessi, stessi, &c , some have used stassi, 
 stassi, stasse, stassimo, staste, stassero. Decidedly wrong. 
 
 5. Ristdre, to stop, only, is conjugated like stare ; but 
 restdre, to remain ; costdre, to cost ; pestdre, to pound, 
 and many more which seem derivatives of stare y are 
 conjugated like portare. See page 139. 
 
cadere 
 calere 
 
 piacere 
 persuadere 
 
 capere 
 dovere 
 dolersi 
 giacere 
 
 potere 
 rimanere 
 sapere 
 sedere 
 
 parere 
 
 
 162 OF IRREGULAR VERES IN erfr 
 
 Section VIII. 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERES ENDING IN ere. 
 
 Verbs ending in ere are of two sorts. The first have 
 their infinitives long, such as, cadere, giacere, tacere ; and 
 the second, short, such as, ridere, scrivere, vivere. 
 
 The irregular verbs ending in ere long are the follow- 
 mg, and their derivatives. 
 
 solere 
 tacere 
 ten ere 
 valere 
 vedere 
 volere 
 
 As the conjugation of these verbs cannot be reduced 
 to a general rule, we shall proceed in conjugating them 
 one by one ; and to save the learner trouble, we shall 
 insert likewise the regular tenses, with this difference, 
 that the irregular ones are set down at large, and the 
 terminations only of the regular. 
 
 Before we begin to conjugate the irregular verbs in 
 ere, let us observe that a verb, being irregular in the 
 present tense of the indicative, is so in the present of the 
 subjunctive ; and that if it be irregular in the future, it 
 is so in the conditional. 
 
 That the first imperfect of the indicative and sub- 
 junctive are always regular. 
 
 That the first and the second person plural of the 
 present of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, 
 are never irregular, except the second person plural of 
 the imperative only of the verbs avere, dovere, sapere, 
 which makes abbiate, dobbiate, sappiate, instead of avete, 
 dovete, sapete. 
 
 That the second imperfect of an irregular verb has 
 three persons regular, and three irregular. The three 
 regular are the second of the singular, and the first and 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 163 
 
 the second of the plural, which are formed according to 
 their respective conjugations; and the other three are 
 formed by changing the last i of the first person into e 
 for the third singular, and into ero for the third plural. 
 Ex. 
 
 FIRST SING. THIRD SING. THIRD PLUR. 
 
 I fell cadd-i cadd-e cadd-ero 
 
 I grieved ....dols-i dols-e dols-ero 
 
 I read less-i less-e less-ero 
 
 Cadere. 
 
 Inf. to fall cadere Ger. falling cadendo 
 
 conjugated with essere Part, fallen caduto 
 
 Ind. Pres. I fall, $c cad-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First Imp. I fell, ^c cad-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. Imp. I fell, S?c caddi, cadesti, cadde, cademmo, 
 
 cadeste, caddero 
 First fut. I shall fall, §c cadro, , cadrai, cadra, cadremo, 
 
 cadrete, cadranno 
 
 Subj. Pres. I may fall, fyc cad-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 
 Imperfect. I might fall, #c....cad-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should fall, §c. ..cadrei, cadresti, cadrebbe, cad- 
 
 remmo, cadreste, cadrebbero 
 Imperative, fall thou, S?c cad-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 
 
 Put caduto to the simple tenses of the verb essere, 
 and you will find all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The future and the conditional of this verb are 
 also regular, thus : — caderd, caderai, &c. caderei, cade- 
 resti, &c. The irregular tenses are preferable. 
 
 The derivatives of cadere are — 
 
 accadere to happen 
 
 decadere to decay 
 
 discadere to fall away 
 
 ricadere to fall again 
 
 scadere to became due 
 
 All these verbs are conjugated with essere. 
 
164 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 Calere. 
 
 Inf. to matter,,., calere 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 no Gerund 
 
 Part, mattered, . . . caluto 
 
 This verb being impersonal, has the third person sin- 
 gular only, and has neither imperative nor gerund. 
 
 Ind. pres. it matters cale 
 
 First imp. it mattered caleva 
 
 Sec. imp. it mattered calse 
 
 First fut. it will matter carra 
 
 ' * may matter caglia 
 
 \ might matter,,,. „ ..calesse 
 . it would matter carrebbe 
 
 First fut. it 
 Subj. pres. it 
 Imperfect, it 
 Conditional, it 
 
 Observations, 
 
 1. Calera and calerebbe have been improperly used 
 for carra and carrebbe ; as the former come from calare 9 
 to let down, and not from calere, as above. The learner, 
 therefore, is to make use of carra and carrebbe. 
 
 Capere. 
 
 This verb signifies to contain, and has neither all the 
 persons, nor all the tenses, like other verbs. Buom- 
 mattei, however, conjugates it throughout all its tenses 
 like ternere, except in the present tense of the indicative, 
 thus : — cappio, capi, cape, cappiamo, capete, cappiono. 
 In the present of the subjunctive, cappia, cappi, cappia, 
 cappiamo, cappiate, cappiano ; and in the present of the 
 imperative, capi t cappia, cappiamo, capete, cappiano. 
 As for the participle, some say it is caputo, others, catto, 
 and others, again, capito ; but the latter is the participle 
 of capire, to understand. 
 
 As this verb is obsolete, we advise the learner to use 
 only the third person singular of the present tense, 
 cape, and that of the imperfect, capeva, or capea ; as it 
 is these two persons which are often found in good 
 authors. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 165 
 
 Dovere. 
 
 Inf. to owe dovere 
 
 Conjugated vMh avere 
 
 Ger. owing., ....dovendo 
 Part, owed dovuto 
 
 Ind. pres. I owe, fyc debbo, debbi, debbe, dobbiamo, 
 
 dovete. debbono 
 First, imp, lowed, $c dov-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 
 Sec, imp. lowed, tyc dov-ei, esti, e, emmo, este, erono 
 
 First fut. I shall owe, $c dovro, dovrai, dovra, dovremo, 
 
 dovrete, dovranno 
 Subj. pres. I may owe, fyc debba, debba, debba, dobbiamo, 
 
 dobbiate, debbano 
 Imperfect. I might owe, #c....dov-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should owe, #c...dovrei, dovresti, dovrebbe, do- 
 
 v rem mo, dovreste, dovrebbero 
 Imperative, owe thou, $c debbi, debba, dobbiamo, dobbiate, 
 
 debbano 
 
 Put dovuto to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
 will have the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The English of the present and imperfect tenses 
 of dovere, may also be, / ought, thou oughtesi, &c. 
 
 2. The present also makes io devo, tu devi, egli deve, 
 eglino devono, and also io deggio, egli dee, eglino deg- 
 giono, and denno. All these are equally good, except 
 denno, which is better used in poetry. 
 
 3. The second imperfect makes also, io dovetti, egli 
 dovette, eglino dovettero. Not so good as the above. 
 
 4. The present of the subjunctive makes also io deg- 
 gia* tu deggia, egli deggia, eglino deggiano ; and also, 
 io debbia, egli debbia, eglino debbiano. All good, except 
 dzbbia, &c. which is better used by poets. 
 
 Dolersi, or dolere. 
 
 Inf. to grieve... Aotevsl Ger. gn>i?mg....dolendosi 
 
 conjugated with essere Part, grieved ....dolutosi 
 
166 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 Verbs having the particle si joined with the infini- 
 tives, are called reflective, and are conjugated with the 
 particles, mi, ti, si, in the singular ; and ci, m, si, in the 
 plural, as follows : — 
 
 Inf. pres. I grieve, tyc mi dolgo, ti duoli, si duole, ci 
 
 dogliamo, vi dolete, si dolgono 
 
 First imp. / grieved, fyc mi doleva, ti dolevi, si doleva, ci do- 
 
 levamo, vi dolevate, si dole van o 
 
 Sec. imp. I grieved, fyc. ......mi dolsi, tidolesti, si dolse, ci do- 
 
 lemmo, vi doleste, si dolsero 
 
 First, fut, I shall grieve, $c...mi dorro, ti dorrai, si dorra, ci dor- 
 
 remo, vi dorrete, si dorranno 
 
 Subj. pres. / may grieve, fyc. ..mi dolga, ti dolga, si dolga, ci do- 
 gliamo, vi dogliate, si dolgano 
 
 Imperfect. I might grieve, Sfc.mi dolessi, ti dolessi, si dole'sse, ci 
 
 dolessimo, vi doleste, sidolessero 
 
 Conditional. I should grieve, fyc. mi dorrei, ti dorresti, si dorrebbe, 
 
 ci dorremmo, vi dorreste, si dor- 
 rebbero 
 
 Imperative, grieve thou, fyc duoliti, si dolga, dogliamoci, dole- 
 
 tevi, si dolgano 
 
 Put doluto to the simple tenses of essere, and you 
 will find mi sono doluto, ti sei doluto, si e doluto, ci siamo 
 doluti, vi siete doluti, si son doluti, and so on for all the 
 other tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. In the present of the indicative, we say also, io mi 
 doglio, eglino si dogliono. Both ways good. 
 
 2. In the present of the subjunctive, we say also, io 
 mi doglia, ti doglia, si doglia, and si dogliano. 
 
 3. In the imperative, si doglia, si dogliano. 
 
 4. Dolere, (not dolersi,) signifies also to ache, or to 
 have ache, when it is impersonal, and has only the third 
 person, both of singular and plural, &c. 
 
 it aches duole 
 
 it ached doleva 
 
 they ache dolgono 
 
 they ached .. ..doleVano 
 
 my head aches, or ) . i ,/i i , * a . 
 
 J T1 ,i I -j z > mi duole la testa 
 
 1 have the head- ache $ 
 
 my teeth ache or J ^ ^ { d§ tf 
 
 J have the tooth-ache $ ° 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 167 
 
 The derivatives of dolere are ridolersi, to lament 
 again ; condolersi, to condole ; ridolere, to have a strong 
 smell. 
 
 Giaeere. 
 
 Inf. to lie down.. giaeere 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. lying down..gmcendo 
 Part. /<zi/2 down.. ..giaciuto 
 
 Ind. pres. I lie doivn, $c giaccio, giaci, giace, giacciamo, 
 
 giacete, giacciono 
 First imp. I lay down, Sfc., giac-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I lay down, Sec giacqui, giacesti, giacque, giacem- 
 
 mo, giace'ste, giacquero 
 First fut. I shall lie down, #c....giac-ero, erai, era, eremo, er£te, 
 
 eranno 
 Subj. pres. I may lie down, fyc. . . .giaccia, giaccia, giaccia, giacciamo, 
 
 giacciate, giacciano 
 Imperfect. I might lie down, fyc. ..giac-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I shouldliedown$c... .giac-erei 9 eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 
 
 ereste, erebbero 
 Imperative, lie down, Sfc giaci, giaccia, giacciamo, giacete, 
 
 giacciano 
 
 Fut giaciuto to the simple tenses of avere , and you 
 will have all the compound tenses. 
 
 Piacere and tacere are conjugated in like manner. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Giaeere has also another participle, viz. — stato a 
 giaeere ', which is joined to the tenses of the verb essere, 
 and not avere. Thus, instead of io ho giaciuto, tu hai 
 giaciuto, egli ha giaciuto, &c. we say, io sono stato* tu 
 set stato, egli e stdto a giaeere, &c. 
 
 2. Piacere, signifying to like, is impersonal, when it 
 has only the third person both singular and plural ; and, 
 as in English, it is always personal, the student is to 
 change the English nominative into the dative in Italian, 
 and the accusative into the nominative, thus: — I like 
 
168 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 bread, turn, bread pleases me, mi place il pane ; he 
 liked apples, turn, apples pleased him, gli piacevano le 
 mele ; and so on of all the other persons and tenses. 
 
 3. For tacqui, tacque, and tacquero, we find io tacetti, 
 egli tacette, eglino tacettero, and tacettono : we advise the 
 student to use the former, as sanctioned by all gram- 
 marians. 
 
 4. Some persons of tacere are sometimes found with 
 mi, ti 9 si, &c. before them ; such as, mi tacqui, si tac- 
 quero, &c. but we must observe that those particles do 
 not belong to tacere ; they are a kind of expletives which 
 add grace to the discourse. See expletives. 
 
 All the derivatives of giacere, tacere, piacere, are — 
 
 rigiacere to lie down again 
 
 compiacere . . to please ripiacere. . . to please again 
 
 dispiacere ...Jo displease ritacere ....to be silent again 
 
 spiacere ...to displease 
 
 Parere. 
 
 Inf. to seem parere 
 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ger. seeming.... parendo 
 Part, seemed ....parso 
 
 Ind. pres. I seem, S^c pajo, pari, pare, pajamo, parete, 
 
 pajono 
 First imp. I seemed, $c par-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I seemed, $c parvi, paresti, parve, paremmo, 
 
 pareste, parvero 
 First fut. / shall seem, Sfc. ..parro, parrai, parra, parremo, 
 
 parrete, parranno 
 Subj. pres. I may seem, #c....paja, paja, paja, pajamo, pajate, 
 
 pajano 
 Imperfect. I might seem, #c...par-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should seem, #c..parrei, parresti, parrebbe, parrem- 
 
 mo, parreste, parrebbero 
 Imperative, seem thou, fyc pari, paja, pajamo, parete, pajano 
 
 Put parso to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
of irregular verbs in ere, 169 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. The participle of parere makes also paruto. Not 
 so good as parso. 
 
 2. Some bave used paro, paridmo, and pdrono, instead 
 of pajo, pajamo, and pqjono ; but they are not to be 
 imitated, as the former ones come from pardre, to 
 adorn. The same may be said of para, in the sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 3. Instead of parvi, parve, parvero, we find pdrsi, 
 parse, pdrsero ; but we think that the use of them may 
 be left to poets only. 
 
 4. Parere is also impersonal, and then it has dnly the 
 third person singular ; as, it seems, pare ; it seemed, 
 pareva ; it shall seem, parra ; and so on of the other 
 tenses. 
 
 Persuadere. 
 
 Inf. to persuade., persuade re 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. persuadmg.^exsu&dLQTidLO 
 Part, persuaded. . . persuaso 
 
 Ind. pres. I persuade, fyc persuad-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 Ftrst imp. I persuaded, fyc persuad-evo, evi, eva, evamo, 
 
 evate, evano 
 Sec. imp. I persuaded, fyc . persuasi, persuadesti, persuase, 
 
 persuademmo, persuadeste, per- 
 
 suasero 
 First fut. I shall persuade, #<?.... persuad-erd, erai, era, ere mo, 
 
 erete, eranno 
 Subj. pres. I may persuade, fyc .. ..persuad-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 Imperfect. I might persuade, ^c.persuad-essi, essi, esse, essimo, 
 
 este, essero 
 Conditional. I should persuade, #c..persuad-erei,eresti, erebbe, erem- 
 
 mOj ereste, erebbero 
 Imperative. Persuade thou, fyc persuad-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 
 
 Put persuaso to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
 will find all the compound tenses. 
 
170 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 Potere. 
 
 Inf. to be able.... potere 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. being able.... potendo 
 Part, been able .. ..potuto 
 
 Ind. pres. I can, fyc posso, puoi, pud, possiamo, potete, 
 
 possono 
 First imp. I could, tyc pot-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 
 Sec. imp. I could, fyc pot-ei, esti, e, £mmo, este, erono 
 
 First fut. I shall be able, Src....ipotvb, potrai, potra, potremo, 
 
 potrete, potranno 
 Subj. pres. I may be able, fyc possa, possa, possa, possiamo, pos- 
 
 siate, possano 
 Imperfect. I might be able, Sfc. ..pot-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should be able, #c..potrei, potresti, potrebbe, potrem- 
 
 mo, potreste, potrebbero 
 
 This verb has no imperative. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. For poiei, pote, and poierono, some authors have 
 used potetti, potette^ potHtero. Not to be imitated. 
 
 2. Beware of saying potero^poierai, &c. poterei, pote- 
 resii, &c. for potrd, potrai, &c. potrei, potresti, &c. for 
 potero is the future,, and poterei, the conditional, of potare, 
 to prune trees. 
 
 Rimanere. 
 
 Inf. to remain.... rimanere 
 conjugated with ess ere 
 
 Ger. remaining.. ..rimanendo 
 Part, remained. .. ..nmkso 
 
 Ind. pres. I remain, S^c rimango, rimani, rimane, rimani- 
 
 amo, rimanete, rimangono 
 First imp. / remained, fyc. .... ;.riman-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. / remained, 8$c rimasi, rimanesti, rimase, rimane'm- 
 
 mo, rimaneste, rimasero 
 First fut. I shall remain, $c ....rimarrd, rimarrai, rimarra, rimar- 
 
 remo, rimarrete, rimarranno 
 Subj. pres. / may remain^ fyc rimanga, rimanga, rimanga, rimani* 
 
 amo, rimaniate, rimangano 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 171 
 
 Imperfect. I might remain, fyc. ..riman-essi, e'ssi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should remain, #c..rimarrei, rimarresti, rimarrebbe, 
 
 rimarremmo, rimarreste, rimar- 
 
 rebbero 
 Imperative. Remain thou, fyc rimani, rimanga, rimaniamOj rima- 
 
 nete, rimangano 
 
 Put rimaso to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
 have the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Rimasto, instead of rimaso, is often used in a 
 familiar style. We advise the student to use always 
 rimaso, as more elegant. 
 
 % Instead of rimango, rimaniamo, and rimangano, 
 some have used rimagno, rimanghiamo, rimagrumo. 
 Erroneous, and on no account to be imitated. 
 
 Sapere. 
 
 Inf. to know, . . . sapere 
 
 Ger. knowing... .eapdndo 
 
 conjugated with avere Part, known saputo 
 
 Ind. pres. I know, $c so, sai, sa, sappiamo, sape'te, sanno 
 
 First imp. I kneiv, tyc ....sap-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I knew, S^c seppi, sapesti, se'ppe, sapemmo, 
 
 sapeste, seppero 
 First, fut. I shall know, Sfc. ..sapro, saprai, sapra, sapremo, sa- 
 
 prete, sapranno 
 Subj. pres. I may know, fyc. ..sappia, sappia, sappia, sappiamo, 
 
 sappiate, sappiano 
 Imperfect. I might know, #c..sap-essi, essi, esse, e'ssimo, dste, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. / should know, 4*c..saprei, sapre'sti, sapr^bbe, sapr&n- 
 
 mo, sapreste, saprebbero 
 Imperative, know thou, fyc sappi, sappia, sappiamo, sappiate, 
 
 sappiano 
 
 Put saputo to the simple tenses of avere, ancj you 
 will have all the compound tenses. 
 
 i2 
 
17^ OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 The derivatives of sapere are — 
 
 assapere (fare) to let one know 
 
 risapere ..to know again 
 
 Sedere. 
 
 Inf. to sit doivn....sed6re? i 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. sitting down,, sedendo 
 Part, sat down seduto 
 
 Ind. pres. I sit down, $c siedo, siedi, siede, sediamo, sedete, 
 
 siedono 
 First imp. I sat down, $c sed-evo, evi, eVa, evamo, evate^ 
 
 evano 
 
 Sec. imp. I sat down, fyc sed-ei, £sti, e> e*mmo, este, eVono 
 
 First, fut. I shall sit down, #c...sed-erd, erai, era, eremo, erete, 
 
 eranno 
 Subj. pres. I may sit down, #c... segga, segga, segga, sediamo, 
 
 sediate, seggano 
 Imperfect. I might sit down, #c...sed-essi, essi, dsse, essimo, e*ste, 
 
 e*ssero 
 Conditional. Ishoiddsitdown,SfG...sed-eYei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 
 
 ereste, erebbero 
 Imperative, sit down, Sfc siedi, segga, sediamo, sedete, 
 
 seggano 
 
 Put seduto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 find all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1 . Instead of siedo and siedono, seggo and seggano 
 are used. Both equally good. 
 
 2. Sedetti, sedette, sedettero, are as good as sedei, sede, 
 sedermo. 
 
 3. Instead of segga and seggaTio of the subjunctive 
 and imperative, sieda and siedano have been used by 
 writers. Both equally good. 
 
 Instead of sedere we use seder si, when it is conju- 
 gated with the particles mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si, before all the 
 persons, and with the verb essere in the compound 
 tenses, like dolersi ; as — 
 Ind. pres. Mi sie'do, ti siedi, si sie'de, ci sediamo, vi sedete, si siedono 
 
 And so on of all the other tenses. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 173 
 
 The derivatives of seder e are — 
 
 possedere Jo possess 
 
 presedere to preside 
 
 risedere to reside 
 
 Soler 
 
 re. 
 
 Inf. to be accustomed. . soler e 
 
 Ger. being accustomed,. solendo 
 No participle 
 
 Ind. pres. I am accustomed, fyc soglio, suoli, suole, sogliamo, 
 
 solete, sogliono 
 
 First imp. I was accustomed, fyc sol-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 
 Subj. pres. I may be accustomed, j*c..soglia, soglia, soglia, sogliamo, 
 
 solete, sogliano 
 
 All the other tenses are not used, but this deficiency 
 is supplied with the verb essere, and the word solito, 
 which in that case may be called a participle ; and not 
 only all the tenses that are wanting may be thus formed, 
 but all the verb throughout ; as — 
 
 Ind. pres. Sono, sei, e solito, siamo, siete, sono soliti 
 First imp. Ero, eri, era solito, eravamo, eravate, erano soliti 
 
 And so on of all the other tenses. 
 
 Ger. holding tenendo 
 
 Part, held tenuto 
 
 Tenere. 
 
 Inf. to hold tenere 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ind. pres. I hold, tyc tengo, tieni, tiene, teniamo, tenete, 
 
 tengono 
 First imp. I held, Sfc ten-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I held, fyc. tenni, tenesti, tenne, tenemmo, 
 
 teneste, tennero 
 First fut. I shall hold, #c. . . . . terro, terrai, terra, terremo, terrete, 
 
 terranno 
 Subj. pres. I may hold, fyc tenga, tenga, tenga, teniamo, 
 
 teniate, tengano 
 Imperfect. I might hold, fyc. ..ten-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. / shoidd hold, fyc. ..terrei, terre'sti, terrebbe, terremmo, 
 
 terreste, terrebbero 
 Imperative, hold thou, $c tieni, te'nga, teniamo, tenete, 
 
 tengano 
 
174 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 Put tenuto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Tenghiamo is not to be used for teniamo ; but 
 iegnamo may, as it is frequently found in authors of 
 note. 
 
 The derivatives of tenere are — - 
 
 appartenere. ...to belong 
 
 astenere to abstain 
 
 astenersi to abstain 
 
 attenere to attatn 
 
 contenere to refrain 
 
 mantenere to maintain 
 
 ottenere to obtain 
 
 ritenere to retain 
 
 sostenere to support 
 
 and perhaps a few more 
 
 Valere. 
 
 Inf. to be worth. . ..valere 
 conjugated with avere and essere 
 
 Ger. being worth.. valendo 
 Part, been worth . . . valuto 
 
 Ind. pres. I am worth, fyc vaglio, vali, vale, vagliamo, valete, 
 
 vagliono 
 First, imp. I was worth, S^c val-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I was worth, S^c valsi, valesti, valse, valernmo, 
 
 valeste, valsero 
 First fut. I shall be worth, #c....varrd, varrai, varra, varremo, 
 
 varrete, varranno 
 Subj. pres. I may be worth, $c.... vaglia, vaglia, vaglia, vagliamo, 
 
 vagliate, vagliano 
 Imperfect. 1 might be worth, $Y\...val-essi, essi, esse, e'ssimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. Ishouldbeworth,$c,...v2LYrei f varresti, varrebbe, varrem- 
 
 mo, varreste, varrebbero 
 Imperative, be thou worth, #c.,....vali, vaglia, vagliamo, valete, va- 
 gliano 
 
 Put valuto to the simple tenses of avere, or essere 9 and 
 you will find all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Instead of vaglio and vagliono, we use valgo and 
 valgono. All very proper. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 175 
 
 % Valghiarno is improperly used for vagliamo. 
 
 3. Vaglia and vagliano, of the subjunctive and im- 
 perative, may be changed into valga and valgano. 
 
 Prevalere seems to be the only derivative of valere, to 
 which are better adapted the terminations in algo, alga, 
 algano, than aglio, aglia, agliano ; therefore we are to 
 say, prevdlgo, prevalga, prevalgano, and not prevaglio, 
 prev aglia, prevagliano, &c. 
 
 Vedere. 
 
 Inf. to see.... vedere 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. seeing. ...vedendo 
 Part, seen veduto. 
 
 Inf. pres. I see, §c ved-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First imp. I saw, $c... ved-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. Isaw,Sfc vidi, vede'sti, vide, yedemmo, 
 
 vedeste, videro 
 First flit. I shall see, tyc vedrd, vedrai, vedra, vedremo, 
 
 vedrete, vedranno 
 
 Subj. pres. I may see, fyc ved-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 
 Imperfect. I might see, fyc ved-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional./ should see, Sfc vedrei, vedresti, vedrebbe, ve- 
 
 dremmo, vedreste, vedrebbero 
 Imperative, see thou, fyc ved-i, a, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 Put veduto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 find all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Veduto may be changed into visto. Both good. 
 
 2. The present tense makes also io veggio, or veggo, 
 noi veggiamo, eglino veggiono, or veggono. All good. 
 
 3. Instead of vidi, vide, videro, we find in good 
 authors viddi, vidde, viddero. It is better to use the 
 former. 
 
 4. Vedero and vederei, &c. are improperly used for 
 vedro and vedrei. 
 
 5. The subjunctive present makes also vegga, vegga, 
 
176 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 vegga, veggidmo, veggiate, veggano. Both ways equally 
 good. 
 
 6. The second person of the imperative is sometimes 
 changed into ve 9 by prose writers. 
 
 The derivatives of vedere are — 
 
 antivedere ...... to foresee 
 
 avvedersi to perceive 
 
 provedere to provide 
 
 i i vedere to see again 
 
 stravederc.fo see much 
 travedere.. ..to oversee 
 
 Volere. 
 
 Inf. to be willing.. vo\6re Gen. being willing.. voUndo 
 
 conjugated with avere Part, been willing... voluto 
 
 Ind. pres. I will, ^c, voglio, vuoi,. vuole, vogliamo, 
 
 volete, vogliono 
 First imp. I woidd, fyc vol-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 eVano 
 Sec. imp/ I would, fyc volli, vole'sti, voile, volemmo, 
 
 voleste, vollero 
 First fut. I shall be willing, Sfc.vono, vorrai, vorra, vorremo, 
 
 vorrete, vorranno 
 Subj.pres. I maybe willing, #■<?... voglia, voglia, voglia, vogliamo, 
 
 vogliate, vogliano 
 Imperfect. Imightbe 2villing,fyc... \o\-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. 1 shouldbe willing,^ c.vorrei, vorresti, vorrebbe, vorrem- 
 
 mo, vorreste, vorrebbero 
 
 This verb has no imperative. 
 
 Put voluto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 find all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Instead of voglio, we say vo' and vuo\ All good. 
 
 % For volli, voile, vollero, we find in good authors 
 volsi, volse, volsero. Not to be used in prose, as they 
 come from the verb volgere, to turn. 
 
 { 6. Beware of saying volero, volerei, for vorro, and 
 vorrei, for they are the future and conditional of the 
 verb volare, to fly. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 177 
 
 The derivatives of volere are — 
 
 rivolere to ask again 
 
 disvolere to refuse 
 
 Section IX. 
 
 OF TKREGULAR VERBS ENDING IN ere SHORT. 
 
 These verbs are about four hundred in number, the 
 irregularity of which consists chiefly in the second im- 
 perfect and participle ; but there are some of them which 
 are irregular also in other tenses, ail of which we divided 
 into classes in our small grammar ; and as that method 
 has been much approved of, and found extremely easy, 
 we, notwithstanding all that has been said against it (1), 
 will offer it again to the student of the Italian language, 
 with some improvements, as we are convinced of its 
 utility. 
 
 (l) A modern grammarian, whose grammar presents nothing else 
 but an assemblage of declined nouns and pronouns, and conjugated 
 verbs, and which is destitute of all that is necessary to be known for 
 the attainment of the Italian language, has asserted, that all the 
 attempts made by grammarians to subject irregular verbs ending in 
 ere short, to certain rules, are fruitless, and only tend to puzzle 
 learners, on account of the innumerable exceptions ; and he main- 
 tains that his alphabetical list is better calculated for conveying a 
 knowledge of them. We answer, that long experience and accurate 
 observation on this subject induced us to believe that a classification 
 of these verbs would be a desideratum ; we made an attempt in our 
 small grammar, and as our expectations were fulfilled, we offer it 
 again to the student; and though this method is attended with 
 some exceptions, it will be seen, on examination, that they are 
 neither so many, nor do they tend to puzzle the learner ; but will 
 be found to be but few, and easy to be committed to memory, when 
 compared with his never-ending list of three or four hundred verbs. 
 Exceptions should not prevent an enlightened grammarian from 
 establishing new rules, if he cannot attain his purpose by any other 
 means. It is, therefore, a proof of a slender judgment, to condemn 
 a series of grammatical rules, on account of their being subject ta 
 exceptions. 
 
 i3 
 
178 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 It is to be observed, that as the second imperfect and 
 the participle of these verbs are formed by their termina- 
 tions, the learner is to be guided by them only ; and as 
 many of these verbs have their last four or five letters 
 alike, we have made one or two letters to precede the 
 said terminations, in order that the student may by these 
 letters easily see to which class the termination belongs ; 
 as, for example, ndere, preceded by a and e, belongs to 
 the first class, consequently, the second imperfect is si, 
 and the participle is so. If it is preceded by o, it belongs 
 to the fifth class, and its imperfect is si, and its parti- 
 ciple sto. Again :—gere preceded by ar and er^ belongs 
 to the first class, and makes si and so ; but if it is pre- 
 ceded by /, n, or, it belongs to the second, and makes 
 si and to ; and so on of the other teminations and 
 classes. 
 
 Table of the Classes of Verbs ending in ere short. 
 
 In 
 
 (l).dere 
 
 (2) .rere 
 
 First Class. 
 
 ar....dere.... 
 
 cor ..rere .... 
 
 a.. .ndere,.. 
 e... ndere .. 
 ar..gere.,.. 
 er ..gere.... 
 
 spa ..ndere.. 
 
 f re ....ndere.. 
 
 spar. .gere.... 
 
 asper-gere.... 
 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 In guere estin.guere 
 
 1.. ..gere vol . ..gere.. 
 
 11. ..gere pian.gere.. 
 
 or ..gere scor..gere.. 
 
 n . ..cere vin...cere.. 
 
 r....cere tor.. .cere.. 
 
 1.. ..vere assol-vere. . 
 
 1.. ..lere sveL.lere .. 
 
 u. ..mere assd..mere. 
 
 gliere to.. ..gliere ..J 
 
 >. 
 
 .to 
 
 (1) Dere, preceded by any letter except e and n. 
 
 (2) Rere is preceded by r only. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 179 
 
 In 
 
 In 
 
 In 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 ce..dere , conce-dere ..^) 
 
 c.ttere me....ttere.. | 
 
 i....mere imDri .mere. 
 
 ::f 
 
 o...tere scuo..tere 
 
 o...vere muo ..vere... j 
 
 Fourth Class. 
 
 (l) . ggere le .. ..ggere .. 
 
 i....vere scri..vere.... 
 
 a ..ere tra ..ere .... ;>. 
 
 u ..cere addd-cere .. ] 
 
 o ..cere cuo..cere.... J 
 
 Fifth Class. 
 
 o ..ndere .....nasco-ndere ^ 
 
 ic.dere chie..dere .. >. 
 
 o ..rre po....rre.... ) 
 
 .sso 
 
 .tto 
 
 .sto 
 
 Explanation of the Table. 
 
 The first column indicates the terminations which are 
 preceded by one or two letters ; the second denotes the 
 verbs, from which the terminations are derived ; the third 
 shows the termination of their second imperfect ; and 
 the fourth, that of their participle. 
 
 Change the terminations of the second column into 
 those of the third and fourth, and you will find the first 
 person of the second imperfect, and likewise the participle 
 of the verbs in question. Thus, ardere, change dere into 
 m and so, and you will find am, arso. And again : — ■ 
 estinguere, change guere into si and to, and you will 
 find estin-si) estin-to, and so on. 
 
 To form the other persons of the second imperfect, 
 see page 145. 
 
 As, however, there are some which are irregular in 
 other tenses, we shall proceed by giving an example of 
 each. 
 
 (3) All verbs in ggere. 
 
180 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 First Class, 
 
 The verbs of the first class are terminated in dere, 
 rere, a-ndere, e-ndere, ar-gere, er-gere, and make si in 
 the second imperfect, and so in the participle. 
 
 In conjugating the verbs of all the classes, we shall 
 give all the tenses, regular and irregular. The regular 
 tenses, however, will be marked only by their termina- 
 tions, and the irregular will be set down entire. As to 
 the auxiliary verbs, we will affix e, meaning essere, to 
 those that are to be conjugated with essere, and to those 
 which may be conjugated with either, ae. 
 
 Ardere. 
 
 Inf. to burn ardere Ger. burning, ...ardendo 
 
 conjugated with avere Part, burnt arso 
 
 Ind. pres. I bum, fyc ard-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First irnp. I burnt, ^c ard-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate y 
 
 evano ♦ 
 Sec. imp. I burnt, ^c ar-si, ardesti, ar-se, ardemmo," ar- 
 
 deste, ar-sero 
 First flit. I shall burn, fyc. .•ard-ero, erai, era, eremo, erete, 
 
 eranno 
 Subj. pres. I may burn, fyc. ..ard-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 Imperfect. I might burn, fyc... ard-essi, 6ssi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should burn, ^c.ard-erei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 
 
 ereste, erebbero 
 Imperative, burn thou, fyc ard-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 
 
 Put arso to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs belong to the first class, and are 
 conjugated like ardere, paying attention to form the 
 regular tenses by changing ere into the terminations set 
 clown as above, which are the same as those of the 
 second conjugation, page 145; and the irregular ones 
 by changing the terminations separated by dots, as 
 follows : — 
 
OF ■ IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 181 
 
 acchiu .... dere . . . . to inclose 
 
 anci dere.. .Jo kill 
 
 arri dere.... to favour 
 
 chiu ...... dere. ..Jo shut 
 
 circon .. ..dere to surround 
 
 colli dere... Jo beat 
 
 conchiu.. dere... Jo conclude 
 con qui.... d ere.... to conquer 
 
 corro ....dere to corrode 
 
 deci .dere... Jo decide 
 
 delu dere ..Jo delude 
 
 deri dere... Jo deride 
 
 dischiu . . dere ...Jo disclose 
 disper .. ..dere.. .Jo squander 
 divi ...... dere.... to divide 
 
 inchiu dere. ..Jo include 
 
 inci dere. ...to make an 
 
 incision 
 ce accor rere..^ 
 
 J> to run 
 ce concor....rere.. f 
 
 cb cor rere.. J 
 
 discor ....rere. ..Jo discourse 
 
 eoccor ....rere... Jo want 
 
 e precor .... rere .... to fore run 
 
 appe ndere . . to hang 
 
 appre .. ..ndere .Jo learn 
 
 arre ndere ..to surrender 
 
 ce asce ndere . . to ascend 
 
 atte ndere ..to attend 
 
 compre ..ndere. Jo understand 
 condesce-ndere. Jo condescend 
 
 conte ndere ..to contend 
 
 dif e ndere . . to defend 
 
 disappre.. ndere ..to unlearn 
 
 edisce ndere. Jo descend 
 
 discosce.. ndere ..to break asun- 
 der 
 
 dispe ndere .Jo spend 
 
 diste ndere ..to stretch 
 
 este ndere. Jo extend 
 
 ince ndere. Jo burn 
 
 inte ndere .Jo intend 
 
 inclu dere... Jo include 
 
 intri...... dere. ...to temper 
 
 intru dere... Jo intrude 
 
 inva dere... Jo invade 
 
 mor dere.. .Jo bite 
 
 preci dere... Jo shorten 
 
 preclu.. ..dere.. ..to hinder 
 
 per dere(l) to lose 
 
 racchiu .. dere... Jo inclose 
 
 ra dere... Jo shave 
 
 reci dere... Jo cut 
 
 ri ....... .dere. ..Jo laugh 
 
 ro dere... Jo gnaw 
 
 sorri dere.. ..to smile 
 
 sper dere ...Jo dissipate 
 
 straper.... dere. ...to lose much 
 ucci dere... Jo kill 
 
 ricor rere. ..Jo have re- 
 course 
 ritrascor ..rere .... to peruse 
 
 scor rere.,. Jo run 
 
 soccor .. ..rere ...Jo help 
 stracor ....rere .. ..to run fast 
 trascor ..rere ...Jo run over 
 
 intrapre ..ndere. 
 
 offe ndere. 
 
 pre ndere . 
 
 prete ndere. 
 
 racce ndere. 
 
 re ndere. 
 
 ripre ndere. 
 
 rite ndere. 
 
 see ndere . 
 
 sorpre.... ndere. 
 
 sospe ndere. 
 
 spa ndere. 
 
 spe ndere. 
 
 ste ndere. 
 
 te ndere, 
 
 trasce ....ndere. 
 
 , to undertake 
 to offend 
 to take 
 to pretend 
 to rekindle 
 ,to restore 
 Jo re-take 
 , to extend 
 ,to descend 
 ,to s zap rise 
 , to suspend 
 Jo spill 
 
 , to spend 
 Jo extend 
 ,to extend 
 Jo surpass 
 
 1 ) Perdere is also regular. 
 
182 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 asper .... gere. . . . to sprinkle 
 eosper.. . . gere ...Jo sprinkle 
 disper ....gere....£o disperse 
 immer.. ..gere.. ..to plunge 
 
 sommer ..gere.. .Jo drown 
 
 spar gere... Jo spread 
 
 sper gere.. .Jo disperse 
 
 ter ,gere....£o wipe 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1 . Perdere is also regular. 
 
 9. Ergere also belongs to this class, but its participle 
 is erto, and not erso. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 The verbs of this class are terminated in guere, l-gere, 
 n-gere^ or-gere, n-cere, r-cerc, l-vere, l-lere, u-mere, and 
 gliere, which make si in the second imperfect, and to in 
 the participle. 
 
 Distinguere. 
 
 Inf. to distinguish .... distinguere 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. distinguishing.. distin- 
 
 guendo 
 Part, distinguished ..distinto 
 
 Ind. pres 2" distinguish, kc. distingu-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First imp. I distinguished, fyc . . .. distingu-evo, evi, eva, evaino, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I distinguished, fyc distin-si, distinguesti, distln-se, dis- 
 
 tinguemmo, distingueste, distin- 
 
 sero 
 First fut. / shall distinguish, c^c.distingu • ero, erai, era , eremo, erete, 
 
 eranno 
 Subj. pres. / may distinguish, <5c.distingu a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 Imperfect. I might distinguish, § c.distingu-essi , essi, esse, essimo, este. 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I shoidd distinguish, } distingu-erei, eresti, erebbe, erem- 
 
 &-c $ mo, ereste, erebbero 
 
 Imperative, distinguish thou, #r....distingn-i, a, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 Put distinto to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
 will have all the compound tenses. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 183 
 
 The following verbs belong to this class, and are con- 
 jugated like distinguere. 
 
 ' estin...,. 
 
 .guere 
 
 .to pid oat 
 
 restrin.. 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to restrain 
 
 accm .... 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to prepare 
 
 riaggiun 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to add again 
 
 eaccor.... 
 
 .gersi . 
 
 . to perceive 
 
 ricongmn.gere.. 
 
 ..to unite again 
 
 aggiun . 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to add 
 
 ngiun .. 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 .to overtake 
 
 astrin .., 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to press 
 
 
 
 again 
 
 attin.... 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to draiv water 
 
 rimun .. 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to milk again 
 
 avvol... 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to turn 
 
 rinvol .. 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 .to fold up 
 
 cm 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to gird 
 ..to pity 
 
 
 
 again 
 ..to offer again 
 
 compian 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ripor 
 
 ..gere.. 
 
 compun . 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to afflict 
 
 npun ..., 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to prick again 
 
 congiun. 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 . . to join 
 
 ensor 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to rise again 
 
 costnn . 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to oblige 
 
 rispin .. . 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 . to push back 
 
 dipin ... 
 
 ..gere.. 
 
 ..to paint 
 
 ristrm . . . 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to restrain 
 
 disgiun . 
 disvol .. 
 
 .gere.. 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to disunite 
 
 ntin .... 
 
 .sere.. 
 
 . . to dye again 
 ..to turn back 
 
 ..to divert 
 
 rivol.... 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 fin 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to dissemble 
 
 sccnvol 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to confuse 
 
 fran .... 
 
 .gere.. 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to break 
 
 scor 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 . . to perceive 
 ..to add 
 
 giun.... 
 
 ..to arrive 
 
 soggiun . 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 infran ... 
 
 .gere.. 
 .gere.. 
 
 . . to break 
 ..to soak 
 
 ^'sor- 
 
 ..gere.. 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to rise 
 
 intin.... 
 
 sospin .. 
 
 ..to push 
 
 in vol ... 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to fold up 
 
 spen.... 
 
 „gere.. 
 
 . . to put out 
 
 mun.... 
 
 . gere.. 
 
 ..to milk 
 
 spin .... 
 tf-spor .... 
 
 .o-ere.. 
 
 . . to drive back 
 
 pian .... 
 
 ..gere.. 
 
 ..to weep 
 
 .gere . 
 
 ..to jut 
 
 pin 
 
 
 ..to paint 
 
 stravol . 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to twist 
 
 por 
 
 ..gere.. 
 
 . . to offer 
 
 Strin 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 . . to press 
 
 pun 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to prick 
 
 tin 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to dye 
 
 raggiun 
 
 ..gere.. 
 
 ..to overtake 
 
 travol .. 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to twist 
 
 ravvol .. 
 
 ..gere.. 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to fold up 
 ..to push back 
 
 un 
 
 ..gere.. 
 
 ..to anoint 
 
 respin .. 
 
 vol 
 
 .gere.. 
 
 ..to turn 
 
 attor.... 
 
 ..cere.. 
 
 ..to hoist 
 
 rivin.... 
 
 ..cere. 
 
 ..to win again 
 
 avvin .. 
 
 ..cere.. 
 ..cere.. 
 
 ..to tie 
 ..to twist 
 
 stor 
 
 ..cere. 
 ..cere.. 
 
 ..to untwist 
 
 contor.. 
 
 strator . 
 
 ..to twist much 
 
 convin.. 
 
 ..cere.. 
 
 ..to convince 
 
 stravm . 
 
 ..cere.. 
 
 ..to ivin much 
 
 distor. .. 
 
 ..cere.. 
 ..cere.. 
 ..cere.. 
 
 ..to untwist 
 ..to luring 
 ..to twist again 
 
 tor 
 
 .cere.. 
 ..cere.. 
 
 ..to twist 
 
 rattor .. 
 
 vin 
 
 ..to win 
 
 ritor.... 
 
 
 
 assol.... 
 
 ..vere.. 
 
 ..to absolve 
 
 rivol.... 
 
 .vere.. 
 
 ..to revolve 
 
 dissol... 
 
 
 ..to dissolve 
 
 vol 
 
 ..vere.. 
 
 ..to turn 
 
 risol .... 
 
 ..vere.. 
 
 ..to resolve 
 
 
 
 
 disvel... 
 
 ..lere.. 
 
 ..to pluck 
 ..to pluck 
 
 svel...,. 
 
 ..lere .. 
 
 ..to pluck 
 
 divel,... 
 
 
184 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 assu mere... £o assume 
 
 consu ....mere...£o consume 
 
 acco gliere ..to welcome 
 
 co .. . gliere ..to gather 
 
 discio ....gliere ..to unloosen 
 
 disto gliere . . to divert 
 
 rico gliere ..to pick up 
 
 presu mere ...to presume 
 
 resu mere...fo resume 
 
 risce gli ere . . to choose again 
 
 riscio . . . . , gliere . . to loosen again 
 
 rito gliere*.. to retake 
 
 scio gliere.. to loosen 
 
 trasce gliere ..to choose 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. All infinitives ending in ngere, may end in gnere ; 
 thus, pingere, pignere, mungere, mugnere, siringere, 
 strignere, &c. 
 
 2. Astringere, costringere, restringere, stringere, and 
 all other derivatives of stringere, make their participle 
 by changing ingere into etto, thus, astringere, astretto, 
 costringere, costretto. 
 
 S. Svettere, divettere, disvellere, are also irregular in 
 the present of the indicative, subjunctive^ and impera- 
 tive ; thus — 
 
 Ind. pres, Ipluck,fyc svelgo, svelli, svelle, svelliamo, svel- 
 
 lete, svelgono 
 Subj. pres. / may pluck 9 jrc... svelga, svelga, svelga, svelliamo, svel- 
 
 liate, svelgano 
 Imp. pres. pluck thou, fyc svelli, svelga, svelliamo, svellete, 
 
 svelgano 
 
 4. Assumere, and all verbs in tc-rnere, change the m 
 into n in forming the irregular persons only of the second 
 imperfect, and also the participle ; thus, assu-mere, assu- 
 nsiy assu-nto, &c. consumere, consii-nsi, consu-nto, &c. 
 
 5. Verbs in gliere, in changing their termination into 
 si and to, in order to form their second imperfect and 
 their participle, are to retain the I of gliere, thus, cog-Mere, 
 coLsi, colto, scio-gliere, sciol-si, scioLto, he. 
 
 These verbs may also end in rre ; as, cogliere, corre, 
 sciogliere> sciorre, &c. ; and as they are irregular in some 
 other tenses, we shall give an example. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 185 
 
 Cogliere, or Corre. 
 Inf. to gather,, cogliere or corre Ger. gtf^m'?zg....cogliendo 
 
 conjugated luith avere 
 
 Part, gathered ....colto 
 
 Ind. pres. I gather, §c coglio or colgo, cogli, coglie, co- 
 
 gliamo, cogliete, cogliono or 
 
 colgono 
 First imp. I gathered, §-c cogli-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I gathered, ^c colsi, cogliesti, colse, cogliemmo, 
 
 eoglieste, colsero 
 First fut, I shall gather, ^...corr 6, eorrai, corra, corre'mo, 
 
 correte, corranno 
 Subj. pres. I may gather, #c... cogli a, orc61ga,c61ga, colga, coglia- 
 
 mo, cogliate, cogliano or colgano 
 Imperfect. \I might gather, $-<?.. cogli-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. / should gather, $ccorrei, corresti, correbbe, correm- 
 
 rao, correste, correbbero 
 Imperative, gather thou, Sfc... cogli, colga, cogliamo, cogliete, 
 
 colgano 
 
 6. Assolvere, dissolvere, and risolvere, are also regu - 
 lar. See page 145. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 The verbs of this class are terminated in ce-dere, 
 e-ttere, i-mere, o-tere^ o-vere, which make ssi in the second 
 imperfect, and sso in the participle. 
 
 Accedere. 
 
 Inf. to accede.... accedere 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. acceding. . accedendo 
 Part, acceded . . . accesso 
 
 Ind. pres. I accede, Sfc acced-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First imp. I acceded, $c acced-evo, evi, e'va, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I acceded, $c accessi, accedesti, accesse, acce- 
 
 demmo, accedeste, accessero 
 First fut. I shall accede, &c..acced-ero, erai, era, eremo, erete, 
 
 eranno 
 
186 
 
 OF IUREGULAR VEltBS IN eTC. 
 
 Subj. pres. I may accede, $c acced-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 
 Imperfect. I might accede, $'£.... acced-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should accede, $c..acced-erei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 
 
 ereste, erebbero 
 Imperative, accede thou, fyc acced-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 
 
 Put accesso to the simple tenses of avere^ and you 
 will have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like accedere. 
 
 eon ce der e . . . . to grant 
 
 ecce dere to exceed 
 
 interce dere.. .Jo intercede 
 
 prece dere to precede 
 
 amme ttere . 
 
 anne ttere. 
 
 comme ....ttere . 
 
 conne ttere . 
 
 comprome-ttere . 
 
 disme ttere . 
 
 tramme.... ttere. 
 intrame.... ttere. 
 introme.... ttere 
 
 ..to admit 
 ..to join 
 ..to commit 
 ..to unite 
 ..to compromise 
 ..to dismiss 
 ..toputbetween 
 ..to put between 
 to introduce 
 
 proce dere.... to proceed 
 
 ^rece dere to recede 
 
 ^succe dere....£o succeed 
 
 me ttere . 
 
 ome ttere., 
 
 perme ttere 
 
 preme ttere 
 
 prome ttere.. 
 
 rime ttere.. 
 
 scomme ...ttere.. 
 sottome.... ttere.. 
 trasme ttere.. 
 
 to put 
 ..to omit 
 ..to permit 
 . . to premise 
 ..to promise 
 ,..to remit 
 ..to lay a wager 
 ..to submit 
 ..to transmit 
 
 compri mere... to compress 
 
 depri mere ...to depress 
 
 espri m ere ... to express 
 
 impri mere ...to impress 
 
 perco .. 
 riper co 
 
 . ..tere..../o strike 
 
 . . . tere ....to strike again 
 
 commo ....vere....fo affect 
 
 dismo vere..„.fo stir up 
 
 mo vere....£o move 
 
 oppri mere ...to oppress 
 
 repri mere ...to repress 
 
 soppri mere ...to suppress 
 
 risco tere....£o receive 
 
 sco tere. ...to shake 
 
 promo vere.... to promote 
 
 rimo vere....£o remove 
 
 smo vere to move 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1 . All verbs in ce-dere, are also regular. See page 145. 
 
 2. The second imperfect of verbs in ettere, (except 
 connettere), besides its termination in ssi, as above, has 
 another which is formed by changing etiere into isi 9 
 
OP IRREGULAR VERBS IN 6Te. 187 
 
 which is preferable to the former ; as — -m-ettere 9 m-isi, 
 comm-ettere 9 comm-isi, fyc. 
 
 8. In forming the irregular persons of the second 
 imperfect and participle of verbs in i-mere, not only 
 mere is changed into ssi, as above, but also the i which 
 precedes mere is to be changed into e ; as — espri-mere, , 
 espr-essi, espr-esso, compri-mere, compr-essi, compr-esso. 
 From the verbs in i-mere, redi-mere, to redeem, is 
 excepted, which makes redensi in the second imperfect, 
 and redento in the participle. 
 
 4. Mo-vere and sco-tere 9 with all their derivatives^ 
 may be changed into muo-vere and scuo-tere, which u 
 is retained in some persons, and in others is omitted. 
 The following is an example of the tenses that retain 
 u: — 
 
 Inf. to move., movere, or muovere 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. movendo, or muovendo 
 Part, moved,,.. always mosso 
 
 Ind. pres. I move, ^c muovo, muovi, muove, moviamo, 
 
 movete, muovono 
 First fut. I shall move, <%•<?... muGvero, muoverai, muovera, 
 
 muoveremo, muoverete, muo- 
 
 veranno 
 Subj. pres. I may move, <5c... muova, muova, muova, moviamo, 
 
 moviate, muovano 
 Conditional. / should move, $*c..muoverei, muoveresti, muoverebbe, 
 
 muoveremmo, muovereste, rau- 
 
 overebbero 
 Imperative. Move thou, §c muovi, muova, moviamo, moviate, 
 
 muovano 
 
 In the same manner are conjugated the verbs in 
 o4ere. 
 
 Fourth Class. 
 
 The verbs of this class are terminated in ggere* i-vere 9 
 a-rre, u-rre^ and o-cere^ which make ssi in the second 
 imperfect, and tto in the participle. 
 
188 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 Leggere. 
 
 Inf. to read. . . . leggere Ger. reading leggendo 
 
 conjugated with avere Part . read letto 
 
 Ind„ pres. I read, tyc legg-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First imp. I read, ^c legg-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I read, ^c lessi, leggestl, lesse, leggemmo, 
 
 leggeste, lessero 
 First fiit. I shall read, fyc legg-ero, erai, era, eremo, erdte, 
 
 eranno 
 
 Subj. pres. I may read, $c legg-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 
 Imperfect. I might read, ^c....legg-essi, essi, e'sse, essimo, este, 
 
 £ssero 
 Conditional. I should rea d, <3fc..legg-erei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 
 
 ereste, erebbero 
 Imperative. Read thou, 8$c legg-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 
 
 Put letto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like leggere. 
 
 affi ggere. .£o affix 
 
 affli ggere.. fo afflict 
 
 confi ggere.. fo nail 
 
 corre ggere . . to correct 
 
 distr u ggere . . to destroy 
 
 ele ggere.. to elect 
 
 ere ggere. . to erect 
 
 ascri vere ...to attribute 
 
 circonscri-vere ...to circumscribe 
 
 descri vere ...to describe 
 
 prescri .. ..vere ...to prescribe 
 
 ra vvi vere ...to revive 
 
 rescri vere ...to transcribe 
 
 attra rr e. . . , ,to attract 
 
 contra .. ..rre to contract 
 
 detra rre.. ...to slander 
 
 distra rre to divert from 
 
 estra rre extract 
 
 fi ggere. .to fix 
 
 fri ggere. .to fry 
 
 prote .. ..ggere.. to protect 
 
 re ggere.. to rule 
 
 rile ggere.. to read again 
 
 stru ggere.. to destroy 
 
 trafi ggere . . to pierce i 
 
 rivi.„. .. ..vere . ..to live again 
 
 scri vere...£o write 
 
 sopravvi-vere ...to survive 
 sottoscri-vere ...to subscribe 
 trascri. ..vere ...to transcribe 
 vi vere ...to live 
 
 protra . . . rre to draw lines 
 
 ritra ..... rre to describe 
 
 sottra.. ..rre to subtract 
 
 tra., rre.. ...to draw 
 
OF. IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 189 
 
 addu rre to allege 
 
 condu rre... Jo lead 
 
 indu rre to induce 
 
 introdu. ..rre to introduce 
 
 produ rre..... to produce 
 
 ridu rre to reduce 
 
 riprodu..rre to produce 
 
 again 
 
 sedu ....rre to seduce 
 
 soddu. ..rre to seduce 
 
 co cere t . Jo cook rico cere.. Jo cook again 
 
 conco cere. .Jo t" 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. Crocifiggere makes crocifisso, not crocifitto. 
 
 2. Ereggere is also spelled erigere, which I think is 
 preferable to the former ; but the irregular tenses are 
 formed from ereggere. 
 
 3. Negligere may belong to this class by changing 
 i-gere into essi and etto, to form the irregular tenses 
 only. 
 
 4. Figgere has two participles, sso and tto ; xhu^faso 
 andJiUo. 
 
 5. Vivere and its derivatives make vuto, ssuto ; thus, 
 vivuto, vissuto. 
 
 6. Verbs in arre and urre, end also in acre and ucere ; 
 as, traere and inducere, from which are formed the 
 regular tenses ; but as these verbs are irregular in other 
 tenses besides the above, we shall give an example of 
 each. 
 
 Trarre. 
 
 Inf. to draw.... trarre 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. drawing.. tra&ido 
 Part. drawn.... trk- tto 
 
 Ind. pres. I draw, §e traggo, trai, trae 3 trajamo, traete, 
 
 traggono 
 First imp. I drew, S$c ^.tra-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evanp 
 Sec. imp. I drew, S$c. , trassi, traesti, trassi, traernmo, 
 
 trae'ste, trassero 
 
190 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 First fut. I shall draw, Sfc ..trarro, trarrai, trarra, trarre*mo, 
 
 trarrete, trarranno 
 Subj. pres. 7 may draw, 8$c. ..tragga, tragga, tragga, trajamo, 
 
 trajate, traggano 
 Imperfect. I might draw, <X ctra-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should draw trarrei, trarresti, trarrebbe, trar- 
 
 remmo, trarreste, trarrebbero 
 Imperative, draw thou, <§*c......trai, tragga, trajamo, traete, 
 
 traggano 
 
 Put tratto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 Addurre. 
 
 Inf. to allege addurre I Ger. alleging.... adduc&ndo 
 
 conjugated with avere ] Part, alleged addotto 
 
 Ind. pres. I allege, Sfc adduc-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First imp. I alleged, Sfc adduc-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I alleged, 8<c addussi, adducesti, addusse, addu- 
 
 cemmo. adduceste. adddssero 
 First fut. I shall allege, fyc. . . addurro, addurrai, addurra, addur- 
 
 remo, addurrete, addurranno 
 Subj. pres. I may allege, 8$c. ..adduc-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 Imperfect. I might allege, <3rc..adduc-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should allege, fyc. addurrei, addurresti, adurrebbe, 
 
 addurremmo, addurreste, addur- 
 
 rebbero 
 Imperative, allege thou, &$c adduc-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 
 
 Put addotto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 Lucere and rilucere are not syncopated like other verbs 
 in ucere, and have no participle. 
 
 Cocere and its derivatives take an u in the infinitive, 
 like muovere and scuotere, for which see page 187. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS TN ere. 
 
 191 
 
 Fifth Class. 
 
 The verbs of this class are terminated in on-dere, 
 ie-dere? and o-rre, which make si in the second imper- 
 fect, and sto in the participle. 
 
 Inf. to answer rispondere 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. answering. .rispondendo 
 Part, answered ..risposto 
 
 Ind. pres. I answer, $fc rispond-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 
 
 First imp. / answered, Sec rispond-eVo, evi, eva,evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I answered, fyc risposi, rispondesti, rispose, ris- 
 
 pondemmo, rispondeste, ris- 
 
 posero 
 First fat. I shall answer, fyc rispond-ero, erai, era, eremo, 
 
 erete, eranno 
 
 Subj. pres. I may answer, fyc rispond-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 
 Imperfect. I might answer, S^c rispond-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should ansiver, <fyc....Yisponderei, eresti, erebbe, erem- 
 
 mo, ereste, erebbero 
 Imperative, answer thou, fyc rispond-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 
 
 Put risposto to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
 will have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated- like rispondere. 
 
 ascon dere.. .to abscond 
 
 confon ...dere to confound 
 
 dhTon dere to diffuse 
 
 disascon...dere to discover 
 
 effon dere to pour out 
 
 chie dere.... to ask 
 
 appo ,rre to guess 
 
 antepo ....rre to prefer 
 
 compo ...rre to compose 
 
 contrappo-rre to oppose 
 
 depo rre to depose 
 
 discompo rre to discompose 
 
 dispo ....rre to dispose 
 
 espo rre to expose 
 
 impo rre to impose 
 
 interpo ..rre to interpose 
 
 oppo ....rre to oppose 
 
 po rre.., ...to put 
 
 fon dere to melt 
 
 infon .... dere. . . . to infuse 
 n ascon.... dere.... to hide 
 
 rifon dere. . ..to melt again 
 
 trasfon.... dere.... to pour out 
 richie dere. ...to request 
 
 pospo rre to prefer 
 
 prepo rre to prefer 
 
 presuppo..rre to suppose 
 
 propo ....rre to propose 
 
 ricompo ..rre to compose 
 
 again 
 
 ripo rre to put again 
 
 scompo ..rre to spoil 
 
 sottopo ..rre to submit 
 
 spo rre to expose 
 
 suppo ....rre to suppose 
 
 traspo .... rre to transpose 
 
192 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Fondere, and all its derivatives, change on-dere into usi, 
 for the second imperfect, and into uso, for the participle ; 
 thus — * 
 
 fondere, fusi, fuso confondere, confiisi, conftiso 
 
 Chiedere is conjugated like rispondere, and is also irre- 
 gular in the present of the indicative, subjunctive, and 
 imperative ; thus — 
 
 Ind. pres, I ask,fyc chieggo, chiedi, chiede, chiediamo, 
 
 chiedete, chieggono 
 
 Subj. pres. I may ask, 8fc chiegga, chiegga, chiegga, chiedia- 
 mo, chiediate, chieggano 
 
 Imperative. Ask thou, Sfc chiedi, chiegga, chiediamo, chie- 
 dete, chieggano 
 
 All verbs in o-rre may also end in onere, thus, ponere, 
 disporiere ; and as they are irregular in other tenses 
 besides their second imperfect and participle, we will set 
 down an example. 
 
 Inf. to put porre 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. 2?2^kg....ponendo 
 Part, put posto 
 
 Ind. pres. Iput, $c... pongo, poni, pone, poniamo, 
 
 ponete, pongono 
 First imp. I put, tyc .pon-evo, e*vi, eva, evamo, evate, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. Iputt, $c..* posi, ponesti, pose, ponemmo, 
 
 poneste, posero 
 First fut. I shall put, $c porrd, porrai, porra, porremo, 
 
 porrete, porranno 
 Subj. pres. I may put, Sfc ponga, ponga, ponga, poniamo, 
 
 poniate, pongano 
 Imperfect. I might put, #c....pon-essi, e'ssi, Isse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I shouldput, £c....porrei, porresti, porrebbe, porrem- 
 
 mo, porreste, porrebbero 
 Imperative, put thou, fyc poni, ponga, poniamo, pone'te, 
 
 pongano 
 
 Put posto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERES IN ere. 193 
 
 The following verbs, and their derivatives, being totally 
 different from those of the above mentioned classes, are 
 to be learned separately ; which will be easy, as they are 
 irregular in the second imperfect only, except a few that 
 are irregular in the participle, and only one that is 
 irregular in other tenses, which we will set down, and 
 conjugate that one only that is irregular in' other 
 tenses besides the second imperfect and participle. 
 
 INFINITIVE. SECOND IMPERFECT. PARTICIPLE. 
 
 accre...scere to increase accre ..bbi accre ..sciuto 
 
 €cre scere to grow ere bbi ere sciuto 
 
 <?incre ..seere imp. } . , S incre...bbi incre ..sciuto 
 
 ^rincre .scere imp. \ J { rincre -bbi rincre .sciuto 
 
 ^stracre-scere to grow much stracre-bbi stracre-sciuto 
 
 cono...scsre to know cono...bbi cono ..sciuto 
 
 ricono scere .. to recognise ricono-bbi ricono sciuto 
 
 no cere .. .. ae ..to hurt no cqui,...no ciuto 
 
 ena scere to be born na cqui na to 
 
 erina.... scere Jo be bom ag«m...rina....cqui....rina ...to 
 
 corr....ompere to corrupt corr....uppi . 
 
 dir ompere to soften dir uppi . 
 
 r ompere to break r uppi , 
 
 ^pio vere imp to rain pio . we .. 
 
 ^ spio....vere imp.... to cease raining... spio ....we .. 
 ^ ripio, ..vere imp. ...to ram again ripio ...we .. 
 
 be vere to drink be wi .. 
 
 imbe...vere to imbibe imbe ...wi .. 
 
 ribe....vere to drink again ....ribe....vvi .. 
 
 Observation?. 
 
 Plover e and its derivatives are impersonal, hence the 
 termination piovve, in the third person singular. 
 
 Nocere may take also an u ; thus, nuocere, and it is 
 then conjugated like muoverem all other tenses. 
 
 Severe^ imbevere, and ribevere are regular, and con- 
 jugated like temere ; but they may be syncopated thus, 
 here, imbere, ribeie, when they are irregular throughout 
 all their tenses. Ex. 
 
 ..corr.. 
 
 ..otto 
 
 ..dir... 
 
 .otto 
 
 ..r 
 
 ..otto 
 
 ..pio .. 
 
 .vuto 
 
 ..spio... 
 
 .vuto 
 
 ..ripio 
 
 .vuto 
 
 ..be.... 
 
 .vuto 
 
 ..imbe 
 
 .vuto 
 
 ..ribe... 
 
 .vuto 
 
194 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 
 
 Inf. to drink bere 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. drinking.. . . bevendo 
 Part, drunk beuto 
 
 Ind. pres. I drink, Sec. beo, bei, bee, bejamo, beete, beono 
 
 First imp. 1 drank, fyc beevo, beevi s beeva, beevamo, 
 
 beevate, beevano 
 Sec. imp. I drank, fyc. bevvi, beesti, bevve, beemmo, 
 
 beeste, bevvero 
 First fut. / shall drink, ^-c. her 6, berai, bera, beremo, berete, 
 
 beranno 
 Subj. pres. I may drink, fyc... bea, bea, bea, bejamo, bejate, 
 
 beano 
 Imperfect. I might drink, Sf-cbeissi, beessi, beesse, bee'ssimo, 
 
 beeste, beessero 
 Conditional. I should drink, Sfc.berei, beresti, berebbe, beremmo, 
 
 bereste, bei'cbbero 
 Imperative, drink thou, fyc bei, bea, bejamo, bejate, beano 
 
 Section X. 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS ENDING IN ire. 
 
 The irregularity of the greatest part of these verbs 
 consists in the present tense only. Some are both 
 regular and irregular, and others are irregular in some 
 tenses ; all of which we will set down with explanations 
 and examples. 
 
 The irregularity of the following verbs consists in the 
 present tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, and im- 
 perative, which are formed by changing ire into o, i, e> 
 iarno, He, ono, instead of isco, isci, isce, iamo^ ite, iscono, 
 as in page 151 . 
 
 Inf. to hear sentire 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. ^<?tfnrag....sentendo 
 Part, heard sentito 
 
 Ind, pres. 1 hear ;, &c sent-o, i, e, iamo, ite, ono 
 
 First imp. I heard, Sfc sent-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 
 
 ivano 
 Sec. imp. I heard, Sfc sent-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ITC 
 
 195 
 
 First fut, I shall hear ,$0 sent iro 5 irai, ira, iremo, irete, 
 
 iranno 
 Subj. pres. I may hear, #c....sent-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 Imperfect. I might hear 9 $c....sent-issi 9 issi, isse, issimo, iste, 
 
 issero 
 Conditional. I should* hear, #c..sent-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 
 
 ireste, irebbero 
 Imperative, hear thou, fyc sent-i, a, iamo, ite, ano 
 
 Put sentito to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like sentire : — 
 
 abborr ....ire., 
 avvert ire., 
 
 convert-ire. 
 
 divert ..ire. 
 
 invert ..ire. 
 
 sovvert..ire., 
 boll ire.. 
 
 riboll ..ire., 
 consegu ..ire.. 
 cue ire., 
 
 ricuc ire., 
 
 scuc ....ire., 
 dorm ire. 
 
 addorm ire., 
 
 ridorm..ire., 
 
 fer ire., 
 
 <?fugg ire., 
 
 erifugg ..ire.. 
 
 sfugg....ire.. 
 inghiott ..ire.. 
 
 celangu ire., 
 
 <rmor ire., 
 
 ment ire.. 
 
 diment .ire., 
 
 sment ..ire., 
 esment ..irsi 
 
 nutr 
 ©ffr .. 
 
 .ire., 
 .ire., 
 
 ..to abhor 
 
 ..to admonish 
 
 ..to convert 
 
 ..to amuse 
 
 ..to invert 
 
 ..to overthrow 
 
 ..to boil 
 
 ..to boil again 
 
 .Jo obtain 
 
 ..to sew 
 
 ..to sew again 
 
 ..to unsew 
 
 ..to sleep 
 
 ..to make sleep 
 
 ..to sleep again 
 
 ..to strike 
 
 ..to run away 
 
 ..to take shelter 
 
 ..to avoid 
 
 ..to swallow 
 
 ..to 
 
 ..to die 
 
 ..to lie 
 
 . . to give the lie. 
 
 ..to belie 
 
 ..to contradict 
 
 oneself 
 ..to nourish 
 ..to offer 
 
 ^part ire.. 
 
 dip art ..ire. 
 dispart ..ire. 
 compart-ire. 
 impart., ire., 
 ripart...ire„ 
 spar t.... ire., 
 
 epent irsi 
 
 <?rlpent ..irsi 
 
 segu Are., 
 
 sent... ire., 
 
 consent-ire., 
 dissent ..ire.. 
 
 ^per ire.. 
 
 present.ire.. 
 erisent...ire.. 
 ^risent ..irsi 
 
 assent ..ire.. 
 
 serv ...ire:. 
 
 £sort ire.. 
 
 assort... ire., 
 .vest ire.. 
 
 divest ..ire.. 
 
 invest ..ire.. 
 
 svest....ire.. 
 
 stravest-ire.. 
 
 travest..ire.. 
 
 ..to depart 
 ..to part 
 ..to separate 
 ..to bestow 
 ..to impart 
 . . to part again 
 ..to separate 
 ..to repent 
 ..to repent 
 ..to follow 
 ..to hear 
 ..to consent 
 ..to dissent 
 ..to perish 
 ..to for et el 
 ..to awake 
 ..to recover one's 
 
 senses 
 ..to assent 
 ,.to serve 
 ..to draw 
 ,.to sort 
 ..to dress 
 .to divest 
 ..to invest 
 ..to undress 
 .to disguise 
 ,.to disguise 
 
 K 2 
 
196 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VEIIBS IN ire. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Convertire, divertire, invertire, sovvertire, make 
 also, in the infinitive, convertere, divertere, invertere, sov- 
 vertere ; but their conjugation is always the same. 
 
 2. Cucire makes cucio, cuciono in the present of the 
 indicative, cucia, cuciano in the present of the subjunc- 
 tive, and curia, cuciano in the imperative, instead of 
 cucOj cuconO) cuca, &c. 
 
 Abborrire, conseguire, ferire, inghiotiire, languire, 
 nutrire, offrire, perire, are also regular, and conjugated 
 like Jinire. See page 151. 
 
 Aprire is conjugated as follows: — 
 
 Inf. to open... .aprire I Ger. opening... *aprendo 
 
 conjugated ivith avere | Part, opened ....aperto 
 
 Ind. pres. I open, §c ..apr-o, i, e, iamo, ite, ono 
 
 First imp. I opened, fyc apr-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 
 
 % ivano 
 
 Sec. imp. I opened, fyc apr-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 
 
 First fut. I shall open, #c....apr-iro, irai, ira, iremo, ire'te, 
 
 iranno 
 Subj. pres. I may open, #c....apr-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 Imperfect. I might open, fyc. ..apr-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, 
 
 issero 
 Conditional. / should open, #c..apr-irei, iresti, irebbe, ire'mmo, 
 
 ireste, irebbero 
 Imperative, open thou, Sfc apr-i, a, iamo, ite, ano 
 
 Put aperto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like aprire : — 
 
 copr ire to cover 
 
 offer ...„. .ire ) +„„#„„ 
 
 xr • > to ofrer 
 
 onr .ire 5 
 
 proffer ...ire to utter 
 
 riapr....„ire ........to open again 
 
 ricopr . . ire. . . . to cover again 
 scopr....ire....£o discover 
 soffer....ire ) , „ 
 soffr i re r ton ^ r 
 
OF IRREGULAH VEEBS IN ire. 197 
 
 There are six other verbs of this conjugation, which 
 
 in some tenses are irregular. 
 
 Dire. 
 
 Inf. to say dire G er . saying . . . . dicen do 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Part, said detto 
 
 Ind pres. I say, fyc dico, dici, dice, diciamo, dite, 
 
 dicono 
 First, imp. I said, ^c die evo, evi, eva, evamo, evdte, 
 
 evano 
 Sec. imp. I said, #c dissi, dicesti, disse, dicemmo, 
 
 diceste, dissero 
 First fut. I shall say, fyc diro, dirai, dira, dire'mo, direte, 
 
 diranno 
 
 Subj. pres. I may say, Sj-c dic-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
 
 Imperfect. I might say, #c... ..dic-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 
 
 essero 
 Conditional. I should say, #c....direi, direst!, direbbe, diremmo, 
 
 direste, direbbero 
 Imperative, say thou, $c. di', dica, diciamo, dite, dicano 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like dire : — 
 
 bened ire to bless 
 
 con trad.. ..ire to contradict 
 
 interd ire to forbid 
 
 m alad . . . . ire. ... to curse 
 
 rid ire. ...to speak again 
 
 Morire, 
 
 Inf. to die m ori re Ger. dying .... morendo 
 
 conjugated ivith essere 
 
 Part, dead morto 
 
 Ind. pres. I die, fyc. muojo, muori, muore, muojamo, 
 
 morite, muojo no 
 First imp. I died, fyc mor-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 
 
 ivano \ 
 
 Sec. imp. I died, fyc mor-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 
 
 First fut. I shall die, fyc inorrd, morrai, morra, morremo, 
 
 morrete, morranno 
 Subj. pres. I may die, Sfc muoja, muoja, muoja, muojamOj 
 
 muojate, muojano 
 Imperfect. I might die, fyc. ....mor-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, 
 
 issero 
 
198 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ire. 
 
 Conditional. / should die, ■<S , c....morrei, morre'sti, morrebbe, mor- 
 
 remmo, morrifste, morrebbero 
 
 Imperative, die thou, Sfc mori, muoja, muojamo, morite, 
 
 muojano 
 
 Put morto to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 Sal 
 
 ire. 
 
 Inf. to go up.... satire 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ger. going up. . . . salendo 
 Part, gone up ....salito 
 
 Ind. pres. I go up, fyc salgo, sali, sale, sagliamo, salite, 
 
 salgono 
 First imp. I went up, Sfc sal-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 
 
 ivano 
 
 Sec. imp. I went up, Sec sal-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 
 
 First fut. I shall go up, #•<?.. .sal-iro, irai, ira, iremo, irete, 
 
 iranno 
 Subj. pres. I may go up, $c.... saiga, saiga, saiga, sagliamo, sa- 
 
 gliate, salgano 
 Imperfect. I might go up, <J(\.sal-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, 
 
 issero 
 Conditional. I should go up, ^..sal-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 
 
 ireste, irebbero 
 Imperative, go thou up, fyc sali, saiga, sagliamo, salite, salgano 
 
 Put salito to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like satire : — • 
 
 assal ire ... .to attack rassal ire .... to attack again 
 
 frisal ire... Jo go up again 
 
 Udil'e. 
 
 Inf. to hear udire 
 
 conjugated with avere 
 
 Ger. hearing udendo 
 
 Part, heard .udito 
 
 Ind. pres. I hear, fyc odo, odi, ode, udiamo, udite, odono 
 
 First imp. I heard, $c ud-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, ivano 
 
 Sec. imp. I heard, fyc. ... .... ..ud-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ire. 199 
 
 First fut. I shall hear, $c ud-iro, irai, ira, iremo, ire'te, 
 
 iranno 
 Subj. pres. I may hear, #c.....6da, oda, oda, udiamo, udiate, 
 
 odano 
 Imperfect. I might hear, fyc. ..ud-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, issero 
 Conditional. I should hear, #c...ud-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 
 
 ireste, irebbero 
 Imperative, hear thou, $c odi, oda, udiamo, udite, odano 
 
 Put udito to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like udire : — 
 fraud ire. ...to overhear traud . ire M ..to overhear 
 
 Uscire. 
 
 Inf. to go out uscire Ger. going ow£....uscendo 
 
 conjugated with essere Part, gone out .. ..uscito 
 
 Ind. pres. I go out, fyc. ......esco, esci, esce, usciamo, uscfte, 
 
 escono 
 
 First imp. / went out, See usc-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, ivano 
 
 Sec. imp. I went out, Sec usc-ii, isti, i, imrao, Iste, irono 
 
 First fut. I shall go out, #c...usc-iro, irai, ira,iremo,irete, iranno 
 Subj. pres. / may go out, fyc. ..esca, esca, esca, usciamo, usciate, 
 
 escano 
 Imperfect. I might go out, Sec .usc-lssi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, issero 
 Conditional. / should go out, #c..usc-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 
 
 ireste, irebbero 
 Imperative, go thou out, #c. esci, esca, usciamo, uscite, escano 
 
 Put uscito to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
 have all the compound tenses. 
 
 The following verb is conjugated like uscire : — 
 e riusc-ire., to succeed 
 
200 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ire. 
 
 Venire. 
 
 Inf. to come venire 
 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ind. pres. 
 
 Ger. coming.., .venendo 
 Part, come venuto 
 
 / come, Sf-c vengo,vieni, viene, veniamo, venf te ? 
 
 vengono 
 
 First imp. I came, fyc ven-ivo, ivi,iva,ivamo,ivate, ivano 
 
 Sec. imp. Icame^fyc venni, venisti, venne, venimmo, 
 
 venlste, vennero 
 
 First fut. I shall come, fyc ....verro, verrai, verra, verremo, ver- 
 
 rete, verra nno 
 
 Subj. pres. I may come, fyc venga, venga, venga, veniaino, ve- 
 
 niate, vengano 
 
 Imperfect. / might come, 8$c. .. ven issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, issero 
 
 Conditional. / should come, #c..verrei, verresti, verrebbe, verrem- 
 
 mo, verreste, verrebbero 
 
 Imperative, come thou, fyc vieni, venga, veniamo, venite, ven- 
 gano 
 
 Put venuto to the simple tenses of essere^ and you will 
 have all the compound tenses : — 
 
 The following verbs are conjugated like venire : — 
 
 eaddiven...ire....fo become 
 
 e avven ire ...Jo happen 
 
 aecouven ....ire....to agree 
 
 <?diven ive....to become 
 
 inven \ve....tofind 
 
 pre ven ire.. ..to anticipate 
 
 proven ....ire... Jo derive 
 e rinven . . . . ire.. . . to recover one's 
 
 senses 
 driven .. ,. ..ire.. ..to come back 
 e sven ire . , . . to faint aioayi 
 
 Section XL 
 
 OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 Defective verbs, verbi difettivi, are those which are 
 used only in some of their moods, tenses, and persons; 
 but as the greatest part of these verbs is used in poetry 
 only, we refer the student to the Dictionary of Poetical 
 Licences. 
 
OF PASSIVE VERBS. 201 
 
 Section XII. 
 
 OF PASSIVE VERBS. 
 
 The passive verbs are formed by putting the participle 
 of any verb, either regular or irregular, wrth the verb 
 essere, to be, when the said participle is to agree with its 
 subject or nominative in gender and number. Ex. 
 
 Infinitive present.... £o be loved ess ere amato 
 
 Gerund present being loved essendo amato 
 
 Participle been loved stato amato 
 
 Infinitive past to have been loved. .essere stato amato 
 
 Gerund past having been loved.. essendo stato amato 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. lam loved , sono amato 
 
 thou art loved sei amato 
 
 he is loved e amato 
 
 Plur. we are loved siamo amati 
 
 you are loved siete amati 
 
 they are loved sono amati 
 
 First Imperfect. 
 
 Sing. I was loved ero amato 
 
 thou wast loved eri amato 
 
 he was loved ..era amato 
 
 Plur. we were loved eravamo amati 
 
 you were loved eravate amati 
 
 they were loved erano amati 
 
 Second Imperfect. 
 
 Sing. I was loved .......fui amato 
 
 thou wast loved fosti amato 
 
 he was loved fu amato 
 
 Plur. we were loved fummo amati 
 
 you were loved foste amati 
 
 they were loved f tirono amati 
 
 k3 
 
202 OF PASSIVE VERBS. 
 
 First Future. 
 
 Sing. I shall be loved sard amato 
 
 thou wilt be loved sarai amato 
 
 he ivill be loved sara amato 
 
 Plur. iv e shall be loved saremo amati 
 
 you will be loved sarete amati 
 
 they will be loved . saranno amati 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Sing. I have been loved sono stato amato 
 
 thou hast been loved sei stato amato 
 
 he has been loved e stato amato 
 
 Plur. we have been loved siamo stati amati 
 
 you have been loved ...... ..siete stati amati 
 
 they have been loved. sono stati amati 
 
 And so on of all the other tenses. 
 
 Section XIII, 
 
 OF NEUTElt VERBS. 
 
 Some of these verbs are conjugated with avere, and 
 others with essere, and some of them with either. When 
 they are conjugated with avere, their participles are in- 
 declinable ; when with essere, they are declinable, and 
 are to agree with the subject of the verb ; as, she has 
 lived, ella ha dimorato, or ella e dimorata. 
 
 These verbs end, like the active, in are, ere, ire; but 
 when they end in arsi, ersi, irsi, they are called neuter 
 passive, otherwise reflective ; which see. 
 
 Section XIV. 
 
 OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 Reflective verbs, instead of are, ere, ire, are termi- 
 nated in arsi, ersi, irsi ; and by their terminations it is 
 easily seen to which conjugation they belong. Thus, 
 
OF REFLECTIVE VERBS, 203 
 
 those ending in arsi belong to the first conjugation ; those 
 in ersi> to the second ; and those in irsi, to the third. 
 
 These verbs have also their irregular ones, and then 
 they are conjugated accordingly. 
 
 These verbs are conjugated with the particles rni, ti, 
 si, ci, vi, si, as follows : — 
 
 Rallegrarsi. 
 
 Inf. to rejoice. . . . rallegrarsi 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ger. rejoicing. .rallegrandosi 
 Part, rejoiced. ..rallegratosi 
 
 Ind. pres. I rejoice, fyc mirallegro, ti rallegri, si rallegra, 
 
 ci rallegriamo, vi rallegrate, si 
 rallegrano 
 
 First imp. I rejoiced, fyc mi rallegravo, ti rallegravi, si ral- 
 
 legrava, ci rallegravamo, vi ral- 
 legravate, si rallegravano 
 
 Sec. imp. I rejoiced, S^c mi rallegrai, ti rallegrasti, si ralle- 
 
 gro, ci rallegrammo, vi ralle- 
 graste, si rallegrarono 
 
 First fut. I shall rejoice, S^cmi rallegrero, ti rallegrerai, si ral- 
 
 legrera, ci rallegreremo, vi ralle- 
 grerete, si rallegreranno 
 
 Perfect. I have rejoiced, #c..mi sono rallegrato, ti sei rallegrato, 
 
 si e rallegrato, ci siamo ralle- 
 grati, vi siete rallegrati, si sono 
 rallegrati 
 
 Subj, pres. I may rejoice, §c. .mi rallegri, ti rallegri, si rallegri, 
 
 ci rallegriamo, vi rallegriate, si 
 rallegrino 
 
 Imperfect. I might rejoice, fyc.xm rallegrassi, ti rallegrassi, si ral- 
 
 legrasse, ci rallegrassimo, vi ral- 
 legraste, si rallegrassero 
 
 Conditional. I should rejoice, #c..mi rallegrerei, ti rallegreresti, si 
 
 rallegrerebbe, ci rallegreremmo, 
 vi rallegrereste, si rallegrereb- 
 bero 
 
 Imperative, rejoice thou, fyc... ..rallegrati, si rallegri, rallegriamoci, 
 
 rallegratevi, si rallegrino 
 
 And so on of all the other compound tenses. 
 
204 OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 If the verb begins with a vowel, m, f, s r r ci, xf, $% 
 are to be used, as in ahbdssarsi, to stoop. 
 
 Ind. pres. I stoop, fyc nT abbasso, t' abbassi, s' abbassa 9 
 
 ci abbassiamo, v' abbassate, 
 s' abbassono 
 
 Ci, however, is not abridged, unless the verb begins 
 with e or i, as in estendersi, to extend ; and ingerirsi, to 
 meddle. 
 
 Ind. pres. I extend, fyc m' estendo, t' estendi, s' estende, 
 
 c estendiamo, v* estendete, s' es- 
 tenciono 
 
 Ind. pres. I meddle, tyc m 5 ingerisco, t' ingerisci, s' inge- 
 
 risce, c' ingeriamo, v' ingerite, 
 s' ingeriscono 
 
 To form the compound tenses of reflective verbs, 
 essere is to be employed, and not avere. 
 
 All active verbs may become reflective by conjugating 
 them with mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si, and essere, in the com- 
 pound tenses. 
 
 Section XV. 
 
 OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 
 
 Grammarians have confounded these verbs with the 
 reflective ones ; but if we properly consider their nature, 
 we shall plainly see that the reciprocal verbs are entirely 
 different from the reflective. The reflective verbs are 
 those that express an action in which the agent acts, 
 and is acted upon bf himself; as, io mi amo, I love 
 myself; ci siamo amati, we have loved ourselves, &c. 
 The reciprocal verbs, on the contrary, are those that 
 require two agents who act upon one another, and on 
 that account they have no singular. How, then, can 
 reciprocal be called reflective, and reflective reciprocal ? 
 
OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 205 
 
 Reciprocal verbs, though conjugated with reflective 
 particles, are different from the reflective verbs, and have 
 no singular. As, therefore, these verbs have no sin- 
 gular, they are conjugated in the plural with only ci, vi, 
 si ; which particles, (different from those of the reflec- 
 tive verbs that signify ourselves, yourselves , and them* 
 selves?) are expressed by each other. The following 
 parallel will shew the difference which exists between 
 reflective and reciprocal verbs. 
 
 REFLECTIVE VERBS. RECIPROCAL VERBS. 
 
 we love ourselves we love each other 
 
 noi ci amiamo noi ci amiarno 
 
 we have loved ourselves we have loved each other 
 
 noi ci siamo amati noi ci abbiamo amati 3s 
 
 you beat yourselves you beat each other 
 
 voi vi battete voi vi battete 
 
 you have beaten yourselves you have beaten each other 
 
 voi vi siete battuti voi vi avete battuti 
 
 The simple tenses of the above examples being alike, 
 shew no difference between the reflective and the reci- 
 procal verbs, consequently the sentence is rendered 
 doubtful ; for we, on hearing ci amiarno, cannot distin- 
 guish whether people love each other, or each loves 
 himself; but the compound tenses being conjugated with 
 different verbs, shew clearly the difference which exists 
 between them. For, in saying ci siamo battuti, we can 
 easily discern that each has beaten himself, as people do 
 when they scourge themselves ; and ci abbiamo battuto 
 shews that they have acted, and been acted upon by 
 each other, as people do when they fight. 
 
 With regard to the auxiliary verb with which the 
 reciprocal verbs are to be conjugated, it is our intention 
 to give the preference to avere, for the reason above 
 mentioned. But as Italians in familiar conversation 
 make use of essere, and as we could find but two exam- 
 ples in ancient authors, one with avere, and the other 
 with essere, we say it is better to conform to custom. 
 
206 OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 
 
 One of the above mentioned examples is taken from 
 Livy, translated by J. Passavanti. 
 
 Volendo parlamentdre insieme Scipione e Annibale. . . 
 fecero stare a drieto loro compagnia armdta, ed eglino 
 soli con due interpreti s 1 avvisdrono insieme ; e come s* eb- 
 bero Yefrati... prima tacettero, poi Annibale... disse, ecc. 
 Scipio and Hannibal wishing to have a conference to- 
 gether, left their army behind, and with two interpreters 
 proceeded to a place of rendezvous ; and when they had 
 looked at each other, they were silent at first, and then 
 Hannibal said, &c. 
 
 The other is taken from B. 56. 
 
 Costoro . . .son giovani eke lungamente si sono amdti in- 
 sieme. These... are young people who have for a long 
 time loved each other. 
 
 If Boccaccio in this example had left out insieme, 
 the sentence would be obscure ; whereas, if he had said, 
 die lungamente si Jianno amati, insieme would not have 
 been necessary. 
 
 We conclude this section by saying, that if reciprocal 
 verbs are conjugated with essere, they are the same as 
 the reflective, but have no singular ; and we think that 
 it is on that account that grammarians have confounded 
 them with reflective verbs. 
 
 Section XVI. 
 
 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 These verbs, as we said, page 112, are of three 
 sorts. 
 
 The first sort contains all the verbs that are imper- 
 sonal by nature ; as, it rains, piove ; it lightened, baleno ; 
 it will thunder, iuonera. They are called absolute, 
 because they have no need of any other part of speech 
 to complete the sense. 
 
 The second sort comprehends verbs that may be con- 
 jugated with or without the particles mi, ti, si, gli, le, 
 
OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 207 
 
 ci 9 vi 9 loro, which are put before the third person sin- 
 gular, and in some cases the third person plural ; as,. I 
 care, mi cale ; thou thmkest, ti pare ; he likes, gli place. 
 Some of these verbs are called half impersonal, because 
 they are accompanied with other parts of speech to com- 
 plete the sense. 
 
 The third sort consists of all those verbs which, being 
 active or neuter, are rendered impersonal by putting si 
 before the third person singular or plural, or una before 
 the third person singular only ; as, it is said, si dice ; 
 they are praised,, si lodano ; it is remembered, uno si 
 ricorda, &c. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS OF THE FIRST SORT, 
 
 These verbs have only the third person singular, as 
 in English. Their auxiliary verb is essere^ though in 
 familiar conversation avere is made use of; we, however, 
 advise the student to conjugate them with essere. 
 
 Inf. to lighten.... balenare 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ger. lightening ..balenando 
 Part, lightened. . . . balenato 
 
 Ind. pres. it lightens egli balena 
 
 First imp. it lightened egli balenava 
 
 Sec. imp. it lightened egli baleno 
 
 First fut. it will lighten egli balen era. 
 
 Subj. pres. it may lighten egli baleni 
 
 Imperfect, jt might lighten egli balenasse 
 
 Conditional, it woidd lighten egli balenerebbe 
 
 No imperative 
 
 Put balenato to the simple tenses of essere ', and you 
 will find the compound tenses. 
 
 It is to be observed that egli may be used at 
 pleasure. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS OF THE SECOND SORT. 
 
 Some of these verbs have the third person singular, 
 and some both the singular and the plural ; sometimes 
 they are conjugated by putting the dative of the con- 
 
£08 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 junctive pronouns before the said third person, and 
 sometimes without it, according to the sense of the sen- 
 tence ; as, mi pare cV egli abbiajreddo, I think he is 
 cold ; or, pare cli egli abhia Jreddo, he seems to be cold. 
 And, again : — gli accaddero molte sciagure, many misfor- 
 tunes befel him ; or, accaddero molie sciagure, there 
 happened many misfortunes. 
 
 Inf. to like pi acere 
 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ger. /i&g....piacendo 
 Part, liked piaciuto 
 
 Ind. pres. Hike, §c mi piace, ti piace, gli piace, le piace, 
 
 ci piace, vi piace, piace loro 
 
 First imp. Hiked, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piaceva loro 
 
 Sec. imp. I liked, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacqueloro 
 
 First fut. I shall like, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacera loro 
 
 Subj. pres. I may like, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piaccia loro 
 
 Imperfect. I might like, fyc ..mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacesse loro 
 Conditional. I shoidd like, fyc. ...mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacerebbe 
 
 loro 
 
 Fut piaciuto to the simple tenses of essere, and you 
 will have all the compound tenses. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. As the verbs of the second sort in English are 
 generally personal, it is necessary, in translating from 
 English into Italian, to change the English nominative 
 into the dative, and the English accusative into the 
 nominative in Italian ; as, I like him, change the nomi- 
 native / into the dative, and you will find to vie. 
 Again : — change him, accusative, intQ nominative, and 
 you will find lie ; make like agree with he, and you will 
 find he likes to me, egli mi place ; and so on of all the 
 other verbs. 
 
 2. When one of these verbs is followed by other 
 verbs, the English nominative is to be put after the verb 
 in Italian. Thus, I must go, turn, it must that I go, 
 bisogna or conviene che io vdda ; he must speak, turn, 
 it must that he speaks, bisogna che egli paiii, &c. 
 
OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 209 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS OF THE THIRD SORT. 
 
 Some of these have the third person singular, before 
 which si or uno is put, as we have said. 
 
 Inf. to be said... .dirsi 
 
 conjugated with essere 
 
 Ger. being said. . dicendosi 
 Part, been said... dzttosi 
 
 \[nd. pres. it is said si dice 
 
 First imp. it was said si diceva 
 
 Sec. imp. it was said si disse 
 
 First fut. it will be said si dira, &c. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. These verbs are to be conjugated always with 
 essere, and never with avere. 
 
 2. The English of these verbs is always thus : — it is 
 known, it was said, it will be done, &c. In this case, 
 when the student is to translate into Italian, he is to 
 change it is, it was, it shall be, and all the simple tenses 
 of to be, into si, and the participle is to be put in the 
 same tense as those of to be are. Thus : — it is said ; 
 change it is into si, put said in the same tense as it is is, 
 which will be says, and you will find si dice. It was 
 known ; change it was into si, put known in the same 
 tense as it was is, which will be knew, and you will find 
 si sapeva± and so on of all the other tenses. 
 
 3. If a tense of the verb to be were to be expressed by 
 two verbs in Italian, one finite, and another infinitive, 
 such as, it may be, pud essere; it could be, poteva es- 
 sere, &c. the student has nothing to do but to trans- 
 late may, could, &c. as it is in English, to change be, 
 which in this case is but an infinitive, into si, and put 
 the following participle in the infinitive, because be is 
 infinitive. Thus :— it may be known ; it may, being the 
 third person singular of the present tense of potere, is 
 
210 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 changed into pud, be into si, and known into the infini- 
 tive sapere ; and the phrase is si pud sapere, or pud 
 sapersi. And again : — it might be said ; it might, being 
 the third person singular of the imperfect tense of potere, 
 is changed into poteva, be into si, and said into the in- 
 finitive dire, and the phrase is si poteva dire, or poteva 
 dirsi. , 
 
 4. If a conjunctive pronoun happens to be with the 
 above verbs, it is to precede si ; as, it is told me, or I 
 am told, mi si dice ; it was told him, or he was told, gli 
 si diceva. 
 
 5. If the relative ne happens to be with these verbs, 
 si is changed into se, and ne is to follow ; as — 
 
 it is spoken of sene parla 
 
 it was spoken of sene parlava, &c* 
 
 6. When a verb is naturally reflective, it cannot be 
 made impersonal with the particle si, as above, but 
 by putting uno before the third person singular only ; 
 as, it is remembered, uno si ricorda, and not si si 
 ricorda. 
 
 A LIST OF THE IMPERSONAL VERBS, 
 
 Absolute. 
 
 aggiornare ...Jo dawn 
 annottare .....to grow dark 
 
 balenare to lighten 
 
 diluviare to pour 
 
 dimdjare to thaw 
 
 gelare to freeze 
 
 gran din are.. ..to hail 
 lampeggiare ..to lighten 
 
 nevicare to snow 
 
 piovere to rain 
 
 piovigginare ..to drizzle 
 tuonare .to thunder 
 
 To which may be added fare, with all the w r ords ex- 
 pressive of the weather, such as caldo, warm ; Jreddo, 
 cold ; oscuro, dark, &c. 
 
OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 211 
 
 Half Impersonal. 
 
 accadere to < 
 
 appartenere ..to i 
 
 arrivare to « 
 
 awenire to > 
 
 bisognare ....to I 
 
 calere to \ 
 
 con venire 
 
 dispiacere...... 
 
 fare d' uopo, ^ 
 fare mestiere, \ i 
 or mestieri, f 
 #rdimestierij 
 
 happen 
 
 fare uopo «. 
 
 ,..to 
 
 belong 
 
 importare.. 
 
 ..to 
 
 arrive 
 
 increscere . 
 
 ...to 
 
 happen 
 
 lecere 
 
 ..to 
 
 behove 
 
 piacere 
 
 ..to 
 
 matter 
 
 rmcrescere. 
 
 ..to 
 
 to be necessary 
 
 spettare 
 
 ..to 
 
 to displease 
 
 spiacere .... 
 
 ..to 
 
 
 toccare..... 
 
 to 
 
 to be necessary 
 
 
 
 be necessary 
 matter 
 be sorry 
 be lawful 
 1 please 
 be sorry 
 belong 
 displease 
 belong 
 
H12 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 The participle, participio, is a certain form of the 
 verb, apd derives its name from its participating not 
 only in the properties of a verb, but also in those of an 
 adjective. As a verb it expresses an action, and may or 
 may not have an object, according to the nature of the 
 verb from which it is derived ; and, as an adjective, it 
 expresses a quality, thus : — amdnte una donna, loving a 
 woman : ho amdio una donna, I have loved a woman ; 
 Jw veduto un uomo, I have seen a man. Amante, amato, 
 and veduto, which are derived from amare, to love, and 
 vedere, to see, are participles, because they express an 
 action. But if we say un uomo amante, a loving man, 
 %m cuore amato, a beloved heart, una donna stimata, an 
 esteemed woman ; amante, amato, and stimata, though 
 derived from amare., to love, and stimare, to esteem, are 
 participial adjectives, because they qualify the substan- 
 tives uomo, cuore, and donna. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 There are two participles ; the present, as, gridante, 
 crying, tenente, holding ; and the past, as, cantato, sung, 
 veduto, seen, sentito, heard. 
 
 Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, 
 we represent the present participle as active, because it 
 expresses, as we said, an action ; and the past, both as 
 active and passive. The past is conjugated with the 
 auxiliary verbs essere, to be, and avere, to have. When 
 with avere it is active, and when with essere it is passive; 
 as, lio amato una donna, I have loved a woman ; sono 
 amato da una donna, I am loved by a woman. In the 
 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 213 
 
 first example amato is active, because it is conjugated 
 with avere, or because the action of the subject passes 
 upon the object ; and in the second example amato is 
 passive, because it is conjugated with essere, or because 
 the subject is acted upon by the object. 
 
 Sometimes the participle in Italian is found without 
 the auxiliary verb, but that is understood ; as, ilfiglw, 
 trovato il padre ', pianse, the son, having found his father, 
 wept ; ilfiglio, trovato dal padre, si r allegro, the son, 
 being found by his father, rejoiced. In the first example 
 avendo is understood, and in the second essendo. 
 
 Genders of the Participle, 
 
 The present participle is of both genders, and makes 
 its plural in i. The past ends in o, and by changing o 
 into a the feminine is formed : their plural is in i for the 
 masculine, and in e for the feminine. Ex. 
 
 uomo e donna amante loving man and ivoman 
 
 uomini e donne amanti men and women who love 
 
 uomo amato, donna amata beloved man, beloved ivoman 
 
 uomini amati, donne amate ....beloved men, beloved women 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The participles are formed from the infinitives by 
 changing are into ante, and ere and ire into ente, for the 
 present. Thus: — gridare, to cry, gridante, crying, te- 
 nere, to hold, tenente, holding, morire, to die, morenie, 
 dying; and the past are formed by changing are of the 
 first conjugation into ato, ere of the second into uto, and 
 ire of the third into ito, for regular verbs ; as, amare, to 
 love, amato, loved, temere, to fear, temuto, feared, Jinire, 
 to finish, finito, finished. There are a great many other 
 participles which end in different ways, but we refrain 
 from putting them down, as they have been treated of 
 in the conjugation of verbs. There are, however, 
 
$14 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 several of the first conjugation, which are syncopated in 
 tfye following manner : — 
 
 acconcio....for ....acconciato .fitted 
 
 adorno adornato adorned 
 
 asciutto asciuttato dried 
 
 avvezzo avvezzato accustomed 
 
 carico caricato laden 
 
 cerco ....cercato soughtfor 
 
 compro comprato bought 
 
 concio conciato .fitted 
 
 desto destato awaken 
 
 dimentico dimenticato .forgotten 
 
 gonfio gonfiato swelled 
 
 guasto guastato spoiled 
 
 lacero lacerato torn 
 
 macero macerato soaked 
 
 manifesto manifestato manifested 
 
 mozzo ^. mozzato cut off 
 
 rietto nettato wiped 
 
 noto notato noted 
 
 pago pagato paid 
 
 pesto pestato pounded 
 
 privo privato deprived 
 
 racconcio racconciato .fitted up 
 
 rasciutto rasciuttato dried up again 
 
 salvo salvato saved 
 
 scemo scemato lessened 
 
 sconcio sconciato spoiled 
 
 secco.. seccato dried 
 
 stanco stancato wearied out 
 
 tocco toccato -.touched 
 
 tronco troncato cut off 
 
 trovo ......trovato found 
 
 volto voltato turned 
 
 voto votato ..*,..,.e7uptied 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1, These participles, though syncopated, are subject 
 to the same inflexions as the others which are not so ; 
 thus, adorno, adorna^ adorni, adorne, compro , compra, 
 compri, compre. 
 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 215 
 
 2. These participles are used in prose and poetry, but 
 seldom in familiar conversation. 
 
 3. These participles are the same as the first person 
 of the present tense of the indicative ; thus, cerco> 
 sought, io cerco, I seek, compro, bought, io compro, 
 I buy, &e. 
 
 4. It is not with all the verbs of the first conjugation- 
 that this alteration can be made, but only with some 
 particular verbs, which may be learned by reading the 
 classics. We, however, have put down those few to 
 shew their nature, and now we will give a few examples 
 taken from Boccaccio. 
 
 B. 4, 6. Di qui alia porta della sua cdsa ha poca via, 
 e percio tu ed io, cost come accdncio Vabbiamo, qiiivi il 
 porter emo ; it is not far from hence to his house, whither 
 we can easily carry him, as we have set him up. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Per die. essendo desto gli parve...se?itire .. 
 scendere netla casa, persone ; for as he was awake, he 
 thought he heard people descending into the house. 
 
 B. 9. 6. E quasi desls. fosse per Jo rornore del martio, il 
 chiamo ; and seeming as if she had awaked by the noise 
 of her husband, she called out to him. 
 
 B. 9- 6. La donna, avendo cerco, e trovato. che quello 9 
 cite cadido era, non era tal cosa, non si curd d y altru 
 menti accendere lume ; the good woman having searched, 
 and finding what was thrown down to be of no moment, 
 did not trouble herself to strike a light. 
 
 B. 3 2. Avendone adunque il re molii cerchi, ecc. the 
 king, therefore, having tried a great many of them, &c. 
 
 B. 4. 1 0. Avvenne che al medico fu messo tra le mdni 
 uno inftrmo, il quale aveva guasto Tuna delle gdmbe ; it 
 happened that the doctor was sent for by a patient who 
 had broken one of his legs. 
 
216 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 B. 3. 9. Avendo la donna tutto racconcio il paese, 
 per due cavalieri al conte signified, ecc. ; the lady having 
 settled every thing, sent two knights to the count to 
 desire, &c. 
 
 B. 4. 1. La qual, poiche ebbe pianto, alzato il capo, e 
 rasciuttosi gli occhj, disse ; who, after she had wept, 
 raised up her head, and having wiped her tears, she 
 said. 
 
OF ADVERBS. 217 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Ax adverb, avverbio, is a part of speech joined to a 
 verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to 
 express some quality or circumstance respecting it ; as, 
 egli pd?ia bene^ he speaks well ; egli e veramente ditto, 
 he is truly a learned man ; egli cammma molto bine^ he 
 walks very well. 
 
 Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to 
 express compendiously in one word what must otherwise 
 have required two or more ; as, egli cdnta dolcemente, 
 for egli cdnta con dolcezza, he sings sweetly ; ella suona 
 graziosamente, for ella suona congrdzia, she plays grace- 
 fully. 
 
 There are many words which are sometimes used as 
 adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs ; as, vi era-no ivi 
 piil udmmi die ddnne, there were more men than women ; 
 piil an adjective: or egli e piil dbile di lei, he is more 
 clever than she is ; piil an adverb. There are others 
 that are sometimes used as substantives, and sometimes 
 as adverbs ; as, la colazione di stamattina rum e stata 
 coil buona come quella di jeri, this morning's breakfast 
 was not so good as that of yesterday. Stamattina and 
 Jeri, two substantives, not adverbs, because they admit 
 of the genitive case, di stamattina, and dijeri. Egli ne 
 mangio molto jeri, e mangerdnne piil anche stamattina, 
 he ate a great deal of it yesterday, and he will also eat 
 more this morning. In this sentence, stamattina and 
 jeri are decidedly adverbs of time, because they answer 
 to the question, quando, when. Finally, there are others 
 which may be used as adjectives, substantives and ad- 
 verbs ; as, il molto non vale nulla qudndo e cattivo, much 
 is worth nothing when it is bad ; molto, a substantive : 
 hanno mangidto molto pane, they have eaten much bread ; 
 molto an adjective : egli e molto meglio piangere che rider e* 
 qudndo si ride in vdno, it is much better to cry than to 
 laugh, when we laugh in \ain ; molto an adverb. 
 
 L 
 
218 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 There are some adverbs which are used also for 
 prepositions, but we shall speak of them in treating of 
 the prepositions. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 OF THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs are formed from adjectives in three ways, 
 viz. — 
 
 1. By changing the last letter of adjectives ending in 
 o, into amente ; as — 
 
 dott-o learned dott-amente learnedly 
 
 saggi-o wise ....saggi-amente wisely 
 
 vano vain van-amente vainly 
 
 % By adding rnente to those ending in £, when e is 
 not preceded by the letter I ; as — 
 
 felice happy felicemente happily 
 
 prudente . ..prudent prudentemente ..prudently 
 
 diligente. . . . diligent diligentemente. . . diligently 
 
 3. By changing the e of those ending in le into mente ; 
 as— 
 
 agil-e quick agilmente quickly 
 
 facil-e easy facilmente easily 
 
 mirabil-e.. .. wonderful ...mirabilmente ....wonderfully 
 
 Except male, bad, which makes malamente> badly. 
 
 Some adverbs, like adjectives, have a comparative 
 and superlative. 
 
 There are some which, by particular expressions, 
 become comparative and superlative, such as bene, 
 well ; megliO) better ; ottimamente, extremely well ; but 
 except these, they generally become comparatives by 
 putting piu or meno before them ; and by changing 
 
OF ADVERBS. 219 
 
 amente and emente into issimamente^ they become super- 
 latives; as — 
 
 facilmente easily 
 
 piu facilimente more easily 
 
 facilissimarnente very ea " 
 
 We cannot set them down at length for the benefit of 
 the student ; but as a great number of them is formed 
 from adjectives, as we said above, and as adverbs are 
 numerous in Italian, we will give a list of those only 
 which are composed of two or more words, and are there- 
 fore difficult to be found in any dictionary. 
 
 As the adverbs are very numerous in the Italian lan- N 
 guage, a list of them all would occupy a great many 
 pages in our volume; and if we have set down almost 
 all the verbs in the preceding pages, it was because we 
 deemed it necessary to know the difference which exists 
 between them in point of conjugation. With regard to 
 the adverbs it is different, because those formed from 
 adjectives need not be inserted, as the student may form 
 them by himself. Those of one word may be found in 
 any dictionary, but those which consist of two or more 
 words do not so easily occur ; and these adverbs we will 
 set down in classes, for the convenience and use of the 
 student. 
 
 I. Adverbs of Number. 
 
 tre volte thrice 
 
 quattro volte. .four times 
 
 And so on of all numbers with volte. 
 
 unavolta once 
 
 due volte twice 
 
 II. Adverbs of Order. 
 
 alia rinfusa topsy turvy 
 
 a uno a uno one by one 
 
 a due a due two by two 
 
 a vicenda alternately 
 
 dalle fonda- ) from thefounda- 
 
 menta .... 5 tion 
 di seguito.. ...... afterwards 
 
 in fila in a row 
 
 in seguito afterwards 
 
 primieramente .. ..firstly 
 secondariamente. . secondly 
 in terzo luogo ....thirdly 
 in quarto luogo.. ..fourthly 
 
 sossopra topsy turvy 
 
 l2 
 
220 
 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Ill, Adverbs of Place. 
 
 a canto, or ac- > ^ ^ ^ 
 
 canto 5 •* 
 
 a parte, or da ) ^ 
 
 parte $ 
 
 al di la beyond 
 
 a destra on the right 
 
 a sinistra on the left 
 
 daognidove \ ^ ^ s 
 da ogm parte S 
 
 fV ert ?«°~ I every where 
 dappertutto .. S * 
 
 di dietro .from behind 
 
 di dove whence 
 
 di li, la ./row thence 
 
 di qui, qua .from hence 
 
 in giro round aboup 
 
 da lontano.. .. ^ifrom afar, or a£ 
 
 di lontano .... > a distance 
 
 al riparo under shelter 
 
 di qua on this side 
 
 d'intorno all around 
 
 di sotto under 
 
 fin la as far as tliere 
 
 in disparte . aside 
 
 in giu down 
 
 in su above 
 
 la giu, or \aggm.. below there 
 
 per dove through 
 
 per di fuori ...... without 
 
 per di la through that side 
 
 qua e la.. ....... .here and there 
 
 da banda aside 
 
 qui vicino near here 
 
 sin dove how far 
 
 al coperto under shelter 
 
 IV. Adverbs of Time. 
 
 ad osni momento } 
 
 j ' • • *£«+« J ewry moment 
 
 ad ogni istante S * 
 
 a domani dunque to morrgw then 
 
 all' avvenire in future 
 
 alle volte sometimes 
 
 altre volte .formerly 
 
 a mezzo giorno twelve o'clock in the day, or 
 
 mid-day 
 a mezza notte twelve o'clock at night, or 
 
 mid-night 
 
 al piu presto at the soonest 
 
 al far del giorno at the break of day 
 
 alio spun tar del sole .'.. at sunrise 
 
 al tramontar del sole at sunset 
 
 .? i at leisure 
 
 con tempo $ 
 
 d'allora in poi since then 
 
 da poco in qua not long since 
 
 di buon' ora early 
 
 di bel nuovo again 
 
 di botto suddenly 
 
 di continuo contiiiually 
 
 di fresco .recently 
 
OF ADVERBS. 221 
 
 Adverbs of Time — continued. 
 
 di di in di } /. , . , 
 
 di giorno in giorno V rom *» *> *» 
 
 di giorno..... &y d<2^ 
 
 d 1 inverno in winter 
 
 di notte ), . *, 
 
 di notte tempo \hmgU 
 
 di rado seldom 
 
 di state in summer 
 
 di quando in quando > - ,< . .• 
 
 J- ;**_ - ■ % } from time to time 
 
 di tempo in tempo y 
 
 d' ora innanzi henceforward 
 
 domani a otto to-morrow week 
 
 domani a quindici to-morrow fortnight 
 
 doman l'altro the day after tomoirow 
 
 e gran pezzo "^ 
 
 e lungapezza ! • . . 7 .. 
 
 ^molto.. Ut is a long time 
 
 e un pezzo J 
 
 fin adesso 
 
 i hitherto 
 
 fin a quest' ora 
 
 fin d'adesso .from this moment 
 
 fin ora * hitherto 
 
 fra poco ina short time 
 
 il piu sovente e oftener 
 
 in avvenire in future 
 
 in breve ) , , 7 
 
 in breve tempo \ short ^ 
 
 in quel mentre liin the meantime 
 
 in questo istante } 
 
 in questo momento >this moment 
 
 in questo punto 3 
 
 in te'mpo seasonably 
 
 in un batter d' occhio all of a sudden 
 
 in un attimo allot once 
 
 jer T altro the day before yesterday 
 
 jer sera yesterday evening 
 
 jer mattina yesterday morning 
 
 Faltro jeri the day before yesterday 
 
 nei tempi andati „ .formerly 
 
 ptr g ^r::::::::::::::::S^^^^ 
 
 oggi a otto this day week 
 
 oggi a quindici „ this day fortnight 
 
 oggi a ventidue three weeks hence 
 
 or ora M4 directly 
 
OF ADVEKBS. 
 
 Adverbs of Time — continued. 
 
 per tempo ...„ early 
 
 piu che mai more than ever 
 
 poco fa a little while ago 
 
 posdomani the day after to-morrow 
 
 quanto prima as soon as possible 
 
 questamane > ,,. 
 
 Jiestamattina \ thu mornm S 
 
 questa notte to night 
 
 questa sera this evening 
 
 rade volte seldom 
 
 sin a quando till when 
 
 stamane > ,,. 
 
 stamattina \ th ™ mormn S 
 
 sta notte ...tonight 
 
 sta sera this evening 
 
 tal volta some times 
 
 tempo gia fu .formerly 
 
 tratto tratto .from time to time 
 
 tutto ad un tratto all at once 
 
 V. Adverbs of Quantity. 
 
 circa about 
 
 davvantaggio J) 
 
 dipiu > some more 
 
 di vantaggio ) 
 
 per meta by half 
 
 presso a poco near abouts 
 
 un pochettino a little 
 
 un poco di piu a little more 
 
 un poco di meno a little less 
 
 un po' troppo , a little too muck 
 
 un tantino a little 
 
 VI. Adverbs of Quality. 
 
 a briglia sciolta at full speed 
 
 a buon grado willingly 
 
 a caso by chance 
 
 a caso pensato wilfully 
 
 a dirotte lagrime bitterly 
 
 a gara in emulation 
 
 al balzo at the rebound 
 
 alia royescia ..Jopsy turvy 
 
OF ADVERBS. 223 
 
 Adverbs of Quality — continued. 
 
 alia sprovf sta unprovided 
 
 alia smascellata with open mouth 
 
 all' improvviso suddenly 
 
 all' indietro backward 
 
 alia sfuggita by stealth 
 
 al piu at the most 
 
 a mente by heart 
 
 a prova in emulation 
 
 a rovescio topsy turvy 
 
 a spron battuto .full speed 
 
 a tentone groping along 
 
 a vista insight 
 
 colle buone willingly 
 
 colle cattive ....against one's will 
 
 con arte artfully 
 
 con fretta hastily 
 
 con ragione rightly 
 
 con tutto il cuore willingly 
 
 da banda a banda through 
 
 daddovvero } 
 
 da dovvero > in good earnest 
 
 da senno ) 
 
 da parte a parte through 
 
 di buon grado I .77. 1 
 
 di buonavoglia » $ ^^ 
 
 di mala voglia against one's will 
 
 di nascosto by stealth 
 
 di caso pensato wilfully 
 
 di tdtto cuore willingly 
 
 di soppiatto by stealth 
 
 d* un salto at one jump 
 
 fuor di luogo unseasonably 
 
 in che modo ) r , , , 
 
 . \ after what manner 
 
 in che maniera $ J 
 
 in dubbio in doubt 
 
 in fretta hastily 
 
 in qual modo > r , h \, 
 
 - * * '• after what manner 
 
 in qual maniera S 
 
 in sospeso in suspense 
 
 in vano in vain 
 
 mal volontieri unwillingly 
 
 per aincre willingly 
 
 per forza against ones will 
 
224 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 VII. Adverbs of Doubt. 
 
 ad ogni caso at all hazards 
 
 ad ogni evento .... at all events 
 
 forse ..... perhaps 
 
 in ogni evento at all events 
 
 per caso by chance 
 
 potrebbe darsi it might be 
 
 puo darsi > .. , 
 
 r / \ it may be 
 
 puo essere S 
 
 VIII. Adverbs of Negation, 
 
 in modo alcuno..... > 
 
 in modo veruno 1 , 
 
 . / \by no means 
 
 in nessuna maniera f ^ 
 
 in nessun modo J 
 
 in niun conto ) , 
 
 j 1 by no means 
 
 in verun modo S 
 
 niente affatto... ,....not at all 
 
 IX. Adverbs of Affirmation. 
 
 da galantuomo as a gentleman 
 
 da uomo d' onore... as a gentleman of honour 
 
 d'accordo in concert 
 
 di certo certainly 
 
 in coscienza onmy conscience 
 
 in fatti infact 
 
 in verita in truth 
 
 nonv' e dubbio , ) . L • » *, 
 
 ,i , ,,. I there is no doubt 
 
 non v ha dubbio > 
 
 per certo certainly 
 
 senza dubbio J 
 
 senza fallo.. >without doubt or fail 
 
 senza mancare 3 
 
 sull T onor mio.... on my honour 
 
 X. Adverbs of Interrogation. 
 
 in che maniera? in what manner ? 
 
 per qual ragione ? wherefore ? 
 
OF ADVERBS. 225 
 
 XI. Adverbs of Comparison. 
 
 assai piu stUimore 
 
 assai meno ..much less 
 
 piu tosto, or piuttosto rather 
 
 , ' } much less 
 
 vie meno S 
 
 via piu still more 
 
 viappiu } 
 
 vie piu „ > still more 
 
 vieppiu 3 
 
226 
 
 OF PEEPOSITIONS, 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions, preposizioni, serve to connect words with 
 one another, and to shew the relation between them. 
 They are for the most part placed before nouns and 
 pronouns ; as, io vddo in Italia, I am going to Italy ; 
 ella e amata da lui, she is loved by him. In Italian 
 there are some prepositions which govern the genitive, 
 some the dative, others the accusative, others the abla- 
 tive, others again two or three different cases, all of which 
 are as follow :— 
 
 Prepositions governing the Genitive. 
 
 alato by the side 
 
 al coperto under shelter 
 
 al di dentro ....within 
 
 al di fuori without 
 
 al di sopra above 
 
 al di sotto under 
 
 allato by the side 
 
 all' in torno around 
 
 al riparo under shelter 
 
 a motivo .for 
 
 appie at the foot 
 
 a ragione on account 
 
 avanti ., before 
 
 colPajuto by the aid 
 
 col mezzo by means 
 
 con animo ......with intention 
 
 contro against 
 
 di dentro .from inside 
 
 di nasc6sto ...... unknown 
 
 di la on that side 
 
 di qua on this side 
 
 dopo after 
 
 fuor ) . 
 
 fuori.... \ out 
 
 in periglio in danger 
 
 in presenza.. .. ..before 
 
 in procinto on the point 
 
 in vece instead 
 
 malgrado in spite 
 
 nel cospetto ..„in the presence 
 per mancanza ..for want 
 per rispetto ....on account 
 
 prima before 
 
 senza saputa .. ..unknown 
 
 sotto under 
 
 verso towards 
 
 vicino near 
 
 Prepositions governing the Dative. 
 
 the side 
 
 a canto ) , 
 
 accanto > & 
 
 all' intorno around 
 
 appresso after 
 
 avanti before 
 
 con forme according 
 
 contiguo contiguous 
 
 dietro behind 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 %n 
 
 Prepositions governing the Dative— continued. 
 
 d* intorno around 
 
 dirimpetto opposite 
 
 esclusi vamente . . except 
 
 « n r [ till or until 
 
 grazie.... thanks 
 
 in capo at the end 
 
 incontro against 
 
 in faccia over against 
 
 inferiore inferior 
 
 i n n no I till or as far as 
 
 in mezzo in the midst 
 
 innanzi before 
 
 in quanto as 
 
 insin ) ,. 77 - 
 
 . , > &// or as far as 
 
 msmo 5 
 
 oltre besides 
 
 per fino <?w 
 
 per mezzo through 
 
 quanto as 
 
 relativamente ...in relation 
 riguardo with respect 
 
 . v " > till or until 
 
 sino S 
 
 sotto under 
 
 superiore superior 
 
 vicino near 
 
 Prepositions governing the Accusative. 
 
 appre sso after 
 
 circa thereabout 
 
 con with 
 
 contro against 
 
 dopo „.... after 
 
 durante during 
 
 fra between 
 
 giusta according 
 
 in ...,in 
 
 incirca thereabout 
 
 innanzi before 
 
 lungo along 
 
 malgrado in spite 
 
 mediante by 
 
 non ostante .... besides 
 
 oltre besides 
 
 per .for 
 
 rispetto concerning 
 
 salvo except 
 
 senza without 
 
 sopra upon* 
 
 sotto under 
 
 tra between 
 
 tranne except 
 
 trattone except 
 
 verso towards 
 
 Prepositions governing the Ablative. 
 
 di la on that side 
 
 di qua on this side 
 
 distante far 
 
 fin ever 
 
 lontano .far 
 
 lungi distant 
 
 It is to be observed, that many of these prepositions 
 are also adverbs ; but it is easy to discover when they are 
 adverbs and when prepositions, by paying attention to 
 the cases that follow; as, vol avete parlato prima, epoi 
 siete partito, you spoke first, and then went away. Prima 
 
228 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 is an adverb. Vol parldste prima di me, you spoke 
 before me. Prima is a preposition, because followed by 
 the genitive case which is governed by it. 
 
 Sometimes prepositions seem to be adverbs, because 
 the case which they govern is transposed before the 
 verbs with which they are accompanied ; thus, non 
 Tiii venite innanzi, do not come before me; but if the 
 student turn the phrase thus, twn venite innanzi a me, 
 he will soon see that innanzi is a preposition, governing a 
 dative, 
 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 229 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A conjunction, congiunzione^ is a part of speech that 
 is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of ttvo 
 or more sentences to make but one. It sometimes con- 
 nects only words. 
 
 As conjunctions answer to different operations of the 
 mind, so they are divided into 
 
 condizionali conditional 
 
 sospensive suspensive 
 
 domandative interrogative 
 
 negative negative 
 
 copulative copulative 
 
 aggiun ti ve adjunctive 
 
 eccettuative ) .exceptive 
 
 dichiarative > declarative 
 
 elettive elective 
 
 disgiuntive disjunctive 
 
 av versati ve contradictory 
 
 collettive ) collective 
 
 conclusive \ .. conclusive 
 
 casuali casual 
 
 limitative restrictive 
 
 Some grammarians have divided them into ten sorts, 
 others into twelve, others into twenty ; but as that does 
 not give more light to the student, we content ourselves 
 to follow Buommattei, as the most enlightened gram- 
 marian of Italy. 
 
 The conditional, which serve to connect sentences by 
 condition, are — 
 
 da che since restaasapereche.,& remains to 
 
 ogni volta che ..whenever know 
 
 perche because se ~ .....~....if 
 
 poiche since sempre che always 
 
 poscia che since si che ....... ...... *so that 
 
 quando when 
 
230 
 
 OP CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 The suspensive, that mark some suspension or doubt, 
 are— 
 
 a condizioneche on condition 
 
 ancorch e altho ugh 
 
 altriinciite otherwise 
 
 ben inteso che ..provided 
 con patto che... on condition 
 con que'sto perd.ttwtf this how- 
 ever 
 
 da to che suppose 
 
 in caso che in case 
 
 posto che suppose 
 
 purche provided 
 
 quando when 
 
 quand' linche ...a ti f hough 
 se mai if ever 
 
 The interrogative, which serve to ask, are- 
 
 a che why 
 
 che that 
 
 come ....how 
 
 non not 
 
 o or 
 
 perch e why 
 
 per qnal mo tivo ) 7 r 
 1 * . \ whereto) 
 
 per qual ragione S 
 
 The negative, that serve to deny, are- 
 
 anzi nay 
 
 non. ..no neither. ,. nor 
 
 no. 
 
 non not 
 
 non gu\ not 
 
 non ne none 
 
 The copulative, that serve to connect words and 
 sentences under the sairie affirmation or negation, 
 
 are — ■ 
 
 altresi but 
 
 anche also 
 
 anco also 
 
 ancora yet 
 
 che that 
 
 e or ed and 
 
 eziandio also 
 
 nemfe " \norathcr 
 
 neiniiicno S 
 
 no...ne neither, nor 
 
 won piii no longer 
 
 siimlmente likewise 
 
 tan to so much 
 
 The adjunctive, that serve to add some other sentences 
 to the fbreffoitlff, are — 
 
 altresi but 
 
 ancora yet 
 
 appresso after 
 
 di piu yet 
 
 eziandio oho 
 
 in oltre besides 
 
 oltraccio ) , . , .»• . 
 
 u , ; beside that 
 
 oltre che S 
 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 231 
 
 The exceptive or declarative, which serve either to 
 restrict in some way or other an idea, or to explain it 
 better, are — 
 
 ammeno die ....unless , fuori out 
 
 ancorche .. ...... although] in fuori except 
 
 eccettuato except in poi afterwards 
 
 fuorche except se non che unless 
 
 The elective are — 
 
 anzi che on the contrary 
 
 anzi che no rather 
 
 innanziche. .. .. ..rather 
 
 meglio che better than 
 
 phi che more than 
 
 piuttosto che....ra^e?r than 
 piu volontieri... more willingly 
 prima che ..... ..before that 
 
 The disjunctive, which serve to disjoin sentences, 
 are — 
 
 0...0 either. ..or 
 
 oppure or 
 
 o pure or 
 
 ossia or 
 
 o sia ..or 
 
 owero.. or 
 
 sia che, siache.. either, or 
 
 The contradictory, which serve to contradict, are- 
 
 ancorche though 
 
 benche though 
 
 comeche though 
 
 ma but 
 
 non di meno.. > ,-, 7 
 
 j- / > nevertheless 
 
 nondimeno ... S 
 
 non per tanto ...not however 
 
 perche because 
 
 percio therefore 
 
 per questo therefore 
 
 per altro yet 
 
 pure yet 
 
 qualunque whatever 
 
 se non unless 
 
 tuttavia yet 
 
 The collective or conclusive are- 
 
 adunque then 
 
 cosi thus 
 
 dunque then 
 
 di maniera che.. so that 
 
 e cosi and so 
 
 laonde , ,. ..therefore 
 
 onde then 
 
 per cio .for this 
 
 per la qual cosa luherefore 
 
 per tanto in the mean 
 
 time 
 in somma in short 
 
2S2 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 The casual are — 
 
 a cagion e on condition 
 
 accid che ..... ) . , j7 . 
 amocche \^ order that 
 
 a fine in order 
 
 a fine che in order that 
 
 affinche in order thai 
 
 afFine in order 
 
 Those that limit are — 
 
 almeno at least 
 
 d 'altronde besides 
 
 non che .far from 
 
 son me'no not less 
 
 oltre di che .... besides 
 
 che thai 
 
 impercio che .... because 
 
 per for 
 
 perche because 
 
 percid che therefore 
 
 perocche therefore 
 
 poscia che since 
 
 per altro yet 
 
 pure yet 
 
 solamente only 
 
 solo only 
 
 tanto so much 
 
 Observations. 
 
 A particle may sometimes be used as an adverb, and 
 sometimes as a proposition, occasionally as a pronoun, 
 and sometimes as a conjunction, as will be shewn in the 
 following examples. 
 
 B. 6. 9. Comincidrono a dire, che quello, che egii 
 aweva risposto, non veniva a dir nulla ; and they said that 
 what he had spoken was without meaning. The first 
 die is a conjunction, the second is a pronoun. 
 
 B. % 5. Iddio mi liafatto tdnta grazia, che io anzi la 
 mia morte ho veduto alcuni de y miei Jratelli ; God has 
 been pleased to indulge me with the sight of one of my 
 brothers before I die. Anzi, a preposition that governs 
 the accusative, la mia morte. 
 
 B. 6. beg. Attempatella era, e anzi superba che no; she 
 was a little advanced in years, and rather proud. Anzi, 
 an adverb, because it modifies the verb. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Io era ben cos\, ma non per natura, anzi per 
 mia infermita ; I was indeed not naturally so, but by a 
 disease. Anzi, a conjunction, because it connects sen- 
 tences. 
 
OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 233 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Interjections, interiezioni^ are words thrown in be- 
 tween the parts of a sentence, to express the passions or 
 emotions of the speaker ; as, Avme ! Oh Dio ! &c. 
 
 The Italian interjections, as well as those of other 
 languages, are comprised within a small compass. They 
 are of different sorts, according to the different passions 
 which they serve to express. 
 
 Those expressive of joy are — 
 
 ewiva long live 
 
 oh oh 
 
 orsu now then 
 
 viva . long live 
 
 ah ahi 
 
 ahi lasso .... 
 aime, oime 
 
 oh> alas, ah 
 
 Of Grief. 
 
 dolente me... ' 
 meschino me. 
 misero me.... 
 
 unfortunate 
 that I am 
 
 doh, oh .....oh 
 
 guarda look n(nu 
 
 Of Anger. 
 
 via, via come then 
 
 puh poh 
 
 gran Dio good Heaven 
 
 oh Dio oh Heaven 
 
 oh oh 
 
 come puo €s- \ how can that 
 ser questo.. S be 
 
 Of Contempt. 
 
 andate andate ..go go oh 
 
 deh eh oibo... 
 
 Of Approbation. 
 
 Of Fear. 
 
 oime ..alas 
 
 sta ...stop 
 
 Of Wonder. 
 
 come how then 
 
 possibile is it possible 
 
 ..ah 
 ..fie 
 
 bene well 
 
 bravo bravo 
 
 buono good 
 
 cosi so 
 
 mi piace very well 
 
 si yes 
 
234 
 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Of Negation. 
 
 appunto exactly 
 
 come how 
 
 Dio mi guardi .. God forbid 
 pensate .just 
 
 no no 
 
 non gia not so 
 
 guarda ..look now 
 
 Of Intreaty 
 
 deh. ah qt pray 
 
 di grazia pray 
 
 merce . 
 
 .mercy 
 
 Of Calling. 
 
 ajjuto help, help 
 
 al fuoco .fire 
 
 all' armi to arms 
 
 badate beware 
 
 guarda . .. ., beware 
 
 largo make way 
 
 oh, oh .... holla 
 
 ola holla 
 
 piano softly 
 
 Of Command. 
 
 alto halt 
 
 cheto be quiet 
 
 piano ..softly 
 
 quieto be quiet 
 
 zi hush 
 
 zitto..... hush 
 
 Besides these, many others, often in the mouths of the 
 multitude, might be enumerated ; but those we have set 
 down we think are sufficient. Any word or phrase may 
 indeed become an interjection, or at least it may be used 
 as such, when it is expressed with emotion, and in an 
 unconnected manner ; as, ecco, behold ; ingrdto, un- 
 grateful ; ed e possibile, is it possible ; che pazzia^ what 
 a folly. 
 
 END OF THE SECOND TAUT. 
 
OF SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 235 
 
 PART III. 
 OF SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 
 
 Syntax, a Greek word, implying construction, is that 
 disposition which the parts of speech ought to have with 
 regard to each other. 
 
 This construction in Italian is divided into simple 
 and figurative. 
 
 The simple, which is also called regular, is that con- 
 struction which follows the natural order and the rules 
 of grammar ; as — 
 
 B. 9. 9. lo sort ricco, e spendo il mio in metter tavola, 
 ed onoro i miei cittadini ; I am rich, and keep a most 
 noble table to entertain all my fellow-citizens. 
 
 The figurative, which is also called irregular, is that 
 construction which departs from the natural order and 
 the rules of grammar ; as — 
 
 B. Fiam. E siccome la mia persona negli anni 
 trapassati cresceva, cost le mie bellezze, de* miei mali 
 special cagione, miiltiplicavano ; and as I grew up, 
 so my beauty, the special cause of my misfortunes, 
 increased. 
 
 To make it regular it should be, E siccome la mia 
 persona cresceva negli anni trapassati; cost le mie 
 bellezze, cagione speciale de' miei mali, multipli- 
 cavano. 
 
 The regular syntax, or construction, (for of the figura- 
 tive construction we shall speak hereafter,) is divided 
 into three parts. The first, of order or arrangement ; the 
 second, of concord or agreement ; and the third, of go- 
 vernment or dependence. 
 
 The syntax of order is the proper disposition of 
 words in a sentence ; the syntax of concord is the agree- 
 
236 OF SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 
 
 merit of the parts of speech with one another ; and the 
 syntax of government is the dependence of one part of 
 speech upon another. 
 
 These three parts may be found in a simple sen- 
 tence, which consists of the subject, which is the thing 
 chiefly spoken of; the attribute, which is the thing or 
 action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object, which is 
 the thing affected by such action. 
 
 In the sentence — 
 
 L'uomo compassionevole ama i poveri, 
 A compassionate man loves the poor — 
 
 we see the right disposition of the words in the sentence, 
 making a complete sense ; for it would not make any 
 sense were the sentence to be turned thus — 
 
 Compassionevole ama Puomo i poveri ; 
 
 we find in it the concord of the parts of speech; for 
 were we to say — 
 
 L'uomo compassionevoli amano de' poveri, 
 
 the parts of speech would not agree with each other, 
 as uomo is a substantive singular, compassionevoli is an 
 adjective plural, when it should be singular to agree 
 with uomo, and de y poveri, genitive instead of accusative, 
 which is the government of the active verb ; and finally, 
 we find that i poveri, being the object, depends on the 
 verb ama, by which it is governed. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 237 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 SYNTAX OF THOSE PARTS OF SPEECH WHICH MAY OR 
 MAY NOT TAKE THE ARTICLE. 
 
 When nouns are said to have no article, their oblique 
 cases are declined with d% a, da. 
 
 Before we treat of the rules of syntax, it is neces- 
 sary to state that the phrases used throughout as exam- 
 ples, which are selected from the works of the best 
 Italian authors in prose, are not translated literally, 
 but according to the English idiom, in order that the 
 student may not only understand the sense of the 
 phrases in question, but also learn to give to others that 
 elegant turn which is consistent with the genius of the 
 English language. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 The definite article is put before all common nouns 
 used in the whole extent of their signification, either 
 general or specific. Ex. 
 
 Buom. II giovamento die Tuomo pud cavar da una 
 cosa consiste o nelV utile, o nel diletto ; the good which 
 man can derive from any thing, consists in its utility or 
 pleasure. 
 
 Bent. Nonpotevala fort una riuscire piu Jhvorevole, 
 die quando ha mostrato di volerci piil esser contraria ; 
 fortune could not be more favourable to us than when 
 she seemed to be most adverse. 
 
 B. Introd. Gli uomini sono delle femmine capo^ e 
 senza Tordine loro> rade volte riesce alcuna nostra opera 
 a laudevole fine ; men are the head of women, and with- 
 out their management it seldom happens that any under- 
 taking of ours succeeds well. 
 
238 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Uomo,Jortuna, uomini, Jemmine, being used in the 
 whole extent of their signification, take their respective 
 articles. 
 
 1. Common nouns taken in an indefinite sense, being 
 either the subject or the object of the verb, may omit 
 the article. 
 
 B. 1.1. Che uomo e costui, il quale ne vecchiezza, ne 
 infermita, ne paura di morte...dalla sua malvagitd Vhanno 
 potuto rimuovere ; what a man this is ! whom neither age, 
 sickness, nor fear of death... could deter from his wicked 
 course. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Esser ti deve, Tancredi, manifesto, essendo tu 
 di came, aver generata figliuola di came, e non di 
 pietra o dijerro ; you ought to know, Tancredi, that 
 you, being made of flesh, have begotten a daughter of 
 flesh, not of stone or iron. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Spero, che non sqfferete, che io per tanto e tale 
 amore, morte riceva per guiderdone ; I hope that the 
 great love I bear you v/iil not be recompensed with 
 death. 
 
 B. 10. 1. Gliparve, che esso, or a ad uno, ed or a ad un 
 altro donasse castella, citta, e baronie ; he saw that he 
 gave away castles, cities, and baronies. 
 
 2. Common nouns governed by some prepositions, 
 such as per, for, senza, without, in, in, con, with, &c. 
 have no article. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Ma cost m* e convenuto fare, e per paura 
 d? altrui, eper servare la Jama delta mia onestd ; but that 
 behaviour was necessary for fear of other people, and 
 also to preserve my own character. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Sol tanto vi dico, che come imposto m! avete cost 
 pensero di Jare senza fallo ; I only tell you that 1 shall, 
 without fail, do what you have proposed. 
 
 B. 2. 8. La Violante venne crescendo, ed in anni, ed 
 in persona, ed in bellezza ; Violante grew up in stature 
 and in beauty, as well as in years. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTTCLE. 239 
 
 B. 4. 3. E quivi con molta famiglia, con cani, e con 
 uccelli, a guisa di baroni cominciarono a vivere ; and 
 there they began to live like noblemen, keeping great 
 numbers of servants, dogs, and birds, for their amuse- 
 ment. 
 
 [As for common nouns, accompanied with demonstra- 
 tive and all the other tribes of pronouns, the learner 
 will find a sufficient explanation of them in their proper 
 places, ,] 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Adjectives, infinitives, adverbs, prepositions, standing 
 as substantives, are used with the definite article. 
 
 Segn. Gli umili sono appunto coloro ai quali Iddio 
 voleniieri da la sua grazia ; humble people are those on 
 whom God bestows his favours. 
 
 Buom. Ora dite voi, die se fra tutte le cose create, il 
 parlare e quelche propriamente e particolarmente e per 
 Tuomo, il parlare si pud dir con ragione cosa ottima ; 
 now you say, that if of all things created for man, the 
 faculty of speech is that which properly and particularly 
 belongs to man, speaking may rightly be said to be an 
 excellent property. 
 
 B. 9. 7. E domandato da lei del perche, ordinatamente 
 le racconto il sogno suo ; and being asked the reason, he 
 related to her his whole dream. 
 
 B. Filoc. O Florio, come e perche venisti tu qui? Ed 
 egli mi rispondeva : del come non ti caglia; ma il perche 
 ti diro ; Oh ! Florius, in what manner and for what 
 reason did you come here ? And he answered, I 
 will not tell you the manner, but you shall know the 
 reason. 
 
 G. Vill. Sicche ci e il pro e 'I contro ; so that there is 
 something to say for and against. 
 
 Umili, parlar, perche, come, pro, contro, standing as 
 substantives, have their respective article. 
 
240 SYNTAX OP THE ARTICLE. 
 
 1. Adjectives, accompanied or not with their sub- 
 stantives, but used as epithets, take the definite 
 article. 
 
 B. 10. 6. Queste son niiejigliuole, delle quali Tuna ha 
 name Ginevra la bella, e V ultra Isotta la bionda ; they 
 are my daughters, one of whom is called Ginevra the 
 handsome, and the other Isotta the fair. 
 
 Davan. Lucio Silla sife* chiamare II Felice ; Lucius 
 Sylla had himself called The Happy. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Papa, pope, imperadore, emperor, imperadrice, em- 
 press, r£, king, regina, queen, signor e, mister, signora, 
 mistress, signorina, miss, and all other names of dig- 
 nities, such as principe, prince, conte, count, duca, duke, 
 marchese, marquis, cavaliere, knight, are used with the 
 definite article. 
 
 B. 2. 3. Messer Cane delta Scala fu uno dei piii 
 notabiii signori, che dallo imperadore Federico II. in 
 qua si sapessein Italia; M. Cane della Scala was one of 
 the greatest lords that had lived in Italy since the days 
 of the emperor Frederic the Second. 
 
 Band. II Re Carlo mart, essendo ancor il figiiuolo in 
 Borgogna appresso al Duca Filippo ; King Charles died 
 when his son was still in Burgundy, under the care of 
 the Duke Philip. 
 
 Gold. S ' iojbssi una signora di rango, esibirei al 
 Signor Guglielrno la mia piccola segretaria ; if I were 
 a lady of rank, I would make Signor Guglielrno my 
 secretary* 
 
 1. Papa, used as an adjective, may be used without 
 an article. 
 
 B. 1.1. Da Papa Bonifazio addomandato ; sent for 
 by Pope Boniface. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 241 
 
 2. If one of the above nouns follows the proper name, 
 and is in apposition, it has no article. 
 
 B. 10. 1. Prese per partito di volere essere appresso 
 ad Alfonso, Re d'Ispagna ; he resolved to go into the 
 service of Alphonso, King of Spain. 
 
 B. 4. 1 . Tancredi, Principe di Salerno, fu signore 
 assai umano ; Tancred, Prince of Salerno, was a most 
 humane nobleman. 
 
 B. 10. 2. II quale tomato in corte di Roma, lui ricon- 
 cilia con Bonifazio, Papa, e folio frier e dello spedale ; 
 who, having returned to the Court of Rome, recon- 
 ciled him with Pope Boniface, and made him prior of a 
 hospital, 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Names of the four quarters of the world, countries, 
 and the cardinal points, whether the latter mean the car- 
 dinal points of the horizon, or the countries called by 
 those names, may or may not be used with the definite 
 article, either in the nominative or accusative ; in the 
 oblique cases, however, or when governed by a preposi- 
 tion, the article is to be omitted. 
 
 Buom. Tutta l'Europa e riputato stretto confine, ec. ; 
 all Europe is considered to be a narrow limit, &c. 
 
 Buom. Voi sapete die V Italia e stata piu volte soggio- 
 cata da niolti harbari ; you know that Italy has been 
 several times subdued by many barbarians. 
 
 Buom. Le somme glorie d'ltalia ; the great glory of 
 Italy. 
 
 Buom. Talche oggi in Italia ella e qudl dovette essere 
 gia la sagra in Egitto ; so that it (the Italian language) 
 is in Italy now what the holy language must have for- 
 merly been in Egypt. 
 
 B. 10.3. Non solamente il levante, ma quasi tutto il 
 ponente per Jama il conoscea ; not only the east, but 
 also the greatest part of the west, resounded with his 
 fame. 
 
 M 
 
242 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 B. 10. 3. II quale avendo ricetto vicino ad una strada 
 per la quale quasi di necessita passava ciascuno, che di 
 ponente verso levante andar voleva, ec. ; who, having a 
 habitation adjoining to a road which led from east to 
 west, through which every one passed. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Names of seas, rivers, mountains, and winds, take the 
 definite article. 
 
 Davan. Ma 1'Egeo, ma VAtlantico, non cerca di com- 
 prendere, e sa bene che ei non pud ; but he does not try 
 to comprehend the Egean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, 
 and he knows he cannot. 
 
 Algar. Ella e tagliata dalP Adige, fiume^ \corne sai, 
 amenissimo ; it is intersected by the Adige, a very plea- 
 sant river, as you know. 
 
 Algar. La divide V Arno il quale, come scupete, corre da 
 oriente a ponente ; the river Arno separates it, which, as 
 you know, flows from east to west. 
 
 Gozzi. Ed egli dice : va al Caucaso gelato ; and he 
 says : go to the frozen Caucasus. 
 
 Gang. Ove resto un tempo inghiottita la citta d? Er- 
 colano da una eruzione del Vesuvio ; where once the city 
 of Herculaneum was overwhelmed by an eruption of 
 Mount Vesuvius. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 Names of cities and islands have no article. 
 
 Davan. Per che Firenze e citta dominante, e imitatrice 
 di Roma ; because Florence is a powerful city, and the 
 rival of Rome. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Marseilles s\ come voi sapete e...antica e 
 nobilissima citta ; Marseilles is, as you know, an ancient 
 and a very noble city. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 243 
 
 Erizzo. Rinieri, Re di Cipro; Rinieri, King of 
 Cyprus. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Tre giovani amano tre sorelle, e con loro si 
 fuggono in Creti ; three young men love three sisters, 
 and elope with them to Crete. 
 
 B. 4. 4. Preso un legnetto die di Sardigna portato 
 avevano ; having taken a small ship, which they had 
 brought from Sardinia. 
 
 Eriz. Guiscardo, Re di Cipro ; Guiscardo, King of 
 Cyprus. 
 
 1. There are, however, some nouns of cities that take 
 an article, such as, il Cairo, Cairo ; la Mirandola, Mi- 
 randola ; la Rocella, Rochelles ; and perhaps a few more 
 which custom will teach. 
 
 2. There are also some names of islands which take 
 the article, such as il Giglio, Giglio, la Gorgona, Gorgona, 
 VElba, Elbe, and also those islands which are n&med in 
 the plural, such as le Molucche, the Molucca islands ; 
 le Filippine, the Philippines. 
 
 3. Some other islands, such as Sicilia, Sicily, IngJiiU 
 terra, England, Irlanda, Ireland, Sardigna, Sardinia, 
 may or may not take the article in the nominative case 
 only, but not in the other cases. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 Dio, Iddio, God, whether absolute or accompanied with 
 an adjective, which follows, has no article ; but if the 
 adjective precedes the article is to be used. 
 
 B. 8. 2. Dio ci mandi bene, chi e di qua? God help 
 us, who is there? 
 
 B. 2. 8. Iddio giasto riguardatore degli altrui meriti, 
 altramente dispose ; God, the just reward er of people's 
 merit, ordained it otherwise. 
 
 m 2 
 
244 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Pass. & onnipotente Dio e misericordioso giudice nas- 
 conde dal suo giudicio i nostrijhlli ; the Almighty God, 
 and merciful judge, conceals our crimes from his judg- 
 ment. 
 
 1. Dio and iddio, speaking of the false deities of the 
 heathens, make dei 9 dii, and iddii, in the plural, when 
 they take the definite article, gli, degli, agli, daglL 
 
 B. Filoc. Io gli dii scongiurando, ec. ; in conjuring 
 the deities, I, &c. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Se agli dei fosse piaciuto ; if the gods 
 pleased. 
 
 B. 10. 8. GF iddii, li quali dispo?igono e goveman 
 noi, e le nostre cose; the gods, who dispose of, and 
 govern, us and our affairs. 
 
 1. Observe that Iddio may only be used in the nomi- 
 native case. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Proper names, whether of men and women, deities, 
 angels, or devils, and also months and days, have no 
 article. 
 
 Buom. E se vogliamo esaminare altri, in lui si puo 
 facilmente scorgere e Vevidenza d'Ovidio, e la purita di 
 Catullo, e la gravita di Sofocle ; and if we wish to exa- 
 mine others, we can easily perceive in him (in Boccaccio) 
 the perspicuity of Ovid, the purity of Catullus, the 
 majesty of Sophocles. 
 
 B. 4. 8. Filostrato, udita la fine del novellar di Pam- 
 pinea, sovra se stesso alquanto stette, e poi disse ; when 
 Philostratus heard the conclusion of Pampinea's story, 
 he stood some time in suspense, and then said. 
 
 Davan. Che fu veramente veduto Apollo saettare il 
 velenoso Pitone ; for Apollo was really seen shooting the 
 venomous serpent Python. 
 
 Davan. Come si legge di Minerva che riparava, ec ; as 
 we read of Minerva, who repaired, &c. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 245 
 
 Davan. / Greci /' atiribuivano a quel loro iddii, e co- 
 lore* die facevano quelle gran cose che sono scritte d'Ercole, 
 e di Teseo, d 1 Ettore, e d' Achille ; the Grecians attributed 
 it to their gods, and to them who performed those great 
 deeds, which are recorded of Hercules, Theseus, Hector, 
 and Achilles. 
 
 Davan. Se i nemici suoi Thanjhtto grande, se il sesto 
 
 di Gennajo/w t a-sce, e il primo e il secondo d' Agosto 
 
 Jtvrono le marietta; if his enemies have made him great, 
 
 if the sixth of January was for the chip-axe, and the 
 
 first and second of August were for the hammers. 
 
 Gozzi. Un modo assai nuovo, irC e avvenuto $ inten- 
 dere per caso sabato di sera ; I happened by chance to 
 hear of a new method on Saturday evening last. 
 
 1. Some of these names, taken in a particular sense, 
 or signifying a statue, a portrait, or preceding a genitive 
 or relative, are used with the article. 
 
 1' Apollo del Belvedere the Apollo of Belvedere 
 
 la Venere de ' Medici the Venus of Medicis 
 
 §. In a familiar style, the article is put before proper 
 names of men and women ; as — 
 
 E chiamato il Gerbino, dissono ; and having called 
 Gerbino, they said. 
 
 B. 4. 3. // quale molto amata aveva la Ninetta ; who 
 had an ardent affection for Ninetta. 
 
 This last observation, however, is not much in use 
 at present. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Surnames or family names have no article when pre- 
 ceded by the proper name. 
 
 B. 4. 9. Messer Guglielmo Rossiglione da a rnangiare 
 alia moglie sua il cuore di Messer Guglielmo Guar- 
 
246 SYNTAX OF ?HE AETlCLfi. 
 
 dastagno ; M. Guglielmo Rossiglione makes his wife eat 
 the heart of M. Guglielmo Guardastagno. 
 
 1. But when family names are used as proper names 
 to specify a person of such a family, and also, when we 
 speak of family names of celebrated men, the article is 
 to be used. 
 
 B. 4. 9. II Guardastagno rispose che senzafallo il d\ 
 seguente andrebbe a cenar con luL II Rossiglione udendo 
 questo, penso il tempo esser venuto di poterlo uccidere ; 
 Guardastagno answered, that he would sup with him 
 the following night. Rossiglione hearing this, thought 
 the time of murdering him was near at hand. 
 
 Buom. L ' esquisitezza poi del Petrarca, altro nume 
 della nostra volgar poesia; the exquisite elegance of 
 Petrarch, another god of our Italian poetry. 
 
 Buom. Ma che diremo della* sopraumana eloquenza 
 del Boccaccio ? But what shall we say of the super- 
 natural eloquence of Boccaccio ? 
 
 In the first examples, Rossiglione and Guardastagno 
 have no article, because preceded by proper names. In 
 the second examples, the two surnames take the article 
 specifying the family names ; and Petrarca and Boccaccio 
 being names of celebrated men, also take their respec- 
 tive article. It seems, however, that the surnames of 
 celebrated men of Latin and Greek compositions, such 
 as Ovid Naso, Virgil Maro, Horace Flaccus, never take 
 an article, though used instead of the first ; thus we 
 say, Naso?ie, Marone, &c. but it is not common. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 A noun expressive of the title of a work, or any other 
 title, dignity, or nation, or explaining the quality of a 
 foregoing name, has no article. 
 
 Macch. Discorso di Luigi Guicciardini ai magistrati ; 
 a discourse of Luigi Guicciardini to the magistrates. 
 
SYNTAX 0$ THE ARTICLE. 24? 
 
 Segn. E colla guida cP Ulamane, Persiano ; and guided 
 by Ulamane, a Persian. 
 
 Bemb. Gismondo, fratello di Federico, Imperatore de' 
 Romani ; Gismond, a brother to Frederic, Emperor of 
 the Romans. 
 
 Segn. Avendo abbandonata Tauris, citta reale ; he 
 having left Tauris, a royal city. 
 
 Sann. In quel giorno si dovea celebrare la festa di 
 Pales, dea de' pastori; on that day they were to celebrate 
 the feast of Pales, the goddess of shepherds. 
 
 RULE XL 
 
 Casa, house or home, corte, court, chiesa*, church, 
 citta, city, nozze, wedding, campagna or contado, country, 
 &c. taken in an undetermined sense, and preceded by a 
 verb of motion, have no article. 
 
 B. 10. 10. Giunti a casa del padre della Junciulla ; 
 they having arrived at the house of the young lady's 
 father. 
 
 Seneca Pist. Ne gia aresti amico si caro, per cui 
 mallevadore tu andassi a corte ; you would not have 
 so dear a friend to bail, for whom you would go into 
 court. 
 
 B. 8. 5. Benche i cittadini non abbiano afar cosa del 
 mondo a palagio. pur talvolta vi vanno ; people some- 
 times go to those courts, though they have no business 
 in them. 
 
 B. 7. 5. Che a nozze o a chiesa andar potesse ; in order 
 that she might go to a wedding, or to church. 
 
 G. Villi Gli sbanditi uscirono quasi tutti di citta e di 
 contado ; almost all the outlaws went out of the city and 
 left the country. 
 
248 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 Santo, santa, saint, frate, friar, suora nun, accom- 
 panied with a proper name, have no article. 
 
 Den. Con una holla istitui Tordine di San Mau- 
 rizio; he instituted the order of Saint Maurice with a 
 bull. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Pareva pur Santa Veridiana die da bee- 
 care alle serpi ; she seemed St. Veridiana feeding the 
 serpents. 
 
 B. 4. 2. Frate Alberto da a vedere ad uha donna die 
 Tagnolo Gabriello, ec. ; Friar Alberto gives a woman to 
 understand that the angel Gabriel, &c. 
 
 Messere, rnadama, madonna, have often been used by 
 Boccaccio instead of signore and signora, without the 
 article, but at present they are obsolete. 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 When a genitive is governed by a substantive, of 
 which it expresses the material, it is to be remarked, 
 that if the genitive is taken in an indeterminate sense, 
 di is used ; and if it particularizes such and such a 
 material or subject, the genitive of the definite article is 
 used. 
 
 G. Vill. Tutte le nionete d' argento sifondieno e porta- 
 vansi oltre mare ; all silver coins -were melted, and trans- 
 ported beyond the seas. 
 
 B. 7. 3. Fattafare la immagine di cera, la mandd ad 
 appiccare dinanzi allajigura di 8 ant Ambrogio ; he set 
 about making the waxen image, and sent it to be hung 
 up before the image of St. Ambrose. 
 
 M. Vill. I Pisani si ritrassono addietro col castello di 
 legname ; the Pisans retreated with the wooden tower. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 249 
 
 Dante Conv. La statua di marmo, o di legno, o di 
 metallo rimasa per memoria cPalcuno valente uomo ; the 
 statue either of marble, wood, or metal, which is left 
 behind as a remembrance of some valiant man. 
 
 If in the above examples argento, cera, legname, &c. 
 had been made to express any particular kind of silver, 
 wax, &c. they would have been used with the definite 
 article ; thus, delV argento, delta cera, &c. 
 
 2. When the genitive marks the destination of the 
 substantive which governs it, it is used with the genitive 
 case of the definite article. 
 
 B. 9. 5. Vattene nella casa della paglia ; go into the 
 barn. 
 
 B. 7. 3. Mandato il cainpagno suo nelpalco de' colombi ; 
 he sent his companion into the pigeon-house. 
 
 G. Vill. E quasi tutte le case della marina, ov* erano i 
 magazzini del vino Greco e delle nocciuole per lo accre- 
 scimento del mare tutte allago ; and almost all the houses 
 near the sea, in which were warehouses filled with Greek 
 wine and nuts, were overwhelmed by an inundation of 
 the sea. 
 
 RULE XIV. " ' 
 
 Of the three cases of the indefinite article di, a, da, 
 di and a may sometimes be left out by ellipsis, and that 
 happens, 
 
 When a genitive, governed by the noun casa, is the 
 name of the master of the house. 
 
 B. 3. 2. In casa Messer Guasparrino ; at Mr. Guas- 
 parrino's house. 
 
 1. But if casa has an article, di is to be used before 
 the substantive. 
 
 B. 5. 4. Usava molto nella casa di Messer Lizio ; he 
 visited often at Mr. Lizio's. 
 
 2. When the word Dio, God, is governed by merce 
 or grazia, thanks, di is left out, and Dio is put between 
 
 m 3 
 
250 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 the article and the substantive by which it is governed ; 
 but if this transposition does not take place di is to be 
 used. 
 
 B. 3. 9. La Dio rnerce e la vostra io ho cid, che io 
 desiderava ; thank God and you, I now have what I 
 wished for. 
 
 B. 3 3. La merce di Dio e del marito mio, io ho tante 
 horse e tante cintole cli io ve Vqffogherei dentro ; thank 
 God and my husband* I have purses and sashes enough. 
 
 Lui, lei, loro, colui, colei, color o, costui, costei, 
 costoro, cui, and altrui, may be used without di and a, 
 for examples of which we refer the student to their pro- 
 per places. 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 OF THE REPETITION OF ARTICLES. 
 
 When in a sentence there are several nouns, if the 
 article is to be put before the first, it must also be put 
 before the others, and if it is omitted before the first, it 
 is well to omit it before the other nouns. 
 
 Davan. Onde Lucio Silla, che vinse la virtu, e i 
 Trionfi, e i sette consolati di C. Mario, si fe 1 chiamare 
 il Felice ; therefore, L. Sylla, who surpassed C. Marius 
 in courage, and in the number of his triumphs and con- 
 sulships, had himself called The Happy. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Che uomo e costui? il quale ne vecchiezza, ne 
 infermita,, ne paura di morte dalla sua malvagita V hanno 
 potuto rimuovere ; what a man is this ! whom neither 
 age, sickness., nor the fear of death, could deter from his 
 wicked course. 
 
 1. When in a sentence di, a, da, are required before 
 several nouns, they are sometimes omitted before some 
 of them, especially when the conjunction e intervenes. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 251 
 
 B. 3. 8. Fu una gentil donna di bellezze ornata e 
 di costumi, d 1 altezza danimo e sottili avvedimenti, quanta 
 alcurf altra dalla natura dotata ; there was a lady, whose 
 beauty, good behaviour, loftiness of mind, and fine pene- 
 tration, made her equal to any of her sex. 
 
 Davan. / Greci V attribuirono a quel loro Iddii, e a 
 coloro, chefacevano quelle gran cose ; the Grecians attri- 
 buted it to their gods, and to those who performed 
 those great exploits. 
 
 B. 5. 1. DcC compagni di Lisimaco e Cimone fediti, e 
 ributtati indietrofurono ; they were wounded and driven 
 back by the companions of Lysimachus and Cymon. 
 
 These are the rules most commonly laid down by 
 grammarians, respecting the repetition of articles ; and 
 though good authors have sometimes violated them, yet 
 we advise the student to adhere to them on all occasions^ 
 until, by a nice discernment in reading good authors, 
 and an accurate attention to the best usage, he can direct 
 himself in this respect. 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives are to agree with their substantives in 
 gender and number, whether they are next to their 
 substantives, or separated from them by a verb, or any 
 other word or phrase. 
 
 Examples of the Adjective, next to Us Substantive. 
 
 Gozz. Fu una volta un uomo di cuore benefico ; there 
 was once a kind-hearted gentleman. 
 
 Gozz. Ebbe questo cortigiano la mala fortuna di caderc 
 in disgrazia del suo signore; this courtier was so unfortu- 
 nate as to lose the favour of his master. 
 
 Gozz. Vastrologo del Califfo, dopo varie osservazioni, 
 disse ; the astrologer of the Caliph, after various observa- 
 tions, said. 
 
252 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Examples of the Adjective, separated from its 
 Substantive. 
 
 Gang. E s tanto tempo che io scrivo, che la mia mano 
 dovrebbe esserci avvezza ; I have been writing so long* 
 that my hand ought to be accustomed to it. 
 
 B. 3. 1. In queste nostre contrade fu, ed e ancora un 
 monistero di donne assai famoso di santita ; in our neigh- 
 bourhood there was, and there is still, a nunnery very 
 much renowned for the sanctity of its inmates. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Alle quali Z'altre tre per diversi accidenti 
 divenner compagne in varj iempi ; of whom the other 
 three (nuns), by divers accidents, became companions at 
 different times. 
 
 B. 3. 2. Ed essendo . . . . Le cose de^ Longobardi pros- 
 pere ; the affairs of the Longobards being in a pros- 
 perous way. 
 
 B. 3.3. Niuna rea femina^ mai del fuoco degna 
 come sari io; I should judge no woman more deserving 
 of death than myself. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Mi converra Jar due cose molto a" miei 
 costumi contrarie ; I shall be obliged to do two things 
 contrary to my inclinations. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 An adjective accompanied with a substantive feminine 
 applicable to man, is to be of the masculine gender. 
 
 F. Gior. La persona quando e tribolato, si dice e 
 pensa che Iddio T abbia in odio ; when a person is 
 afflicted, people generally say and believe that God 
 hates him. 
 
 B. 7. 4. Gli prieghi non giovavano alcuna cosa, perche 
 quella bestia (Tofano), era piu disposto a volere, ec. ; 
 entreaties were of no use, for that stupid ass was 
 disposed to, Sec. 
 
 But when the above substantives refer to both men 
 and women, the adjective is to be feminine. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES, 253 
 
 Gang. Le persone veramente pie, sono savie ; people 
 really pious are wise. 
 
 An adjective, accompanied with ogni cosa, a word of 
 the feminine gender, has been put either in the feminine 
 or the masculine ; but we think it is better to be put in 
 the feminine gender, as ogni cosa is feminine. 
 
 B. 2. 1. Veggendo ogni cosa disorrevole, e cost dis- 
 parate, comincio a rider e ; on seeing every thing in confu- 
 sion, lie began to laugh. 
 
 B. 2. 3. In verita io non so ; iu vedi, che ogni cosa e 
 pieno ; indeed I do not know : you see that every room 
 in the house is full. 
 
 B. 3. 6. E ogni cosa di Jtori quali nella stagione si 
 potevano avere, piena la brigata trovo; the company 
 found every thing filled with flowers, such as may be 
 had in that season. 
 
 Mezzo, signifying the half of a whole, and preceding its 
 substantive, has no plural and is declinable ; but if fol- 
 lowing, it is indeclinable. 
 
 B. 5. 8. Esso bene un mezzo miglio per la pigneta 
 entrato ; he advanced more than half a mile into a grove 
 of fir trees. 
 
 B.3. 7. Vientene in sulla mezza notte ; come about 
 midnight. 
 
 Barch. Togli una libra e mezzo di castrone ; buy a 
 pound and a half of mutton. 
 
 Redi. La terza tre ore e mezzo avanti cena ; the third 
 (a medicine), three hours and a half before supper. 
 
 Mezzo, signifying almost, is an adverb, and conse- 
 quently indeclinable. 
 
 B. 7. 5. Alia donna pareva mezzo avere mteso ; the 
 woman thought she had almost heard. 
 
 Mezzo, as an adverb, is often found in the plural, but 
 the student is not to imitate that practice. 
 
254 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 Adjectives are to agree with personal, conjunctive, and 
 relative pronouns, in gender and number, whether sepa- 
 rated from them by a verb or not. 
 
 B. 10. 9- Io son vivo la Dio nxerce, e qui aVoltre mar 
 ritornato ; I am alive, thank God, and come back hither 
 from beyond the sea. Vivo, an adjective masculine, 
 agrees with io, a pronoun of the masculine gender. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Considerando che voi side dalle vostre donne 
 lontani ; considering that you (gentlemen) are far from 
 your wives. Lontani is an adjective masculine plural, 
 because voi, a personal pronoun, with which it is made 
 to agree, is of the masculine gender. 
 
 B. 10. 6. Queste parole amaramente punsero F animo 
 del re, e tanto piil Fqffissero quanta piil vere le conoscea ; 
 these words touched the king to the quick : and so much 
 the more, as he knew them to be true. Vere is an adjec- 
 tive feminine plural., because le, with which it is made to 
 agree, is a relative pronoun of the feminine gender and 
 plural number. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Li quali, qiiando la videro sola, dissero ; who, 
 when they saw her alone, said. Sola is an adjective 
 feminine, because la, with which it is made to agree, is a 
 relative pronoun of the feminine gender. 
 
 B. 9. 2. Ed esso lei veggendo bellissima di lei s 1 ac- 
 cese ; and he seeing she was very handsome, fell in love 
 with her. Bcllisshna is an adjective superlative femi- 
 nine, because lei, with which it is made to agree, is a 
 personal pronoun of the feminine gender. 
 
 Gang. Egli viene ad inure la sua possanza colla nos- 
 tra debolezza, per render-ci forti ed invincibili ; he comes 
 to unite his strength with our weakness, to make us 
 strong and invincible. Forti and invincibili are adjec- 
 tives masculine plural, because ci, with which they are 
 made to agree, is a conjunctive pronoun of the masculine 
 gender and plural number. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 255 
 
 B. 10. 4. Madonna, omai da ogni promessa Jattami, 
 io vi assolvo, e libera vi lascio di Nicoluccio ; Madam, I 
 free you from all your promises to me, and I leave you 
 at the disposal of Nicoluccio. Libera is an adjective 
 feminine, because vi, with which it is made to agree, is a 
 conjunctive pronoun of the feminine gender. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Ed informato un de suoi famigli di cid che 
 far volea, alia sua donna, che savissima era, nel niando ; 
 and having informed one of his servants of what he was 
 going to do, he sent him to his wife, who was a very wise 
 woman. Savissima is an adjective superlative feminine, 
 because che, with which it is made to agree, is a relative 
 pronoun of the feminine gender. 
 
 B. 9. 1. Alessandro, levatosi prestamente, con tutto 
 che i panni del morto avesse indosso, li quali erano molto 
 lunghi, pure ando via altresi ; Alexander, getting up 
 quickly, although he was dressed in the clothes of the 
 deceased, which were very long, went away too. Lunghi 
 is an adjective masculine plural, because li quali, with 
 which it is made to agree, is a relative pronoun of the 
 masculine gender and plural number. 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 An adjective, belonging to two or more substantives 
 masculine singular, or one singular and another plural, 
 or one masculine and another feminine, and separated 
 from the said substantive by a verb, either expressed or 
 understood, is to be put in the plural, and to agree with 
 the masculine. 
 
 B. 10. 7. II padre di lei, e la madre (essendo is un- 
 derstood) dolorosi di questo accidente, in cid che si 
 poteva V atavano ; her parents, grieved at that accident, 
 did all in their power to relieve her. Dolorosi is an ad- 
 jective masculine plural, which belongs to padre and 
 madre, the former masculine, and the latter feminine, 
 and both in the singular number. 
 
256 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Le mie case ed i luoghi pubblichi di Roma 
 son pieni db antidie immagini de 1 miei maggiori; my 
 houses and the public places of Rome, are tiUed with 
 ancient statues of my ancestors. Pieni is an adjective 
 masculine plural, belonging to case a substantive femi- 
 nine plural, and luoghi a substantive masculine, also 
 plural. 
 
 Metas. Let. Dovevate dirmi die la corte tutta, 
 
 die i sovrani sono sommamente contenti ; you ought to 
 have told me that the whole court and the sovereigns 
 are well satisfied. Contenti is an adjective masculine 
 plural, belonging to corte a substantive feminine singular, 
 and sovrani a substantive masculine plural. 
 
 But if the said substantives are feminine, the adjective 
 is to be feminine, and put also in the plural number. 
 
 Metas. Let. So die viille bellezze del noto componimento, 
 e mille altre adorabili qualitd delta reale compositrice, 
 S07io piu atte ad irritare ; I know that a thousand beau- 
 ties of that known composition, and as many adorable 
 qualities of the royal authoress, are more apt to irri- 
 tate. Atte is an adjective feminine plural, belonging to 
 bellezze and qualita, both feminine plural. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 An adjective, accompanied with two or more substan- 
 tives either of the same or different gender, or number, 
 without a verb intervening, is to agree with the substan- 
 tive next to it. 
 
 Guic. E\ cosa manifestissima, die oggi non viene solo 
 in consulta, se £ ha a rifiutare V occasione d' acquistare 
 onor'u e gloria nuova ; it is manifest, that no one comes 
 to a consultation, if he is to refuse an opportunity of 
 gaining new honours and glory. Nuova, an adjective 
 feminine singular, is made to agree with gloria, its im- 
 mediate substantive feminine plural, and not with onori, 
 masculine plural. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES, 257 
 
 B. 3. 7. E quale col giacchio il pescatore d 1 occupare 
 nel Jiume molti pesci ad un> tratio, cosi costoro collejim- 
 brie amplissime avvolgendosi molte pinzochere, molte 
 vedove, molte altre sciocche femine, ed uomini (F avvi- 
 lupparvi sotto s^ ingegnano ; and as fishermen strive to 
 take as many fishes as possible with one cast of their 
 nets, so do these, with their large folds, envelope devout 
 maidens, widows, and other simple people. Sciocche, 
 an adjective feminine plural, is made to agree with 
 Jemine its immediate substantive feminine plural, and 
 not with uomini. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Ma per cid die 7 parlar della segreta pro- 
 videnza ed intenzion degV Iddiipare a molti duro e grave 
 a comprendere ; however, as discoursing upon the secrets 
 of the gods, is too difficult and intricate for most people 
 to comprehend. Segreta is an adjective feminine sin- 
 gular, which is made to agree with provvidenza its imme- 
 diate substantive feminine singular, and not with both 
 substantives. 
 
 B. 4. 8. E molti prieghi, e promesse grandissime mes- 
 colate, niuna cosa ottenne ; and though he used many 
 entreaties and fair promises to persuade her, yet it w T as 
 all in vain. Grandissime, an adjective feminine plural, 
 is made to agree with promesse, its immediate substan- 
 tive feminine plural, and not with prieghi, a substantive 
 masculine. 
 
 A. C. Let. JO oceano sifara dalla destra un omaccione 
 con barba e crini bagnati ; as for the ocean, it is to be re- 
 presented as a large overgrown old man with a dripping 
 beard and hair. Bagnati is an adjective masculine plu- 
 ral, which is made to agree with mni a substantive 
 masculine plural. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Ed oltre a cid niuno atto intendo di rendermi 
 benivola la tua mansuetudine, e 7 tuo amore ; besides, I 
 do not intend to take advantage of your love and ten- 
 derness towards me. Benivola is an adjective feminine 
 singular, which is made to agree with mansuetudine, a 
 substantive feminine singular, and not with amore, a mas- 
 culine substantive, 
 
&88 SYS! TAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 POSITION OF ADJECTIVES* 
 
 Adjectives may in general be placed either before or 
 after the substantives which they are to qualify. Ex. 
 
 B. 10. 9. DV da mia parte alia nuova sposa, che nelle 
 mie contrade s* u$a 9 quando alcun forestiere inangia al 
 convito della sposa nuova, ec. ; tell the bride from me, 
 that it is a custom in my country, when any foreigner is 
 at such an entertainment as this, &c. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Questo e dunque il gran male, il gran pec- 
 cato, il gran fat to adoperato da Gisippo ? is this then the 
 mighty crime that Gisippus has committed ? 
 
 B. 10. 9. Contntto che egli avesse la barba grande; 
 although he had a very long beard. 
 
 B. 10. 2. Ma T or a del mangiar venuta, V abate e tutti 
 gli altri ordinatamente, e di buone vivande, e di vini 
 buoni serviti furono ; when the time of dinner was 
 come, the abbot and all the others sat down, and were 
 nobly entertained. 
 
 B. 10. 2. Mend aUora Ghino V abate nella sala, dove 
 erano i moi arnesi e la famiglia tutta ; Ghino then led 
 the abbot into a room, where he found his effects and all 
 his servants. 
 
 B. 10. 2. Avendo Ghino in una sola tutti li suoi arnesi 
 fatti venire ; Ghino having had all the effects brought 
 into a room. 
 
 In the above examples the adjectives nuovo, grande, 
 buono, and tutto, as it is clearly seen, are sometimes put 
 before, and sometimes after their substantives, without 
 any apparent reason, but that, perhaps, of giving an 
 elegant turn to a phrase or making it sound better to the 
 ear ; for Boccaccio might as well have placed all those 
 adjectives, either always before their substantives or 
 always after, without offending the rules of grammar ; 
 but then the composition would have been indifferent, 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 259 
 
 and destitute of that energy and elegance which are so 
 much admired in Italian compositions. There are, how- 
 ever, many adjectives which, on account of their double 
 meaning, cannot be placed at pleasure ; but, according 
 to their respective significations, they have a place as- 
 signed to them. As, for example, grande, signifying 
 tail, is placed after its substantive thus, egli e un uomo 
 grande, he is a tall man : when it signifies great or noble, 
 it is put before it, thus, egli e un grand? uomo, he is a 
 great man. And again: — certo, signifying certain, is 
 always placed before its substantive, thus, v era ivi un 
 certo signore, there was there a certain gentleman : when 
 it signifies sure, it is placed after it, thus, egli e cosa certa, 
 it is a sure thing. For the position of these adjectives, 
 as well as of others, no exact rules can be set down ; and 
 nothing but good taste, a refined ear, a nice discernment 
 in reading good authors, and above all the instructions of 
 good masters, can satisfy the student on this subject. 
 
 Yet it is not our intention to leave the learner quite in 
 the dark, and to his own guidance alone, if he cannot 
 have the instruction of a master ; and although we cannot 
 give all the rules required, so as to leave no doubt in 
 placing the adjectives, we will set down those which are 
 sanctioned by custom, as used in the familiar style and 
 regular construction ; and these, if they do not remove 
 all the difficulties, will at least lead into no errors. 
 
 RULE XXI. 
 
 Adjectives derived from participles, those of colour, 
 form, taste, those expressive of a nation, those that 
 govern a case, or are connected with any other part of 
 speech, are to be placed after the substantive which they 
 qualify. Ex. 
 
 5. Ann. C. Let. La volta pot, in uno sfondato di 
 forma ovale; the ceiling (divided) into a cavity of an 
 oval form. Ovale, an adjective expressive of form, is 
 placed after its substantive^rwa. 
 
260 SXNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1. Ann. C. Let. Sia posta a seder e in una sedia in- 
 dorata ; she is to be seated on a gilt chair. 
 
 2. Ann. C. Let. Nelle mani le si ponga una lampada 
 accesa ; she is to hold a lighted lamp. 
 
 3. Indorata, an adjective, feminine of indorato, a par- 
 ticiple from indorare, to gild, and accesa, feminine of 
 acceso, a participle from accendere, to light, are placed 
 after their substantives, sedia and lampada. 
 
 4. Ann. C. Let. Tenga le mani alte, e dalV una un 
 bambino bianco che dorma, per significare il sonno, dalV 
 altra wi altro nero che paja dormire, sigmfichi la morte ; 
 she is to hold her hands up, and in one hand a white 
 child asleep, to represent sleep, and in the other a black 
 one, seemingly asleep, to represent death. Bianco and 
 Tiero being adjectives of colour, are put after their sub- 
 stantive, bambino. 
 
 6. B. 10. 9. L 1 abate, con tutto che egli in abito Ara- 
 he^co fosse, dopo alquanto il raffiguro ; though he was 
 dressed after the Arabian fashion, the abbot soon recol- 
 lected him. 
 
 B. 5. 2. La giovane udendo la favella Latina ; the 
 young woman, on hearing her speak Latin. Arabesco 
 and Latina being adjectives expressive of nations, are 
 placed after their substantives abito audfovella. 
 
 Ann. C. Let. E con alcune tazze in memo piene di 
 vino ; and holding some cups filled with wine. 
 
 Ann. C. Let. Una giovane che dorma colla testa ap- 
 poggiata sopra al braccio sinistro ? a young woman 
 sleeping, and reclining her head on her left arm. 
 
 Ann. C. Let. La vesta, chi vuol che sia lunga^Tio d 
 piedi> chi corta fino alle ginocchia ; as for her dress, 
 some will have it to reach to her feet, and others to 
 her knees. 
 
 Piene an adjective governing di, a genitive, appoggiata, 
 governing sopra, lunga and corta, governing the pre- 
 position fino, are placed after their respective substan- 
 tives tazze, testa, and vesta. 
 
 To adjectives, which are to be put after their substan- 
 tives, we may add those that are expressive of physical 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 261 
 
 qualities, as cieco, blind; zoppo, lame; gi*asso, fat; 
 magro, thin ; those that particularize the weather, as 
 nebbioso, foggy ; piovoso, rainy ; oscuro, dark, &c. ; 
 those that are expressive of the feelings, as, caldo, warm ; 
 freddo, cold, &c. ; of infirmities, as, etico, consumptive ; 
 accatarrato, having a cold ; idropico, dropsical, &c. 
 
 All the above adjectives are often found before their 
 substantives ; but that the student is not to imitate, until 
 he has acquired sufficient knowledge of the language to 
 choose the fittest position for them, to combine harmony 
 and elegance. 
 
 RULE XXII. 
 
 When two or more adjectives are to qualify one sub- 
 stantive, they may all either precede or follow the sub- 
 stantive. Ex. 
 
 Boca 3. 5. Ed al nostra amove daremo piacevole, ed 
 intero compimento ; and we shall agreeably pass together 
 all the time we can. Piacevole and intero, adjectives, 
 are both placed before compimento, a substantive. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Avendo seco Tancredi varie e diverse novita 
 pensate ; Tancred having revolved in his mind different 
 thoughts. Varie and diverse, adjectives, are both placed 
 before novita, the substantive which they are to qualify. 
 
 B. 4. % II quale ampia materia mi presta . . . a dimos- 
 trare, quanta e quale sia la ipocresia de^ religiosi, li quali 
 cd* panni larghi e lunghi, e cd* visi artificialmente pallidi , 
 e colle voci umili e mansuete net domandar Valtrui ; this 
 (proverb) affords ample matter ... to shew how great is 
 the hypocrisy of some of the religious, who have their 
 garments long and large ; their faces made pale artifici- 
 ally ; their language meek and humble, for the sole 
 purpose of getting men's property from them. Larghi 
 and lunghi, umili, and mansuete, adjectives, are placed 
 after their respective substantives, panni and voci. 
 
262 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Two adjectives, qualifying a substantive, may be 
 separated by putting one of them before, and the other 
 after the substantive, which adds more grace and elegance 
 to the phrase in question. 
 
 B. 5. I. Ormisda, statoin lungo trattato di dover tor re 
 per moglie una nobile giovane e bella . . . chiamata Cas- 
 sandra ; Ormisda, who had been long talked of as about 
 to marry a noble and beautiful young lady called Cas- 
 sandra. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Maestro Mazzeo . . . avendo presa per moglie 
 una hella e gentil giovane . . .di nobili vestimenti e ricchi 
 . . . e d? altre gioje teneva Jbrnita ; Master Mazzeo . . . 
 having married a young and beautiful woman ... gratified 
 her in rich and elegant clothes and jewels. 
 
 Though this transposition belongs to the figurative 
 syntax, which will be spoken of hereafter, we have 
 thought proper to give the above examples on this as well 
 as on other subjects scattered throughout this book, when 
 the opportunity presents itself, to avoid prolixity in 
 treating of that part of the grammar. 
 
 Adjectives are sometimes employed as adverbs, and 
 this adds more grace and elegance to the phrases in 
 question. The following are a few examples. 
 
 B. 10. 8. E per cid . . . caccia la malinconia . . . e lieto 
 aspetta i meriti del tuo molto piil degno amore che il 
 mio non era; and therefore drive melancholy away, 
 and joyfully prepare yourself to receive the gratifications 
 of your love, which is more fervent than mine. Lieto 
 for lietamente. 
 
 Sann. Arc. E mentre cosi dubitosi andavamo . . . Opico 
 ...disse; and while we thus doubtfully went on, Opico 
 said. Dubitosi for dubitosamente. 
 
 B. 4. 9- E come in quella parte il vide giunto^ dove 
 voleva; fellone, con una lancia sopra mano gli us&i 
 addosso gridando ; and when he saw him in a fit place 
 for his purpose, he furiously ran with his lance at him, 
 saying. Fellone for Jellonescamente. 
 
SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 263 
 
 Syntax of Comparatives. 
 
 The comparatives of equality, as we said, page 78, 
 are formed by means of the words cost, come, tanto, 
 quanto, &c. and the examples set down on that subject, 
 are quite sufficient for the information of the student i 
 what now remains to be said about that sort of compara- 
 tives, is their government, which we will endeavour to 
 explain as clearly as possible. 
 
 RULE XXIII. 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF COMPARATIVES OF EQUALITY. 
 
 Comparatives of equality, whether they are made with 
 adjectives or adverbs, require the nouns following come 
 or quanto, to be put in the accusative. 
 
 Before we proceed with the examples, it is proper to 
 observe, that as this rule cannot be distinguished in 
 nouns, because their accusative is the same as their 
 nominative, we have therefore chosen the following 
 examples, with some of the personal pronouns, the 
 accusative of which is different from their nominative. 
 
 B. Fil. Sicche quanto me puote essere alcun dolente ; 
 ma piii no ; so that any body may be as miserable as I 
 am, but nobody more so. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Pietro, die piii al viso di lei andava guar- 
 dando, che al cammino, non essendosi tosto come lei de* 
 fanti che venieno avveduto ; Pietro, whose eyes were more 
 intent upon his mistress, than on the road, did not so 
 quickly see the soldiers coming as she did. 
 
 Me is the accusative of io, and lei accusative of etta. 
 
 If the verb (the subject of which is the noun governed 
 by quanto or come)^ is to be expressed in Italian, the said 
 noun must be put in the nominative case ; and the said 
 
264 SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 
 
 verb, if its action leaves no doubt of its being, is to be 
 put in the indicative. 
 
 Guic. Non aveva giammai . . . Italia . . . provato stuto 
 tanfo desiderabile quanto era quello ; Italy had never 
 experienced so desirable a state as that was. 
 
 B. 10. 7. Alia reina piacque molto la risposta della 
 giovane, e parvele cos^ savia, come il re Tavea detto; 
 the queen was much pleased with the young woman's 
 reply, thinking her as prudent as the king had reported 
 her to be. 
 
 B. 9. 1. Siccome quella che ha di ltd, cost morto come 
 egli e, paura; she is afraid of him though he is dead. 
 
 Quello, il re, and egli, are nominatives, because the 
 words era, e, avea, derived from essere, to be, and avere, 
 to have, are expressed, not understood ; and these very 
 words, era, e, and avea, are put in the indicative, because 
 no doubt is left of their being, or rather to say, because 
 the actions are certain. 
 
 But if the action of the verb is indeterminate or leaves 
 any doubt behind, the said verb is to be put in the 
 subjunctive, 
 
 B. 8. 6. Napoli, cittd antichissima, e Jbrse cost dileU 
 tevole come ne sia alcuna altra in Italia ; Naples, a very 
 ancient city, and perhaps as pleasant as any other in 
 Italy. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Costeiju dal padre tanto teneramente arnata, 
 quanto alcuna altra Jigliuola da padre fosse giammai ; 
 no child could be more dear to a parent than this young 
 woman was. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Che a me pareva . . . aver presa una ca- 
 Vriuola tanto bella, e tanto piacevole* quanto alcuna 
 altra se ne vedesse giammai ; I thought I had taken 
 a young hind as beautiful and as affectionate as could 
 ever be imagined. 
 
 Sia and fosse, derived from the verb essere, to be, 
 and vedesse, from vedere, to see, are in the subjunctive, 
 because the action of each verb is indeterminate. 
 
SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 265 
 
 EEMARKS ON tailt0 9 WITH THE CORRESPONDENCE OF 
 
 guanto. 
 
 1. These two words not only are adverbs for forming 
 the comparatives of equality, as we have said above, 
 but they are also adjectives, and as such they are to 
 agree with their substantive, either expressed or under- 
 stood, in gender and number. Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Per la qual cosa molti a ciascun sogno tanta 
 fede prestano, quanta ne presteriano a quelle cose, le 
 quali vegghiando vedessero ; for which reason, we see 
 many people paying the same regard to a dream as they 
 would do to any thing which they saw whilst they were 
 really awake. Tanta and quanta agree with fede, a 
 substantive of the feminine gender, in the second instance 
 fede being understood. 
 
 Gold. II danaro si semina come la biada, e alV uomo 
 di giudizio un bajocco frutta tanti bajocchi quanti gra- 
 nelli in una spica produce un grano ; money is sown 
 like wheat, and one penny produces to a wise man as 
 many pence as grains are produced from one grain in 
 an ear of corn. Tanti agrees with bajocchi, and quanti 
 with granelli, both being substantives of the masculine 
 gender. 
 
 2. Tanto and its correspondent quanto, as adverbs, 
 accompany the comparatives piu, meno, meglio, peggio, 
 maggiore, minore, &c, and are expressed in English 
 by the word the ; thus, the more, the less, the better, 
 the worse. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Manifesta cosa e, tanto piu Tarti piacere, 
 quanto^z?) sottile artefice e per quelle artificiosatnente 
 beffato ; it is certain that those stratagems are the more 
 entertaining, the more cunning and artful is the person 
 who is imposed upon by them. 
 
 B. 6. 1. / leggiadri motti tanto stanno meglio alle 
 donne che agU uomini, quanto piu alle donne che agli 
 uomini il motto parlare si disdice ; elegant expressions 
 
 N 
 
266 SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 
 
 are the embellishments of discourse, and the shorter they 
 are the better, especially in women. 
 
 In the above examples we have seen that tanto, either 
 as an adjective or adverb, precedes quanlo ; it may, 
 however, follow it, and then all the members of the sen- 
 tence belonging to it must be transposed. 
 
 B. 2. 6. Gravi cose e nojose sono i movimenti varj 
 della fortuna, de* quali quante volte alcuna cosa siparla^ 
 tante e un destare dette nostre rnenti ; very great and 
 grievous are the changes of fortune, of which as often 
 as we discourse, so often do they forcibly excite our 
 attention. 
 
 B. 2. 3. Quanto piu si parla de* fatti della fortuna^ 
 tan to piu a chi vuole le sue cose ben riguardare, ne resta 
 a poter dire ; the more we speak of the acts of fortune, 
 so much the more remains to be spoken by those who 
 consider them attentively. 
 
 B. 3. 2. Come noi veggiamo assai sovente avvenire, 
 quanto la speranza diventa minore, tan to maggior Varnor 
 farsi ; as we often see, that love becomes very violent in 
 a man who despairs of success. 
 
 In these three examples, the words tanto, quanto, might 
 have been transposed thus: — tante volte e un destare 
 delle nostre mentis quante volte, &c. ; tanto piu resta a 
 poter dire de' 'fatti della for tuna... quanto piu si parla di 
 essi, &c. . . . tanto maggior Tarnor farsi*, quanto minore 
 diventa la speranza. 
 
 3. Tanto, (1) both as an adverb and an adjective, used 
 in the sense of excess, or otherwise accompanied with the 
 particles si, tale, &c. has the correspondence of che instead 
 of quanto. 
 
 (1) Tanto is sometimes without its correspondent, when the 
 second member of the sentence is an infinitive. 
 
 B.3. 1. Io non sono stato tanto f dice di piacervi; I was not so 
 happy as to please you. 
 
 The same may be 6aid of cost in the above sense. 
 
SYNTAX OF COMPABATIVES. 267 
 
 B. 9. 2. E tantaju lafretta, che senza avvedersene... 
 
 le si gitto in capo, e uscifwri ; and she was in so great 
 
 a hurry, that she threw them over her head, without 
 
 seeing what they were, and went forth. Tanta fu la 
 
 fretta, that is, lafrettafu si grande. 
 
 B. 9. 3. E darele tante busse, che io la romperei tutta; 
 and I would give her such a flogging, that she would 
 never forget it. E dar&le tante busse, that is, e le darei 
 tin si gran numero di bastonate. 
 
 B. 4. 8. E venendo poi crescendo Teta, Vusanza si con- 
 vert\ in amore tanto e si jiero, che Girolamo non sentiva 
 ben, se non tanto quanto costei vedeva ; and as he grew 
 up, that acquaintance changed into love, which became 
 so violent, that he was never easy, unless he was in her 
 company. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Egli e tanto e tale T amove, cJC io viporto . . . 
 che . . . intendo di starmi qui per esservi sempre presso ; 
 the love I bear you is so violent, that I intend to take 
 my abode here, that I may always be near you. 
 
 The comparatives of superiority and inferiority, formed 
 by means of piil, and meno, as we said page 78, govern, 
 in Italian, either the genitive or the particle che, both of 
 which are expressed by than in English ; but as there are 
 some cases in which one way is preferable to the other, 
 we refer the reader to the following rules. 
 
 RULE XXIV. 
 
 The comparatives piit, rneno, meglio^ &c. whether 
 accompanied with an adjective, or a verb, being followed 
 by a noun or pronoun, govern the genitive. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Ed avendo a fare con Borgognmi, non so cut 
 io mi possa lasciare a riscuotere il mio da loro piu. con- 
 venevole di te ; and as I have affairs to settle with some 
 people of Burgundy, I do not know any one, whom I 
 can employ, and who is fitter to manage them than 
 yourself. 
 
 n2 
 
268 SYNTAX 0E COMPARATIVES. 
 
 B. 5. 2. Quindi partitosi corseggiando, comincio a 
 costeggiare la Barberia rubando ciascuno che meno di lui 
 poteva ; departing from thence, he cruized on the coast 
 of Barbary, plundering any one of less force than his 
 own. 
 
 B. 10. 7- Ma si come voi meglio di me conoseete, 
 niuno secondo debita elezione ei s* innamora ; but as you 
 know better than I do, nobody falls in love with persons 
 selected for him by duty. 
 
 Di te, genitive of tu, is governed by piu, accompanied 
 with convenevole, an adjective ; and di lui, and di rive, 
 genitives of egli and io, are governed by meno and 
 meglio, accompanied with the verbs poteva and conoseete. 
 
 It is to be observed, that if the nouns or pronouns 
 governed by the comparatives, as above, take an article, 
 in Italian, instead of di — dello, del, della, &c. according 
 to their gender and number, are to be used. 
 
 Bembo. Questa opera cosi cercata da ognuno, e tanito 
 piu corretta, e piu piena delle altre ; this work so much 
 in demand, and still more correct and full than any 
 other. Altre requires an article, therefore delle, instead 
 of di, is to be used. 
 
 Varchi. Quanto la vita e le azioni di re . . .sonopiil 
 chiare e illustri della vita, e delle azioni delle persone pri- 
 vate , . . tanto, &c. ; the more illustrious the lives and 
 actions of kings are, when compared with those of other 
 men, so much, &c. 
 
 RULE XXV. 
 
 A comparison being made between two or more ad- 
 jectives, substantives, infinitives, participles, or in one 
 word, between any similar parts of speech, the compara- 
 tives piu, meno, meglio, &c. are to govern che instead of 
 the genitive. Ex. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Ma ella non meno onesta che bella, niente di 
 quelle cose per lei Jatte, ne di colui si curava, che le 
 
SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 209 
 
 Jfaceva ; but she being not less respectable than she was 
 fair, paid no regard either to what he did for her sake, 
 or to himself. Onesta and bella are the two adjectives. 
 
 ■f . Passav. Potresti tu gia dire, Scipione, Vanimo mm 
 vorrebhe piil tosto viitoria che pace; you might say, 
 Scipio, that my intention is rather inclined to victory 
 than to peace. Vittoria and pace are the two substantives. 
 
 B. 4, Proem. E son di guegli ancora, che piu dispet- 
 iosamente parlando che saviamente, kanno detto ; and 
 there are some people, who speaking more maliciously 
 than wisely, said. Dispettosamente and saviamente are 
 the two adverbs. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Di pari concordia deliberarono essere il 
 migliore d'aver Tito per parente, che aver Gisippo pen* 
 parente perduio, e Tito per nimico ; they thought it was 
 better to admit Titus as a relation, than to lose the 
 alliance of Gisippus, and procure the enmity of Titus. 
 Aver repeated, are the two infinitives. 
 
 B. 10. 8. / vostri rammarichi, piu da furia che da 
 ragione incitati . . . dannano Gisippo ; your complaints, 
 which arise more from rage than reason, condemn Gisip- 
 pus. Incitati, a participle once expressed, and the 
 other time understood, thus : piil incitati da furia, che 
 incitati da rag.io?ie 9 are the participles in question. 
 
 In like manner, we say : Cid si ottiene piu amando la 
 viriil che carezzando il vizio ; that is obtained by loving 
 virtue more than vice ; in which the comparison is made 
 between two gerunds, amando and carezzando; and 
 again, Mi place meglio il pro, che si dice di lui, cite il 
 contra ; I like better that which is said in his favour, 
 than what is said against him. 
 
 To the word che, we add non, when a verb, which is 
 neither infinitive, participle, nor gerund, is expressed ; 
 Ex. 
 
 B. 4, 8. Marsilia . . « e nobilissima citta, e gia fu di 
 ricchi uomini e di gran mercatanti piu copiosa che oggi 
 non si vede ; Marseilles is a very noble city, and was 
 better provided formerly with rich citizens and wealthy 
 
270 SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES 
 
 merchants, than it is at present. Che non, than ; non is 
 added to che, because the verb si vede is expressed. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Ma vegnamo alia seco?ida ragione, nella 
 quale con piil istanzia vi si convien dimostrare, lui piu 
 essere stato savio che voi non siete ; but let us come to 
 the second reason ; in which I will shew you by divers 
 instances, that he has proved himself wiser than you are. 
 Che non, than ; non is added to che because the verb 
 siete is expressed. 
 
 But if the verb is understood, che is used without the 
 addition of non, 
 
 B. 10. 8. E percid se Gisippo amo piil la vita mia che 
 la vostra benignita ; if, therefore, Gisippus valued my 
 life beyond your favour. That is, che non amo la vostra 
 benignita. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Io 9 misera me I gia sarto otto anni, f ho piu 
 che la mia vita amato : alas ! I have loved you passion- 
 ately for eight whole years ! That is : f ho amato piu 
 che' non ho amato la mia vita. 
 
 Instead of che non, we use di quel che, or di quelh 
 che. Ex. 
 
 Band. Veramente le sueforze sono assai piit maggiori 
 di quel che noi possiamo immaginarci ; indeed, his 
 strength is by far greater than we can imagine. 
 
 Davila. Non erano meno ambigue le letter e di quello 
 chefossero le parole ; her letters were no less ambiguous 
 than her words. 
 
 Di quel che, and di queUo che> are used in the place of 
 che nxm. 
 
 .• 
 
 REMARKS ON piu. 
 
 1. Piu is not only a comparative particle, but it is 
 also used as an adjective, indeterminate pronoun, and 
 adverb. Ex. 
 
 B. 2. 7. i" marinari diedero le vele d venti e piu giorni 
 felicemente navigarono ; the sailors hoisted their sails, 
 
SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 271 
 
 and prosperously sailed many days. Piil, used as an 
 adjective, for moltL 
 
 B. 10. 4. La donna . . .fu in casa ricevuta, e quasi 
 risuscitata, con ammirazione fu piu tempo guatata da* 
 Bolognesi ; the lady was received by her family, and for 
 a long time the people of Bologna beheld her with the 
 same wonder, as if she had been raised from the dead. 
 Piu, used as an adjective, for grande or lungo. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Disse Ferondo, non d e egli piu persona che 
 noi due ? Ferondo said : is nobody here then beside us 
 two ? 
 
 B. 10. 10. Madonnna, il mio Signore ni ha coman- 
 dato, che io prenda questa vostra figliuola, e che io...e 
 non disse piu; Madam, my lord ordered me to take your 
 daughter, and . . . and said nothing else. 
 
 Piiij in these two examples, is used as an indeterminate 
 pronoun, for altro. 
 
 B. 4. 1 . II tuo padre ti manda qiiesto per consolarti 
 di quella cosa che tu piu ami ; your father sends you 
 this present to comfort you with what is most dear to 
 you. Piu used as an aclverb, for sommamente, grcmde- 
 mente. 
 
 SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 Superlatives, as we observed page 79, are of two 
 sorts, viz. the superlative comparative, and the superla- 
 tive absolute. 
 
 RULE XXVI. 
 
 OF THE POSITION OF SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 Superlatives, whether comparative or absolute, are 
 placed either before or after their substantives, with this 
 distinction, that when the former are put after the substan- 
 tive, the article is more elegantly transposed, and placed 
 before the said substantive. 
 
272 SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Ilfrate udendo questo,fa il piu turbato uomo 
 del mondo ; the friar was the most uneasy man in the 
 world on hearing this. 
 
 Macch. E benche . . . potessino far le guerre piu lunghe ; 
 and though they could carry on the longest wars. 
 
 B. 5. 1. La quale come Cimon vide . . . con ammirazione 
 grandissima la comincio a guardare ; as soon as Cymon 
 saw her, he began to gaze on her with the utmost asto- 
 nishment. 
 
 B. 5. 1. NelF isola di Ciprifu un nobilissimo uomo, il 
 quale fu chiamato Aristippo ; there lived in Cyprus a 
 man of high rank called Aristippus. 
 
 B. 2. 9. E camminando insieme pervennero in un 
 vallone molto profondo; and as they travelled along, 
 they came into a very deep valley. 
 
 B. 10. 6. II qual piu per uno intramettere, che per 
 molto cara o dileitevol vivanda . . .fu messo davanti al re ; 
 which was put before the king, more as an additional dish 
 than as an exquisite one. 
 
 B. 4. 5. Erano adunque in Messina tre giovanifra- 
 telli, e mercatanti, ed assai ricchi uomini rimasi dopo la 
 morte del padre loro . ..ed avevano una lor sorella chia- 
 mata IAsabetta, giovane assai bella e costumata ; there 
 lived then, at Messina, three young merchants, who 
 were brothers, and left very rich by their father ; and 
 they had an only sister, called Elizabeth, a lady of 
 merit and beauty. 
 
 In the above examples the superlative either follows 
 or precedes its substantive, ad libitum ; yet we do not 
 advise the student to place it at random, because it 
 sometimes happens that a construction of that kind may 
 be destitute of harmony, if he has not yet accustomed 
 his ear to such expressions ; but in order that no difficulty 
 may arise in placing the superlative, when accompanied 
 with its substantive, we say, that the best place of the 
 superlative comparative is before the substantive ; as, il 
 piu dotto uomo ; the most learned man ; that of the 
 superlative absolute, ending in issimo, is either before 
 
SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 273 
 
 or after the substantive; as, uomo dottissimo, or dottis- 
 simo uomo ; a very learned man ; and that of the super- 
 lative, formed by putting molto or assai, before the 
 adjective, is placed after the substantive ; as, un uomo 
 assal or molto dotto, and not un molto dotto uomo. It is 
 to be observed that the particles piil, meno, &c. may not be 
 put before each substantive, if more than one happen to 
 be in the sentence, as it is seen in some of the above 
 examples. 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 RULE XXVII. 
 
 The superlative absolute, as it generally ends a clause 
 or sentence, has no noun or verb following it ; but the 
 superlative comparative may govern either a noun or a 
 verb. If it be a noun, that noun is to be put in the 
 genitive. Ex. 
 
 B. S. 3. II J rate udendo questofa il piu turbato uomo 
 del mondo ; the friar was the most uneasy man in the 
 world on hearing this. 
 
 B, 10. 2. Venne a corte T abate Cligni il quale si crede 
 essere un de* piu riccki prelati del mondo ; the abbot of 
 Ciigni, who is reputed to be one of the richest prelates 
 in the world, came to court. 
 
 In both examples, del mondo is the genitive case of 
 il piu turbato, and de* piil ricchi, superlatives com- 
 parative. 
 
 If it be a verb, that verb, whose nominative or any 
 other case is one of the relative pronouns cite or quale, 
 referring to the said superlative, is to be put in the sub- 
 junctive, provided the action of the verb is doubtful or 
 indeterminate. Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 4. Era una delle piu belle creature, che mai dalla 
 natura fosse statu formata ; she was one of the finest 
 creatures that nature ever formed. 
 
 B. 10. 10. Egli era il piu savio ed il piu avveduto 
 
 n3 
 
274 SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 
 
 uomo, che al rnondo fosse ; he was the wisest and most 
 prudent man that ever lived. 
 
 In both examples the verb fosse is put in the sub- 
 junctive, because its action or its existence is indeter- 
 minate; as, in saying she was the handsomest woman 
 that nature ever formed, we only imagine it without 
 asserting that it is so. 
 
 But if the action of the verb is so certain as to 
 leave no doubt behind, the verb is to be put in the indi- 
 cative. Ex. 
 
 Macch. Tutte le piu grosse quercie, tutti i piu grandi 
 alberi, che a tanto furore non volevano cedere, furomy 
 non solo sbarbati, ma discosto rnolto da dove avevano le 
 loro radici portati ; all the largest oaks and trees which 
 would not give way to its fury, (viz. of the storm), not 
 only were rooted up, but carried away to a very con- 
 siderable distance. 
 
 Volevano is the verb put in the indicative, because its 
 action is certain. 
 
 Instead of the superlative comparative, we some- 
 times find the superlative absolute with the subjunctive, 
 thus : — 
 
 B. 1 . 8. M. Erminio di Grimaldi„.di gram lunga tra- 
 passava la ricchezza d^ogni altro ricchissimo cittadino che 
 allora si sapesse m Italia ; Mr. Erminio de' Grimaldi by 
 far surpassed in wealth any other rich man then known 
 in Italy. 
 
 Buom. lo per me credo che se Demostene o Cicerone 
 avesser potato veder le sue prose, non si sarebbon sdegnati 
 di leggerle e rileggerle, con celebrarle poi per una delle 
 finissime opere che abbia Varte del dire ; as for me, I 
 think that if Demosthenes and Cicero could have seen 
 her prosaic compositions, they would not have refused 
 to read them again and again, in order to celebrate 
 them afterwards for the finest works that the art of 
 rhetoric has produced. 
 
 Si sapesse and abbia, are the subjunctives, which 
 
SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. &75 
 
 depend on che 9 referring to riechissimo cittadino and 
 Jmissirne opere ; but these two superlatives absolute 
 stand for the superlatives comparatives, piu ricco citta- 
 dino, piil fine opere ; the former way of which, however, 
 is better to be known than imitated. 
 
 It is to be observed that the relative che or quale, 
 following the superlative comparative, may be changed 
 into di quanto, or di quanta ne, putting ne immediately 
 before the verb, and making di quanta agree with its 
 substantive, either expressed or understood, in gender 
 and number. Ex. 
 
 . Guarini Past. Fido. Fido Dameta, scegli tosto un torello 
 di quanti n' abbia la feconda rnandra il piil morbido e 
 hello ; faithful Dameta, choose the fattest and finest 
 heifer, that is to be found in the herd. 
 
 Boca Filoc. E fra se disse : Cortesissimo giovane e 
 costui, di quanti io mai vedessi ; and she said to herself, 
 this is the kindest youth I ever saw. 
 
 EEMARKS ON piu WITH THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Piii with the article, is not only a superlative com- 
 parative, but an adverb of different significations. 
 
 With the article il, it signifies generalrnente. 
 
 B. 4 1. Ghismonda, conoscendo esser preso Guiscardo, 
 dolor e inestimabile senfi, ed a mostrarlo con rornore, e con 
 lagrime, come il piu. le Jemmine Jhnno, fu assai volte 
 vicina ; as Ghismonda knew, that Guiscard had been 
 arrested, she was under the greatest concern imaginable, 
 and was going to break out into loud and grievous 
 lamentations, as women generally do. 
 
 With the article plural of both genders, it is put for la 
 maggior parte di essi. 
 
 B. Introd. Quasi tutti in fra 7 terzo giorno dalla 
 apparizione de 1 sopradetti segni, ed i piu senza febbre, 
 morivano ; almost all of them on the third day after the 
 first appearance of the symptoms died, and the greatest 
 part of them without any fever. 
 
276 SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOUNS. 
 
 B. 8. 3. II quale fu da Calandrino domandato dove 
 queste pietre cos\ virtuose si trovassero. Maso rispose, 
 die le piu si trovavano in Berlinzone ; Calandrino asked 
 him where these wonderful stones were to be found. 
 Maso said, that the greatest part of them were to be 
 found in Berlinzone. 
 
 SYNTAX OF NUMEKAL NOUNS. 
 
 RULE XXVIII. 
 
 Cardinal numbers have no article, and are indifferently 
 placed either before or after their substantives. Ex. 
 
 Bembo. Dicendomi che un suo zio era morto, ed aveagli 
 lasciato dugento fiorini ; telling me, that an uncle of nis 
 was dead, and had left him two hundred florins. 
 
 Macch. jET questo castello posto propinquo a Firenze, ad 
 otto miglia ; and this castle lies eight miles from Florence. 
 
 G. Vill. Nel detto anno 1 328, si cornmcio, e fu due 
 anni sequenti grande caro di grano . ..in Firenze, che di 
 soldi 11 lo stqjo . . . il detto anno valse soldi 38 ; in the 
 same year, 1328, there was such a scarcity of corn, which 
 lasted for the two following years, that a bushel which 
 before was sold for 1 7 pence, was the same year sold 
 for 38. 
 
 In the above examples dugento, otto, and due, cardinal 
 numbers, precede Jiorini, miglia, and anni, substantives; 
 and 17 and 38 follow soldi. 
 
 If the cardinal number particularizes a substantive, or 
 is followed by a substantive with a relative, the article 
 is to be used. Ex. 
 
 Metas. Le tre odi sugli effetti della musica ; the three 
 odes on the effects of music. 
 
 Metas. Dal nostro signor Abate Baronio mijurono... 
 consegnati ed i due libri e la letter a di cui F E. V. si e 
 eompiaciuta incaricarlo ; the Abbot Baronio has delivered 
 me both the books and the letter with which you were 
 pleased to charge him. 
 
SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOtJNS. 27t 
 
 The cardinal number, accompanied with a pronoun 
 either relative, possessive, demonstrative, or indetermi- 
 nate, is, together with it, to precede the substantive. 
 
 Bembo. Ancorche avessero tre altri littori; though 
 they had three other lictors. 
 
 Bembo. Ricevuta jeri la vostra lettera, in risposta 
 delta mia sopra i due libri vostri ; having yesterday 
 received your letter, in answer to mine, about your two 
 books. 
 
 REMARKS ON UnO, AND ALL NUMBERS ENDING IN UUQ ; 
 
 such as ventimo, trentuno, quarantuno, &c. 
 
 Una masculine, and una feminine, as adjectives, have 
 no plural, but as substantives they are used in the plu- 
 ral, making uni, une> and especially with the corres- 
 pondence of altro. 
 
 B. Fiam. Poi immaginai di voter fare, siccome fecero 
 i Saguntini, o gli Abided gli uni tementi Annibale Car- 
 taginese, e gli altri Filippo Macedonico ; then I thought 
 I should do as the Saguntines and Abydenes did, the 
 former fearing Hannibal of Carthage, and the latter 
 Philip of Macedon. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Quanto piu posso, ti priego cite le mie cose ed 
 ella ti sieno raccomandate, e quello dell' une, e delP altra 
 facc% die credi, che sia consolazione dell 9 anima mia ; I do 
 earnestly recommend to you her and my effects : and beg 
 you will do with the former and the latter, .what you 
 think proper to console me. 
 
 With respect to ventuno, trentuno, centuno, &c, we 
 say that they make ventuna, trentuna, &c. for the femi- 
 nine, and have no plural. Their respective substantives, 
 however, are to be plural, when preceding the number, 
 and singular when following it. 
 
 D. Conv. Abbiamo di Platone, che esso vivette ott&n- 
 tuno anno ; they say that Plato lived eighty-one years. 
 
 D. Conv. Poi per la medesima via pare descendere 
 altre novantuna ruota ; then he seemed to descend 
 ninety-one more circles by the same way* 
 
278 SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOUNS. 
 
 Davan. Pisone visse anni trentuno ; Piso lived thirty- 
 one years. 
 
 The substantive is to be plural, though preceded by 
 trentuno, &c., provided the said numbers have an article. 
 Ex. 
 
 Vill. Enea ed Ascanio suo Jigliuolo e tutta sua gente 
 delle ventuna navi, che in quel porto si ritrovarono, la 
 detta reina accohe con grande onore; the said queen 
 honourably received iEneas, Ascanius his son, and all 
 the crews of the twenty-one ships, which arrived in that 
 port. 
 
 A verb, the subject of which is one of the above- 
 mentioned numbers ending in uno, with its substantive, 
 is to be put in the plural without exception ; and the 
 adjective, if there happen to be one, must be plural, 
 though the substantive be in the singular, as is seen in 
 the example of Dante, as given above, altre novantuna 
 ruota, and in the following one of Petrarch. 
 
 Caniando anni trentuno interi spesi ; I consumed 
 thirty-one years in the study of the muses. 
 
 These observations, which we have taken from JBuom- 
 mattei and Cinonio, seem to be accurate, because founded 
 upon reason ; as they say, that when the substantive 
 numbered is put before, it is made to agree with the 
 larger number, viz., venti, trenta, quaranta ; and when 
 the said substantive is put after, it is made to agree with 
 uno, thus ; ottanta e uno anno, novanta e una ruota. 
 Yet I have found many other writers of more modern 
 date, who have not followed the above rules. 
 
 Macch. 1st. Fior. Di qui nacque che...tenne uno stato 
 trentun anni ; hence it came, that he governed a state 
 for thirty-one years. 
 
 Metas. Let. Trover ete... Toper a delV Alessandro nelF 
 Indie pitt corta di quello chejinora £ stata di 561 versi ; 
 you will find the opera of Alessandro neTT Indie five 
 hundred and sixty-one lines shorter than it has hitherto 
 been. 
 
SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOUNS. 279 
 
 Metas. Let. Ben singolare e la vostra richiesta...da 
 me die sono da 41 anni in Germania ; you request some- 
 thing very singular from me, who have been about forty- 
 one years in Germany. 
 
 In the above examples it is clearly seen that the 
 substantives anni and versi are in the plural, though 
 following the number ; and that Macchiavelli and Metas- 
 task) seem to have considered the numbers ending in uno 
 not as adjectives but as adverbs ; and why should not 
 ventuno, trentuno, quarantuno, be the same as all other 
 numbers which are considered as adverbs, and conse- 
 quently indeclinable ? 
 
 RULE XXIX. 
 
 Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, agree with their 
 substantives in gender and number, are placed before 
 their substantives, and take an article. Ex. 
 
 B. Int. Anzi quasi tutti 9 infra il terzo giorno daW 
 apparizione dei sopradetti segni...morivano ; nay, almost 
 all died the third day after the first appearance of the 
 symptoms. 
 
 J. Pass. La settima cosa die c'induce a Jar penitenza 
 e ; the seventh thing which induces us to do pe- 
 nance, is. 
 
 Bemb. E die in quel primi giorni, di sul rnonte delta 
 Triniia vi void sopra la testa htl aquila ; and that in 
 those first days, on the mountain of Trinity an eagle 
 ilew over your head. 
 
 Sometimes ordinal numbers are used without the sub- 
 stantive, but then it is understood. Ex. 
 
 B. Intr. Molti altri servavano...una mezzana via, rum 
 string endosi nelle vivande quant l o i primi, ne nel here... 
 quanto i secondi ; many others chose a method between 
 the two, not confining themselves in eating like the 
 former, nor in drinking like the latter. To primi and 
 secondi is understood uomini, persone, &c. 
 
280 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE XXX. 
 
 Ordinal numbers, in speaking of quotations, are 
 generally put after the substantive, without any article. 
 Ex. 
 
 Sann. Arcadia, prosa terza ; Arcadia, third prose. 
 
 Bocc. Giornata nana, novella ottava ; the ninth day, 
 novel the eighth. 
 
 Valerio Massimo, libro ottavo; Valerius Maximus, 
 book the eighth. 
 
 RULE XXXI. 
 
 Ordinal numbers, in speaking of popes, emperors, 
 kings, and other dignitaries, are ufced without an article. 
 Ex. 
 
 Cast. Che cos\ dicono contenersi nella holla di Carlo 
 quarto ; for so, they say, it is in the bull of Charles the 
 Fourth. 
 
 Alg. Let. II ricevimento fatto ...da quella nobile 
 Jumiglia ad Arrigo terzo, re di Francia ; the reception 
 which Henry the third, king of France, experienced 
 from that noble family. 
 
 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties that the student of the 
 Italian language has to encounter, is the construction of 
 the personal pronouns and their derivatives ; yet modern 
 grammarians, under pretence either of being concise, or 
 of not enlarging their volume, have been very sparing 
 on this subject ; and even then, they have so confusedly 
 explained the matter, that students, after reading their 
 observations, are as much in the dark as before. But as 
 we consider this part of the grammar to be of the greatest 
 importance, we have expatiated upon this point, to ren- 
 der it as clear as possible by rules and examples. 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 281 
 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE FIRST STATE, VIZ. Io, 
 
 tu, noi, voi, egli, ella, eglino, elleno, esso, essa 9 essi, 
 esse. 
 
 RULE XXXII. 
 
 Io, tu, noi, voi, being the subjects of a discourse, 
 may, at pleasure, be left out both in speaking and writ- 
 ing ; all the others are always to be expressed, in order 
 to distinguish the gender ; for were we to say canta 
 sings, parla speaks ; we should not know whether the 
 singer or the speaker be a man or a woman. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Tancredi, ne a negare, ne a pregare son 
 disposta ; Tancred, I am neither inclined to deny, nor 
 to pray. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Madonna, io vidi quesia sera al tardi...un' 
 area non troppo grande ; Madam, I saw late in the 
 evening, a good large chest. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Marsilia, come voi sapete, e in Provenza 
 sopra la rnarina posta, antica e nohilissima citta ; 
 Marseilles, as you know, is an ancient and famous city 
 of Provence, situated on the sea side. 
 
 B. 10. 8. II che se savj sete, lietamente comporterete ; 
 If you be wise, you will take it in good part. 
 
 In the above examples, the pronouns io, and voi, are 
 expressed or understood at pleasure ; and the author 
 would not have committed any fault, had he said, io son 
 disposta, vidi questa sera, come sapete, se voi savj sete. 
 
 B. 10. 8. E che fareste voi piu se egli ad un villano, 
 ad un servo data Tavesse ? what could you do more, had 
 he given her to a scoundrel or a slave ? 
 
 B. 10. 8. Ella dunque, cioe Sqfronia . . . e mia : she 
 then, viz. Sophronia, is mine. 
 
 B. Int. Non a quella chiesa, cK esso avea anzi la 
 morte disposto ; ma alia piu vicina il portavano ; they 
 did not carry him to that church where he had desired 
 to be buried, but to the nearest one. 
 
282 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 In these three examples, the pronouns egli, ella, esso, 
 are expressed, otherwise it would produce ambiguity. 
 
 1. All these pronouns, however, when expressed, are 
 to be used only once, and that in the beginning of the 
 sentence. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Quegli vuole, cK\o ti perdoni, e questi vuole, 
 che contra a rnia natura in te incrudelisca ; one pleads 
 strongly in your behalf, and the other would excite me 
 to do a cruel act, contrary to my nature. Io, in this 
 sentence, is the subject of perdoni and incrudelisca, and 
 it is expressed only once. 
 
 B. 3. 10. Tu il saprai ben tosto, e farai quello che a me 
 
 Jar vedrai ; thou wilt know it very soon, and do what 1 
 
 am going to do myself. Tu, in this sentence, is the 
 
 subject of saprai. Jurat, and vedrai, and it is expressed 
 
 only once. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Al quale egli, per la miseria nella quale era, 
 nan ardi dijar motto, ma ingegnossi difarglisi vedere ; 
 to whom he did not dare to speak a single word, on 
 account of his poverty ; but put himself in his way, in 
 hopes of being seen by him. Egli is the subject of ard\ 
 and ingegnossi. 
 
 RULE XXXIII. 
 
 When a sentence, no matter how long, is composed 
 of divers subjects, the pronouns io, noi, egli, &c. are 
 to be expressed with each verb of which they are the 
 subjects. Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 3 Voi siete ricchissimi giovani, quello che non 
 sono io ; you are both very rich, and I am otherwise. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Voi . . .di grandissimo amore delle due giovam 
 amaie da voi ardete, ed io della terza loro sorella; you 
 have the utmost regard for the two young ladies, whom 
 you love, and I have the same for the third sister. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Ma prima che io partito prenda, disidero cT 
 udire quello che tu a questo del dire ; but before I come 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 283 
 
 to a resolution, I wish to hear what thou hast to say 
 about it. 
 
 B. !()• 8. E s il vero, che egli e Ateniese, ed io Romano. 
 Se delta gloria della citta si disputera, io diro, che io sia 
 di citta libera, ed egli di tributaria : io diro, che io sia di 
 citta donna di tutto il mondo, ed egli di citta obbediente 
 alia mia : io diro, che io sia di citta jiorentissima d? arme, 
 (F imperio e di study, dove egli non potrd la sua, se nan 
 di stud) commendare ; he indeed is an Athenian, and I 
 am a Roman ; but if we wish to speak of the glory of 
 each city, I say, that I was born in a free city, he in a 
 tributary one : that I belong to a city which is the mis- 
 tress of the whole world, he to a city under her subjec- 
 tion ; that I am of a city famed for arms, extent of 
 empire, and all sorts of polite learning, he of a city only 
 remarkable for philosophy. 
 
 In the above examples all the pronouns are expressed ; 
 not because the author liked to do it, but because he was 
 obliged; and if one of them should be suppressed, the 
 sentences would not only be destitute of energy, but in 
 some cases would not be intelligible. The student then 
 will never commit a fault in expressing the personal 
 pronouns in such kinds of sentences ; and we think it is 
 always the best, as by that means they will be more 
 energetic and expressive than without them. 
 
 Remarks upon io, tu, egli, e\ &, ella, esso, essa, and 
 their plurals. 
 
 1. Io, tu, egli, ella, eglino, elleno, preceded by come, 
 siccome, qucmto, are changed into me, ie, lui, lei, loro, 
 provided the verb of which they are subjects is not 
 expressed. Ex. 
 
 B. Filoc. Sicche, quanto me puote essere cdcun dolente ; 
 so that any body may be as afflicted as I am. 
 
 But if the verb, of which io, tu, egli, &c. are subjects, 
 is expressed, they are not to be changed. Ex. 
 
 B. 7. 4. Che direste voi, se io Jbssi nella via, come e 
 egli, od egli fosse in casa come sono io ? what would 
 
2Si SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 yoa say if I were in the street as he is, or he within 
 doors as I am ? Come egli e, and come sono io, instead 
 of come lui, and come me, because the verbs e and sono 
 are expressed. 
 
 When the verb essere or credere, is to be put between 
 two of these pronouns, and signifies a transmutation from 
 one to the other of them, that pronoun which follows 
 essere or credere, is to be put in the accusative ; that is, 
 it is changed into me, te, lui, lei, loro. Ex. 
 
 B. 9. 7. La donna domando se Anichmo fosse al gim- 
 dino venuto. Egano disse, cost non fosse egli, per- 
 ciocche credendo esso, cli io fossi te, m? ha can un bastone 
 iutto rotto ; the lady asked whether Anichino had come 
 into the garden; Egano replied, Would to Heaven he had 
 stayed away ! for believing me to be you, he has broken 
 all my bones with a cudgel. 
 
 Caro Let. Io son qui con uno, che per avere il mio 
 ?iome vuole esser me in ogni cosa, o piu tosto cK io sia 
 lui; I am here with a person, who, in order to have my 
 name in all he does, wishes to be myself, or rather to 
 say, that I should be he. 
 
 Firenz. Tanto posso disporre di lui, che io uso dire, 
 che certo e' sia un altro me ; I can so much depend on 
 him, that I am wont to say, that he is certainly another 
 self. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Maravigliossi forte Tedaldo che alcuno in 
 tanto il somigliasse, che fosse creduto lui; Tedaldo 
 wondered much that any one should be so much like 
 himself, as to be taken for him. To fosse creduto lui, 
 egli is understood, thus, egli fosse creduto lui. 
 
 2. Egli, whether abridged or syncopated, is sometimes 
 used as an expletive, and it answers to the English par- 
 tides, there or it ; but with this difference, that egli may 
 be used as the subject of a verb, either in the singular 
 or in the plural ; and it, in English, is used with a 
 verb in the singular only. Ex. 
 
 B, 2. 2. Egli era in questo castello una donna vedova; 
 there was a widow lady in that castle. 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 285 
 
 B. 5. 10. Udendo la donna queste cose conobbe, che 
 egli erano delV alire cost savie come ella fosse ; the lady 
 hearing that account, perceived that there were other 
 women of the same disposition with herself. Egli plural, 
 subject of erano. 
 
 B. 5. 4. Disse la madre : ojigliuola rnia che caldo fa 
 egli ? anzi nonfa caldo veruno; daughter, said the mother, 
 do you talk of heat ? I do not think that it is very hot. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Color v sono di nero vestiti; perciocche e ' nxm 
 sono ancora quindici d\, che un lor fratelh fa ucciso ; 
 they are dressed in black, because about a fortnight since 
 a brother of theirs was murdered. E J plural, subject of 
 sono. 
 
 Ella also is used as an expletive, but not so frequently 
 as egli. Ex. 
 
 B. 9. 5. Come la donna udi questo, levatasi in pie, 
 comincio a dire : ella non andra cos\ che io non te ne 
 paghi ; on hearing this, the lady arose, and began to 
 say : It shall not be so, for I will pay you for it. 
 
 The student, however, ought not easily to hazard the 
 use of these expletives, unless he is pretty far advanced 
 in the study of Italian ; for though these pronouns, 
 used as expletives, add much elegance to the dis- 
 course or composition, they disfigure it when improperly 
 applied. 
 
 3. Esso, essa, essi, esse, are used as adjectives, and 
 placed before their substantives with which they are to 
 agree. They are not rendered by he or she, but this or 
 these, and sometimes by the above. Ex. 
 
 B. 2. 3. Ed ebbe tre jigliuoli quando esso Messer 
 Tedaldo ricchissimo venne a morte ; and he had three 
 children, when this Mr. Tedaldo died very rich. 
 
 B. 5. 2. La quale essa lei che forte dormiva chiamo piu 
 volte ; who several times called this woman, that was fast 
 asleep. 
 
 Esso, put between the preposition con, and the pro- 
 nouns lui, lei, loro, and also meco, teco, seco, serves for 
 
286 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 both genders and numbers, and it is used as an exple- 
 tive. Ex. 
 
 B. 7. 1. E poi deW altre volte ritrovandosi con la, 
 donna* molto di questa incantazione rise con esso lei ; and 
 afterwards when he was with the lady, he used to laugh 
 with her about this enchantment. 
 
 B. 7. 1. Cominciarono a cantare, e la valle insieme 
 con esso loro, quelle medesime canzoni dicendo, che esse 
 dicevano ; they began to sing, and the valley together 
 with them, or rather, and the valley echoed their songs. 
 
 B. 2.5. Davero tu cenerai con esso meco; indeed, 
 said she, thou shalt sup with me. 
 
 4. Egli, ella, eglino, elleno, esso, essa, essi, esse, are 
 often joined with stesso, stessa, stessi, stesse, medesvmo, 
 medesima, medesimi, medesime, in order to give more 
 energy to the sentence in question ; and they are ren- 
 dered in English he himself, she herself, they them- 
 selves. Ex. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Per che parendogli esser vivo, comincio a gri- 
 dare, apritemi, apritemi, ed egli stesso apontar col capo 
 nel coperchio delV area; for thinking he was alive, he 
 cried out loud, saying, u Open ! open !" and he himself 
 began to push the cover of the vault with his head. 
 
 B. 4. 4. Di che il re turhato forte, fece prendere il 
 Gerbino, edegli medesimo...ilcondanndnella testa; much 
 concerned at this, the king had Gerbino seized, and he 
 himself ordered his head to be struck off. 
 
 B. 10. 3. E sommamientejacendolo onorare, esso stesso 
 
 fii tenea compagnia ; and having ordered him to be 
 onoured, he himself kept him company. 
 B. Pro. Avendo essi stessi quando sani erano esemplo 
 dato a coloro che sani rimanevano ; they themselves, when 
 they were well, having given example to those who 
 remained healthy. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Elle non sam.no delle sette volte le sei quello, cti 
 elle si vogliono elleno stesse ; six times out of seven they 
 do not know what they want. 
 
SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 287 
 
 SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Gen. Sing, di me 
 
 
 Abl Sing. 
 
 da me 
 
 di te 
 
 
 
 da te 
 
 di lui 
 
 
 
 da lui 
 
 di lei 
 
 
 
 da lei 
 
 di se 
 
 
 
 da se 
 
 Plural dinoi 
 
 
 Plural.... 
 
 .da noi 
 
 di voi 
 
 
 
 da voi 
 
 di loro 
 
 
 
 da loro 
 
 
 RULE XXXIV. 
 
 
 These pronouns, which we call disjunctives, are the 
 genitives and ablatives of the personal pronouns, (see 
 page 91), and are to be used instead of the pronoun 
 relative ne, (which has all the above significations), 
 whenever they have no particular or close reference to 
 any noun. Their natural situation is after the verb by 
 which they are accompanied; and if they are found 
 before it, the student is to know that this inversion is a 
 grammatical figure, which will be spoken of in treating 
 of the figurative construction. 
 
 Di lui. B. Filoc* Ta/rolfo..An se dubitava, won quest % 
 si facesse heffe di lui; Tarolfo... doubted whether he 
 laughed at him. 
 
 Di me. B. Fiam. E detto questo, me di me las- 
 ciavano piu die Vusato pietosa ; and having spoken 
 thus, they left me more afflicted than usual. This 
 phrase belongs to the figurative construction, as the 
 natural one is — e detto questo lasciavano me piil pietosa 
 di me. 
 
 Di te. B. 8. 7. Io avrei di te scritte cose che... di te 
 stessa vergognandoii, f avresti cavati gli occhj ; I would 
 have written such things of thee, that thou, being 
 ashamed of thyself, wouldst have torn thy eyes out. The 
 regular construction of this phrase is — che vergogncmdoti 
 di te stessa, &c. 
 
288 SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Da me. B. Lab. E del beneficio da me ricevuto doMa 
 Genitrice della nostra salute, sarai testirnonio ; and you 
 will be a witness of the grace I have received from the 
 mother of our Saviour. The regular construction of 
 this phrase is — e sarai testirnonio del beneficio ricevuto da 
 me dalla Genitrice della nostra salute. 
 
 Da se. B. 10. 4. II quale poicfie ogni paura ebbe 
 cacciata da se, trovo costei per certa non esser morta ; 
 who, throwing all fear aside, was convinced she certainly 
 was not dead. 
 
 Da loro. B. 2. 7. Li quattro uomini molto mi domanda- 
 rono : ma ne da loro fui intesa ; the four men put a great 
 many questions to me, but I was not understood by 
 them. The regular construction is, nejui intesa da loro. 
 
 In all these examples we cannot make use of ne, in- 
 stead of di me, di te, da loro, &c. because there is no 
 particular object to which those words could refer ; but 
 when there is an antecedent, instead of di me, di te, da 
 me, da te, &c., ne is to be used, as in the following ex- 
 amples. 
 
 Pass. Non deve rivolger gli occhj Vuomo da Dio o dis- 
 costarsene ; a man ought not to lose sight of God, or 
 depart from him. 
 
 Bembo. lo non ho parlato con lo spagnuolo, ne mi 
 vaglio di lui, ne ho alcuno de^ miei che se ne serva ; I 
 have not spoken to the Spaniard, nor do I make use of 
 him, neither do any of my friends. 
 
 In these two examples, ne refers to da Dio, and di lui, 
 and it would not have been proper to say discostarsi da 
 lui, nor che si serva di lui. 
 
 syntax of disjunctive pronouns — continued. 
 
 Dat. Sing, a me 
 
 Ace. Sing, me 
 
 a te 
 
 te 
 
 a lui 
 
 lui 
 
 a lei 
 
 lei 
 
 a se 
 
 se 
 
 Plural anoi 
 
 Plural noi 
 
 a voi 
 
 voi 
 
 a loro 
 
 - loro 
 
SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. £89 
 
 RULE XXXV. 
 
 These pronouns, which we call disjunctives, are the 
 datives and accusatives of personal pronouns (see page 
 91), and are to be used instead of the conjunctive pro- 
 nouns, mi, ii, si, gli, le, ci, vi, and the relative pro- 
 nouns, lo, la, gli, li, le, in order to give a stronger 
 expression or energy to the composition or discourse, 
 and their position is either before or after the verb, 
 Ex. 
 
 Pass. E udendo che egli aveva tnorti due co?ifessori, 
 dissejra se medesimo ; me non ucciderai tu ; and when 
 he heard that he had murdered two confessors, he said 
 to himself ; thou shalt not murder me. 
 
 B. Fiam. Se tu Jbrtemente ami lui... egli di cid non 
 ha colpa ; if you love him much, it is not his fault. 
 
 B. Introd. Io costituisco Parmeno mio siniscalco, e a 
 lui la cur a di tutta la nostra famiglia commetto ; I de- 
 clare Parmeno master of my household, and to him I 
 commit the care of my family. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Comprese per gli arnesi ricchi,la donna che 
 trovata avea, dovere essere gran gentil donna, e lei pres- 
 tamente conobbe alV onore che vedeva daW altrefare a lei 
 sola ; by the richness of her dress he supposed her to be 
 some person of great consequence, which appeared more 
 plainly by the great respect that was paid to her by all 
 the women. 
 
 In the above examples, the author might have said 
 instead, tu non mi ucciderai. Se tu Jbrtemente lo ami. 
 Io costituisco Parmeno mio siniscalco, e gli commetto la 
 cura, fyc. E la conobbe prestamente ; but this way 
 would be destitute of all energy and effect, as we ob- 
 served before* 
 
 These pronouns are used whenever in a sentence one 
 verb governs two or more objective cases, or when two 
 different subjects with their verb govern each a pronoun, 
 or one a pronoun and the other a noun. 
 
 o 
 
290 SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUtfS. 
 
 B. 3. 9. Ma, dove voi voleste, per amentum, voi 
 potreste\6\, e me consolare ; but if you wished, you might 
 perhaps console both yourself and me. Consolare governs 
 two pronouns, voi and me. 
 
 B. 3. 6. E questo facendo, la ''ngiuria, die a voi, ed 
 a me far vuole, vendichiate ; and by so doing, you will 
 avenge the injury, which is designed both for yourself 
 and me. Far vuole governs two pronouns, a voi and 
 a me. 
 
 B. 10. 8. E percib...io tipriego die di questa afflizion 
 togliendoti ad un > ora consoli te e me ; and therefore I 
 beg thou wilt shake off thy affliction, and at the same 
 time console thyself and me. Consolare governs two 
 pronouns, te and me. 
 
 B. 5. 8. Nel quale come ella discese, cosi ne fa ed a 
 lei, ed a me, per pena dato, a lei di fuggirmi d'avanti, 
 ed a me die gia cotanto Vamai di seguitarla ; into which, 
 as soon as she descended, we heard our condemnation, 
 which was, for her to flee before me, and for me, who 
 loved her so well, to pursue her. Fu dato per pena 
 governs a lei and a me, both pronouns. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Se rt ando a casa il padre suo, e quivi a lui 
 ed alia madre narro lo ''nganno ; she went to her father's, 
 and declared to him and her mother the whole treachery. 
 Narro governs a lui a pronoun, and alia madre a 
 noun. 
 
 B. 3. 6. E percio non vogliate ad urf ora vituperar 
 voi, e mettere in pericolo ed in briga vostro marito e 
 me ; therefore, do not shame your own self, and make 
 mischief between your husband and me. Mettere in 
 pericolo, &c, governs vostro marito a noun, and me a 
 pronoun. 
 
 B. 10. 4. Voi avete onorato il mio convito, ed to voglio 
 onorar voi alia persesca ; you have done honour to my 
 feast, and I will honour you according to the Persian 
 manner. In this example we see two different subjects 
 with their verbs, one governing mio convito, and the 
 other governing voi a pronoun. 
 
 These pronouns are to be used instead of mi, ti, si, 
 
SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 291 
 
 gli, le, ci, vi, whenever they are followed by stesso, mede- 
 simo^ solo, or some other adjectives of a similar kind, 
 which are to agree with them in gender and number, 
 and also when they are followed by certain adverbs, 
 such as anche, pure, anco, solamente, proprio, &c. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Per le quali cose io piii die me stessa Tamo ; 
 for which reason, I love him more than T do myself. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Apri gli occhj dello ""ntelletto, e te medesimo 
 o misero riconosci ; open the eyes of thy understanding, 
 unfortunate man, and know thyself. 
 
 B. 3. 10. Dioneo . . . sentendo che a lui solo restava il 
 dire . . . sorridendo disse ; Dioneus perceiving that it 
 only remained for him to tell his (a novel), said with a 
 smile. 
 
 Caro Let. Accettatelo per amico, con tutte quelle ac- 
 coglienze che fareste a me proprio ; receive him as a 
 friend, and honour him as you would do me. 
 
 These pronouns are to be used with the present par- 
 ticiple ending in ante or in ente, (see participles for its 
 formation), and are generally put before it. Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Fosco da dolor vinto, tiratafuori una spada, 
 lei in vano merce addomandante uccise ; Fosco being 
 provoked to the last degree, drew his sword and stabbed 
 her, she begging in vain for mercy. 
 
 B. 5. 5. La quale lui sagliente chiamo padre ; who 
 seeing him go up stairs, called papa. 
 
 B. 3. 10. Ed i conigli e gli altri animali che lor 
 sedentijforstf cento volte eran venuti a dar noja, si die- 
 dero a seguire ; and they began to run after the rabbits 
 and other animals which had been continually skipping 
 about them whilst they were sitting down. 
 
 B. 10. 7. II re sifece chiamare un giovane., e postegli 
 certe anella in mano a lui non recusante di farlo Jece 
 sposare la Lisa ; the king sent for a young man, and 
 having put a ring into his hand, caused him not unwil- 
 lingly to espouse her. 
 
 Me, te, se, lui, lei, loro, accusatives, are used instead 
 o2 
 
292 SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 of io, tu y egli, ella, eglino, elleno, &c. nominatives, when 
 accompanied with an infinitive, provided they are put 
 before the said infinitive ; for if they follow it, the nomi- 
 native is to be used. See construction of infinitives. 
 
 Borg. E son forzato a dire, lui aver ragione ; and I 
 am obliged to say, that he is in the right. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Si dolse lei (T amicizia) oggi cost poco da? 
 mortali esser gradita ; she complained of its being in 
 such little esteem with mankind. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Apertamente co?ifessarono n se esser stati coloro, 
 che Tedaldo JElisei ucciso aveano ; they openly confessed 
 that they had murdered Tedaldo Elisei. 
 
 The disjunctive pronouns, when accusatives, are to 
 be used whenever they are preceded by a preposition, or 
 a word expressing grief, joy, contempt, such as infelice, 
 sfortunato) felice, beato, misero* cattivo, &c. 
 
 B. Fiam. Temendo che ella per se non la tenesse, la ri- 
 chiamai indietro ; fearing lest she would keep it for her- 
 self, I called her back. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Stimo costui dovere essere ottimo rnezzano tra 
 lei, ed il suo amcmte ; she judged that he would be the 
 fittest person to go between her and her lover. 
 
 B. 7. 6. Ella mando per Lionetto, che si venisse a star 
 con lei ; she sent word to Lionetto to come and pass the 
 day with her. 
 
 B. 3. 6. /o, misera me, gia sono otto anni, f ho pitt 
 che la mia vita amato ; unfortunate that I am ! I have 
 fondly loved you for eight whole years. 
 
 B. 9. 6. Oime, cattiva me, vedi quel che io faceva ; 
 alas, bless me, I had like to have made a strange 
 mistake. 
 
 Alamanni. Beato lui, che casto a morte venue ; happy 
 was he that died unsullied. 
 
 Disjunctive pronouns in the dative case, are to be 
 used with the verbs toccare, spettare, when they mean 
 to be one's turn ; pensare, to think ; appartenere, to 
 belong ; and all the verbs of motion, such as andare ? to 
 go ; venire, to come ; ritornare, to go back. 
 
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 293 
 
 B. 3. 3. DP a Calandrino, che egli si tenga ben caldo, 
 ed io verro a lui incontanente ; tell Calandrino to keep 
 himself warm, and I will come to him immediately. 
 
 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 There are twelve monosyllables in Italian, which are 
 sometimes conjunctive, sometimes relative, sometimes 
 reflective, and at other times expletive particles ; of all 
 of which we will speak separately, to render them more 
 intelligible to the student. 
 
 Conjunctives. 
 
 mi .....to vie, or me 
 
 ti to thee, or thee 
 
 gli to him, or him 
 
 le to her, or her 
 
 si Jo himself, to herself, himself, herself 
 
 ci or ne to us, or us 
 
 vi to you, or you 
 
 Relatives. 
 
 il or lo him, or it 
 
 la her or it 
 
 gli or li them masculine 
 
 le them feminine 
 
 Mi, ti, si, ci, vi, are also reflective particles; they 
 serve to conjugate reflective verbs, see page 203, and 
 signify myself, thyself, himself, herself ourselves, your- 
 selves, themselves. 
 
 Mi, ti, si, ci, vi, ne, are also expletive particles, which 
 are thrown into the discourse for the sake of elegance. 
 See its treatise. 
 
 Ci and vi are also adverbs, and signify there, thither, 
 here, hither, to it, into it, of it, with it, about, round it. 
 
 RULE XXXVI. 
 
 All these words, whether conjunctives, relatives, re- 
 flectives, expletives, or adverbs, are to be put immedi- 
 
294 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 
 
 ately before or after the verb finite, with this difference, 
 that when they are placed after, they are to make one 
 word with it. 
 
 Examples of the Conjunctive and Relative Pronouns. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Io vi voglio dire cio 9 die quel vostro amico mi 
 fece stamane ; I will tell you what your friend did this 
 morning. Mi a dative. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Deh, crudel uonio, se egli ti fu tanto grave la 
 maladetta notte, e parveti ilfallo mio cost grande, die ne 
 ti possono muovere a pietate alcuna le amare lagrime... 
 muovati alquanto questo mio atto ; Ah, cruel man, if 
 that cursed night still galls thee, and my crime appears 
 -so heinous that my tears cannot move thee, let this last 
 act of mine move thee a little. In this example ti 
 precedesj^, and follows parve making one word with 
 it, in each instance a dative. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Gabriotto la domando qual fosse la cagione ; 
 Gabriotto asked her the cause. La accusative. 
 
 B. 8. 1. Ma guar date die voi non ci faceste la beffa ; 
 But beware putting a trick upon us. Ci a dative. 
 
 B. 1. I. II mandarlo fuori di casa cosi irifermo, ne 
 sarebbe gran biasimo ; to turn him out of doors in this 
 condition would afford matter for reproach. Ne instead 
 of ci a dative. 
 
 B. 4. 5. Assai volte la notte pietosamente il chiamava ; 
 a great many times in the night would she lament and 
 call him by name. II instead of lo accusative, &c. &c. 
 
 Examples of the Expletive Particles. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Io mi credo die le suore sieno tutte a dormire ; 
 I think that all the nuns are retired to rest. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Che tu con noi ti rimanga per questa sera n* 
 e caro ; we shall be glad if you will stay with us this 
 evening. 
 
 B. 9. 7. Io non so se voi vi conoscete Talano di Molese ; 
 I know not whether you are acquainted with Talano di 
 Molese, 
 
AND RELATIVE PUONOUNS. #95 
 
 B. 2. 8. Del palagio s'usci, e fuggissi a casa sua; he 
 hastened out of the palace, and fled to his own house. 
 
 In the above examples the marked particles are exple- 
 tives, which are inserted more for the sake of elegance 
 than otherwise, and would by no means alter the sense 
 were they to be omitted. 
 
 Examples of ci and vi as Adverbs. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Disse la giovane: E come^ ci sono abitanze 
 presso da potere albergare ? A cui il buon uomo rispose ; 
 non ci sono in niun luogo si presso die tu di giorno vi 
 potessi arrivare ; the young lady said : And how then, 
 is there any inn hereabouts, wherein I may pass the 
 night ? The good man answered : There is none near 
 enough for you to proceed to by daylight. 
 
 B. 3. 8. E se egli avviene, die tu mai vi torni, fa die 
 tu non sii mai piu geloso ; and if it happen that you 
 come hither again, take care to be jealous no longer. 
 
 B. 9- 3. Deliberar tutti e tre di dover trovar modo 
 cP ungersi ilgrifo alle spese di Calandrino ; e senza troppo 
 indugio darvi... Nello disse; all three agreed to feast 
 themselves well at the expense of Calandrino ; and with- 
 out losing time . . . Nello said. Darvi for dare a cid 3 or 
 alia lor risoluzione. 
 
 B. Fiam. Queste parole . . . e senza rispondervi alcuna 
 cosa ascoltai ; I listened to these words without answering 
 anything. Rispondervi^ that is, senza rispondere loro. 
 
 But if the finite verb is accompanied with an infini- 
 tive, these words may either be put before the verb finite 
 or after the infinitive ; and then the said infinitive is to 
 lose its last vowel, and make one word with the par- 
 ticle. Ex. 
 
 B. 3. 9. Monsig?iore, disse Beltramo, voi mi potete 
 torre quanto io tengo^ e donarmi . . . a chi vi piace ; Sire, 
 said Beltram, you may take from me all I possess, and 
 dispose of my person to whomsoever you please. Mi 
 is put before potete a finite verb, and after the infinitive 
 donarmi. 
 
296 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 
 
 These pronouns are to follow the imperative, gerund, 
 and participle. Ex. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Muovati alquanto questo solo rnio atto; let 
 this act of mine at least move you. 
 
 Gang. Siatemi adunque sempre bum amico ; Be then 
 always my friend. 
 
 B. 5. 8. Adunque lasciami la divina giustizia mandare 
 ad esecuzione; then let the divine justice take its 
 course. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Io son venuta a ristorarti d£ danni, li quali 
 tu hai gia avuti per me, amandomi piu die stato non ti 
 sarebbe bisogno ; I am come to make you some amends 
 for what you have formerly done on my account, and for 
 the love you bore me. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Federigo ricordandoti delta tua preterita vita; 
 Frederick, if you recai to your mind your past life. 
 
 B. 5. 8. E la domenica seguente Nastagio sposatala... 
 con lei...lietamente visse ; and being united to her on 
 the following Sunday, he lived very happily with her. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Ne a cid sappiendosi consigliare, chiamd la 
 sua fante, e la sua disavventura mostratale, le chiese 
 consiglio; not knowing how to order it herself, she 
 called her maid, and having told her what had happened, 
 she asked her advice. 
 
 The imperative only, being accompanied with a nega- 
 tive, requires these pronouns to precede it. Ex. 
 
 B. 5. 8. Nastagio, non t' impacciare, lascia fare cH 
 cani e a me quello die questa malvagiafemina ha meri- 
 tato ; Anastasius, do not concern thyself, but leave the 
 dogs and me to do by this wicked woman as she has 
 deserved. 
 
 Gang. Non si renda ridicola circa le usanze del mondo ; 
 do not make yourself ridiculous respecting the customs of 
 the world. 
 
 If the student finds these pronouns preceding the par- 
 ticiples and gerunds, contrary to the above rules, he is 
 not to imitate that practice, for it belongs to the figura- 
 tive construction. 
 
gffl) RELATIVE FR0N01TNS. 297 
 
 These pronouns, either conjunctive or relative, are 
 always to follow ecw, making one word with it. Ex. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Lo scolare udendosi chiamare 9 disse eccomi ; 
 the scholar hearing himself called, said, Here I am. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Eccole, che ella medesima me V ha recate ; 
 here they are ; she has brought them herself. 
 
 It is to be observed, that whenever one of these par- 
 ticles, with the exception of gl% is put after a word 
 derived from a verb ; if that word is a monogram (a 
 word composed of one letter), or a monosyllable, or has 
 the last letter with a grave accent, the first letter of the 
 said particle is to be doubled. Ex. 
 
 B. 10. 6. Or a evvi cosi tosto dalla memoria caduto, le 
 violenze fatte da Manfredi ? have you already so soon 
 forgotten that Manfredi took the same liberties ? Evvi 
 for vi e ; vi an adverb, and e a monogram. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Vattene, e di* a Calandrino, che egli si ienga 
 ben caldo ; go, and bid Calandrino keep himself warm. 
 Vattene composed of va a monosyllable, and tene ex- 
 pletive. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Vavvi, e sappirni ridire come il fatio sta; 
 go thither, and let me know how matters stand with me. 
 Vavvi composed of va a monosyllable, and vi an 
 adverb. 
 
 B. 9. 10. Dirovvi adunque una novella non troppo 
 lunga; I will tell you a tale, which shall not be very 
 long. Dirovvi composed of diro a word the last vowel 
 of which is accented, and vi a pronoun conjunctive. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Disse Nello ...fiaforse altro ; e lasciollo an- 
 dare ; Nello said, it may be something else, and then let 
 him go. Lasciollo composed of lascid a word the last 
 vowel of which is accented, and loa relative pronoun. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Io verrd a lui incontcmente, e dirogli do che 
 egli ha> e do che avra a Jure ; I will come instantly, and 
 direct what he is to do in that case. Dirogli, gli is 
 never to double its first letter, as we have observed. 
 
 Some of these pronouns (not those called relatives) 
 
 o3 
 
298 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 
 
 may meet together, and then they are called double ; in 
 which case they are subject, with respect to position 
 with the verb, to the same rules as the single ones. They 
 are expressed as follows : — 
 
 mi ti mi si mi ci mivi 
 
 ti si ti ci 
 
 vi ti vi si vi ci 
 
 ci si gli mi.... gli ti......gli si gli ci gli vi 
 
 B, 2. 7. A me parve .... vedere il padre mio; e da 
 quello amove .... mossa, potendo-m'iti celare, mi ti feci 
 palese ; I thought I beheld my father : and moved with 
 that natural tenderness that I owe to him, I revealed to 
 you what I might have kept secret. 
 
 B. Lab. II quale con lenti passi appressando-misi, mi 
 reed speranza ; who, approaching me slowly, revived my 
 hope. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Le novelle ... non sono altre che di quel... 
 vostro amico, di cui io mi vi rammaricai T altr* ieri ; 
 it is only that ... friend of yours, of whom I complained 
 to you the other day. 
 
 B. 1 . 7. Ne mai neffl ammo tri! entrd questo pensiero, 
 che per costui mi ci e entrato ; never was I possessed of 
 so strange a fancy as to day, concerning that man. 
 
 B. 4. 5. Se tu ne domanderai pin, noi ti faremo quella 
 risposta che ti si conviene ; if you inquire any more 
 about him, you shall receive such an answer as you de- 
 serve. 
 
 B. 2. 3. Io vi ti porro chetamente una coltricetta, e 
 dormi-viti ; I can softly convey a little bed thither, and 
 you may rest very comfortably. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Signori) questo che voi ricevete da noi> a 
 rispetto di quello che vi si converrebbe, fia povera cortesia ; 
 gentlemen, it is poor respect you receive from us, com- 
 pared to what you deserve. 
 
 B. 8. 6. Io dird, che vi ci abbiafatta venire per danari ; 
 I shall say, that I let you come here for money, 
 
 B. Fiam. Se per piacere a Dio ci si viene ; if people 
 come here to please God, 
 
AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 299 
 
 B. % 3. Essa alhra postogli in mano un anello, gli si 
 fecesposare; she then put a ring into his hand, and 
 made him espouse her. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Ne* nostri hisogni gli ci raccomandiamo ; we 
 recommend ourselves to him in our necessity. 
 
 Si as an expletive is put before mi, ti 9 vi 9 ne 9 il, lo, la % 
 gli, li, le, making si mi, si ti, si vi 9 si ne 9 si il 9 si lo, si la 9 
 si gli, si li 9 si le ; but when it is a particle of the re- 
 flective verb, it is better to be placed afterwards, as we 
 said above. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Se tujbssi stato un di quegli che il posero in 
 croce 9 avendo la contrizione che io ti veggio, si ti per- 
 donerebbe ; though you had even a hand in nailing him 
 upon the cross, yet you would be forgiven on such a 
 repentance as yours. 
 
 B. 7. 9. H mio amove gli significherai, e si il preghe- 
 rai da mia parte, che gli piaccia di venire a me ; let him 
 know my love for him, and entreat him on my part, that 
 he would be pleased to come hither to me. 
 
 B. 6. 4. Qiiella (una gril) mando ad un suo cuoco, e 
 si gli mando dicendo, che a cena Varrostisse ; he sent it 
 to his cook, with orders to prepare it for supper. 
 
 B. 7. 3. E perciocche tu ci bisognavi per dire certe 
 parole, e non ti seppe trovar la fante, si le fece dire at 
 compagno suo ; and as we wanted you to say certain 
 words, and the maid could not find you, he let his com- 
 panion say them. 
 
 Mi 9 ti, gli, le, si 9 ci 9 vi 9 in all their acceptations, 
 meeting with the relative ne, are resolved as follows, 
 and are subject to the same rules as in their primitive 
 state. 
 
 me ne........or men w» mene 
 
 te ne or ten or tene 
 
 glie ne or glien or gliene 
 
 le ne or len or lene 
 
 se ne or sen or sene 
 
 ce ne ,.,.....or cen or cene 
 
 ve ne .. ......or ven or vene 
 
800 SYNTAX OF CO^tTKCTlVlS 
 
 All the words of the first column are used before 
 verbs beginning either with a consonant or vowel ; those 
 belonging to the second are used before verbs beginning 
 with a consonant, and if verbs begin with a vowel, an 
 apostrophe is added to these words, thus i—men*, ten*, 
 &c. As to the words of the third column, they may 
 be used sometimes before a verb; but when 1 they are 
 put after the verb they are to make one word with it, 
 and must never be written separately. Ex. 
 
 B. 6. 8. lo me ne sono venuta tosto ; I came back so 
 soon. Me ne expletive particles. 
 
 B. 6. 8. Che vuol dir questo die essendo oggi festa, tu 
 te ne si cos\ tosto tornata a casa ? As this is a holiday, 
 what is the reason you come home so soon ? Te ne ex- 
 pletive particles. 
 
 B. 1. 4. Avvisando che questi accorto non se x& fosse, 
 fu lieto ; thinking he had not perceived it, he was very 
 glad. Se ne. Se the reflective particle of accorgersi 
 from which accorto is derived, and ne the relative go- 
 verned by accorto. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Elle si partiranno, e voi ve ne potrete seen- 
 dere, e tornar-yene a casa ; they will leave you, and you 
 may go down and then go home. Ve ne in both cases 
 being united with verbs of motion, are expletive par- 
 ticles. 
 
 M. Vill. Vedendo Vuomo la semplicita del fanciullo, 
 gliene venne pieta ; the man seeing that the boy was 
 silly, felt compassion for him. Gliene. Gli a pronoun 
 in the dative, and ne a relative in the genitive, both 
 cases of the persons ; as if it were to him, viz. to the 
 man ; of him, viz. of the boy, came compassion. 
 
 B. 2. 6. Amenduni gli fece pigliare a tre suoi servi- 
 dori, e ad un sua castello legati menar-g]iene ; he ordered 
 three of his servants to seize them, and carry them 
 bound to a castle of his. Gliene. Gli a pronoun rela- 
 tive of person in the accusative case, and ne an expletive 
 particle. 
 
 B. 8. 8. La donna udendo questo, e dopo molte ricon- 
 
AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 301 
 
 jermazionifatte-\er\e dal Zeppa, disse ; she listened, and 
 being persuaded by what Zeppa told her, she said. 
 Lene. Le a pronoun in the dative, and ne a relative of 
 things in the genitive, as if it were to her, of them. 
 
 Sometimes the conjunctive pronouns mi, ti, si, gli, ci, 
 vi, are found with ne, thus, mi ne, ti ne, si ne, &c ; but 
 this the student is not to imitate, as faulty. 
 
 Mi, ti, gli, le, si, ci, ne, vi, as dative cases, and in all 
 their acceptations, meeting with the relatives il, lo, la, 
 gli, li, le, are resolved as follows, and are subject to the 
 same rules as in their primitive state. Ex. 
 
 me lo me la me gli, or me li me le 
 
 te lo te la te gli, or te li te le 
 
 glie lo glie la glie li glie le 
 
 se lo se la se gli, or se li se le 
 
 ce lo ce la ce gli, or ce li ce le 
 
 ne lo ne la ne gli, or ne li ...ne le 
 
 ve lo vela ve gli, or ve li ve le 
 
 These pronouns may also be spelt united thus : — 
 melo, telo, &c. before a verb ; but after it they are to 
 make one word with the verb, without exception. 
 
 The pronouns of the first column only may drop the 
 
 before a verb beginning with a consonant ; but if the 
 verb begin with a vowel, an apostrophe is subjoined to 
 them, thus :—meF, teT, seT, &c. 
 
 B. 3. 9. Le quali (cose) niuna alira persona conosco 
 chefar me le possa avere se non vol ; with regard to 
 which (things), I know no person in the world that can 
 serve me except yourself. Me le. Me a dative of per- 
 son, le a dative of things. 
 
 B. Lab. Mi place con piu ordine di racco?itar-tele ; 
 
 1 like to relate them to thee with more order. Tele. 
 Te a dative of the person, and le accusative of the 
 things. 
 
 B. 8. 10. E se io avessi saputo dove mandargli, abbi 
 per certo che io te gli avrei mandati ; had I known where 
 to have found you, I would have sent them to you. Te 
 
302 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 
 
 gli. Te a dative of the person, and gli accusative of 
 the things. 
 
 B. Lab. Ella e tale quale . . . io te la designai ; she is 
 such as I described her to you. Te la. Te a dative, 
 la accusative, both of the person. 
 
 B. 4. I. II padre poca cur a si dava di piu maritarla, 
 ne a lei onesta cosa pareva il richieder-nelo ; the father 
 took no care to marry her again, and it seemed not 
 modest in her to ask it. Ne lo. Ne a genitive of the 
 thing, and lo accusative of the person. 
 
 B. 10. 9. E inform ato un de 1 suoi Jamigli di cid die 
 
 far voleva, alia sua donna nel mando a Pavia ; and 
 
 having told one of his servants what he would do, he 
 
 sent him to his lady at Pavia. Nel for ne it. Ne an 
 
 expletive particle, and il accusative of the person. 
 
 Segn. II moribondo glie lo promise e mori; the dying 
 man promised him, and then expired. Glie lo. Gli a 
 dative of the person, and lo accusative of the thing. 
 
 B. 2. 5. Questa mattina mel fe y sapere una povera 
 fimmina ; a poor woman let me know it this morning. 
 Mel for mi il. Mi a dative of the person, and il accusa- 
 tive of the thing. 
 
 B. 9. 2. Avvenne che ella una notte velfece venire; 
 it happened that she let him come there one night. 
 Vel for vi il. Vi adverb of place, and il accusative of 
 the person. 
 
 Besides the above ways of uniting the pronouns con- 
 junctive, relative, reflective, &c. meeting with each other, 
 another has been used by good authors both ancient and 
 modern, which is, to put the relatives il, lo, la, li, le, 
 before the conjunctives mi, ti, si, ci, ne, vi, as follows, 
 and then they are subject to the same rules as all the 
 others of which we have spoken above. 
 
 il mi 
 
 lo mi 
 
 lo ti 
 
 la mi 
 
 le mi 
 
 il ti 
 
 la ti 
 
 la si 
 
 la ci 
 
 lane .... 
 
 le ti 
 
 il si 
 
 il ci 
 
 lo si 
 
 io ci 
 
 le si ' 
 
 le ci 
 
 il ne 
 
 lo ne 
 
 le ne 
 
 il vi 
 
 Jo vi 
 
 la vi 
 
 le vi 
 
AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 303 
 
 This way is very elegant in a composition, but in a 
 familiar conversation it is too pedantic, and conse- 
 quently it must be avoided. Ex. 
 
 B. Filoc. Prendi questo anello. II mio padre . . . il 
 mi dono ; take this ring — My father gave it me. II mi. 
 II accusative, mi dative of dono. 
 
 B. 7. 7. Io giudico che tu ottimamente abbi il mio 
 amor guadagnato^ e percio io il ti dono ; I think you 
 are well worthy of my love, and therefore you shall 
 have it. 77 ti. II accusative, ti dative of dono. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Ma or a cK io m! accorgo che altri comincia 
 ad avvedersene, non e piil da celar-ioti ; but now I see 
 other people take notice of it, I can conceal it no longer. 
 Loti. Lo accusative, ti sl dative of celar. 
 
 B. Fiam. Qual e la cagione della tua pallidezza, dil- 
 loci ; what is the cause of your paleness — tell us. Loci. 
 Lo an accusative, ci a dative of di\ The I is doubled 
 according to the observation in page 297. 
 
 B. 4. 4. E in mar gittandola, dissono ; togli> noi la ti 
 diamo ; and throwing her overboard said, hold, we give 
 her to thee. La ti. La accusative, ti dative of diamo. 
 
 B. 3. 9. Io ti richteggo che la condizione . . . tu la mi 
 osservi ; I conjure you that you abide by the condition 
 imposed upon yourself. La mi. La accusative, mi 
 dative of osservi. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Usa il benejicio della fortuna^ non la cacciare, 
 
 jfaZ-leti incontro ; make use of fortuned kind offer ; do 
 
 not drive her away, but run to meet her. Le ti. Le a 
 
 dative, ti accusative of fa. The I is doubled according 
 
 to the observation in page 297. 
 
 B. % 9. Messere 9 le cose son mie, e non le vendo, 
 ma se elle vi piacciono, io le vi donero volentieri ; Sir, 
 those things belong to me, I do not sell them ; but if 
 you like to have them, I will give them to you willingly. 
 Le vi. Le accusative, vi dative of donero. 
 
 Sometimes three of these particles meet together, when 
 they are expressed as follows, arid are subject to the 
 same rules as in their first state. 
 
304 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 mi tene... si me ne si il mi 
 
 mise ne..... si te ne si me lo 
 
 mi ve ne si cene siil ti 
 
 mi gliene si gliene si te lo 
 
 milene,&c si lene, &c si glie lo,&c. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Avendo avutojbrse per male, che io mi ve ne 
 sia doluta; perhaps he took it ill that I made my com- 
 plaint to you. Mi a reflective particle, ve a conjunctive 
 pronoun in the dative, ne a relative pronoun in the genitive. 
 
 B. Lab. Io non so che dir-miteue ; I do not know 
 what to say about it. Mitene. Mi an expletive, ti a 
 conjunctive pronoun in the dative, ne a relative pro- 
 noun in the genitive. 
 
 Borgh. Ma checche avvenire mi se ne debba, non las- 
 cerb di far pruova di contentarvi ; but whatever may 
 happen to me, I shall do all in my power to please you. 
 Mi se ne. Mi a conjunctive pronoun in the dative, si an 
 expletive, ne a relative pronoun in the genitive. 
 
 B. 9. 9. La donna rivoltasi con orgoglio disse : Se ti 
 piace, si ti piaccia, se non, si tene sta ; the lady replied 
 with disdain : If you have a mind to eat, do so ; if not, 
 let it alone. Si tene. These three particles may all be 
 called expletives. 
 
 N. Ant. 13. Quando farono maturi, si gliene portb 
 una soma, ; when they were ripe, he brought him a load 
 of them. Si gliene. Si an expletive particle, gli a 
 conjunctive pronoun in the dative, ne a relative pronoun 
 in the genitive. 
 
 B. 2. 10. E perb voi con la bnona ventura si ve ne 
 andate il piu tosto che potete ; and therefore go away as 
 soon as you can, and God be with you. Si ve ne. All 
 these particles are expletives. 
 
 B. 5. 9. La prima cosa che iofarb domattina, io andrb 
 per esso e si il ti recherb ; the first thing I shall do to- 
 morrow, shall be to go for it and bring it to thee. Si il 
 ti. Si an expletive, il a relative pronoun in the accu- 
 sative, ti a conjunctive pronoun in the dative. 
 
 However, this modfe of putting three of these particles 
 together is not usually adopted at present; and the 
 student will be contented with knowing it without put- 
 ting it in use. 
 
MODES OF ADDRESS IN ITALIAN. 305 
 
 REMARKS ON THE DIFFERENT MODES OF ADDRESS 
 IN ITALIAN. 
 
 When Italians address themselves either to a man or 
 woman, they use one of the three following persons. 
 viz. — the second person singular, the second person 
 plural, and the third person singular, according to the 
 station or rank in life of those who are addressed. 
 
 The second person singular is used by masters speaking 
 to their servants, and by parents to their children ; like- 
 wise husbands and wives, and brothers and sisters adopt 
 it to each other. It is used also between intimate friends, 
 or when people address one another in a passion, and 
 lastly, it is introduced in all sorts of poetry. 
 
 The second person plural is used by children speaking 
 to their parents; by ladies speaking to gentleman of the 
 same station of life as they are themselves, as a privilege 
 allowed them, but a gentleman is on no account to address 
 himself in this person to a lady, though he may to a 
 woman in humble life. It is used likewise in speaking 
 to all sorts of trades-people, dealers, &c. 
 
 The third person singular is used by all people speak- 
 ing to one another of the same station in life ; by people 
 speaking to those who are above them : by servants to 
 their masters; and, in short, except when persons in 
 humble life, or servants are addressed, it is better to 
 speak in this person, as nothing else can prove more 
 clearly that he who addresses himself is a well bred, and 
 well educated person. 
 
 It is to be observed, that when the third person singular 
 is used, the pronoun you is changed into vostra signoria, 
 which words are pronounced vossignoria (generally 
 spelled V. S.) and serve to address both man and woman, 
 and if more persons than one are spoken to, you is 
 changed into vostre signorie, (1) or in a more familiar 
 
 (l) Though some grammarians have omitted vostre signorie and put 
 le signorie loro instead, we think it is better to imitate P. Bembo, who 
 
306 MODES OF ADDRESS IN ITALIAN. 
 
 way, into hr signori, always making the verb agree 
 with them ; that is to say, the verb is to be in the third 
 person singular with vostra signoria, and in the third 
 person plural with le vostre signorie, (1) or lor signori. 
 The latter, however, is used in speaking to gentlemen 
 only. 
 
 Not to repeat too often vossignoria and le vostre sig- 
 norie, we make use of the pronoun ella with all its 
 inflexions, thus: — 
 
 Nom. you V. S ella (2) 
 
 Gen. of you di V. S di lei 
 
 Dat. to you aV. S a lei, or le 
 
 Ace. you V. S lei, or la 
 
 Abl. fromyou da V. S da lei 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Nom. you le Vostre Signorie, or lor Signori.. elleno (2) 
 
 Gen. of you ....di lor Signori « di loro 
 
 Dat. to you ....a lor Signori a loro 
 
 Ace. you ...lor Signori loro, le 
 
 Abl. from you., da lor Signori .....da loro 
 
 Le instead of a lei, is a conjuctive pronoun ; la instead 
 of lei is a relative ; and le instead of loro is likewise a 
 relative, all of which are construed according to the 
 rules laid down for those pronouns, page 293. 
 
 uses vostre signorie, in addressing those to whom he writes, and le 
 signorie loro, in speaking of absent people, as in the following ex- 
 amples. Se vostre signorie sono quelle buone e sante, che io ho sem- 
 pre creduto che elle siano ; if you are as good and pious as I have 
 always thought you to be. Ho veduto nelle vostre lettere il desiderio, 
 che mostrato grande v'hanno quegP illustrissimi signori avere, che io 
 
 scriva la istoria nostra .Per che vi priego e stringo a pregar le loro 
 
 signorie che mi lascino ne J miei usati studj ; I have seen in your let- 
 ters the great desire which the illustrious gentlemen have testified 
 
 to you for me to write the history of our country Therefore I 
 
 earnestly intreat you will beg their lordships to let me pursue my 
 usual studies. In the former example, Bembo addresses two 
 friends, and in the latter, we plainly see that he speaks to a friend of 
 some absent gentlemen, 
 
 (1) Vostre signorie may be used with or without the article. 
 
 (2) All these pronouns may be spelled with a capital letter. 
 
MODES OF ADDRESS IK ITALIAN. 307 
 
 In speaking to a person of rank or to a nobleman, 
 Vossignoria Illustrissima, and Vostra Eccellenza, written 
 V. S. Illma., V. E. are to be used : to a Prince of 
 the Blood, Vostra Altezza^ written V. A. : to a King, 
 Vostra Maesta, written V. M. : to a Monk, Vostra Pa- 
 ternita, V. Pta : to a Priest, Vostra Reverenza, V. R. : 
 to a Cardinal, Vostra Eminenza, V. Emza. : to the Pope, 
 Vostra Santita, V. Sta, &c. 
 
 In speaking in the third person, the adjective or par- 
 ticiple (if there be one), is to be of the feminine gender, 
 and this should be the proper mode. But we also find 
 the adjective and participle agree with the person ad- 
 dressed, that is to say, of the masculine gender, if a man 
 is spoken to. 
 
 In speaking in the third person, the possessive pro- 
 noun your is changed into suo* sua, suoi, sue, for the 
 singular, making it agree with the person or object 
 possessed ; and into loro, which is of both genders, for 
 the plural. 
 
 Respecting the address in the second person, both 
 singular and plural, there is no need of examples ; but 
 in the third person some examples are necessary to 
 render the explanation of the rules laid down more dis- 
 tinct and clear. 
 
 Examples for the Singular. 
 
 How do you do, Sir, or Madam ? Change you, which 
 is the nominative, into vossignoria or ella, put the verb 
 do in the third person singular, and you will find come 
 sta V. S. or ella. 
 
 I thank you, Sir, or Madam. Change you, which is 
 accusative, into V. S. or lei, or la, construe the pronouns 
 according to the rules of the pronouns, and you will find 
 io ringrazio V. 8. or lei, or io la ringrazio. 
 
 Sir, or Madam, I gave you a book. Change you, 
 which is a dative, into a V. S. or a lei or le, construe 
 the pronouns as above, and you will find io diedi un libro 
 a V. S. or a lei 9 or io le diedi un libro, &c. &c. 
 
308 MODES OF ADDRESS IN ITALIAN. 
 
 Examples for the Plural. 
 
 How do you do, gentlemen or ladies ? Change you, 
 which is a nominative, into le V. Signorie or lor signori, 
 or elleno, put the verb do in the third person plural, and 
 you will find come stanno le V. S. 
 
 Gentlemen, or ladies, I saw you at the Opera. Change 
 you, which is an accusative, into le V. Signorie, or loro, 
 or le, and you will find to vidi le V. Signorie aW Opera, 
 or io le vidi all ''Opera. If you make use of lor Signori, 
 le is to be changed into li, thus : — io vidi lor Signori alV 
 Opera, or io li vidi alV Opera. 
 
 Examples with the Agreement of the Adjective 
 or Participle. 
 
 Have you been in the country, Sir, or Madam ? E K < 
 ella stata in campagna ? for both genders, or stato for 
 the masculine, and stata for the feminine. Have you 
 been into the country, gentlemen and ladies? Sono 
 elleno state in campagna ? With lor signori, however, 
 the masculine adjective or participle is to be used ; as, 
 sono lor signori stati in campagna ? 
 
 Examples with the Possessive Pronoun your. 
 
 Where is your brother, Sir, or Madam ? Change 
 your into suo masculine, because Jratello is masculine, 
 and you will find dove e il suo Jratello, or il Jratello 
 di V. S. 
 
 I saw your sisters, Sir, or Madam. Change your into 
 sue feminine, because sorelle is feminine, and you will 
 find ho veduto le sue sorelle. 
 
 Have you received your money, gentlemen, or ladies ? 
 Change your into loro, and you will find hanno le vos- 
 tre signorie ricevuto il loro denaro, &c. 
 
 As the student may think it strange to address a man 
 as if he were a woman, absent not present, a few words 
 on this subject will not be amiss. 
 
 When the Roman republic fell from its height, and 
 
, SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 809 
 
 small powers began to rise, that simplicity of manners 
 which had reigned for a great number of years was 
 at an end ; and the purity of the language of the 
 Latins degenerated in such a manner as to be scarcely 
 called Latin. 
 
 In this state of things the vulgar tongue (for thus 
 was called the Italian language, on account of its being 
 spoken by the people) began to be used by the best 
 writers; and as flattery and ambition reigned among 
 those who had invaded Italy, they began by way of 
 flattery to address a single person in the second person 
 plural ; and though Dante, Boccaccio, and several other 
 learned men always used to address people in the second 
 singular, yet they had but few imitators. 
 
 Not satisfied with speaking in the second person 
 plural, flatterers and servile people had recourse to 
 imaginary epithets, and addressed themselves to their 
 superiors in the third person singular with vostra sig- 
 noria, vostra eccellenza, vostra altezza, &c. In vain 
 did Claudio Tolomei, Bernardo Tasso, and several 
 others, endeavour to remove these absurd titles, and in- 
 troduce again the second person plural: for Ruscelli, 
 Corro, and other individuals of lesser note, supported 
 by the custom which then reigned even in private con- 
 versation, triumphed over all these difficulties. To 
 speak in the second person singular was considered as 
 an affront, and to do so in the second person plural 
 remained among the lower classes of people and intimate 
 friends ; and likewise it was used by the nobility in 
 speaking to their inferiors. At present, however, V. S. 
 is seldom used in speaking, but instead of it we make 
 use of ella, di lei, a lei, &c. 
 
 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE XXXVII. 
 A possessive pronoun, standing as an adjective, may 
 
310 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 be put either before or after the substantive with which 
 it is made to agree, with this condition, that when put 
 before, it is to be placed between the article and the 
 said substantive. 
 
 B. 5. 4. Per quanto hai caro il mio amore ; as much 
 as my affection is prized by thee. 
 
 B. Fiam. E siccome la mia persona . . . cresceva, cost 
 le mie bellezze, de' miei mali special cagione, multiplica- 
 vano ; and as I grew up, my beauty, the first cause of 
 all my misfortunes, improved. 
 
 B. Lett. Tutti naturalmente con fama desideriamo 
 di prolungare il nome nostro; all men are naturally 
 desirous of rendering their reputation everlasting by 
 fame. 
 
 B. Intr. Disse allora Elisa : veramente gli uomini sono 
 delle Jemmirie capo, e senza 1' ordine loro, rade volte 
 riesce alcuna nostra opera a laudevol fine ; Eliza then 
 said : It is true, man is the head of a woman, and without 
 his management it seldom happens that any undertaking 
 of ours succeeds* 
 
 RULE XXXVIII. 
 
 Possessive pronouns, being copulatives, or otherwise 
 standing as adjectives, have no article ; and when they 
 are found preceded by one, as in the examples of the 
 preceding rule, il mio amore, le mie bellezze, de' miei 
 mali, it is to be observed that the said articles, il, le, de* 
 do not belong to the possessive pronouns mio, mie, miei, 
 but to the substantives amore, bellezze, mali, with which 
 they are made to agree. In that case, the substantive 
 that has no article is not to take one, when accompanied 
 with a possessive pronoun. 
 
 We have already spoken of the substantives that 
 have or have not the article, page 237. However, the 
 following observations may save the student some trouble. 
 
 When substantives are preceded by indeterminate 
 pronouns, such as ogni, qualche, alcuno, molto, and piu 
 
SYNTAX OP POSSESSIVE PUONOUK'S. 311 
 
 meaning molti; likewise by demonstrative pronouns, 
 such as questo, quello, quegli, &c. and numeral nouns, 
 such as uho, due, tre ; and likewise substantives governed 
 by essere, to be ; sembrare, to appear ; divenire^ to be- 
 come, have no article; therefore, possessive pronouns 
 accompanied with them are not to have an article. 
 
 B. 4. 1, O molto amato cuore, ogni mio ufficio verso te 
 ejbrnito. Oh ! much beloved heart, all my kind offices 
 towards thee are at an end. 
 
 B. Int. Gli uomini sono delle femmine capo, e senza 
 Vordine loro, rade volte riesce alcuna nostra opera a lau- 
 devoljine ; man is the head of a woman, and without 
 his management it seldom happens that any undertaking 
 of ours succeeds. 
 
 B. &. 1. Per consiglio di qualche suo amico ; by the 
 advice of some of his friends. 
 
 B. 4. I. Setu ti contenti di lasciare appresso di me 
 questa tua figliuoletta, io la prendero volentieri ; if you 
 are pleased to leave this girl with me, I will willingly 
 take her. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Monna Giovanna con questo suo figliuolo serC 
 andava in contado ; M. Giovanna used to go into the 
 country with her son. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Lascio erede un suo figliuolo ; he left an only 
 son all his fortune. 
 
 B. 6. 8. Uno che si chiamo Fresco aveva una sua 
 nepote ; a certain man, called Fresco, had a niece. 
 
 B. 3. 4. Ma percio die tu se' mio amico; but because 
 you are my friend. 
 
 Possessive pronouns preceded by some particular pre- 
 positions sometimes take the article, and sometimes 
 not ; but as we cannot give certain rules for them, we 
 have set down the following expressions, which are 
 invariable. 
 
 in vita raia in my life 
 
 in vita tua in thy life 
 
 in vita sua, &c in his life 
 
 in poter mio in my power 
 
 in poter tuo, &c in thy power 
 
312 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 in favor mio in my favor 
 
 in presenza mia in my 'presence 
 
 in casa mia.... in my home 
 
 per nostro bene .for our good 
 
 per mio consiglio by my advice 
 
 per amor mio for my sake 
 
 per mia difesa,&c for my defence 
 
 per sua difesa . ...for his defence 
 
 per parte mia, or} /. 
 
 K r . . ' > fromme 
 
 da parte mia $ J 
 
 Example. 
 
 B. 3. 2. Questafatica per mio consiglio ti serberai in 
 ultra volta; I advise you not to give yourself this 
 trouble at present. 
 
 RULE XXXIX. 
 
 Contrary to the preceding rule, padre, madre, all sub- 
 stantives expressive of kindred or relation, such asjiglio, 
 sorella, inarito 9 &c. ; all those expressive of rank or 
 quality, such as maesta, eccellenza, altezza, &c. pre- 
 ceded by a possessive pronoun, lose their respective 
 articles. 
 
 Soave. Nov. E chi e vostro padre? And who is 
 your father ? 
 
 Soave Nov. Mia madre, un Jratello minore, ed io 9 
 siamo restati neW estrema miseria ; my mother, a 
 younger brother, and myself, have been left in great 
 distress. 
 
 Giral. Lett. Egli adunque inteso il nobile atto di 
 Filippo usato a salute di suo marito; he then hav- 
 ing heard of the noble action of Philip in favour of 
 her husband. 
 
 Caro. Lett. Venne sua Maesta accompagnata dal 
 Duca $ Orieano ; his Majesty was accompanied by the 
 Duke of Orleans. 
 
SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PliONOUNS. 318 
 
 Caro Lett. E sua Eccellenza le bacio la mano ; and 
 his Excellency kissed her hand. 
 
 If the possessive pronoun follows one of the above 
 substantives, or if these substantives are plural, the 
 article is not dropped. 
 
 Giral. Let. Mi ricordo aver udito dire al padre mio ; 
 I recollect I heard my father say. 
 
 Melas. Let. Supplico percio TEccellenza Vostra a de- 
 gnarsi di ordinare ; I entreat your Excellency to deign to 
 order. 
 
 Metas. Let. Finche io possafavlo in persona, soffra la 
 Maesta Vostra ; as long as I can do it myself, allow 
 me, Sire. 
 
 Bembo* Let. A die vi rispondo, prima die io ringrazio 
 le loro Signorie ; to which I answer, before I thank your 
 lordships. 
 
 When substantives expressive of kindred and relation- 
 ship are preceded by a possessive pronoun, the article may 
 be dropped at pleasure. Here are some examples with 
 the article, as we have already given some without it. 
 
 B. 5. 9- Acciocdie io possa dire tfaver riienuto in 
 vita il mio figliuolo ; in order that I may say I have pre- 
 served the life of my son. 
 
 Giral. Let. Ho deliberate di voter prima morire, die 
 intenda giammai die il mio marito in tal modo sia morto ; 
 I have resolved rather to die, than to hear that my hus- 
 band should die in this manner. 
 
 Modern grammarians have set down the above rule 
 concerning padre and madre as an incontestable truth, 
 any deviation from which they would condemn as a 
 crime; but why should they drop the article before 
 these two words only, and not before the other substan- 
 tives expressive of kindred ? With respect to eccellenza, 
 maesta, &c. I have not found any examples contrary to 
 the above rule ; and I think it is because the article 
 placed before the possessive pronoun, when accompanied 
 with one of those words, does not sound well : but with 
 padre and madre it makes no difference in the sound, 
 
 p 
 
314 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 and for this reason I suppose many writers of note have 
 used them when preceded with a pronoun, with and 
 without the definite article, which I think may be imi- 
 tated without any imputation of impropriety. 
 
 B. 4. 1. II mio padre quando a lid in isposa mi con- 
 ginnse, il mi dono ; my father gave it to me when he 
 married me to him. 
 
 Firen. Let. Arete Cirenaica, die dopo la morte del suo 
 padre, resse la scuola, ec. ; Arete of Cyrene, after her 
 father's death, ruled the school, &c. 
 
 B. 3. 5. E come die rade volte la sua madre vedesse ; 
 and though he seldom saw his mother. 
 
 RULE XL. 
 
 Possessive pronouns are always to be repeated before 
 substantives of different gender and number. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Delle virtu e del valor e di Guiscardo, io nan 
 credetti al giudicio d? alcuna altra persona, che a quello 
 delle tue parole, e de" miei occhj ; with regard to Guis- 
 carcfs worth and valour, I did not give faith to what 
 people said of him, but to yourself and my own 
 eyes. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Riguarda tra tutti i tuoi nobili uomim, ed 
 esamina la lor virtu, i lor costumi, e le loro maniere ; 
 look on your noblemen, and examine their merits, cus- 
 toms and manners. 
 
 If, however, two substantives are of the same gender 
 and number, the possessive pronouns that accompany 
 them, may be put only once after the said substan- 
 tives. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Appresso costoro le sirocchie, e le mogli loro 
 ...ven?iero; after these came their sisters and their 
 wives. Instead of le loro sirocchie e le loro mogli ; be- 
 cause both sirocchie and mogli are of the same gender 
 and number. In like manner we may say, ilfratelh e 
 il padre mlo 9 my brother and my father ; le scarpe e 
 
SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 315 
 
 le vesti nostre, our shoes and clothes, &c. making the 
 pronoun possessive agree with the substantive next to it, 
 and not with both. 
 
 RULE XLT. 
 
 Possessive pronouns being absolute have different sig- 
 nifications, and according to these significations, or to 
 the verbs by which they are governed, they either take 
 the article or omit it. 
 
 1. Accompanied with the verb esser e, divenire, and 
 signifying possession, they are used without the article. 
 
 B. 8. 4 Son disposta, posciache vipiaccio, a voler esser 
 vostra ; since you like me, I am willing to be your's, 
 (that is, to belong to you as a wife). 
 
 B. 3. 7. Come egli divenne vostro, cost diveniste vol 
 sua ; you were agreeable to each other, and acquaintance 
 increased love. 
 
 2. Signifying wealth, riches, money, they take no 
 article, if accompanied with esser e and divenire. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Omai e ben mio il pallqfreno, die fa tuo ; 
 now the horse, which was your^s, is mine. 
 
 But if accompanied with any other verb, the definite 
 article is prefixed to them. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Non so cui to mi possa lasciare a riscuotere 
 il mio da loro piu convenevole di te ; I do not know any 
 one more fit than you whom I can employ to receive my 
 money from them. 
 
 B. 1.7. Or mangi del suo, se egli ne ha, che del 
 nostro non manger a egli oggi ; now let him eat of his 
 own if he has it, for he shall taste none of our's 
 to-day. 
 
 3. Absolute possessive pronouns are sometimes used 
 in the plural for relations, friends, servants, countrymen, 
 soldiers, &c. ; and then they take the article masculine 
 plural, i or li, which is to be dropped when they are 
 accompanied with essere. 
 
 p 2 
 
816 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 B. Filoc. Io rivedro li miei, li quali dierono per me 
 pietose lagrime, credendo die iofossi morta ; I shall see 
 again my own (relations) who kindly shed tears for me, 
 supposing I was no more. 
 
 B. 10. 4. Questa donna Azl suoi poco avuig, cava.., da 
 mefu ricolta; that woman, who was despised by her 
 own (friends), I welcomed to my house. 
 
 B. In trod. / nostri o morendo o la morte fuggendo, 
 quasi non Jbssimo loro, sole in tanta afflizione nhanno 
 lasciate ; our husbands or relations having either died or 
 avoided death, have left us alone in so much affliction as 
 if we, in no way, belonged to them. 
 
 B. Filoc. Sempre saremo tuoi ; we are for ever your 
 friends. 
 
 RULE XLII. 
 
 English possessive pronouns are changed into conjunc- 
 tives in Italian whenever they are accompanied with a 
 substantive expressive of the limbs of the body, or de- 
 noting a part of one^s dress, putting the article before 
 the said substantive. 
 
 B. 9. 6. Egli e gran peccato ehe voi non vi fiaccate 
 il collo ; it is a great pity you do not break your 
 neck. Vi a conjunctive pronoun for vostro, instead of 
 il vostro collo. 
 
 B. 9. 1. O se essi mi cacciasser gli occhj, o mi tra- 
 essero i denti, o mozzasser-mi le mani . . . a die save'' 
 io ? But suppose they tear out my eyes, draw out my 
 teeth, or lop off my hands . . . how can I bear that ? 
 Mi 9 a conjunctive pronoun. 
 
 Lod. Nov. Guarda se altri lo scorge, ed alfine si 
 risolve di levar-si le scarpe ; he looked around lest he 
 should be seen, and at last he resolved to take off his 
 shoes. Si le scarpe instead of le sue scarpe. Si, the 
 conjunctive pronoun. 
 
 Fior. Nov. E cosi si levo Vanello di dito, e diello al 
 gludice; and thus he took off the ring from his finger, 
 
SYxSTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 317 
 
 and gave it to the judge. Si di dito, instead of del suo 
 dito. Si, the conjunctive pronoun. 
 
 It is to be observed that the possessive pronouns his, 
 her, their, are changed into the reciprocal pronoun si, as 
 in the above examples, si levo di dito, levarsi le scarpe, 
 whenever people in the third person, both singular and 
 plural, act upon themselves ; but if they act upon others, 
 the possessive, his, is changed into gli, her into le, and 
 their, loro ; as, he takes off his (own) shoes, ei si toglie 
 le scarpe ; he takes off his (another man's) shoes, ei gli 
 toglie le scarpe. And again : — she tore her (own) hair, 
 ella si strappo i capelli ; of another woman, ella le strappo 
 i capelli; they scratched their own faces, essi si grqf- 
 fiarono il viso ; of other persons, graffiarono loro il 
 viso. 
 
 B. 9. 8. E stracciaia-g\i la cufi\a...diceva ; and tearing 
 his (another man's) head dress, he said. 
 
 B. 9- 8. E cost dicendo, con le pugna . . . tutto :1 viso 
 gli ruppe ; and thus saying, he disfigured bis (another 
 man's) face with blows. 
 
 The English possessive pronouns, however, accom- 
 panied with a substantive, expressive of the parts of the 
 person, or denoting a part of one's dress, are to be left 
 out, whenever they relate to the personal pronoun which 
 is the subject of the phrase in question. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Le mi pareva nella gola aver messo un collar 
 d'oro, e quella con una catena cPoro tener colle mani ; I 
 thought I had put a collar of gold around its neck, which 
 I held by a golden chain in my hand. Colle mani, in- 
 stead of colle mie mani. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Di die io sentiva si fatto dolore che...desto 
 colla mano suhitamente cor si a cercarmi il lato ; which 
 gave me such pain, that I instantly awoke, and laid my 
 hand on my side, to feel if any thing was amiss. Colla 
 mano, instead of colla mia mano. 
 
 In the same manner we express — my head, my teeth, 
 
318 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 i 
 
 my arm 9 &c. ache ; ho male alia testa, ai denti, al bracelet. 
 Sic, and not alia mia testa, ai mieidenti, almio br accio. 
 And again, I stretched my arms ; io stesi le braccia, and 
 not le mie braccia, &c. I have lost my shoes ; ho per- 
 duto le scarpe. 
 
 His and her are expressed by di lui and di lei, if 
 sua, sua, suoi, site, would cause ambiguity ; which hap- 
 pens when two persons of different genders are spoken 
 of. In that case, di lui and di lei may be placed either 
 between the article and the substantive, or after the said 
 substantive. 
 
 Gold. Ho veduto il padre e lajiglia. La di lei serva, 
 &c. ; I saw the father and the daughter. Her maid, &c. 
 If it were la sua serva, nobody could know whether it 
 was his or her maid. 
 
 Gold. Dubito die qualche dispiacere abbiate ricevuto 
 dal di lei padre ; I am afraid that you have received 
 some offence from her father. If it were dal suo padre, 
 we could not know whether it was a man or woman 
 spoken of. 
 
 The possessive pronoun its, as it always belongs to 
 inanimate objects, may be expressed either by suo, sua, 
 suoi, sue, as if it were his or hers, or by ne. In the 
 latter case, however, ne is to be accompanied with the 
 verb that governs it. 
 
 Buom. Molte cominciarono con grande studio a const- 
 derare le sue leggi, a imparare le sue resole; many 
 people began to ponder on its (the language^) laws, and 
 learn its rules. 
 
 Buom. Gli uoniini . . .si rirnessero di nuovo a scriverla 
 con tanta accuratezza, che e la scriltura > e lafavella, ne 
 e migliorata moltissimo ; men . . . began again to write it 
 with such accuracy, that its writing as well as its speaking 
 are very much improved. 
 
 In these examples Buommattei might indifferently 
 have said, a considerarne le leggi*, a impararne le regole, 
 and likewise che la sua scrittura e migliorata, &c. 
 
SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 319 
 
 Its may also be expressed by di esso, or di essa y and 
 we may say, a consider ar le leggi di essa. 
 
 Their, loro, being a relative of inanimate objects, may 
 likewise be expressed by ne, or di essi, di esse. 
 
 3. It is to be observed that its and their, as 
 referring to inanimate objects, are to be always expressed 
 by suo, suoi, &c. and loro and esso, when they are go- 
 verned by a preposition : and never by tie, as, with its 
 power, col suo pot ere, or col potere di esso, &c. 
 
 Numeral nouns, such as one, two, three, or these 
 words, any, some, several, many, preceding the genitive 
 of a possessive pronoun with its substantive, such as 
 one of my friends, several of his acquaintances, &c. are 
 turned thus: one my friend, several his acquaintances; 
 but if we wish to express a particular person among so 
 many, the genitive is to be used as in English. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Advenne . . . die una lor compagna ...di questo 
 fatto avvedhtasi, a due altre il mostro ; it happened that 
 one of their companions came to the knowledge of it, 
 and told it to two other nuns. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Senza dolertene ad alcun tuo parente ; with- 
 out speaking of it to any of your relations. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Ed informato un de 'suoi famigli di do che 
 far voleva . . . nel mando a Pavia ; and having told one 
 of his servants of what he was going to do . . . he sent 
 him to Pavia. 
 
 syntax of questi, costui, costei, costoro, quegli, colui, 
 colei, coloro. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, USED AS SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 All these pronouns, taken as substantives, are used 
 in speaking of persons. We have already given some 
 explanations concerning their articles, and the use of 
 them in general, but as there is something more to say 
 about them, we will lay down some rules concerning 
 each of them in particular. 
 
320 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE XLIII. 
 
 Questi and quegli, though plurals of questo and quello, 
 are also used in the nominative singular, in speaking of 
 persons only, near at hand for questi, and at a distance for 
 quegli. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Questi e il mio signore ! questi e veramente 
 M. Torello ; this is my lord ! this is truly Mr. Torello. 
 
 B. Filoc. Quegli e libero da paura^.che abita le solita- 
 rie ville ; he is free from fear... who lives in the country. 
 
 The oblique cases of questi, are the same as those of 
 questo and costui, and those of quegli are the same as 
 those of quello and colui ; but we think that in speaking 
 of persons, the oblique cases of costui and colui, are 
 preferable to those of questo and quello. 
 
 Que'' abridged*, and quel syncopated, of quegli, and 
 also quelli, are used instead of quegli, in the nominative 
 singular, as we said above. 
 
 N. Ant. 36. La femmina domando, che hai? Que* 
 rispose, io son caduto in una fossa; the woman said, 
 what is the matter with you ? he answered, I have fallen 
 into a ditch. 
 
 N. Ant. 87. Quelli, che ti insegno cotesta novella, non 
 la finsegno tutta ; he who told you this news did not 
 tell it all. 
 
 We think quegli is preferable to all of them. 
 
 Observe that questi, quegli, que\ and quei, may as 
 well be used as substantives in the nominative plural, 
 when we speak of persons. 
 
 B. 4. Proem. Quegli, cite queste cose cost non essere 
 state dicono ; those who say that such circumstances were 
 not as I represent them. « 
 
 N. Ant. 8. Que' dissero : niostraci, che ti taccice ? they 
 said, shew us what prevents you from speaking. 
 
 B. 10. 6. Sar anno for se di quei, che diranno; perhaps 
 there may be some who will say. 
 
SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 321 
 
 RULE XLIV. 
 
 Costui masculine, cosfei feminine, and costoro of both 
 genders, plural for both, are used in speaking of persons 
 near at hand ; and colui masculine, colei feminine, and 
 coloro of both genders, plural for both, are used in 
 speaking of persons at a distance from the speaker, 
 throughout all their cases. 
 
 B. 7. 6. Ma costui con ambasciate sollecitandola, e 
 non valendogli, la mando minacciandola ; but he ceased 
 not to solicit her with messages, and as it was to no 
 purpose, he threatened her. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Chejuremnoi di costui? what shall we do 
 with him ? 
 
 B. 7. 6. Essendo costei bella donna ; as she was a 
 very handsome woman. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Seco delihero di porre ogni sollicitudine in 
 jpiacere a costei ; he resolved to do all he could to please 
 her. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Ser Ciappelletto...ud\ cio die costoro di hit 
 dicevano ; Mr. Ciappelletto heard all that they (men) 
 said of him. 
 
 B. Amet. grazioso Apollo, deh ferma un poco il 
 guardo a rimirar costoro ; O, Apollo, stop a little, and 
 bestow a gracious look on them (women). 
 
 B. 10. 8. lo son veramente colui, die quelV uomo 
 uccisi ; I am truly the person who killed that man, 
 
 B. 1. 10. E colei, la qtial si vede in dosso li panni con 
 piitfregi; and she who sees herself better dressed than 
 another. 
 
 B. 9. Proem. U amorose fiamme . . . coloro il sanno die 
 V hanno provate ; the fire of love . . . those who have felt 
 its power know what it is. 
 
 remarks on questi, guegli) costui, &c. 
 
 1. All these words have also been used by good writers 
 in prose as well as in poetry, in speaking of deities per- 
 
 pS 
 
322 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 sonified, animals, and also of things. The following are 
 examples. 
 
 B. 4. 1. DdW una parte mi trae V amove, d y altra mi 
 trae B randissimo sdegno. Quegti vuole die io ti perdoni, 
 e questi vuole die contro a mia natura in te incrudelisca ; 
 on one side I am urged by love, on the other by just 
 resentment. The former pleads strongly in your behalf, 
 the latter would excite me to do an act of cruelty con- 
 tray to my nature. 
 
 B. Fiam. Niuna deita e in cielo da costui (arrwre) nori 
 ferita, se non Diana ; there is no deity in heaven, that 
 has not been wounded by him, except Diana. 
 
 B. Filoc. A seguitar costui (unpappagaUo) si dispose ; 
 he resolved to pursue it. 
 
 B. Filoc. La virtu di costui (tin anello) credo il mh 
 periditante legno ajutasse ; the power of this ring, I 
 believe, saved my ship in danger. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Lacupidigia de 1 mortali ... ha costei (V ami- 
 cizia) fuor degli estremi termini della terra in esilm 
 perpetuo relegata; the avidity of man has for ever 
 banished her from this world. 
 
 It seems, however, that Boccaccio and Dante are the 
 only authors who have made use of them in that case ; 
 we therefore advise the student to use questo, questa? 
 qiiello, quetta, and their oblique cases, in speaking of 
 things. 
 
 2. Costui, costei, costoro, colui,colei, coforo, governed by a 
 substantive, may elegantly be used in the genitive case, 
 without the mark of a genitive, and then they are to be 
 placed between the article and the substantive by which 
 they are governed. 
 
 Vill. Al costui tempo, Leone Qiiartofece fa/re le mura 
 delta citta Leonina ; in the time of this man, Leo IV. 
 had the walls of the city called after him, built. That 
 is, al tempo di costui. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Della qua! cosa avvedutosi Restagnone, penso 
 di potersi ne* suoi difetti adagiare per lo costoro amore ; 
 Restagnone being apprised of this, thought to make up 
 
SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 323 
 
 for his want of wealth, by their love. That is, per lo 
 amove di cost or o. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Ella speranza prendendo di dcver potere ancora 
 nello state real ritornare, per lo colui consiglio, si fece 
 chiamar Antigono ; and having now great hopes of re- 
 gaining her former dignity by his advice, she sent for 
 Antigonus. That is per lo consiglio di colui. 
 
 B. Fiam. Con voce tacita pregai per li coloro beni 
 umilmente gli dm; and I silently offered humble prayers 
 to the gods for their prosperity. That is, per li beni di 
 coloro. 
 
 RULE XLV. 
 
 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Questo, used in speaking of objects near at hand ; 
 quello, of objects distant from the speaker and the person 
 addressed ; cotesto, of objects near the person addressed, 
 and all their oblique cases, as declined page 99, like 
 adjectives, are to agree both in gender and number, with 
 their substantives, either of persons or things, without 
 exception. 
 
 B. 10. 7. Ella a niuri altra cosa poteva pens-are, se 
 nan a questo ... amore; she had no other thought, but 
 of her love. Questo is masculine, because amore is of 
 the masculine gender. 
 
 Bemb. E questa cosa e quel? altra mirando ; and 
 sometimes looking at one thing and sometimes at another. 
 Questa and quella, both feminine, because cosa is of 
 the feminine gender. 
 
 B. 1.2. Ele vitifacevano gran vista di dovere quello 
 anno assai uve fare ; and the vines seemed as if they 
 would produce an abundance of fruit that year. Quello, 
 masculine, because anno is of the masculine gender. 
 
 B. Introd. Con suoni, e con quelli piaceri che aver 
 potevano, si dimoravano ; and they passed their time in 
 
324 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 singing, and taking those pleasures they could. Quelli 
 masculine plural, because piaceri is masculine and 
 plural. 
 
 B. 8. 5. Messere, io vi priego per dio,che innanzi die 
 cotesto ladroncello, die v* £ cos\ df allato^ vada altrove, ec; 
 for heaven's sake, Sir, before that fellow, who is near you, 
 goes away, &c. Cotesto instead of quello, because ladron- 
 cello is near the addressed person. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Al quale la donna disse : Tancredi, serba 
 coteste lagrime a meno desiderata fortuna ; to whom the 
 lady said : Tancredi, save those tears against worse for- 
 tune than this. Coteste instead of quesie or quelle, be- 
 cause lagrime belongs to the person addressed. 
 
 remarks on questo, quello, cotesto, cid. 
 
 1. These words, and all their oblique cases, are used 
 as neuter substantives. 
 
 B. 7. 5. Messer, cotesto nonfate voi ; Sir, you do not 
 do that. 
 
 B. 1. 1. E se questo avviene, ilpopolo di questa terra 
 veggendo cio si levera a romore ; and should this happen, 
 the people of this country, on seeing that, would be apt 
 to raise a mutiny. 
 
 2. Questa, a demonstrative pronoun of the feminine 
 gender, preceding mane, mattina, sera, notte, substan- 
 tives of the feminine gender, is changed into sta, and 
 joins with them, making stamane, stamattina, stasera, 
 stanotte ; which, in familiar conversation, are preferable 
 to questa mane, questa mattina, questa sera, questa 
 notte. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Io intendo con questa mia compagna insieme^ 
 desinar teco dimesticamente stamane ; what I mean is, 
 that I have brought a companion to take a neighbourly 
 dinner with you to-day. Stamane means this morning, 
 but we translated it to-day, according to the English 
 idiom. 
 
 B. 9. 9. Di questo di stamattina sai'd io tenuto a voi ; 
 I shall be obliged to you for that of this morning. 
 
SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 325 
 
 R. 6. 4. Ubbriaco jastidioso, tu non c* enter rai sta- 
 notte ; drunken rascal, you shall not come in to-night. 
 
 B. 7. 7. Egli ci e stasera venuto uno del suoi frateUi ; 
 one of his brothers is come here this evening. 
 
 3. Quello, accompanied with a noun of quality, such 
 as giovane, uomo, donna, Janciullo, is sometimes used, 
 instead of the proper name, in addressing persons. 
 
 Firenz. Lucid. Avvertisci, quel giovane, die tu f in- 
 ganni ; take care, young man, for you deceive yourself. 
 
 Firenz. Vol siete molto altiera, quella giovane; you 
 are very proud, young woman. 
 
 Firenz. Quell" uomo dabbene, die cosa e stata ? what is 
 the matter, good man ? 
 
 This way of addressing people, is only used by supe- 
 riors in addressing themselves to inferiors. 
 
 4. Questo and quello only (not questa and quella, nor 
 their oblique cases) preceded by the preposition a, thus 
 a questo, a quello, and governed by a verb of motion, 
 such as venire, recare, condurre, &c. contain some noun 
 in themselves, such as, state, condition, distress, end ; 
 thus : to sudi a state, to such a deplorable situation, &c. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Li quali forse a questo condotto nt lianno ; 
 which (sins) have perhaps brought me to such a state. 
 
 B. Fiam. Ecco die tu rri hai offesa, ed a quel condotta, 
 die io ricca e nobile, e potente, sono la piu misera parte 
 della mia terra; you have now offended me, and brought 
 such distress on me, that from a rich, noble, and power- 
 ful person, I have now become the most wretched in my 
 country. 
 
 B. 5. 6. Domandollo allora V ammiraglioy die cosa 
 a quello V avesse recato ; the admiral then inquired 
 what it was that had brought him to so deplorable a 
 condition ? 
 
 In regard to the last remark respecting a questo and 
 a quello, we must inform the student, that it belongs to 
 the figurative construction, and that he should be con- 
 tented with the knowledge of it only, until he has perused 
 the rules of the said figurative construction. 
 
326 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 5. Questo and questa, preceded by in, thus : in questo, 
 m questa, stand as adverbs, and contain in themselves 
 some nouns, such as moment, time, &c. 
 
 B. 8. 7. In questo la f ante di lei sopravvenne ; at 
 that moment her maid came. In questo, for in questo 
 momento. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Ed in questa s*' accorse V abate, Ferondo avere 
 una bellissim,a donna per moglie ; in the mean time the 
 abbot found that Ferondo had a handsome wife. In 
 questa for in questo tempo. 
 
 RULE XLVI. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS che, quale, ckL 
 
 Che is used only in the nominative and accusative, 
 and its oblique cases are di cui, a cui, da cui ; all of 
 which may relate to persons or things of both genders 
 and numbers. 
 
 B. Lab. Iddio, che solo i cuori degli uomini vede ; God, 
 who can read the hearts of men. Che, nominative sin- 
 gular of vede, is of the masculine gender, because it refers 
 to Iddio. 
 
 B. 6. 7. La donna, che di gran cuore era, siccome 
 generalmente esser sogliono quelle, che innamorate sono, 
 da dovero dispose di comparire ; the lady who was of an 
 undaunted spirit, like those who are in love, resolved to 
 make her appearance. The first che is the nominative 
 singular of era, of the feminine gender, because it refers 
 to donna; and the second che is the nominative plural 
 of sogliono, of the feminine gender, because it relates to 
 quelle donne. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Io sono deW andar certo, e del tornare per 
 mille casi, che possono avvenire niuna certezza ho ; my 
 going away is certain, but my return, by reason of a 
 thousand accidents which may happen, is uncertain. 
 Che is the nominative plural of possono, and of the mas- 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PROXOUMS. 327 
 
 culine gender, as it refers to cad, a substantive masculine 
 plural. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Ma hen si guardasse, che a niuna cosa che 
 egli dicesse, rispondesse ne poco, ne molto ; but she 
 should beware of giving an answer to any thing he said. 
 Che accusative feminine singular, governed by dicesse, 
 relates to cosa a substantive feminine singlar. 
 
 B. % 7. A Baffa e pervenuta la bella giovane, di cui e 
 statafama che annegata era ; a young lady is just come 
 to Baffa, who was generally thought to have been 
 drowned. Di cui genitive singular of the feminine 
 gender. 
 
 B. 5. 7. Io miser o sard colni^ a cui del tuo peccato e 
 del mio converra port are la pena ; I shall be forced to 
 bear the punishment of both of us. A cui a dative sin- 
 gular, is governed by converra. 
 
 B. 8. 7. E veggendo colei aver rotta la coscia da cui 
 ella sperava essere ajutata, ricomincio il pianto ; and on 
 seeing that she (her maid), from whom she expected 
 succour, had broken her thigh, she began to lament 
 afresh. Da cui ablative singular of the feminine gen- 
 der. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Poscia che a luiparve esser fuor delle mani di 
 color o da cui quegli erano stati assalili, e non ritrovando 
 la giovane, comincio a piangere ; and when he thought 
 himself out of the reach of those by whom they had 
 been attacked, and not being able to find the young lady, 
 he was distracted. Da cui ablative plural of the mas- 
 culine gender. 
 
 Instead of che 9 accusative, cui 9 relating to substantives 
 of both genders and numbers, may be used at plea- 
 sure. 
 
 B. 2. 7. E sentendo essa che in Jerusalem andavano a 
 visitare il sepolcro, dove colui cui tengono per Dio, fu 
 sepellitO) a loro mi raccomando ; and on hearing they 
 were going to visit the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem, 
 where he, whom they believed to be God, was buried, 
 
328 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 she recommended me to them. Cui an accusative mascu- 
 line singular, is governed by tengono. 
 
 Instead of di cui, some eminent prose writers have 
 used di che, but we modern writers should avoid such 
 liberties ; for were we to be so bold, we should be taxed 
 with ignorance of the principles of grammar. 
 
 RULE XLVII. 
 
 Quale, a relative pronoun, referring to persons or 
 things, is declined with the article il or la, as we said 
 page 1G3, and is made to agree with its antecedent in 
 gender and number. A few examples will be suffi- 
 cient. 
 
 B. 4. 2. Usano i volgari un proverbio... il quale ampia 
 materia... mi presia a favellare ; men use a proverb... 
 which affords ample matter for discourse. II quale 
 masculine singular, relates to proverbio a substantive 
 masculine. 
 
 B. Introd. E andavano cercando...le loro dcnne, le 
 quali erano tra le predette sette ; and they were in pur- 
 suit of their females, who were three of the seven ladies. 
 Le quali feminine plural, relates to donne. 
 
 B. Introd. De** quali uno era chiamato Pamjilo ; one 
 of whom was named Pamphilus. De* quali a genitive 
 plural of the masculine gender. 
 
 B. Introd. Una montagna aspra ed erta, presso alia 
 quale un bellissimo piano e dilettevole era riposlo; a 
 steep and rugged mountain, near which was seen a fine 
 and delightful plain. Alia quale a dative singular of 
 the feminine gender. 
 
 It is to be observed that the above relatives eke and 
 quale, with their oblique cases, may be indifferently used 
 one for the other : thus, it is as well to say, il padre il 
 quale, or il padre che, the father who ; la madre la quale, 
 or la madre che, the mother who ; ifigli di cui, or d£ 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PROXOUNS. 329 
 
 quali, the sons of whom ; lejiglie di cut, or de* quali, the 
 girls of whom, &c. &c. In this case the student is at 
 perfect liberty to use one for the other without appre- 
 hension. 
 
 RULE XLVIII. 
 
 When in a phrase there happen to be two or more 
 nouns of different genders, the relative quale, is made to 
 agree with the nearest substantive. 
 
 o 
 
 B. 5. 6. La virtu e Fonore del quale e dotata ; the 
 virtue and honour with which she is endowed. Del quale 
 agrees with onore. 
 
 B. 9. 1. Tu sai la nqja, e Tangoscia, la quale io tutto 
 il d/i ricevo daW ambasciate di questi due Fiorentini ; you 
 are acquainted with the trouble and grief which the 
 messages of these two Florentines cause me. La quale 
 is made to agree with angoscia. 
 
 N. Macch. Oltra di qaesto fece fare altari e cappelle 
 splendidissime, i quali templi e cappelle ...riempie di para- 
 menti ; besides that (the building of temples), he caused 
 very splendid altars and chapels to be built, which tem- 
 ples and chapels ... he filled with ornaments. 
 
 In this case, however, I think it is better to use che 
 and its oblique cases di cui, a cui, da cui, to avoid am- 
 biguity, and to render the sentences in question more 
 intelligible, as in the following sentence. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Dio vi dea queUa allegrezza e quel bene che 
 voi desiderate il migliore ; I wish you that happiness 
 and contentment you desire most. 
 
 Sometimes, however, the relative quale is expressed 
 in both genders, by which the writer may fix the atten- 
 tion of the reader on both the preceding nouns to which 
 quale relates. 
 
 Infarinat. Forse per lo strumento, o materia estrinseca, 
 col quale, ovver nella quale si faccia Timitazione ; perhaps 
 
330 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE THONOUNS. 
 
 on account of the instrument or extrinsic matter by 
 which, or in which, the imitation is made. 
 
 This latter way, though elegant, is not much in use, 
 and we have but very seldom found it in Boccaccio. 
 
 We have said in the beginning of the preceding rule, 
 that quale is to agree with the antecedent in gender and 
 number, now we say that if persona, bestia, or any other 
 noun of the feminine gender, applied to man, is the 
 antecedent, quale is to be of the masculine gender. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Egli ci e alcuna persona, il quale Valtrojeri 
 me serv\ cli cinquecento Jiorini ; there is a person that 
 lent me five hundred florins the other day. 
 
 Nov. Ant. Io sono acconcio di niostrare a quella bestia 
 (speaking of a man), lo quale si mostra si orgoglioso ; 
 I like to shew that stupid ass, who is so proud. 
 
 But as this is unpleasant to the ear, we advise the 
 student to make use of che instead. 
 
 RULE XLIX. 
 
 Chi, as we have said page 1 04, cannot properly be 
 called a relative, but is a mixture of both relative and 
 antecedent, signifying he who, she who, those who, any 
 body who, and in a doubt, merely who. 
 
 B. 2. 1 . Spesse volte avvenne che chi altrui s^ e di beffare 
 ingegnato, se con le bejfe s^e solo ritrovato ; it often hap- 
 pens, that he who endeavours to ridicule other people, 
 becomes himself a jest. Chi for colui il quale. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Io reputo granjbllia quella, di chi si inetie 
 senza bisogno a tentar le Jbrze delV altrui ingegno ; 
 I hold that person a great fool who puts another man's 
 wit to the test without any occasion for it. Di chi for 
 di colui il quale. 
 
 B. 2. 5. In presenza di chi andava e di chi veniva 
 trasse faori questa suaborsa; he pulled out his purse 
 in the presence of all the people who were going and 
 coming. Di chi for di color o i quali or le quail. 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 331 
 
 B. 1. 2. Non credi tu trovar qui chi il battesimo ti 
 dea? Do you think to find nobody here that can bap- 
 tize you ? Chi for alcana il quale, which has been 
 translated nobody on account of the negative non which 
 precedes the verb credi. 
 
 B. 2. 2. La donna . . . disse : va su, e guardafuori del 
 muro appie di quest uscio chi jpV, e chi egli e; the 
 lady said : Go up stairs, and look over the wall at 
 the door threshold, and inquire who is there, and what 
 he is. 
 
 Chi, as we have seen in the above examples, require? 
 the verb, of which it is the subject, to be singular, noi 
 plural, as it is found in some authors, except in phrase* 
 implying doubt, where chi is the nominative of the vert 
 essere only, and not of any other verb. 
 
 B. 10. 6. II re rivolto a Messer Neri il domando, chi 
 Jbssero le due damigelle ; the king, addressing himself 
 to Mr. Neri, asked who the two young ladies were. 
 
 In like manner we may say, Non so chi sieno cosioro, 
 I know not who they are ; Non sapevo chi Jbssero, I 
 knew not who they were. 
 
 Besides the above relatives, che, quale, chi, which are 
 used as has been shewn for persons or things, the Italian 
 language possesses four adverbs that are used as such in 
 speaking of things only, such as donde, dove, onde, 
 ore. These four words, however, have no article, may 
 relate to substantives of both genders and numbers, 
 and are generally found used for the oblique cases of 
 the relatives. 
 
 B. 3. 4. Si conviene avere nellu tua propria casa alcun 
 luogo, donde tu possa la notte vedere il cielo; you must 
 have some place in your house, whence you may look 
 towards heaven all night long. That is alcun luogo dai 
 quale. 
 
 B. 3. 7. A mepiace nella nostra citta ritornare, donde 
 alle due passate piacque dipartirsi ; I choose to return 
 to our own city, from which the two ladies (who spoke 
 last) departed. That is, nella nostra citta dalla quale. 
 
832 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 B. Filoc. E seguendo il celestial cavalier o pervennero 
 al luogo dove le jiamme erano accese ; and following the 
 heavenly knight, they came to a place, where the fire was 
 kindled. That is, al luogo nel quale. 
 
 B. 2. % Pei % quello usciuolo, onde era entrato, il 
 misefuori ; she let him out at the same door at which he 
 entered. That is, per quello usciuolo per il quale. 
 
 Cres. V erba, ove sard la hrina ; the grass, on which 
 dew is fallen. That is, V erba sopra cui or la quale. 
 
 B. Fiam. Oime quanto inganno sotto se quella pietd 
 oiascondeva, la quale pariitasi dal cuore 9 ove mai piil non 
 ritorno, ec. ; Alas ! how false was that compassion, 
 which, having been once banished from your heart, to 
 which it has never returned, &c. That is, dal cuore al 
 quale. 
 
 These four words, used for the oblique cases of cite 
 and quale, render the composition both elegant and 
 graceful ; yet we must advise the student not to use 
 them on all occasions, but only when he wishes to avoid 
 the repetition of the relatives, or when they are the cases 
 of verbs of motion, or when he can apply them with dis- 
 cernment, which is attained by reading the best authors. 
 
 These four words are generally adverbs, of the con- 
 struction of which we shall speak in their respective 
 places. 
 
 Boccaccio, and several other ancient authors, have 
 made use of chente, singular, and chenti, plural, instead 
 of quale, and quali; but at present these words are 
 entirely out of use, and are understood only by those 
 who are acquainted with the works of those authors. 
 
 remarks on che and quale. 
 
 1. Che, relating to a whole foregoing phrase or sen- 
 tence, instead of particular substantives as above, may 
 or may not be declined with the definite article, and is 
 declined thus : il che, del che, al che, dal cite. 
 
 B. 4. 7. Quantunque amor volentieri le case d£ nobili 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 333 
 
 uomini abiti, esso percio non rifiuta lo imperio di quelle 
 de" poveri...I\ che...apparira nella mia novella; though 
 love makes his habitation in the houses of great people, 
 yet he does not disown all influence over the poor sort... 
 which will appear... from my novel. 
 
 B. 10. 6. A cui il re le commendo molto, confortandolo 
 a maritarle. Dal che messer Neri...si scuso ; the king 
 commended them very much, and advised him to marry 
 them ; but he excused himself. 
 
 B. 10. 10. Gualtieri con rnolti de'' suoi disse, che voleva 
 procacciar col papa, che con ltd dispensasse, che urf altra 
 donna prender poiesse* e lasciar Griselda : di che egli da 
 assai buoni uomini fu ripreso ; Gualtieri declared before 
 many people of his suit, that he meant to solicit the 
 pope for a dispensation to take another woman to wife, 
 and send Griselda away ; for which he was much blamed. 
 Di che for del che. 
 
 But we are of opinion that it is better to make use of 
 the article in such cases ; for without it the sense is ren- 
 dered rather doubtful, and destitute of energy. 
 
 £. Che is sometimes used as an indeclinable relative, 
 as if it contained in itself the import of the preposition, 
 with which it is to be accompanied. 
 
 B. 1. 3. // Giudeo liberamente d^ogni quantita, che il 
 Saladino il richiese, il servi ; the Jew freely supplied 
 Saladin with what he wanted. That is, <Togni quantitd 
 della quale. 
 
 B. 7. 10. Covi* io giunsi di la, trovai molti compagni a 
 quella medcsima pena condennati, che io ; having arrived 
 there, 1 found a great many people condemned to the 
 same punishment as I was. That is, a quella pena alia 
 quale. 
 
 B. 10. 9- Voglio io che tu rrHaspetti un anno senza 
 rimaritarti incominciando da questo d\ che io mi parto ; 
 I request that you will wait a year without marrying 
 again, reckoning from the day of my leaving you. That 
 is, da questo d\ nel quale. 
 
334 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 3. Che, in phrases implying doubt, stands for quel 
 che or cosa, and is expressed by what. 
 
 B. 8. 7. E delta donna ricordandosi, per vedere che di 
 lei fosse, se ne ritomd alia torre ; and recollecting the 
 lady, he returned to the tower, to see what was become 
 of her. Che for quel che fosse, or cosa fosse, Sec. 
 
 B. £. 9. Madonna, di che vol abbiate offeso il vostro 
 marito, io nol so ; Madam, I know not what is your 
 offence towards your husband. Di che for di che 
 cosa. 
 
 4. Cui, being a genitive governed by a substantive, 
 not by a verb, may be used without di, the mark of the 
 genitive, and put between the article and the substantive 
 by which it is governed. 
 
 B 2. 3. Iddio mi pose avanti agli occhj questo gio- 
 vane, li cui costumi e il cui valor e son degni di qualun- 
 que gran donna; I accidentally got acquainted with 
 this young man, whose merit and behaviour make him 
 worthy of any noble lady. The author might also 
 have said, li costumi e il valor e di cui, or di cui li cos- 
 tumi e il valor e, without impropriety, or altering the 
 sense. 
 
 B. 4. 7. Era sotto il cesto .... una botta .... dal 
 cui venenifero Jiato avvisarono quella salvia esser vele- 
 nosa divenuta ; under the plant was a toad, with the 
 breath of which it was judged the sage leaves were in- 
 fected. That is, dal venenifero Jiato di cui. 
 
 If, however, the substantive which governs the geni- 
 tive cui is casa, without an article, cui is to be put after 
 it without di. 
 
 B. 4. 8. E mentre il corrotto grandissimo si faceva, 
 il buon uomo in casa cui morto era, disse alia Salvestra; 
 and whilst they were mourning, the honest man in whose 
 house he died said to Salvestra. That is, in casa di 
 cui. 
 
 5. Cui being a dative, and governed by a verb, may 
 be used without «, the mark of the dative. 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 385 
 
 B. Filoc. Dimandarono chi costoro fossero, cui la 
 fortuna e tanfo contraria ; they asked who those people 
 were to whom fortune was so adverse. Cui for a 
 cui. 
 
 B. Filoc. Allor la vede con quegli occhj cui nulla 
 cosa si pud celare ; then he will see her with eyes from 
 which nothing can be hidden. Cui for a cui. 
 
 6. Cui has been used by good writers instead of chi 
 and quale* but the student is not to imitate such a prac- 
 tice, but be contented with the rules we have set down 
 on this subject. 
 
 7. Quale in similes has no articles, and signifies as, 
 like, or such as. 
 
 B. Filoc. E questo detto sopra il letto ricadde supino, 
 divenuto nel viso, quale e la molto secca cenere ; and 
 thus saying, he fell backward on his bed as pale as 
 dry ashes. 
 
 8. Quale, in phrases expressive of doubt, is likewise 
 used without an article, and signifies which, what. 
 
 B. 1. 3. Ne sapeva esso rnedesimo eleggere a quale 
 pitl tosto lasciare il volesse ; he was at a loss which of 
 them to prefer. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Non so quale Iddio dentro mi stimola a 
 doverti il mio peccato manvfestare ; I know not what 
 God within me spurs me on to make a confession of my 
 guilt. 
 
 _ 9. Quale, used as a distributive, and being repeated in 
 the same sentence, has no article, and it is rendered in 
 English by some, some, others. 
 
 B. 2. 3. E le lor donne e ijigliuoli piccioletti qual 
 se n* ando in contado, e qual qua, e qual la povera- 
 mente in arnese ; and their wives and children ran 
 away, some going into the country, some to one place, 
 and others to other places, in a most distressful con- 
 dition. 
 
 In this example, quale might have been changed for 
 chi, and we think it is better, as in the following one. 
 
336 SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 B. Introd. Molti andavano attorno, portando nelle 
 mam chi jiori, chi erbe odorifere, e chi diverse manure di 
 spezierie ; a great many people walked every where, 
 some of them holding flowers, others aromatic herbs, 
 and others different kinds of spice. 
 
 10. From die, quale, chi, are formed die che, qual- 
 sisia* qualsivoglia, qualche, qualunque, qualcheduno, 
 qualcosa, qualcuno, chi eke, all of which will be spoken 
 of in their respective places. 
 
 SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 The relative pronouns die, quale, and chi, are also 
 used as interrogative pronouns, both in the singular and 
 plural; but they are not applied as relatives, nor do 
 they take articles. 
 
 RULE L. 
 
 Che being absolute, that is, without the company of 
 a substantive, is used in speaking of things, has no 
 plural, and signifies what. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Or, che avesti, chefai cotal viso ? Now, what 
 is the matter — why such an angry face ? 
 
 B. 9. 1. O se essi mi cacciasser gli occhj ... a che 
 sarei ? If they were to tear out my eyes . . . what 
 should I do ? 
 
 Instead of che we may use cosa; as, Cosa dite ? What . 
 do you say ? Cosa volete ? What do you want ? But 
 this is better used in a familiar style. 
 
 But when che is accompanied with a substantive, it 
 is used in speaking of men and things of both genders 
 and numbers. 
 
 B. 9. 6. Voste . . . disse seco stesso: che diavol fa 
 costui qui ? The host said to himself : What the devil 
 is the man doing here ? 
 
 In like manner we say, Che uomo e costui ? What 
 
SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 337 
 
 man is he ? Che donna e colei di cui mi parlate ? What 
 woman is she of whom you speak ? Che uomini son 
 questi ? What sort of men are these ? 
 
 RULE LI. 
 
 Quale is always accompanied with a substantive, and 
 is used in speaking of men or things of both genders, 
 and in the plural makes quali. In speaking of men, 
 or of things, quale signifies what. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Quale amore, qual ricchezza, qual paren- 
 tado avrebbe i sospiri di Tito con tanta efficacia fatti a 
 Gisippo nel cuor sentire, se non costei f What degree 
 of love, wealth, affinity, could have wrought so effec- 
 tually upon the heart of Gysippus, to make him feel the 
 pangs of Titus, but this (friendship) ? 
 
 If it is used for chi, it is used alone, but then the sub- 
 stantive is understood. 
 
 Salviati Mon. Quale e quello tra noi? Who is the 
 person among us ? That is, qual uomo e quello, or 
 chi e quello ? 
 
 Salviati Disc, on Paint. Qual e mai tanto da cordoglio 
 . . .aggravate ? Who is so oppressed with grief ? That 
 is, qual uomo e mai ? or chi e mai ? 
 
 RULE LII. 
 
 Chi is used in speaking of persons only of both genders 
 and numbers, and signifies who. 
 
 B. 4. 10. II qual brancolare sentendo le femmine che 
 deste erano, cominciarono a dire, chi e la? The women, 
 on hearing such a noise, cried aloud, saying, Who is 
 there ? 
 
 In like manner we say, Chi era colei? Who was that 
 woman ? Chi son costoro ? Who are those ? 
 
888 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE INTERROGATIVES die, quale, cM. 
 
 Che being absolute, cannot be changed for quale ; but 
 being accompanied with a substantive, it may be easily 
 used, without any apprehension of error. Thus, we 
 may say, che uomini, or quali uomini son costoro ? What 
 sort of men are those ? But we cannot say quale avete 
 for che avete, unless we say quale male avete ? 
 
 Quale, in speaking of persons, may be changed for chi, 
 and chi for quale. So we may say qual e costui? or 
 chi e costui t The latter mode, however, is preferable. 
 
 All these words are often accompanied with mai in 
 interrogative sentences expressive of doubts, to give 
 more strength to them ; as, Che maigli avrafatto ? What 
 may he have done to him ? Chi mai sard ? Who can 
 he be ? 
 
 Quale, followed by a genitive, may be used in speak- 
 ing of persons and things of both genders, but chi only 
 of persons. 
 
 Quale di due libri ? Which of the two books ? Quale 
 (U quegli uomini ? Which of those men ? &c. 
 
 Chidi voi ? Which of you ? Chi di loro t Which 
 of them ? 
 
 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE OR IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 
 
 Having spoken of the use of the article which is to 
 be prefixed to these pronouns, and likewise of their 
 retrenchment in page ] 07, we are now to speak of their 
 different significations, and of their places, when they are 
 used as adjectives. Those that have but one significa- 
 tion will not be mentioned here, as that which has been 
 said in the first part we think is sufficient. 
 
 RULE LIII. 
 
 Alcuno, with all its oblique cases, as a substantive, is 
 used in speaking of persons, and literally signifies any 
 one, some people. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 339 
 
 B. 10. 4. In Persia quando alcuno vuole onorare U 
 §uo amico, egli lo ^nvita a casa sua ; in Persia, when 
 any one has a mind to shew respect to his friend, he 
 invites him to his house. 
 
 B. 4, 8. Alcuni sono li quali, pm che Taltre genti si 
 credono sapere, e sanno meno; there are some people 
 who think they know more than other folks, when they 
 know less. 
 
 But when alcuno is accompanied with a negative, it is 
 rendered by nobody, or no one. 
 
 B. 3. End. Era si hello il giardino, che alcuno non vi 
 fu, che elegesse di quello uscire ; the garden was so plea- 
 sant, that there was nobody who chose to leave it. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Non consiglierei alcuna, che dietro alle pedate 
 di lei...+s > arrischiasse d'andare; I would advise no one 
 to run the risk of following her path. 
 
 Alcuno, as an adjective, is used in speaking of per- 
 sons or things, is to agree with its substantive in gender 
 and number, and is generally placed before it, but some- 
 times it is put after. 
 
 B. 6. 10. A costui . . . avea frate Cipolla comandato, 
 che ben guardasse, che alcuna persona non toccasse le 
 cose sue ; Friar Cipolla had ordered this fellow to take 
 care that nobody should meddle with any thing belong- 
 ing to him. 
 
 B. 2. Proem. Per lo fresco avendo niangiato, dopo 
 alcun ballo iandarono a riposare ; having taken a 
 repast in the open air, after dancing they went to 
 rest. 
 
 B. 7. End. // rejlnito la sua novella, ne altro alcun 
 restandovi a dire, levatasi la corona di testa, sopra il 
 capo la pose a Lauretta ; the king concluded his novel, 
 and as no one else was to speak, he arose, and taking the 
 crown from his own head, placed it upon Lauretta's. 
 
 RULE LIV. 
 
 Alquanto, as an adjective, is used in speaking of per- 
 0, 2 
 
MO SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 sons and things, and is made to agree with the substan- 
 tive which it is to qualify, in gender and number. It is 
 used throughout all its oblique cases, and its literal sig- 
 nification is a little, some, or several. 
 
 B. Fiam. Ma dopo alquanto spazio etta a me ritorno ; 
 But after a little time she came back to me. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Io intendo di farvi avere alquanta com pas- 
 sione d? una giusta retribuzione ad una nostra cittadina 
 renduta ; I intend to move your compassion for a just 
 return, which a lady of our city met with. 
 
 B. 3. 5. E quinci tacendo, alquante lagrime mandate 
 per gli occhj fuori, comincio ad attendere quello die la 
 gentildonna gli rispondesse ; then he ceased, and with 
 tears in his eyes he sat, expecting the lady's answer. 
 
 In the first example, alquanto agrees with spazio a 
 substantive masculine ; in the second, with compassione a 
 substantive feminine ; and in the third, with lagrime a 
 substantive feminine plural. 
 
 Alquanti, plural of alquanto, is used as a substantive 
 in speaking of persons, and its signification is some, or 
 several of them. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Ed ultimamente alquanti, die risentiti, erano 
 air arme cor si, rfuccisero ; and finally they murdered 
 several (of them), who being awakened, had taken up 
 arms. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Per la qital cosa da alquanti il diviso e lo 
 invito del peregrino era stato biasimaio ; on that account 
 the disguise and the invitation of the pilgrim had been 
 blamed by some of them. 
 
 Alquanto, as an adverb, if it is accompanied with a 
 verb, denotes quantity of time, and signifies some time, 
 or a little while, and also diminution of action, and sig- 
 nifies a little, somewhat. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Ella, uscita dalla camera, e stata alquanto, 
 tomb deniro piangendo ; she went out of the room, and, 
 after some time, she came in with tears in her eyes. 
 
 B. 2. 6. Ella vide venire una cavriola, ed entrare ivi 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 341 
 
 vicino in una caverna, e dopo alquanto uscirne ; she saw 
 a she-goat enter a cavern near her, and after a little while 
 come out again. 
 
 B. 9. 7. Venuto il giorno chiaro, e alquanto la tem- 
 pesta acchetata, la donna alzo la testa ; when the day 
 cleared up, and the storm abated a little, the lady lifted 
 her head. 
 
 In the same sense it is likewise accompanied with sub- 
 stantives of both genders and numbers, and its literal 
 signification is a little, or rather. 
 
 B. 3. End. La Lauretta con maniera alquanto pietosa^ 
 comincio cost ; Lauretta thus began in a manner rather 
 pathetic. 
 
 Cresc. Sono ancora certi cavoli, che hanno le Jbglie 
 grandly sottili e alquanto crespe ; there is a kind of cole, 
 the leaves of which are large, thin, and rather curled. 
 
 RULE LV. 
 
 Altrettanto, which is also spelt altretanto, is composed 
 of altro and tanto, and being used as an adjective, it is 
 to agree with its substantive in gender and number. Its 
 signification is as much for the singular, and as many 
 for the plural. 
 
 B. 10. 2. Ne prima vi torno che il seguente <Ti, con 
 altrettanto pane arrostito e con altrettanta vernaccia ; he 
 did not return till next morning, with as much toasted 
 bread and wine as before. 
 
 B. Amet. Ed uccise cento pecore, ed altrettanti vitelli, 
 cost comincio a dire ; and having killed a hundred sheep, 
 and as many calves, he thus began to speak. 
 
 Altrettanto, as an adverb, generally has the cor- 
 respondence of come and quanto, which are expressed 
 by as. 
 
 Vill. Delia venuta de 1 cavalieri i Fiorentini furono 
 altrettanto contenti, come se fosse venuto U duca in per- 
 sona ; the Florentines were as much pleased with the 
 arrival of the noblemen, as if the duke himself were come. 
 
342 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE FR0N0UKS. 
 
 B. Fiam. Egli mi mostrd, altrettanto i diletti nascod 
 valere, quanto i tesori sottoterra occultati ; he shewed 
 me, that hidden pleasures have as much value as treasures 
 hidden under ground. 
 
 RULE LVI. 
 Altro, as an adjective, is used in speaking of persons 
 and things, and is to agree with its substantive in gender 
 and number. Its signification is another for the singular, 
 and others for the plural. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Altro marito aver non posso ; I cannot have 
 another husband, or rather, I cannot marry again, 
 
 B. Introd. Qui sono giardini, qui altri luoghi dilette- 
 voli ; here are gardens, there are other pleasant places. 
 
 Altro, with an article, is often accompanied with names 
 of time, such as d\ giorno, jeri, settimana, mese, anno^ 
 mattina, sera, thus : T altro d/i, T altro giorno, raltr\jeri, 
 &c, which expressions are rendered, the day before 
 yesterday, the night, the evening before last, &c. 
 
 B. 8. 10. i*T il vero, che egli ci e alcuna persona, U 
 quale P altr* ieri mi servl dei cinque cento fiorini che mi 
 mancavano ; it is true that a person the day before yes- 
 terday lent me the five hundred florins which I wanted. 
 
 B. 9. 10. I/altr* annoys a Barletta un buon noma 
 chiamato Gianni. The year before last there was at 
 Barletta a man called Gianni. 
 
 Altro, with the same names as above, has often been 
 used for dopo, vegnente, seguente ; next, or following. 
 
 B. 9. 5. Ma Y altro di recata la ribeba, canto piu can- 
 zoni con essa ; accordingly the next, or the following, 
 morning, he took his guitar with him, and sang a long 
 time. 
 
 Altro, as an adjective, has been used in the sense of 
 thai which remains, or the remaining part. 
 
 B. 4. 5. Gli spiced dallo imbusto la testa, e la terra 
 sopra V altro corpo gittata, quindi si parti ; she cut off his 
 head, and covering the trunk again with the mould, she 
 went away ; that is, il resto del corpo. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 843 
 
 B. Fiam. Nel tempo nel quale la rivestita terra piu, 
 che tutto V altro anno si mostra bella . . . venni io al mondo ; 
 I was born when the ground, adorned by nature, is more 
 beautiful than in all other seasons ; that is, piu che 
 tutto il resto deW anno. 
 
 Altro, as a substantive neuter, signifies something else, 
 any thing else, differently. 
 
 B. 8. 7. E cost dimorando costei, piu la morte aspet- 
 tando che altro, lo scolare sene torno alia torre ; she being 
 in that situation, and preferring death to any thing else, 
 the scholar went back to the tower. 
 
 B. 7. 3. Non seppe si Filostrato parlare oscuro, che 
 V avvedute donne ne ridessero, sembiantejucendo di rider 
 (T altro ; Philostratus did not speak so covertly as to 
 prevent the ladies from laughing at it, though they 
 seemed to laugh at something else. 
 
 B. 8. 9. Altro avresti detto, se tu m! avessi veduto a 
 Bologna ; you would have spoken differently, had you 
 seen me when I was at Bologna. 
 
 RULE LVII. 
 Altri, as a substantive, is used in the nominative sin- 
 gular in speaking only of persons: it signifies any 
 one. 
 
 B. 1. 8. Ne vol ne altri mi potra piu dire che io non 
 V abbia veduta ; neither you nor any one else shall be 
 able to say that I am unacquainted with her. 
 
 The oblique cases of altri are <P altrui, ad altrui, altrui, 
 da altrui ; or d* altri, ad altri, altri, da altri. The former 
 are better employed, but we do not think it is a fault to 
 use the latter instead. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Io mi lascerei innanzi morire* che io cosa 
 dicessi ad altrui; I would rather die than disclose the 
 secret to any body. 
 
 B. 5. 8. La giovane, la qual sapeva che da altrui, che 
 
 da lei rimaso non era, che moglie di Nastagio stata non 
 
 Jbsse,glifece rispondere; the lady, who was sensible that 
 
 it had been her fault they were not married, sent word to 
 
844 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Anastasius ; or otherwise — the lady, who knew that it 
 had not been the fault of any body but herself. 
 
 B. Fiam. Qual folio mio mi f ha tolto e datoti ad 
 altri ? What fault of mine has induced you to leave 
 me, and give yourself up to another (woman) ? 
 
 Altri) in the plural, is a correlative of uni, alcuni, 
 quali) or any other word used as a distributive, and sig- 
 nifies the latter, others. 
 
 B. Fiam. Poi immaginai di voler Jure ', siccome fecero 
 i Saguntini, e gli Abidei, gli uni tementi Annibale Car- 
 taginese, e gli altri Filippo Macedonico ; then I thought 
 I should do as the Saguntines and the Abideians did ; 
 the former fearing Hannibal of Carthage, the latter 
 Philip of Macedon. 
 
 Altri> as a substantive singular, is changed into altro 
 whenever it is preceded by uno 9 alcuno, questo, or some 
 other particle of a singular signification. 
 
 B. 3. 2. Un altro gli avrebbe voluti Jar martoriare ; 
 another would have had them martyred. Not un altri. 
 
 B. 10. 3. Comincio a fare le piu smisurate cortesie 9 
 che maijacesse alcuno altro a chi andava e veniva per 
 quindi; he began to be more generous than any one 
 else to all comers and goers. 
 
 It is to be observed that altrui is also indeclinable, 
 and may be placed either after the substantive by which 
 it is governed, or between the article and the said 
 substantive. 
 
 Gozz. Che agevolmente prestava essa Jede alle parole 
 altrui; for she easily believed all that people said; that 
 is, alle parole di altrui. 
 
 B. Introd. Molto jpiu cid per Taltrui case Jacendo ; 
 doing that still more in other people's houses ; that is, 
 per le case di altrui. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Ricordatu che una volta senza piu suole avve- 
 nire, che lajbrtuna si fa altrui incontro col viso lieto ; re- 
 collect that fortune is wont to come once in our lives to 
 us with a cheerful countenance; that is, si fa incontro 
 ad altrui. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 345 
 
 RULE LVIII. 
 
 Ciascheduno and ciascuno, are used throughout their 
 cases in speaking of persons, as substantives ; and signify 
 every erne. These words have their feminine gender in a, 
 thus : ciascheduna and ciascuna ; but they have no 
 plural, and if any example is found contrary to this rule, 
 it is not to be imitated. 
 
 B. 5. 6. Ed in brieve ciaschedun la voleva; and finally, 
 every one would have her. 
 
 B. Concl. E lasciando omai ciascheduna, o dire, o 
 credere come le pare, tempo e da porjine alle parole ; and 
 allowing every one to speak or believe as they choose, 
 let us put an end to our discourse. 
 
 B. 5. End. Lareina...comando die ciascuno s'andasse 
 ariposare; the queen. ..ordered that every one should 
 go to rest. 
 
 As adjectives, these pronouns are to agree with a 
 substantive singular in gender, and signify each or every, 
 
 B. 1.2. Convenevole cosa e die ciascheduna cosa...fc 
 dea principio ; it is right that each action which a man 
 does, he should begin, &c. 
 
 B. Filoc. Manifesta cosa e, die ciascuno uomo ne' suoi 
 sonni vegga mirabili cose ; it is certain that (every man 
 or) men see wonderful things in their sleep. 
 
 Ciascuno is often found followed by per se, thus cias- 
 cuno per se, when it has different significations, or it is used 
 as an expletive, as will be seen in the following examples. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Ciascun per se, e poi tutC insieme apertamente 
 confessaro se essere stati coloro die Teddldo ucciso ave- 
 vano; they first, one by one, and then all together, con- 
 fessed the fact, namely, that they had murdered Tedaldo. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Le quali cose tutte imieme, e ciascuna per se 
 gli fecero stimare, costei dover essere una grande e ricca 
 donna; all which things together made him conclude 
 that she was some great lady. Ciascuna per se is an exple- 
 tive, the literal signification of which is, each separately. 
 
 Catauno, catuno, caduno, for ciascuno and ciascheduno* 
 
 %4 
 
346 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 are found in old authors, but they are too obsolete to be 
 imitated. Cadauno likewise is considered by some as 
 obsolete, but we think it may be used sometimes instead 
 of ciascuno with impunity. 
 
 RULE LIX. 
 Chiunque, which is pronounced in three syllables, thus, 
 chi-un-que, as a substantive, is used in speaking of per- 
 sons of both genders, and has no plural. 
 
 B. 9. 5. Dio lajhccia trista, chiunque ella e ; plague 
 upon her, whoever she is. 
 
 B. 10. 3. Ed avendo bella famiglia, con piacevolczza 
 e confesta chiunque andava e veniva, Jhceva ricevere 
 ed onorare ; and having a great number of servants, he 
 had all goers and comers honoured and respected with 
 all possible civility. 
 
 Chiunque for qualunque, as an adjective, has been 
 used by Crescenzio and other authors, but we think it is 
 not proper. 
 
 RULE LX. 
 
 Cotale, as an adjective, is to agree with its substantive 
 in gender and number, and signifies certain, this, such. 
 
 B. 3. 10. La giovane non da ordinario desiderio ma 
 da un cotal fanciullesco appetito, ad andar verso il de- 
 serto di Tebaida . . . si mise ; the young girl, not governed 
 by a reasonable desire, but by a certain youthful im- 
 pulse, started for the desert of Thebais. 
 
 B. 1. 7. Ma poiche le rise rimasejurono, Filostrato in 
 cotal guisa cowmcio a parlare ; but when they finished 
 laughing, Philostratus began to speak in this manner, or 
 rather thus. 
 
 B. Fiam. In questa maniera can cotali pensieri mlinge- 
 gnava di trapassare i giorni ; in this manner I endea- 
 voured to pass my days immersed in such thoughts. 
 
 Cotale^ as an adverb, signifies so, 
 
 B. 8. 6. Calandrino gV invito a cena cotale alia trista. 
 
SYKTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 347 
 
 sicche costoro non vi vollon cenare ; Calandrino invited 
 them to supper, but so sorrowfully, that they would not 
 accept the invitation. We, however, do not advise the 
 student to use cotale in that sense, as it is not very 
 intelligible. 
 
 Cotali, plural of cotale, is also used as a substantive, with 
 the masculine article i, when it comprehends both genders. 
 
 B. Jntrod. I cotali son morti, gli altrettali son per 
 morire ; such ones are dead, others are about to die. 
 
 RULE LXI. 
 
 Cotanto, as an adjective, is used in speaking of per- 
 sons and things, and is made to agree with its substan- 
 tive in gender and number. Its signification is the 
 same as tanto, so much ; and it is used instead of tanto 
 for more energy. 
 
 B. 3. 6. Oime ! . . . a cui ho io cotanti anni portato 
 cotanto amore ? Alas ! whom have I loved in this 
 manner for so many years ? The author could as well 
 have said tanti anni and tanto amore ; but the sentence 
 would be rather destitute of that force which it possesses. 
 
 Cotanto, adverb, is also used with the correspondence 
 of die or quanto. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Gia Dio non voglia, die cosi giovane, e co- 
 tanto da me amato . . . che io sqfferi die a guisa d'un 
 cane sia sepellito ; heaven forbid that I should ever 
 suffer a youth so much beloved by me, to be buried 
 like a dog. 
 
 B. 4. 4. Ed imposegli che . . . gli dicesse, che or a si 
 parrehhe\ se cotanto Tamasse, quanto piil volte signifi- 
 catoavea ; she ordered him to acquaint him, that it would 
 now appear whether he loved her so much as he had 
 often declared. 
 
 RULE LXIL 
 Dessohas both genders and numbers, thus : desm, de§§u 
 
348 SYNTAX OF INBETJERMiSATfi *&Otf0tftfjL- 
 
 desse, and signifies the same. It is always used in the no- 
 minative, and generally with the verb essere or par ere. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Hai tu sentito stanotte cosa niuna ? Tu non 
 mi par desso. Has any thing been the matter with you 
 last night ? You seem not to be the same person. 
 
 B. 3. % Avendone dunque il re molti cerchi, ne alcun 
 trovandone, il quale giudicasse essere stato desso, per- 
 venue a colui ; having then looked for many, and finding 
 no one who he thought could be the same person, he 
 came to him. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Vide quelle robe, che al Saladino avea la sua 
 donna donate, ma non estimo dover poter esser che 
 desse fossero ; he cast his eye on those robes which his 
 wife had given to the Saladin, but he could not imagine 
 they could be the same. 
 
 Desso and dessa are sometimes used instead of colui, 
 colei, he, she, it. 
 
 B. J 0. 8. Io temo che i parenti suoi non la dieno 
 prestamente ad un altro, il qual Jbrse no?t sarai desso 
 tu ; I am afraid lest her parents should bestow her upon 
 some other person, and perhaps it will not be you. It 
 instead of he, meaning colui or desso. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Ti dico io di lei cotanto, che se rnai io ne 
 trovai alcuna di queste siocchezze schifa, ella e dessa ; 
 let me tell you, if there be a woman in the world averse 
 to such follies, it is she. 
 
 RULE LXIII. 
 
 Medesimo and siesso are used as adjectives, and have 
 both genders and numbers. They signify the same, and 
 are sometimes joined to personal pronouns. 
 
 B. Lab. Guardando tra molte^ che quivi it eraiw in 
 quello medesimo abito ; looking at so many women who 
 were there j dressed in the same robes. 
 
 B. 5* 5. Creduto abbiamo che costei nella casa, che rni 
 fu quel di stesso arsa, ardesse ; we supposed she was the 
 same day burnt along with the house. 
 
 B. 3. % Purche noi medesime nol diciamo ; provided 
 we do not say it ourselves* 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 849 
 
 B. 3. 1. EUe non sanno quello, cJi elle si vogliano 
 elleno stesse ; they themselves do not know what they 
 want. 
 
 Medesimo and stesso sometimes are accompanied with 
 meco, teco, seco ; they signify myself ] thyself, &c. or are 
 used as expletives. 
 
 B. Fiam. Certo voter not del . . . se savia teco mede- 
 sima ti consigli ; certainly you ought not to accede to it, 
 if you think better on it. 
 
 B. 7. 5. La quale questo vedendo, disse seco medesima: 
 lodato sia Iddio ; who, on seeing that, said to herself — 
 praised be God. 
 
 RULE LXIV. 
 
 Nessuno or nissuno, and niuno or nullo, used as sub- 
 stantives, have the feminine gender in a, thus, nessuna, 
 niuna. 
 
 These words sometimes affirm, and sometimes deny, 
 as will be seen in the following examples. 
 
 Firenz. Nessuno, nessuno, traditor ribaldo, nessuno 
 V ha potuto rubare se non tu ; no, rascally traitor, no, 
 nobody but you has stolen it. 
 
 Stor. Pistol. jE quando nessuno n* era preso, subito era 
 impiccato per la gola ; and when any one was taken, he 
 was directly hung by the neck. Nessuno affirms. 
 
 B. 3. 1. 77 luogo e assai lontano di qui, e niuno mi vi 
 conosce ; it is very far from hence, and nobody knows 
 me there. Niuno denies. 
 
 Pass. Nullo parla volentieri at mutolo ; nobody will 
 willingly speak to a dumb person. Nullo denies. 
 
 Fov. Ant. 21. Trovossi in Melano niuno, che contra- 
 diasse alia potestate ? Was there ever found in Milan 
 any body who was against the power ? Niuno affirms. 
 
 We, however, agree with those who use these 
 words negatively; and the student, we hope, will agree 
 with us. 
 
350 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 When these words, in the same sense as above, are 
 accompanied with the negative non, non is put before 
 the verb, and they are placed after it. 
 
 B. 8. 9- Egli non ce it e niuno, che non vi paresse 
 un imperadore ; there is no one who does not appear an 
 emperor. 
 
 Vill. i* S ar acini fur ono sconjitti e morti, che quasi di 
 tutti quelli che passarono non ne scampo nullo ; the Sara- 
 cens were defeated and put to death, and of all those 
 that passed no one escaped. 
 
 Nessuno, niuno, and^ nullo, as adjectives, agree with 
 their substantive singular in gender, and are subject tv 
 the same rules as above. 
 
 Albertano. Perclie nessuno uomo e libero, la quale 
 serve al corpo ; because no man is free who is subser- 
 vient to his body. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Niuna gloria e ad un! aquila aver vinta 
 una colomba ; it is no glory for an eagle to overcome a 
 poor dove. 
 
 Vill. Era morto in quelV anno lo Re d? Ungheria del 
 quale non rimase nullo figliuolo maschio ; that year the 
 King of Hungary departed this life, and left no male 
 issue. 
 
 These words have sometimes been used in the plural 
 by good authors, but we advise the student to take no 
 notice of them, and to make use of the singular. 
 
 Neuno, nimo, gnuno, ullo, have been used by good 
 writers, but at present they are obsolete. 
 
 RULE LXV. 
 
 Ogni is accompanied with singular nouns, both mas- 
 culine and feminine, but never with plural nouns ; and 
 though it has been used by different authors, we ad- 
 vise the student to use the singular, as in the following 
 examples. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 351 
 
 B. 1. 2. E per quello che io estimi con ogrri sollecitu- 
 dine, con ogni ingegno e con ogni arte, mi pare che si 
 procaccino di riducere a nulla, e di cacciare del mondo la 
 cristiana religione; and by what I can perceive, it 
 seems that they strive with their whole might and skill 
 to overthrow the christian religion, and to drive it from 
 the face of the earth. Literally it would be, with every 
 care, with every skill, with every art, but that would not 
 be English. 
 
 Ogni is accompanied with una, making one word; 
 thus, ognuno, which has the feminine gender ognuna, 
 but not the plural, and it is always used as a sub- 
 stantive. 
 
 B. 5. 1. Con grandissima ammirazione d? ognuno; 
 with great wonder of every one. 
 
 B. 1. 6. Se per ognuna cento vene sienorcndute di la ; 
 if for every one of those you are to receive a hundred 
 in the other world. 
 
 RULE LXVL 
 
 Parecchj masculine and parecchie feminine have no 
 singular as adjectives, and are to agree with their sub- 
 stantives plural in gender, either of persons or things. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Dove parecchj giorni il tenne ; where he kept 
 him several days. 
 
 B. 3. 9. A cui avea parecchie belle e care gioje do?iate ; 
 to whom he had given several jewels of great value. 
 
 These words are sometimes used as distributives, and 
 have the correspondence of altri, niolti. 
 
 B, 3. 1. Parecchj ri andaro in contado, altri abban- 
 donarono il paese natio ; several went into the country, 
 others left their native country. 
 
 Quale has been spoken of in treating of relatives, 
 page 328. 
 
352 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULELXVU. 
 
 Qualche is accompanied with nouns of both genders, 
 has no plural, and is used in speaking of persons and 
 things. 
 
 B. 7. 3. Se io fossi pur vestito, qualche modo ci 
 mrebbe ; had I but my clothes on, we could find some 
 excuse. 
 
 B. 8. 8. Egli trovi qualche cagione di partirsi da me ; 
 he shall find some reason to go from me. 
 
 Qualche, spelt qual che, signifies literally whoever, and 
 the verb with which it is accompanied is to be put in 
 the subjunctive. 
 
 B. 2. 8. Iddio m* ha dimostrato la cagione del tuo 
 male, la quale niuna altra cosa e, che soverchio amore, U 
 quale tu parti ad alcuna giovane qual che ella sia ; God 
 has made manifest to me the cause of your illness ; I 
 know now that it is occasioned by the great affec- 
 tion which you bear to some young woman, whoever 
 she is. 
 
 Qualche, followed by the word cosa, loses che, and 
 makes one word with cosa; thus, qualcosa, signifying 
 something. 
 
 Firenz. Trin. E ^ io dicessu cJC io ne so qualcosa, che 
 direste? Were I to say that I know something about 
 it, what would you say ? 
 
 Borgh. Fies. Pare che ragionevol cosa sia dire di 
 Fiesole qual cosa ; I think it is right to say something 
 of Fiesole. 
 
 Qualche, followed by uno, is spelt three ways indif- 
 ferently ; thus, qualcuno, quale}? uno, and qualcheduno. 
 Their signification is some, or any, or somebody. 
 
 Pass. Or chi potra scampare da tanti lacciuoli, che 
 non siapreso da qualcuno ? Who can then pass through 
 so many snares without being caught in some (of 
 them) ? 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 353 
 
 Firenz. E pero doniamolo a qualcheduno ; and 
 therefore let us give it to somebody. 
 
 RULE LXVIII. 
 
 Qualsisia and qualsivoglia are used in speaking of 
 persons and things, both masculine and feminine. They 
 signify whosoever, whatsoever. 
 
 Gelli. Tutte le cause che si agitavano in qualsivoglia 
 paese ; all the lawsuits which took place in what country 
 soever. 
 
 These two words make qualsisiano and qualsivogliano 
 in the plural ; but they are not frequently used. 
 
 RULE LXIX. 
 Qualunque is accompanied with substantives of both 
 genders and numbers. 
 
 B. 5. 6. Estimando vilissima cosa essere a qualunque 
 Uomo si fosse, non che ad un re, due ignudi uccidere dor~ 
 mendo, si ritenne ; reflecting that it would be a very vile 
 action in any person, and more so in a king, to kill two 
 persons unarmed and asleep, he withdrew his hand. 
 
 B. Lab. Qualunque persona, tacendo, i benejicj rice* 
 vuti nascande ... dimostra se essere ingrato ; whoever 
 tries to hide the good actions he has received, shews he 
 is ungrateful. 
 
 Cresc. Qualunque piante hanno i Jrutti aromatici, e 
 caldi, e secchi, piit e convenevole di piantare ne > monti ; 
 all those plants, the fruit of which is aromatic, warm, and 
 dry, are better to be planted on mountains. 
 
 In these examples qualunque is accompanied with 
 uomo of course masculine, persona of the feminine gen- 
 der, and piante a substantive feminine plural: we think 
 it is better not to accompany it with a substantive plural, 
 as it is not frequently used by good authors. 
 
 Quanto and tanto have been treated of at large under 
 the head of comparatives, page 263. 
 
354 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE LXX. 
 
 Tale, as a substantive, is used in speaking of sub- 
 stantives of both genders, and is followed by the relative 
 che, who. Its signification is one, any, some. 
 
 B. Filoc. Tal rise degli altrui danni^ che de 1 suoi dopo 
 picciol tempo pianse, e funne riso; he laughed at others'" 
 misfortunes, who after a little while wept for his own, 
 and was laughed at in his turn. 
 
 B. Introd. E tali fuwno che per difetto di baresopra 
 alcuna tavola ne ponieno ; and there were some who 
 were placed on boards for want of biers. 
 
 Tale, as an adjective, is used in the same sense as 
 above ; but its literal signification is such. 
 
 B. 1.4. E pensando seco stesso, che questa potrebbe 
 essere tal femmina, ojigliuola di tale uomo, cK egli non 
 le vorrebbe averfatta quella vergogna, s* avviso di voler 
 prima veder chi fosse ; supposing that she might be a 
 woman of condition, or the daughter of such a man whom 
 he would not have disgraced, he thought it best to see 
 iirst who she was. 
 
 Tale and tali are often preceded by demonstrative 
 pronouns, and their literal signification is such a one as 
 this, such ones as these, or such people. 
 
 Castigli. Cort. Se a queste tali fosse licito fare il 
 divorzio ; if such women as these were permitted to have 
 a divorce. 
 
 Borgh. Cotesti tali s* immaginano che Ercole sia in 
 atto di combattere con Cacco ; such ones as these imagine 
 that Hercules is going to fight with Cacus. 
 
 Tali, plural of tale, being repeated in a sentence, is 
 used as a distributive, and its signification is some, or the 
 former and the latter. 
 
 Nov. Ant. 61. Convenne che disvestisse di Cavalieri 
 di sua terra, e donasse a! cavalieri di corte : tali rijiu- 
 taro e tali acconsentiro ; he was obliged to deprive the 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 355 
 
 nobles of their lands, and give them to those of the court : 
 some refused, and some consented. 
 
 Tale is used with the correspondence of quale, and 
 sometimes of come, but quale is preferable. Its signifi- 
 cation is what. 
 
 B. 8. End. E tal nel viso divenne, quale in su V aurora 
 son le vermiglie rose ; her face was overspread with a 
 blush, such as roses have in the morning. 
 
 B. 9. 10. E per conseguente piu largo arbitrio debbo 
 avere in dimostrarvi tal, quale io sono ; and consequently 
 I am more at liberty to shew you what I am. 
 
 Grad. S. Girol. Perdonaie a tutti cohro, cite vifanno, 
 male, die tal perdono trover a ciascuno in verso Dio, com' 
 egli agli altri uomini ; forgive those who have offended 
 you, for God will deal with every one as every one deals 
 with others. 
 
 RULE LXXI. 
 
 Tutto, taken as a substantive, is used in speaking of 
 things in the singular when it is always masculine, and 
 of persons in the plural, making tutti, tutte. 
 
 B. 2. 9. Iddio, die tutto conosce, sa; God, who knows 
 every thing, knows. 
 
 B. 2. 6. Ed a tutti diceva, die di do domandata laves- 
 sero, die suoi figliuoli erano ; she said to all those who 
 asked her, they were her own children. 
 
 B. Introd. Tutti sopra la verde erba si posero in 
 cerchio a sedere ; every one sat down in a circle on the 
 green grass. 
 
 B. Introd. Pregogli per parte di tutte; he begged 
 him from all the ladies. 
 
 Tutto, as an adjective, is placed before the article and 
 its substantive, whether of persons or things ; and it is 
 to agree with it in gender and number. Its signification 
 is all 
 
 B. Lab. Tutti i pensieri dellefemmine, tutto lo studio, 
 tutte le opere, a niuna altra cosa tirano, se non a rubare^ 
 
256 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 a signoreggiare, e ad ingannare gli uomini; all the 
 thoughts, the attention, and actions of women, tend to 
 nothing but to rob, to lord over, and to cheat men. 
 
 B. 1. 2. Comincio a riguardare alle maniere di tutti i 
 cortegiani ; he began to inspect narrowly the manner 
 of living of all the courtiers. 
 
 Sometimes the substantive which is to follow tutto, 
 loses the article, but then tutto is in the sense of ogni, 
 every, and not all. 
 
 Pass. Riverito, onorato, careggiato da tutte genti ; 
 respected, honoured, and caressed by every body ; that 
 is, da ogni gente. 
 
 Nov. Ant. La gente che aveva bontade veniva a lui da 
 tutte parti ; good people came to him from every place. 
 
 Tutto, preceding an adjective, without its substantive, 
 is made to agree with the said adjective, and is used as 
 an expletive, but then the adjective with which it is 
 accompanied becomes an adverb, as in the following 
 examples. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Ilfamiglio trovo la giovane sotto il becco della 
 proda della nave tutta timida star nascosa ; the servant 
 found the lady all in a tremble, having hidden herself 
 under the projecting part of the prow. 
 
 B. S. 9. Senza aspettar dUesser sollicitata da? sum, cost 
 tutta vaga comincio a parlare ; without being urged by 
 her companions, she charmingly began to speak in these 
 terms. 
 
 In these examples, timida and vaga relate to giovane, 
 and to ella which is understood. 
 
 If, however, the adjective tutto is followed by solo, 
 or soletto, tutto is expressed quite, or entirely. 
 
 B. % 8. E postosi..xon lei sopra un letto in una 
 camera tutti soli a seder e... ella comincio a dire ; and being 
 quite alone in a room they sat down on a bed, and then 
 she said. 
 
 B. 10. 3. Mitradanes ... rfandd al boschetto, e vide 
 Natcm tutto soletto andar passeggiando per quello; 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PI10N0UNS. 357 
 
 Mithridanes went to the grove, where he saw Nathan 
 walking quite alone. 
 
 Tutto, followed by a numeral noun, takes the par- 
 ticle e. 
 
 B. 7. 8. E disse : frategli rniei ... che andate voi 
 cercando a quest ova tutti e tre ? and she said : Brothers, 
 what is the meaning of your coming all three at such an 
 hour? 
 
 Sometimes a is found instead of £, but it ought not to 
 be imitated. We think, however, that it is better to 
 suppress both one and the other, saying, tutti due, tutti 
 tre> &c. 
 
 Tutto sometimes joins with quanto, making tuttoqucmto, 
 tutta quanta, tutti quanti, tutte quante, when quanto is 
 an expletive. 
 
 B. 8. % Voi siete tutti quanti piu scarsi che il Jistolo ; 
 you are all as stingy as the devil himself. 
 
 RULE LXXIL 
 
 Veruno is used in speaking of persons and things ; it 
 denies or affirms, and has no plural. 
 
 Pass. Dice Job : Chi e colui che abbia contrastato a 
 Dio, ed abbia pace ; quasi dica, non e veruno ; Job says : 
 Who is the person that is happy after having offended 
 God ? As if he would say, there is no one. 
 
 As an adjective, veruno is to agree with the sub- 
 stantive in gender and number, and in the same sense 
 as above. 
 
 Pass. I peccati veniali in verun modo si perdonano 
 sanza i mortali ; venial sins can in no way be pardoned, 
 if mortal ones are not first pardoned. 
 
 B. Filoc. Quivi Eolo veruna potenzia non ha ; Eolus 
 has no power here. 
 
858 SYNTAX OF VERES. 
 
 SYNTAX OF VEKBS. 
 
 Of the Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative 
 Case. 
 
 RULE LXXIIL 
 
 A verb is to agree with its nominative case, either ex- 
 pressed or understood, in number and person. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Pietro Boccamazza si fugge con TAgnolella, 
 truova ladroni ; Pietro Boccamazza elopes with Agno* 
 lella, meets with thieves. Si fugge and truova are 
 verbs in the third person singular, which are made to 
 agree with Pietro s their nominative case expressed. 
 
 B. 3. 10. Graziose donne, voi non udiste Jbrse rnai 
 dire ; charming ladies, perhaps you never heard. 
 Udiste is a verb in the second person plural, and made 
 to agree with voi, the nominative case expressed. 
 
 B. 5. 8. Ed avviene die ogni Venerdiio la giungo qu% 
 e qui nejb lo strazio, che vedrai ; and it happens that I 
 overtake her here every Friday, and in this place I 
 slaughter her, as thou wilt see. Vedrai is a verb in the 
 second person singular, which is made to agree with tu, 
 its nominative understood. 
 
 Instead of a noun or pronoun, the nominative case 
 sometimes may be an infinitive or part of a sentence, in 
 which case the verb is to be put in the third person 
 singular. 
 
 B. 10. 7. Signor rnio, il volere io le rnie Jbrze sotto- 
 porre a gravissimi jpesi, rrC e di questa infermita ca- 
 gione ; my lord, by opposing my little strength to too 
 heavy a burden, I have happened to languish in this 
 manner. IT is the verb in the third person singular, 
 which is made to agree with votere, an infinitive, stand- 
 ing as a nominative case. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Che tu con noi ti rimanga per questa sera 
 n* h caro ; we should be very glad if you would stay 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 359 
 
 with us this evening. E s is a verb in the third person 
 singular, which is made to agree with che tu con not 
 rimanga, a part of the sentence, standing as a nomi- 
 native. 
 
 When a verb comes between two nouns, one singular 
 and another plural, and either of which may be under- 
 stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree 
 with either of them ; but some regard must be had to 
 that which is more naturally the subject of it, as also to 
 that which stands next to the verb. 
 
 B. Varchi. Dunque la lingua Latina e la volgare non 
 sono una, ma due lingue ; the Latin, therefore, and the 
 vulgar tongues, are not one, but two languages. 
 
 Cavalcanti. Ma quello che cotal peso addosso rrC ag- 
 grava, sono...fe belle opere vostre ; but that which 
 oppresses me so much are your fine actions. 
 
 RULE LXXIV, 
 
 When two or more nouns are the subjects of a sen- 
 tence, the verb which they govern is to be put in the 
 plural, and it is made to agree with the most worthy 
 person, always considering the first more worthy than 
 the second, and the second more worthy than the 
 third. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Sarebbemi stato carissimo . . . che quel tempo y 
 che voi ed io viver dobbiamo nel governo del regno, die 
 io tengo parimente, signori vivuti fossimo ; I should 
 have been very glad that what time we have to live, 
 we might have reigned together in these our kingdoms. 
 Dobbiamo andjbssimo, verbs in the first person plural, 
 which are made to agree with the first person io, in pre- 
 ference to voi a second person. 
 
 B. 10. 10. Essi sono quegli li quali y tu e molti altri 
 
 lungamente stimato avete, che io crudelmente uccidere 
 
 facessi ; they are the same whom you and many others 
 
 believed that I had ordered to be put to death. Avete y 
 
 a verb in the second person plural, is made to agree 
 
360 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 with the second person tu, in preference to molti altri 
 a third person. 
 
 B. 9. 9. E pero nel mio judicio cape, tutte quelle 
 (donne) essere degne di rigido ed aspro gasligamento, eke 
 daW esser piacevoli, benivole, e pieghevoli, come la natura, 
 Tusanza e le leggi vogliono, si partono ; therefore, I am 
 of opinion that such women as are not mild, gracious, 
 and condescending, as nature, custom, and the laws, 
 require, are deserving of the greatest punishment. Vo- 
 gliono is in the third person plural, as it is the attribute 
 of three substantives, natura, usanza, and leggi. 
 
 1. We find in writers of note the verb in the singular, 
 although it is the attribute of more subjects than 
 one, and especially when these subjects or nominative 
 cases are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in 
 sense. * 
 
 B. 3. 3. Taceva la Pampinea e Tardire, e la cautela 
 del pallqfreniere era da piil di loro stata lodata ; Pam- 
 pinea ceased, and the boldness and shrewdness of the 
 groom were much commended by most of them. 
 
 In the above example Tardive and la cautela are sub- 
 stantives in the nominative case, and nearly related to 
 each other, and consequently the verb may be put in 
 the singular, era for erano. But to support this con- 
 struction we can assign no other reason than that which 
 is adopted by the greatest part of grammarians, who 
 assert that the verb may be understood as applied to 
 each of the preceding terms, thus, Vardire era 9 and la 
 cautela era. This, however, may be right, but as it 
 belongs to figurative construction, we advise the learner 
 not to imitate it until he has made a considerable pro- 
 gress in the study of the Italian language. 
 
 2. Though the attribute of more subjects than one, 
 the verb may be put in the singular, or it may agree 
 with the next nominative or subject, whenever the said 
 nominative cases, by a particular construction, which is 
 called figurative, are made to follow the verb, of which 
 they are the subjects. 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 361 
 
 B. 10. 4. Se quello e vero, che . . . pongasi la propia 
 vita, Ton ore e la fama . . . in mille pericolic per poter la 
 cosa amata possedere ; if it is true that people run a 
 thousand risks of losing their lives, their honour, and 
 their fame, only to come to the possession of the thing 
 desired. Pongasi for si ponga, a verb in the third per- 
 son singular, is made to agree with the next noun 
 propia vita, because all the three substantives follow 
 the verb. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Partissi il Saladino e* compagni ; the Sala- 
 din and his companions departed. Partissi for si parfi, 
 a verb in the third person singular, is made to agree 
 with the next noun Saladino. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Lungo sarebbe a mostrare qual fosse e quanto 
 il dolore, la tristezza, e il pianto delta sua donna ; it 
 would be tedious to describe the grief, affliction, and 
 tears of his lady. Fosse* a verb in the third person 
 singular, is made to agree with the next noun dolore. 
 
 RULE LXXV. 
 
 A verb may be put either in the singular or plural, 
 whenever two nominative cases, both singular, or one sin- 
 gular and another plural, are separated by these words, 
 con, insieme con, in cornpagnia di. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Quivi Martuccio la sposo . . . e poi appresso 
 con lei insieme in pace, ed in riposo lungamiente goderono 
 del loro amore ; there Martuccio was united to her in 
 marriage, and afterwards he lived with her, in all peace 
 and happiness, to a good old age. Goderono or gode. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Pietro . . . capita a quel castello dove UAgno- 
 lella era^ e sposatala, con lei se rc£torna a Roma ; Pietro 
 arrives at the same castle where Agnolelia was, and 
 having married her, returns to Rome with her. Se ne 
 torna or se ne tornano. 
 
 B. 5. 1. E venuto dalla citta Lisimaco . . .con gran- 
 dissima cornpagnia d\iomini e $ arme, Cimone e'suoi 
 compagni tutti ne mend in prigione ; and after having 
 
 R 
 
362 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 arrived from the town, Lisimaco, with a great many 
 people, took Cymon and his followers prisoners. Ne 
 mend or ne menarono. 
 
 Sometimes two verbs happen to be in such sentences 
 as the above, in that case the first may be put in the sin- 
 gular, and the second in the plural number. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Pietro . . . con lei insieme monto a cavallo, e 
 presero il cammin verso Alagna; Peter and she got on 
 horseback, and set out for Alagna. Monto a verb in 
 the singular, and presero in the plural number. 
 
 1. Come anche, or anche may be added to the above 
 words, but with this the verb is better put in the 
 plural. lo, come anche tu, abbiamo torto ; I, as well as 
 thou, am wrong. 
 
 RULE LXXVI. 
 
 Two or more nominative cases in the third person 
 singular, being accompanied with the conjunctions dis- 
 junctive o, ossia, ovvero, signifying either, or, require the 
 verb in the singular number. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Gli domando se in quelle parti fosse villa o 
 castello, dove egli andar potesse ; he inquired whether 
 there was any town or castle in those parts whither he 
 could go. Fosse, a third person singular, is governed 
 by villa o castello, nominative cases, accompanied with 
 the conjunction o. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Percio, se quinci non comincia la cagwne 
 del mio ben adoperare, il confessarmi o altro bene poco 
 mi giovera ; therefore, if I do not find any remedy 
 here, confession, or any other good work will be of little 
 effect. Giovera, third person singular, is governed by 
 il confessarmi o altro bene, nominative cases, accompanied 
 with the conjunction o. 
 
 But if the nominative cases are of different persons, 
 the verb may be put in the plural, and made to agree 
 with the most worthy person, considering the first as 
 more worthy than the second, and the second more 
 worthy than the third, as Ave said in Rule LXXI. 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 363 
 
 B. 3. 7. Come, disse la donna . . . sat tu chi mio marito 
 o io ci siamo? the lady said, What do you know 
 either of roe or my husband ? Siamo, first person 
 plural, is made to agree with io a pronoun in the first 
 person singular, and not with tu a pronoun in the second 
 person. 
 
 B. Varchi. Vorrei che voi o eglino mi diceste ; I wish 
 that either you or they would tell me. Diceste, second 
 person plural, is made to agree with vol a pronoun in 
 the second person, and not with eglino a pronoun in 
 the third person. 
 
 Good writers have sometimes put the verb in the 
 plural, although the nominative cases, accompanied 
 with the conjunction disjunctive o, were in the singular 
 number. 
 
 B. 5. 4. Ricciardo, del quale niurC altra guardia 
 Messer Lizio o la moglle prendevano, che fatto avreb- 
 bono dun lor jigliuolo, ecc. ; Ricciardo, from whom M. 
 Lizio and his wife were under no more apprehension 
 than they would have been from their own son, &c. 
 
 RULE LXXVII. 
 
 Two or more nominative cases, accompanied with the 
 conjunction negative ne . . . ne, signifying neither — nor, 
 require the verb to be either in the singular or plural, 
 though some modern grammarians will confine it to the 
 plural only. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Se egli (Bio) avesse veduto die a me si con- 
 venisse costei, ne tu ne altri dee credere, che max a te 
 conceduta V avesse ; had heaven decreed that she should 
 be a fit wife for me, neither you nor any body else 
 ought to believe that she would be destined for you. 
 Dee, a verb in the third person singular. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Madonna, di Ruggier dice ogni uom male, 
 ne . . . amico, ne parente alcuno e, che levato si sia ; 
 iVladam, there is nobody that speaks well of Ruggieri, 
 
 it 2 
 
864 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 nor is there a friend or relation that intends to assist him* 
 2? s and sia> verbs in the third person singular. 
 
 And sometimes if in the same sentence there happen 
 to be two verbs, one is put in the singular, and the other 
 in the plural. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Quando c'invecchiamo, ne marito ne altri ci 
 vuol vedere, anzi ci cacciano in cucina a dir delle favole 
 con la gatta ; when we are old, neither husband nor any- 
 body else will look at us ; nay, they will drive us into 
 the kitchen to converse with the cat. Vuol, third person 
 singular ; cacciano, third person plural. 
 
 Sometimes one of the nominatives is singular, and 
 another plural ; in that case the verb may agree with 
 either, but it is to be placed next to that nominative 
 with which it is made to agree. 
 
 B. 10. 9- Percfie se low merito non ne segue, ne essi y 
 ne altri maravigliar si deve; if, therefore, no merit 
 ensue from thence, neither they nor any one else ought 
 to be surprised. It would have been equally proper to 
 say ne altri, ne essi maravigliar si debbono. 
 
 But if the nominative cases are of different persons, 
 the verb is put in the plural, and made to agree with the 
 most worthy person. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Amor pud troppo pin die ne vol, ne io pos- 
 siamo ; love has greater power than either you or I have. 
 Possiamo, a verb in the plural, agreeing with io, first 
 person, more worthy than voi the second. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Ne essi ne voi conoscete colui che Tha ucciso ; 
 neither they nor you know him who has killed him. Co- 
 noscete, a verb in the plural, is made to agree w T ith voi 
 a second person more worthy than essi the third. 
 
 RULE LXXVIII. 
 
 When two or more nominatives are accompanied with 
 one of these words, namely, uno, ciascuno, ogni, ne 
 altro, niuno, qualche, the verb may be put in the sin- 
 gular. 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 365 
 
 B. 10. 8. Una fratellanza ed una amicizia si grande 
 ne nacque tra loro, che rnai poi . . . f u separata ; bro- 
 therly affection, and so strict a friendship, sprung up 
 between them as never afterwards was rent asunder. 
 
 B. 8. ?. Questa liber alita d'Aldobrandino piacque 
 molto cC fratelli di Tedaldo, ed a ciascuno uomo e donna 
 che quivi era ; Aldobrandino^s liberality was very agree- 
 able to Tedaldo's brothers, and to all present, both men 
 and women. 
 
 B. 3. 5. Dalla quale sola ogni mia pace, ogni rnio bene, 
 e la mia salute venir mi puote ; on whom alone all my 
 peace, happiness, and life, depend. 
 
 B. 3. 2. Ne altro ingegno, ne via c* era ; there was no 
 other means nor way. 
 
 B. 4. 6. Caro mio signore, se la tua anima ora le rnie 
 lagrime vede, o niun conoscimento o sentimento dopo la 
 partita di quella rimane al corpo, ricevi Vultimo demo 
 di colei la quale tu vivendo amasti ; my dear lord, if 
 thy soul has any knowledge of my tears, or if there be 
 any sense or understanding left after that is departed 
 from the body, receive this last gift from her who was 
 once so dear to thee. 
 
 In the above examples the verbs nacque, fu, era, 
 puote, and rimane, are in the singular, though each of 
 them is the attribute of two or more nominative cases. 
 
 RULE LXXIX. 
 
 A noun collective, or a noun of multitude, such as 
 Jamiglia, gente, moltitudine, corte^ signoria, parte, 
 meta, terzo* resto, &c. &c. requires the verb in the sin- 
 gular number. 
 
 B. 3. 2. Se aiandb in una lunghissima casa . . . nella 
 quale quasi tutta la sua famiglia in diver si letti dormiva ; 
 he went into along chamber, where almost all his house- 
 hold lay in different beds. 
 
 B. 3. 6. CK ella era presta d? esser domani . . . quando 
 la gente dorme, a questo bagno ; that she was ready to 
 
366 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 be the next morning at the baths, when people are 
 sleeping. 
 
 B. 3. 10. Laonde . . . Neerbale . . . ritrovatala avanti 
 the la corte . . . i beni sfati del padre . . . occupasse . . . per 
 moglie la prese ; therefore, Neherbal having found her 
 before her fathers wealth fell into the hands of the 
 court, took her to wife. 
 
 B. 3. 7. La signoria, venuto il giorno . . . Aldobran- 
 dino libero; the judges the next day released Al- 
 dobrandino. 
 
 In like manner we say, il senato ha dettato leggi ; the 
 senate has enacted laws. II parlamento si radunera 
 ai venti di Jennqjo ; the parliament will assemble on the 
 20th of January. 
 
 1 . It is to be observed that if one of the nouns col- 
 lective is the subject of more verbs than one in the 
 same sentence, the first one or two are put in the singular 
 number ; and the last, whether one or more, being too 
 far distant from its or their subject, may be put in the 
 plural number, as in the following examples. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Ma poiche la gente alquanio si fu rassicurata 
 con lui 9 e videro, cK egli era vivo ; but when people were 
 somewhat convinced of his being alive. 
 
 B. 9. 2. Le quali in due si divisero, ed una parte se 
 ne mise a guardia delC uscio, e urU altra n > ando cor- 
 rendo alia camera della Badessa . . . e dissero ; they 
 divided themselves into parties, one guarded the entrance 
 into her room, whilst the other ran to the abbess's cham- 
 ber . . . and said. 
 
 In the above examples videro'aud dissero are verbs 
 put in the plural number, because they are second verbs 
 and far distant from their subject. 
 
 2. Sometimes the verb, being governed by a noun 
 collective, has been put in the plural by writers, as they 
 have had more regard to the import of the noun than to 
 the word itself. 
 
 Nov. Ant. 83. La suafamiglia avevano un di preso 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS, 367 
 
 un pentolajo per malleveria ; one day his family took a 
 potter for bail. 
 
 B. 2. 6. // popolo a fur ore cor so alia prigione, e uccise 
 le guar die, lui n ^avevan tratto fuori ; the people ran 
 furiously to the prison, and having slain the guards, set 
 him at liberty. 
 
 G. Villani. Potete vedere come il comune popolo erano 
 ignoranti del vero Iddio ; you may see how ignorant of 
 the true God the common people were. 
 
 But this practice the student ought on no account to 
 imitate. 
 
 3. When some of the nouns collective, such as parte^ 
 meta, resto, rimaso, terzo, &c. are followed by a genitive, 
 the verb is to agree with this genitive, that is, if the geni- 
 tive is singular the verb is to be singular, and if the geni- 
 tive is plural, the verb likewise is to be put in the plural. 
 
 Davila. Per cite, una gran parte del la fanteria^.s^era 
 ritirata in luogo sicuro ; because a great part of the 
 infantry had retired to a safe place. S'era is in the 
 singular, because dellafanteria, the genitive of parte, is 
 in the singular number. 
 
 Varchi. Che le maggior parte degli scrittori vadano 
 dietro non agVinsegnamenti de 1 filosqfi ; that the greatest 
 part of writers do not follow the doctrine of the philoso- 
 phers. Vadano a verb in the plural, because degli scrit- 
 tori, the genitive of parte, is in the plural number. 
 
 Villani. In Gelmomt la meta e piu delle case sono 
 rovinate ; in Gelmona more than half of the houses 
 were demolished. Sono a verb in the pural, because delle 
 case the genitive of meta, is in the plural number. 
 
 B. 10. 9. La qual durante ...quasi tutto il rimaso degli 
 scampati cristmui ... da lui...i'ur presi; during which 
 almost all the rest of the Christians who had escaped, 
 were taken by him. Fur iovjurono a verb in the plural, 
 because degli scampati cristiani, the genitive of rimaso, 
 is in the singular number. (1) 
 
 (l) Contrary to this rale we say, la moltitudine de* soldati era 
 grande ; the multitude of soldiers was great. La folia degli ahitanti 
 
368 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 OF THE POSITION OF THE FINITE VERB, WHEN ACCOM- 
 PANIED WITH ITS NOMINATIVE CASE, EXPRESSED, 
 NOT UNDERSTOOD. 
 
 RULE LXXX. 
 
 The verb is generally placed after its nominative case, 
 as Iddio e giusto, God is just. Pietro ama 9 Peter loves. 
 This rule, however, is liable to many exceptions. 
 
 1. When a command is given, the verb is put before 
 its nominative case. 
 
 Cavalcanti. Spengasi, spengasi ne' vostri -petti ogni 
 scintilla di pestifero sdegno ; accendasi in quelli ardente 
 fiarama di sincero amove ; drive, oh drive away from your 
 hearts every spark of destructive anger, introduce into 
 them a fervent flame of sincere affection. Spengasi and 
 accendasi are the verbs, which are placed before scintilla 
 and Jiamma their nominative cases. 
 
 % When a question is asked, the verb is to precede 
 its nominative case. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Ojigliuola, die vai tu a quest ^ora cost sola 
 facendo per questa contrada ? daughter, what are you 
 doing in this street at this time of day ? Vai 9 a verb, 
 is put before tu, its nominative case. 
 
 In such an instance the verb may sometimes be put 
 after its nominative case, but then it is the emphasis of 
 the voice, which is to shew that a question is asked. 
 
 B 4. 10. Qaesto che vuol dire? what can this mean ? 
 Vuol is put after questo its nominative. 
 
 3. When a wish or imprecation is expressed, the verb 
 may be put before its nominative case. 
 
 era immensa; the crowd of the inhabitants was immense. II resto di 
 essi era composto di un capitano, ecc. ; the rest consisted of a captain, 
 &c. But then it is to be observed that those adjectives refer directly 
 to the collectives in the nominative case, and not their genitives. 
 Observe, that if an adjective or participle happens to be with the col- 
 lectives, it is subject to the same rule as the verbs. See Participle. 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 369 
 
 B. 3. 3. E volesse Iddio che ilpassarvi o il guatarmi 
 glijbsse bastato ; and would to heaven that his passing 
 by, and gazing at me would satisfy him. 
 
 Bembo. Faccia il cielo die le mie fortune mi diano di 
 metterli in opra ; would to heaven that my fortune would 
 allow me to put them into execution. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Maladetta sia la crudelta di colui che con gli 
 occhi delta fronte or mi ti fa vedere ; cursed be the 
 cruelty of him through whom my eyes now see you. 
 
 In these three examples, volesse, faccia, and sia, ex- 
 pressing a wish or imprecation, are made to precede 
 Iddio, cielo, and crudelta, their nominative cases. 
 
 4. When the verb is neuter, and is preceded by a 
 sentence or part of it, it may be placed before its nomi- 
 native case. 
 
 Firenzuola. E standosi cost di mala voglia, venne 
 alia volta sua un gambero ; and as he (a bird) was thus 
 ill at ease, a crab came up to him. 
 
 B. 5- 3. Essi si videro vicini ad un castelletto, del 
 quale, essendo stati veduti, subitamente uscirono da 
 dodici fanti ; they came in sight of a small castle, when 
 being perceived from thence, about twelve men came 
 rushing upon them* 
 
 In these two examples venne and uscirono being neuter 
 verbs, are made to precede their nominative cases gam- 
 bero and fanti. 
 
 5. When a verb is preceded by a negative^ it may be 
 placed before its nominative case. 
 
 Firenzuola. Ne me ne ha mai parlato alcuno . . . che 
 7i07i me Tabbia dipinta uguale alia mia Gostanza ; every 
 one has described her to me as equal to my Gos- 
 tanza. 
 
 Gelli. Ne si trova fiaalmente virtu alcuna in coloro, 
 che si son dati in preda alia gola ; finally, no virtue can 
 be found in those who have given themselves up to 
 gluttony. 
 
 Gelli. Dove dominano i sensi, non ha luogo la ragione ; 
 
 a 3 
 
370 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 e dove regna la libidine, non pud star la temperanza ; 
 reason cannot find place in men addicted to pleasures, 
 nor can sobriety be accompanied with lust. 
 
 In these three example, ha parlato, trova, ha luogo, 
 and pud, being preceded by negatives, are placed before 
 their nominative cases, alcuno, ragione, virtu^ and 
 temperanza. 
 
 In like manner we say non lo so nemmeno io ; nor do 
 I know it either. Non lo crederai neppur tu ; nor even 
 you will believe it : in which examples so and crederai 
 are made to precede the nominative cases io and tu. 
 
 6. In exclamations accompanied by come or quanto, 
 the verb is put before the nominative case, 
 
 Gelli. Oh come son vere queste cose ! Oh how true 
 it is. 
 
 Gelli. Oh come spesso cascano tutti i vecchi in questo 
 errore! Oh ! how often do old men fall into this error. 
 
 In these two examples son and cascano are placed 
 before cose and vecchi their nominative cases, because 
 they are preceded by come. 
 
 7. When one of the following words, dove, ci, vi, qui, 
 qua, ivi, quivi, quindi, quanto, cost, and also di qui, di Id, 
 and perhaps a few more of similar kind, begins a sen- 
 tence or phrase, the verb may precede the nominative 
 case. 
 
 B. 5. 3 E se per isciagura ... ce ne venisse alcuna; 
 and if, unluckily for us, any one should come here. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Era il castello d' uno degli Orsini, e per Ven- 
 tura y > era una sua donna ; the castle belonged to one of 
 the family of the Orsini, and by good fortune his lady 
 was there. 
 
 B. Introd. Qui sono giardini, qua altri luoghi dilette- 
 Toli ; here are gardens, there, pleasant places. 
 
 Pecor. 16. 2. Qua non bisognano parole ; words are 
 not necessary in this business. 
 
 Tolomei. Perche, chi e quello che non sappia, quanto 
 sia egli inferiore dijbrze ? because, who does not know 
 how inferior he is in strength ? 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. 371 
 
 In like manner we say, ivi trovo egli V arnico ; there 
 did he meet with his friend ; quivi ando il marito, thi- 
 ther her husband went ; cosifecero gli altri re ; thus did 
 the other kings. 
 
 8. When in narrations a pronoun or person is men- 
 tioned to have done or said any thing, the verb may be 
 placed before its nominative case. 
 
 B. 5. 4. Disse la donna : come pud esser questo ? disse 
 Messer Lizio : tu il vedrai se tu vien tosto ; the lady 
 said : how can that be ? M. Lizio said ; come imme- 
 diately, and you will see it yourself. 
 
 9. When an emphatical adjective introduces a sen- 
 tence, the verb is put before its nominative case, to which 
 the said adjective belongs. 
 
 Dati. Incerta e la lunghezza della sua vita, assai 
 stravagante la sua morte ; the duration of his life is un- 
 certain, and his death singular. 
 
 Soave. Dolce e in ogni tempo il beneficio ; to do good 
 is pleasing at all times. 
 
 10. When a verb is impersonal, or made so by means 
 of the particles mi, ti, si, gli, le, ci, vi, it may be placed 
 before its nominative case, or any part of speech that 
 stands for it. 
 
 A mm. Ant. AlV avaro nan falla cagione di negar ser- 
 vizio ; the miser can always find a cause for refusing to 
 do a service to his fellow creatures. 
 
 Falla a verb, cagione its nominative case. 
 
 It is to be observed that in some examples of the 
 above exceptions, the verb may be put before or after 
 its nominative ; such are the verbs expressing wish, as 
 volesse Dio, or Dio volesse, would to heaven ; when verbs 
 are neuter, venne un gambero, or nn gambero venne, a 
 crab came ; when in narrations persons are mentioned to 
 have done or said any thing ; la donna disse, or disse la 
 donna ; and, finally, when a verb is made impersonal by 
 the means of mi, ti, si, &c, as mi piace il pane, or il 
 pane mi piace, I like bread. In all the other examples, 
 
372 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 however, the position we have given to the verb is pre- 
 ferable. 
 
 There are a great many more rules concerning the 
 position of the verb, but as they belong to the figurative 
 construction, we forbear speaking farther of them here, 
 as we think those we have laid down ai*e quite sufficient 
 for a student who, being not far advanced in this study, 
 desires to speak elegantly without fear of appearing 
 pedantic. 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 Verbs may have for government either nouns or other 
 verbs. The nouns are sometimes found in the genitive, 
 sometimes in the dative, and sometimes in other cases, 
 according to the quality of the verb which governs them ; 
 and the verbs are sometimes in the infinitive, sometimes 
 in the indicative, and sometimes in the subjunctive, 
 according to the expressive signification of the verb by 
 which they are influenced. 
 
 RULE LXXXT. 
 
 Verbs active commonly govern the accusative case, 
 which may either be a noun or pronoun. Its position, 
 as a noun, is generally after the verb, and as a pro- 
 noun, before it ; as Pietro ama lo studio, Peter loves 
 study ; egli non mi parla, he does not speak to me. 
 Studio, being a noun, is put after the verb, and mi being 
 a pronoun precedes it. 
 
 This noun or pronoun being an accusative, and 
 having no article or preposition before it, is called ab- 
 solute or direct ; but when, besides this case, a genitive, 
 or any other case is found in the sentence, that is called 
 relative or indirect. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Io ho amato ed amo Guiscardo; I have 
 loved Guiscardo, and do love him still. 
 
 B. 10. C. Per premiare il cavaliere dell' onore ricevuto 
 da lui ; in order to reward the gentleman for the honour 
 he had received of him. 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. old 
 
 B. 4 10. Io non la vendei loro, ma esti questa 
 notte passaia me F avranno imbolata ; I did not sell it 
 (a chest) them, but I think that they took it from me 
 last night. 
 
 In the above examples Guiscardo, cavalier e, la, and V* 
 are the absolute or direct cases, and delV onore, loro, and 
 me, are indirect cases. 
 
 Active Verbs governing an Accusative and Genitive. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal verbs, occurring 
 frequently in speaking, which govern different cases. 
 We omit those that govern the accusative only, as they 
 do not offer any difficulty to the student. 
 
 accendere uno di to kindle one with 
 
 accusare uno di to charge one with 
 
 adornare cosa di to adorn a thing with 
 
 amnionire uno di .. } , , . 7 » 
 
 ■• i to admonish one of 
 
 avvertire uno di.... S J 
 
 avvisare uno di to inform one of . 
 
 biasimare uno di to blame one for 
 
 castigare uno di to punish one for 
 
 caricare cosa di to load a thing with 
 
 colmare uno di to had one with 
 
 compensare uno di to compensate one for 
 
 coprire cosa di to cover a thing with 
 
 "• , > cosa di to fill a thing iviih 
 
 ferire uno di to strike one with 
 
 fornire uno di.. to provide one with 
 
 gravare uno di to trouble one with 
 
 guarnire cosa di to garnish a thing with 
 
 incaricare uno di to charge one with 
 
 incolpare uno di , to impute a fault to one 
 
 infiammare uno di .to inflame one with 
 
 informare uno di to make one acquainted with 
 
 ornare uno di to adorn one with 
 
 pagare uno di > , * . 7 j. 
 
 r °. ,. > to punish one for 
 
 punire uno di S 
 
 premiare uno di > , , » 
 
 , . > , to reward one for 
 
 ncompensare uno di $ J 
 
 ringraziare uno di , to thank one for 
 
374 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 rimprocciare uno di ) . , >. 
 
 • r j. > to reproach one for 
 
 runproverare uno di S r J 
 
 ripieliare uno di ) , , j * 
 
 riprdndereunodi \ *° reprehend one for 
 
 spargere uno di to sprinkle one with 
 
 vestire uno di to dress one with 
 
 Verbs governing an Accusative and a Dative. 
 
 accomandare uno a un altro..£o recommend one to another 
 
 accordare cosa ad uno to grant a thing to one 
 
 affissare cosa ad uno to fix a thing to one 
 
 annoverare cosa ad uno to reckon things to one 
 
 apporre cosa ad uno to accuse one wrongly of a thing 
 
 apprestare cosa ad uno to prepare a thing for one 
 
 aprire cosa ad uno to open a thing to one 
 
 ascondere cosa ad uno to hide a thing from one 
 
 ascrivere cosa ad uno ) . ,, ., , ., ■ . 
 
 AA _ ., - i > to attribute a thins, to one 
 
 attnbuire cosa ad uno S & 
 
 celare cosa ad uno to hide a thing from one 
 
 chiedere cosa ad uno to ask a thing of one 
 
 commendare uno ad un altro../o commend one to another 
 
 commettere cosa ad uno to commit a thing to one 
 
 coneedere cosa ad uno to grant one a thing 
 
 confidare cosa ad uno to entrust one with a thing 
 
 consegnare cosa ad uno to deliver one a thing 
 
 contare cosa ad uno to relate one a thing 
 
 contendere cosa ad uno to dispute on a thing 
 
 condurre cosa a fine to finish a thing 
 
 convitare uno a to invite one to 
 
 dare cosa ad uno to give one a thing 
 
 descrivere cosa ad uno to describe a thing to one 
 
 dire cosa ad uno to tell one of a thing 
 
 domandare cosa ad uno > , 7 ,7- j> 1 ' 
 ,. , , > ...fo ask a thins of one 
 
 dimandare cosa ad uno.. S 
 
 donare cosa ad uno to present one with a thing 
 
 fidare cosa ad uno to trust one with a thing 
 
 fare cosa a uno to do one a thing 
 
 fissare cosa a to fix a thing upon 
 
 fraudare cosa ad uno to defraud one of a thing 
 
 • l • ■ ,. ' j \ to lay snares for the thing of one 
 
 msidiare cosa ad uno S 
 
 involare cosa ad uno..... to rob one of a thing 
 
 ispirare cosa ad uno to inspire one with a thing 
 
 imputare cosa ad uno ........ Jo impute a thing to one 
 
 invitare uno a to invite one to 
 
 lasciare cosa ad uno to bequeath one a thing 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 375 
 
 legare cosa a to tie a thing to 
 
 mandare cosa ad uno... to send one a thing 
 
 nascondere cosa ad uno to hide a thing from one 
 
 offerire cosa ad uno, or } . .«? „ ,7. „ 
 
 *• 1 ' > to offer one a thing 
 
 onrire cosa ad uno .. S 
 
 perdonare cosa ad uno to forgive one for 
 
 portare cosa ad uno to bring one a thing 
 
 proibire cosa ad uno to forbid one a thing 
 
 promettere cosa ad uno to promise one a thing 
 
 raccomandare cosa ad uno. ...to recommend one a thing 
 
 raccontare cosa ad uno „to relate one a thing 
 
 restituire cosa ad uno to restore one a thing 
 
 recare cosa ad uno to bring a thing to one 
 
 rendere cosa ad uno to restore one a thing 
 
 ricusare cosa ad uno to refuse one a thing 
 
 rubare cosa ad uno to rob one of a thing 
 
 scoprire cosa ad uno to discover a thing to one 
 
 spiegare cosa ad uno to explain a thing to one 
 
 stendere cosa ad uno to stretch a thing to one 
 
 togliere cosa ad uno to take a thing from one 
 
 vendere cosa ad uno to sell one a thing 
 
 Verbs governing an Accusative and an Ablative. 
 
 accattare cosa da uno to borrow a thing of one 
 
 allontanare uno da to remove one from 
 
 assolvere uno da to absolve one of 
 
 1 i to drive one from, or 
 
 cacciare uno da 1. . * i 
 
 ( to turn one out of 
 
 cogliere cosa da to pick a thingfrom 
 
 dividere cosa da to separate a thingfrom 
 
 distogliere uno da to divert one from 
 
 distornare uno da to turn one from 
 
 disviare uno da to sway one from 
 
 guarireuno da to cure one of 
 
 levare cosa da to take a thingfrom 
 
 liberare uno da to free one from 
 
 partire cosa da to separate a thingfrom 
 
 sciogliere cosa da to loosen a thingfrom 
 
 separare cosa da ) , , , 7 • r 
 
 sceverare cosa da \ to separate a thing frcn 
 
 staccare cosa da to lake from 
 
 sviare uno da to dissuade one from 
 
 tirare cosa da ) ,7 , 7 • /• 
 
 4.™™ ™ n i i ..t. to draw a thingfrom 
 
 trarre cosa da 5 
 
376 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 RULE LXXXII. 
 
 Verbs passive govern a noun in the ablative, which 
 is distinguished by the particles da, dallo, dal, dalla, 
 dagli, da\ dalle. 
 
 B. 5. 1. Molie novelle ... per dovere esser da me rac- 
 contate, mi si paran davanti ; a great many novels come 
 now into my mind, to be related by me. 
 
 B. 5.1. Efigenia da molte nobili donne di Rodi Ju 
 ricevuia ; Iphigenia was received by many noble Hhodian 
 ladies. 
 
 B. 5. 1. Ed alcuni altri die appressar si vollono, da' 
 compagni di Lisimaco e Cimone fediti e ributtati in- 
 dietro furono ; and many others who came to their relief 
 were wounded and driven back by the followers of Lysi- 
 machus and Cymon. 
 
 Instead of da, dallo, &c. per is found in good writers. 
 
 B. 5.-1. Costei esser la piu bella cosa, die giammai 
 per alcuno veduta fosse ; she was the handsomest woman 
 that was ever seen by any body. 
 
 But this practice must not be imitated. 
 
 RULE LXXXIII. 
 
 Verbs neuter do not act upon or govern nouns or pro- 
 nouns, as, egli dorme he sleeps, ella pensa she thinks, 
 are not active verbs, and consequently they are not 
 followed by a case specifying the object of an action ; 
 but when this case comes after such verbs, though it 
 may carry the appearance of being governed by them, it 
 is generally affected by a preposition, or some other word 
 understood. 
 
 B. 7. 1. Cenarono un poco di carne salata; they sat 
 together to a little salt meat. That is di un poco di 
 came. 
 
 B. 3. 10. Quantunque amore i lieti palagi ... e le nior- 
 bide camere piil volentieri die le povere capanne abiti ; 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 377 
 
 although love dwells in gorgeous palaces, and sumptuous 
 apartments, more willingly than in miserable and deso- 
 late cottages. That is nei lieti palagi, nelle morbide 
 camere, and nelle povere capanne. 
 
 Some of the verbs neuter, though they do not admit 
 of the accusative case, admit of another nominative be- 
 sides their subject. This nominative, however, is not 
 the subject of the verb, but a noun shewing the being, 
 name, or quality of the subject in question ; as io sono 
 iiomo, I am a man ; egli pare tin bruto, he is like a brute. 
 Uomo and bruto are nominative cases. 
 
 Verbs having two Nominatives. 
 
 cssere ...... 
 
 ..to be 
 
 restare 
 
 ritornare... 
 diventare .. 
 vivere 
 
 . ..to remain 
 
 comparire . 
 nascere 
 
 ...to appear 
 ,..to be bom 
 
 ...to return 
 ...to become 
 
 rim an ere ... 
 
 ...to remain 
 ..to be 
 
 ,,.to live 
 
 stare 
 
 tornare 
 
 „Jo become 
 
 Verbs governing a Genitive. 
 
 abbisognare...fo want 
 
 cadere to fall 
 
 fallire to fail 
 
 fuggire.... to runaway 
 
 gustare to taste 
 
 man care to fail 
 
 morire to die 
 
 odorare to smell 
 
 partire to depart 
 
 ritornare to return 
 
 ragionare to reason 
 
 ri venire to come back 
 
 sentire to smell 
 
 venire to come 
 
 discorrere to discourse 
 
 tornare to come back 
 
 uscire to go out 
 
 passare to depart 
 
 It is to be observed, that some of the above verbs 
 govern also the ablative, as cadere di cavallo, or dalV alto 
 di una casa, to fall from a horse, or the top of a house. 
 Fuggire, partire, ritornare, rivenire, tornare, venire, 
 govern di when the substantive is a noun expressive of 
 place, and da when it is a person ; as vengo di casa, I 
 come from home ; vengo da Pietro, I come from Peter. 
 And again, parto di cittd, I depart from town ; parto da 
 lid, I depart from him. 
 
378 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 Verbs governing a Dative. 
 
 aggitingere....fr> add 
 
 andare to go- 
 
 appartenere ..to belong 
 
 arrivare to arrive 
 
 correre to run 
 
 dispiacere to displease 
 
 esser presto... to be ready 
 
 fuggire to run 
 
 garrire to scold 
 
 giovare ...to be of use 
 
 giungere to overtake 
 
 mancare to fail 
 
 parlare to speak 
 
 pensare to think 
 
 piacere to please 
 
 p utire ........ to displease 
 
 restare to be left 
 
 saper grado ..to be obliged 
 
 soprastare.or ) , , 
 
 r > to nans, over 
 
 sovrastare ..5 6 
 
 stare bene ....to fit 
 
 sgridare to scold 
 
 tornare to redound 
 
 tornare bene \ to *?. worth the 
 t while 
 
 ubbidire, or ) , , 
 
 obbedire .. \ to obe ^ 
 
 usare to frequent 
 
 venire to come 
 
 venire meno.. to fail 
 
 volere bene ..to love 
 
 tirare to aim 
 
 trarre to run to 
 
 In like manner we say esser pronto, to be ready ; 
 utile, facile, useful, easy, &c. tornar conio, to be worth 
 the while ; venir manco, to fail ; voler meglio, to love 
 very much ; voler male, to dislike, &c. &c. 
 
 Verbs governing an Ablative. 
 
 andare. ...... ..to go 
 
 cadere to fall 
 
 de viare to deviate 
 
 degen erar e ....to degenerate 
 
 par tire to depart 
 
 dipendere to depend 
 
 fuggire to run away 
 
 muovere to begin 
 
 nascere to be born 
 
 ritrarre to resemble 
 
 scampare to escape 
 
 tralignare to degenerate 
 
 variare to vary 
 
 derivare to be derived 
 
 RULE LXXXIV. 
 
 Verbs reflective or neuter passive, having a subject 
 that acts upon itself, govern the following particles, mi, 
 ti, sij in the singular, ci, vi, si, in the plural, as — ; 
 
 B. 7 6. Io mi levai diritta ; I stood up. 
 B. 8. 7. Lo scolare . . . s'esercitava per riscaldarsi; the 
 scholar took exercise to get warm. 
 
OP THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 379 
 
 Besides these particles, these verbs may govern other 
 eases and prepositions, as — 
 
 B. 4. 5. Delia mia lunga dimora, fattristi ; thou 
 grievest for my long stay. Delia mia lunga dimora, 
 a genitive governed by fattristi. 
 
 G. Yillani. S^arrendeo la citta a Cesare. The town 
 surrendered to Caesar. A Cesare dative, governed by 
 iarrendeo, &c. 
 
 Verbs reflective governing a Genitive. 
 
 farsi beffe .. ) , , , . 
 e • ui, i to laugh at 
 tarsi gabbo. S b 
 
 fornirsi to provide oneself 
 
 fidarsi to trust to 
 
 giovarsi to make use of 
 
 gloriarsi to boast of 
 
 informarsi ...Jo enquire about 
 
 i^^t to meddle with 
 mgenrsi..... J 
 
 innamorarsi,..2o/tf// in love with 
 
 maravigliarsi..fo wonder at 
 
 nutrirsi to feed upon 
 
 pentirsi to repent for 
 
 piccarsi to pretend 
 
 ricordarsi to recollect 
 
 rldersi to laugh at 
 
 riman er si to abstain from 
 
 sbrigarsi to get rid of 
 
 scusarsi to excuse oneself of 
 
 sdegnarsi to be angry at 
 
 tribularsi to grieve for 
 
 valersi. to make use of 
 
 vantarsi to boast of 
 
 vergognarsi ...to be ashamed at 
 
 accendersi .. % Jo be kindled with 
 
 aecorgersi to perceive 
 
 affliggersi to grieve at 
 
 arrischiarsi . > , 
 
 *.<..- y to venture 
 atten tarsi... $ 
 
 attristarsi to grieve for 
 
 avvedersi... > . 
 
 > to perceive 
 avvisarsi.... > l 
 
 beffarsi to laugh at 
 
 brigarsi to endeavour 
 
 cibarsi to feed upon 
 
 conoscersi ....to understand 
 
 , . S to console oneself 
 consolarsi.. < * J 
 
 I for 
 
 curarsi to care for 
 
 . ( to contain oneself 
 contenersi.. { - J 
 
 I from 
 
 S to be contented 
 
 X with 
 
 crucciarsi to be angry at 
 
 dimenticarsi ..to forget 
 
 disciogliersi...£o be dissolved 
 
 to contradict one ■ 
 
 self 
 
 contentarsi 
 
 disdirsi 
 
 Verbs reflective governing a Dative. 
 
 abbattersi to meet with 
 
 abbandonarsi .to give oneself up 
 accordarsi ....to agree with 
 accostumarsi. .to be accustomed to 
 
 accusarsi to accuse oneself to 
 
 adattarsi ...... to adapt oneself to 
 
 addarsi to give oneself up 
 
 apparecchiarsi/o prepare oneself 
 
 appigliarsi ....to pursue 
 
 , i to surrender one- 
 
 arrendersi.. < 7 ,, 
 
 t self to 
 
 .aweriirsi to meet with 
 
 $ to be accustomed 
 X to 
 
 attenersi .. ,. .Jo confide to 
 
 avvezzarsi. . 
 
380 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 confessarsi.^;;^ onesel f 
 
 confidarsi to trust to 
 
 darsi ....to give oneself up 
 
 fidarsi to trust to 
 
 obbligarsi to oblige oneself to 
 
 ofFrirsi to offer oneself to 
 
 opporsi to oppose 
 
 ostinarsi to be obstinate 
 
 prepararsi.. } to Prep™ oneself 
 
 raccoman- (to recommend one- 
 
 darsi ^ self to 
 
 rifuggirsi to take shelter to 
 
 Verbs reflective governing an Ablative. 
 
 alienarsi to withdraw from 
 
 allontanarsi...£o go away from 
 
 assentarsi 
 
 5 to absent oneself 
 
 X f 
 
 from 
 
 d\\ a n ! > aK i..\ t y o % adistance 
 
 ntirarsi, or ) , .,, , * 
 
 ritrarsi. . .. .. \ to mthdraw f rom 
 
 separarsi .to separate oneself 
 
 .**««—«: Sto tear oneself 
 staccarsi.... < /. J 
 
 ( from 
 
 Verbs reflective governing different Prepositions 
 
 intendersi con < ° 
 
 abbattersi in to meet with 
 
 abboccarsi con ..to confer with 
 
 EC ™TJ? a iL~ > to be a partner 
 narsi con... \ r 
 
 acconciarsi con..fo settle with 
 
 accontarsi con ..to confer with 
 
 accordarsi con ..to agree with 
 
 anfaticarsi con ..to endeavour with 
 
 aggirarsi per ....to wander 
 
 awenirsi in to meet with 
 
 avvolgersi per...£o wander 
 
 confidarsi in to trust in 
 
 congiungersiconfo be united with 
 
 consigliarsicon..£o consult with 
 
 convertirsi in.... to be converted in 
 
 fermarsi in to stop 
 
 imparen tarsi con to be allied with 
 
 understand 
 each other 
 intopparsi in ....to meet with 
 
 levarsi in to stand -upon 
 
 mettersi con ....to set about 
 
 mettersi in to put on 
 
 nascondersi in ..to conceal oneself 
 
 porsi in to put on 
 
 riconciliarsi i to make one's 
 
 con \ peace 
 
 ripararsi in to take refuge to 
 
 riserbarsi per. ...to keep oneself for 
 
 risolversi in to dissolve 
 
 ritrovarsi con. ...to be present with 
 
 $ to close oneself up 
 
 \ with 
 scontrarsi in ...,to meet with 
 
 nnserrarsi con 
 
 RULE LXXXV. 
 
 Verbs impersonal, when they are absolute, such as 
 tuonare to thunder, piovere to rain, &c. do not govern 
 any case ; but when otherwise, they commonly govern a 
 dative. 
 
 F. Guittone Lett. Come accade sl buoni, cost, fraiello> 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 381 
 
 mi pare che accaggia d cattivi; brother, I think that as 
 it befalls good people so it befalls bad people. 
 
 B. 1. 10. Questa novella, la quale a me tocca di dover 
 dire, voglio ve ne renda amrnaestrate ; I desire that the 
 novel which I am to relate may make you all wise. 
 
 In these examples d buoni and d cattivi are both in 
 the dative case, which are governed by accade and 
 accaggia, and a me is governed by tocca. 
 
 It is to be observed, that most of the above verbs, 
 active, neuter, and reflective, which we have set down 
 with their respective cases, have been extracted from 
 Corticellfs grammar; and all the others are of our 
 own observation. We refrained from giving authority 
 to them by examples here ; but the student will find 
 them in a work of our own, which bears the title of 
 " Dictionary of Peculiarities"'' 
 
 The government of Verbs — continued. 
 
 Having now treated of the verbs that govern nouns, 
 we proceeed to speak of those that govern other verbs. 
 
 RULE LXXXVI. 
 
 One verb may govern another verb, that depends upon 
 it, either in the infinitive, indicative, or subjunctive, 
 as, io lo vedo venire, I see him coming ; io vedo che egli 
 e venuto, I see that he is come ; voglio che tic sia con- 
 tento, I wish you may be happy. In these examples 
 venire is the infinitive, e venuto the indicative, tu sia 
 the subjunctive, that are governed by vedo and voglio, 
 verbs on which those three different moods depend. 
 
 1. One verb governs another that depends on it, in 
 the infinitive, whenever the subject of the verb finite 
 extends to the infinitive also. 
 
 B. Proem. Assai manifestamente posso comprendere, 
 quello esser vero, che sogliono i savj dire, che sola la 
 miseria e senza invidia ; I can indeed believe that that 
 
382 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 is really true, which wise men are wont to say, namely, 
 that poverty alone is not envied. 
 
 In the first part of this example comprendere is in the 
 infinitive, because io, which is understood, is the subject 
 of posso, and at the same time of comprendere ; and in 
 like manner dire is in the infinitive, because savj is the 
 subject of sogliono and dire. 
 
 The infinitive, depending on the verb, may either 
 have a preposition or not : as, io abhorro di far cid, I 
 do not like to do it ; io mi affretto a pariire, I hasten to 
 go away ; or, io voglio leggere, I will read ; debbo 
 parlare, I ought to speak. In these examples Jure and 
 partire have the prepositions di and a before them; and 
 leggere and parlare have none. 
 
 The prepositions that precede the infinitive are di, a, 
 da ; the latter, however, has but very few examples : 
 as, non mi euro di vederlo, I do not care to see him ; 
 egli va a pranzare seco lui, he is going to dine with him ; 
 non ho nulla dafare^ I have nothing to do. 
 
 As all rules upon this subject have been attended with 
 no profit, we thought proper to subjoin the following list 
 of the principal verbs, with their respective prepositions, 
 in order that the learner, by referring to them when 
 necessity requires, may, without much trouble, be made 
 acquainted with them. 
 
 Verbs governing the Infinitive with di before it. 
 
 abborrir e to abhor 
 
 accadere to happen 
 
 accennare ...Jo show 
 
 accertare to assure 
 
 accomandare..^o recommend 
 accordare ....to grant 
 
 accorgersi to perceive 
 
 affliggersi to grieve 
 
 ammonire .... to admonish 
 
 annojarsi to be weary 
 
 ardire to dare 
 
 arrischiare > . 
 arrischiarsi \*> venture 
 
 assicurare ...Jo assure 
 astenersi ....to abstain from 
 
 avvedersi to perceive 
 
 attentarsi to attempt 
 
 avventurare ..to venture 
 
 avvertire to admonish 
 
 avvisare to inform 
 
 badare to mind 
 
 biasimare ....to blame 
 
 bramare to wish 
 
 cessare to cease 
 
 cercare to seek 
 
 chiedere to ask 
 
OF THE GOVEENMENT OF VEIIBS. 
 
 383 
 
 commendare .do commend 
 comandare....£o command 
 commettere .Jo commit 
 conchiiidere } 
 
 or > to conclude 
 
 concludere 3 
 concedere ...Jo grant 
 contenersi ...Jo refrain oneself 
 consigliare .. .Jo advise 
 
 contare to reckon 
 
 contentarsi ...to consent 
 
 convenire to agree 
 
 credere to believe 
 
 curarsi to cure 
 
 degnarsi to deign 
 
 deliberare • • . . to deliberate 
 determinare .Jo determine 
 
 differire to defer 
 
 diiettarsi to delight in 
 
 dimandare ...Jo ask 
 dimenticarsi ..to forget 
 
 dire to tell 
 
 dispensare ...Jo dispense 
 dispiacere ...Jo dislike 
 
 dolersi ] t0 8 rieve > to be 
 
 > sorry 
 
 domandare....2o ask 
 
 dubitare to doubt 
 
 disperare to despair 
 
 evitare to avoid 
 
 esitare to hesitate 
 
 favorire to be so good as 
 
 fermarsi to stop 
 
 f ingere to pretend 
 
 finire to finish 
 
 fissare.... to fix 
 
 giurare to swear 
 
 giudicare to judge 
 
 gloriarsi to pride oneself 
 
 go der e to delight in 
 
 guardarsi to beware 
 
 irnnlaginarsi ..to imagine 
 
 impedire to hinder 
 
 imporre to command 
 
 ingegnarsi ...Jo endeavour 
 
 incaricare ... Jo charge 
 
 incaricarsi.. \to take upon one- 
 
 ) self 
 increscere ...Jo be sorry 
 
 inf 1 ngersi to pretend 
 
 intendere to understand 
 
 lamentarsi ...Jo complain 
 
 lasciare to cease 
 
 lusingarsi to flatter oneself 
 
 mancare to fail 
 
 nieditare to meditate 
 
 meritare to deserve 
 
 minacciare ....to threaten 
 
 mostrare to shew 
 
 negare to refuse 
 
 negligentare ..to neglect 
 obbligare .. ) , l7 . 
 obbli|arsi.. l i0 °Mge 
 
 offrirsi to offer 
 
 ordinare to order 
 
 omettere to omit 
 
 osare to dare 
 
 parere to appear 
 
 pensare to think 
 
 pentirsi to repent 
 
 permettere ..to permit 
 
 piacere to like 
 
 persuadere.. ..to persuade 
 
 pregare to entreat 
 
 prescrivere.. .Jo prescribe 
 presumere ...Jo presume 
 pretendere.. ..to pretend 
 procurare ...Jo try 
 professare ...Jo profess 
 
 proibire to prohibit 
 
 proporre to propose 
 
 promettere ...to promise 
 ricordarsi ...Jo remember 
 ricusare to refuse 
 
 rimproverare ? , 7 
 
 . / . > to reproac/z 
 
 rmtacciare .. S 
 
 rincrescere....£o be sorry 
 
 ringraziare . . . . to thank 
 
 riprendere ...Jo reprove 
 
 risolvere to resolve 
 
 scegliere to choose 
 
 scommettere..£o bet 
 
 scongiurare .Jo conjure 
 
384 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 sconsigliare ..to dissuade 
 
 scordarsi to forget 
 
 scusarsi to excuse oneself 
 
 sembrare to seem 
 
 sospirare to sigh 
 
 sostenere to support 
 
 sperare to hope 
 
 svolgere ......to dissuade 
 
 supplicare ....to entreat 
 
 tentare .to try 
 
 temere to fear 
 
 tremare, to tremble 
 
 tralasciare ....to desist 
 vergognarsi ..to be ashamed 
 
 Verbs governing an Infinitive with a before it. 
 
 acc^ndere ....to excite 
 accompagnare/o accompany 
 accostumarsi .to accustom 
 
 adescare to allure 
 
 affrettare. ...Jo hasten 
 
 agevolare to facilitate 
 
 ajutare to assist 
 
 allettare to allure 
 
 attendere to apply oneself 
 
 andare to go 
 
 apprestarsi.. .. to prepare oneself 
 
 aspirare to aspire 
 
 animare to animate 
 
 arrivare to arrive 
 
 avere .....to have 
 
 avvezzarsi to accustom oneself 
 
 avezzare to accustom 
 
 cominciare ...to begin 
 condannarc.^o condemn 
 
 condurre to conduct 
 
 consentire ...Jo consent 
 continuare....£o continue 
 
 convenire to agree 
 
 costringere ...to oblige 
 
 darsi to addict oneself 
 
 esortare to exhort 
 
 eccitare to excite 
 
 consigliare ...Jo advise 
 
 giungere to arrive 
 
 occuparsi to occupy oneself 
 
 offrirsi to offer oneself 
 
 pensare to think about 
 
 condescen- ) . , , 
 
 a»~~ i 1° condescend 
 
 dere $ 
 
 esporsi to expose oneself 
 
 disporre to dispose 
 
 farsi to become 
 
 impegnarsi ...Jo pledge 
 
 incorraggire .Jo encourage 
 
 incitare to incite 
 
 indurre to induce 
 
 insegnare to teach 
 
 intraprendereio undertake 
 
 mettersi to set about 
 
 obbligare to oblige 
 
 obbligarsi .... to oblige oneself 
 
 occuparsi .....to occupy oneself 
 
 ostinarsi to persist 
 
 persuadere.. .Jo persuade 
 
 principiare..../o begin 
 
 riuscire to succeed 
 
 seguire ) to continue •, or 
 
 seguitare... $ to follow 
 
 spingere to urge 
 
 stentare to work hard 
 
 supplicare ...Jo entreat 
 
 tendere.. to tend 
 
 torn are to return 
 
 venire ...Jo come 
 
 prepararsi .... to prepare oneself 
 
 Verbs governing an Infinitive without a Preposition 
 preceding it. 
 
 bisogna must 
 
 dovere ought 
 
 fare to do 
 
 intendere to intend 
 
 lasciare to let 
 
 sapere to know how 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 385 
 
 sol ere to be accustomed 
 
 sen tire to hear 
 
 potere to be able 
 
 udire to hear 
 
 volere to will 
 
 vedere to see 
 
 convenire to agree 
 
 To which may be added osare to dare, par ere to 
 seem, sembrare to seem, and a great many more. But 
 these belong to the figurative construction, rather than 
 to the regular. 
 
 Besides these verbs, which we have set down govern- 
 ing different cases and infinitives with different preposi- 
 tions, there are a great many more ; but these we thought 
 necessary and fully sufficient for our purpose, without 
 increasing the bulk of the volume. 
 
 2. We observed that one verb governs another in 
 the infinitive, whenever the subject of the two verbs is 
 the same ; but we now say, that if the subject of the 
 two verbs be different, the second verb is to be put 
 either in the indicative or in the subjunctive with eke 
 before it, as — 
 
 B. 4. % So io bene che stanotte . . .egli ne porto Tanima 
 mia ; I know well that last night he carried away my 
 soul. Porto is in the indicative. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Io mi credo, che le suore sien tutte a dormire ; 
 I think that the nuns are all asleep. Sien for sieno is in 
 the subjunctive. 
 
 Sometimes, by a peculiarity belonging to our lan- 
 guage, we omit che, as — 
 
 B. 3. 7. Io credo... egli se n' ando disperato ; I do 
 believe that he went away in despair. That is, credo 
 cK egli se rt andd. 
 
 B. 5. 6. Temendo non gli avvenisse quello die gli av~ 
 venne ; fearing it would happen to him what really did. 
 That is, temendo che non gli avvenisse. 
 
 But this belongs rather to the figurative construction, 
 and should not be imitated until the learner is well ac- 
 quainted with that part of grammar. 
 
 It is not easy for the English student to know how to 
 
S8fi OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 use these two modes, viz. the indicative and the sub- 
 junctive, because the same verb may sometimes govern 
 both moods, as has been seen in the above examples, 
 credo che egli se rf ando, credo che le snore sieno. But 
 if he gives due attention to the following observations, 
 he will overcome the difficulty which attends the subject 
 in question. 
 
 1. Every verb expressing its action in a direct, positive, 
 and independent manner, requires the following verb to 
 be put in the indicative ; as credo che vi e tin solo Dio, 
 I believe there is one God ; vedo cK egli si comporta 
 bene*, I see that he behaves well ; so cti egli il brama, I 
 know that he wishes for it. In these examples, e, com- 
 porta, brama, are verbs in the indicative, because credo, 
 vedo, so, are the principal verbs expressing their action 
 in a direct and positive manner. This being very clear, 
 there is no need of examples of more authority. 
 
 2. Every verb preceded by the negative non, or ex- 
 pressive of command, desire, displeasure, doubt, entreaty, 
 fear, flattery, hope, pleasure, prohibition, shame, or will, 
 requires the following verb to be put in the subjunctive, 
 which is to be placed in the same tense as the first 
 verb is. 
 
 Of Command. Fiorentino. — E comando a' Jhnti die 
 Giannotto fosse ubbidito ; and he ordered his servants 
 that Giannotto should be obeyed. Fosse the past tense 
 of the subjunctive, governed by comando past tense of 
 the principal verb. 
 
 Of Desire. Bembo. — Solo desidero, cti egli lo dia in 
 cur a ad alcuno de* suoi conduttori; I only desire that 
 he will put him under the care of any of his con- 
 ductors. Dia the present tense of the subjunctive, 
 governed by desidero the present tense of the principal 
 verb. 
 
 Of Doubt. Tolomei. — La quale modestia . . . dubito 
 che non gli sia dannosa ; which modesty, I doubt, may 
 be hurtful to him. Sia the present of the subjunctive, 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 387 
 
 governed by dabito the present tense of the principal 
 verb. 
 
 Of Entreaty. Bembo. — E priegovi die vi degniate di 
 farmi vedere ; and I beg you will deign to shew me. 
 Degniate the present of the subjunctive, governed by 
 priego the present of the principal verb. 
 
 These examples are sufficient for the information of 
 the learner ; but if any one wishes to meet with further 
 instances, he will find them in our Dictionary of Pe- 
 cidiarities. 
 
 If the principal verb be in the future, the present of 
 the subjunctive is to be used ; as, bisognera cheio faccia, 
 it will be necessary for me to do ; le dispiacera che vol 
 partiate, she will be sorry that you go away. Faccia 
 and partiate are in the present tense of the subjunctive, 
 because bisognera and dispiacera are in the future. 
 
 It is to be observed that the subjunctive is not only 
 governed by verbs, as has been seen above, but also by 
 other words or parts of speech, such as comparatives 
 and superlatives accompanied with relatives, and con- 
 junctions, all of which will be found in their respective 
 places. 
 
 Construction of the Infinitive. 
 
 In the second part of this grammar, page 115, we 
 spoke of the infinitive and its inflexions ; now we have 
 to make some particular observations concerning its con- 
 struction. 
 
 RULE LXXXVII. 
 
 The infinitive is commonly governed by an accusa- 
 tive, which is to precede it. 
 
 B. 5. 2. La giovane udendo lui con gli altri esser 
 morto, lungamente pianse ; on hearing that he and his 
 companions were dead, the young woman was very much 
 grieved. Lui the accusative case of egli, governing 
 essere the infinitive. 
 
 s2 
 
88& OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 B. 3. 9. Conoscendo lei non esser di legnaggio che aUa 
 sua nobilta bene stesse, tutto sdegnoso disse ; as he knew 
 she was of a condition too low for his quality, he said 
 with disdain. Lei, the accusative case of ella, governs 
 the infinitive essere. 
 
 But this accusative becomes a nominative, when it is 
 put after the infinitive. 
 
 B. 5. 2. Ma non bastandogli d? esser egli, £ suoi com- 
 pagni in brieve tempo divenuti ricchissimi ; but he and 
 his friends not being satisfied with their having become 
 very rich in a short time, Egli instead of lui, because 
 it is put after the infinitive essere. 
 
 B. 5. 1. Si vedeva delta sua speranza privare, nella 
 quale portava, che se Ormisda non la prendesse, ferma- 
 mente doverla avere egli ; he saw himself now deprived 
 of the hope which he entertained of marrying her him- 
 self, if Ormisda refused. Egli instead of lui, because it 
 is put after the infinitive avere. 
 
 It is to be observed that as the accusative may be 
 distinguished in the personal pronouns only, (because 
 the accusative of all nouns and other pronouns is the 
 same as their nominative), we have laid down those 
 examples in which the accusative of personal pronouns is 
 observed. Me me, te thee, however, though accusa- 
 tives of the personal pronouns io I, tic thou, have not 
 frequently been used by good writers, considering them 
 as words rather unpleasant to the ear, and not congenial 
 to the Italian language. 
 
 Nature and Construction of the Gerund. 
 
 The gerund, like the infinitive, has no more than one 
 termination, which is o, and it is formed by changing are 
 of the infinitive of the first conjugation into ando, thus, 
 amare, amandp ; and by changing ere and ire of the 
 infinitive of the second and third conjugation into endo ; 
 thus, from temere and Jinire, temendo and finendo are 
 formed. Now, as it has but one termination, it must be 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 389 
 
 accompanied with another verb, which shews the time of 
 its action : as, partendo io, gliel diedi, as I was going away 
 I gave it to him ; partendo io, gliel do, in going away 
 I give it to him ; partendo io, gliel daro, when I go 
 away I shall give it to him. In the first example 
 partendo is past, in the second it is present, and in 
 the third it is future, as the different tenses of the 
 verb import. 
 
 RULE LXXXVIII. 
 
 The gerund may either be the subject (as it were) of 
 the phrase or part of it, or be dependant on another 
 verb. 
 
 When k is the subject, it is accompanied with the 
 nominative case, which commonly follows it. 
 
 B. 3. 4. E quivi avere una tavola motto larga in 
 guisa, eke stando tu in pie* vi possi le reni appoggiare ; 
 there you must place a very large table, which is to be 
 fixed in such a manner that as you stand upon your feet 
 the small of your back must lean upon it. Tu, the 
 nominative of stando, is put after it. 
 
 B. 9. 7. Essendo Talano con questa sua Margherita 
 in contado, ad una possessione, dormendo egli, gli parve 
 in sogno di vedere la sua donna andar per un bosco 
 assai hello ; as Talano and Margherita were at a coun- 
 try-house of his, he dreamed he saw her walking through 
 a pleasant grove. Talano and egli, nominatives, are put 
 after the gerunds essendo and dormendo, as subjects of 
 the sentence or phrase. 
 
 When the gerund is dependant on another verb, or 
 rather when it is governed by another verb, it is accom- 
 panied with an accusative case (as its subject), which is 
 to precede it. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Trovato Ruggieri dormendo, lo ''ncomincio a 
 tentare ; and finding Ruggieri asleep, she began to try 
 to wake him. 
 
 B. 6. End. Quivi trovarono i giovani giucando, dove 
 
890 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 lasciati gli avieno ; there they found the young men at 
 play, where they had left them. 
 
 In these examples, Ruggieri and giovani, accusative 
 cases, are the subjects of dorrnendo and giucando ; as if it 
 were, trovato Ruggieri chedormiva, trovarono i giovani 
 che giucavano. 
 
 1. Sometimes the gerund, accompanied with the nomi- 
 native case, is put after it. 
 
 B. 3. 5. II Zima dona a M. Francesco Vergellesi un 
 suo pallqfreno, e per quello con licenza di lui parla alia 
 sua donna, ed ella tacendo, egli in persona di lei ris- 
 ponde ; Zima makes a present of a fine horse to M. 
 Francesco Vergellesi, upon condition that he should have 
 the liberty of speaking to his wife, and she making him 
 no reply, he answers for her himself. 
 
 In this example, ella, a nominative, precedes the ge- 
 rund tacendo ; but this is not to be imitated unless there 
 happen to be two gerunds with two different nomina- 
 tives in the same sentence. In which case one gerund 
 may be put before its nominative, and the other after it, 
 in order to avoid that sameness in composition which on 
 all occasions is disagreeable to the ear. 
 
 B. 4. 2. So to bene che 'stanotte vegnendo egli a me, e 
 io avendogli faita la vostra ambasciata, egli ne porta 
 subitamente Vanima mia ; I know very w T ell that as he 
 came, and I told him your message, he directly carried 
 away my soul. Egli and io, nominative cases, are put one 
 after and the other before the gerund ; and it certainly 
 sounds better than if the author had said vegnendo egli 
 a me, e avendogli iojhtta, &c. 
 
 2. Gerunds have the same government over nouns 
 and other verbs, as the verbs from which they are 
 derived. 
 
 B. 10. 2. Con alcuna cosa dandogli, donde egli possa 
 secondo lo stato suo vivere ; by giving him something on 
 which he might live according to his own condition. 
 
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 391 
 
 Dando, coming from dare, governs the accusative alcana 
 cosa, because dare governs the accusative. 
 
 B. 4. 7. Forte desiderando, e non attentando di far piu 
 avanti ; being extremely desirous, and not daring, to go 
 farther. Desiderando and attentando, being derived from 
 desiderare and attentare or attentarsi, govern the infini- 
 tive fare with di before it, because those two verbs 
 govern the same. 
 
 3. Gerunds, accompanied with an oblique case of per- 
 sonal pronouns, which are otherwise called conjunctive 
 and relative pronouns, and also by the reflective pronoun 
 si, commonly make one word with them, as we have 
 said in some of the above examples, avendogli fatta 
 la vostra ambasciata, con alcuna cosa dandogli, and 
 also, (Bocc. 4. 5.), Veggendolo to consumare come si fa la 
 neve al sole ; as I saw him melting, like snow exposed 
 to the sun. 
 
 4. Gerunds are very frequently accompanied with 
 some particular verbs, such as, andare, venire, ritornare, 
 mandare, trovare, stare, &c. which are used as auxiliary 
 verbs, and then they have different significations. 
 
 They are accompanied with andare, venire, ritor- 
 nare, and other verbs of motion, to point out an action 
 which is continuing whilst one is, was, or shall be 
 going, coming, returning, &c. 
 
 B. 1. 4. La quale andecvaper gli campi certe erbe rac- 
 cogliendo ; who was gathering herbs in the field. 
 
 B. 8. 8. Or con una parola, ed or con uri altra, su- 
 per lo Mugnone infino alia porta a San Gallo il ven- 
 nero lapidando ; and sometimes saying one word, and 
 sometimes another, they kept pelting him with stones 
 from Mugnone to the gate of St. Gallo. 
 
 In these two examples, andava shows that the person 
 was -walking whilst she gathered the herbs, and ven- 
 nero, that they were following and at the 3ame time 
 pelting the other. These expressions are essentially 
 peculiar to the Italian language. 
 
S92 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 They are accompanied with stare, to show an action 
 which is, was, and shall be continuing without intermis- 
 sion till it is interrupted, as — 
 
 Che state facendo ? What are you doing ? Io stava 
 scrivendo qucmd? egli venne ; I was writing when he 
 came. 
 
 They are accompanied with rnandare, and they stand 
 for infinitives with the preposition a or ad before them. 
 
 B. 10. 4. E rnandotta pregando, die le dovesse piacere 
 di venire ajar lieti i gentiluomini delta sua presenza ; 
 and he sent to her, desiring her to favour his guests with 
 her company ; that is, mandolla a pregare. 
 
 B. 1. 5. In piil parti per lo mondo rnando cercando, 
 se in cid alcun si trovasse, che ajuto o consiglio gli 
 desse ; he sent to several parts of the world in search 
 of one who could give him help or advice ; that is, 
 rnando a cercare. 
 
 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Participles, as we observed page 212, are of two 
 sorts, one ending in ante and ente, which is called the 
 present participle, and the other ending in ato, uto 9 and 
 ito, which is called the past participle. There are also 
 other past participles of irregular terminations, such as, 
 atto, etto, esso, &c. See the conjugation of irregular 
 verbs in the first part. 
 
 RULE LXXXIX. 
 
 Participles present, being a kind of adjectives, are to be 
 accompanied with a noun substantive or pronoun, which 
 is to be an oblique case, or rather to say a noun or pro- 
 noun governed by a verb. 
 
 B. 10. 7. II re sifece chiamare un giovane, e postegii 
 certe anella in mano, a lui non recusante difarlofece 
 sposare la Lisa ; the king sent for a young gentleman, 
 and putting a ring into his hand, caused him not unwil- 
 
SYNTAX OF PAKTICIPLES. 393 
 
 lingly to espouse Eliza. Recusante a participle pre- 
 sent, accompanied with a lui a pronoun in the dative 
 which is governed hyfece sposare. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Folco da dolor vinto, tirata fuori una spada, 
 lei in vano merce addomandante uccise ; Folco, being 
 overcome by grief, drew his sword and stabbed her to 
 the heart, she begging in vain for mercy. Addoman- 
 dante, a participle present, is accompanied with lei a pro- 
 noun in the accusative, which is governed by uccise. 
 
 B. 9. 10. Alle donne aspettanti si rivolse e disse ; 
 he addressed himself to the ladies who were waiting, 
 and said. Aspettanti, a participle present, is accom- 
 panied with alle donne in the dative, which is governed 
 by si rivolse. 
 
 Participles present are sometimes found in the nomi- 
 native in good writers, but as it is not much approved 
 of we forbear giving examples, and advise learners not 
 to use them in the nominative case ; and if there happens 
 to be any in the said nominative, it is better to make use 
 of the gerund instead ; as, le donne piangenti dissero ; 
 the women that were crying, said. Le donne piangendG 
 dissero, is better. 
 
 Participles present are frequently found in good 
 writers as ablatives absolute, that is, independent on any 
 verb, and standing, as it were, alone in a discourse. 
 
 B. 3. 2. II quale, siccome savio, mai, vivente il re, non 
 lo scoperse ; who, being a wise man, kept it to himself as 
 long as the king lived. 
 
 B. 5. 1. Non erano ancora quattro ore compiute,poiche 
 Cimone i Rodlani avea lasciati, quando, sopravvegnente 
 la notte, con essa surse un tempo fierissimo ; in about four 
 hours from Cymon's parting with the Rhodians, night 
 came upon them, and with it a most violent tempest. 
 
 But this way is not much used at present, and instead 
 of vivente il re and sopravvegnente la notte, we should 
 say mentre che visse il re or vivendo il re, and soprav- 
 vegnendo la notte* 
 
 s3 
 
894 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 There are, however, many of these participles present 
 which are commonly used in conversation as well as in 
 composition, such as seguente^ vegnente, durante, pre- 
 cedente ; and we say, il d\ seguente, the following day ; 
 la mattina vegnente, the following morning ; durante la 
 guerra, during the war ; la sera precedente, the preced- 
 ing evening. But such expressions, being confirmed 
 by use, may very properly be employed when necessity 
 requires. 
 
 Of the Participle Past. 
 
 The participle past is either active or passive ; when 
 it is active it is conjugated with the verb avere^ and 
 when it is passive it is conjugated with essere ; but before 
 we lay down rules for its construction, it is necessary 
 that we should speak of the auxiliary verbs with which 
 these participles are to be accompanied. 
 
 RULE XC. 
 
 Verbs active, having an objective case, or an object 
 acted upon, are conjugated with avere ; as, ho amato la 
 virtu, I have loved virtue ; egli aveva battuto Pietro, 
 he had beaten Peter ; abbiamo letto i libri, we have read 
 the books. Virtu, Pietro, libri, are the objects acted 
 upon, and therefore ho, aveva, abbiamo, and not sono, 
 era, siamo. 
 
 Sometimes the verb active has not an object acted 
 upon, but as it is understood, its auxiliary verb is avere, 
 as we said ; as, io ho letto per tre giorni, I read three 
 whole days ; ella ha sernpre amato in vita sua, she has 
 always loved in her life ; that is to say, ho letto libri, 
 gazzette, &c. ella ha amato la virtu, il giuoco, &c. 
 
 RULE XCI. 
 
 Verbs passive, or verbs of which the subject is acted 
 upon by the object, are conjugated with essere ; as, to 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 305 
 
 sono amata da Paolo, I am loved by Paul ; ella e statu 
 battuta dal marito, she has been beaten by her husband. 
 Da Paolo, dal marito, are the objects acting upon io 
 and ella the subjects of sono amata, e stata battuta. 
 
 Sometimes verbs passive, instead of essere, are conju- 
 gated, only in their simple tenses, with the following 
 verbs, viz. venire, to come ; restare or rimanere, to 
 remain ; vedersi, to see one's self. 
 
 Buommattei. Ma siasi una lingua nobile, poco U 
 gioverd mentre ch 'ella non venga usata dafamosi scrii- 
 tori ; but let a language be noble, it will be of little use 
 if it is not adopted by celebrated writers. Venga for 
 $ia. 
 
 Goldoni. Voi non sapete da chi mi vengano som- 
 ministrate ; you do not know by whom they are given 
 to me. Vengano for siano. 
 
 Goldoni. Se non mi sard lecito di sposarlo, procurers 
 almeno cite resti impiegato in questa cittd ; if I am not 
 allowed to marry him, I shall at least endeavour that he 
 may be employed in this city. Resti for sia. 
 
 Boccalini. Egli rimase maravigliato delta brutta in- 
 venzione ; he was astonished at the bad invention. Ri- 
 mase i'orfu. 
 
 Soave. E il giovane infelice si vide tosto da una 
 squadra di satelliti circondato e tratto prigione ; and 
 the unhappy youth was soon surrounded by a squadron 
 of guards and taken to prison. Si vide for fu. 
 
 RULE XCII. 
 
 Verbs neuter, or verbs having no objective case ? espe- 
 cially those which denote motion, such as, andare to go, 
 venire to come, ritornare to return, scendere to des- 
 cend, svaniire to vanish, &c. are conjugated with es- 
 sere ; as, io sono andato, I have gone ; tu sei venuto, 
 thou art come ; egli e ritornato, he is returned ; noi 
 sciamo scesi, we have come down ; voi siete svaniti, you 
 have disappeared. 
 
396 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 There are some, however, that are conjugated either 
 with essere or avere, and others again only with avere. 
 
 Those that may be conjugated with both avere and 
 essere, are dimorare, cavalcare, correre, &c. 
 
 B. 2. 5. Li quali e per lo caldo, e per che corsi erano 
 dietro ad alcuno ; who, on account of the heat, and of 
 their having run after somebody. Correre with essere. 
 
 B. 7. 8. Non ci tornai io, avendo cor so dietro air 
 amante tuo ? Did I not go back thither, having run 
 after your lover ? Correre with avere. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Ne furono guari piil di due miglia cavalcati ; 
 they had ridden no more than two miles. Cavalcare 
 with essere. 
 
 B. 3. 4. E quando con lui alquanto dimorata fossi; 
 and when I have stayed some time with him. Dimorare 
 with essere. 
 
 Those that are conjugated with avere only, are gri- 
 dare to cry, mugghiare to bellow, peccare to sin, 
 dormire to sleep, piangere to weep, ridere to laugh, 
 giuocare to play, and a great many more of all sorts, 
 which will be found marked in the lists included in this 
 grammar. 
 
 Potere, to be able, and volere, to be willing, require a 
 particular observation. They are conjugated with the 
 verb avere when the infinitive which follows them is a 
 verb active, and with essere when the infinitive is a verb 
 neuter conjugated with essere; or, rather to say, these 
 two verbs are conjugated with the same auxiliary verb 
 which is assigned to the infinitive, expressed or under- 
 stood, that follows them. 
 
 *? 
 
 B. 3. 1. II castaldo gli mise innanzi certi ceppi, che 
 Nuto non aveva potuto spezzare ; the steward put before 
 him some pieces of wood, which Nuto was not able to 
 cut. 
 
 B. 2. 4. E bevendo piU, che non avrebbe voluto ; and 
 drinking more than he was willing to drink. 
 
 In these examples, spezzare an infinitive expressed, 
 
 \ 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 397 
 
 and here understood, being active, require potere and 
 volere, by which they are governed, to be conjugated 
 with avere. 
 
 B. 3. 4. E quando ella si sarebbe voluta dormire ; and 
 when she had a mind to sleep. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Essendo gia la meta della notte andata, non 
 s^era ancor potuto Tedaldo addormentare ; and Te- 
 daldo had not yet fallen asleep, although it was after 
 midnight. 
 
 In these examples, dormirsi and addormentarsi, being 
 verbs neuter whose auxiliary is essere, require potere 
 and volere, by which they are governed, to be conju- 
 gated with essere. 
 
 RULE XCIII. 
 
 Verbs reflective, or neuter passive, or those verbs 
 which end in arsi, ersi, irsi, in the infinitive, are always 
 conjugated with the verb essere; as, io mi sono scor* 
 dato, I have forgotten ; ci siamo dimenticati, we have 
 forgotten ; si sono accorti, they have perceived. 
 
 With respect to those verbs which are naturally 
 active, but become reflective or passive by means of the 
 particles, mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si, some grammarians are of 
 opinion that either avere or essere is the auxiliary verb 
 with which they are to be conjugated. With some 
 verbs this rule might answer, but with others it will not 
 hold good. As, for example, were we to conjugate 
 uccidersi axi&jerirsi verbs reflective, coming from ucci- 
 dere and Jerire verbs active, we might say, mi sarei 
 ucciso, or mi avrei ucciso, I could have killed myself ; 
 egli si eferito, or egli si ha ferito, he stabbed himself. 
 But it would produce a disagreeable sound to the ear 
 were we to say, mi ho contentato, I contented myself, or 
 I am satisfied ; mi avevo addormentato, I had fallen 
 asleep ; although contentarsi and addormentarsi come 
 from contentare to satisfy, and addormentare to lull 
 asleep, both active. 
 
398 SYXTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 We cannot account for such a distinction, unless it is 
 that contentare and addormentare, although active, par- 
 take, if we are allowed to say so, of the nature of the 
 neuter. However it may be, as no other reason may be 
 assigned, we content ourselves to set down a rule on this 
 subject, which attention in reading writers of note has 
 made us acquainted with, and which, if well examined, 
 canuot but give satisfaction to learners. 
 
 A verb, then, which is naturally active, becoming 
 reflective or passive by the reflective particles, mi, ti, si, 
 ci, vi, si, which may be rendered myself, thyself, him- 
 self, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, is to be 
 conjugated with essere ; but if those particles are not 
 reflective but conjunctive pronouns, signifying my, thy, 
 his, her, our, your, their, the verb in question is con- 
 jugated with avere, as may be seen in the following 
 examples. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Se io non avessi voluto essere al rnondo, 
 mi sarei fatta monaca ; had I not been disposed to enjoy 
 the world, I would have shut myself up in a monastery. 
 
 B. 3. 2. E prima in una stiff a (essendo) lavatosi bene 
 nella gran sala si nascose ; and having washed himself 
 well, he hid himself in the large room. 
 
 In these two examples, mi and si are reflective pro- 
 nouns, signifying myself, himself; hence the verb essere, 
 with farsi and lavarsi, sarei fatta, and lavatosi in which 
 essendo is understood. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Horn mi posto in cuore di far glide alcuna 
 volta dire a miei parenti ; I resolved to let him know 
 by means of my brothers. 
 
 "B. 8. 7. Io avrei di te scritie cose, che...di te stessa 
 vergognandoti, ti avresti cavati gli occhj ; I would have so 
 mauled you with my pen, that you, being ashamed of 
 yourself, would have torn your eyes out. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Messer Torello avendosi Tanello di lei messo 
 in bocca; Mr. Torello having put her ring in his 
 mouth. 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES, 399 
 
 In these three examples, mi, ti, si, are conjunctive 
 pronouns, signifying in English my, thy, his, as pos- 
 sessive pronouns ; hence, porre, cavare, metier e, are 
 conjugated with avere, hommi posto, ti avresii cavati, 
 avendoti messo. 
 
 It has been asserted that in such examples as the 
 above three, the verb avere is put instead of essere, and 
 that essere is to be the proper auxiliary verb ; but we 
 think that it is better to use avere than essere, and every 
 one will think as we do, when he, after turning those 
 phrases thus, ho posto nel cuore mio, avresti cavati gli 
 occlij tuoi, avendo messo Tanello di lei nella bocca sua, 
 will perceive that it is mio, tuoi, sua, in English my, thy, 
 his, which are changed into conjunctive mi, ti, si, and not 
 reflective pronouns. Modern writers and well educated 
 Italians, however, do, unaware of the stated observa- 
 tions, use the verb essere with such verbs, both in a 
 familiar style and common conversation. 
 
 RULE XCIV. 
 
 Impersonal verbs of all sorts are commonly conjugated 
 with the verb essere ; as, e tuonato, it has thundered ; 
 era piovuto, it had rained ; si e detto, it has been said ; 
 si erafatto, it w r as done ; mi e dispiaciuto, I am sorry ; 
 gli era rincresciuto, he was sorry. 
 
 RULE XCV. 
 
 CONTINUATION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 The past participle, whether it is derived from a verb 
 passive, neuter, or reflective, being conjugated with the 
 auxiliary verb essere, is to agree with its subject or nomi- 
 native case in gender and number. 
 
 B. 3. 4. Voi no?i siete laprima, ne sarete V ultima, la 
 quale e ingannata; you are not the first, nor will you be 
 the last, that is imposed upon. Ingannata, participle 
 
400 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 passive of the feminine gender, is made to agree with voi 
 a pronoun referring to a woman. 
 
 B. 8. 1. lo non so se tu f hai posto in mente, come noi 
 siarno tenute strette ; I do not know whether you have 
 remarked that we are kept here in strict confinement. 
 Tenute, a participle passive of the feminine gender and 
 plural, is made to agree with noi a pronoun referring to 
 women. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Ed essendo gia terza, ed essi alia citta per- 
 venuti, avvisando d" essere al miglior albergo inviati, con 
 Messer Torello alle sue case pervennero, dove gia ben 
 cinqaanta de } maggior cittadini eran venuti per riceverli; 
 and they having arrived at the city about the third hour 
 of the day, whilst they supposed that M. Torello would 
 take them to the best inn, they were accompanied to his 
 own house, whither about fifty of the principal persons 
 of the city were come in order to welcome them. Per- 
 venuti and venuti, both participles neuter of the mascu- 
 line gender and plural number, are made to agree, one 
 with essi a pronoun referring to men, and the other with 
 cinquanta de* maggior cittadini. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Ed essendosi accorta che costui usava molto 
 con un religioso ; and perceiving that he was well ac- 
 quainted with a certain friar. Accorta, a participle 
 reflective of the feminine gender, is made to agree with 
 ella a pronoun referring to a woman. 
 
 Verbs neuter conjugated with avere require their par- 
 ticiple to be indeclinable ; that is to say, the participle is 
 always to end in o ; as, ho parlato, ho dormito, I have 
 spoken, slept, &c. See next Rule. 
 
 Verbs reflective, or rather those active verbs which 
 become reflective through the medium of the particles 
 mi, ti, si, &c, and which we said were to be conjugated 
 with avere, but that are often found with essere, having 
 another objective case besides mi, ti, si, &c, require 
 their participle should be either indeclinable or declina- 
 ble. When indeclinable it is to end in o, when declina- 
 ble it is to agree with its objective case. 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 401 
 
 B. 4. 1. Tancredi principe di Salerno, fu signore 
 assai umano, e di benigno ingegno, £ egli nello amoroso 
 sangue nella sua vecchiezza non s* avesse le rnani brut- 
 tate; Tancred, the prince of Salerno, was a most 
 humane and generous personage, had he not, in his old 
 age, imbrued his hands in a lover's blood. Bruttate, a 
 participle of the feminine gender and plural number, is 
 made to agree with mani a substantive of the feminine 
 gender and plural. Boccaccio might as well have said 
 bruttato. 
 
 Here are other examples of a modern writer in which 
 the participle is conjugated with essere. 
 
 Ganganelli. Mi sono straccato gli occhj e le garnbe ; 
 I wearied out my eyes and legs. Straccato indeclinable. 
 
 Ganganelli. Protestando di non vi scordar giammai di 
 questa pena che mi sono data per cercarvi ; protesting 
 never to forget the trouble I had in seeking for you. 
 Data, a participle of the feminine gender, is made to 
 agree with pena a substantive feminine. 
 
 OF PARTICIPLES ACCOMPANIED WITH THE AUXILIARY 
 
 verb avere. 
 RULE XCVI. 
 
 The participle past of verbs conjugated with avere, 
 w T hether they are neuter or active, whether they govern 
 a case or not, is to be indeclinable ; that is to say, it is 
 to end in o. 
 
 B. 5. 5. Che aspetti tu oramai qui, poi kai cenato ? 
 What are you waiting for, since you have had your 
 supper ? 
 
 B. 5. 5. Aveva ciascuna donna la novella delF usignuolo 
 ascoltando tanto riso ; all the ladies had heartily laughed 
 at the story of the nightingale. 
 
 B. 5. 1. Adunque, s\ come noi nelle antiche istorie d£ 
 Cipriani abbiamo gia letto; then, as we have read in 
 the ancient histories of Cyprus. 
 
402 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 B. 5. 6. Acciocche . . .Jbssero arsi, si come avevan meri- 
 tato ; in order that they might be burnt, as they deserved. 
 
 In these examples, cenato and riso, participles derived 
 from verbs neuter, letto and meritato, participles derived 
 from verbs active, are indeclinable, and this rule will 
 never lead a student into errors. 
 
 Sometimes, by way of elegance, the past participle 
 derived from verbs active, not neuter, may be made to 
 agree with the objective or accusative case, whether it is 
 put before or after the verb by which it is governed. 
 
 B. 10. 4. Poiclie Iddio ni Tia questa grazia conceduta; 
 since God has granted me this favour. 
 
 B. 3. 5. II quale avendo col cavaliere i patti rifermati 
 . . . cosi comincio a dire ; who having reminded the knight 
 of the conditions, thus began to speak. 
 
 B. 3. 9. E la donna e la sua Jigliuola trovate assai 
 poveramente, salutatele disse alia donna; and having 
 found the lady and her daughter in an humble house, 
 she said to the lady. 
 
 In these examples, conceduta, rifermati, and trovate, 
 are participles, which are made to agree with their accu- 
 sative cases grazia, patti, donna e Jigliuola. 
 
 OF PARTICIPLES ACCOMPANIED WITH RELATIVE AND 
 CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE XCVII. 
 
 The past participle of active verbs, conjugated with 
 avere, being preceded by, or rather governing one of 
 the following pronouns, che, cui, il quale, mi, ti, lo, la, 
 ci, vi, li, gli, le, quail, quanti, in the accusative case, 
 is declinable ; that is to say, it is to agree with the said 
 pronoun in gender and number. 
 
 B. 4. 1. E questodetto sife* dareTorciuoletto, nel quale 
 era Vacqua, che il d\ davanti aveva fatta . . . e tutta la 
 bevve ; and having thus spoken, she bade them reach the 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 403 
 
 vessel of water which she had prepared the day before, 
 and drank it all off. Fatta, a participle of the feminine 
 gender, is made to agree with che, an accusative referring 
 to acqua a substantive feminine. 
 
 B. 4. Proe. Elle son piu belle die gli agnoli dipinti 9 
 che voi mi avete piil volte mostrati ; they are handsomer 
 than the painted angels, which you have oftentimes 
 shewn me. Mostrati, a participle of the masculine gender 
 and plural number, is made to agree with che, an accusa- 
 tive referring to agnoli a substantive masculine and 
 plural. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Messer Torello comincio a guar dare, e vide 
 quelle (vesti) che al Saladino aveva la sua donna donate ; 
 Mr. Torello soon cast his eyes upon those which his lady 
 had given to Saladin. Donate, a participle of the 
 feminine gender and plural number, is made to agree 
 with che, an accusative referring to quelle vesti a sub- 
 stantive feminine and plural. 
 
 B. 5. 9. II quale cos\ fatta donna, e cui egli cotanto 
 amata avea, per moglie vedendosi ; and he being united 
 in marriage with a lady whom he had so passionately 
 loved. Amata, a participle of the feminine gender, is 
 made to agree with cui an accusative referring to 
 donna, 
 
 B. 10. 9. II quale infino nella puerizia io cominciai ad 
 amare ed ho poi sempre sommamente amato; whom I 
 began to love in my childhood, and have loved exceed- 
 ingly ever since. Amato, a participle of the mascu- 
 line gender, is made to agree with il quale a relative 
 masculine. 
 
 B. 3. 6. Tu sei stata con colei, la quale . ..tu hai . . . 
 ingannata ; you have been with her whom you have de- 
 ceived. Ingannata, a participle of the feminine gender, is 
 made to agree with la quale a relative feminine. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Io sono venuta a ristorarti d£ danni, li quali 
 tu hai gia avuti per me ; I am come to make you some 
 recompence for what you formerly did on my account. 
 Avuti, a participle of the masculine gender and plural 
 
404? SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 number, is made to agree with li quali a relative mas- 
 culine and plural. 
 
 B. 3. 6. E noil so a che io mi tengo, che io non mando 
 per Ricciardo, il quale piu che se m' ha am at a ; and 1 see 
 no reason why I should not send for Ricciardo, who once 
 loved me passionately. Amata, a participle of the femi- 
 nine gender, is made to agree with mi a pronoun 
 feminine. 
 
 B. 3. 3. II valente uomo si maraviglib, s\ come colui, che 
 mai guatata non F aveva ; the honest man was much 
 surprised, as he had never taken any notice of her. 
 
 B. 10. 9. // Saladin . . . s 1 avvide che questo cavaliere 
 aveva dubitato eft essi non avesser tenuto V invito, se 
 quando gli trovo, invitati gli avesse ; the sultan perceived 
 that that gentleman was apprehensive that they would not 
 have accepted the invitation if he had invited them when 
 he met with them. Invitati, a participle of the masculine 
 gender and plural, is made to agree with gli, a pronoun 
 masculine and plural. 
 
 B. 5. 5. Se tujeri ci affliggesti, tu ci hai oggi tanto 
 diliticate, che niuna meritamente di te si dee rammari- 
 care ; if you gave us concern with your subject yesterday, 
 you have delighted us so much to-day, that none of us 
 can complain of you. Diliticate, a participle of the 
 feminine gender and plural, is made to agree with ci a 
 pronoun feminine and plural. 
 
 B. 3. 6. Voi non siete la prima, ne sarete T ultima, la 
 quale e ingannata, ne io v' ho ingannata ; you are not the 
 first, nor will you be the last that is imposed upon, nor 
 have I deceived you. Ingannata, a participle of the 
 feminine gender and plural, is made to agree with vi a 
 pronoun feminine and plural. 
 
 We think the above examples are sufficient for the 
 information of the student, and we have refrained from 
 giving any with participles of the masculine gender and 
 lingular number, because their termination is always in o. 
 
 It is to be observed that the past participle is always 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 405 
 
 to agree with the above-mentioned particles, mi, ti, 
 si, la, lo, li, &c. although it is not accompanied with 
 
 avere. 
 
 B. 3. 9. Sicuramente disse la gentil donna, ogni cosa 
 che vi place, mi dite, che mai da me non vi troverete 
 ingannata; the lady said, speak out freely, and you will 
 certainly find I shall never deceive you. Ingannata, a 
 participle feminine, is made to agree with vi a pronoun 
 feminine, though it is not accompanied with avere. 
 
 B. 3. 4. Ma quantunque bene la trovasse disposta a 
 dover dare alV opera compimento, non si poteva trovar 
 modo ; but although he found her disposed to a com- 
 pliance, he could not contrive the means. Disposta, a 
 participle feminine, is made to agree with la a pronoun 
 feminine, although it is not accompanied with avere. 
 
 B. 3. 3. La quale, o piacevoli donne, io raccontero . . . 
 per far^i accorte ; which, kind ladies, I will relate to 
 shew you. Accorte, a participle feminine and plural, is 
 made to agree with vi a pronoun feminine and plural, 
 though it is not accompanied with avere. 
 
 OF PARTICIPLES FOLLOWED BY AN INFINITIVE WITHOUT 
 A PREPOSITION. 
 
 RULE XCVIII. 
 
 The past participle, being accompanied by an infini- 
 tive, is to be indeclinable, if the relative and conjunctive 
 pronouns che, il quale, mi, ti, si, lo, la, gli, le, ci, vi, 
 are the objective cases of the said infinitive. 
 
 B. 5. 9. La donna, la quale il lungo vagheggiare, 
 Tarmeggiare, le mattinate muovere non avevano potuto, 
 mossero le affettuose parole ; the lady, whom his love, 
 tournaments, and serenades, were not able to move, was 
 affected by his tender words. 
 
 B. 10. 8. II che se savj siete, lietamenie comporterete, 
 perciocche se ingannare vi avessi voluto, sehernita ve la 
 poteva lasciare ; if you are wise, you will take it in good 
 
406 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 part, for had I been willing to deceive you, I could 
 contemptuously have left her. 
 
 B. 3. 1. II castaldo gli die da mangiare volentieri, ed 
 appresso questo gli mise innanzi certi ceppi, che Nuto non 
 aveva potuto spezzare ; the steward gave him something 
 to eat, and afterwards put before him some pieces of 
 wood, which Nuto could not cut. 
 
 In these examples, potuto and voluto are indeclinable, 
 because la quale, vi, and che, are the objective cases of 
 muovere, ingannare, and spezzare. But if the relative 
 and conjunctive pronouns are the objective cases of the 
 participles, or rather the subject of the infinitive, the 
 participle is to be declinable, that is, it is made to agree 
 with the said pronouns che, il quale, mi, ii, si, &c. in 
 gender and number. 
 
 B. 9. 5. Or sapeva Bruno clii costei era s% come colui, 
 che T aveva veduta venire ; now, Bruno knew who she 
 was, as he had seen her coming. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Di che Ercolano, che alquanto turbato con la 
 moglie era, per do che gran pezza ci aveva fatti stare 
 aW uscio . . .disse ; at which Ercolano, who was rather 
 angry that his wife had made us wait some time at the 
 door, said. 
 
 B. 8. 1. Assai sono di que gli, che si sono stolti, che 
 credono troppo bene, che come a una giovane e sopra il 
 capo posta la benda bianca...ne piu senta de* feminili ap- 
 petiti, se non come se di pietra Y avesse fatta divenire il 
 farla monaca ; there are many people so simple as to 
 imagine that after a young woman has put on the veil, 
 she is no longer subject to the passions of her sex, as if, 
 by becoming a nun, she were turned into stone. 
 
 In these examples the participles veduta, fatti, and 
 fatta, are made declinable, because the relative l\ which 
 both times stands for la, and the conjunctive ci, are ob- 
 jective cases of the said participles, and not of the infini- 
 tives venire, stare, and divenire, which may be clearly 
 seen if these phrases are turned thus, aveva veduta lei 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 407 
 
 venire, or veduto ehe ella veniva, avevafatti noi stare, or 
 avevafatto che noi stessimo, avesse fatta lei divenire, or 
 avesse fatto che ella divenisse. 
 
 These are the rules laid down by grammarians with 
 respect to the agreement of the participle, when followed 
 by an infinitive without a preposition ; and we advise 
 the learner to adhere strictly to them, as it is the only 
 means of avoiding errors : and if he finds examples 
 contrary to the above rules, (and there are many of 
 that kind), he is to disregard them as incorrect^ and 
 rather obsolete. 
 
 RULE XCIX. 
 
 ON THE AGREEMENT OF PARTICIPLES ACCOMPANIED 
 WITH MORE SUBSTANTIVES THAN ONE, EITHER CON- 
 NECTED BY THE CONJUNCTION e, OR SEPARATED BY 
 THE PREPOSITION C0U. 
 
 When the past participle governs or is governed by 
 more substantives than one, either of the same or of 
 different genders and numbers, it is made to agree with 
 the nearest substantive, whether the participle in ques- 
 tion precedes or follows them. 
 
 B. 10. 5. II cavaliere udita la domanda e la proferta 
 della donna seco propose; the gentleman, being made 
 acquainted with the demand and proposal of the lady, 
 resolved. Udita governing both substantives of the 
 feminine gender domanda and proferta, is made to agree 
 with the nearest to it. 
 
 B. 10. 6. II quale poiche il giardin tutto, e la casa di 
 Messer Neri ebbe veduta ; who, after he had seen 
 the garden and house belonging to M. Neri. Veduta, 
 governing giardino and casa, both substantives of dif- 
 ferent genders, is made to agree with casa a substantive 
 feminine nearest to it, and not with giardino a noun of 
 the masculine gender. 
 
 B. 10. % E smontato, tutto solo fa rnesso in unaxama- 
 retta, ed i cavalli e tutto P arnese messo in salvo ; and 
 
408 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 having alighted, he was led into a small room, and his 
 horses and all his other effects were taken especial care 
 of. Messo, being governed by cavalli and arnese, both 
 substantives of the same gender but of different num- 
 bers, is made to agree with arnese a substantive singular 
 nearest to it, and not with cavalli plural. 
 
 B. %. 9. E sentendo le donne i cavalieri nel palagio 
 del conte radunati ; and on hearing that the ladies and 
 gentlemen were in the counts palace. Radunati being 
 governed by donne and eavalieri, both substantives of 
 different genders, is made to agree with cavalieri, a sub- 
 stantive masculine nearest to it, and not with donne. 
 
 Sometimes the participle taken in the same accepta- 
 tion as above, is made to agree with the farthest sub- 
 stantive, but not equally correct. 
 
 B. 10. 9. La donna e Y anella, e la corona avute dal 
 nuovo sposo quivi lascio ; the lady left there the rings 
 and the crown which she had received from her new 
 husband. Avute is made to agree with anella a sub- 
 stantive feminine plural, and not with corona its nearest 
 substantive. 
 
 The past participle having for its subjects more pro- 
 nouns or substantives than one, which are separated from 
 one another by con, may be made to agree with the first 
 subject, or with all of them, that is to say, if the first 
 subject is singular, and that preceded by con is plural, 
 the participle may either be put in the singular or 
 plural. 
 
 B. 6. End. Essendosi Dioneo con gli altri giovani 
 messo a giucare...Elisa disse; whilst Dioneus and the 
 other gentlemen were playing, Eliza said. Messo is 
 made to agree with the first subject Dioneo. 
 
 B. 10. 6. II re co' suoi compagni rimontati a cavallo 
 dl reale ostiere se ne tornarono ; the king, with his 
 attendants, mounted his horse and returned to the 
 royal palace. Rimontati is made to agree with re and 
 compagni. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 409 
 
 If one of the subjects is feminine, and the other mas- 
 culine, the participle, when put in the plural, is to agree 
 with the masculine ; but if they are all feminine, the 
 participle is to be feminine. 
 
 B. 5. 10. JEssendosila donna col giovane posti a tc&vola 
 per cenare, ed ecco Pietro chiamd alt uscio ; the lady and 
 the young man were no sooner seated at table, than 
 Pietro knocked at the door. Posti is a masculine plural, 
 though the subjects are of different genders. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Io con due delle mie femmine, sopra il lido 
 Y>ostefummo ; I and two of my attendants were placed 
 upon the shore. Poste feminine plural, because io a 
 pronoun, and due delle mie femmine^ are all feminine. 
 
 To put a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition 
 instead of the nominative case, seems rather strange; 
 but it will seem otherwise when we consider that con is 
 placed in the above phrases instead of the conjunction 
 £, thus, Dioneo e gli altri giovani ; il re e i suoi com- 
 pagni, &c. 
 
 The same rule is to be used in regard to adjectives. 
 
 RULE C. 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs, like all other parts of speech, require an 
 appropriate situation in the sentence, viz. — for the most 
 part after the verb, frequently between the auxiliary 
 verb and the participle, or between two participles, when 
 both of them belong to the same auxiliary verb; as, 
 egli parla bene* he speaks well; io ho ben dormito, I 
 have slept well ; ella e stata molto stimata, she was much 
 esteemed. 
 
 Sometimes the same adverb is placed with propriety 
 before the verb or after it ; between the auxiliary and 
 the participle, or after them both, as in the following 
 examples. 
 
 T 
 
410 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 
 
 B. 9. 6. II quale aperse la porta prestamente ; who 
 quickly opened the door. 
 
 B. 9. 7. II quale prestamente £ amentava alia gola 
 di costei ; which, (a wolf), hastily seized her by the 
 throat. x 
 
 B. 9. 6. Pinuccio, tu sai bene come io sono agiato ; 
 Pinuccio, you know very well how I am situated. 
 
 B. 9- 8. Rispose Ciacca: ben sai, che io verfo; you 
 know very well that I shall come, answered Ciacco. 
 
 B. 9. 6. Io non ho mai poscia potuto dormire ; I could 
 no longer sleep. 
 
 B. 9. 6\ Pinuccio, io te V ho detto cento volte ; Pinuc- 
 cio, I told it to you a hundred times. 
 
 In these examples it is easily seen that the adverb, 
 whether the same or a different word, is indiscriminately 
 put before, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence, 
 from which it appears that no determinate rule can be 
 given for the placing of this part of speech on all occa- 
 sions. The general rule may be of considerable use, 
 but the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase are the 
 things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 
 
 Remarks on some Adverbs of particular construction, 
 Mai, Niente, Nulla. 
 
 These adverbs, taken in a negative sense, may be 
 used with or without the negative non, with this condi- 
 tion, that when they are accompanied with non they are 
 to follow the verb, and when without it, they are to pre- 
 cede the verb. 
 
 Passavanti. II diavolo disse una volta a San Macario, 
 se tu vegghi, io mai donno> se tu £ affatichi operando, io 
 non ho mai riposo ; the devil once said to St. Macarius, 
 if you are always watching I never sleep ; and if you use 
 all your efforts in your works, I never rest. 
 
 B. 10. % II che V abate udendo... rispose, clC egli non 
 ne volevajar niente; on hearing which, the abbot an- 
 swered he would do nothing (of what he said). 
 
SYNTAX OF ADVEFvBS. 411 
 
 B. 8. 7. Che niente la notte passata aveva dormifo ; 
 who had not slept at all the preceding night. 
 
 B. Fiam. Nulla mancare a me, il sommo delta beati- 
 tudine a tener reputava; I thought I wanted nothing to 
 reach the summit of happiness. 
 
 B. Lab. E poi quando il bisogno viene, trovarmi non 
 super nulla ; and when need requires it, I find I know 
 nothing. 
 
 These words, taken in an affirmative sense, are used 
 without non, and are to follow the verb. 
 
 B. 8. 8. Disse di voler esser piu che mai amico di 
 Zeppa ; he said he would be Zeppa's friend more than 
 ever. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Buffalmacco . . . il domandb, se egli si sentisse 
 niente ; Buffalmacco asked him what was the matter with 
 him. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Potrebbe egli essere die io avessi nulla ; per- 
 haps there may be something the matter with me. 
 
 Contrary to these rules some examples may be found 
 in which these adverbs are sometimes put before the 
 verb, though they affirm, and sometimes put after it, 
 though they deny ; but it is necessary to observe that 
 when this happens, it is done under the rules of the 
 figurative construction. 
 
 Non, No, STi. 
 
 Non, a negative, is commonly to precede the verb 
 which serves to deny. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Ma chi e colui, die alcuna volta mal non 
 faccia ? But who is there that some time or other doth 
 not act amiss ? 
 
 B. 4. 10. II die vorrei, die coil a me avvenisse, ma 
 non dresser messo nelT area ; which. I wish may happen 
 always to myself, but never to be put into a chest. 
 
 Non, as an expletive, is put after verbs expressive of 
 fear, doubt, or suspicion, for something that is not 
 wished to happen. 
 
 t 2 
 
412 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 
 
 B. 1.1. Dubitavan forte, non Ser Ciappelletto gV 
 ingannasse; they feared that Ser Ciappelletto deceived 
 them. 
 
 Sacc. 84 La donna £ I giovane udendo bussare, subito 
 sospettarono che non fosse quello eft era ; the woman and 
 the young man on hearing a knock at the door, directly 
 suspected what it was. 
 
 Non, as an expletive, is put before a verb finite, when 
 che, with which it is accompanied, is a case of the com- 
 parative piu, meno, meglio, &c. See the comparatives, 
 page 269, for examples. 
 
 Non loses its last letter and joins with the following 
 word when that word is il as a pronoun, not as an article ; 
 thus, nol. 
 
 B. 5. 1. E quantunque la giovane sua cornpagnia 
 rifiutasse, niai da se partir nol pute ; and although the 
 young damsel refused his company, she could not get 
 rid of him. 
 
 When instead of il, lo, la, li, le, follow, non may 
 change its last letter into I, thus, nollo, nolla, nolli, 
 nolle ; but as this coalition is not frequently used, we 
 refrain from giving examples. 
 
 No serves to answer in the negative. 
 
 Nov. Ant. Avete voi piu d ''un capitano ? No, dio, 
 rispose il cancelliere. Have you more than one captain ? 
 No, indeed, replied the chancellor. 
 
 No is used with the correspondence of s\. 
 
 B. Filoc. Folle no, ma innamorato si ; not mad, but in 
 love. 
 
 No is used instead of non, when the verb with which 
 it is accompanied is understood. 
 
 B. 5. 1. /Z vento poggiava in contrario intanto* che 
 non che essi del picciol seno uscir potessero, ma o voles- 
 sero, o no, gli sospinse alia terra ; the wind in the mean 
 time was strongly against them, and drove them 
 
SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 418 
 
 ashore in spite of all they could do to prevent it ; that 
 is, o volessero, o non volessero. 
 
 When two negatives happen to be in the same phrase, 
 one is to be no, and the other non. 
 
 B. 7. S. Disse la peronella : No, per quello nan 
 rimarra il mercato ; no, this shall never break the 
 bargain, said Peronella. 
 
 No and si, used in answering, and preceded by a verb, 
 are accompanied with di; thus, di s\ and di no. 
 
 B. 9*1 Dirb io di no della prima cosa, che rrC ha 
 richiesto ? shall I say no to her first request ? 
 
 B. 4. 10. La quale tomb, e disse di si ; who came back 
 and said yes. 
 
 Qua and Qui. 
 
 These two adverbs signify here, in the place where we 
 are, and are indifferently used for one another. 
 
 B. Introd. Noi dimoriamo qui ; we live here. 
 
 B. 2. 1. Egli e qua un tnalvagio uomo ; here is a 
 wicked fellow. Instead of qui and qua, ci may be used 
 when it refers to a place mentioned before. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Io non vorrei che voi guardaste, per che io sia 
 in casa di questi usurieri ; io non ci ho a Jure nulla, anzi 
 ci era venuto per dovergli ammonire ; I would not have 
 you think so, because you see me in the house of these 
 usurers ; I have no concern in it, but I came here 
 merely to admonish them. 
 
 Ci repeated is used for qui, in this or to this house ; 
 casa being mentioned before. 
 
 Ci is changed into ce when it is followed by one of 
 the relative pronouns, lo, la, li, le, ne. See conjunctive 
 pronouns for examples, page 299. 
 
 Costi and Costa. 
 
 These two adverbs signify there, where you are, or 
 rather, there, where a person is, and is addresssd : the 
 
414 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 
 
 former denoting a precise or determinate place, and thef 
 latter rather an indeterminate one, or without precision. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Io vidi levarvi e porvi costi, dove voi siete a 
 seder e ; I saw you get up and place yourselves there 
 where you are sitting. Cost\ a precise place, which the 
 person that speaks of it points out. 
 
 B. 3. 1, Se voi mi metteste costa entro, io vi lavorero 
 V orio ; if you will place me there, Til do your business 
 for you. Costa an indeterminate place, as the person 
 speaks of a garden which he does not see. 
 
 La, Cola, Ivi, Quivi, Ci, Vi. 
 
 All these adverbs signify there, thither, or in that 
 place which is distant from the speaker and the person 
 who is spoken to. 
 
 La and cold are commonly put after the verb. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Cominciarono a dire : Chi I la ? They 
 began to say, Who is there ? 
 
 They are used when followed by dove, ove, onde, with 
 the former of which la generally makes one word, thus, 
 laddove. 
 
 B. 6. 1. Essendojvrse la via lunghetta di la onde si 
 partivano, a cola dove tutti a pil d'andare intendevano ; 
 as the way was rather long from whence they set off, 
 whither they were to go on foot. 
 
 These two adverbs are also used when they have the 
 correspondence of qua and qui. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Senza starjerma or qua or la si tramuta 
 piangendo ; and weeping, she wanders about here and 
 there. 
 
 B. 4. 8. Tu ti divertirai molto mbgliore...\k che qui 
 nonfacesti ; you will amuse yourself better... there than 
 you have done here. 
 
 Ivi and quivi may be used either before or after the 
 verb, or one for another, at the option of the writer or 
 speaker. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 415 
 
 Ci and vi, signifying there, are commonly placed 
 before the verb ; and are indifferently used one for 
 another ; but if there be any difference, it is that ci is 
 used in speaking of places which the speaker is acquainted 
 with, or near to, and vi is used in speaking of places 
 far off. 
 
 B. Lab. Veramente ci sono io altre volte stato ; Indeed 
 I was there some time ago. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Disse la giovane; e come ci sono abitanze 
 presso da potere albergare ? A cui il buon uomo rispose : 
 ?ion ci sono in niun luogo si presso ; the lady said, and 
 how far is it to any inn, where I may put up ? to whom 
 the good man answered : there is none near enough. 
 
 B. 3. 1. // luogo e ass at loniano di qui, e niuno mi vi 
 conosce, se io so far vista d'esser mutolo, per certo io vi 
 sard ricevuto ; that place is very far from hence, and 
 nobody there knows me, and if I can play the part 
 of a dumb person, I shall without doubt be received 
 there. 
 
 Donde and Onde. 
 
 These adverbs signify whence ox from whence, and are 
 indifferently used. 
 
 B. 2. 3. Comincid piacevolmente a ragionare e doman- 
 dav chijbsse, donde venisse e dove andasse ; and she 
 began to converse kindly with him, and inquired who 
 he was, whence he came, and whither he was going. 
 
 B. 2. 9. La buona femmina torno per la cassa sua, e 
 cola la riporto onde levata Tavea ; the good woman came 
 for her chest, and carried it back to the place from 
 whence she had taken it. 
 
 These two adverbs are sometimes used as relatives, 
 which see page 331 for examples and construction. 
 
 Many more adverbs of particular construction might 
 be inserted here ; such as, cost, come, tanto, quanto, piu, 
 meno, meglio, peggio, molto ; but as we have sufficiently 
 
418 SYNTAX OF PKEPOSITIONS, 
 
 spoken of them in treating of comparatives and super- 
 latives, page 263, we refer the learner to those places. 
 
 Some modern grammarians assert that the adverbs of 
 quantity, such as, tanto, quanto, altrettanto, molto, 
 poco, troppo, being accompanied with a substantive, 
 become adjectives. This, however, is not the case, as 
 the adverb, being naturally indeclinable, cannot be 
 made an adjective by declining it, or rather by making 
 it agree with the substantive ; and in the phrases, datemi 
 tanto pane quanto ne potro mangiare ; comprate tanti 
 libri quanti ne avete bisogno ; vi sono troppi maestri, 
 &c. tanto, tanti, quanto, quanti, troppi, are not adverbs 
 turned into adjectives, but mere adjectives, which may 
 be easily seen in their English translation. Give me as 
 much bread as (much bread) I shall be able to eat. Pur- 
 chase as many books as (many books) you want. There 
 are too many masters. 
 
 In the first part, we gave a list of the principal adverbs 
 compounded of more words than one, which cannot be 
 found in dictionaries ; but we must inform the learner that 
 there are a great many of different significations, with 
 which to be well acquainted, it is necessary to consult our 
 Dictionary of Peculiarities. 
 
 SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 In the second part of this grammar we laid down a 
 list of prepositions, particularizing the cases which they 
 govern ; nothing now remains but to speak of their situa- 
 tion, and to make some remarks on the principal of 
 them. 
 
 RULE CI. 
 
 The preposition is commonly placed before the case 
 which it governs. 
 
 B. 2. Passando ungiorno davanti la casa, dove la bella 
 donna dimorava ; passing one day before the house where 
 the lady dwelt. 
 
SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 417 
 
 Gr. Vill. Stando aW assedio di Genova presso di cinque 
 anni ; he being at the siege of Genoa about five years. 
 
 . Sometimes the case governed by the preposition, being 
 a pronoun personal, is put before the verb, and the said 
 preposition remains isolated after the verb. 
 
 B. % 5. Or viamettiti avanti, io ti verro appresso; 
 Now then, go on, I will follow thee. That is io verro 
 appresso a te. 
 
 N. Ant. 18. II tesorier prese quelli marchi, e raise un 
 tappeto in una sola, e versollivi suso ; the treasurer took 
 those marks, and putting a carpet in a drawing-room, 
 threw them upon it. That is, e li verso sopra di esso. 
 
 As to the situation of the preposition together with 
 its case, there is no fixed rule ; sometimes it is put before, 
 other times in the middle, and more frequently at the 
 end of a sentence ; as in the following examples. 
 
 B. 1. 7. Avanti ora di mangiare pervenne la dove Jo 
 abate era ; he arrived at the abbofs house before dinner. 
 Avanti ora a preposition with its case in the beginning. 
 
 B. 2. 3. Camminando adunque il novello abate ora 
 avanti, e ora appresso alia sua Jumiglia, gli venne nel 
 cammino presso di se veduto Alessandro ; the new abbot 
 then riding sometimes before his company, and sometimes 
 behind it, got sight of Alexander on the road next to him- 
 self. Avanti, appresso, and presso, prepositions with their 
 cases, in the middle of the sentence. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Non molto dopo a questo convenne al marito 
 andare infino a Genova ; not long after, her husband 
 was obliged to go to Genoa. Infino with its case at the 
 end of the sentence. 
 
 In these examples Boccaccio might also have said, 
 pervenne avanti ora di mangiare la, &c, or pervenne ld 9 
 dove lo abate era, avanti ora di mangiare, &c. without 
 committing a fault. In this respect it is the ear only which 
 we are to consult, especially when it has been accustomed, 
 by reading the best authors, to similar expressions. 
 
 t3 
 
418 SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 REMARKS ON SOME PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Verso, Inverso, Alia volta. 
 
 These prepositions, signifying toivards or to, are used 
 indifferently for one another. 
 
 B. % 8. In povero abito n'ando verso Londra; he went 
 to London in mean apparel. 
 
 B. 2. End. Presero adunque . . . inverso un giardinetto 
 la via ; they walked to a small garden. 
 
 Firenzuola. Preso quel rasqjo in mono, se ?t' ) ando 
 alia volta sua ; he took that razor in his hand, and went 
 up to him. 
 
 Fino, Infino, Sino, Insino. 
 
 These prepositions are used indifferently for one 
 another, and signify till, until, as Jar as. 
 
 Lungi, Lontano, Discosto. 
 
 These prepositions signify far, distant, and are used 
 indifferently for one another. Discosto, however, is not 
 so much made use of as the other two. 
 
 Accanto, Allato, Dallato, Di costa, Appresso, Vic'mo, 
 Presso, Appo, Rasente. 
 
 All these prepositions signify by, by the side, near, 
 close, but they are differently used. 
 
 Accanto, allato, dallato, di costa, appresso, and rasente, 
 are used in speaking of a proximity, close by. 
 
 B. 9. 6. La quale allato del letto pose la culla ; who 
 put the cradle by the bed-side. 
 
 B. 3. Beg. Fattosi aprire un giardino die di costa 
 era al palagio in quello...se n" entrarono ; they entered 
 a garden which was by the side of the palace. 
 
 F. Sacc. 29. Fece unforo con un succhio in quel rnuro 
 rasente a quella ptntola ; he bored a hole with a wimble 
 in the wall close by the pipkin. 
 
SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 419 
 
 B. 1. 6. Emilia la quale appresso la Fiammetta sedea ; 
 Emilia, who was seated by Fiammetta's side. 
 
 Vkino and presso are used in speaking of a proximity, 
 but not very close. 
 
 B. S. 4. Presso a Salerno e una costa, la quale gii 
 abitanti chiamano la costa di Malfi ; near Salerno 
 there is a coast which the inhabitants call the coast of 
 Malfi. 
 
 B. 5. 2. Vicin di Cilicia e un isoletta cliiamata Lipari ; 
 near Sicily is a small island called Lipari. 
 
 Contro and Contra. 
 
 These two prepositions signify against, and are used 
 indifferently for one another ; as, contro lui, against 
 him ; contra di te, against thee. Some grammarians 
 have made a rule, which is to use contra when it governs 
 the accusative or the genitive, and contro, when it 
 governs the dative ; and though many examples are 
 found in which these prepositions are used indiscrimi- 
 nately, we think this distinction good, as putting the 
 dative after contra, would sound rather unpleasant to 
 the ear. 
 
 B. 1. 6. Lui domando se vero fosse cio, che ccntro di 
 3ui era stato detto ; he asked, whether it were true what 
 they had said against him. Contro with the genitive. 
 
 B. 1. 4. Acclocche poi non avesser cagione di mormorar 
 contra di lui ; in order that they might not have occasion 
 lo speak against him. Contra with the genitive. 
 
 B. In trod. NiurC altra ' medicina esse re contro alle 
 pestilenze migliore ; no other remedy w r as a better pre- 
 servative against the plague. Contro, and not contra, 
 with the dative. 
 
 Dirimpetto, Rimpetto, Afronte. 
 
 These prepositions signify over against, opposite, and 
 are used indifferently for one another. Afronte, how- 
 ever, is not so familiarly used as the other two. 
 
420 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Giuslo, Giusta, Secondo. 
 
 These prepositions signify according to, and have been 
 used indifferently for one another. The two first are 
 at present rather obsolete. 
 
 Eccetto, Salvo, Fuori, Infuori. 
 
 These prepositions signify except, hut, and are indis- 
 criminately used for one another. 
 
 The above prepositions, as well as those of which we ' 
 gave a list in the second part of this grammar, have 
 a great many more significations besides these assigned 
 to them, all of which, together with their analogous 
 examples, will be found in our Dictionary of Pecu- 
 liarities. 
 
 SYNTAX OP CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Conjunctions, as we observed page 2&9, serve to con- 
 nect sentences. They do not govern any case, but 
 moods, and of these we will speak in this part of the 
 grammar. 
 
 RULE CII. 
 
 There are conjunctions which govern the infinitive, 
 others govern the indicative, some the subjunctive, and 
 most of them both the indicative and the subjunc- 
 tive, according to the signification of the verb which 
 precedes them. 
 
 B. 6\ 6. Una novella, nella quale, quanta sia la lor 
 nohilta si dimostra, senza dal nostro proposito deviare ; 
 a story in which their great nobility is exhibited without 
 deviating from our subject. Senza with the infinitive 
 dsvi&re. 
 
 B. 4<. 6. E comeche questo a' suoi niuna consolazione 
 sia, pure a ?ra£...sara un piacere ; and although it is no 
 consolation to his own relations, it will afford me plea- 
 sure* Pure with the indicative mra. 
 
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 421 
 
 B. 2. 2. Acciocche egli niuna sospezion prendesse ; 
 and in order that he might not suspect. Acciocche, with 
 the subjunctive. 
 
 B. 5. 9. Dovete adunque sapere, che Coppo di Bor- 
 ghese Domenichi...essendo gia d! anni pieno si dilettava ; 
 you must know, therefore, that Coppo di Borghese Do- 
 menichi, in his old age, took pleasure. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Voglio ch ""ella mi mandi una ciocchetta della 
 barba di Nicostrato ; I wish that she would send nie a 
 lock of Nicostratus's beard. 
 
 In these two last examples die governs both the indi- 
 cative and the subjunctive, viz. — si dilettava and mandi ; 
 the former is in the indicative, because sapere, which 
 governs che, is in an affirmative sense, and the latter is in 
 the subjunctive, because voglio, which governs che, is 
 expressive of a wish, as we said page 386. 
 
 The conjunctions that govern an infinitive are dapo, 
 per, senza, and all those that are attended by a preposi- 
 tion, such as prima di, avanti di, in vece di, oltre a, &c. ; 
 as dopo aver detto, after having said, per andare, in order 
 to go; senza dire, without saying; prima di partire, 
 before going, &c. 
 
 Those that govern the subjunctive are — 
 
 acciocche that 
 
 affinche in order that 
 
 ancorche though 
 
 anzi che before that 
 
 avanti che before that 
 
 avvegnache though 
 
 benche *. .. although 
 
 caso che in case that 
 
 come se as if 
 
 come che although 
 
 con patto che on condition that 
 
 dato che suppose that 
 
 innanzi che before that 
 
 purche .provided that 
 
 quando anche although 
 
 quasi as if 
 
 quantunque though 
 
4S2 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 pognamo die suppose that 
 
 prima che before that 
 
 senza che without that 
 
 contuttoche although 
 
 Here are a few examples : — 
 
 B. 4. 10. Ella, che medica non era, comeche medico 
 fosse il marito, senza alcun folio lui credette esser morto ; 
 she, who was not a physician, although her husband was 
 one, thought he was dead. Comeche with fosse sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 B. 3. 8. La medicina da guarirlo so io troppo bene 
 
 Jure, purche a voi dea il cuore di segreto tenere rid, die 
 
 io vi ragionero ; the remedy, in such a case, I know well 
 
 how to apply, provided you will keep it a secret. Purche 
 
 with dea subjunctive. 
 
 B. 7. 8. Era Arriguccio, contuttoche fosse mercante, 
 unjiero uomo, ed icn Jbrie ; although Arriguccio was a 
 merchant, he was a stout warlike man. Contuttoche 
 withjbsse subjunctive. 
 
 Although it is the nature of the above conjunctions to 
 be accompanied with the subjunctive, we find never- 
 theless, in good writers, some of them accompanied also 
 with the indicative. 
 
 B. 2. 10. Benche a me. non parve mai che voi giudice 
 Jbste ; although I never thought you were a judge. 
 Benche with parve indicative. 
 
 B. 2. 8. La sanita del vostro Jigliuolo nelle rnani 
 della Giannetta dimora* la quale il giovane focosamente 
 ama, comeche ella non sene accorge per quello cti io vegga; 
 the welfare of your son lies in the hands of Jeannette, 
 with whom the young man is desperately in love, al- 
 though, by what I perceive, she knows nothing of it. 
 Comeche with accorge indicative. 
 
 Many more examples of this kind would be laid down, 
 but we refrain from doing so, as we do not wish the 
 student should swerve from the general rule, which is to 
 accompany the above conjunctions with the subjunctive, 
 and never with the indicative. 
 
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 423 
 
 The conjunctions that sometimes govern the indica- 
 tive, and sometimes the subjunctive, are — 
 
 fino che 
 
 finche 
 
 finattantoche 
 
 . c i > till or until 
 
 mnno che e .. 6S f 
 
 infinche | 
 
 infinattantoche .J 
 
 perche why 
 
 quando when 
 
 se if 
 
 sebbene though 
 
 se bene although 
 
 che that 
 
 conciossiache ^ /. 
 
 conciossiacosache S 
 
 All those signifying till or until are found with both 
 moods indicative and subjunctive. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Chi te lafa 9 fagliele, e se tu non puoi, tien- 
 lati a mente finche tu possa ; to him who plays you a 
 trick, play another, and if you cannot, bear it in mind 
 until you can. Finche with the subjunctive possa. 
 
 Trat. Sap. Lo mio cuore non pud essere in pace, finat- 
 tantoche egli non si riposi in voi ; my heart cannot rest, 
 till it finds its repose in you. Finattantoche with the 
 subjunctive riposi 
 
 B. 8. 7. Che alcun non v* entrasse deniro^ infinattanto- 
 che egli tomato fosse; that nobody should enter until 
 his return. Infinattantoche with the subjunctive josse* 
 
 B. 10, 4. Niuna doversi muovere del luogosuo, finat- 
 tantoche io non ho la mia novella finita ; none of you 
 are to stir from your places, till I put an end to my 
 story. Finattantoche with the indicative ho Jinita. 
 
 B. 5. Beg. Su per le rugiadose erbe, infinattantoche 
 alquanto il sole fu alzato, colla sua compagnia diporlando 
 se ri ando ; she and all the company walked leisurely 
 upon the dew T y grass until the sun was a little higher. 
 
 It is to be observed that, in the above examples, the 
 subjunctive is used when the action of the verb denotes 
 
424 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 futurity, and the indicative when it denotes past or pre- 
 sent time. 
 
 It is further to be observed that these conjunctions 
 may sometimes be accompanied with the negative non, 
 as is seen in the second of the above five examples, and 
 also the fourth, finattantoche egli non riposi, Jinattanto- 
 cte io non ho, &c. 
 
 Che is accompanied with the indicative, except when 
 the preceding verbs are expressive of fear, doubt, com- 
 rncmd, &c. See page 386. 
 
 Conciossiache, and conciossiacosache may indifferently 
 govern either the indicative or the subjunctive; but as 
 they are not very much in use at present, we forbear 
 giving examples. 
 
 Perche, whether interrogative or affirmative, is accom- 
 panied with the indicative ; but it governs the subjunc- 
 tive, when it is used for acciocche, benche, or any con- 
 junction governing the subjunctive. 
 
 B. 3. 8. E perche cagione? disse Ferondo, Dice il 
 mcmaco, perche tu fosti geloso ; and wherefore ? said 
 Ferondo. The monk replied, because you were jealous. 
 
 Passavanti. Perche vuole Iddio ? Perche Iddio si vuole ; 
 Why will God have it so ? Because it is His will. 
 
 In these two examples perche is accompanied with 
 fosti and vuole verbs both in the indicative. 
 
 B. 9. 9. La ''ncomincio a battere, perche 'Z passasse ; 
 he gave her some severe discipline in order to cure her. 
 Perche instead of acciocche, and therefore passasse in 
 the subjunctive. 
 
 B. Fiam. Or che da amare, perche io voglia, non mi 
 posso partire ; now I cannot forget my passion although 
 I would. Perche instead of benche, and therefore voglia 
 in the subjunctive. 
 
 Quando is accompanied with the indicative, except 
 when it is used in the sense of se. 
 
 B. 9. Proem. Cominciavansi ijiorettiper liprati a levar 
 
SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 425 
 
 suso, quando Emilia levatasi, fece le sue compagne pa- 
 rimente chiamare; the flowers in the meadows were just 
 getting up their stems, when Emilia left her bed, and 
 sent for her companions. Quando with the indicative 
 fece. 
 
 B. 6. 1. Quando voi vogliate, io vi portero gran parte 
 delta via che andare abbiamo a cavallo ; if you like I 
 will carry you (on my horse) a great part of the way 
 which we have to go. Quando in the sense of se with 
 the subjunctive. 
 
 Se joined with the present tense is to govern the indi- 
 cative. 
 
 B. 2. 8. Caccia via la paura, e dimmi se io posso m- 
 torno al tuo amove adoperare alcuna cosa ; away with 
 your fears, and tell me whether I can do any thing to 
 console you. Se with posso indicative. 
 
 But when something contingent or doubtful is implied, 
 40 is accompanied with the subjunctive. 
 
 B. 1 . 2. Io son del tutto, se tu vuogli, cK io faccia 
 quello di che tu tri 1 hai cotanto pregato, disposto ad an- 
 darvi ; I am fully resolved to go thither, if you will 
 have me do what you have so much solicited. Se with 
 vuogli subjunctive. 
 
 Se, in the sense of cost, a particle expressive of desire 
 or entreaty, governs the verb in the subjunctive. 
 
 B. 7. 7. Dimmi se Dio ti salvi, Egano ; tell me, pray, 
 Egano. 
 
 Se 9 joined with the imperfect tense, governs it in the 
 indicative whenever the action is entirely past. 
 
 Buommattei. E se quelle die avevano la materia 
 Latina, avevano alV incontro ; and if those (words) which 
 were derived from the Latin, had on the contrary. Se 
 with the imperfect of the indicative avevano, because 
 the action is entirely past. 
 
 But if the action implies futurity, the verb is to be 
 put in the subjunctive. 
 
426 
 
 •SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 B. 4. 8. Si dispose, se morir ne dovesse, di parlarle 
 esso stesso ; he resolved to speak to her himself, 
 though it might cost him his life. Se with the im- 
 perfect of the subjunctive dovesse, because the action 
 implies futurity. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Dirai alia mia donna, die di questo ncm stea 
 in pensiero, eke se il suo amanie . fosse in India, io glielo 
 faro prestamente venire; tell your mistress that she need 
 give herself no trouble ; for were her lover, in the In- 
 dies, I could send him to her in an instant. Se with 
 the imperfect of the subjunctive fosse, because the action 
 implies futurity. 
 
 Se, joined with the pluperfect, governs it in the sub- 
 junctive always, without exception. 
 
 Ganganelli. E se diviso non fosse il paese in tanti 
 governi diversi ; and if the country were not divided 
 into so many different governments. Se with the plu- 
 perfect of the subjunctive jfas\S£ diviso. 
 
 Buommattei. E se non mi fosse si nota la somma cor- 
 tesia vostra ; and were I not acquainted with your great 
 kindness. Se with the pluperfect of the subjunctive 
 fosse nota. 
 
 Se bene or sebbene commonly governs the indica- 
 tive, 
 
 Gelli. Perche sebbene i giovani V aumentano, £ ncm 
 mnno di poi niantenerle ; for although young people 
 sometimes enlarge them (cities), they know not how to 
 govern them afterwardsc Sebbene with the indicative 
 aivmeniano. 
 
 Gruicciardini. E nondirneno dalla banda del campo, se 
 bene le opere fossero finite, si procedeva con qualche ten- 
 tezza ; nevertheless, they went on slowly on the side of 
 the camp, although all the works were at an end. Seb- 
 bene with the suhymctw efossero. 
 
 These are the principal conjunctions whose construc- 
 tion is worthy of observation ; all the others are gene- 
 rally accompanied with the indicative, and as they 
 
SYNTAX OF INTERJECTIONS. 427 
 
 are not attended with any difficulty, they require no 
 examples. 
 
 SYNTAX OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 There is not much to say about interjections, as they 
 do not govern any case ; and the list of them, which we 
 have given in the first part, is sufficient for the informa- 
 tion of the learner. Some grammarians, however, have 
 made some of them, such as, bravo, bravlssimo, zitto, 
 quieto, agree with the person or persons which we want 
 to praise or command ; as, bravo, m brava, f bravi, m P 
 brave/P zitto, ra zitta/ zitti, zitte. 
 
 This, though contrary to the rules of the grammar, 
 which calls interjections indeclinable, seems to be ap- 
 proved of by custom, and where custom prevails, every 
 thing must give way to it. 
 
428 OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. 
 
 Orthography teaches the art of writing correctly all the words of 
 a language, according to the rules established by the best writers ; 
 and Prosody gives the rules for their proper pronunciation. 
 
 As in order to write and pronounce properly, it is necessary to be 
 acquainted with the various rules of retrenching, augmenting, and 
 syncopating words, dividing them into syllables, placing the accent 
 and apostrophe, we have divided the whole into eight chapters, and 
 concluded this part with two additional ones, which treat of punc- 
 tuation, and the use of the capital letters, making in all ten chapters, 
 as follows : — 
 
 ' ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 I. Rules for retrenching words. 
 
 II. Rules for augmenting words. 
 
 III. Rules for syncopating words. 
 
 IV. Rules for dividing words. 
 
 V. Rules for compounding words. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 VI. Rules for placing the accent. 
 
 VII. Rules for placing the apostrophe. 
 
 VIII. Quantity. 
 
 ADDITIONS. 
 
 IX. Punctuation. 
 
 X. Use of capital letters. 
 
 With respect to Orthography, we have laid down no general 
 rules concerning the spelling of all words ; but we have only treated 
 of those words which require particular observations, and which can- 
 not be found in Dictionaries. 
 
 With respect to Prosody, we have refrained from speaking of 
 emphasis, tone, pause, &c, because they are common to all lan- 
 guages; nor have we alluded to the laws of versification, because 
 it is not our intention to teach the art of poetry; but our aim tends 
 only to communicate to learners the proper and necessary rules to 
 express and write down their ideas in elegant prose. 
 
RULES FOR ABRIDGING WORDS. 429 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RULES FOR RETRENCHING OR ABRIDGING WORDS. 
 
 Words may be abridged either in the beginning or the end. 
 
 The use of retrenching words in the beginning was very frequent 
 in ancient writers ; at present, however, it is not common ; but we 
 have laid down the following rules, in order that the learner may be 
 acquainted with them, without caring to imitate them. 
 
 1. Words beginning with the letter i, followed by one of these 
 three liquid letters, /, m, n, and preceded by a word ending with a 
 vowel, may lose the i and take an apostrophe. 
 
 B. 1. 5. Chi '1 sapra? egli nol sapra persona mai. 
 B. 2. 9. -II domando, se lo 'mperadore gli aveva questo privilegio 
 conceduto. 
 B. 2. 9. Lo , ngannatore rimane a' pie dello 'ngannato. 
 
 Instead of chi il, Vimperadore, Vingannatore, deW ingannato. 
 
 It is to be observed, that if one of the liquid letters, /, m, n, is 
 followed by another liquid, or by a vowel, the abridgment cannot 
 take place : thus we cannot write la 'Hade, fu 'nabile, lo "lluminato ; 
 but la Iliade,fu inabile, V illuminate*. 
 
 That if the accent falls on the i, with which the word begins, that 
 retrenchment cannot take place; thus we cannot write la 'nclita, 
 lo 'mpeto ; but /* inclita, V impeto. 
 
 Before we proceed to speak of words that admit of abridgment 
 at the end, we are to observe, that all words in the Italian language 
 end in a vowel, except con, in, non, per; il and all its derivatives 
 that coalesce with prepositions, such as del, al, dal, nel, sul, col, pel, 
 composed of di il, a il, da il, in il, su il, con il, per il. Hence it hap- 
 pens, that to render the discourse more energetic, or to avoid some 
 unpleasant sound that may occur in the meeting of a double vowel, 
 words are abridged of one, two, and sometimes three letters ; but 
 this is to be done with great caution, otherwise, instead of giving 
 energy to discourse, it is rendered weak and disagreeable to the 
 ear. 
 
 The following rules do not comprehend verbs. 
 
 1. The articles lo, la, gli,le, with all their derivatives, are abridged 
 before words beginning either with vowels or consonants. See 
 page 48. 
 
 2. Words ending in le,lo, ne, no, re, ro, as separated syllables, and 
 preceding another word beginning with a consonant, may drop their 
 last vowel : as, 
 
 Mai caduco, gentil donna, vol veloce, benivol signore, cotal libro, 
 can sozzo^pan bollito, uman signore, van soggetto, fin qui, cuor sincero, 
 
4S0 RULES FOR ABRIDGING WORDS. 
 
 mar turbato, odor soave, color brillante, fyc. ; instead of male, gentile, 
 volo, benivolo, cotah, cane, pane, umano, vano,fino, cuore, mare, odore, 
 colore, 
 
 Nero, pero, melo (apple tree), velo (veil), rvparo, are never 
 abridged. 
 
 If le, lo, ne, wo, re, ro, are not syllables by themselves, but a part, 
 the abridgment cannot take place; as, 
 
 Sofocle, anglo, vigne, pegno, acre, lavacro; and not sofocP, angV, 
 &c. 
 
 5. Words ending in lie, llo, nno, rro, preceding another word 
 beginning with a consonant, may drop, with the last vowel, also one 
 of the consonants : as, 
 
 Val di Demona; caval donato ; don Francesco ; car trionfale, &c. 
 instead of valle, cavallo, donno, carro. 
 
 Apollo, colle (hill), collo (neck), corallo, cristallo,fallo, enello, spillo, 
 are never abridged. 
 
 4. Bello, santo,frate, grande, standing as adjectives, and preceding 
 a substantive beginning with a consonant, may drop their fast sylla- 
 ble: as, 
 
 Bel giovane, san Giovanni, fra Francesco, gran signore, &c. 
 
 If the following substantives begin with a vowel, these words lose 
 only the last vowel and take an apostrophe : as, 
 
 Bell 9 angela, sant y Antonio, fra? Eugenio, grand* amico, 
 
 £. The numeral nouns uno, ventuno, trentuno, and all those ending 
 in uno, are abridged before words beginning with a vowel or a con- 
 sonant. 
 
 6. The demonstrative pronouns questo, quello* cotesto, &c, are 
 also abridged, some before*words beginning with a vowel only, and 
 some before those beginning either with a vowel or with a consonant. 
 Seepage 101. 
 
 7. The relatives eke and quale are also abridged. See page 104. 
 
 8. The pronouns personal egli and ella, with all their derivatives 
 simple, such as mi, ti, si, lo, la, gli, li, le, ci, vi, and compound, such as 
 melo, telo, selo, glielo, celo, velo, &c. are likewise abridged. See per- 
 sonal pronouns, page 91. 
 
 9. Indeterminate pronouns, such as niuno, ciascuno, and all those 
 ending in uno, altro, &c. are also abridged before words beginning 
 with vowels and consonants. See page 107. 
 
 10. The propositions con, per, su, in, united with the articles, 
 admit of abridgment. See page 50. 
 
RULES FOR ABRIDGING VERBS, 431 
 
 RULES FOR ABRIDGING VERBS. 
 
 11. All words derived from verbs, having one of the liquid 
 letters, /, m, n, r, for their last but one, may lose their last vowel, 
 before another word beginning with a consonant. 
 
 B. 8. 5. Se vi cat di me, venite meeo infino al palagio. Ccd for 
 cede. 
 
 B. Conclus. Direm noi perciocche e* nuoce a' frebbicitanti, eh' e' 
 sia malvagio ? Direm for diremo. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Avvenne dopo alquantimesi che gli amici di Gisippo, 
 ed i parenti furon con lui. Fur on for furono. 
 
 B. 4. I. Costei non senza cagione, dovergliene aver donato. 
 Aver for avere. 
 
 Words having for their last but one two Vs, two m?s, &c. may 
 drop, together with their last vowel, one of the liquids. 
 
 Firenzuola. In quelle che fan riguardevole, e difendono lo animo. 
 Fan for fanno. 
 
 B. 1. 2, E credendosi tor certi veli. Tor for torre. 
 
 12. All persons ending in ai and ei, being followed by one of these 
 particles, mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, ne, may drop the i and coalesce with 
 the particle : as, 
 
 B. 9. 5. E far ami ogni cosa recare alia bottega. Farami for 
 farai mi, 
 
 B. 9. 3. E darele tante busse, che io la romperei tutta. Darele 
 for darei le. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Ed io ti mandero di quel beveraggio stillato, e comin- 
 eierane a bere un buon bicchiere. Comincierane for comincerai ne. 
 
 13. The second person singular of the second imperfect and 
 conditional, followed by tu its own pronoun, loses ti, and coalesces 
 with the said pronoun. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Ove fostu stamane, poco avanti al giorno ? Fostu for 
 fosti tu, 
 
 B. 9 3, Si potrestu aver cavelle, non che nulla. Potrestu for 
 potresti tu. 
 
 This abridgment, as well as that of the preceding rule, though 
 frequently used by authors of note, is considered to be rather obso- 
 lete, and not to be imitated. 
 
 14. The third person plural of the second imperfect, when 
 regular, may be abridged of one, two, or three letters, before 
 another word beginning with a consonant. 
 
 B. 5. 3. E tutti pascendosi, senza altro lasciarvi, il divorarono e 
 andar via. Andar for andarono. 
 
432 ABRIDGMENT OF WORDS. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Costoro cominciaron fra loro ad aver consiglio. Comin- 
 ciaron for cominciarono. 
 
 In like manner, we may say, amaro for amarono; credero for 
 crederono. 
 
 1 5. All verbal words being abridged before the particles mi, ti, si, 
 gli, le, ci, vi, ne, and also when these particles are compounded 
 thus, melo, mene, telo, tela, &c. are to be joined with them, making 
 one word. 
 
 B. 9. 10. Ne piu ci ha modo da poterla rifare. Poterla for 
 potere la. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Acciocche voi crediate, ch' io abbia ragionc.di rammari- 
 carmi. Rammaricarmi for rammaricare mi. 
 
 B. 3. 3. Figliuola mia, tu facesti quello, die far dovevi, di man- 
 darnelo, come facesti. Mandarnelo for mandare nelo. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Andiamcene in camera. Andiamcene for andiamo cene* 
 
 B. 9. 1. Ma il senno da una valorosa donna usato a torsi da dosso 
 due che contro il suo piacere Famavano, cognoscerete. Torsi for 
 torre si. 
 
 In like manner, we say, sarebbermi for sarebbero mi 9 avranlo for 
 avranno lo. JDaremli for daremo li, fyc. 
 
 1 6. Dici, fece, sei 9 tieni, togli, voglio, vuoi, vedi, are abridged 
 before words beginning with a vowel or consonant ; thus, d^,fe y , se\ 
 te',to\ vo\ vuo* 9 ve. 
 
 Varchi. Che di' tu ? Di 9 for dici. 
 
 B. 9. 9. Donna ancor se* tu quel che tu suogli. Se' for sei. 
 
 B. 9. 4. Deh perche non mi vuo' tu migliorar qui tre soldi. Vuo* 
 for vuoi. 
 
 B. 9. 1. La fante^' la risposta alia donna. Fe* for fece. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Ora non ti vo' dir piu. To 9 for voglio. 
 
 B. 4. 3. Te 9 questo lume, buono uomo, e guata s* egli e ben netto. 
 Te 9 for tieni. 
 
 To is better used in poetry. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ABRIDGMENT OF WORDS. 
 
 The last word of a period, or part of a sentence where there is 
 a pause to be made, is never abridged; but this liberty is permitted 
 to poets. 
 
 Words whose last letter is accented, cannot be abridged, except 
 benche and perche, which though accented, may drop the e and take 
 an apostrophe, when followed by a word beginning with a vowel. 
 
 B. 8. 5. Bench' ella fosse contrafFatta della persona. 
 Varchi. Perch 9 ei nol sa. 
 
ABRIDGMENT OF WORDS. 483 
 
 Words ending in a diphthong, are never to be abridged, except 
 Antonio, demonio, testimonio, which are sometimes spelt Anton, 
 demon, testimon, when followed by a word beginning with a conso- 
 nant : thus, Anton Maria, demon crudele, testimon fedele. 
 
 Words ending in a, may lose the a and take an apostrophe, before 
 another word beginning with a vowel, and especially when that 
 vowel is an a; as, beW arnica, sol 9 urna, senz 9 appoggio ; but they 
 cannot be abridged before words beginning with a consonant, so 
 that we are not to say, una sol volta, egli non consol nessuno ; but 
 una sola volta; egli non consola nessuno. We must except, however, 
 ora, an adverb, with all its derivatives, such as allora, ognora, tuttora, 
 talora, ancora, &c. which may drop the last a before words beginning 
 with a consonant. 
 
 B o. 1. Or bene, comefaremo? 
 
 B. 1. 2. Sono piu tanto ancor migliori, &c. 
 
 Che, se, ogni, are not abridged of their last vowel, unless the 
 following words begin with the same letter as those words end with, 
 
 B. 3. 7. Pregandolo, che se per la salute di Aldobrandino era 
 venuto, cti egli s'avacciasse. Ch 9 egli for che egli. 
 
 In like manner, we say s 9 egli, not s 9 io for seio; ogn* intorno? 
 ogn 9 ingrato; but not ogn 9 amico, ogrf animate, for ognia mieo, ogni 
 animate. g 
 
 Anche and qualche are subject to the same rule as che, and though 
 they are found abridged before words beginning with any vowel, we 
 advise the student to adhere to the rule we have laid down. 
 
 Words ending in ce, ci, ge, gi, are never to be abridged of the 
 e or i, unless the following word begins with the same vowel; as, 
 voc 9 eminente, dole 9 imenei, piagg' erbe, &c. ; preg 9 illustri, &c. and 
 even this ought to be done with caution, and we advise the student 
 to write those words entire: thus, voce eminente, dolci imenei, as it 
 is more harmonious. 
 
 The plurals of nouns are never to be abridged, unless their last 
 letter is the same as that with which the following word begins ; 
 and then an apostrophe is inserted ; as, gentil 9 Inglesi, fed el 9 , Italiani, 
 &c. We are to except belli, cavalli, fratelli, capelli, animali, tali y 
 which are sometimes abridged befcre words beginning with vowels 
 or consonants; thus, be\ cava 1 , /rate, cape\ anima 9 , ta 9 ; but we 
 must inform the student that words thus abridged, are used with 
 more propriety by poets, than by those who wish to write or speak 
 in prose. 
 
 Grande, however, may be abridged in the plural, in prose, and it 
 is very frequently found. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Le quali (brigate) molte volte ne fanno di gran dispiaceri. 
 
 All words derived from verbs, that, as we said above, may be 
 
 u 
 
RULES FOR AUGMENTING WORDS. 
 
 abridged before another word beginning with a consonant, cannot 
 be conveniently abridged before words beginning with a vowel, and 
 especially infinitives ; therefore the student is never to say, cercar 
 alirui, amar amici, portar ancora, but cercare altrui, amare amid, 
 portare ancora. 
 
 The first person singular of the indicative present ending in lo, 
 mo, no, ro, having the accent on the last syllable but one, is never 
 abridged ; therefore, the student is never to write, consol, dom, don y 
 ador, but consolo, domo, dono, adoro. Sono, however, may be 
 abridged; as, 
 
 B. 8. 9. E oltre a cio son Dottore di medicina. 
 
 The first person plural of the conditional is never to be abridged, 
 in order not to confound it with the first person plural of the future: 
 therefore the student is to write daremmo and not darem, ameremmo 
 and not amerem. 
 
 The first and the third person of the imperfect of the subjunctive, 
 are never to be abridged, unless the following word begins with the 
 same vowel with which those persons end ; thus we are to say, 
 
 B. 9. 1. Non ne dovess' io certo morire. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Ma cosi foss" io sano, come io non sono. 
 
 B. 9. 3. Foss ella qui, gliel direi. 
 
 But not dovess' andare for dovessi, foss 9 arrivate for fosse. 
 
 The same may be said of the first and third persons of the con- 
 ditional. 
 
 B. 9. 1. O se essi mi cacciasser gli occhj, o mi traessero i denti 
 ...o mozzassermi le mani...a che save" io. 
 B. 9. 2. Che farebb' egli in tal caso. 
 
 We conclude these remarks by saying, that no word is abridged 
 before another word beginning with s impura; therefore, the student 
 is never to say, cercar stato, dover stare, amar studj, but cercare stato, 
 dovere stare, amare studj. 
 
 There are many more words that may be abridged, but they 
 belong to poetry and not to prose. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 RULES FOR AUGMENTING WORDS. 
 
 Words in Italian are frequently augmented both at the beginning 
 and the end, to prevent that harshness of sound which arises from 
 the clashing of several consonants together, as is seen in the follow- 
 ing rules. 
 
RULES FOR AUGMENTING WORDS. 435 
 
 1 . Words beginning with an 5 followed by another consonant, 
 such as studio, spirito, &c. and being preceded by a word ending 
 with a consonant, are augmented by an i, and sometimes an <?, which 
 are put in the beginning of the word before s ; as — ■ 
 
 B. 3. 7. Voi mi avete colto in iscambio. Iscambio for scambio. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Niuna cosa in casa sua durar poteva in istato. Istato for 
 stato. 
 
 B. 8. 6. Per non ismarrirle e scambiarle, fece loro un certo se- 
 gnaluzzo. Ismarrirle for smarrirle. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Le forze della penna sono troppo maggiori, che colore 
 non estimano. Estimano for stimano. 
 
 Those words augmented by an e, as in the last example, are not 
 so frequently used as the others ; and therefore we advise the stu- 
 dent to make use of i. 
 
 It is to be observed that poets have often neglected this rule, say- 
 ing non sbigottir, per scampar, Sec. ; but prose writers have always 
 been exact in the observance of it. 
 
 2. The particles a, e, 0, preceding words beginning with vowels, 
 may have a d added to them ; thus, ad, ed, od. 
 
 B. 3. 7. Senza far motto ad amico, od a parente, fuorche ad un suo 
 compagno. 
 
 B. 8,3. Ed ivi presso correva un fiumicel di vernaccia. 
 
 If two of these particles come together, the second only may have 
 a d added to it ; as — 
 
 B, 1.1. Vi cominciarono le genti ad andare, e ad accender lumi, e 
 ad adorarlo. 
 
 It is to be observed that the addition of d to the above particles, 
 when they are single, may be done at pleasure ; and we may equally 
 say, ed ifratelli, e ifratelli, vado ad udire, vado a udire: when, how- 
 ever, the word that follows begins with the same vowel as the parti- 
 cles, the d is to be always added to them ; as, ed egli, ad andare, od 
 onore, and not e egli, a andare f onore. 
 
 3. Che, benche, ne, se, also have a d added when the following 
 word begins with a vowel 
 
 Nov. Ant. 100. Sappi ched io t' amo sopra tutte le persone del 
 mondo. Ed ella disse signor mio, benched io sia giovane....io vi 
 faro il maggior signore del mondo, 
 
 Villani. Ned eziandio il detto Re d'Ungheria. 
 
 This, however, though used by authors of note, is considered obso- 
 lete, and must on no account be imitated. 
 
 4. Su, preceding a word whose first letter is a vowel, has an r 
 added to it. 
 
 Crescenzio. La cui parte di sotto sia sur un bastoncello piccolo. 
 
 u2 
 
438 RULES FOR SYNCOPATING WORDS. 
 
 Davanzati. Mettivi buona parte de' raspi triti bene e battuti in sur 
 un* asse col coltello. 
 
 6. To dz, gui, me, te, su, tu, e or ne was added by ancient writers ; 
 thus, giue or giune, mee or mene, tee or tene, sue or sune, tue or tune, 
 die not dine ; but at present they are totally obsolete. 
 
 6. Words derived from verbs ending in o accented, such as amb, 
 faro, &c. were augmented by putting an e at the end ; and those end- 
 ing in e and i, by putting an o, by ancient writers both in prose and 
 poetry. 
 
 Villani. II Re d'Ungheria non poteo seguire la sua impresa. Poteo 
 for pote. 
 
 Dante, P. 2. In che si vede, come nostra natura a Dio s' unio. 
 Unio for unz. 
 
 In like manner they wrote donoe for dond, amoe for amo ; but such 
 an augmentation at present, is better to be known than imitated. 
 
 7. All nouns ending in a and il accented, were formerly augmented 
 by annexing the syllables te or de to them ; thus, libertate or liber- 
 tade for libertd, caritate or caritade for caritd, virtute or virtude for 
 virtu, servitude or servitude for servitil ; but at present they are quite 
 obsolete. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 RULES FOR SYNCOPATING WORDS. 
 
 Syncopating is the taking of one or more letters from the middle 
 of words ; thus, fe-sti for facesti, de~e for deve, anima-i for animalu 
 But as it is more frequent in poetry than in prose, we shall lay down 
 only those rules which may be used also in prose. 
 
 1. Words ending in ali, elli, egli, uoli, may be syncopated by 
 taking out the /, or //', or gl. The following are frequently used in 
 prose : altretai for altretali, animai for animali, strai for strali, mortal 
 for mortali, bei for belli or begli, ei for elli or egli, augei for augelli, 
 fratei for fratelli, tai for tali, cotai for cotali, qaai for quali, quel for 
 
 quelli or quegli,figliuoi for flgliuoli, lacciuoi for lacciuoli. 
 
 2. Medesimo, merito, spirito, are syncopated thus; medesmo or 
 medemo, merto, spirto. 
 
 3. Bevere is often syncopated by taking out ve, as bere. See 
 page 194. 
 
 4. Deve loses its v, and also devi and devono: thus dee, dei, 
 deono. 
 
 B. 5. 2. Ciascuno si dee dilettare di quelle cose. 
 
 5 The first and third person singular, and the third of the plural, 
 
RULES FOR DIVIDING WORDS. 437 
 
 of the imperfect tense of verbs ending in ere and ire in the infinitive, 
 such as, io credeva, egli temeva, eglino sentivano, from credere, temere, 
 and sentire, are syncopated by taking out their last v. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Eracostei bellissima....phi che a donna non si richiedea* 
 Richiedea for richiedeva. 
 
 B. 10. 7. Comincio ad aspettare il vespro, nel quale il suo signor 
 veder dovea. Dovea for doveva. 
 
 B. 9. 4. Colui che in camicia gli venia dietro gridando. Venia 
 for veniva. 
 
 B. 5. 3. Poscia che a lui parve esser sicuro, e fuor delle mani di 
 coloro che preso F aveano, Aveano for avevano. 
 
 6. Feci,facesti, facemmo, faceste, are syncopated thus ; fei, festi, 
 femmo,feste, and may be used in prose. 
 
 7. Participles of the first conjugation, ending in ato, such as 
 adornato, adombrato, salvato, may be syncopated by taking out at, 
 thus adorn-o, adombr-o, salv-o. 
 
 For the list of participles that may be syncopated, as well as for 
 examples on the subject, and other particulars, see page 214. 
 
 Besides those abbreviations, augmentations, and sycopations, of 
 which we have spoken in the three preceding chapters, there is 
 an infinite number of words that may be abridged, augmented, 
 and syncopated ; but as they are chiefly used by poets, we have 
 refrained from speaking of them. When, however, the student is 
 pretty well advanced in the study of Italian prose, he may be pro- 
 vided with a small dictionary, treating of poetical licences, in which 
 he will find all that is necessary to read Italian poets. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 RULES FOR DIVIDING WORDS. 
 
 A long word happening to be at the end of a line, is generally 
 divided, and a part of it is put in the beginning of the next line. 
 In order to do that properly, the student is to pay particular atten- 
 tion to the following rules : — 
 
 1. Words, in being divided at the end of a line, are to have each 
 syllable ended in a vowel; as, 
 
 a-do-ro co4o- re pre-po-si-zio-ne 
 
 di-vi-de-re ..,.ge-ne-ra-re se-pa-ra-to 
 
 be-ne-vo-lo .. ..ma~la-ge-vo-le ..ne-vi-ca-re, &c. 
 
 2. When after a vowel there happens to be one of the liquid let- 
 
4S8 RULES FOR DIVIDING WORDS. 
 
 ters, followed by another consonant, the said liquid is to be sepa- 
 rated from it ; as, 
 
 cal-care.. .. .. ,.dol-cire pal-pitare 
 
 com-pire adem-piere. . ..riem-piuto 
 
 con-dire ten- dine un-dici 
 
 cer-care por-tare.. .. *. .dor-mire 
 
 3. The same may be said when the liquid is followed by more 
 consonants than one. 
 
 In glese in- clinato com-plicato 
 
 com-prare smem-brare. . . . ^con-tratto 
 
 And not 
 
 Ing-lese inc-linato comp-rare, &c. 
 
 4. No syllable is to begin with two consonants of the same sort, 
 such as double cc, double dd, &c. ; therefore in dividing a word 
 having the said consonants, we are to do it thus; 
 
 ac-cop-piare ac-com-miatare ac-cor-re 
 
 ac- cat-tare scancel-lare ac-cet-tare 
 
 5. Words having s followed by more consonants, are not to be 
 divided in syllables ending in s ; therefore we are to spell 
 
 p re-sto co-stanza so-scritto 
 
 contra-sto ...... ri-spondere • . descritto 
 
 And not 
 
 pres to cos-tanza contras-to> &c. 
 
 But if s belongs to the preposition, which forms a part of the 
 word, it is not to be joined to the following letters; as, 
 
 dis-trarre as-tenersi di$~tolto 
 
 And not 
 
 di-strarre a-stenersi .....di-stolto 
 
 because those words are formed by trarre, tenersi, and tolto participle 
 oitorre, and the prepositions a and du 
 
 6. The following diphthongs cannot be separated ; 
 
 cut, cie, do, ciu, scia, scie, scio, sciu 
 gia, gie, gio, giuo, pia, pie, pio, piu 
 fia, fie, fio, fin, mia, mie, mio, miei 
 glia, glie, glio, gliuo, chia, chie, chio, chiu 
 spiu, spie, spio, spin, sfia, sfie, sfio, sfiu 
 gua, gue, gui, guo, gnuo, &c. &c. 
 
 7. We conclude by saying that a line can never be terminated 
 with a word that has an apostrophe ; therefore we are to spell 
 
 del- 1 9 amor e un y a-nima Vim-pero 
 
 and not dell, uri, l\ at the end of the line, and putting the rest in 
 the beginning of the next line. 
 
OF COMPOUNDED WORDS. 4S9 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF COMPOUNDED WORDS. 
 
 Italians are accustomed to unite two or more words together 
 in writing, and make a single one ; thus, from gentile uomo ) they 
 write gentiluomo ; from ogni uno, they write ognuno ; and then they 
 call them compounded words. 
 
 On this subject we cannot lay down precise rules, nor ought any 
 one to be so bold as to make similar compositions out of his own 
 head ; but those only are to be adopted, which have been sanctioned 
 by use. 
 
 Compounded words may be divided into three classes ; the first 
 comprehending those that take some letters, the second consisting 
 of those that lose some letters, and the third shewing those that join 
 together without either taking or losing any j all of which will be 
 seen in the following lists. 
 
 Compounded words taking letters. 
 
 a canto accanto a costo accosto 
 
 actio che... ..acciocche 
 
 a dosso ^....addosso a dietro addietro 
 
 a lato allato a meno ammeno 
 
 a pena ....appena..., ........ a petto appetto 
 
 a pie . appie ....... ....... a dentro...* addentro 
 
 cioche .....ciocche. .......... .cola gill ....... ...colaggiii 
 
 cola su ..*.... colassil da che....... dacche 
 
 da poi .....dappoi ......da presso dappresso 
 
 datorno .....dattorno ........ ..da vero ,..davvero 
 
 epure eppure »fra tanto .frattanto 
 
 tra tanto trattanto.... fra poco .frappoco 
 
 gia che giacche. gia mai giammai 
 
 gli lo glielo gli la ..gliela 
 
 gli li glieli gli le gliele 
 
 gli ne gliene la giu laggiu 
 
 la su lassu la dove laddove 
 
 ladentro laddentro ne pure .....neppure 
 
 impercio che impercioccM mentre che mentrecche 
 
 ne meno, .....nemmeno o vero ovvero 
 
 o pure oppure o sia ossia 
 
 piii che .piucche piu tosto piuttosto 
 
 pero che perocche percio che...... ..percioccke 
 
 se bene sebbene si fatto siffatto 
 
 Compounded words losing letters. 
 
 ajlora che allorche ancora che ancorche 
 
 alloraquando allorquando ...... affine che.. affinche 
 
440 OF COMPOUNDED WORDS. 
 
 dionde donde fino a tanto .finatianto 
 
 fino che .finche 
 
 infino a tanto infinatianto ogni altro ognaltro 
 
 ogni ora ognora ogni uno ognuno 
 
 ora mai ormai ora su orsu 
 
 pure che purche pure ora ...purora 
 
 quale ora qualora tutta ora tuttora 
 
 sotto sopra sossopra sotto terra sotterra 
 
 sino che sinche sino a tanto sinattanto 
 
 Words that are not altered in being compounded. 
 
 al fine . alfine awenga che avvengache 
 
 anzi che anziche avvegna che avvegnache 
 
 come che comeche dopo che dopoche 
 
 indietro indietro in su insu 
 
 insuso insuso in giu ingiu 
 
 in giuso ingiuso in verso inverse* 
 
 nulla meno nullameno nulla dimeno.... nulladimeno 
 
 niente dimeno nientedimeno prima che primache 
 
 presso che „..pressoc/ie oggi di °g§idi 
 
 oggi giorno oggigiorno oggi mai oggimai 
 
 sempre che sempreche secondo che secondoche 
 
 tosto che tostoche tutto che tuttoche 
 
 oltre cid oltrecio 
 
 B. 10. 8. Quando per altro io non t'amassi, m' e accid che io viva, 
 cara la vita tua. 
 
 Nov. Ant. 75. Le balie de' fanciulli dicono, quando elli pian- 
 gono, ecco il Re Ricciardo, acciocche come la morte fu temuto. 
 
 B. 5. Proem. E con soave passo a' campi discesa, per V ampia 
 pianura su per le rugiadose erbe, infinatianto che il sole fu alzato, con 
 la sua compagnia, diportando se n' ando. 
 
 B. 2. 9. II soldano comando, che incontanente Ambrogiuolo 
 in alcuno alto luogo della citta fosse al sole legato ad un palo, 
 ne quindi mai, infino a tanto che per se medesimo cadesse, levato 
 fosse. 
 
 B. 9. 1. Alessandro ancorche gran paura avesse, stette pur cheto. 
 
 B. 1.5. Egli ancora che vecchio fosse, sent! subitamente non 
 meno cocenti gli stimoli della carne, che sentiti avesse il suo 
 siovane. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE COMPOUNDED WORDS. 
 
 1. The compounded words in the above lists are more justifiable, 
 and consequently more frequently used at present; but the others 
 
RULES FOR PLACING THE ACCENT. 441 
 
 are not entirely obsolete, and are found in old as well as modern 
 authors of note. 
 
 2. Gli lo, gli la, gli li, gli le, gli ne, are never to be used. 
 
 3. In giuso, ingiuso, in suso, insuso, are not to be used. 
 
 4. The above words are compounded of prepositions, conjunc- 
 tions, and adverbs. 
 
 5. Those compounded of two nouns, or a noun and verb, such as 
 gentiluomo, gentildonna, stuzzicadenti, casticamatti are but few, and 
 may be found in dictionaries. 
 
 6. Those formed of verbs and pronouns conjunctive and relative, 
 such as, mi s ti, si, ci, vi, lo, la, li, le, ne ; thus, vedermi, parti, dolen- 
 dosi, &c. have been spoken of under the head of the Syntax of Pro- 
 nouns conjunctive and relative, and likewise in the first chapter of 
 this Part, in laying down rules for retrenching words. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 RULES FOR PLACING THE ACCENT. 
 
 Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain 
 letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the 
 rest, or distinguished from them. 
 
 Italians distinguish only two accents, viz. — the grave and the 
 acute. The grave is marked with an oblique, but very small line, 
 from left to right, and resting on the vowel on which the stress of 
 the voice is laid, as in the following words :— 
 
 egli porto regno adoro 
 
 io portero amero lodero 
 
 The acute is a contrary mark to that of the grave ; as — 
 
 il porto il cammino il libro 
 
 The acute accent, however, is scarcely ever used in Italian, unless 
 it is to distinguish one word from another, such as, gid, already, from 
 gia, imperfect of gire ; bdlia, a nurse, from balia, a prey ; dncora, an 
 anchor, from ancora, again ; and even in this case the acute accent 
 is left out if no ambiguity occurs in the composition. 
 
 Having thus premised what is the nature of the accent, we will 
 now proceed to explain what are the words which require to be 
 marked with it. 
 
 1. The grave accent is placed on the last vowel of the third per- 
 son singular of the second imperfect of all verbs, when that person 
 is regular ; as — 
 
 egli amo porto crede vende .Jim.. ....senti 
 
 u8 
 
442 RULES FOR PLACING THE ACCENT. 
 
 But if that person has an irregular termination, it is not marked 
 with any accent ; as— 
 
 egli teviette lesse resse corresse, &c. 
 
 2. The grave accent is placed on the last letter of the first and 
 third person singular of the future of all verbs ; as — 
 
 io sarb avrb .... amerb . . . .porter b . . temerb . .finirb, fye. 
 
 egli sard .... avrd . . . . amerd ... . temerd . . . .finird. . . . sentird, fyc. 
 
 It is to be observed that the first and third person of the future, 
 as well as the third person of the second imperfect, are to be spelt 
 without the accent when they become compounded words ; as — 
 
 egli amommi, compound of amb and mi 
 iofarollo, compound offarb and lo 
 egli saratti, compound of sard and ti 
 
 3. The grave accent is put on the last letter of nouns ending in 
 id, which in English end in ty, and in Latin in tas ; as— 
 
 cittd calamitd..., libertd purita, fyc. 
 
 But if in English they do not end in ty, a is not accented; as — 
 
 vita visita calanuta meta 
 
 For the same reason adjectives or participles ending in ta are 
 never accented ; as — 
 
 ardita trita amdta .portdta, fyc. 
 
 From this rule are excepted — metd, baccald, carancd, sofa, taffeta, 
 caffe, canape, which, though they have no analogy with the English 
 words as above, are nevertheless marked with the grave accent. 
 
 4. The grave accent is put on the last letter of nouns ending 
 in u, and on the i of di, and all names of days ending in i ; as — 
 
 la virtu la servitil la tribii, fyc. 
 
 lune&i .......martedi mercoledi, fyc. 
 
 5. Monograms, such as a, i, o, are never marded with accents, 
 except e third person singular of the present tense of essere, to dis- 
 tinguish it from the conjunction. 
 
 Monosyllables having no diphthong, such as ho, so, ha, re,fu, sta, 
 la, li, lo, le, $c. are never marked with an accent, as they can be pro- 
 nounced only in one way, except when the same word has a double 
 signification; as — 
 
 di of di day 
 
 da from da he gives 
 
 la the or it Id there 
 
 li the or them ..li there 
 
 ne ofit ne .....neither 
 
 si it is si yes 
 
 se if se himself 
 
RULES FOR PLACING THE APOSTROPHE. 443 
 
 But if monosyllables are distinguished by a diphthong, such 
 as gid, pie, do, giil, piu, &c. the last letter is always to be marked 
 with an accent, otherwise they might be pronounced differently, and 
 have a different meaning; as, gid, with the accent on the last letter, 
 means already ; with the accent on the i, it signifies he went; pie, 
 "with the accent on the last letter, means foot; with the accent on 
 the i, it signifies pious persons. 
 
 7. All words compounded with che are accented ; as — 
 
 acciocche. ....... henche per che talche, tyc. 
 
 Except che, anche, and qualche. 
 
 This exception extends only to relatives and conjunctions, for che, 
 when an adverb, is accented thus, che. With respect to adjectives of 
 the feminine gender, such as,poche 9 cuoche,vacche, their last letter is 
 never marked with an accent. 
 
 8. The grave accent is put on the following adverbs : — 
 
 Cold, costi, costd, lassie, laggiu, colaggiu, colassu, lassie, insu, ingiii, 
 quaggiu, and a few more. 
 
 Qui and qua may be marked with an accent at pleasure. 
 
 9. Tre is never accented, but all its derivatives, such as ventitri, 
 irentatre, quarantatre, are never spelt without it. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RULES FOR PLACING THE APOSTHOPHE. 
 
 The apostrophe is a mark made like a comma, which is put at 
 the top side of a letter, to denote that the word is abridged ; 
 
 V uorno, r onore, gF ingrati, F anima, &c. 
 
 1. Uno loses its last letter and takes an apostrophe, only before 
 feminine nouns beginning with a vowel ; as, 
 
 un 9 anima, un 9 ingrata, un urna, &c. 
 
 The same may be said of ventuno, trentuno y and all other words 
 ending in uno > such as alcuno, niuno, cadauno, nessuno, veruno. 
 
 2. Lo, la, li, gli, le, nello, sullo, collo, are abridged, and marked 
 with an apostrophe. See the articles, page 47, articles joined with 
 prepositions, page 51, and relatives, page 95. 
 
 3. The article il, and substantives beginning with im and in, lose 
 their i, and take an apostrophe. See the Retrenchment of Words, 
 page 429. 
 
 4. The pronouns conjunctive and relative, such as mi, ti, si, ci^ 
 
4M OF QUANTITY, 
 
 vi, ne, are abridged of their last letter, and marked with an apos- 
 trophe. See page 96. 
 
 5. Demonstrative pronouns, such as questo, quello, cotesto, &c, 
 are retrenched and marked with an apostrophe. See page 101. 
 
 6. Indeterminate pronouns, such as altro, tanto, quanto, are 
 abridged and marked with an apostrophe. See page 108. 
 
 7. It must be considered as a general rule, that all words abridged 
 before a vowel, are to have an apostrophe instead. Ond ei disse for 
 onde ei, ov 9 andate for ove andate, la sua bell 9 alma, for bella alma, 
 quand 9 avrofatto for quando avrd, &c, From this rule are excepted, 
 
 1. Uno, and all words ending in uno, such as ventuno, trentuno, 
 alcuno, niuno, veruno, which, &c. being abridged before a masculine 
 noun beginning with a vowel, are not marked with an accent; thus 
 we spell, un uomo, un amico, ventun anno, alcun odore, niun amico, 
 nessun odore, verun anello, &c. and not u?i 9 uomo, un' amico. 
 
 2. Buon, Signor, are frequently found without an apostrophe 
 before masculine nouns beginning with a vowel ; but we advise the 
 learner to write them entire before a vowel; thus, bitono amico, 
 Signore Antonio. 
 
 5. Fin, infin, sin, insin, may take or omit the apostrophe before 
 another word beginning with a vowel ; thus we may write, fin ad 
 oggi, ov fin 9 ad oggi, sin a domani, or sin a domani. 
 
 The following words may take an apostrophe before words begin- 
 ning with a vowel or consonant : a' for ai, be 9 for belli, co 9 for coi, 
 de" for dei, da' for dai, e 9 for ei,di 9 for dici,fe' for fece,pe 9 for pei, que 9 
 for quei, qua* for quali, ve 9 for vedi, vo"* for voglio, vuo' for vuoi, se 9 for 
 set the second person of the present tense of essere, su> for sui, all of 
 which may be used in prose. There are some more which are only 
 used in poetry ; such are, me 9 for meglio or mezzo, cape" for capelli, 
 /rate for fratelli, com' for come, to 9 for togli, ma 9 for mali, morta' for 
 mortali, figliuo 1 for figliuoli, lacciuo 9 for lacciuoli, tuo for tuoi, sua 9 for 
 xuoi, mie for miei, and a great many more. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF QUANTITY. 
 
 Quantity is that time which is occupied in pronouncing a word. 
 
 Words, in Italian, are pronounced three ways, viz. lunghe long, 
 brevi short, sdrucciole short or slippery. 
 
 To pronounce them lunghe, is effected by placing a light stress on 
 each syllable, except on the last but one, which is to be stronger ; 
 as, nomindre, contaminato, inanimire, &c. 
 
OF QUANTITY. 445 
 
 To pronounce them brevi, is effected by placing the stress on the 
 last vowels, which are always marked with a grave accent ; as caritd, 
 perd, consiglid, sard. 
 
 To pronounce them sdrucciole, is effected by placing the stress on 
 the last syllable but two or more, and pronouncing the other two 
 without any stress at all ; as, nomino, contdmino, discernono, sareb- 
 bero, &c. 
 
 The distinction of brevi and sdrucciole has never been made by 
 grammarians. They have distinguished those diverse words under 
 the name of brevi only; but as there is a great difference in their 
 pronunciation, we thought such a distinction well worth the notice 
 of learners. The name of sdrucciole is not, however, a word of 
 our own creation ; it is a term used by poets, who give it to those 
 verses (versi sdruccioli) whose last word is sdrucciola, or a word pro- 
 nounced with a stress on the last syllable but two or more, as we 
 said above. 
 
 As no utterance which is void of proportion, can be agreeable 
 to the ear, and as quantity or proportion of time in utterance, 
 greatly depends on a due attention to the accent, it is necessary for 
 learners who would attain a just and pleasing delivery, to be masters 
 of that point. But to be so, in Italian, the learner will find it 
 difficult; because the Italian language has not so many laws of 
 Prosody as the Latin. 
 
 Notwithstanding all this, we will lay down some rules on this 
 subject, which, if due attention is paid to them, will in a great 
 measure remove the difficulty attending on this important point. 
 
 1. All words whose last vowel is accented, are pronounced short; 
 that is, the stress of the voice is to be laid rather strong on the 
 accented vowel ; as, mend, camminb, porterd, caritd, calamitd, canape, 
 &c. And those, whose last vowel is not accented, are commonly 
 pronounced long ; that is, the stress or emphasis of the voice is laid 
 on the last syllable but one ; as, abitatore, cacciatore, dozzina, impera- 
 trice, forndro, cappelldjo. 
 
 2. Words of two syllables are subject to the same rules ; as, dono, 
 cane, pane, perd, metd, cold; except the conjunctive pronouns 
 meeting with the relatives, viz. melo, telo, selo, glielo, celo, velo, 
 mene, tene, sene, gliene, cene, vene, and all their derivatives, such 
 as, mela, meli, mele, tela, teli, tele, &c, which are pronounced short, 
 that is, the stress of the voice is laid on the last vowel, as if it were 
 accented, the reason is, that these words may be spelt separately ; 
 thus, me lo, te lo ; in this case, as monosyllables, they are pro- 
 nounced as if they had an accent. 
 
 For the words sdrucciole we have no rule to give, but we advise 
 the student to consult a dictionary. 
 
446 OF QUANTITY. 
 
 With respect to words derived from verbs, we have accented 
 them in treating of their conjugations ; but as there are many verbs 
 of the first conjugation, whose present tenses of the indicative, 
 imperative, and subjunctive, are pronounced differently, we will 
 give a list of them, together with some general observations. 
 
 1. Verbs whose infinitives end in are, and have only three syllables, 
 have the present tenses of all moods pronounced with the accent 
 on the last syllable but one; as, amdre, dmo, ami, dma, amidmo, 
 amdte, except the third person plural, which has the accent on the 
 last syllable but two ; as, dmano, amino, 
 
 2. Verbs whose infinitives end in are or iare, and are of more 
 than three syllables, follow the same rule with those of three 
 syllables, provided those terminations are preceded by two conso- 
 nants, such as atterrdre, annulldre, abbraccidre, travaglidre, making 
 atterro, annullo, abbrdccio, travdglio. 
 
 3. Verbs in iare, which termination is preceded by only one 
 consonant, have the present tenses of all the moods pronounced 
 with the accent on the last syllable but two, except the first and 
 second person plural, which have the accent on the last syllable but 
 one ; as, gloridre, glorio, glorii, gloria, gloridmo, gloridte, gloriano, 
 &c. 
 
 List of Verbs whose present tenses of the three moods are to be 
 pronounced according to the third observation on verbs in iare. 
 
 abbacinare......... abilitare abitare abbominare 
 
 abbrividare accomodare accreditare accumulare 
 
 agitare aggregare alitare ammarginarsi 
 
 ammorbidare animare ..annichilare anticipare 
 
 apostatare approssimare .. ..arbitrare arginare 
 
 arruvidare astrologare augurare azzimare 
 
 agevolare biasimare buccinare calcitrare 
 
 eapacitare celebrare ........ brontolare calcolare 
 
 collocare comodare computare concitare 
 
 confabulare conglutinare . . . . congregare coniare 
 
 congratularsi .. 
 
 contaminare convocare corroborare crapulare 
 
 crepitare cresimare crocidare crogiolare 
 
 debilitare decapitare ....... decimare denegare 
 
 depositare deputare depurare derogare 
 
 desinare dilucidare direditare dirugginare 
 
 disanimare disarborare ...... disculminare disgregare 
 
 disoppilare disputare ........ dissipare dominare 
 
 dubitare eccitare effeminare elevare 
 
 emancipare emulare epilogare equivocare 
 
 ereditare esaminare esercitare esterminare 
 
 facilitare febbricitare felicitare filosofare 
 
OF PUNCTUATION. 447 
 
 flebotomare folgorare fulminare garofanare 
 
 geminare germinare.. giubilare gracidare 
 
 gratularsi gravitare illuminare imbalsamare 
 
 immaginare impelagare imputare inalberare 
 
 incorporare indebitarsi infervorare innovare 
 
 infra cidare infrigidare ingraminare *....interpretare 
 
 inoculare insudiciare instigare.... inyerminare 
 
 intersecare intimare intonacare legittimare 
 
 irritare lagrimare lapidare .....liquidare 
 
 lievitare limitare limosinare macchinare 
 
 litigare logorare lucidare.. magnificare 
 
 macinare maculare manipolare meritare 
 
 memorare menomare mentovare mugolare 
 
 militare modulare ..mormorare ..,. ..nobilitare 
 
 naufragare . navigare necessitare ordinare 
 
 nominare obbligare occupare partecipare 
 
 originare , palpitare parafrasare precipitare 
 
 peggiorare pettinare .. piovigginare prorogare 
 
 preparare ...procrastinare ....propagare .rammaricarsi 
 
 provocare pullulare rammarginare ...reputare 
 
 rammorbidare recitare remigare risuscitare 
 
 rimuginare rincorporare rinfrigidare .. .. ..scalpitare 
 
 revocare ruminare sanguinare scrutinare 
 
 scomodare scorporare screditare separare 
 
 gegregare seguitare ......... seminare simulare 
 
 sfiocinare sibilare sgombinare soffocare 
 
 sindacare smemorare smenovare spasimare 
 
 solidare sollecitare spampanare spropositare 
 
 spelagare ....spettorarsi. spiritare stipulare 
 
 squittinare stampanare sterrainare strologare 
 
 stomatacare .strascinare strepitare ..suscitare 
 
 sverginare suffumigare surrogare titubare 
 
 tenebrare terminare tiepidare vaticinare 
 
 torbidare trepidare ..validare vigilare 
 
 vedovare vegetare ..... ....ventilare vomitare 
 
 visitare ultimare ......... tilulare 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen- 
 tences or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of 
 marking the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pro- 
 nunciation require. 
 
448 OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The principal points, or stops, or marks, in Italian, are six, 
 namely — 
 
 1. la virgola , the comma 
 
 2. il punto e virgola ; the semicolon 
 
 Z. il mezzo punto : the colon 
 
 4. il punto fermo the full stop 
 
 5. il punto interrogativo .. ? the interrogatory point 
 
 6. il punto ammirativo .... ! the exclamatory point 
 
 To which may be added, Vinterruzione, the interruption or dash, 
 laparentesi, the parenthesis. There are other marks, but as they are 
 chiefly used by printers, we refrain from speaking of them. 
 
 OF THE COMMA. 
 
 The comma represents the shortest pause, and is used to separate 
 those parts of a sentence, which, though very closely connected in 
 sense and construction, require a pause between them. 
 
 In laying down examples to illustrate the following rules, we shall 
 translate some of those, the punctuation of which is quite different 
 from the English. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Simple sentences, the several words of which closely relate to 
 each other, have, as in English, no need of commas, but a full stop 
 at the end, if required ; as — 
 
 Gelli. Egli e pur una gran cosa avere a perder V essere. 
 B. 10. 8. La bellezza di costei merita d' essere amata da ciasche- 
 duno. 
 
 A simple sentence, when it is a long one, and the nominative case 
 is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may in English admit of 
 a pause immediately before the verb, but in Italian no pause is 
 required. 
 
 Cavalcanti. La severita de* ministri delle leggi non aveva forza 
 di difendere dall' armi la disarmata moltitudine ; the severity of the 
 administrators of laws, had no power to defend from arms the 
 unarmed multitude. 
 
 If the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence is 
 interrupted by an imperfect phrase, in English a comma is usually 
 introduced before the beginning and at the end of this phrase ; in 
 Italian no commas are required. 
 
 Cavalcanti. Per lo che dobbiamo con somma riverenza ubbidire 
 a* nostri maggiori; therefore we ought, with great respect, to obey 
 our superiors. 
 
OY PUNCTUATION. 499 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they 
 are parted by a comma, though they are separated by a conjunc- 
 tion, but they should never be separated from the verb by a 
 comma, 
 
 Boc. Introd. Uomini, e donne abbandonarono la propia citta, le 
 propie case, i lor luoghi, ed i lor parenti ; men and women left their 
 own city, houses, their places, and relations. 
 
 B. 10. 8. II vostro awedimento, il vostro consiglio, e la vostra 
 deliberazione aveva Sofronia data a Gisippo ; your perspicuity, 
 your advice, and resolution, had bestowed Sophronia upon Gi- 
 sippus. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Two or more adjectives belonging to the same substantive 
 are in English separated by commas ; in Italian, it may be done at 
 pleasure. 
 
 B. 10. 9. La quale essendo bellissima, e grande della persona. 
 
 B. 9. 6. Alia giovane avea posto gli occhi addosso un giovanetto 
 leggiadro, e piacevole, e gentile uomo della nostra citta. 
 
 Varchi. Alcuni di grande e famoso nome nelle lettere Greche 
 dicono. 
 
 Guicciardini. Illustrata sommamente....dallo splendore di molte 
 nobilissime e bellissime citta. 
 
 Buommattei. Onde sara facil cosa provare la nostra (lingua) 
 essere della Latina e della Greca piu degna. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Two or more verbs or participles with their adjuncts, having the 
 same nominative case, and following one another, are separated by a 
 comma; as, 
 
 B. 9. 6. Ismontati adunque i due giovani, e nello alberghetto 
 entrati, primieramente i loro ronzini adagiarono, ed appresso.... 
 insieme con V oste cenarono. 
 
 When participles are followed by words depending on them, they 
 are, together with their words, separated from the rest of the sen- 
 tence by a two commas, one of which is put before, and another 
 after. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Tito, preso il suo Gisippo, e molto della sua diffidenza 
 ripresolo, gli fece maravigliosa festa. 
 
450 OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 But if the participle does not govern any word, it is not necessary 
 to separate it by commas. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Messer Torello destatosi gitto un gran grido. 
 
 Gerunds, or active participles, are never separated from their 
 nominative cases ; but they are so from the verb which is the attri- 
 bute of the same nominative case, by a comma ; as, 
 
 B. 10. 9. II quale Y abate e' monaci veggendo fuggire, si mara- 
 vigliarono. 
 
 B. 10. 9. Allora il saladino piti non potendo tenersi, teneramente 
 V abbraccio. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding one another are in 
 English separated by a comma; in Italian, no comma is requisite; 
 as, 
 
 Cavalcanti. Come potremo noi dirittamente e felicemente operare 
 giaramai ? How can we act rightly, and happily ? 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 Expressions in a direct address are, as in English, separated from 
 the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, 
 
 B, 10. 8. Pretore, i miei fati mi traggono a dover solvere la dura 
 question di costoro. 
 
 BuommatteL II silenzio vostro, genemsi Uditori, P attenzione e 
 benevolenza ch' io scorgo in voi. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the 
 same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied 
 with adjuncts, may or may not have a comma before them. 
 
 Cavalcanti. Prospero Colonna, capitano tie' nostri tempi eccel- 
 lentissimo. 
 
 Segni. Era arrivato Solimano a Bettis, cittd posta nel paese di 
 Diaberca. 
 
 Bembo. II Signor Anton Maria figliuolo del capitano. 
 
 Bembo. Era d' alquante genti, Retici e Norici, signore e Prence 
 Gismondo fratelh di Federico Imperatore de' Romani. 
 
OF PUNCTUATION. 451 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 A simple member of sentence, being put in the midst of another 
 sentence, is to be distinguished by two commas ; as, 
 
 Buommattei. lo, se quesf e, vi ringrazio. 
 
 Buommattei. A me bastera, se mi verrdfatto, di mantenermi quel 
 (nome) di veridico. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 The relatives che and quale with their adjuncts, may or may not 
 be separated from their antecedents by a comma, but they are always 
 separated by a comma from the verb which is the attribute of the 
 antecedent, or the rest of the sentence. 
 
 B. 10. 8. Gisippo, costringendolo da una parte Pesilio, che aveva 
 delta sua cittd, e a? altra l'amore, il quale portava debitamente alia grata 
 amistd di Tito, a divenir Romano s' accordo. 
 
 Buommattei. Le lodi che si possono dare ad una lingua, sono di 
 due sorti. 
 
 The same may be said when che and quale are oblique cases. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 Che, being the correspondent particle of piu, meno, meglio, peggio, 
 piuttosto, si, tanto, tali, is separated from the first part of the sentence 
 by a comma ,* as, 
 
 Cavalcanti. I quali hanno voluto che appresso di me vagliano 
 piu i loro comandamenti, ehe appresso di loro ie mie oneste escusa- 
 zioni. 
 
 B. 8. 9. E sappiate che quelle camere sono non meno odorifere, 
 che sieno i bossoli delle spezie della bottega vostra. 
 
 B. 5. 1. Egliriusci il piu leggiadro e il meglio costumato, che altro 
 giovane alcuno, che nel? isola fosse di Cipri. 
 
 B. 1. 7. Ma nel pensiere di messer Cane era caduto, ogni cosa 
 che gli si donasse, vie peggio esser perduta, che se nel fuoco fosse 
 stata gettata. 
 
 Cavalcanti. Voleva piuttosto nel suo esercito imperito e ubbi- 
 diente soldato, che molto perito e poco ubbidiente. 
 
 Firenzuola. Gli diede della scure sulla testa si piacevolmente 5 
 che al primo colpo li fece lasciar la vita. 
 
 B. o. 6, Tanto disse, tanto scongiuro, die ella vinta con lui si 
 pacefico. 
 
452 OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Che, being a conjunction, whether expressed or understood, is 
 separated from the verb by which it is governed, by a comma; 
 as, 
 
 B. 2. 7. Ti priego, che le mie cose, ed ella ti sieno raccomman- 
 date. 
 
 B. 10. 8. E penso, piu non fossero da comportare le lor novelle: 
 that is, e penso, che piu non fossero. 
 
 Che, being preceded by quello, quel, cid, may or may not be sepa- 
 rated from them by a comma. 
 
 B. 5. 10. M' e egli assai buono maestro, in farmi dilettare di 
 quello, che egli si diletta. 
 
 B. 3. 2. Avendo l'animo pieno d' ira, e di mal talento per quello 
 che vedeva gli era fatto usci della camera. 
 
 B. Fiam. Mattamente fa, chi lascia quel, ch y egli ha per acquistar 
 quel che non ha, se gia quel, che lasciasse, non fosse picciolissima cosa 
 per acquistare una grandissima. 
 
 B. Fiam. E chi dubita, che non sia maggior dolore il perder do, 
 che altri tiene, che quel che spera di tenere. 
 
 RULE XL 
 
 Alcuni, altri, altretali, anzi, cost, come, ma, ma anche or ancora, ne, 
 neppure, nemmeno, nondimeno,nuUadimeno, non per tanto, o, ora, ovvero, 
 pure, quale, quanto, tanto, tali, being the correspondent words of 
 others going before, are separated from the first part of the sentence 
 by a comma; as, 
 
 Sannazzaro. Era 1' occidente coperto di nuvoli, quali cerulei, 
 quai violati, alcuni sanguigni, altri gialli. 
 
 B. Introd. Ne altra cosa alcuna ci udiamo se Don, i cotali son 
 morti, e gli altretali son per morire. 
 
 Cavalcanti. E veggo che, siccome quelle ne prestano di parlare 
 amplissima materia, cost ancora la facolta....ne tolgano. 
 
 Villani. Della venuta de' cavalieri, i Fiorentini furono altrettanto 
 contend, come se fosse venuto il duca in persona. 
 
 B. Lett. Le ricchezze dipingono 1* uomo, e cogli loro colori cuo- 
 prono, e nascondono non solamente i difetti del corpo, ma ancora 
 quegli delP anima. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Che uomo e costui il quale ne vecchiezza, ne infermita, 
 ne paura di morte....dalla sua malvagita V hanno potuto rimuovere. 
 
 B. 1. 9. Egli era di si rimessa vita,.... che non che egli 1' altrui onte 
 con giustizia vendicava, anzi infinite con vituperevole vilta, a lui 
 fattene, sosteneva. 
 
 B. 7. 9. La qual cosa quantunque in assai novelle sia stato dimos» 
 
OF PUNCTUATION. 453 
 
 trato, nondimeno il mi credo molto piu con una che dirvi intendo 
 mostrare. 
 
 B. Fiam. Ed avvegnache la felice fortuna ritorni, non pertanto 
 agli afflitti incresce di rallegrarsi. 
 
 B. 10. 8. A te sta omai o il volerti qui appresso di me dimorare, o 
 volerti....in Acaja tornare. 
 
 Varchi. La corruzione altro non e che uno trapasso, ovvere 
 passaggio dall' essere al non essere ; that is, che o uno trapasso, ovvero 
 passaggio. * 
 
 Varchi. Dicono tale essere la lingua volgare per rispetto alia 
 Latina, quale la feccia al vino. 
 
 Firenzuola. E quanto piu fendeva il querciuolo, tanto metteva 
 piii giu un altro conio. 
 
 These rules, we think, are quite sufficient for the imformation of 
 the student, who, by paying attention to them, will, we presume, 
 be enabled to insert the comma in its proper place. 
 
 OF THE SEMICOLON, COLON, AND FULL STOP. 
 
 The semicolon represents a pause, double that of the comma 3 
 and is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more 
 parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
 comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other, as those which 
 are dintinguished by a colon. 
 
 The colon is a pause double that of the semicolon, and it is used to 
 divide a sentence into two or more parts less connected than those 
 which are separated by a semicolon. 
 
 The full stop is a pause double that of the colon, and is put after a 
 complete sentence. 
 
 The following examples will shew the use of these three points or 
 stops. 
 
 Casa Galat. Si fece unaroba di sciamito cremisi j e dinanzi al petto 
 un motto a lettere d' oro : egli e come Dio vuole; e nelle spalle di 
 dietro simili lettere, che diceano : e' sara come Dio vorra. 
 
 B. 10. 6. Ma questo mio beneficio, operato in voi questa notte, 
 merita alcun guiderdone ; e percio io voglio che voi non mi neghiate 
 una grazia, la quale io vi domandero. 
 
 B, 10. 6 Messer Gentile ailora disse: Madonna, ciascun vostro 
 parente, ed ogni Bolognese credono...voi esser morta. 
 
 After the words cremisi, vuole, guiderdone, a semicolon is put, 
 because what follows is not a whole member of a sentence, but a part, 
 and consequently the pause is not great ; and after the words oro, 
 diceano, disse, the colon is placed, because there the members of 
 
454 OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 the sentence end, and that which follows has no connexion with 
 the preceding. 
 
 With respect to the semicolon and colon no precise rules can 
 be laid down, the same word may be separated from the first mem- 
 ber of the sentence by one or the other, according to the sense of it ; 
 but the discerning student, by paying attention to the definition of 
 them, will, undoubtedly, be enabled to make a proper use of them; 
 especially as they are in many cases used as in English. As to the 
 full stop, it is used as in English, without exception. 
 
 OF THE INTERROGATORY POINT. 
 
 A note of interrogation is used as in English, at the end of an 
 interrogative sentence : that is, when a question is asked; as, 
 
 Varchi. E come risponderete alle loro ragioni ? 
 
 But when the sentence is rather long, or composed of different 
 members, having a connexion with one another, the note of inter- 
 rogation is differently used from what it is in English ; that is, in 
 English, it is put at the end of each member, and in Italian only 
 at the farthest end; as, 
 
 B. 10 8. Quali stati, qua' meriti avrebbon fatto Gisippo non 
 curar di perdere i suoi parenti, e quei di Sofronia, non curar de' 
 disonesti mormorii del popolazzo, non curar delle beffe, e degli 
 scherni, per soddisfare all' amico, se non costei? What greatness, 
 what rewards, could make him heedless of disobliging his friends, 
 as well as Sophronia's ? despise the unjust murmurs of the people, 
 insults, mockery, to serve his friend, but this ? 
 
 The above rule is the most approved of, yet we find the note of 
 interrogation at the end of each member, though they have a con- 
 nexion with each other. 
 
 OF THE EXCLAMATORY POINT. 
 
 The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
 emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. 
 
 This note in Italian is always put at the end of the sentence, and 
 in English is sometimes repeated in the same sentence; as, 
 
 Gelli. Oh come spesso cascano tutti i vecchi in questo errore ! 
 Oh ! how often do old people fall in this error ! 
 
 Gelli. Oh come son vere queste cose ! Oh ! how true those 
 things are 1 
 
 Another Example for the Interrogatory Point. 
 
 Gelli, Negherami tu, che la vecchiezza non arrechi seco tante 
 
OF PUNCTUATION. 455 
 
 infermita, e ch* ella indebolisca tanto li corpi umani, ch' e* sia da 
 fuggirla, e meriti d' essere biasimata molto ? Will you deny that 
 old age is accompanied with infirmities ? that it weakens in such a 
 manner human bodies, that it ought to be avoided, and that it is 
 justly blamed ? 
 
 Another Example for the Exclamatory Point. 
 
 Cavalcanti. O amor della liberta quanto sei efficace 1 carita 
 della patria quanto sei potente, che quegli effetti subitamente pro- 
 duci, i quali da un lungo uso, da una molta esperienza, da una certa 
 e lunga disciplina sogliono esser prodotti ! O, love of liberty ! how 
 efficacious thou art ! O, patriotic charity i how powerful thou art ! 
 — thus to produce all at once those effects which are wont to be the 
 result of great experience, and a certain and long discipline ! 
 
 OF THE DASH. 
 
 The dash or interruption in Italian, is not the same as in English, 
 in which it is marked thus — ; but it is done by putting three or 
 four dots one after the other, thus, ...., and it is used when the 
 sentence breaks off abruptly; as, 
 
 Bembo. Ora se esso pure la vorra fare, io la terro per uomo, che 
 .... ma non voglio dire altro. 
 
 B. 10. 10. Madonna, se io non voglio morire, a me conviene fare 
 quelle-, che il mio signor mi comanda. Egli m' ha comandato, che 
 io prenda questa vostra figliuola, e ch' io....e non disse piu. 
 
 OF THE PARENTHESIS. 
 
 A parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information 
 or useful remark, introduced into the body of the sentence obliquely, 
 and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical con- 
 struction. This clause, when long, is enclosed within these marks, 
 ( ) ; and if it is short, it is enclosed within two commas. 
 
 Gelli. Giusto, io ho piu volte considerato meco medesima, che 
 tutte quelle cose, per le quali biasimano gli uomini attempati la 
 vecchiezza (che sai che noi usiamo spesso con vecchi, ritrovandosi 
 molto volentieri que' che sono d ? una eta medesima a ragionare in- 
 sieme) si possono ridurre a quattro cagioni. 
 
 Buommattei. A me bastera, se mi vcrrafatto, di mantenermi quel 
 (nome) di veridico. 
 
456 OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OK CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 Salviati established the following rules for using capital letters, 
 and all writers that came after him have adhered to them. — 
 The student then is to begin with a capital. — 
 
 1. The first word of every chapter, letter, and any other piece of 
 writing. 
 
 2. The first word after a full stop, and after a note of interroga- 
 tion or exclamation, provided two or more interrogative or excla- 
 mative sentences are independent of one another ; as, 
 
 B. 10. 8. Chi avrebbe Tito senza alcuna dilazione fatto liberalis- 
 simo a comunicare il suo ampissimo patrimonio con Gisippo, al 
 quale la fortuna il suo aveva tolto, se non costei? Chi avrebbe 
 Tito senza alcuna suspizione fatto ferventissimo a concedere la 
 sorella a Gisippo, il quale vedeva proverissimo, ed in estrema miseria 
 posto, se non costei ? 
 
 Cavalcanti. Ahi pigra Italia, e quanto fia che dal lungo tuo sonno 
 ti svegli ? Ahi ingrata che abbandoni la salute di coloro, i quali 
 insieme con quella 1' onor tuo col proprio sangue difendono I 
 Ahi potentissima e generosissima Francia, come puoi tu si atroce 
 spettacolo de' tuoi fedelissimi amici, in estremo pericolo posti, 
 oziosa riguardare ? 
 
 But if there happens to be several of the interrogative or excla* 
 matory sentences together, which depend upon one another, all of 
 them except the first are to begin with a small letter, unless it is a 
 proper name ; as, 
 
 B. Let. E chi sara colui si trascurato, che d* esser povero si 
 vergogni, riguardando il Romano imperio aver la poverta avuta 
 a fondamento ? recandosi a memoria Quinzio Cincinnato aver 
 lavorata la terra ? Marco Curio dagli ambasciatori di Pirro essere 
 stato trovato sopra una piccola panchetta sedere al fuoco, e man- 
 giare in iscodella di legho, e, dette parole convenienti alia grandezza 
 dell* animo suo, avere indietro mandati i tesori di Pirro ? e Fab- 
 bricio Licinio i doni de* Sanniti? 
 
 Buommattei. O felice paese dove si pregiata lingua naturalmente 
 si parla ! o fortunato Cielo, che a si degno paese influisci le tue 
 virtu ! 
 
 3. The appellations of the deity, as, Die, Iddio, Creatore, Ente 
 Supremo, Provvidenza Divina, &c. and also pronouns belonging to 
 these appellations, as, amiamo Colui che ci ha creati, acciocche Egli 
 ci conservi. 
 
 4. Proper names and surnames of persons and mythological 
 
OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 457 
 
 deities, names of places, mountains, rivers; as, Tito, Gisippo, 
 Stramba, Pampinea, Apollo, Cupido, Venere, Napoli, Roma, Vesuvio, 
 Etna, il Tevere, il Tamigi, &c. 
 
 5. With respect to the names of nations, they begin with a capital 
 letter ; as, un Romano, un Inglese, un Francese. But when they 
 are used adjectively, Salvini says, and with him several modern 
 grammarians, that tney must be spelt with a small letter; as, donna 
 
 francese, mercante italiano, capitano russo ; but we find them spelt 
 with a capital letter in several modern editions, and especially those 
 printed at Milan, which are counted to be the best. The following 
 are examples. 
 
 B. let. E chi cid non crede, riguardi agli Assirj ed Egiziaci re tra 
 le dilicatezze e gli odori Arabici effeminati. 
 
 Cavalcanti. E inalzato al cielo con eterne lodi il popolo Ateniese. 
 
 Firenzuola. E per parlar teste della nostra lingua Toscana, io 
 ho veduti sonetti della sorella madonna Veronica. 
 
 Buommattei. Dio buono ! Di che si pregiano tanto la lingua 
 Latinao Greca? 
 
 We may therefore infer, that the first letter of adjectives de- 
 rived from the proper names of places, may be either capital or 
 small. 
 
 6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or 
 when it is in a direct form ; as, 
 
 B. 4. 2. Usano i volgari un cosi fatto proverbio : CM e reo, e 
 buono e tenuto, pud fare il male, e non e creduto. 
 
 Passavanti. II terzo modo e detto la gloria vana.... Delia quale 
 vanita, dice il Profeta Jeremia : Gli uomini sono andati dietro alia 
 vanita, e sono fatti vani. Onde Salomone, considerando in queste 
 cose create questa vanita, diceva: II mondo e vanita di vanitadi, e 
 ogni cosa e vanita. 
 
 7. The first word of what is introduced after a colon, as said by 
 another, not by the author ; as, 
 
 B. 4. 2. Disse allora Donna Mestola : E chi vi gastigo cosi ? 
 Disse Frate Alberto : Io il vi diro. 
 
 B. 4. 2. II quale io appresso domandai, perch e cio fatto avesse, ed 
 egli rispose : Percio che tu presumesti oggi di riprendere le celestiali 
 bellezze di Madonna Lisetta. 
 
 8. The appellatives used instead of proper names, such as, medico, 
 maestro, avvocato, ckirurgo, &c. are generally spelt with a capital 
 letter; as, 
 
 B. 4 io. Ruggieri.... rispose.... che andato era ad albergare dalla 
 fante del Maestro Mazzeo. 
 
 B.4. 10. II Medico udendo costei.... rispose. 
 B. 4. 10. La quale tanto fece che alio Stadico ando davanti. 
 
 x 
 
458 OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 9. Words used in a direct address are spelt with a capital 
 letter. 
 
 Buommattei. Non vi rincresca, Signori, ascoltar anche di queste 
 quattro parole. 
 
 Tolomei. Io crederei, Giudici, che solo il ricordarsi qual sia stato 
 Leone per lo tempo addietro, fosse a ciascuno chiara testimonianza 
 qual egli sia nel tempo presente. 
 
 But if they are accompanied with an adjective, this adjective is to 
 be spelt with a small letter. 
 
 Buommattei. II silenzio vostro, generosi Uditori. 
 Tolomei. Prima dimmi, o giovane Accusatore. 
 
 10. The first word of every line in poetry. 
 
 Other words, expressive of dignities, sciences, arts, &c. may begin 
 with capitals when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal 
 subject of the composition. 
 
 END OF THE GRAMMAR. 
 
APPENDIX. 459 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 OF THE FIGURATIVE SYNTAX. 
 
 The figurative or irregular Syntax, is that construction which 
 implies some departure from simplicity of expression, or rather 
 that construction which does not follow the general order, and the 
 rules of grammar ; but by either adding something to, or taking 
 from a sentence, or by inverting it, bestows grace and elegance on 
 composition. 
 
 It is not our intention, however, to speak here of all the figures 
 of the imagination and the passions, such as metaphors, allegories, 
 comparisons, &c. These are common to ail languages, and a man 
 of learning, who is well acquainted with his own language, will not 
 be at a loss in making use of them in any language he may happen 
 to learn ; but we intend to speak of those figures, which are pecu- 
 liar to the Italian language only; we shall, therefore, enumerate 
 them, with proper explanations, in order that the student may, 
 after an attentive perusal, not only be enabled to compose sentences 
 and phrases with perspicuity, elegance, and energy, but also to 
 distinguish them, when they meet his eyes, and thus to enjoy the 
 beauties of good writers. 
 
 The grammatical figures most in use are four in the Italian 
 language, viz. 
 
 L'Ellipsi The Ellipsis 
 
 II Pleonasmo The Pleonasm 
 
 L'Enallage TJw Enallage 
 
 L'Iperbato The Hyperbole 
 
 Of the Ellipsis. 
 
 The Ellipsis is that figure by which some part of speech is left 
 out; but without rendering the sense of the sentence obscure or 
 incomprehensible. This figure has been very frequently used by 
 ancient writers, and even at present it is so frequent as to be used 
 in the familiar style. 
 
 1. The Ellipsis of the substantive is effected by omitting the 
 substantive, when it is united with its adjective, and may easily be 
 imagined; as, 
 
 B. 2. 5. Niuno male si fece nella caduta, quantunque alquanto 
 cadesse da alto ; that is, da alto luogo. 
 
460 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 B. 4. 2. Io ci tornerd, e darottene tante, ch' io ti faro tristo per 
 tutto il tempo che viverai ; that is, tante busse. 
 
 2. The Ellipsis of the adjective is effected by suppressing one of 
 these adjectives, buono, abile, capace, when accompanied with di or 
 a tanto, di or a molto, changing di or a into da ; as, 
 
 B. 6. 2. E sempre poi per da molto l'ebbe e per amico; that is, 
 buono a molto, abile, 
 
 B. 2. 3. Fu da tanto, tanto seppe fare, ch' egli pacified il figliuol 
 col padre ; that is, fu tanto abile, or capace di tanto. 
 
 B. 6. 10. Non suspicd, che cio Guccio Balena gli avesse fatto, 
 perciocche nol conosceva da tanto; that is, nol conesceva tanto abile, 
 or capace di tanto. 
 
 3. The Ellipsis of the verb, either finite or in the infinitive, is 
 effected by omitting a part of a verb, when it is accompanied with 
 adverbs expressive of wonder or astonishment; such as, appena 9 
 maraviglia, possibile, impossibile, or with words expressive of impre- 
 cation or blessing, such as, maladetto, benedetto, &c. 
 
 B. Introd. II che se dagli occhi di molti, e da' miei non fosse 
 stato veduto ; appena che io ardissi di crederlo, non che di scriverlo; 
 that is, appena e che io ardissi, &c. 
 
 B. 8. 6. Maraviglia, che se' stato una volta savio ; that is, mara- 
 viglia e, che se 9 stato. 
 
 B. 10. 9, Con poche parole rispose; impossibil, che mai i suoi 
 beneficj, e *1 suo volere di mente gli uscissero : that is, essere impos- 
 sibile che mai, &c. 
 
 In like manner we say, in narrations, ed egli a me, ed io lui ; instead 
 of ed egli disse a me, ed io risposi a lui. 
 
 4. The Ellipsis of the participle. 
 
 B. 10. 9. M. Torello in quell' abito, che era, con lo abate se 
 n' ando alia casa del novello sposo ; that is, di cui era vestito. 
 
 5. The Ellipsis of the preposition is made, by omitting the pre- 
 position da, which precedes the infinitives mangiare, bere, beccare, 
 that are governed by the verb dare, provided between dare and the 
 said infinitives no adverb intervenes ; as, 
 
 B. 2. 9. Al quale il Soldano avendo alcuna volta dato mangiare... 
 al Catalano il domando ; that is, dato a mangiare. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Ordino con colui, che a lei serviva, che di varj vini 
 mescolati le desse bere ; that is, le desse da bere. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Pareva santa Veridiana che da beccare alle serpi 3 that 
 is, da da beccare. 
 
 B. 3. 1. Lusingalo, fagli vezzi, dagli ben da mangiare. In this 
 example the Ellipsis of da, cannot have place, because the adverb 
 ben is put between dare and mangiare. 
 
APPENDIX. , 461 
 
 The Ellipsis of the preposition is also made by omitting per, 
 when it is accompanied with nouns of space or time ; as, 
 
 B. 2. 7. E quasi si ficcd nella rena, vicino al lito forse una gittata 
 di pietra ; that is, per una gittata. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Pagato Pietro, ed ogni altro, a cui alcuna cosa dovea, 
 piu di col Canigiano si die buon tempo ; that is, per piu di. 
 
 The Ellipsis of per is very frequent; but that of da, as above, is 
 better known than imitated. 
 
 6. The Ellipsis of the adverb is effected by omitting cosi, when 
 it is accompanied with the optative, or rather with that mood ex- 
 pressive of desire ; as, 
 
 B. Introd. Ora fossero essi pur disposti a venire ; that is, ora cost 
 fossero. 
 
 7. The Ellipsis of the conjunction is effected by omitting e when 
 it connects two adjectives, and che when it is governed by a verb 
 implying doubt and suspicion ; as, 
 
 B. 2. 9. Io sono la misera sventurata Zinevra; that is, la miser a e 
 sventurata Zinevra. 
 
 B. Concl. Continua fraternal dimesticanza mi ci e paruto vedere ; 
 that is, continua e fraternal dimesticanza. 
 
 B. 2. 9. Siracusano vedendol ridere, suspico, non costui in alcuno 
 atto Tavesse raffigurato ; that is, suspico che non costui. 
 
 The Ellipsis of che is also made, when it is governed by the verbs 
 pensare, vedere, mostrare; as, 
 
 B. 10. 8. E pensd, piu non fossero senza risposta da comportare 
 le lor novelle ; that is, pensd che piu non fossero. 
 
 B. 5. 2. Avendo Tanimo pieno d'ira, e di mal talento per quello 
 che vedeva, gli era fatto, ripreso il suo mantello, s' usci della 
 camera; that is, per quello che vedeva, che gli era fatto. 
 
 B. 7. 9. Del quale amore, o che Pirro non s' avvedesse, o non 
 volesse, niente mostrava, se ne curasse; that is, niente mostrava 
 die se ne curasse. 
 
 Che as a relative, has been sometimes suppressed 
 
 B. 4. End. E forse piu dichiarato V avrebbe V aspetto di tal donna, 
 nella danza era, se le tenebre della sopravvenuta notte, il rossore 
 nel viso di lei venuto, non avesser nascoso ; that is, tal donna, che 
 nella danza era. 
 
 But as this sort of Ellipsis is very seldom found, it is not to be 
 imitated. 
 
 The Ellipsis of many other words, such as gerunds, personal 
 pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns, may be enumerated here; 
 but as we have spoken sufficiently of them in their respective places, 
 we refer the student to them. 
 
 x 2 
 
46$ APPENDIX. 
 
 Of the Pleonasm. 
 
 The Pleonasm is that figure by which some part of speech may be 
 introduced into the discourse without necessity, and which serves to 
 render it more explicit and clear. 
 
 1. The Pleonasm is effected by repeating the personal pronouns 
 in the same phrase. 
 
 B. 10. Z. Comeche ogni altro uomo molto di lui si lodi, io me 
 ne posso poco lodare io. 
 
 B. 6. Begin. Vatti con Dio : credi tu saper piu di me tu, che non 
 hai ancora rasciutti gli occhj ? 
 
 Io and tu, being repeated in these examples, add energy to the 
 phrases, and render them clearer. 
 
 2. It is effected by putting the preposition con with meco, teco, 
 seco, which words include another con; as, con me, con te, con se; 
 as, 
 
 B. 5. 8. Farete pure, che domane, o V altro di, egli qui con meco 
 se ne venga a dimorare. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Spero d' avere assai buon tempo conteco, 
 
 3. It is effected by adding some verb, not necessary to the sense, 
 but as a peculiarity of the language. The most in use are, 
 
 Dovere, accompanied with an infinitive. 
 
 B. 1. 2. Richiese i chierici di la dentro, che ad Abramo dovessero 
 dare il battesimo ; that is dessero il battesimo. 
 
 B. 2. 5. S' avviso questa donna dovere essere di lui innamorata ; 
 that is, questa donna essere di lui. 
 
 Venire accompanied with infinitives and participles. 
 
 B. 10. 10. II che quando venni aprender moglie, gran paura ebbi, 
 che non m' intervenisse ; that is, quando presi moglie. 
 
 B. 8. 5. Tutto il venne considerando ; that is, tutto il consider o. 
 
 B. 1.6. Gli venne trovato un buono uomo ; that is, trovo un buono 
 uomo. 
 
 Andare with gerunds. 
 
 B. Introd. A me medesimo incresce andarmi tra tante miserie 
 ravvolgendo. Andarmi ravvolgendo for ravvolgermi. 
 
 B. Introd. Vanno fuggendo quello che noi cerchiamo di fuggire, 
 Vanno fuggendo fovfuggono. 
 
 To this figure belong the expletives. 
 
 Expletives are words which, though not absolutely necessary to 
 the discourse, serve to adorn it. 
 
 Grammarians have divided these words into four classes. 
 
APPENDIX. 463 
 
 I. Words of evidence. 
 
 II. Words of ornament. 
 
 III. Words that accompany nouns. 
 
 IV. Words that accompany verbs. 
 
 The words of evidence, which serve to add energy to the 
 composition, are, 
 
 1. Ecco, which is generally put in the beginning of a sentence, 
 and shows a quickness of action. Ex. 
 
 B. 8. 7. Ecco io non so ora dir di no, per tal donna me n' hai 
 pregato. 
 
 B. 1. 2. Ecco, Giannotto a te piace che io divenga cristiano, ed 
 io son disposto a farlo. 
 
 Sometimes it is used in derision. Ex. 
 
 B. 9. 5. Ecco bello innamorato, or non ti conosci tu tristo? 
 
 2. Bene, or bene, are used in the beginning of exclamatory sen- 
 tences. Ex. 
 
 B. 8. 2. Bene, Belcolore, demi tu far sempre morire a questo 
 modo ? 
 
 B. 5. 1. Or bene, come faremo ? 
 
 3. Bene, sz bene, serve to affirm. Ex. 
 
 B. 9. 7. E ancora da capo te ne consiglio, che tu oggi ti stea in 
 casa, o almeno ti guardi d' andare nel nostro bosco. La donna 
 disse : bene il faro. 
 
 B. 9. 5. Daratti egli il cuore di toccarla con un brieve, ch' io ti 
 daro ? Disse Calandrino ; si bene. 
 
 4. Bene may without necessity be added to nouns, pronouns, 
 verbs, and adverbs. Ex. 
 
 B. 7. 2. Egli ci son de' ben leggiadri, che mi amano. 
 
 B. 2 1. Egli e qua un malvagio uomo, che m' ha tagliata la borsa 
 con ben cento fiorini d' oro. 
 
 B. 4. 10. Voi sapete bene il legnajuolo, dirimpetto al quale era 
 1' area. 
 
 5. Bello is adjectively used as an expletive. Ex. 
 
 B. 2. 9. Per belle scritte di lor mano s* obbligarono V uno all* 
 altro. 
 
 B. 8. 10. Le portd cinquecento be' fiorini d' oro. 
 
 6. Pure adds evidence. Ex. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Fa pure, che tu mi mostri qual ti piace, e lascia poi 
 far a me. 
 
 B. 2. 5. La cosa ando pur cosi. 
 
 7. Gid renders the sentence more energetic. 
 
464 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 B. 10. 5. II nigromante disse: gid Dio non voglia....ch' io simil- 
 mente non sia liberale del mio guiderdone. 
 
 8. Mai is used to affirm, as well as to deny. 
 B. 8. 7. Se mai mi viene innanzi. 
 
 B. 2. 7. Ti priego che mai ad alcuna persona dichi d' avermi 
 veduta. 
 
 Mai is united to si, no, sempre, to heighten the force of the ex- 
 pressions ; as, maisi, maino, mai sempre, or sempre mai. 
 
 B. 3. 8. Come, disse Ferondo, dunque sono io morto ? Disse il 
 monaco : maisi, &c. 
 
 9. Mica and punto are united to the negative non, Ex. 
 
 B. 10. 6. Una ne dird, non mica d 9 uomo di poco affare. 
 B. 3. 7. Madonna, Tedaldo non e punto morto, ma e vivo, e 
 sano. 
 
 10. Tutto adds energy. Ex. 
 
 B. 2. 7. II famiglio trovo la gentil giovane tutta timida star 
 nascosta. 
 
 B. 1. 4. Tutto rassicurato estimo il suo avviso dovere avere 
 
 effetto. 
 
 11. Via, united with verbs, increases their strength ; as, 
 
 B. 9. 1. E cosi questa seccagine torro via. 
 
 The words of ornament which serve to adorn the discourse, and 
 render it at the same time energeticj are the following. 
 
 1. Egli, ella, esso, as expletives, were spoken of in page 284, 
 which see. 
 
 2. Ora is generally used to recommence a discourse, or to con* 
 tinue it. Ex. 
 
 B. 5. 4. Come non sapete voi quello, che questo voglia dire ? 
 Ora io ve V ho udito dire mille volte. 
 
 B. o. 6. Ora le parole furono assai, ed il rammarichio della donna 
 grande. 
 
 Sometimes ora, seems to express a wish. Ex. 
 
 B. 8. 9. Deh or t' avessono essi affogato, come essi ti gittaron la, 
 dove tu eri degno d' esser gittato. 
 
 3. Si is used as an ornament, and belongs only to our lan- 
 guage. 
 
 B. 6. 9. Oltre a quello, ch' egli fu ottimo filosofo naturale, si fu 
 egli leggiadrissimo e costumato. 
 
 B. 9. 9. Se ti piace, si ti piaccia, se non, si te ne sta. 
 
 4. Non is put with the comparatives, which see, and also with 
 
APPENDIX. 465 
 
 verbs governed by other verbs expressive of fear, suspicion, doubt, 
 &c. for examples of which see page 586. 
 
 The words that accompany nouns, and those that accompany 
 verbs, are uno, alcuno, mi, ti, si, ci, vi, ne, which add strength and 
 ornament to the discourse. We refrain from giving examples here, 
 because they have been treated of in their respective places. 
 
 OF THE ENALLAGE. 
 
 The Enallage is that figure by which one part of speech is put 
 for another; and it is very frequently used by Italian writers of 
 note and celebrity. 
 
 It is effected by putting 
 
 1. The infinitive for a substantive. Ex. 
 
 B. 8. 9. E da questo viene il nostro viver lieto,che voi vedete. II 
 nostro vivere for la nostra vita, 
 
 2. The adjective for an adverb. Ex. 
 
 B. 1. 2 Ora tutto aperto ti dico, che per niuna cosa lascerei di 
 cristiano farmi. Aperto for apertamente. 
 
 B. 2. 5. Ahi lassa me, che assai chiaro conosco, come io ti sia poco 
 cara ! Chiaro for chiaramente. 
 
 3. The participle for the infinitive. Ex. 
 
 B. 10. 10. Fece venire sue lettere contrafatte da Roma, e fece 
 veduto a* suoi sudditi, il papa per quelle aver seco dispensato di 
 poter torre altra moglie. Veduto for vedere. 
 
 4. The infinitive for the subjunctive. Ex. 
 
 B. 5. 10. Qui ha questa cena, e non saria chi mangiarla. Chi 
 mangiarla for chi la mangiasse. 
 
 5. The subjunctive for the indicative. Ex. 
 
 B. 6. beg. Vedi bestia d' uomo che ardisce, dove io sia, a parlar 
 prima di me. Dove io sia for dove io sono. 
 
 6. The past for the present. Ex. 
 
 B. 7. 7. Anichino gitto un grandissimo sospiro. La donna guar- 
 datolo disse : or che avesti, Anichino ? Duolti cosi che io ti vinco ? 
 Che avesti for che hai. 
 
 7. The imperfect of the subjunctive for the pluperfect. 
 
 Nov. Ant. 94. Alzo questo la spada, e ferito 1' avrebbe, se non 
 fosse uno che stava ritto innanzi, che lo teneva per lo braccio. 
 
 B. 8. 7. E se non fosse, che egli era giovane, e sopravveniva il 
 caldo, egli avrebbe avuto troppo a sostenere. 
 
 In these two examples se non fosse stands for se non Josse stato> 
 
466 APPENDIX. 
 
 which is clearly shown by the correlative verbs, ferito V avrebbe, 
 and avrebbe avuto, being compound tenses. 
 
 8. The simple conditional for the compound. Ex. 
 
 B. 1. 1. Egli sono state assai volte il dl, che io vorrei piuttosto 
 essere stato morto, che vivo, veggendo i giovani andare dietro alle 
 vanita. Vorrei for avrei voluto. 
 
 9. The particle se for cosi. 
 
 B. 9. 10. Se m 9 ajuti Iddio, tu se' povero, ma egli sarebbe merce 
 che tu fossi molto piu. Se m 9 ajuti for cosi m 9 ajuti. 
 
 The Enallage is also effected by putting one verb for another, 
 such as, fare for procurare, sapere for potere, portare for sopportare, 
 and a great many more, which may be found in the Dictionary of 
 Peculiarities. 
 
 OF THE HYPERBATE. 
 
 Grammarians have enumerated five sorts of Hyperbates,but some 
 of them are now become obsolete. We shall speak only of those 
 most in use, which are 
 
 L' Anastrofe The Anastrophe 
 
 La Tmesi The Tmesis 
 
 La Parentesi The Parenthesis 
 
 The Anastrophe is effected by putting 
 
 1. A substantive between two adjectives. Ex. 
 
 B. 2. 6. Videvi due cavrioli, forse il di medesimo nati, i quali le 
 parevano la piu dolce cosa del mondo, e la piu vezzosa. Cosa a 
 substantive put between dolce and vezzosa, both adjectives. 
 
 B. 4. 2. Un uomo di scelerata vita e di corrotta. Vita a sub- 
 stantive, put between scelerata and corrotta, both adjectives. 
 
 2. A verb between two adverbs, an adverb and some other part 
 of speech, which by nature go together. Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Prima gli voile sgridare, poi prese partito di tacersi, e 
 starsi nascoso se egli potesse, per potere piu cautamenteyizre, e con 
 minore sua vergogna quello che gia gli era caduto nelP animo di 
 dover fare. Fare a verb, put between cautamente and minore 
 adverbs. 
 
 3. The genitive belonging to two substantives, between them. 
 
 B. 4. 1. Lasciate hai le miserie del mondo e le fatiche. Del mondo 
 a genitive, put between miserie and fatiche, instead of le miserie e le 
 fatiche del mondo. 
 
 4. The verb between two accusatives which it governs. 
 
 B. 4. 2. La donna come desinato ebbe, presa sua compagnia, se 
 
APPENDIX. 467 
 
 n' andd a Frate Alberto, e novelle gli disse dell* Agnolo Gabriello, e 
 do che da lui aveva udito. Disse, a verb, put between novelle and 
 do both accusatives of disse, instead of e gli disse novelle dell 1 Agnolo 
 Gabriello e do. 
 
 5. An adverb superlative between two adjectives to which it 
 belongs. Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 3. E quando dimestico assai ed amico di costor esser gli 
 parve.... disse loro. Assai, the adverb superlative, put between 
 dimestico and amico, both adjectives. 
 
 6. The relative, with all its appurtenances, between two substan- 
 tives with their adjectives, which are the antecedents of the said 
 relative. Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 4. E tra gli altri, alle cui orecchie la magnifica fama delle 
 virtu e della cortesia del Gerbin venne, fu ad una figliuola del Re 
 di Tunisi, la qual....era una delle piu belle creature, che mai dalla 
 natura fosse stata formata, e la piu costumata. Che mai dalla natura 
 fosse stata formata, the relative and all its appurtenances, put 
 between una delle piu belle creature, and e la piu costumata, both 
 antecedents of che, 
 
 7. A verb with its infinitive between the objective case of the 
 said infinitive, and the oblique case or infinitive with a preposition 
 governed by the said objective case, Ex. 
 
 B. 4. 4, E seco spesso pensava, se modo veder potesse di volerla 
 torre per forza. Veder potesse the verb with its infinitive, put 
 between modo the objective case of vedere, and di voter an infini- 
 tive with the preposition di, governed by modo. 
 
 The Tmesis is effected by dividing a word which is a compound of 
 two or more, such as, acciocche, comeche, nondimeno, perdocche, po- 
 sdache, compounds of accio and che, come and che, non di and meno, 
 percio and che, poscia and che, &c. &c, and putting one or more 
 words, which are next to them, between. Ex. 
 
 B. 5. 9. A me omai appartiene di ragionare, ed io il faro volontieri, 
 ne accio solamente che conosciate, quanto la vostra vaghezza possa 
 ne' cuor gentili; ma perche apprendiate, &c. Ne accio solamente 
 che for ni solamente acciocche. 
 
 Mor. S. Greg. E come queste parole che special mente dette sieno. 
 E come queste parole che for e comeche queste parole. 
 
 B. 4. 1. E comeche tu uomo in parte ne' tuoi migliori anni, nelle 
 armi esercitato ti sii, non dovevi dimeno conoscer quello, che gli ozj 
 e le delicatezze possano, ne' vecchj, non che ne' giovani. Non 
 dovevi dimeno for nondimeno dovevi, 
 
 Davanzati. Perdo solamente che si sdegnava ubbidire essendo zio 
 e vecchio al giovane nipote. Perdo solamente che, for perdocche 
 solamente. 
 
468 APPENDIX. 
 
 B 2. 10. Donna simil dolore non si senti mai a quello, che io ho 
 poscia portato, che io ti perdei. Che io ho poscia portato eke for che 
 io ho portato posciache. 
 
 As the Parenthesis is well known, we refrain from saying any thing 
 about it. 
 
 To the Hyperbate belongs that transposition of words which are 
 put sometimes before and sometimes after the verb. 
 
 Besides the four figures here enumerated, we have another called 
 Sillessi, Syllepsis, which is effected by making the parts of speech 
 disagree with one another, paying more attention to the sense than 
 to the rules of grammar; such as, ilpopolo sono, la persona il quale, 
 ogni cosa disparuto, instead of il popolo e, la persona la quale, ogm 
 cosa disparuta; but this figure is no longer in use. 
 
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 upon nearly all the prominent difficulties of the text. The spirit of the performance is 
 orthodox, reverential, and rational."— Literary Gazette. 
 
2 Valuable Works 
 
 REMAINS of the late ALEXANDER KNOX, Esq, of 
 
 Dublin, M.R.I.A., containing Letters and Essays on the Doctrines and 
 Philosophy of Christianity, and the distinctive Character of the Church 
 of England ; with Portrait, from a Bust by Chantrev. Second Edition. 
 Two Vols. 8vo, 24s. boards. 
 
 Also, nearly ready, 
 Vols. III. and IV., containing Essays, chiefly explanatory of Christian 
 Doctrine, and confidential Letters, with Private Papers, illustrative of the 
 Writer's character, sentiments, and life. 
 
 COMPANION for a SICK BED; consisting of Selections 
 from Scripture and from the Book of Common Prayer ; with appropriate 
 Hymns, adapted to the uses of a Sick Chamber. 4s. in cloth. 
 
 NARRATIVE of a RESIDENCE in KOORDISTAN, and 
 on the SITE of ANCIENT NINEVEH, with Journal of a Voyage down 
 the Tigris to Bagdad, and an Account of a Visit to Sheraz and Persepolis, 
 with Maps and a Plan of Nineveh from original Observations, and numerous 
 Illustrations. By the late Claudius James Rich, Esq., the Honourable 
 East India Company's Resident at Bagdad, author of " An Account of 
 Ancient Babylon." In Two Vols. 8vo, 30s. cloth. 
 
 THE LIFE of JOHN JEBB, D.D., F.R.S., late Bishop 
 
 of Limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe. With a Selection from his Letters. By 
 the Rev. Charles Forster, B.D., formerly Domestic Chaplain to Bishop 
 Jebb, Perpetual Curate of Ash-next-Sandwich, and one of the Six Preachers 
 in the Cathedral of Christ, Canterbury. Two Vols. 8vo, 26s. cloth with 
 Portraits. 
 
 f * The Life of this exemplary Prelate, this amiable, accomplished, and pious man, not 
 only teems with the most weighty lessons, of a practical kind, for the imitation of every 
 Churchman in England, and still more especially in Ireland at the present time, but it exhibits 
 one of the most engaging and soundly constituted characters that have ever been delineated 
 for the lasting benefit of mankind." — Monthly Review. 
 
 THIRTY YEARS' CORRESPONDENCE between JOHN 
 
 JEBB, D.D., F.R.S., Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe, and 
 ALEXANDER KNOX, Esq. M.R.I.A. Edited by the Rev. Charles 
 Forster, B.D., Perpetual Curate of Ash-next-Sandwich, and one of the 
 Six Preachers in the Cathedral of Christ, Canterbury, formerly Domestic 
 Chaplain to Bishop Jebb. Two Vols. 8vo. Second Edition, with Trans- 
 lations of the Greek and Latin Passages, and an Index. 28s. boards. 
 
 THE HOLY BIBLE; containing the OLD and NEW TES- 
 TAMENTS, revised from Corrected Texts of the Original Tongues, and 
 with former Translations diligently compared : with Critical and Explana- 
 tory Notes. By B. Boothroyd, D.D., Editor of the " Biblia Hebraica," 
 &c. &c. Forming a volume, in imperial octavo, of 1280 pages. Price 30s. 
 cloth. 
 
 The work announced comprises the Text of the Author's Family Bible and Improved 
 Version, with such Corrections as a repeated and diligent perusal during the last ten years has 
 suggested, aided by the many Biblical works which have been published since his own was 
 completed. The results of the labours of the most eminent scholars and Biblical critics of 
 past and present times, will here be foimd in a condensed form ; by which infidel objections 
 are in many instances satisfactorily obviated, and the judicious English reader will be enabled 
 to perceive the sense, coherence, and beauty of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
Published %James Duncan. 3 
 
 THE DOCTRINE of ATONEMENT and SACRIFICE, 
 
 evinced from the Scriptures, and confirmed from the Sacraments : Errors 
 Considered, and Difficulties of Theists and Infidels Removed. By John 
 Whitley, D.D. In One Vol. 8vo, 10s. 6d. bds. 
 
 ESSAYS, THOUGHTS, and REFLECTIONS, and SER- 
 MONS on VARIOUS SUBJECTS. By the Rev. Henry Woodward, 
 A.M., formerly of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, Rector of Fethard, in 
 the Diocess of Cashel. One Vol. 8vo. Third Edition. 12s. hoards. 
 
 " There are some striking views on the Divine Omnipotence in a recent volume of Essays 
 and Sermons, by the Rev. Henry Woodward of Ireland; a work replete with originality, and 
 rich in the germs of high thought. From Dr. Chalmers' Works, now publishing. Vol. 2.— - 
 Natural Theology, Vol 2, page 285. 
 
 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY; comprising Discourses on the 
 Liturgy and Principles of the United Church, of England and Ireland ; 
 critical and other Tracts ; and a Speech delivered in the House of Peers in 
 1824. By John Jebb, D.D., F.R.S., Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert, and 
 Aghadoe. Two Vols- 8vo. Second Edition, 24s. boards. 
 
 '« No work which has recently fallen into our hands more amply fulfils the promise of its 
 title than that now before us." — Quarterly Theolog. Review. 
 By the same Author, 
 
 SACRED LITERATURE; comprising a Review of the Principles 
 of Composition laid down by the late Robert Lowth, D.D. Lord Bishop 
 of London, in his Prelections, and Isaiah ; and an application of the 
 Principles so reviewed to the Illustration of the New Testament ; in a 
 Series of Critical Observations on the Style and Structure of that Sacred 
 Volume. One Vol. 8vo. New Edition, \2s. boards. 
 
 SERMONS on Subjects chiefly Practical ; with illustrative Notes, and 
 an Appendix relating to the Character of the Church of England, as dis- 
 tinguished both from other Branches of the Reformation, and from the 
 modern Church of Rome. Fourth Edition, corrected. One Vol. 8vo, 
 105. 6d. boards. 
 
 PASTORAL INSTRUCTIONS on the CHARACTER and PRIN- 
 CIPLES of the CHURCH of ENGLAND, selected from his former 
 Writings. One Vol. 7*. boards. 
 
 Works edited by Bishop Jebb. 
 
 LIVES of SIR MATTHEW HALE and the EARL of ROCHESTER : 
 With Characters of ARCHBISHOP LEIGHTON, The HON. ROBERT 
 BOYLE, QUEEN MARY, and OTHER EMINENT PERSONS, and 
 an ADDRESS to POSTERITY. By Gilbert Burnet, D.D.,late 
 Bishop of Sarum, with the Two Prefaces to the Dublin Editions. To which 
 are now added, FIVE HITHERTO UNPUBLISHED LETTERS, by 
 4nne, Countess Dowager of Rochester, upon her Son's Last Illness and 
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 Foolscap 8vo, Js. bds. 
 
 %* A few copies may still be had of the first edition in 8vo, price 10s. 6d. 
 
 THE PROTESTANT KEMPIS ; or, PIETY without ASCETICISM: 
 a Manual of Christian Faith and Practice, selected from the Writings of 
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 Notes. Second Edition, in Foolscap 8vo, %$. boards. 
 
 %* The same work in One Vol. 8vo, first Edition, price 12s. boards. 
 
 PRACTICAL DISCOURSES: a Selection from the unpublished Manu- 
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 Richmond ; one of the Rectors of Malpas, Cheshire ; and some time Fellow 
 of St. Mary Magdalen College, Oxford; with a Biographical Memoir, by 
 Archdeacon Chub-ton. Third Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, price 10s. 6d. bds. 
 
 THE REMAINS of WILLIAM PHELAN, D.D.; with a Biographi- 
 cal Memoir. Second Edition. Two Vols. 8vo, 21s. boards. 
 
4 Valuable Works 
 
 SIX SERMONS on the STUDY of the HOLY SCRIP- 
 TURES, their Nature, Interpretation, and some of their most important 
 Doctrines, preached before the University of Cambridge. To which are 
 annexed Two Dissertations; the first on the Reasonableness of the 
 Orthodox Views of Christianity as opposed to the Rationalism of Germany; 
 the second on the Interpretation of Prophecy generally, with an ori- 
 ginal Exposition of the Book of Revelation, shewing that the whole of 
 that remarkable Prophecy has long ago been fulfilled. By the Rev. S. Lee, 
 B.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Cambridge. One 
 Vol. 8vo, 14s. boards. 
 
 MAHOMETANISM UNVEILED ; an Inquiry in which 
 that Arch-Heresy, its Diffusion and Continuance, are examined on a new 
 principle, tending to confirm the Evidences, and aid the Propagation, of 
 the Christian Faith. By the Rev. Charles Forster, B.D., Perpetual 
 Curate of Ash-next-Sandwich, and one of the Six Preachers in the Cathedral 
 of Christ, Canterbury, formerly Domestic Chaplain to Bishop Jebb. Two 
 Vols. 8vo, 24s. boards. 
 
 THE WHOLE WORKS of the Most Reverend Father 
 in God, ROBERT LEIGHTON, D.D., Archbishop of Glasgow. To which 
 is prefixed an entire new Life of the Author, by the Rev. J. N. Pearson, 
 M.A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chaplain to the Most Noble the 
 Marquess Wellesley. Four Vols. 8vo, with a Portrait, 36s. boards. 
 
 " We have placed a new edition of Archbishop Leighton's Works at the head of this 
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 principally extracted from a spirited and eloquent Memoir prefixed to the new edition, by 
 the Rev. Norman Pearson. It is a reproach to the present age, that his valuable writings, 
 breathing as they do the sublimest and purest spirit of piety, rich in beautiful images and 
 classical learning, throughout abounding in practical reflections, and all expressed with the 
 sweetest and simplest eloquence, should have been neglected among us." — British Critic. 
 
 %* The above may be had, printed in a small but neat type, and com- 
 pressed into Two Volumes, price 21s. boards. 
 By the same Author, 
 A PRACTICAL COMMENTARY upon the FIRST EPISTLE of 
 ST. PETER, and other Expository Works. To which is prefixed an 
 entire new Life of the Author, by the Rev. J. N. Pearson, M. A. Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, &c. Two Volumes 8vo, with Portrait, 18s. boards. 
 *** Compressed into One Volume, 10s. 6d. 
 
 The WHOLE WORKS of the Right Rev. JEREMY TAY- 
 LOR, D.D., Lord Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore, with a Life 
 of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings. By the Right 
 Rev. Reginald Heber, D.D., late Lord Bishop of Calcutta. In 15 
 Volumes 8vo, new edition, price 9/. boards. 
 
 Also may be had separate, by the same Author, 
 
 HOLY LIVING and DYING ; together with Prayers, containing the 
 Whole Duty of a Christian, and the parts of Devotion fitted to all Occasions, 
 and furnished for all Necessities. One Vol. small 8vo, *js. boards. 
 
 %* This Edition has been carefully compared with the best octavo edi- 
 tions, all others of the same size printed of late years being deficient in the 
 Notes and the numerous quotations of the Author. 
 
 A COURSE of SERMONS for all the SUNDAYS of the YEAR. 
 Two Vols. 8vo, price 24s. boards. 
 
 The LIFE of the Right Rev. JEREMY TAYLOR. In One Vol. 
 8vo, with a Portrait, price 10s. 6d. boards 
 
Published %James Duncan. 5 
 
 The WORKS of the Right Rev. WILLIAM BEVERIDGE, 
 
 D.D., Lord Bishop of St. Asaph, now first collected : with a Memoir 
 of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings, by the Rev. 
 Thomas Hartwell Horne, B.D., of St. John's College, Cambridge ; 
 Author of the " Introduction to the Holy Scriptures." In Nine Vols. 
 8vo, with a Portrait, uniform with the Works of Bishop Taylor, hi. 8s, 
 boards. 
 
 THE LAST DAYS of cur LORD'S MINISTRY ; a Course 
 
 of Lectures delivered during Lent in Trinity Church, Coventry. By the 
 Rev. Walter Farq.uhar Hook, M.A., Prebendary of Lincoln, Vicar of 
 the Parish of the Holy Trinity, Coventry, and Chaplain in Ordinary to 
 His Majesty. One Vol. 8vo, 10s. 6d. boards. 
 
 A SECOND COURSE of SERMONS for the YEAR ; con- 
 taining Two for each Sunday, and one for each Holyday ; abridged from 
 the most eminent Divines of the Established Church, and adapted to the 
 Service of the Day : intended for the Use of Families and Schools. Dedi- 
 cated, by permission, to the Lord Bishop of London. By the Rev. J. R. 
 Pitman, A.M., alternate Morning Preacher of Belgrave and Berkeley 
 Chapels. In Two Vols. 8vo, 21s. boards. 
 
 " There is no question which the Clergy are more frequently asked, and to which they 
 find it more difficult to give a satisfactory reply, than this — What Sermons would they recom- 
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 greater part of modern discourses totally unfit for the purposes of domestic instruction, and 
 the old standards, unmodernised, are so little intelligible to common ears, that it is no easy 
 matter to point out any set of discourses embracing a sufficient variety to excite attention, 
 at the same time forcibly inculcating the pure doctrines and practical precepts of Christianity. 
 We really think that Mr. Pitman's work bids fair to supply the deficiency which has been so 
 much regretted." — Quarterly Theelog. Review, 
 
 %* A Third Edition, revised throughout, of the FIRST COURSE, is 
 just published, same size and price as above. 
 
 A SHORT HISTORY of the CHRISTIAN CHURCH, 
 
 from its Erection at Jerusalem down to the Present Time. Designed for the 
 Use of Schools, Families, &c. By the Rev. John Fry, B.A., Rector of 
 Desford, in Leicestershire. One Vol. 8vo, 12s. boards. 
 
 " His matter is unquestionably selected with judgment, and luminously arranged; his 
 language is clear and concise, and not deficient in elegance ; and we rise from the perusal 
 of his work with very favourable impressions of his character, with which otherwise we 
 are unacquainted." — Theological Revieiv. 
 
 '•' To sucn readers as wish for an Ecclesiastical History, written on the model of Milner's, 
 and animated by the same spirit, Mr. F.'s work will be highly acceptable, particularly as 
 it i^ complete, and comprised within a single volume." — Eclectic Review. 
 
 By the same Author, 
 
 OBSERVATIONS on the UNFULFILLED PROPHECIES of SCRIP- 
 TURE, which are yet to have their Accomplishment before the coming of 
 the Lord in Glory, or at the Establishment of his Everlasting Kingdom. 
 One Vol. 8vo. 10s. 6d. boards. 
 
 A NEW TRANSLATION and EXPOSITION of the very Ancient 
 BOOK OF JOB ; with Notes, explanatory and philological. One Vol. 8vo, 
 12s. boards. 
 
 LECTURES, Explanatory and Practical, on the EPISTLE of ST. PAUL 
 to the ROMANS. Second Edition, One Vol. 8vo, 12s. boards. 
 
 CANTICLES ; or, SONG OF SOLOMON : a new Translation, with 
 Notes, and an Attempt to interpret the Sacred Allegories contained in 
 that Book ; to which is added, an Essay on the Name and Character of the 
 Redeemer. One Vol. 8vo. Second Edition, 6s. boards. 
 
6 Valuable Works 
 
 BIBLIA HEBRAICA, secundum ultimam editionem Jos. 
 Athi^e, a Johanne Leusden denuo recognitam, recensita, atque ad 
 Masoram, et correctiores, Bombergi, Stephani, Plantini, aliorumque edi- 
 tiones, exquisite adornata, variisque notis illustrata. Ab Everardo Van 
 Der Hooght, V.D.M. Editio nova, recognita, et emendata, a Judah 
 D'Allemand. New Edition, in One Volume, on fine paper (1200 pages), 
 price 21s. boards ; and on inferior paper, but very superior to any Foreign 
 Edition, 15s. boards. 
 
 " The most correct Edition of the Hebrew Scriptures is the last reprint of Van der Hooght's 
 Hebrew Bible, which has been revised by Professor Hurwitz."— Journal of Education. 
 
 A GRAMMAR of the HEBREW LANGUAGE; com- 
 
 prised in a Series of Lectures, compiled from the best Authorities, and 
 augmented with much Original Matter, drawn principally from Oriental 
 Sources ; designed for the Use of Students in the Universities. By the 
 Rev. S. Lee, B.D. ; D.D. of the University of Halle; Honorary Member 
 of the Asiatic Society of Paris; Honorary Associate and F.R.S.L. and 
 M.R.A.S. &c. &c. ; and Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of 
 Cambridge. Second Edition. One Vol. 8vo, 14s. boards. 
 
 * m * Professor Lee is preparing (and nearly ready) for publication a 
 HEBREW and ENGLISH DICTIONARY, in One large Vol. 8vo. 
 
 AN ANALYSIS of the TEXT of the HISTORY of 
 JOSEPH, upon the Principle of Professor Lee's HEBREW GRAM- 
 MAR, and adapted to the Second Edition of it. By the Rev. Alfred 
 Ollivant, D.D. F.C.P.S., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Vice- 
 Principal of St. David's College, and one of the Examining Chaplains to 
 the Lord Bishop of St. David's. Third Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, 6s. 
 boards. 
 
 ELEMENTS of HEBREW GRAMMAR (without Points). 
 
 To which is prefixed a Dissertation on the Two Modes of Reading, with 
 or without Points. By Charles Wilson, D.D., late Professor of Church 
 History in the University of St. Andrew's. Fifth Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, 
 price 105. 6d. 
 
 A HEBREW PRIMER ; intended as an Introduction to the 
 Spelling and Reading of Hebrew with the Points, compiled for the Use 
 of Children and Beginners. By the Rev. A. M'Caul, A.M., of Trinity 
 College, Dublin. Fourth Edition. In octavo, Is. 6d. 
 
 CHRISTIAN RECORDS ; or, a Short and Plain History 
 
 of the CHURCH of CHRIST : containing the Lives of the Apostles ; 
 an Account of the Sufferings of Martyrs ; the Rise of the Reformation, 
 and the present State of the Christian Church. By the Rev. Thomas 
 Sims, M.A. Sixth Edition. One Volume, 18mo, with a beautiful 
 Frontispiece, 3s. 6d. boards. 
 
 " Every Protestant child and young person should be generally acquainted with the outline 
 of the history of the Church of Christ, and for this purpose we cannot recommend a better 
 manual than that before us."— Christian Observer. 
 
 *.* This little Volume has been in part translated into the modern Greek 
 and Chinese languages, by the Rev. Mr. Jowett and Dr. Milne ; and 
 the Author has received a Letter from the Right Rev. Dr. Corrie, Bishop 
 of Madras, dated Ship Exmouth, 21 June, 1835, with the following inti- 
 
 m ^' 1 Thave by me, and, intend to have printed,, please God I arrive at Mad™* the whole of Oik* 
 tian Records 'translated into Hindoostanee. This language is used by Mahomcdans all oier 
 India, and understood by most Hindoos."