S 495 
 i .L3 
 : Copy 1 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 FOR 
 
 Laboratory and Field Studies 
 
 IN- 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 -BY- 
 
 JOHN M. LECATO, A. B., A. M. 
 
 Head of the Department of Biology and Agriculture, Marshall College 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 HUNTINGTON, WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 SWAN PRINTING & STATIONERY COMPANV 
 
 HUXTIXOTOS, W. VA. 
 
/ 
 
A MANUAL 
 
 FOR 
 
 Laboratory and Field Studies 
 
 IN 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN M. LEGATO, A. B., A. M. 
 
 Head of the Department of Biology and Agriculture, Marshall College 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 HUNTINGTON, WEST VIRGINIA 
 
$> 
 
 c,<^ 
 
 V 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The aim of tliis manual is to givo the beginner in Agriculture something concrete to build upon be- 
 sides the ordinary text-book work, vvhieli amounts to little unless the student can deuionstirate the prin- 
 ciples set fortli in the liook for himself. ^ly abject is to make Agriculture a live subject instead of a 
 lifeless one, which is too often forced upon unwilling ears. 
 
 The work is planned for a one year's course, consisting of three hours of recitation and four hours 
 of laboratory work per week. A large number of the exercises are based upon Farmers' Bulletins pur- 
 posely, rather than text-books, since the Bulletins are availaible to all, wliile suitable reference books are 
 next to impossible to procure in many of our schools. I have also kept in mind the fact that many schools 
 cannot afford expensive apparatvis, and have arranged the exercises according'ly. The entire equipment 
 for a section of twelve can l)e purchased for $100.00 or less. 
 
 I wish to express my appreciation to Professor W. II. Franklin, who has read the manuscript 
 critically; to Professor W. A. Adamson, who criticised the chemistry part of the manual; and to Miss 
 Mary Donaldson, my associate, who tried out the Tree Key. Above all I wish to thank my wife, Esther 
 Virginia LeCato, without whose help this manual could not have been brought to completion. 
 
 J. M. LeCATO, 
 June 10, 1915. Marshall College, Huntington, W. Va. 
 
 )G1A416319 
 
 NOV -9 1915 
 
EQUIPMENT 
 
 Each student should provide himself with the following equipment: 
 
 1. A text-hook. 
 
 2. A cop}' of this manual. 
 
 3. One -i-H drawing peneil. 
 
 ■4. Two llanilla folders for laboratory records. 
 
 5. Other equipment will he furnished by the school. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR LABORATORY WORK. 
 
 1. The laboratory work is an essential part of the course and the final grade is largely determined by 
 the attitude of the student in the laboratory and the results accomplished. 
 
 2. Accuracy of statement is essential in writing up an exercise. Express the facts correctly. The 
 writings must lie in ink and must be legible. 
 
 3. Drawings should be carefully made with a 411 drawing pencil. Drawings made or inked with a 
 fountain pen cannot lie accepted. Grading will be upon neatness, accuracy and clearness. 
 
 4'. The student is held responsil)le for any exercise or part of exercise missed by absence. Arrange 
 for making up back work within a week after returning to the class. Credit is not given for exercises 
 worked outside the laboratory. 
 
 5. The records of each laboratory exercise will be collected at the close of the laboratory period. No 
 reports will be accepted after the time limit set by the instructor. 
 
 6. Do not mark or deface the laboratory tables or other furniture of the laljoratory. Injury to a 
 'microscope or other apparatus, caused by careless usage or abuse, or lost parts, are charged against the 
 
 student. If an instiimient is out of order, or if you do not understand anything about it, report to the 
 instructor at once. 
 
 FORESTRY. 
 
 A key to the common forest trees of West Virginia. 
 
 A Leaves linear, flat or awl shaped ; cone-bearing ; usually evergreen Conifers 
 
 B Leaves needle-like or flattened, single or in elustei"s. 
 C Leaves in clusters. 
 
 D Leaves and cones more than two inches long, evergreen Pine (Pinus) 
 
 DD Leaves and cones two inches or less in length, deciduous Larch (Larix) 
 
 CC Leaves not in clusters. 
 
 D Leaves stalked, cones %-ineh long Hemlock (Tsuga) 
 
 DD Leaves not stalked. 
 
 E Leaves flattened, soft; cones 2-4 inches long, erect _ Fir (Abies) 
 
 EE Leaves 4-sided, harsh; cones 3-G inches long, pendent Spruce (Picea) 
 
 BB Leaves scale-like. 
 
 C Branches flattened; fruit a cone Arborvitae or White Cedar (Thuja) 
 
 CC Branches not flattened; fruit a small blue berry Red Cedar (Juniperus) 
 
 AA Leaves broad and flat, not evergreen. 
 
 B Leaves and buds alternately or spirally arranged. 
 C Leaves simple. 
 
 D Margin of leaves toothed, saw-toothed or lobed. 
 
 E Branches thorny Hawthorn (Crataegus) 
 
 EE Branches not thorny. 
 
 F Leaves synmietrical at base. 
 
 G Leaves not lobed, but coarsely toothed on edges. 
 H Leaves elongate. 
 
 I Leaves 3-5 inches long, shiny beneath. Spray fine ; bark steel grey ; fruit a small 
 
 bur IBeech (Fagus) 
 
 II Leaves 4-8 inches long. 
 
 J Fruit a large bur; bark brownish, vertically furrowed Chestnut (Castanea) 
 
 JJ Fruit an acorn ; buds and leaves clustered on end of twig...Chestnut Oak (Quereus) 
 HH Leaves rounded; buds .scaly, often sticky; bark light colored. Poplar (Populus) 
 
GG Leaves not lobed but finely serrate. 
 
 H Leaf-blades more than three times as long as broad Willow (Salix) 
 
 HH Leaf-blades not three times as long as broad. 
 
 I Bark smooth; trunk fluted "Water Beech (Carpinus) 
 
 II Bark not smooth. 
 
 •J Bark stringy, grey brown _.. Iron wood (Ostrya) 
 
 JJ Bark coming oft in angular black flakes; twigs bitter Wild Cherry (Pruiiusl 
 
 JJJ Bark coming off in thin rolls Birch (Betula) 
 
 GGG Leaves lobed. 
 
 II Lobes with prickly points Scarlet, Red, Black and Pin Oaks (Quercus) 
 
 HH Lobes without prickly points. 
 
 I Leaves of two kinds on tree, lobed and not lobed. 
 
 J Leaves thin, glabrous, twigs spicy, aromatic Sassafras (Sassafi'as) 
 
 JJ Leaves thicker, pubescent, twigs exuding milky juice when cut...Mulberry (Morns) 
 II Leaves similar. 
 
 J Leaves truncate on top Tulip Tree (Liriodendrou; 
 
 J J Leaves not truncate, deeply lobed at base Wliite Oak ( Quercus ) 
 
 JJJ Leaves more or less triangular, or star-shaped. 
 
 K Bark peeling, white; fruit a smooth ball Sycamore (Plataniis) 
 
 KK Bark not peeling; fruit a spiny ball Sweet Gum (Liquidamber) 
 
 FF Leaves not symmetrical. 
 
 G Leaves doubly serrate; fruit a samara; tree vase-shaped in open Elm (Ulmus) 
 
 GG Leaves singly serrate. 
 
 II Leaves as long as broad, heart-shaped; fruit nut-like, hanging in clustere 
 
 Basswood (Tilia) 
 
 HH Leaves longer than broad, ovate lanceolate; fruit a dark purple drupe 
 
 Hackberry (Celtis) 
 
 DD Leaf margins smooth, not lol)ed. 
 
 E Leaves ovate to lanceolate; fruit a drupe Black Gum (Nyssa) 
 
 EP] Leaves lanceolate, petioles pubescent; fruit a berry Persimmon (Diospyros) 
 
 EEE Leaves rounded; fruit a pod , Redbud (Cercis) 
 
 CC Leaves compound. 
 
 D Twigs or branches armed. 
 
 E Twigs armed; leaflets not serrate Black Locust (Robinia) 
 
 EE Twigs unarmed; trunk and large branches armed; leaflets serrate...Honey Locust (Gleditsia) 
 DD Twigs or branches unarmed. 
 
 E Leaflets entire except at base. Leaves large, exuding milky, evil-smelling juice when broken 
 
 Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus) 
 
 EE Leaflets serrate. 
 
 F Leaflets more than 21/^ inches broad; twigs compact Hickory (Carya) 
 
 FF Leaflets less than 2i/o inches broad ; pith of twigs chambered Walnut (Juglans) 
 
 BB Leaves and buds oppositely arranged or whorled. 
 C Leaves simple. 
 
 D Leaves lobed Maple (Acer) 
 
 DD Leaves not lobed. 
 
 E Leaves serrate '.. Nannyberry ( Viburnum ) 
 
 EE Leaves entire. 
 
 F Leaves 3-5 inches long, spray fine Dogwood (Corn us) 
 
 FF Leaves 5-12 inches long, often whorlpd; fruit long cylindrical capsule Catalpa (Catalpa) 
 
 CC Leaves compound. 
 
 D Leaves digitately compound Ilorsechestnut or Buckeye (Aeseulus) 
 
 DD Leaves pinnately compound. 
 
 E Leaflets 3-5, samaras paired Box Elder (Acer) 
 
 EE Leaflets 5-11, samaras not paired Ash (Praxinus) 
 
 ,4 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN FORESTRY. 
 
 Acute — Sharp-pointed. 
 
 Alburmim — The sap wood. 
 
 Annual — Yearly. 
 
 Berry — A thin-rind juicy fruit, usually with more than one seed. 
 
 Blade — The broad part of a leaf. 
 
 Compound — PIa\'ing more than one leatiet. 
 
 Deciduous — Not persistent. Applied to leaves falling in autumn. 
 
 Digitate — Applied to a compound leaf in which all the leaflets radiate from the top of the petiole. 
 
 Drupe — A single seeded fleshy fruit. 
 
 Duramen — The heart wood. 
 
 Fluted — Not round, angular. 
 
 Glabrous — Without hair of any kind. 
 
 Inter node — The space between two nodes. 
 
 Lanceolate — Applied to leaves broadest at base and tapering to apex. 
 
 Lateral — .Coming from the side. 
 
 Latent — Appearing late or dormant. 
 
 Leaf Scar — Scar left by last year's leaf. 
 
 Lenticles — Small breathing pores that appear as dots upon the branches. 
 
 Linear — Applied to a leaf which is many times longer than broad, as that of the pine. 
 
 Settcd — Veins running into each other. 
 
 Node — The point on a stem from which a leaf develops. 
 
 Obovate — Broader at tip than at base. 
 
 Obtuse — Blunt or rounded. 
 
 Ovate — Rounded at both ends. 
 
 Pendent — Hanging. 
 
 Petiole — The stem of a leaf. 
 
 Pinnate — Applied to a compound leaf where the leaflets are arranged on each side of a common petiole. 
 
 Pome — An apple-like fruit. 
 
 Pubescent — Downy or hairy. 
 
 Samara — A dry fruit with a wing-like appendage, as that of the maple. 
 
 Serrate — Toothed. 
 
 Spray — The twigs at the end of a branch. 
 
 Stipule — A leaf-like organ at the base of a petiole. 
 
 Symmetrical — Having both sides exactSy alike. 
 
 Trr)ninal — End. 
 
 Truncate — Cut off. 
 
 EXERCISE 1. Leaves: ]\Iake an outline drawing of three of the leaves furnished you. Identify and 
 label the following parts: Blade, veins, petiole (stem), and stipules (if present). Describe each leaf, 
 using such of the following terms as applicable. If you do not know the meaning of these terms consult 
 glossary above. 
 
 Blade : Simple or compound. 
 
 Venation : Parallel, netted, palmate, pinnate. 
 
 General Form : Linear, oblong, lanceolate, oval, ovate, obovate. 
 
 Apex: Acute, obtuse, truncate. 
 
 JIargin : Entire, serrate, dentate, sinuate, lobed. 
 
 Compound Lea\'es: Pinnat«ly compound, bi-pinuately compound, palmately compound. 
 
 Petioles: Round, flat. 
 
 EXERCISE 2. Stems: Study the branch of the basswood or some other common tree. Identify and 
 locate all of the following features present: Node, internode, leaf sears, stipular scars, lal^r-al buds, term- 
 inal buds, branch scars, lateral bud sear, t^'minal bud scars, lenticles, latent buds, and annual rings. 
 Draw and label carefully the features noted. 
 
 EXERCISE 3. Fruits : Study the fruits of the foUlowing trees : Maple, Elm, Walnut, Chestnut, 
 Ash, Apple, Sweet Gum, Sycamore, Persimmon, Black Gum, Basswood, Locust. Write a description of 
 each of the aliove fruits, using such of the following terms as applicable : Samara, pome, nut, pod, berry, 
 drupe. 
 
 EXERCISE 4. Field Trip : Oliject to study trees. Each student should provide himself with an old 
 magazine for collecting leaves, a small box for collecting fruits, and a cheap notebook for taking notes. 
 Do not try to write a detailed description of the tree in the field, but see that you have the following 
 points before lea\dng each tree: (1) common name, (2) branch system, (3) form of leaf, (4) shape of 
 tree as a whole, (5) kind and color of bark, (6) fruit, (if present). 
 
 Return to the laboratory and fill in the following table: 
 
 5 (Over; 
 
EXERCISE 4.— Continued. 
 
 NAME OF TREE 
 
 No. of 
 
 Species 
 Found 
 
 Branch 
 System 
 
 Form of Leaf Shape of Tree 
 
 BARK 
 
 Fruit 
 Color Texture 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
EXERCISE o. Classify fifteen of the common trees of this locality aeeording to the outline below : 
 
 Common Name 
 
 tieuus 
 
 Brani-li System 
 
 Leavks 
 Simple or Form \'fn;iliou 
 Compound 
 
 Fruit 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
EXERCISE 6. Identification by Means of Key. Identify by means of the key the three trees 
 selected. Write down the steps as you go, but do not put anything down until you are reasonably sure 
 you are correct. 
 
 EXERCISE 7. Identification by Means of Key. Identify as many species as possible. Have the 
 identification of each species approved before youstart to identify another one. 
 
 EXERCISE 8. The Study of Sections of Oak Wood. Examine a cross section of a young oak 
 tree. Note three regions: (1) the heart, wood, duramen; (2) the sap wood, the alMirnum ; (3) the bark. 
 Do you note any difference in color in the three? If so, what? Which of the three is the hardest? What 
 special function does each of these regions perform ? Notice concentric rings from the pith outward. How 
 many are there in your specimen? Are all of them the same distance apart? If not, why are some closer 
 together than others? WTiy are these rings called annual rings? Notice the pith rays running across the 
 rings. Are all of them the same length ? How can you account for the difference in length ? What work 
 do the pith rays do? Draw a surface view of the section, showing all parts studied. 
 
 EXERCISE 9. The Study of Sections op Wood. Study cubes of oak wood furnished you. Pic- 
 ture in your mind how it w-as cut. Identify all markings. Locate the folio wng sections : (1) transverse, 
 (2) i-adial longitudinal (cut parallel to rays), (3) tangential longitudinal (cut at right angles to rays). 
 Describe the appearance of the pith rays in each. Draw a diagram showing how quarter sawn boards 
 are cut. Wliat is the advantage of quarter sawing over tiat sawing? Which is the most saving of lum- 
 ber? Why is quarter saviTi wood so high priced? Examine some furniture. How can you tell which has 
 been flat sawn and which quarter sawm? 
 
 EXERCISE 10. Microscopic Sections of Wood. Examine the sections given you with the low power 
 of the microscope or with a hand lens. Is it a cross or longitudinal section? How can you tell the 
 difference ? 
 
 Note in the center of the stem the pith, made up of thin-walled clear cells. Just outside the 
 pith note the wood or xylem. Can you see large openings in the wood? These are the tracheal ves- 
 sels. Their use is to take water and minerals from the roots to the leaves. Is there any regularity 
 in their distribution ? Notice between the tracheae the wood fibres, small cells with thick walls. On the 
 outer edge of the xylem note a ring of thin-walled brick-shaped cells, the cambium. This is the dividing 
 line between the bark and the wood. It is the growing region of the stem. All of the tissue on the 
 outside of the cambium layer is known as the phloem. How many different kinds of tissue do you see? 
 
 Do all of the cell walls in this region have the same thickness? On the very outside of the phloem 
 note a single layer of cells called the epidermis. Note the pith rays running from the pith outward. 
 
 EXERCISE 11. The Estimation of the Number of Board Feet per Acre. Count all trees in a 
 circular area of 118 feet in diameter (1/4 acre) ; measure several trees and select one as nearly the average 
 as possible. How many 16 feet logs may be cut from it? Estimate the diameter of the tree inside of the 
 bark at top and Iwttom; then add these figures and divide the result by 2. Square this number, then sub- 
 tract 60, multiply by 8 ; this gives the number of board feet in a 16 foot log. Multiply the number of 
 board feet by the number of 16 foot logs found in the average tree. This ^viYl give you the number of 
 board feet found in the average tree; then miiltiply this number by the number of trees found in one- 
 fourth of an acre and you will get the number of board feet in this area. 
 
 REFERENCES ON FORESTRY AND RELATED SUBJECTS. 
 
 Selected from Farmers' Bulletins. 
 
 Bulletin No. 99. — Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 
 
 Bulletin No. 134. — Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. 
 
 Bulletin No. 173.— Primer of Forestry, Part I. 
 
 Bulletin No. 113.— The Apple and How to Gronv It. 
 
 Bulletin No. 181.— Pruning. 
 
 Bulletin No. 358.— Primer of Forestry, Part II. 
 
 Bulletin No. 467. — The Control of the Chestnut-bark Disease. 
 
 Bulletin No. 482.— The Pear and How to Grow It. 
 
 Bulletin No. 491. — The Profitable ^lanagement of the Small Apple Orchard on the General Farm. 
 
 Bulletin No. 492. — The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Apple. 
 
 Bulletin No. 582.— The Use of Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease. 
 
 Bulletin No. 600. — An Outfit for Boring Taprooted Stumps for Blasting. 
 
 Bulletin No. 622.— Basket Willow Culture. 
 
 Bulletin No. 631. — Growing Peaches. 
 
 Bulletin No. 632. — Growing Peaches. 
 
 Bulletin No. 633. — Growing Peaches. 
 
 SECTION II.— SOILS. 
 
 EXERCISE 12. The Study of Soil Particles. Examine samples of gravel, sand, peat, clay, loam, 
 and silt. Do you note any difference in size of particles? Take some of each and rub between thumb and 
 forefinger. Which has the smallest particles? Take very small samples of each soil and put them on a 
 
slide. Examine with the hand lens or with the comiJouud iiiierosecpe. Are all of the grains the same 
 size, color, and texture? If not, what are the chief differences ' Which has tlie most decayed plant 
 matter in it? Is the amount of decayed plant matter and the color associated in any way? Describe 
 each soil and draw several particles of each. If one particle is tive times larger than another, denote 
 size by 5X. Denote the smallest by X. 
 
 EXERCISE 13. The Studv of Soil Particles. Fill tive jars lialf full of water, then put into No. 1 
 four spoonfuls of sand ; into No. 2, clay ; into No. 3, silt ; into No. 4, loam. Shake each thoroughly for two 
 minutes, then set aside. Which became clear first? lias the time of settling any relation to the size of 
 particles ? 
 
 EXERCISE 14. Clay and Sandy Soils. C^iay is called a heavy soil, and sand a light soil. Fill 
 two cans of equal weight, one with clay and the other with sand ; pack lioth down and weigh. What 
 results? Take a shallow pan and fill it three-quarter-, full of clay. Take another and till it three-quarters 
 full of sand. Put half a pint of water on each, then work both with a stick. Which works the easier? 
 Put both away until the next laboratory period. Describe the appearance of both. Would you advise a 
 farmer to plow just after a rain? Do the terms heavy and light refer to the actual weight of soils or to 
 the ease or difficulty of cultivation? 
 
 EXERCISE 15. The Porosity of Soils and Their Capacity to Hold Rainfall. Pill five soil tubes 
 with difTerent kinds of soils. Compact each tube by jarring it lightly upon the table, then weigh. Pour 
 water into each tulw just rapidly enough to keep the surface soil covered. Time the interval until the 
 first drop appears in the receptacle. Stop pouring water into the tube at once, but put a piece of rubber 
 cloth or waxed paper over the top of the tube to prevent evaporation. Weigh each tube as soon as it stops 
 dripping. Figure out per cent, of gain in each case. This represents the soil's water holding capacity. 
 Make several practical applications of the principles brought out in this experiment. 
 
 EXERCISE 16. The Ability of Soils to Take Moisture from L<jwer Levels. Set up this experi- 
 ment exactly as in Exercise No. XIV., but this time immerse the .soil tubes into jars of water. Record the 
 time it takes the water to reach the surface of each soil. Upon what physical action does the rise of the 
 water in the tube depend? Discuss this action thoroughly and give its practical bearing in fanning. 
 
 EXERCISE 17. The Effect of a Mulch. Take three pans and fill them nearly full of loam. Wet 
 the soil in each thoroughly, but do not have an excess of water. Press the soil in one pan down; leave 
 the second just as it is; and put a layer of sand over the third. Weigh the three and set aside until the 
 next laboratory period, then re-weigh. Record results. WHiat is a mulch? Would you advise a farmer 
 to cultivate frequently during a drought? Give reasons for your answer. 
 
 EXERCISE 18. The Effect of Lime on Clay and Sandy Soils. Take two quart cans and fill 
 each three-quarters full of clay; add three spoonfuls of lime to one, wet both with an excess of water 
 and stir until the clay and the lime are thorouglily mixed. Examine both after several days and see 
 which is the more easily crumbled. Why the difference? What do you mean by a well flocculated soil? 
 Repeat this experiment with sand. What differences do you note in the effect of lime on each soil? 
 
 EXERCISE 19. The Per Cent of Air in Soils. Put 2.50 cc. of sand, clay, silt, loam, and humus in 
 five different beakers. Pour water into each beaker from a graduate until it reaches the surface of each 
 soil. The volume of water required to wet the different soils is approximately the volume of air in each 
 soil. Find the percentage of air in each soil. Can you see any reason why seeds often fail to come up in 
 marshy soils? 
 
 EXERCISE 20. The Action of Frost on Clay. Take a pint of clay and mix it thoroughly with 
 water and work it into a ball ; bake it for twenty minutes, moisten it and then set it out in the open 
 for several nights during freezing weather. Make another ball of clay the same way, but do not let it 
 freeze. Examine both after three days. Describe the appearance of each. From the results of this ex- 
 periment do you think fall plowing of clay land advisable? Can you give any other advantages in fall 
 plo\nng ? 
 
 EXERCISE 21. The Effect of Color on the Temperature of Soil. Fill a shallow 1k)x full of sand 
 which has been darkened with lampblack ; fill another with sand that has been whitened with lime ; fill 
 a third with sand and do not change its color. Lay each box flat upon the ground and insert the bulb 
 of a thermometer about half inch under the surfaces of each. Record the temperature hourly of each 
 on a sunny day. Other things being equal, what color of soil would you try to get if you were growing 
 early vegetables. Give reasons for your answer. 
 
 EXERCISE 22. The Effect op Drainage on the Temperature of Soil. Take two quart cans and 
 fill both wdth the same kind of soil. Wet the soil of each thoroughly, but drain one can by puncliing 
 holes in its bottom. Insert the bulb of a thermometer half inch under the surface of each soil and set 
 them in the sunlight, and record hourly temperatures. Wliich of these soils could be worked earliest in 
 the spring, and which would keep crops growing the longest in the fall? 
 
EXERCISE 23. The Effect of Exposure to the Sun on the Temperature op Soil. Fill three 
 boxes about four inches deep with the same kind of soil and set them out on a sunny day. Place one 
 level, the second inclined to the south, and the third inclined to the north at the same angle. Insert the 
 bulb of a thermometer about one inch under the surface of each and record the hourly temperatures. 
 Which is the warmer, a flat field, one that slopes to the north, or one that slopes to the south? Which do 
 you think would be the driest by April loth? 
 
 EXERCISE 24. Soil and Subsoil. Take a spade or soil auger and collect the soil and subsoil from 
 several nearby fields. Note carefully the color of each. To what is the dark color in the surface soil 
 due? How far down does it extend? Which soil is the more compact? Which contains the most 
 moisture ? 
 
 EXERCISE 25. The Productivity of Soil and Subsoil. Take two flower pots, fill one with soil 
 and the other with subsoil. Plant several grains of wheat or some other grain in each. Record the growth 
 of each for three weeks. Why did the wheat grow better in one spot than in the other? What effect 
 upon the fertility of the field has the rapid washing away of the surface soil ? 
 
 EXERCISE 26. The Relative Amount of Water and Organic Matter in the Soil and Subsoil. 
 Take 20 grams of soil and put it into a crucible which has already been weighed. Put the soil in an oven 
 and heat for one hour at 110 degrees. Re-weigh. This drives all of the water out of the soil. Burn this 
 same soil in a crucible or iron bowl for one hour then weigh again. This removes the humus. Repeat 
 this experiment with the subsoil. Using the above data, fill in the following table. Fill in second column 
 with data taken from another student. 
 
 
 Soil 
 
 Subsoil Soil 
 
 Subsoil 
 
 Weight of crucible 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight of crucible plus soil 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight of soil 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Weight of both M'hen dry 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent, of H^'O 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight of both after burning 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent, of organic matter 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per cent, of mineral matter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXERCISE 27. ^Methods of Testing the Acidity or Alkalinity of Soil. Take two soils, one of 
 which is known to be slightly acid or alkaline, put a blue piece of litmus paper in each. Wliat results ? Repeat, 
 using pink litmus. Are your results the same? If pink paper turns blue, the soil is said to be alkaline 
 or sweet. If, however, the pink |)aper remains pink, the soil is acid or sour. Next, take a little lime and 
 put it into the can which is acid. Test again and record your results. The lime neutralizes or destroys 
 the acidity of the soil. Any excess of lime above that necessary to do this makes the soil alkaline. Do 
 you know any reason why clover will not grow on acid soil? Does sheep sorrel show the presence of 
 acidity or alkalinity in soil? What is the best remedy for acid soils? 
 
 (Note to Teacher) — If acid and alkaline soils cannot be collected in your locality you can make 
 the soil acid by adding a little diluted sulphuric acid ; alkaline by adding a diluted solution of potassium 
 hydi'oxide. 
 
 10 
 
EXERCISE 28. Field Trip. Ob.ject, to Study Soils in This Locality. Each student should bring 
 with him a rough note book and several pieces of litmus paper. Note the general lay ot the land. Would 
 you class the land as hilly, level or rolling? Are the streams rapid or slow tlowing? What use is made 
 of the steep hillsides? What is done to prevent them from washing? Do the crops vary in any way 
 with the exposure? Why are the valleys generally fertile? Is the soil clay, sand, or loam? Is it sweet 
 or sour? (Test with litmus paper.) What crops are grown on each soil? 
 
 EXERCISE 29. Fertilizers. Examine samples of several well-known fertilizei-s. Note especially 
 color, size of particles, odor. Put a small bit of eacli in a test tube and soak it in water for one hour. 
 Wliich is the most soluble ? Which the least ? Which of the fertilizers do you thing would be the most 
 quickly available for the plant? What elements are supplied in each fertilizer? What three elements 
 are usually lacking in soil? What one element may be supplied by growing leguminous crops? 
 
 REFERENCE'S ON SOILS AND RELATED SUBJECTS. 
 
 Selected from Farmers' Bulletins. 
 Bulletin No. 77.— The Liming of Soils. 
 Bulletin No. 138. — Irrigation in Field and Garden. 
 Bulletin No. 245. — Renovation of Worn-out Soils. 
 Bulletin No. 263. — Practical Information for Beginners in Irrigation. 
 Bulletin No. 266. — Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. 
 Bulletin No. 371. — Drainage of Irrigated Lands. 
 Bulletin No. 373.— Irrigation of Alfalfa. 
 Bulletin No. 404. — Irrigation of Orchards. 
 Bulletin No. 406. — Soil Conservation. 
 Bulletin No. 421.— Control of Blowing Soils. 
 Bulletin No. 494. — Lawns and Lawn Soils. 
 Bulletin No. 524. — Tile Drainage on the Farm. 
 
 SECTION III.— THE PLANT. 
 
 EXERCISE 30. A Seed-bearing Plant. Study a common plant of your neighborhood. Give its 
 common name. Note four chief regions, (1) Root, (2) Stem, (3) Leaf, (4) Flower. What is tlie chief 
 work of each of these parts? How is each part especially adapted to do this work? 
 
 (a) The Root: Would you classify this root as fibrous or fleshy? Shallow or deep-rooted ? Are the 
 branch roots given off according to any .system? Why are some roots highly prized by man and animals? 
 Name three roots eaten by man. 
 
 (b) The Stem: Is this stem woody or herbaceous? Climbing or upright? Are the branehes given 
 off according to any system? What? The place where a bud or leaf is given off is called a node, the 
 region between two nodes is called an internode. Huw many nodes are there on this plant? 
 
 (c) The Leaf: Are the leaves simple or compound? What is their shape? Is the veining netted, 
 parallel or palmate? 
 
 (d) The Flower: Identify the following parts : (1) Sepals, (2) Petals, (3) Stamens, (4) Pistil. 
 How many sepals has this flower? What is their color? Their use? The sepals taken collectively is 
 called the calyx. Count the number of petals. Why are they colored? Do flowers that bloom at night 
 have brightly colored petals or are they mostly white ? Can you give any reasons for the difference ? The 
 petals taken collectively are called the Corolla. How many stamens has this plant? Note that each is 
 made up of a long slender stalk-like part, the filament, and an enlarged part, the anther. The anther is 
 filled with a yellow dust, the pollen. Examine some of the pollen under a hand lens or a microscope. 
 What is its shape? Its use? In the center of the flower locate the pistil or pistils. It is made up of 
 three parts: The ovary is the large bulbous part at the bottom of the pistil. Cut a cross section of it. 
 How many compartments is it divided into? What are in these compartments? Arising from the ovary 
 note a slender portion, the style. What are its functions? Describe the stigma at the top of the style. 
 Why is it broad and flattened? Draw a complete plant, labeling parts noted. Also draw a flower, show- 
 ing its parts. 
 
 EXERCISE 31. The Absorptkjn of Water from the Soil. Take two flower pots and put the same 
 amount of soil in each; plant three grains of corn in one; water each pot daily with the same amount 
 of water until the corn in the one is at least three inches tall. Weigh both pots, then quickly tie a rubber 
 cloth or a piece of waxed paper around each, leaving only room for the corn to protrude through. Let 
 each pot stand for one week, remove the paper and re-weigh. What percentage of its weight did each 
 lose? Wliat conclusions do you draw from this experiment? 
 
 EXERCISE 32. Osmosis. Take a piece of bladder or animal membrane and tie it over the end of a 
 thistle tube ; now fill the tube with a solution of water and molasses ; immerse the tube into pure water and 
 record the height of the liquid in the tube daily. What is osmosis ? Why is this experiment given ? Com- 
 pare this apparatus with a cell. 
 
 11 
 
EXERCISE 33. The Effect of Solutions op j^iffebent Strength on Roots. Take several radish 
 seedlings, put one in distilled water, another in water the volume of which is one-fifth molasses, and a 
 third in a solution which is one-fifteenth molasses. Examine each at the end of twenty minutes. Are the 
 seedlings changed? How? Explain fully. Why should farmers avoid putting strong fertilizers near 
 tender seedlings? Why is a salt put on meat to preserve it? 
 
 EXERCISE 34. Plants Get Pood Materlvl from the Earth. Take two quarts of sand and burn 
 it until all of the humus has been completely burned out. Now make a soil solution by mixing two quarts 
 ox ricii soil taken from lieneath a manure heap with six quarts of distilled or rain water; stir thoroughly 
 and drain off this water. Next, plant two grains of corn in each pot of the humus free soil, water one 
 with rain or distilled water and the other with the s lil solution. Water as needed and record the growth 
 of the corn in each pot for four weeks. Is the difference in the seed planted or is it due to some other 
 reason ? 
 
 EXERCISE 35. 1'lants Give Off ^Ioisture. Take a plant that has several well developed leaves 
 on it. Select a piece of cardboard the size of the pot or a little larger and cut a slit in it large enough 
 to go around the plant. Seal the slit with wax or tallow so no moisture can escape from the pot below. 
 Cover the plant with a tumbler and set in a warm sunny place. Note the number, of minutes before 
 moisture will be condensed on the inner surface of the glass. If a square inch of leaf surface gives off 
 half gram of water per hour, how much water will be given off in a day (12 hours) by an oak which has 
 600,000 leaves, each leaf averaging eight square inches of surface? 
 
 EXERCISE 36. Plants JLusiufacture Food Only in the Presence of Sunlight. Take some com- 
 mon plant, as the geranium, and put it in the sunlight for a day. At the same time take another plant 
 and put it in a dark room or cover it with something that excludes all of the light. Toward evening pick 
 some of the leaves from each plant and boil them in alcohol, (this removes the green coloring matter of 
 the leaf). Lay these leaves on a white plate and cover Iheiii with iodine. If there is any starch in the 
 leaves it will turn black or bluish in color. What two lessons do you learn from this experiment ? 
 
 EXERCISE 37. Carbon and Cvrbon Dioxide. 'I':ike a piece of green wood and bui'n it in a test tube 
 where only a small amount of air can get to it. Keep burning it until all gas and smoke is given off. 
 What have you left? Give its color and any other noticeable characteristics. Soak it in water for half an 
 hour. Does it dissolve? Pour some weak acid upon it, what results? Do you think a plant could take 
 any of this substance in through its roots ? Why not ? 
 
 Now, take a piece of this same substance and hold it over a flame. Does it burn readily? Where does 
 it go since there are no ashes left? What do we mean when we say a substance is oxidized? How do 
 plants get their earlron? The gas formed by the burning of carbon is called carbon dioxide. Its pres- 
 ence may be detected with lime water. Take a tube of lime water and blow your breath into it several 
 times. If a whitish film comes to the surface of the lime water it indicates the presence of carbon dioxide. 
 Why are growing plants often recommended for sickrooms? 
 
 EXERCISE 38. The Location of the Growing Region of a Root. Take several vigorous corn seed- 
 lings which have been germinated in a moist chamber. Jlark each at intervals of one-quarter inch from 
 tip of root to grain, either with waterproof ink or by tying pieces of dark cotton around tlie root. (Do 
 not injure the root or expose it too long to the dry air of the room.) Examine at the end of two days. 
 Why is it especially harmful to cut the tips off growing roots? 
 
 EXERCISE 39. The Dissolving Action op Roots. Take a piece of smooth marble about the size 
 of a cigar hax and one-quarter inch in thickness; put it info the box, cover it with humus, and plant corn 
 in the box. At the end of three weeks pull up the corn and carefully wash the dirt off the stone. Can you 
 see traces of the roots etched in the stone? Does this experiment help you to understand why plants can 
 grow in eloddy and roclcy soil? 
 
 EXERCISE 40. Fungi. Take a piece of bread and dampen it, then expose it to the air of the 
 laboratory for a few minutes. Observe every three days. By the end of a week there should be a cob- 
 webby growth over the surface of the bread. What is the eommon name for this substance? Two kinds 
 of fungi are likely to appear, a green one with fan-like heads, (Penicillium), and a gray or blackish one 
 with globular heads, (Rhizopus). Are these plants parasites or saprophytes? Compare them with the 
 green plant just studied. 
 
 The black heads of the gray fungus are fruiting bnrlies. Notice that within each head is a number 
 of spherical bodies, the spores. Spores differ from seed by the fact that seeds are never formed without 
 the union of the male germ with the egg, while spores are without sex, and may reproduce the plant with- 
 out uniting with another spore. How did the spores get to the bread ? What is your opinion concerning 
 their numbers? Draw a filament of one of these fungi and show several fruiting heads. 
 
 EXERCISE 41. Bacteria. Take several lima beans and place them in lukewarm water for forty- 
 eight hours. At the end of this time note a film on the surface of the water; put some of this substance 
 on a clean slide and obsen'e under a microscope. Three different types of bacteria should be present : 
 
 12 (Over) 
 
(1) a round form, (2) a rod-like form, (3) a cork-screw form. Notice their methods of locomotion. Have 
 they legs? Bacteria reproduce by simply dividing into two parts. Do you see any doing this? Dra,w 
 the fornLs noted. If a single bacterium divides once every fifteen minutes, how many descendents will 
 it have at the end of twelve hours ? 
 
 EXERCISE 42. Bacteria on Legumes. Dig up a clover plant or some other legume and wash its 
 roots carefully. Do you see small tubercles on the roots ? Are they more abundant on the main or branch 
 roots? About how many are there to the linear inch? What causes them? Why do farmers lime fields 
 that are to be planted in leguminous crops ? What element do leguminous crops bring to the soil ? Name 
 four other leguminous crops planted in this locality. 
 
 SECTION IV. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 EXERCISE 43. The Corn Kernel. Examine the corn kernel carefully. What difference do you 
 note between the two broad sides? On the upper surface observe the scar left by the silk. Now examine 
 a soaked grain. How many seed coats has it? Remove the seed coats and locate the "germ" or embryo. 
 What per cent, of the whole grain does the embryo comprise? Surrounding the embryo note a white sub- 
 stance, the starchy endosperm. What is its use? Surrounding the starchy endosperm note an extremely 
 hard substance, the horny endosperm. 
 
 Carefully remove the embryo; the part nearest the top of the kernel is called the ijlurnule, the part 
 nearest the tip is called the radicle. What does each of these parts fonn? 
 
 EXERCISE 44. The Bean. Compare a soaked with a dry lima bean. Which is the larger? Note 
 the external markings. The scar in the center is called the liiJum. What caused it? Near the hilum locate 
 a small opening, the micropyU. It is the place where the pollen entered to fertilize the bean. Can you 
 tliink of any other use it may have? 
 
 Remove the seed coats. How many has this seed? Within the seed coats note two fleshy parts, the 
 cotyledons. Between the cotyledons locate the plumule. The part below the plumule is called the hypoeotpl. 
 What is its function? Make two drawings (1) showing the hilum and mieropyl, (2) a half bean showing 
 cotyledon, plumule, and hypocotyl in their proper positions. Write a description of a bean, comparing it 
 with a corn kernel. 
 
 EXERCISE 45. The Corn Seedling. Identify in the seedling all parts studied in the mature kernel. 
 Select a series showing different stages of growth. Draw. Carefully describe the changes which have taken 
 lilace. What disposition is being made of the endosperm? Compare the growth of plumule and radicle. 
 
 EXERCISE 46. The Bean Seedling. Locate in a drawing all parts studied in the mature bean seed 
 and describe the changes that have taken place during germination. Trace the process of germination step 
 by step from its beginning until the first leaves are fully opened. What structures do you find that were 
 not present in the mature seed? 
 
 EXERCISE 47. Yellow Lupine. Seect ten good lupine seeds and put them into a glass of water. 
 Examine at the end of three days. How many have swelled? What does swelling indicate? Stick half of 
 tliose not swelled with a pin and set aside for two days. How many have germinated l)y this time ? Why 
 didn't all of them germinate at once? Wliy did all of those stuck germinate? Is it an advantage or dis- 
 advantage to the plant to liave seeds germinating at different times? Give reasons. Why is it clover will 
 not all come up the first year? 
 
 EXERCISE 48. Factors Necessary for Germination : Air, ^Moisture, Heat. Take four good 
 corn kernels and put them into a bottle of water that has been recently boiled, but not hot. (Why boil 
 the water?) Now pour slowly some kerosene on the surface of the water. What does this do? Observe 
 and record any changes in the grain. 
 
 Take four good corn kernels and plant them in some perfectly dry earth. Observe at the end of a 
 week. Have they germinated? Why not? Take four good corn kernels and plant them in some moist 
 soil that has been kept in a refrigerator for at least six hours. Replace them in the refrigerator and 
 ob.serve at the end of a week. Have they germinated? What three factors are necessary for germination? 
 
 13 
 
EXERCISE 49. Germination Table. Plant seeds of at least fifteen different plants. Label each pot, 
 putting name of seed and date planted. Fill in the following table : 
 
 KIND OF SEED 
 
 No. of Days to Appear ^^^^J^^ZU ' Below^ro'linl '"'■ "' «-<» ^-"^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
EXERCISE 50. Propagation by Spores. Take some of the spores of the black mould found on 
 bread and put it on various parts of a cut sweet potato. Keep the potato moist and in a warm dark 
 place for a few days. In three or four days note the young whitish growth of mould on the inoculated 
 parts. Take another sweet potato and cut the same away but do not inoculate it. Compare results. 
 
 EXERCISE 51. Propagation by Stems. The Irish Potato. Identify the proximal or attached end 
 of the potato and the "eyes". What are the "eyes"? Are they arranged according to any system? If 
 so, what is the system? At which end of the potato are they more abundant? Judging from position and 
 relation to the stem, are there rudimentary leaves on the potato? Does the potato in any way serve the 
 function of a root ? Is it a root or a stem ? Give all evidences for your conclusion. Draw, showing all 
 points studied. 
 
 Hake a cross-section of the potato and examine the cut surface for different regions of tissue. What 
 different regions do you find ? 
 
 Examine a thin section of the potato under a microscope. What are the grains and what is their 
 relation to the cell of the potato? Study the structure of a single starch grain under the high power of 
 the microscope. Draw. Trace the food material stored in the cells of a potato from its manufacture in 
 the leaves of the plant to its consumption in the development of a shoot of next season. What is the func- 
 tion of the potato tuber? Explain the absence of seeds in some varieties of potatoes. 
 
 Compare a potato with the skin intact with one from which it has been removed for twenty-four hours. 
 What is the function of the skin? Observe the lenticeh in the skin. Should potatoes be stored in a very 
 dry atmosphere? Should they be allowed to sprout in storage? Explain. If sprouts are removed will 
 others appear? 
 
 Gxii, a potato into several pieces, some with eyes and others without eyes. Plant those with eyes in one 
 flower pot and those without eyes in another pot. Compare at the end of ten days. 
 
 EXERCISE 52. Propagation by' Roots. The Svfeet Potato. Examine sweet potatoes which have 
 started to grow. Do you find anything that corresponds to the "eyes" of the Irish potato? Is there any 
 system in the arrangement of the small roots and the shoots which have started to grow? If so, what is 
 that arrangement ? Which end of the potato bears the majority of the new shoots ? Does this depend on 
 which end of the potato is uppermost while it is germinating? How do you explain this? From what 
 kind of buds do the new shoots arise? What relation exists between the new roots and the new shoots? 
 Of what advantage is this in the propagation of the plants? Draw, showing above points. 
 
 Is the sweet potato a root or a stem? State clearly the distinction between root and stem. What is 
 the principal function of the sweet potato? How does this compare with the tuber of the Irish potato? 
 How are sweet potatoes propagated? 
 
 EXERCISE 53. Propagation by Cuttings, (a ) Soft cuttings. Select a vigorous shoot from a 
 geranium, rose, begonia, tomato, or sweet potato, and divide it up into parts having two or more nodes ; 
 trim the leaves to about half of their surface. Why do this? Insert the cutting in moist sand about half 
 of its length. Dig up a cutting every five days. How long is it before the first roots are formed? 
 
 (b) Hard cuttings. Select shoots of dormant mature wood of last season's growth from grape and 
 willow. Divide the shoot in pieces from four to six inches long, so as to include two or more buds. 
 These may be planted at once in moist, well-packed sand, or kept over winter in the cellar and planted 
 the following spring. 
 
 EXERCISE 5-1. Propagation by Budding. Select a bud stick which has plump, well-matured buds 
 on it. Pare off the buds by cutting a shield-shaped incision around each bud, leaving a small bit of the 
 wood tissue on the bud. Cut the leaf blade off below the bud, but leave the petiole on to form a handle 
 for the bud. 
 
 Now, select a good healthy seedling which is at least as large as an ordinary pencil. Make a T-shaped 
 incision in the seedling about two inches above the ground. Loosen the hark on both sides of the incision 
 and insert the bud (using the leaf petiole as a handle) until the cut surface of the bud comes in contact 
 with the cut surface of the stock. Tie the bud firmly in place with raffia or worsted string, hut see that 
 the string does not press against the bud itself. At the end of two weeks examine the bud. If it is dried 
 and shriveled, the seedling should be re-budded. In either case cut the binding string. Why? The oper- 
 ation is now complete until the following spring; then cut off the seedling just above the bud. Wliy is 
 this necessary? 
 
 The more successful fruit growers always bud on the north side of the seedling. Can you give any 
 reason for this practice? Name five trees that can be budded successfully. 
 
 EXERCISE 55. The ^Making op Grafting Wax. Weigh out 10 grams of resin, 5 grams of beeswax 
 and 21/0 grams of tallow or linseed oil. .Melt these three ingredients together until each is thoroughly 
 liquified, then pour the liquid into cold water. Grease your hands with tallow and begin to pull the wax 
 as soon as it becomes cold enough to handle ; keep working and pulling it until it becomes tough and straw- 
 colored. 
 
 15 
 
EXERCISE 56. Propagation by Grafting. Cut off a branch one to two inches in diameter, being care- 
 ful not to loosen the bark from the stub. Split the end of the stub w-ith a grafting tool, then insert a 
 wedge in the cleft to keep it open while the scion is being inserted. The scion should always be of mature 
 last season's growth, and should contain several buds. The lower end of the scion, which is to be placed 
 into' the cleft, should be cut into the shape of a wedge, with the outer edge thicker. The scion should 
 be so cut that the lowest bud comes just to the top of the wedge. It is often advisable to put two scions 
 opposite each other on the same stock. This wall double your chance of success and the weaker may be 
 cut off if both live. After the scion is securely adjusted, grafting wax should be put on aU exposed 
 places. Why is this necessary? To make the stock and scion unite, what tissues must come together? What 
 name is given to this particular kind of grafting ? 
 
 REFERENCES ON PLANT PROPAGATION. 
 Selected from Farmers' Bulletins. 
 
 Bulletin No. 157. — The Propagation of Plants. 
 
 Bulletin No. 181. — Pruning. 
 
 Bulletin No. 204. — The Cultivation of ^lushrooms. 
 
 SECTION V. PLANT DISEASES. 
 
 EXERCISE 57. Fire Blight of Apple and Pear. Examine diseased and healthy twigs. Note the 
 character of the bark of each. Is the line of disease demarcation sharp or not ? Cut the twigs crosswise. 
 Do you note discolorations of any kind? How far down the twig do they extend? In what tissue do they 
 extend the fartherest ? Is this much farther than the external indication of the disease ? How will tliis 
 knowledge help you in controlling this disease ? Can you ascertain the point of infection ? Why are the 
 twigs bearing blossoms infected more often than others? If the disease attacks a branch it produces 
 cankers. How do you suppose the branch became infected? How deep is the canker? What do you think 
 will be its ultimate effect upon the branch? This disease is caused by Bacillus amylovorous, a bacterium. 
 It cannot be killed by spraying, but its numbers can be greatly reduced by cuting out the affected parts. 
 These parts should be burned and the wound sterilized with formalin. Why is this necessary? 
 
 EXERCISE 58. Ced.\r and Apple Rust. How does this disease affect the cedar? Describe the cedar 
 apple, giving its size, color, location on twig, etc. Cut the apple open and locate the spores. Contrast the 
 appearance of this disease on the cedar with its appearance on the apple. Is there any way of telling it 
 is the same disease? Scrape some of the diseased spots on the apple leaf and examine them under the 
 microscope. Describe the spores. 
 
 The life history of this disease is as follows : 
 
 The disease lives over "idnter on the cedar tree, forming cedar apples ; the following spring the cedar 
 apple gives off a number of reddish yellow spores, called teleutospores. These blow from the cedar to the 
 young leaves of the apple ; there they gemiinate and produce the discolored places on the apple leaf. The 
 fungus lives all summer on the apple. In the fall it produces rounded spores called uredospores ; these 
 are blown to the cedar, where they infect it, causing the cedar apple. What is one obvious method of 
 controlling this disease? Draw a cedar apple and a diseased leaf. 
 
 EXERCISE 59. Brown Rot of Peach and Plum. Examine some fruit affected with this disease. 
 What are its superficial characteristics? Does it affect the twigs or leaves or only the fruit? Scrape off 
 some of the .small tufts found on the outside of the fruit and examine it under the microscope. What are 
 they made up of? Examine some of the old mummies found clinging to the trees. What has become of 
 their tissue? Soak one in water and examine part of it under the microscope. Do you see spores? Is it 
 ad\dsable to destroy the old mummies ? Wliy ? One remedy for this disease is to spray with strong Bordeaux 
 mixture in the winter. What makes this effective ? Another remedy is to spray with self-boiled lime sul- 
 phur in the summer. Why is this effective? Why not use strong Bordeaux mixture all of the time? 
 
 EXERCISE 60. Oat Smut. Examine affected heads. Wliat parts does it attack? What is the black 
 sooty mass made up of? Examine some under the microscope. What shape are the spores? Is this dis- 
 ease of any importance in your community? How do you think it is spread? One of the standard reme- 
 dies for this disease is to soak the seed for ten minutes in one pint of formalin diluted with thirty gallons 
 of water, or about 1 cc. of formalin to 240 cc. of water. To see if the formalin lowere the vitality of the 
 seed, perforin the following experiment, using twenty seed in each test : Give per cent, of germination. 
 
 Per cent, of germination. 
 
 Soaked in water ten minutes _ „ 
 
 Soaked in formalin solution ten minutes _ _ 
 
 Soaked in formalin solution twenty minutes 
 
 Soaked in formalin solution thirty minutes 
 
 Soaked in double amount of formalin for ten minutes 
 
 16 
 
EXERCISE 61. Plant Disease Table. Tabulate the five most common diseases in your neighborhood, 
 using the following table as a guide : 
 
 NAME OF DISEASE 
 
 Cau.se 
 Bacteria Fungi 
 
 Name of Plant Affected 
 
 Part of Plant Affected 
 
 Remedy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
EXERCISE 62. The Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture. The formula for ordinary Bordeaux mix- 
 ture is 5 pounds of bluestone (copper sulphate), 5 pounds of lime and 50 gallons of water. This is too 
 great a quantity to be made in the laboratory. It may be made by dissolving half pound of bluestone in 
 two pounds of water. At the same time slake half p,ound of lime in two pounds of water. Strain the lime 
 and water through cheese cloth and fill with water up to the 2V2-pound mark. Now pour the bluestone 
 into the lime water and mix well. The object is to get just enough lime to combine with the copper sul- 
 phate but an excess of lime does no harm. Pour some of the solution into a cup, then blow your breath 
 on it. If there is an excess of lime present your breath will cause a flaky film to form on the surface. If 
 no film is formed, more lime is needed. An excess of copper sulphate can be told by testing with a shiny 
 nail or a bit of shiny iron. Put the nail into the solution; if there is an excess of copper sulphate the 
 nail will become coated with a rusy film. 
 
 SECTION VI. INSECTS. 
 
 EXERCISE 63. The Grasshopper, a Typical Chewing Insect. Locate the following main divisions 
 of the body: (1) Head, (2) Thorax, (3) Abdomen. Locate the following organs and tell upon which 
 divisions they are situated, their use and number: Legs, Wings, Spiracles, Antennae, ^Mouth, Eyes, both 
 simple and compound, and Auditory organs. The mouth parts consist of the following structures, and 
 must be worked out with extreme care: The labrum, or upper lip, is the hinged flap-like piece attached to 
 the front of the head. It nearly covers the other mouth parts. Just beneath the labrum locate two thick 
 short pieces, the mandibles or jaws. Note tooth-like projections on the inner surface of the jaws. Wliat 
 are they for? Directly beneath the mandibles is a second pair of jaws, the maiillaL. Notice attached to 
 each maxilla there is a five-jointed antenna-like organ, the palpa. These are used as feelers and tasters. 
 Forming the under part of the mouth we have the lahhim or under lip. Note that it also has two palpa 
 but these consist of only four segments. Carefully dissect these parts out, place them in their natural order 
 and draw them 5X. What kind of spray would you use to kill an insect that , has mouth parts like the 
 grasshopper ? 
 
 EXERCISE 64. The Squash Bug, a Typical Sucking Insect. Can you locate the same divisions of 
 the body and organs on this insect as you did on the grasshopper? How do this insect's \vings differ from 
 those of the grasshopper? Wlay are the insects belonging to this group often called the half wangs? The 
 mouth parts are much harder than those of the grasshopper to work out, and require some patience, but 
 with a little effort may be discerned. The upper lip (labrum) is a sharp pointed, triangular unsegmented 
 piece that fits over the groove in the under lip. The under lip (labium) is a long four-jointed tube-like 
 organ that sticks out far beyond the head. The mandibles and maxillae resemble each other so closely that 
 it is difiScult to distinguish them apart. There is one pair of each and they are long, hair-like organs with 
 sharp points on the end. These organs are used to pierce the tissue of the plant and to start the flow of 
 sap so it may be readily sucked up. Wliat kind of spray would you use to destroy this insect? Would 
 Paris green Mil them? Why not? 
 
 EXERCISE 65. The Life History of an Insect as Illustrated by the Cabbage Butterfly. Col- 
 lect some cabbage caterpillars. What color are they? Are they smooth or hairy? How many true legs 
 do they have ? Have they biting or sucking mouth parts ? Feed them fresh moist cabbage leaves every 
 morning. At the end of ten days, and perhaps before if tlie worms are large, they will change into a 
 chrysalis. Does the chrysalis resemble the caterpillar? How does it differ? Are there any points of 
 likeness between the two. Keep the chrysalis for another ten days, at the end of which time it should turn 
 into a white butterfly. How does the butterfly differ from the caterpillar and chrysalis? The butterfly is 
 the adult stage of this insect and will not undergo any more transformations. Its work is to lay eggs, 
 which hatch into caterpillars. Do butterflies and moths do any damage in the adult stage? Have the 
 adults biting mouth parts? Wliat kind of spray would you recommend to kill caterpillars? 
 
 Note to Te.\chek : The various stages may be collected in the summer and kept in a four per cent, 
 formalin solution if they cannot be procured when wanted, but it is best to use fresh specimens whenever 
 possible. 
 
 EXERCISE 66. The San Jose Scale. Examine trees in an orchard infested with this pest. Note 
 the appearance on both large branches and small twigs. Do you note any difference in appearance ? Take 
 some of the scale to the laboratory and study it under the hand lens. Find three forms : ( 1 ) The adult 
 female. These are brown to grayish in color, with a prominent nipple-like projection in the center. (2) 
 The Male. These resemble the females very much but the nipple is at one end instead of in the center. 
 The winged males are hard to procure and if not found should be studied from drawings, but wherever 
 possible study the specimen itself. (3) The half grown stage, known as the "nigger" stage, can be recog- 
 nized by its carbon black color and its size. Carefully remove the external scale from the insect itself. 
 What is its color? Shape? Examine under the hand lens or low power of the microscope. Has it legs, 
 wings, eyes, or antennae? Locate its sucking apparatus. Where is it located? ]Make drawings of the 
 different stages and the insert with the scale removed. 
 
 18 
 
EXERCISE 67. Insect Pest T.^ble. Tabulate ten destructive insects of your locality, using this 
 table as a ffuide : 
 
 NAME OF INSECT 
 
 Mouth Paets 
 Biting Sucking 
 
 Plant Affected 
 
 Damage Done as 
 Larvae Adult 
 
 Control 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
EXERCISE 68. The Preparation of Lime Sulphur. The common formula for lime sulphur is 
 twenty pounds of lime, fifteen pounds of sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. It may be made in the lab- 
 oratory as follows : Slake 25 grams of lime in 200 ce. of water, then add 40 grams of flowers of sulphur. 
 Shake vigorously for five minutes, then pour into an open vessel and heat for 45 minutes; stir occasion- 
 ally to prevent the liquid from boiling over. Let stand for fifteen minutes then notice color, density and 
 odor of the solution. Is there any sediment? What is its character? Now test with the Baume hydro- 
 meter for its specific gravity. To use as a winter spray for the scale dilute as follows : 
 
 Reading of Hydrometer in Degrees Baume Number of Gallons of Water to One Gallon of the Concentrate 
 
 35 9 
 
 34 83/4 
 
 33 81/4 
 
 32 8 
 
 31 TVs 
 
 30 71/4 
 
 29 6% 
 
 28 6 1/2 
 
 27 6 
 
 26 5% 
 
 25 51/4 
 
 24 5 
 
 23 41/2 
 
 22 41/4 
 
 21 3% 
 
 20 31/2 
 
 19 31/4 
 
 18 3 
 
 17 2% 
 
 16 2y.> 
 
 15 21/1 
 
 14 2 
 
 EXERCISE 69. The Preparation of Kerosene Emulsion, a Contact Insecticide. The formula 
 for making this insecticide is as follows: Hard soap, !/> pound (finely shaved) ; hot water, 1 gallon, (soft) ; 
 Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dilute with 50 gallons of water. This insecticide may be made in the laboratory by 
 dissolving 1 gram of soap in 16 cc. of bolting water; after the soap has dissolved add 30 cc. of kerosene. 
 Now shake the liquid thoroughly until the solution is emulsified. What is its color now? Do you see any 
 particles of free kerosene? This solution is too strong to be put on tender plants and should be diluted 
 wdth 500-600 cc. of water. This preparation is very effective against plant lice of various kinds. How 
 does it kill them? 
 
 EXERCISE 70. Purity Test for Paris Green. Paris green is often diluted with other materials 
 which do no harm to insects, but cost the farmer a great deal of money. Collect samples of Paris green 
 from several local dealers. Bring some of it to the laboratory and weigh out 1 gram. Put it into a 
 breaker and add 25 cc. of ammonia of water. Stir vigorously for five minutes, then let it stand for ten. 
 Is the solution a clear dark blue or is it murky-looking? Is there a solid residue left? Murkiness and 
 a solid residue indicate impurities. 
 
 REFERENCES ON PLANT DISEASES, FUNGICIDES AND RELATED SUBJECTS. 
 
 Selected from Farmers' Bulletins. 
 
 Bulletin No. 221. — Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. 
 
 Bulletin No. 243. — Fungicides and their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits. 
 
 Bulletin No. 284. — Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape. 
 
 Bulletin No. 345.— Some Common Disinfectants. 
 
 Bulletin No. 440. — ^Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. 
 
 Bulletin No. 467. — Chestnut-bark Disease. 
 
 Bulletin No. 476.— The Dying of Pine in the Southern States. 
 
 Bulletin No. 488. — Diseases of Cabbage and Related Crops. 
 
 Bulletin No. 489.— Two Dangerous Imported Plant Diseases. 
 
 Bulletin No. 492. — The Fungous Enemies of the Apple. 
 
 Bulletin No. 507.— The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley and Corn. 
 
 Bulletin No. 544. — Potato-tuber Diseases. 
 
 Bulletin No. 555. — Cotton Anthracnose. 
 
 Bulletin No. 618. — Leaf Spot, a Disease of the Sugar Beet. 
 
 Bulletin No. 625.— Cotton Wilt. 
 
 20 
 
REFERENCES ON INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES. 
 Selected from Farmers' Bulletins. 
 
 Bulletin No. 99. — Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 
 
 Bulletin No. 120. — Insects Affecting Tobacco. 
 
 Bulletin No. 127. — Important Insecticides. 
 
 Bulletin No. 172. — Scale Insects and Jlites on Citrus Trees. 
 
 Bulletin No. 178. — Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. . 
 
 Bulletin No. 264.— The Brown Tail iloth. 
 
 Bulletin No. 275.— The Gypsy Moth. 
 
 Bulletin No. 442. — The Treatment of Bee Diseases. 
 
 uBUetin No. 444. — Remedies and Preventatives Against Mosquitoes. 
 
 Bulletin No. 447.— Bees. 
 
 Bulletin No. 450. — Some Facts About Malaria. 
 
 Bulletin No. 453. — Danger of Spread of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths. 
 
 Bulletin No. 456.— Our Grosbeaks and their Value to Agriculture. 
 
 Bulletin No. 459. — House Flies. 
 
 Bulletin No. 478. — How to Prevent Typhoid Fever. 
 
 Bulletin No. 500.— Control of the Boll Weevil. 
 
 Bulletin No. 503.— Comb Honey. 
 
 Bulletin No. 506.— Food of Well-known Birds. 
 
 Bulletin No. 512.— The Boll Weevil Problem. 
 
 Bulletin No. 540.— The Stable Fly. 
 
 Bulletin No. 543.— White Grubs. 
 
 Bulletin No. 547. — The Yellow Fever Mosquito. 
 
 Bulletin No. 557.— The Potato Tuber Moth. 
 
 Bulletin No. 564.— The Gypsy and the Brown-tail Moths. 
 
 Bulletin No. 593. — Arsenate of Lead as an Insecticide. 
 
 Bulletin No. 606. — Collection and Preservation of Insects for Class Use. 
 
 Bulletin No. 626.— The Carpet Beetle. 
 
 Bulletin No. 630.^Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 
 
 21 
 
SECTION VII. VEGETABLE GARDENING. 
 
 EXERCISE 71. The Recognition of Vegetable Seed. Examine seed of 25 of our common vege- 
 tables. Classify them according to the following table : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Shape 
 
 Spherical 
 
 Flat 
 
 Oblong 
 
 SUEFACE 
 
 Smooth 
 
 Rough 
 
 Angular 
 
 Color 
 
 Light 
 
 Medium 
 
 Dark 
 
 Size 
 
 Small 
 
 Medium 
 
 Large 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 22 
 
EXERCISE 72. The Classification of Vegetables. Classify the vegetables grown in your locality 
 according to the following table : 
 
 name 
 
 Bulb 
 
 Tuber 
 
 Folin£;e 
 
 Stem 
 
 Fruit 
 
 23 
 
EXERCISE 73. The Marketing of Vegetables. Visit several local stores or markets to see how 
 vegetables are sold. Before leaving each store see that you have the foilowing points: (1) Note how the 
 vegetables are packed and displayed. (2) Price. (3) Whether home or foreign grown. (4) Variety. 
 (5) Quality. Hand in a written report of this trip tomorrow. 
 
 EXERCISE 74. Planting of Student Gardens. Suggest a planting for the plots on page 25, keep- 
 ing in mind that in every garden we should have (1) variety; (2) a succession of vegetables; (3) spring 
 and fall crops. 
 
 24 
 
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 25 
 
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EXERCISE 75. Planting Table. Fill in the following table for our common vegetables: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Part Planted 
 
 Date of Planting in Open 
 
 Plan'tinv; Distance 
 Rows Plants in Rows 
 
 Days to 
 Maturity 
 
 27 
 
( 
 
EXERCISE 76. Home Garden. Draw a plan of your ideal home garden, size 50 by 100 feet. Lay 
 it off in beds and rows and show what plants you would have in it on June 1st. 
 
 29 
 
REFEEENCES ON VEGETABLE GARDENING AND RELATED SUBJECTS. 
 
 Selected from Farmers' Bulletins. 
 
 Bulletin No. 61. — Asparagus Culture. 
 
 Bulletin No. 62. — Marketing Farm Produce. 
 
 Bulletin No. 121. — Beans, Peas and Other Legumes as Food. 
 
 Bulletin No. 154.— The Home Garden. 
 
 Bulletin No. 185. — Beautifying the Home Grounds. 
 
 Bulletin No. 213. — Raspberries. 
 
 Bulletin No. 218.— The School Garden. 
 
 Bulletin No. 220.— Tomatoes. 
 
 Bulletin No. 224.— Canadian Field Peas. 
 
 Bulletin No. 232.— Okra. 
 
 Bulletin No. 254. — Cucumbers. •■ 
 
 Bulletin No. 255. — The Home Vegetable Garden. 
 
 Bulletin No. 256. — Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 
 
 Bulletin No. 282.— Celery. 
 
 Bulletin No. 289.— Beans. 
 
 Bulletin No. 324.— Sweet Potatoes. 
 
 Bulletin No. 354 — Onion Culture. 
 
 Bulletin No. 359. — Canning Vegetables in the Home. 
 
 Bulletin No. 407.— The Potato as a Truck Crop. 
 
 Bulletin No. 433.— Cabbage. 
 
 Bulletin No. 434. — The Home Production of Onion Seed and Sets. 
 
 Bulletin No. 460. — Frames as a Factor in Truck Growing. 
 
 Bulletin No. 521. — Canning Tomatoes. 
 
 Bulletin No. 548. — Marketing Sweet Potatoes. 
 
 30 
 
SECTION VIII. FIELD CROPS. 
 
 EXERCISE 77. Potatoes. Examine samples of several local varieties. Are the seed home or foreign 
 grown? Wliat are the advantages of foreign grown over home grown seed? Make a detailed study of the 
 samples, using the outline below as a guide : 
 
 VARIETY 
 
 Color 
 
 Average Weight 
 
 Shape 
 
 Many 
 
 Eyes 
 Pew Deep Shallow 
 
 Condition 
 
 31 
 
EXERCISE 78. Amount op Waste in Different Vaeieties of Potatoes. Weigh and pare thre* 
 potatoes of about the same size of each variety, being careful not to take off more paring than is neces- 
 sary. Re-weigh. What per cent, did each variety lose in paring? Wliat variety would be the cheapest 
 for home consumption? 
 
 79. The Distribution op Potatoes in the United States. Use the data below, selected # 
 
 EXERCISE 
 from United States Year Book, 1913. Show the distribution of potatoes by putting one dot for every 
 100,000 bushels on the map on the next page. 
 
 State 
 
 Bushels 
 
 State 
 
 Bushels 
 
 jMaine „ 28,160.000 
 
 New Hampshire 2,074,000 
 
 Vermont _ 3,175,000 
 
 JIassachusetts „_ 2,835,000 
 
 Rhode Island _ 650,000 
 
 Connecticut _ „ 2,208,000 
 
 New York. 26,640,000 
 
 New Jersey 8,930,000 
 
 Pennsylvania _ - _ 23,320,000 
 
 Delaware 957,000 
 
 Maryland ._ 3,741,000 
 
 Virginia 9,870,000 
 
 West Virginia.. 
 North Carolina. 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 3,984,000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 972,000 
 
 912,000 
 
 Ohio _..- 10,240,000 
 
 Indiana „ 3,975,000 
 
 Illinois „....-. 5,750,000 
 
 Michigan _ 33,600,000 
 
 Wisconsin _ 32,155,000 
 
 Minnesota _ „ 30,250,000 
 
 Iowa 7,200,000 
 
 Missouri 3,230,000 
 
 North Dakota 5,100,000 
 
 South Dakota 4,680,000 
 
 Nebraska _ 5,664,000 
 
 Kansas 2,920,000 
 
 Kentucky 2,450,000 
 
 Tennessee 2,432,000 
 
 Alabama 1,512,000 
 
 :Mississippi 960,000 
 
 Louisiana 1,750,000 
 
 Texas 2,340,000 
 
 Oklahoma „ 1,920,000 
 
 Arkansas 1 ,800,000 
 
 :\Iontana __ 5,040,000 
 
 Wyoming. _ _ 1,680,000 
 
 Colorado 9,200,000 
 
 New :\Iexico 612,000 
 
 Arizona _.... 75,000 
 
 Utah 3,600,000 
 
 Nevada „ - - _ 1,760,000 
 
 Idaho - -... 5,780,000 
 
 Washington 7,380,000 
 
 Oregon - _... 6,750.000 
 
 California 8,092,000 
 
 32 
 
EXERCISE 80. Corn. Study ears of as many types and varieties of corn as are represented locally. 
 Fill in the following table for each variety studied: 
 
 VARIETY NAME 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weight of 10 grains 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length of 10 grains 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Width of 10 grains 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f Wedge 
 Shape < Spherical 
 ( Conical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Rounded 
 Shape of Top ■{ Flat 
 
 ( Dented 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length of Ear 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length of Cob 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Circumference of Ear 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Circumference of Cob 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Color of Cob 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 COMMENT 
 
 35 
 
EXERCISE 81. Corn Judging. 
 
 SCORE CARD 
 
 CORN 
 
 Scale of Points. 
 
 1. Trueness to Type 10 
 
 2. Maturity and Market Condition 10 
 
 3. Shape of Ear 10 
 
 4. Length of Ear 10 
 
 5. Circumference of Ear. _ 5 
 
 6. Shape of Kernel 5 
 
 7. Uniformity of Kernel — Color — Size 10 
 
 8. Character of Germ 10 
 
 9. Butts 5 
 
 10. Tips 5 
 
 11. Straightness of Rows 5 
 
 12. Space between Rows 5 
 
 13. Size of Cob 10 
 
 Ear No. 
 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 VARIETY STANDARDS. 
 
 Recognized Varieties. 
 
 Yellow Length Circumference 
 
 Reid's Yellow Dent _ 10 to lOi/. 714 to 71/, 
 
 Learning 10 to lOi/i 7i/, to 734 
 
 Legal Tender 10 to lOi/o 71/4 to 7i/> 
 
 ^VMte 
 
 Boone County White 10i/> to 11 71/, to l^A 
 
 St. Charles White 10 to lOi/o 714 to 71/2 
 
 Other Varieties. 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Gartner 9 to 91/, 71^ to 71/. 
 
 St. Charles Yellow 10i/> to 11 714 to l^A 
 
 White 
 
 Silvermine 9 to 914 7 to 7i/4 
 
 Johnson Co. Wliite 10i/> to 11 ' 71/0 to 7-% 
 
 Varieties Judged. 1. 
 2. 
 
 37 
 
EXERCISE 82. Seed Tester. A seed tester may be made by sawing off the top of an old box four 
 inches from the bottom. Put two inches of thoroughly wet sawdust or sand in the box. Cover this with 
 a piece of white muslin which has been marked off in 2-inch squares. Number the squares from 1 up; 
 then take six kernels from the ear to be tested, two from the butt, two from the tip and two from the 
 middle of the ear. Put these kernels in square No. 1 and number the ear 1. Why do this? Put the 
 kernels from as many ears as are to be tested in their respective places. Now cover the tester with sev- 
 eral thicknesses of cloth or blotting paper. Wet thoroughly every other day for eight days. On the 
 ninth day examine; if some of the kernels are not well germinated wait another three days and examine 
 again. Figure out percentage of perfect germination. Tell another way you could make a seed tester 
 at your home. Give two reasons why all seed should be tested before planting. 
 
 EXERiCISE 83. The Distribution op Corn in the United States. Use the data below, selected from 
 United States Year Book, 1913. Show the distribution of corn by putting one dot for every 100,000 bush- 
 els on the map on the next page. 
 
 State 
 
 Maine 608,000 
 
 New Hampshire 814,000 
 
 Vermont 1,665,000 
 
 Massachusetts 1,944,000 
 
 Rhode Island 402,000 
 
 Connecticut 2,348,000 
 
 New York 15,020,000 
 
 New Jersey 10,862,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 57,057,000 
 
 Delaware 6,206,000 
 
 JIaryland 22,110,000 
 
 Virginia - - 51 ,480,000 
 
 North Carolina 55,282,000 
 
 South Carolina 38,512,000 
 
 West Virginia 22,692,000 
 
 Georgia 63,023,000 
 
 Florida 10,125,000 
 
 Ohio ....- 146,250,000 
 
 Indiana 176,400,000 
 
 Illinois 282,150,000 
 
 Michigan - 56,112,000 
 
 Wisconsin 66,825,000 
 
 Minnesota 96,000,000 
 
 Iowa 338,300,000 
 
 State 
 
 Missouri 129,062,000 
 
 North Dakota 10,800,000 
 
 South Dakota 67,320,000 
 
 Nebraska 114,150,000 
 
 Kansas 23,424,000 
 
 Kentucky 74,825,000 
 
 Tennessee - 68,675,000 
 
 Alabama 55,360,000 
 
 ^ilississippi 63,000,000 
 
 Louisiana 41,800,000 
 
 Texas 163,200,000 
 
 Oklahoma 52,250,000 
 
 Arkansas 47,025,000 
 
 :\Iontana 882,000 
 
 Wyoming 493,000 
 
 Colorado 6,300,00a 
 
 New .Mexico 1,572,000 
 
 Arizona 476,000 
 
 Utah 340,000 
 
 Nevada 34,000 
 
 Idaho 448,000 
 
 Washington 952,000 
 
 Oregon 598,000 
 
 California 1,815,000 
 
 38 
 
EXERCISE 84. Wheat. Select several local varities of wheat. Study them carefully and record 
 your observations in the following form : 
 
 Variety 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lgth. of Culm to Spike 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spike 
 
 a. Length .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Shape 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Bearded 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Beardless 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length of Beards 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arrangement of Glumes 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. kernels to Spike 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kernels 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Color 
 
 
 b. Shape 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Hardness 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Weight of 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
c 
 
EXERCISE 85. The Distribution of Wheat in the United States. Use the data below, selected 
 from United States Year Book, 1913. Show the distril)ution of wheat by putting one dot for every 500,000 
 bushels on the map on the next page. 
 
 State. 
 
 Maine 76,000 
 
 Vermont 24,000 
 
 New York 6,800,000 
 
 New Jersey 1,408,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 21,862,000 
 
 Delaware 1,638,000 
 
 Maryland 8,113,000 
 
 Virginia 10,608,000 
 
 West Virginia 3,055,000 
 
 North Carolina 7,078,000 
 
 South Carolina 972,000 
 
 Georgia 1,708,000 
 
 Ohio 35,100,000 
 
 Indiana 39,775,000 
 
 Illinois 41,888,000 
 
 Jlichigan 12,776,000 
 
 Wisconsin 3,665,000 
 
 Minnesota 68,040,000 
 
 Iowa 16,395,000 
 
 Missouri 39,586,000 
 
 North Dakota 78,855,000 
 
 State. 
 
 South Dakota 33,975,000 
 
 Nebraska 62,325,000 
 
 Kansas 86,983,000 
 
 Kentucky 9,860,000 
 
 Tennessee 8,400,000 
 
 Alabama 374,000 
 
 Jlississippi 14,000 
 
 Texas 13,650,000 
 
 Oklahoma 17,500,000 
 
 Arkansas 1,313,000 
 
 Montana 20,673,000 
 
 Wyoming 2,250,000 
 
 Colorado 9,680,000 
 
 New Mexico 1,221,000 
 
 Arizona 928,000 
 
 Utah 6,420,000 
 
 Nevada 1,081,000 
 
 Idaho 14,094,000 
 
 Washington 53,300,000 
 
 Oregon 15,717,000 
 
 California 4,200,000 
 
 EXERCISE 86. Comparison of Oats, Rye, And Barley. Compare these three cereals as to (1) 
 method of growth, (2) length and shape of blades, (3) culm, (4) head, (5) grain. Which of these three 
 cereals is grown the most abundantly in your locality? What is each used for? 
 
 43 
 
( 
 
 < 
 
< 
 
Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet: 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 Bullet 
 
 REFERENCES ON FIELD CROPS AND RELATED SUBJECTS. 
 Selected from Farmers' Bulletins. 
 
 n No. 81. — Corn Culture in the South. 
 
 n No. 139. — Einmer. 
 
 n No. 229.— The Production of Good Seed Corn. 
 
 n No. 249. — Cereal Breakfa.st Foods. 
 
 n No. 253. — The Germination of Seed Corn. 
 
 n No. 272. — ^A Successful Hog and Seed Corn Farm. 
 
 n No. 292. — Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. 
 
 n No. 298.— Food Value of Corn. 
 
 n No. 303. — ^Corn Harvesting llaehinery. 
 
 n No. 313. — Harvesting and Storing Corn. 
 
 n No. 3-43. — -Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky. 
 
 n No. 365. — Farm Management in Northern Potato-growing Sections. 
 
 n No. 395.— Sixty Day Oats. 
 
 n No. 399. — Irrigation of Grain. 
 
 n No. 400. — A ]\Iore Profitable Corn-planting Method. 
 
 n No. 414. — Corn Cultivation. 
 
 n No. 415. — Seed Corn. 
 
 n No. 420. — Oats ; Distribution and Uses. 
 
 n No. 424. — Oats ; Growing the Crop. 
 
 n No. 427.— Barley Culture. 
 
 n No. 428. — Testing Farm Seeds in the Home. 
 
 n No. 436. — "Winter Oats. 
 
 n No. 443. — Barley; Growing the Crop. 
 
 n No. 448. — Better Grain-sorghum Crops. 
 
 n No. 466. — Winter Emmer. 
 
 n No. 501. — Cotton Improvement. 
 
 n No. 518. — Winter Barley. 
 
 n No. 523. — Tobacco Curing. 
 
 n No. 534. — Durum Wheat. 
 
 n No. 537. — How to Grow an Acre of Corn. 
 
 n No. 546. — How to ilanage a Corn Crop in Kentucky and West Virginia. 
 
 n No. 552. — Kaffir as a Grain Crop. 
 
 n No. 553. — Popcorn. 
 
 n No. 554. — Popcorn for the ^Market. 
 
 n No. 565. — Corn Meal. 
 
 n No. 601.— A New Method of Cotton Culture. 
 
 47 
 
( 
 
 ( 
 
SECTION IX. FORAGE AND PASTURE CROPS. 
 
 EXERCISE 87. The Grasses. The following eight grasses are tlie most common in the United States. 
 If, however, others not given here are grown more commonly in your locality, substitute them. Timothy, 
 Red top, Kentucky Blue Grass, ^Meadow foxtail. Orchard grass, ]\Ieadow fescue. Smooth brome grass. 
 Crab grass. Study each grass carefully, then record your observations in the following form : 
 
 Variety 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Culm 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Erect — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Decumbent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Strong 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Medium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. Slender 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g. Furrowed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h. Foliage { gj'^jj'!''"* 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Leaf Blade 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 
 
 b. Width 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tf T •■ 1 Prominent 
 C. Midrib i' Medium 
 ( Indistinct 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Open, folded 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Flowering head 
 
 a. Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Length 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Open 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Compressed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 TIsp \ "">• 
 
 ^- '-"'*^ i Pasture 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Annual 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. Perennial 
 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
( 
 
EXERCISE 87.— Continued. 
 
 Variety 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Culm 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Erect 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Decumbent 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Strong 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Medium _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. Slender 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g. Furrowed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h. Foliage {Abundao. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Leaf Blade 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 b. Width 
 
 
 
 
 
 -,.,., f Prominent 
 C. Midrib { Medium 
 I. Indistinct 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Open, folded 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Flowering head _ 
 
 a. Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Length 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Open 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Compressed 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. Use ! ?•■»; 
 
 1 Pasture 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Annual 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. Perennial 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
EXERCISE 88. The Identification of Grass Seed. Study carefully pure samples of the grasses 
 given in Exercise 87. Some grass seed are naked like the kernels of wheat, in which case it is called a 
 caryopsis. Other seed are covered with husks, (technically the glumes) as the oat. In the latter case 
 we speak of the "flowering glume" rather than the seed itself, which the glume covers. Another import- 
 ant character of grass seed is the rachilla, which is the stalk to which the seed are attached on a double 
 seeded spikelet. There is no rachilla on a single seeded spikelet. First locate the flowering glume, the 
 rachilla and a caryopsis, then fill out the table below. 
 
 1. Variety 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caryopsis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 b. Shape 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Flowering Glume 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Blunt or pointed.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Straight or eui-ved 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Awned or awnless 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. Smooth, hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 Rachilla 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Present or absent... 
 
 
 b. Long, short 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Slender, broad 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Smooth, hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. Weight of 100 seed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Important means of 
 identification 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
EXERCISE 88.— Continued. 
 
 1. Variety 
 
 
 
 
 
 CarvoDsis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 b. Shape 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Flowering Glume 
 
 a. Length 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Blunt or pointed... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Straight or curved 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Awned or awnless 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. Smooth, hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Rachilla 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Present or absent.. 
 
 
 b. Long, short 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Slender, broad 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Smooth, hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. Weight of 100 seed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Important means of 
 identification 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
EXERCISE 89. The Legumes. The following legumes are the most common in the United States, 
 but substitutions should be made if any of the eight legumes listed here are not grown locally : Alfalfa, 
 Red Clover, Alsike Clover, Crimson Clover, Sweet Clover, Cov\T)eas, Hairy Vetch, Black Medic. Study 
 each carefully and sketch a leaflet of each. Record your observations in the form below: 
 
 Variety 
 
 
 
 
 1. Leaves .. .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Arrangement 
 
 
 b. No. of leaflets 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Palmate or pinnate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Smooth or hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Edges entire or 
 serrate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Stems ... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Height 
 
 
 b. Circumference at 
 base 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Erect or trailing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Round or square.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Smooth or hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Flowers , 
 
 a. Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Bome in a raceme, 
 umbel or head 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
EXERCISE 89.— Continued. 
 
 Variety 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Leaves 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 a. Arrangement 
 
 
 
 
 b. No. of leaflets 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Palmate or pinnate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Smooth or hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Edges entire or 
 serrate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Stems 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Height 
 
 
 b. Circumference at 
 base 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Erect or trailing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Round or square.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Smooth or hairy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 Flowers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Color 
 
 
 b. Borne in a raceme, 
 umbel or head 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 
EXERCISE 90. The Identification of Legume Seed. Compare an alfalfa seed to that of the bean 
 studied in a previous exercise. What are the points of likeness and difference? Study carefully pure sam- 
 ples of the Legume seed given in Exercise 87, but before filling out the form below be sure that you know 
 the location of both radicle and hilum in each seed. 
 
 Seed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Shape, view from 
 
 largest diameter.. 
 
 a. Spherical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Oval - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Kidney 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Elliptical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Shape, view from 
 
 smallest diameter 
 
 a. Round 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Oval 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e Flat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Length, largest diam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a Oranee 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Yellowish brown .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Dark Olive Green.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Black - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e Yellow 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. Reddish 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g. Red 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h Green 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 TTilnm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Round 
 
 
 b. Oval - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elongate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 Radicle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Tip prominent 
 
 
 b. Tip not prominent 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 
EXERCISE 90.— Continued. 
 
 Seed 
 
 
 
 
 1. Shape, view from 
 
 largest diameter.. 
 
 a. Spherical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Oval 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Kidney 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Elliptical 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Shape, view from 
 
 smallest diameter 
 
 a. Round 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Oval 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Plat 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Length, largest diam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 Color 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Oranee 
 
 
 
 
 b. Yellowish brown .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Dark Olive Green.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Black 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Yellow 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. Reddish 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g. Red 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h. Green 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 5. Hilum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Round 
 
 
 
 
 b. Oval 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. Elongate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. Radicle 
 
 a. Tip prominent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Tip not prominent 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
EXERCISE 91. The Detection of Adulterants in Grass and Legume Seed. Take several samples 
 of commercial seed and examine them carefully. Pick out all sticks, chaff and seed of any plant other 
 than that given on the label. What per cent, of the weight is pure seed? Look up in some good see<l 
 catalogue the price of these seed per bushel and figure out how much the farmer loses on every five bushels 
 of these seed bought. Give some reasons why it seldom pays to buy cheap, low-grade seed. 
 
 EXERCISE 92. Weeds. Collect ten of the worst weeds of your neighborhood. Look up their native 
 home and scientific name in a good Botany. 
 
 WEED 
 
 Scientific Name 
 
 Native Home 
 
 Annual or Perennia 
 
 Sleans of Dilsribution 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
SECTION X.— FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 EXERCISE 93. Horses. Horses are of two types, Draft and Harness. As the name indicates the 
 draft horse is bred to draw heavy loads, while the harness horse is bred for speed and endurance. Name 
 three breeds of each and compare one breed of draft horses with one breed of harness horses, using the 
 following form as a guide : 
 
 DR.\PT 
 
 HARNESS 
 
 ^ / Massive 
 Form j Rangy 
 
 
 
 ,, , . J Heavy 
 Muscled j Ligijt 
 
 
 
 f Massive 
 Legs / 
 
 ( Slender 
 
 
 
 j-High 
 
 Underline T 
 
 i Low 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 
 
 Height 
 
 
 
 ,, , / Comparative 
 Neck -^ Thickness 
 
 
 
 Head — Size 
 
 
 
 ( Heavy 
 Shoulders "{ 
 
 I Light 
 
 
 
 67 
 
EXERCISE 94. Cattle. Cattle are bred in the United States for two purposes, beef and dairy. 
 Each type has reached a high state of perfection and should not be confounded one with another. Name 
 three breeds of beef cattle and three dairy breeds. Which breed of each is the most popular in your locality? 
 Reasons. Make out a table as in Exercise 93 on horses, and compare the two types in as many respects 
 as you can. 
 
 EXERCISE 95. Sheep. Sheep are of two general types, mutton and wool. The wool type is repre- 
 sented by the Rambouillet, while the Southdown may be taken as the mutton type. Contrast these two 
 breeds in as many respects as possible. 
 
 6? 
 
EXERCISE 96. Swine. Among swine we have two chief types; namely, the bacon type and the 
 lard type. The types are divided into several breeds, all of which are readily distinguished by certain 
 characters. Select the four chief breeds in your locality and record their characteristics in the follow- 
 ing fomi : 
 
 Breed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Bacon or Lard . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Color ... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Red .. . 
 
 
 
 
 b. Black 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c. White 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. JIarkings 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. Face 
 
 a. Dished 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Straight 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Ears 
 
 a. Erect 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Drooping 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. Form 
 
 a. Blocky 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b. Rangv 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 7. Leffs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Long 
 
 
 b. Short 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8. Length of Body 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9. Width 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 71 
 
EXERCISE 97. Poultry. There are two common types of chickens, the meat type and the egg type. 
 The meat type, as the name indicates, is grown for its superior quality of meat. The egg breeds are 
 much smaller than the meat breeds, and are raised especially for the great number of eggs they lay. Name 
 four breeds of chickens found in your locality. Record the characteristics of each breed in the follow- 
 ing form: 
 
 Breed 
 
 
 
 i<°* { srj 
 
 
 1 I 
 
 
 T^. .^. f Nervous 
 Disposition 1 gi^^g^i^]^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 r ( Feathered 
 Le^ I Not 
 
 
 
 
 Eggs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b Small 
 
 
 
 
 
 c White 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. Brownish 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e. Great Droduction 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f. Small production . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c»».b 1 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73 
 
EXERCISE 98. A Rough Analysis op Milk. Take some fresh milk, shake it well, then put a drop 
 of it on a slide and examine it. Note especially the number and size of the fat globules. Also look 
 for any impurities in the milk, as manure, dirt, hair, etc. Now examine a drop of skimmed milk. How 
 do the two differ? 
 
 Place one pint of pure milk in a quart jar and heat to 70F., then shake until lumps of butter col- 
 lect. Now strain the milk through cheese cloth several times. The milk that runs through is called milk 
 serum. Set the milk serum in a warm place for twelve hours until it has turned to clabber. Now put 
 the clabber into a cheese cloth bag and squeeze it. The watery liquid which runs out is whey. The white 
 solid remaining in the bag is curd or casein. 
 
 EXERCISE 99. The Babcock Test for Fat in Milk. Each student should bring a sample of milk 
 from home or his local dairyman to be tested. The test is made as follows : 
 
 (1) Measure 17.6 cc. of milk with the pipette into the test bottle. (2) Shake this sample, being care- 
 ful not to spill a drop. (3) Add 17.5 cc. of commercial .sulphuric acid whose sp. gr. is 1.83. (4) Place 
 the test bottles into the tester and whirl five minutes at the rate of 1000 revolutions per minute. (5) 
 Now add enough hot water to the test bottle to bring its contents up to the shoulder. (6) whirl two 
 minutes more. (7) Fill the bottles with water to near the top of the graduations. (8) Whirl again for 
 two minutes. (9) Read the fat. The distance between two large divisions represents per cent. 
 
 EXERCISE 100. The Pasteurization of 1\Iilk. Take five test tubes and wash them thoroughly in 
 boiling water. Fill each half full of milk, then stopper with a cotton plug. Heat a pan of water to 
 150F. and put the test tubes of milk into it. (Keep the water hot by adding more hot water as needed.) 
 Remove a test tube at intervals of five minutes. Cool the samples as taken from the hot water to a tem- 
 perature of 70F. then set aside at room temperature. Examine each sample carefully every day for five 
 days. Compare with a tube of milk that was not pasteurized. Wliat can you say as to the value of the 
 pasteurization of milk? What is the difference between pasteurization and sterilization? What causes 
 milk to sour? 
 
 75 
 
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