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THE RUSSIAN JEW 
 
 IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES ^^'^ 
 
 STUDIES OF SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN NEW YORK, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, AND CHICAGO, WITH A 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF RURAL 
 
 SETTLEMENTS 
 
 PLANNED AND EDITED BY 
 
 CHARLES S. BERNHEIMER, Ph.D. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 THE JOHN C. WINSTON CO. 
 
 1905 
 
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 LIBRARY or OONGHESS 
 twu Copieii rieteiveti 
 
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 Copyright, 1905 
 BY CHARLES S. BERNHEIMER 
 
PREFACE 
 
 There have been a number of attempts to portray the 
 life of the newly arrived immigrant Jew, the Jew who has 
 come from Russia, Austria-Hungary, Roumania, who has 
 been settling in the last three decades among Anglo-Saxon 
 peoples in English and American communities, who has 
 contributed an interesting admixture to the strange com- 
 binations that are found where English law and custom 
 and American institutions have permitted a freer develop- 
 ment than can be found among most of the nations of the 
 Eastern hemisphere. In his masterpiece, " Children of 
 the Ghetto, ' ' Israel Zangwill has painted with most skilful 
 brush Jewish characters from eastern Europe transplanted 
 into an English soil, so that we see their lif elikeness with all 
 its intensity, their communal activity with all its warmth and 
 poesy, as well as its hardness and struggle. Other writers 
 have done minor work in the form of story or character 
 sketch, with the purpose of presenting some idea of the 
 life, the thought, and the customs of these people. There 
 have, too, appeared some more scientific studies, like '' The 
 Jew in London." The present work, which was projected 
 before the last mentioned, is intended to present the rise 
 and development of the Russian Jews who have come to 
 the United States during the past twenty-odd years, to 
 show the qualities they brought with them, to present the 
 facts as to their adjustment to the conditions here, and 
 to look a little into the future. 
 
 It has been deemed desirable by the editor that the 
 detailed studies should be undertaken chiefly with refer- 
 ence to three leading cities of the United States, — New 
 York, Philadelphia and Chicago, embracing the larger 
 portion of this Jewish immigrant population, and that 
 there should be included, in addition, a description of the 
 leading rural communities and the work of distribution 
 from large centres of population. The division into various 
 subjects is somewhat arbitrary and at times the lines of 
 investigation overlap ; yet for practical purposes the plan 
 
 5 
 
6 PREFACE 
 
 has served very well. The results of the studies in the 
 three cities are in the nature of cumulative evidence, and 
 it is thought that a broader character has been given to 
 the investigations by obtaining the information from three 
 independent communities. The editor realizes that in such 
 a mosaic there must be some lack of unity. Notwithstand- 
 ing somewhat divergent opinions, however, there has been 
 on the whole a remarkable accord as to the facts, their 
 underlying and surrounding causes, and their probable 
 consequences. 
 
 The editor is indebted to Miss Emily W. Dinwiddle and 
 David W. Amram, Esq., for assistance in preparing the 
 manuscript for press, and to the several contributors whose 
 generous co-operation has made the volume possible. 
 
 Charles S. Bernheimer. 
 
 Philadelphia, March 15, 1905. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface 5 
 
 I INTRODUCTORY 
 
 (A) Elements of the Jewish Population in the United 
 
 States Henrietta Szold 9 
 
 (B) The Jew in Russia Peter Wiernik 18 
 
 (C) The Russian Jew in the United States 
 
 Abraham Cahan 32 
 
 II GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 (A) New York Milton Reizenstein 41 
 
 (B) Philadelphia Charles S. Bernheimer 51 
 
 (C) Chicago Philip Davis 57 
 
 III PHILANTHROPY 
 
 (A) New York Lee K. Frankel 61 
 
 {B) Philadelphia Louis E. Levy 75 
 
 (C) Chicago Minnie F. Low 87 
 
 IV ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 (A) New York Isaac M. Rubinow 101 
 
 (B) Philadelphia Charles S. Bernheimer 122 
 
 (C) Chicago Abraham Bisno 135 
 
 V RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 (A) New York Louis Lipsky 147 
 
 (B) Philadelphia Julius H. Greenstone 157 
 
 (C) Chicago Mrs. Benjamin Davis 172 
 
 VI EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 (A) New York J. K. Paulding 183 
 
 (B) Philadelphia Charles S. Bernheimer 200 
 
 (C) Chicago Philip Davis 211 
 
 7 
 
8 ' CONTENTS 
 
 VII AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 {A) New York A. H. Fromenson 221 
 
 {B) Philadelphia 
 
 Mrs. Simon N. (Charlotte Kimball) Patten 233 
 
 (C) Chicago I. K. Friedman 249 
 
 VIII POLITICS 
 
 {A) New York Emanuel Hertz 255 
 
 {B) Philadelphia Charles S. Bernheimer 270 
 
 (C) Chicago Elijah N. Zoline 277 
 
 IX HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 {A) New York Maurice Fishberg 281 
 
 {B) Philadelphia Charles S. Bernheimer 304 
 
 f^C) Chicago Kate Levy 318 
 
 X LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 U) New York 
 
 1 Walter Scott Andrews 335 
 
 2 Adam Wiener 344 
 
 {B) Philadelphia Isaac Hassler 351 
 
 (C) Chicago Elijah N. Zoline 360 
 
 XI DISTRIBUTION 
 
 David M. Bressler 365 
 
 XII RURAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 {A) Eastern States J. G. Lipman 375 
 
 (B) Western States A. R. Levy 392 
 
 XIII CONCLUSIONS 
 Charles S. Bernheimer 405 
 
 Reading List 416 
 
 Index 421 
 
 MAPS 
 
 New York — Lower East Side 42 
 
 Philadelphia — Southeastern Section 50 
 
 Chicago — West Side 56 
 
I 
 
 INTKODUCTOEY 
 
 (A) ELEMENTS OF THE JEWISH POPULA- 
 TION IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 By Henrietta Szold 
 
 Secretary Publication Committee 
 Jewish Publication Society of America 
 
 (B) THE JEW IN EUSSIA 
 By Peter Wiernik 
 
 Editorial Writer Jewish Morning Journal, New York City 
 
 (C) THE RUSSIAN JEW IN THE UNITED 
 STATES 
 
 By Abraham Cahan 
 
 Editor Vorwdrts, New York City 
 Author of " The White Terror and the Red " 
 
INTRODUCTORY 
 
 (A) ELEMENTS OF THE JEWISH POPULATION IN 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Cutting down through two centuries and a half of 
 American Jewish history lays bare three distinctly marked 
 strata of population : the Spanish-Portuguese, the German, 
 and the Russian. This apparently presents a simple study 
 in population, all the simpler as the German stream of 
 immigration did not flov/ in until the Sephardic settle- 
 ment had had ample time and opportunity to work out 
 its potentialities. To a less degree, the same exclusive 
 dominance was granted the German Jew during his shorter 
 period, coextensive, roughly speaking, with the nineteenth 
 century. But on closer examination the problem is not 
 so simple. Or, to put it in other words, the influences 
 exerted by each of the three elements of the Jewish popu- 
 lation of the United States are subtler, more varied, de- 
 pendent upon a greater number of constituent factors, than 
 appears from their bare enumeration. 
 
 The Spanish-Portuguese population was not a unit. 
 Some of its members came to the American colonies direct 
 from Portugal; others came after residence in Holland, 
 or in Holland and England ; others again by way of Brazil 
 or the Dutch colonies in South America and the French 
 colonies in the West Indies. Such wanderings betoken 
 an adventurous spirit and a history of romantic episode, 
 which, in turn, indicate differentiated experiences, varied 
 opinions, and a broad outlook upon affairs, with pliant 
 ability to grasp and utilize a situation, however new and 
 unexpected. Paradoxical as it may seem, the very cos- 
 mopolitanism and variety of their experiences were calcu- 
 lated to weld them into a single community. Their secular 
 needs and ambitions were so comprehensive and diversi- 
 fied as to give full scope to their cultivated and tried 
 powers. In their Jewish life they could be content to sink 
 differences, and so to the outsider they had the appearance 
 
 10 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE JEWISH POPULATION 11 
 
 of a homogeneous body. That does not necessarily imply 
 perfect harmony or stagnancy in the Sephardic congrega- 
 tions. The vestry rooms were the scenes of lively discus- 
 sions that inflicted heart-burning, and caused recrimina- 
 tions. But whatever may have convulsed the small 
 community from within, to the world, in spite of its divers 
 origins, it presented a solid front. 
 
 The aspect changed completely with the advent of the 
 German Jewish immigrant. That a deep gulf yawned be- 
 tween the Sephardic and Ashkenazic sections of the Jew- 
 ish community, was but a repetition of Jewish history 
 elsewhere. It was equally a repetition of the course of 
 Jewish history elsewhere that this division should exist 
 in spite of the fact that in a number of well-known in- 
 stances the straggling immigrants from Germany, arriving 
 from the middle or perhaps the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century to its close, became the very backbone and sinew 
 of the congregation of older establishment, adopting its 
 ritual and customs, and intermarrying with its sons and 
 daughters. But when the stream of German immigra- 
 tion became more steady, as it did in the early years of 
 the nineteenth century, and was reinforced by Polish- 
 Dutch and Dutch-English tributaries, a new phase de- 
 veloped. The small Sephardic communities, in defense 
 of their own individuality, could not, and, by reason of 
 their hidalgo pride, would not, continue to absorb the new 
 element. On the other hand, the prominent, useful indi- 
 viduals of the German section felt the propriety of devot- 
 ing themselves to the needs of their countrymen. 
 
 The separation between the German and the Sephardic 
 community, then, displays no features peculiar to Ameri- 
 can conditions. But the splitting up of the German com- 
 munity from within is of importance in the development 
 of American Jewish life. Coming, for the greater part, 
 direct from the villages of South and of North Germany, 
 the immigrants arrived fully panoplied in their provincial- 
 ism. The peculiarities of ritual and custom developed 
 under the influence of German and Dutch particularism 
 were dearer to their hearts than the great underlying prin- 
 ciples. This is a statement of fact, not a criticism, cer- 
 tainly not derogatory criticism, for the fulness of com- 
 munal activity and emotion manifests itself through 
 Jewish ceremonial, and not in speculation, which is the 
 prerogative reserved for the few. Congregations were 
 
12 • INTRODUCTORY 
 
 naturally formed according to propinquity in the Old 
 World. However, the principle of close fellowship be- 
 tween '' Landsleute " soon, in the face of common trials 
 and common problems, lost whatever rigidity it may have 
 possessed, and ceded first place to a stronger reason operat- 
 ing in the direction of division of forces. The sprinkling 
 of immigrants from the German cities, whose horizon was 
 wider, and whose less simple experience might have tended 
 to level differences, as in the case of the Sephardim, 
 served to introduce a new element of separation. They 
 transplanted to America the German reform agitation. 
 The Charleston Sephardic congregation had, to be sure, 
 divided upon the question of innovations, but as a move- 
 ment reform was directed by the German Jews. Thus, 
 both the secular and the religious past of the German 
 immigrants inclined them to fall into autonomous groups, 
 determined by their various German origins geographic- 
 ally considered, and by their attitude toward orthodoxy and 
 reform. 
 
 These provincial and disintegrating features prevailed 
 in communal organization until after the great German 
 immigration of 1848, which imported charity problems, 
 greater numbers, more cultivated intelligences, and the 
 alertness of thought characteristic of world-moving events, 
 all of them factors conducive to union in the face of 
 differences of faith and living. 
 
 The communal organization effected by the German- 
 Jewish immigration of 1848 and the twenty years follow- 
 ing, was considerably promoted by smaller streams of 
 Ashkenazic, though not specifically German, origin. Amer- 
 ica began to draw forces from the centres of Jewish 
 population farther and farther east. From the first years 
 of Ashkenazic immigration, probably a little before the 
 middle and possibly at the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century, there had been a slight, an almost infinitesimal 
 infusion of Polish and Bohemian elements. After Kos- 
 suth's revolution, with its profound stirring up of the 
 Jewish community, and, again, after Polish national enthu- 
 siasm flamed up in the early sixties promising emancipa- 
 tion to the Jew, Hungarian, Bohemian, Moravian, and 
 Polish Jews came to America in perceptible numbers, as a 
 result of the general agitation, forming a contingent which 
 the historian can disregard only at his peril. 
 
 These smaller currents of Ashkenazic influence served 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE JEWISH POPULATION 13 
 
 a purpose. The Sephardic tradition was permeated with 
 memories of medieval Jewish scholarship and literary- 
 achievement, and the cradle of modern Jewish science, of 
 the Wissenschaft des Judenthums, stood in Germany, the 
 birthplace of the larger number of Jews in the United 
 States. Yet, at the time when Hungarian and Polish 
 Jews entered into the complex of American-Jewish life, 
 Jewish learning not only was in a bad way in America, 
 but it did not even form part of American- Jewish con- 
 sciousness as a separate and distinct field of Jewish activ- 
 ity. The making of communities, the establishment of 
 charitable societies, the adjustment of fresh generations 
 of immigrants to new economic conditions, occupied the 
 whole time of the leaders of the people. Such feeble be- 
 ginnings of educational activity as were called into being 
 by heroic, advanced effort bore no faint resemblance to 
 Jewish learning. The immigrant from eastern Europe, 
 if not himself a scholar, at least had an appreciation 
 of Jewish scholarship. His close communal organization 
 at home had borne in upon his mind a vivid realization of 
 how vitally Jewish science is connected with Jewish life. 
 His religious conformity was based upon a clearer valua- 
 tion of reasons and origins than the rigid orthodoxy or 
 the reform aspirations of the German Jews. 
 
 This appreciation of Jewish learning on the part of 
 Austro-Hungarian and Polish immigrants, and all it im- 
 plies with regard to Jewish habits of living, did, indeed, 
 make no perceptible change in conditions, the less so as 
 the German Jews comprehensively pronounced the doom 
 of scorn upon them as '* Hinter Berliner," and so made 
 abortive whatever power they had to exercise influence. 
 Yet the characteristic distinguishing them from the earlier 
 immigrants did not fail of leaving its impress. While 
 they were entering congregations as a leaven, and were 
 drawing rabbis and teachers from their own countries to 
 America, the great Russian catastrophe was approaching. 
 When the blow fell, the only preparation the bulk of the 
 Jewish population in the United States had had for the 
 task of assimilating a large and almost alien element was 
 derived from the attitude toward Jewish questions taken 
 by its Hungarian and Polish members. They were the 
 missing link that in time was to bring to the consciousness 
 of the German Jews the kinship existing between them- 
 selves and the shoals of immigrants from the Pale. At 
 
14 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 the time of the influx, they were aware neither of the 
 closeness of the tie, nor of the fact that they had long 
 had among them living examples of the gradations exist- 
 ing in Ashkenazic Judaism. Much as the German Jews 
 from Germany differed among themselves in minor cus- 
 toms and practices, the temper of their minds with regard 
 to Judaism was practically uniform, a statement that em- 
 braces the orthodox as well as the reform wing. Here 
 they were confronted suddenly, as they first thought, by an 
 entirely new development of Jewish thought, and their 
 spontaneous impulse was to repudiate it. As the stream 
 of Russian immigration continued unabated, facts of 
 earlier and of later occurrence co-ordinated themselves, 
 and the scorn once poured out upon the '' Polack, " or, 
 generically, the '' Hinter Berliner," since it was the only 
 channel through which knowledge flowed, brought about 
 the first adjustment to the vast problem. The German 
 Jews gradually realized that the Hungarians and Poles 
 had been but the vanguard of the largest contingent in 
 the Jewish army. It was a sobering realization, and it 
 summoned from the recesses of the communal mind all 
 lessons unconsciously learnt from a distinct and peculiar 
 element, once present in small proportions, and now aug- 
 mented to a host larger than the German-Jewish detach- 
 ment itself — and perhaps more resourceful, materially 
 and spiritually. 
 
 The Russian Jewish element defies analysis. With its 
 Lithuanian, Volhynian, Bessarabian, and other constituents, 
 and its Galician, Polish, and Roumanian tributary streams, 
 it is more complex than either of the other two. Besides, 
 we are still caught in the eddies and currents of the Rus- 
 sian migration, and are being thrown hither and thither 
 by it. Hazardous as it is to make generalizations about 
 the century just closed, it is after all not illegitimate. 
 But to say what the Russian Jew is and can be in America 
 is to prophesy the course of the twentieth century. It 
 may not be too presumptuous, however, to point out one 
 of the ways in which the Russian population promises to 
 affect the organization of Judaism in America. 
 
 If the Spanish-Portuguese population contained various 
 elements, and if the German population was welded to- 
 gether only by the force of circmnstances, the Russian 
 population carries the tendency toward grouping and 
 segregation to the length of a fault. The Anshe Kowno 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE JEWISH POPULATION 15 
 
 and the Anshe Jitomir and the '' ]\Ien of every Russian 
 Hamlet " lead separate existences in the effort to per- 
 petuate the home traditions. Subjectively, from the point 
 of view of the Russian Jew himself, this is a mistake, how- 
 ever pardonable in the circumstances, and a fault, however 
 amiable and attractive to the folklore student and the story 
 writer. Objectively, it may turn out to be a valuable 
 factor in the creation of the Jewish type in America. The 
 common welfare will be furthered beyond expression by 
 transplanting to the new soil every possible variation of 
 the Jewish ideal, as it has been modified in all the coun- 
 tries of the Jewish dispersion. Only by retaining ita 
 identity for a little while after its arrival in America, 
 only by permitting its peculiar, unabridged heritage of 
 intellect and feeling to be modified by the " sweetness and 
 light " issuing from free American political and social 
 institutions, can each group do this service to the Jewish 
 community of the future, the Jewish community that shall 
 be all Jewish — not Sephardic, not German, not Russian, 
 not even American, but simply and solely Jewish. 
 
 For instance, the Chassidistie movement is now repre- 
 sented in this country by numerous congregations bearing 
 chiefly the title Anshe Sfard. Far removed as American 
 Jewry of the nineteenth century was from sympathy with, 
 or intellectual appreciation of what the Anshe Sfard stand 
 for, there is no telling what a rejuvenating and spiritual- 
 izing influence their presence may exert when their con- 
 stituents or the children of their constituents enter into 
 American life, provided they enter it, not with a careless 
 throwing aside of their heirloom, but with full conscious- 
 ness of the strength of the strands they are weaving into 
 its woof. They may turn out to be the clasp uniting the 
 first and the last link in the chain of elements composing 
 Judaism in America. Isaac Luria, a mystic of German 
 descent, in the sixteenth century modifies the Sephardic 
 ritual to suit his Kabbalistic fancy, and his prayer book, 
 in turn, satisfies the devout yearnings of the followers of 
 the Baal Shem, some of whose descendants, the very Anshe 
 Sfard just mentioned, are now engaged in the desperate 
 struggle for existence in America. What a pregnant bit 
 of history! When once it is understood, it will make for 
 solidarity, binding together the Spanish-Portuguese com- 
 munity of two hundred and fifty years' standing with the 
 latest and humblest comer ! 
 
16 ^ INTRODUCTORY 
 
 So each group, if its characteristics are studied in the 
 light of history, and when once these characteristics are 
 toned down by contact with other conceptions of life and 
 Judaism, will be a source of strength and completer union. 
 The particularism of the German Jew disappeared only 
 in the presence of extra-congregational needs and forces; 
 the individualism of the Russian Jew will be converted 
 into a communal power when he realizes his unifying 
 religious mission in Jewish America. 
 
 At present, by reason of their tendency to break up into 
 small groups, the Russian Jews are looked upon by their 
 patrons and by their own leaders as the most unorganizable 
 material among the Jews, who at best are not distinguished 
 for the quality of being organizable. To the keener ob- 
 server it would appear that the disintegration in Russian- 
 Jewish ranks, the almost foolish segregation recklessly in- 
 dulged in, is a passing feature of a period of upheaval. 
 It is the manifestation of reserve energy that cannot yet 
 find an outlet in the secular life, a reaction from workaday 
 struggles and anxieties, with a just admixture of desire 
 to show self-reliance and initiative. The time is not dis- 
 tant when the Russian Jew will have solved the elementary 
 problems of American existence, and will be prepared to 
 take up the more soul-satisfying pursuits open to the 
 politically and intellectually acclimatized citizen. His 
 spiritual energies will flow in quieter channels without 
 abating a jot of their force and fervor. The differences 
 between group and group will have been worn off by 
 attrition, and the common ideal will have been disengaged 
 as the important rallying-point. 
 
 In this direction Zionism is doing admirable work for 
 the Russian Jew in America. It is teaching him the uses 
 of co-operation, and of that degree of organization in 
 Jewish matters which comports with freedom of spiritual 
 development. Under its influence, the Russian Jews will 
 give up their separate, somewhat distrustful existence, and 
 the separate institutions, doubtless not without educative 
 value in this transition period, which they are creating by 
 the score in all the larger cities. They will soon reach the 
 point at which they will turn for guidance to the history 
 of the Germans and of their Sephardic predecessors. 
 Eschewing the foolish pride of both, they will emulate the 
 dignity and self-respect of the latter, and the sobriety 
 and the steadiness of purpose of the former. They will 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE JEWISH POPULATION 17 
 
 use the institutions created by them as the stock upon 
 which to engraft their intenser fervor, their broader Jew- 
 ish scholarship, a more enlightened conception of Jewish 
 ideals, and a more inclusive interest in Jewish world 
 questions. 
 
 The result will be an United Israel in America, respon- 
 sive as a body to the calls and aspirations of Israel the 
 world over, showing neither rift nor seam where the 
 disparate elements have been forged together, and strong 
 through the presence of every modification of Jewish char- 
 acter, thought, conviction, and ideal. 
 
(B) THE JEW IN RUSSIA^ 
 
 There are Hebraists who believe that when the poet of 
 the captivity made Israel exclaim, " Wo is me that I 
 sojourn in Meshech," he had in mind the ancestors of the 
 present Russian nation and a country which now forms 
 part of Russian territory. This would bring the date 
 when Israelite and Muscovite first came in contact back 
 to Biblical times. It is, at any rate, not later than the 
 eighth or ninth century. In the memorable letter written 
 in the tenth century by Joseph, the Jewish king of the 
 Khozars, to Chasdai ibn Shaprut, the Jewish diplomatist 
 of Abdul-Rahman of Cordova, the Russians are first men- 
 tioned in connection with Jewish history, and moreover, 
 as adversaries, being enumerated among the nations with 
 whom he was constantly at war. The Russians ultimately 
 overthrew the Khozar kingdom, and large numbers of 
 Khozars and original Jews who were attracted to the 
 Jewish state were dispersed in the Russian dominions. 
 Jews were also found in the many places which one by one 
 fell into Russia's hands in the course of its expansion. 
 The aversion of the Russians to allowing Jews to dwell 
 among them did not manifest itself apparently at this 
 early period. 
 
 There are records of Jewish settlements in Kieff and 
 other old towns and of independent communities in the 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries. There were also im- 
 portant Jewish communities in Little Russia and White 
 Russia during the long periods when these provinces 
 formed part of the Lithuanian or Polish dominions. 
 Many Jews also came to Russia in the wake of the Tatar 
 invasion in the thirteenth century, and occupied impor- 
 tant positions, mostly as farmers of the revenue, a cir- 
 cumstance which contributed much to increase the senti- 
 ment against Jews among the Russians. But Russia 
 proper, that is, modern, autocratic, Greek Catholic Russia, 
 practically never admitted Jews within its boundaries. 
 
 * This article was written prior to the Kishinev riot of 1903. 
 
 18 
 
THE JEW IN RUSSIA 19 
 
 Ivan IV., " The Terrible," flatly refused the request of 
 Sigismund August, King of Poland, to allow Lithuanian 
 Jews to trade in Russia. Alexis Michailovitch, the second 
 of the Romanoffs, expelled the Jews from Mohilew when 
 it fell into his hands. It was, therefore, after the acquisi- 
 tion of Lithuania and other parts of dismembered Poland 
 that Russia found itself ruling over vast numbers of Jews 
 whom it could not easily expel, and it is only since that 
 time that the history of the Jews in Russia really com- 
 mences. 
 
 The Polish and Lithuanian Jews whom we now call by 
 the collective name of Jews of Russia are mostly of Ger- 
 man extraction. Little is known of the Jews in Poland 
 before the first Crusade at the end of the eleventh century. 
 There is every reason to believe, hov^ever, that there were 
 Jewish settlements in Poland before that period and that 
 its members, like the Jews of early Russia, spoke the Slavic 
 language of their Gentile neighbors. But the steady in- 
 flux of Jews from Germany after each of the long series 
 of persecutions which began in that country with the 
 first Crusade brought about a preponderance of the Ger- 
 man element among the Jews of Poland, even to the 
 extent of forcing the minority to adopt the language of 
 the new arrivals. This is not the only instance of a for- 
 eign tongue being forced by a great mass of Jewish immi- 
 grants on small, indigenous Jewish communities. There 
 are Jews in the Barbary states in northern Africa whose 
 forefathers came there with their fierce countrymen at 
 the time of the Mohammedan invasion, direct from the 
 plains and deserts of Arabia. But the numbers of Span- 
 ish Jews who followed during the great persecutions of 
 the fourteenth century, and after their expulsion at the 
 end of the fifteenth century, so overwhelmed them in num- 
 bers and intelligence that we now find descendants of 
 Arabian tribesmen who never set foot on the Pyrenean 
 peninsula using as their mother tongue the corrupt Span- 
 ish dialect known as Ladino. So, too, we find in Russia, 
 Jews descended from Khozars or from Babylonian Jews 
 who came to their present abode by way of Persia and the 
 Caucasus, from Turkestan or from Kurdistan, now speak- 
 ing the imported mixed German dialect which for want 
 of a better name we call Yiddish. The remnants of the 
 Russian-speaking and Polish-speaking Jewish communities 
 were rooted out during the terrible massacres at the time 
 
20 . INTRODUCTORY 
 
 of the rising of the Haidomaki, or Cossacks, under Bogdaii 
 Chmielnicki in 1648-49, when entire communities were 
 exterminated and nearly a quarter million Jews lost their 
 lives. Allowing for local variations in the characteristics 
 and the dialects of different provinces and for foreign 
 influences in the border governments, the Yiddish-speak- 
 ing, semi-Germanic, Polish, and Lithuanian Jews that 
 came under Russian rule at the end of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury formed an almost homogeneous entity. 
 ^ This mass was a secluded and degraded middle class 
 little in touch with the current of Polish national feeling ; 
 for the persecutions and restrictive measures of the last 
 two centuries of Polish misrule reduced what was the 
 happiest Jewry in Europe during the Middle Ages to the 
 lowest depths of servility and stupor. Catharine II. was 
 too busy and Paul I. too mad to take important steps to 
 solve the Jewish problem, which now became one of the 
 great problems of the empire. Alexander I. was the first 
 who seriously attempted to do something toward that end. 
 He opened to the Jews what little educational facilities 
 Russia had at that time, and he is reported to have said 
 that he would be well satisfied, indeed, if all that was 
 spent under him for Jewish education should contribute 
 to the production of one man like Mendelssohn. The good 
 monarch did not stop to consider that a nation must first 
 be able to produce a Herder, a Lessing, a Kant, or "a 
 Lavater before a Mendelssohn could rise in its midst. 
 Mendelssohn 's greatness lay not in his philosophy. . That 
 part of Poland over which Alexander I. ruled, produced, 
 in the eighteenth century, a much profounder metaphysi- 
 cian than the sage of Dessau, namely, Salomon Maimon. 
 But Mendelssohn, the polite scholar and man of the world, 
 living among a nation that had already attained a high 
 degree of culture and refinement, had only to teach his 
 fellow Jews by example to adjust themselves to the sur- 
 rounding circumstances, to learn the language and the 
 manners of their Christian neighbors, so as to be fit for 
 emancipation. True, it would greatly benefit the Jews 
 of Russia if they adopted the Russian language as their 
 mother tongue. But here the analogy ends. Bad as the 
 condition of the Jews was then and is now — and were it 
 even much worse,— it would still be a retrogressive step 
 for them to pattern themselves after the Russians, that is, 
 to place themselves on their low material or mental level. 
 
TEE JEW IN RUSSIA 21 
 
 This inferiority of the vast majority of the Russian 
 people makes it difficult for outsiders to comprehend and 
 for the government to solve the vexatious Jewish problem. 
 A foreigner who takes a flying trip to Russia, stops at 
 first-class hotels, converses in French with university-bred 
 men, and beholds, figuratively speaking, through the win- 
 dow of his car or equipage, the thin veneer of civilization 
 which can be imported for money, usually reaches the 
 conclusion that Russia occupies as high a position in the 
 scale of civilization as the United States, for example; 
 perhaps a higher one. But the truth is that the Russians 
 — that is eighty-five or ninety per cent, of them — are so 
 much below everj-thing we know here that we would have 
 to go to the illiterate Southern negro for a familiar ex- 
 ample of their mental capacity. The Russian may be 
 styled the unhappy medium between the Asiatic and 
 the European, possessing the low cimning of the former 
 without his stoicism and the brutal aggressiveness of the 
 latter without his fairness or activity. Left to himself, 
 the Russian is a most helpless human being and the willing 
 slave of every one who wants to be his master. The per- 
 centage of Jews, Germans, Poles, and other non-Russians 
 among the artists, scholars, merchants, and manufacturers, 
 and even among the government employees of Russia, is so 
 large, in spite of all the favors sho^Ti to Russians, and 
 all the disadvantages under which the non-Russians have 
 to labor, as almost to justify Pobiedonostseff's statement 
 that the Jews must be discriminated against because the 
 Russians are not able to compete with them on equal terms. 
 This is the real cause of the persecutions and of the special 
 laws, and it makes improvement of the Jews largely con- 
 tingent on the improvement of the condition of the Rus- 
 sians. 
 
 Naturally, the government of Russia never admitted 
 that it was the Russian and not the Jew who must be 
 lifted up in order to bring about a solution of the problem. 
 Its policy toward the Jews was, from the beginning, mostly 
 in the direction of forcing him out of his natural position 
 as the middleman, as the artisan-trader, and of turning 
 him, often by the most cruel and violent means, into the 
 ranks of the agricultural laborer, the journeyman, and 
 the factory hand, positions for which he has no special 
 aptitude. The well-meaning, but rather feeble, Alexander 
 I. did not accomplish much, and his successor, the iron- 
 
22 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 willed and energetic Nicholas I., evinced such a strong 
 desire to convert the Jews of his dominion to the Greek 
 Catholic religion that they looked with suspicion even on 
 the efforts he earnestly made in other directions to im- 
 prove their condition. His enterprises in behalf of Jewish 
 education, which were made through his minister of edu- 
 cation, the illustrious Count Ouvaroff, are especially in- 
 teresting because they made a lasting impression on the 
 development of Russo-Jewish intelligence, and are a fair 
 sample of the method by which the Russian government 
 deals with the Jews. 
 
 It was evident that the Jews were too much absorbed in 
 the study of the Talmud and paid too little attention to 
 secular education. But the knowledge of the Talmud in 
 those days and, to some extent, even now, brought rich 
 rewards in communal distinction and was considered the 
 sine qua non of superiority. 'The Jewish opponents of the 
 exclusive study of the Talmud were the small and unin- 
 fluential circles of maskilim, the devotees of the Men- 
 delssohnian enlightenment which penetrated into Russia 
 through the efforts of Mendelssohn's numerous Polish and 
 Lithuanian pupils late in the eighteenth and early in the 
 nineteenth century. These maskilim, '' the friends of 
 light, ' ' who believed in the regeneration of Israel by means 
 of the knowledge of Hebrew and German, were made 
 kno^Ti to Ouvaroff by the late Dr. Lilienthal, who discov- 
 ered them while traveling as the agent of the Russian 
 government for the purpose of establishing elementary 
 schools in the Jewish communities. Ouvaroff sided with 
 the maskilim and was so much influenced by their opinions 
 of what Russian Jews ought to study that he told Sir 
 Moses Montefiore, when the latter visited St. Petersburg 
 in 1846, of his efforts *' to force the Jews to study their 
 own language." The rabbinical schools or seminaries 
 which were founded in Wilna and Zhitomir in 1848 were 
 practically managed by the maskilim, and according to 
 their ideas. But the new rabbis who were to influence 
 the Jews to accept modern ideas and to become more Rus- 
 sianized lacked the chief requisite for the rabbinical office 
 in Russia, the knowledge of the Talmud. The conserva- 
 tive masses never took kindly to these seminaries. The 
 graduates, who had a good secular but a poor Jewish edu- 
 cation, usually went to the universities and took up other 
 professions; only a small portion became rabbis, and none 
 
THE JEW IN RUSSIA 23 
 
 obtained prominence as Talmudists. The seminaries con- 
 tinued for about a quarter century, when they were closed 
 because they had failed to accomplish what was expected 
 of them. An earlier attempt in Poland failed even more 
 completely. The rabbinical school of Warsaw, which 
 flourished under the auspices of the maskilim, from 1825 
 to 1862, had the unique distinction that not one of its 
 pupils ever became a rabbi — unless the * ' Rev. ' ' Christian 
 David Ginsburg be considered one. 
 
 But the maskilim were not the only ones instrumental 
 in the failure of the rabbinical schools to bring about 
 better results. The government, by its efforts to convert 
 the Jews to Christianity, by decreeing measures of perse- 
 cution, like the expulsion of Jews from places within fifty 
 versts of the frontier, at the time when privileges were 
 granted to educated Jews, caused the religious masses to 
 ioc>k with suspicion on the seminaries as on a veiled agency 
 for converting them. The extortionate " candle tax,'* 
 which supported the Jewish schools, was also very ob- 
 noxious, and helped to make the seminaries hated and 
 despised. Still, had the maskilim of the period paid more 
 deference to the prejudices of the conservative element, 
 and had they recognized the necessity for a successful 
 spiritual leader among the Jews of Russia to be a thorough 
 Talmudist, the seminaries would most probably in time 
 have survived the early prejudices against them, and the 
 perplexing system of two rabbis for each community, one 
 '' government rabbi, '^ a secular scholar who usually knows 
 little or nothing about Judaism, and the other a communal 
 rabbi, who is a Talmudist and knows little of worldly 
 affairs, could have been dispensed with. The rabbinical 
 question is now one of the most vexing that Russian Jewry 
 has to contend with, and the closing by the government 
 of the celebrated Yeshibah (Academy) of Volosin, in 1892, 
 after all its efforts to introduce in it the study of the Rus- 
 sian language had failed, augmented, rather than dimin- 
 ished, the difficulty. A sort of Chautauquan system of 
 educating rabbis introduced by the late Rabbi Isaac 
 Elchanan of Kovno, under which the so-called ** Perushim 
 of Kovno * ' studied — each by himself — has so far not 
 proven very successful. 
 
 However, it was only from the religious point of view 
 that the rabbinical seminaries failed to achieve their pur- 
 pose. It cannot be denied that they did much good in a 
 
24 . INTRODUCTORY 
 
 general way. The first fifteen years of the reign of Alex- 
 ander II. (1855-1870), the short so-called " Golden Age " 
 of the Jews of Russia, offered many opportunities for the 
 Jew with a Russian education, and it is no wonder that 
 many of the abler pupils chose to enter careers which 
 were far more promising than the rabbinate. The preju- 
 dice against secular education and the suspicion that it 
 leads and is intended to lead to apostasy was still strong, 
 when suddenly under the new liberal regulations, brilliant 
 prospects for every Jew of ability were opened. When 
 the professions and civil service positions were made acces- 
 sible to Jews the number of those who had the necessary 
 Russian education to be able to avail themselves of the 
 newly offered opportunities was comparatively small. 
 Then came what may be termed a '' rush " for education, 
 but before the new generation had finished its course of 
 studies the reaction set in and the opportunities were 
 much diminished. However, the impetus then given is 
 indicated by the desire for education which is one of the 
 chief characteristics of the better class of Russian Jews. 
 Parents who were at first opposed to the desires of their 
 sons to become educated saw their folly and were com- 
 pelled to admit that their conservatism deprived their chil- 
 dren of the attainment of the affluence and distinction 
 enjoyed by the children of the more lenient or the more 
 I^rogressive. 
 
 To obtain education and to enjoy the fruits thereof now 
 meant a hard struggle, for only a very small number of 
 Jews were admitted to the universities, and few positions 
 were open for Jewish graduates. Fathers and mothers 
 now seconded their children's desire for education, which 
 was the more ardent the more difficult it became to obtain 
 it. At present, the poorer classes have almost abandoned 
 all hope of having their children educated, being unable 
 to incur the expense necessary to secure one of the few 
 seats reserved for Jews at the higher institutions of learn- 
 ing. It must be remembered that every public favor 
 shown or honor conferred on a Jew in Russia reflects credit 
 on the entire Jewish community. In Russia, as in all 
 countries where the masses are steeped in ignorance, the 
 educated classes form a sort of nobility and are considered 
 much superior to the common people. The Jews, there- 
 fore, take pride in every one of their co-religionists who 
 is added to the distinguished class, ftnd this gives a pa- 
 
THE JEW IN RUSSIA 25 
 
 triotic tinge to the anxiety to become educated and be 
 "' an honor to Judaism." This view of education some- 
 times makes a ludicrous impression when brought over to 
 this country. We often meet here enthusiastic young Rus- 
 sian Jews who fail to comprehend the vast difference be- 
 tween the circumstances of both countries, and continue 
 to act and to speak as if they did a great favor to the 
 Jewish community by taking up the study of law or of 
 medicine. 
 
 The above incidents in the history of the development 
 of knowledge among the Jews of Russia may serve to show 
 the haphazard and impractical way in which many proj- 
 ects of reform are undertaken in that country and why 
 they so often miscarry. It is impossible to attempt within 
 the short space allotted to this chapter to give even the 
 faintest outline or the briefest resume of the immense 
 mass of cruel, foolish, and often contradictory laws and 
 regulations enacted by the Russian government in relation 
 to the Jews. "Were it even possible to enumerate them, 
 but an incorrect impression of the status of the Jews would 
 remain, because every official interprets them in his own 
 way or chooses to enforce what at the moment suits his 
 object or his fancy. One may act in one way, while his 
 colleague in a neighboring city may for the same reason 
 decide in a diametrically opposite manner. The only 
 tendency which may be noticed in the anti-Jewish laws 
 is the one mentioned above, to force Jews out of the middle 
 class. The law promulgated by Alexander II. in 1865 
 permitting Jewish artisans to reside outside of the Pale 
 of Settlement in all parts of the empire was probably the 
 most beneficient measure ever enacted by Russia in favor 
 of the Jews. But it was rendered almost nugatory by the 
 later interpretation that the handicraftsman residing out- 
 side the Pale is prohibited from '* dealing " in his own 
 products, and may only work to order or for other masters. 
 The Jew was thus deprived of the possibility of becoming 
 the artisan-trader and small merchant-manufacturer of 
 Russia, and occupying a position for which he is well 
 adapted. The last blow at the Jewish middlemen was 
 delivered when the government created the whiskey mo- 
 nopoly, taking it into its own hands and thus depriving 
 about thirty thousand Jewish, and several times as many 
 non-Jewish, families of their means of livelihood. It is 
 interesting to note that even the non-Jewish saloon keepers 
 
26 • INTRODUCTORY 
 
 in Russia were but seldom Russians. The number of 
 saloons in the Russian empire is much larger than the 
 number of Russians who could keep sober if they happened 
 to be the sole proprietors of bottles and barrels of vodka. 
 In the localities where Jews are not permitted to engage 
 in mercantile pursuits, the liquor business was usually in 
 the hands of Germans, Letts, and other non-Russians. 
 The liquor monopoly has not proven a success so far, but 
 as very few Russians were ruined by it the government 
 may well think the experiment worth trying. 
 
 The economic condition of the Jewish masses is probably 
 worst in Lithuania. The Jews of this province, who are 
 intellectually superior to those in other parts of Russia, 
 have the most difficult struggle for existence. The land 
 in Lithuania is poor, and the peasants are sunk in the 
 lowest depths of ignorance and poverty. With the excep- 
 tion of those in Byalistock and a few other unimportant 
 manufacturing centres, the province contains no industries 
 worth speaking of. The " Litvaks," or Lithuanian Jews, 
 are therefore thrown back on their ingenuity and Jewish 
 learning for a living. They were the first immigrants 
 who came to inner Russia, to Germany, to England, and 
 to the United States. They supply the melammedim 
 (teachers), the cantors, the schochetim (authorized slaugh- 
 terers), and all other sorts of '' reverends " for the Jews 
 in the various countries. Probably two-thirds of the Rus- 
 sian Jews outside of Russia or in Russia outside of the 
 Pale are from Lithuania. The most successful Jews in 
 the interior of Russia and at the two capitals come from 
 the same region. 
 
 The economic condition of the Jews in Southern Russia, 
 which has Odessa as its centre, is better than in Lithuania, 
 or, at least, was better before the hard times which have 
 prevailed there for the last few years. The fertile soil 
 of that part of the country and the extensive commerce^^ of 
 Odessa contribute much to the prosperity of the district. 
 Bessarabian Jews also had little to complain of until the 
 recent famine which devastated the beautiful province. 
 In Podolia, Volhynia, and the entire part of the country 
 adjacent to the Austrian frontier ignorance and poverty 
 go hand in hand. In Courland, where the German influ- 
 ence strongly predominates and the Jews are, as a rule, 
 highly intelligent, although little acquainted with Jewish 
 learning, matters have of late been going from bad to 
 
THE JEW IN RUSSIA 27 
 
 worse. The Jews of Poland are probably in a better 
 economic condition than those of any other part of the 
 Russian empire. The government is not so solicitous 
 of the welfare of the Polish peasant as it is of that of the 
 Russian, and does not " protect " him as much from the 
 Jewish exploiter. Thus left to themselves, both the Jews 
 and the peasants are much more prosperous than in Rus- 
 sia. Up to the latest renewal of the government's attempt 
 to Russianize Poland in the most brutal way, Jews could 
 acquire farms and country estates and were permitted to 
 live in villages. In cities, too, they enjoy more privileges 
 than in Russia proper. This does not at all hurt the 
 Christian population, and Poland is to-day in a better 
 economic condition than most parts of Russia. The exiled 
 Jews from Moscow have so developed the industries of 
 Poland, especially of Lodz, that the rapid growth of the 
 population and wealth of the city strongly remind one of 
 some of the most successful American business centres. 
 
 One of the most noteworthy contrasts between the eco- 
 nomic condition of Russia and of this country is that 
 whereas here extreme poverty is practically confined to 
 the large cities and is almost unknown in small towns and 
 villages, in Russia it is the reverse. The most abject 
 poverty and squalor are to be found in the smaller towns 
 and to move to a large city is considered a step forward, 
 not only because of the opportunity of acquiring educa- 
 tion and experience but also on account of the better eco- 
 nomic advantages of the larger localities. The reason for 
 this abnormal condition is, in all probability, the general 
 poverty of the peasantry, which renders them small buyers, 
 and the exorbitant taxation, which is very high in propor- 
 tion to the earning and spending capacity of the people, 
 and which usually oppresses the rural more than the urban 
 population. 
 
 The intellectual condition of the Jews of Russia is, on 
 the average, much higher than that of the Russians. There 
 are practically no illiterate male Jews, and there is com- 
 paratively little illiteracy among the women, which means 
 much in a country where the number of illiterates is so 
 large. True, many know little more than to read the 
 Hebrew prayer book, but the number of those who know 
 more, especially in Lithuania, is nevertheless quite consid- 
 erable. Talmudic scholars of various degrees of eminence 
 abound and are highly respected. The educated Jews, in 
 
28 • INTEODUCTORY 
 
 the modern sense of the term, may be divided into two 
 classes, the maskilim, and those who have the advantage of 
 a Russian education. The first are mostly self-taught 
 Hebraists with a leaning toward German culture. The 
 latter are imbued with the love of the Russian nation and 
 its literature and share that almost childish enthusiasm 
 and impulsiveness which is characteristic of the Russian 
 intelligent youth. In a country like Russia, where only 
 a small number are educated and public opinion is not 
 crystallized, no natural bond of sympathy exists between 
 the higher and the lower classes. The wide gap between 
 them causes the latter to appear more brutal and the 
 former more intellectual, but in reality they are more 
 impractical and given to abstract theorizing. The intelli- 
 gent Russian is mostly an extremist in whatever views he 
 may happen to entertain, and the Jew, who in all climes 
 and under all conditions imitates the Christian, is no ex- 
 ception in this respect. The maskil, who is usually in- 
 clined to abstractions and is interested in science and 
 literature for their own sake, is, as a rule, indifferent to 
 the fate of the masses, condescending only to teach those 
 who evince a desire to join the aristocracy of learning to 
 which he belongs. The Russianized Jew, on the other 
 hand, is more often the enthusiastic lover of the low and 
 the down-trodden. By taking advantage of the welcome 
 reception to all newcomers, given in the circles of the 
 extremely radical, irrespective of faith or descent, 
 he associates with Nihilists, and then tries, with that con- 
 tempt for expediency and practicability which character- 
 izes this class, to turn the half -savage, wretched Russian 
 laborers into full fledged Socialists, with the result, in most 
 cases, that they become more wretched and expose them- 
 selves to useless danger. 
 
 This impractical phase of the character of the Russian 
 political radical can be traced to the chief source of Rus- 
 sia's mental weakness, the imitativeness of its genius; a 
 high degree of scholarship and culture is attained by the 
 upper classes, because in these matters it is possible to 
 adopt foreign standards. The same may be said of the 
 real progress Russia is making in the fields of industry 
 and, to some extent, of art. Adaptation, adoption, and 
 lack of originality are noticeable everywhere. This is why 
 Russia is perplexed when it comes to problems which it 
 will not or cannot solve according to foreign standards. 
 
TUE JEW IN RUSSIA 29 
 
 It is the pitiful struggle of the unoriginal mind to assert 
 itself in a way beyond its powers which makes the Rus- 
 sian's ideals so vague and indefinite. Perceiving that 
 everything that is great and good and beautiful comes 
 from abroad, the educated Russian is at variance with 
 himself as to the question of civilization. He is attracted 
 and at the same time repelled by the culture of the '' rot- 
 ten West," disliking it as an intruder but being unable to 
 do without it or to substitute for it anything originally Rus- 
 sian. In spite of all, he remains mentally the slave of West- 
 ern Europe, and is much more influenced by its opinions 
 and its policies than is commonly supposed. The Rus- 
 sians' Pan-slavism and the Russian Jews' Zionism are but 
 local manifestations of the German's Moixlspatriotismus 
 and the Frenchman's chauvinism. All that is necessary to 
 bring about a reaction in favor of more liberal political 
 ideas and of better treatment for the Jews is a reaction 
 in the same direction in Germany and France, the coun- 
 tries which supply intellectual Russia with ideals and 
 movements. As this is bound to come before very long, 
 in spite of all the evil forebodings of the extreme national- 
 ists among our friends or our enemies, the hope of the 
 Russian Jew for better times at home is not so far from 
 being realized as some pessimists seem to think. The 
 autocracy itself came near being modified or rooted out 
 before the present wave of reactionary nationalism spread 
 over Europe. When it will pass, as others before it have 
 passed, and the liberal element will regain ascendancy, the 
 condition of the Jews will be much improved. The great 
 moral support actively and passively given by Germany, 
 France, and Austria to the autocracy and to Jew- 
 baiting in Russia is entirely unknown to the intelli- 
 gent American to whom " Europe " often means Great 
 Britain. Therefore, it is difficult to make him, or even the 
 American Jew, believe that the persecutions of the Jews 
 are not of a religious nature but a result of reactionary 
 conservatism which degenerated into vicious tyranny, and 
 for which there is no other remedy than the general ad- 
 vancement of liberal ideas in the countries which pretend, 
 with some reason, to be more civilized than Russia. Rus- 
 sia will certainly follow suit and all its great problems, 
 including the Jewish problem, will be nearer solution when 
 it will again try to deal with them in that spirit of liberal- 
 ism which influenced its actions in the last generation. 
 
30 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 Meanwhile, the outlook is not very promising. Although 
 there can be no doubt of the ultimate prevalence of liberal 
 principles, not even the most optimistic will dare to insist 
 that their advent is imminent. Perhaps a great war which 
 should result in the triumph of a free country would have 
 the same beneficent results as the Crimean war, which 
 preceded the good tim.es under Alexander II. Until the 
 arrival of a more liberal era, migration and emigration 
 are the only palliatives. They cannot be considered rem- 
 edies, for in spite of the great numbers forced to leave, 
 the population of the Jews in the Pale is steadily increas- 
 ing. Migration to the interior parts of Eussia, which is 
 allowed only to rich merchants and to skilled artisans, and 
 is not burdened by the assistance of organized charities 
 which give the schnorrer (beggar) an advantage over the 
 meritorious, is contributing much to make the Jews and 
 the Russians better acquainted, and is preparing both for 
 friendlier intercourse under the improved conditions which 
 are bound to come. Even now it helps to increase the 
 number of Russianized Jews who are to be found in the 
 front ranks of the better classes assisting in the noble 
 work of advancing . the material and mental interests of 
 their country to the best of their abilities. The merchant 
 and the mechanic are thus more practical than the enthu- 
 siastic student at home or abroad, who disdains the strug- 
 gle for bourgeois or capitalistic liberal principles as being 
 out of fashion and not sufficiently radical nowadays. The 
 Jew, in spite of all restrictions, plays an important part 
 in the rapid development of Russia, and when violence 
 and malicious persecution will prove, as they have always 
 proven, unable to suppress him, he will assume the place 
 which belongs to him in the social structure of Russia, 
 and which he occupies in all civilized countries. Persecu- 
 tion and poverty on the one hand, and mistaken benevo- 
 lence on the other, may induce some Jews to become agri- 
 cultural or other sorts of menial laborers. But in Russia, 
 or out of it, the Jew, with the help of the fortitude, dili- 
 gence, sobriety, and economy, which have served him 
 through the darkest and bloodiest ages, will rise as soon 
 as the opportunity offers itself, and will enter the middle 
 and upper classes, to which he naturally belongs. 
 
 In conclusion, let us console ourselves with the knowl- 
 edge that although the Jews of Russia suffer terribly, 
 they do not suffer alone. All other non-Russian inhabi- 
 
THE JEW IN RUSSIA 31 
 
 tants are subject to more or less persecution and the entire 
 population is oppressed and plundered to an extent which 
 an American would consider impossible to endure. The 
 only ray of hope at present is Russia's rapid material 
 advance. The introduction of railroads and modern meth- 
 ods of production are doing much to raise the standard 
 of living, to increase the number of the well-to-do and 
 intelligent classes, and to make the country at large more 
 susceptible to civilizing influences from abroad. When 
 once a higher average is reached, Russia will deserve and 
 possess a better government than now, and with it will 
 come better laws and better treatment alike for Jew and 
 Gentile. 
 
(C) THE RUSSIAN JEW IN THE UNITED STATES* 
 
 It may not be known that the male Russian and Polish 
 Jew can generally read his Hebrew Bible as well as a 
 Yiddish newspaper, and that many of the Jewish arrivals 
 at the barge office are versed in rabbinical literature, 
 not to speak of the large number of those who can read 
 and write Russian. When attention is directed to the 
 Russian Jew in America, a state of affairs is found which 
 still further removes him from the illiterate class, and 
 gives him a place among the most ambitious and the 
 quickest to learn both the written and the spoken language 
 of the adopted country, and among the easiest to be 
 assimilated with the population. 
 
 The cry raised by the Russian anti-Semites against the 
 backwardness of the Jew in adopting the tongue and the 
 manners of his birthplace, in the same breath in which 
 they urge the government to close the doors of its schools 
 to subjects of the Hebrew faith, reminds one of the hypo- 
 critical miser who kept his gate guarded by ferocious dogs, 
 and then reproached his destitute neighbor with holding 
 himself aloof. This country, where the schools and col- 
 leges do not discriminate between Jew and Gentile, has 
 quite another tale to tell. The several public evening 
 schools of the New York Ghetto, the evening school sup- 
 ported from the Baron de Hirsch Fund, and the private 
 establishments of a similar character are attended by thou- 
 sands of Jewish immigrants, the great majority of whom 
 come here absolutely ignorant of the language of their 
 native country. Surely nothing can be more inspiring to 
 the public-spirited citizen, nothing worthier of the interest 
 of the student of immigration, than the sight of a gray- 
 haired tailor, a patriarch in appearance, coming, after a 
 hard day's work at a sweat-shop, to spell '* cat, mat, rat," 
 and to grapple with the difficulties of " th " and ** w." 
 Such a spectacle may be seen in scores of the class-rooms 
 
 1 This is largely an article published in the Atlantic Monthly, July, 1898, cor- 
 rected with reference to changes since that time. 
 
 32 
 
THE RUSSIAN JEW IN THE UNITED STATES 33 
 
 in the schools referred to. Hundreds of educated young 
 Hebrews earn their living and often pay their way through 
 college by giving private lessons in English in the tene- 
 ment houses of the district, — a type of young men and 
 women peculiar to the Ghetto. The pupils of these 
 private tutors are the same poor, overworked sweat-shop 
 " hands " of whom the public hears so much and knows 
 so little. A tenement house kitchen turned, after a scanty 
 supper, into a class-room, with the head of the family and 
 his boarder bent over an English school reader, may per- 
 haps claim attention as one of the curiosities of life in a 
 great city; in the Jewish quarter, however, it is a common 
 spectacle. 
 
 Nor does the tailor or peddler who hires these tutors, 
 as a rule, content himself with an elementary knowledge 
 of the language of his new home. I know many Jewish 
 workmen who before they came here knew not a word of 
 Russian, and were ignorant of any book except the Scrip- 
 tures, or perhaps the Talmud, but whose range of English 
 reading places them on a level with the average college- 
 bred American. 
 
 The innumerable Yiddish publications with which the 
 Jewish quarter is flooded are also a potent civilizing and 
 Americanizing agency. The Russian Jews of New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Chicago have within the last twenty 
 years created a vast periodical literature which furnishes 
 intellectual food not only to themselves but also to their 
 brethren in Europe. A feverish literary activity un- 
 known among the Jews in Russia, Roumania, and Austria, 
 but which has arisen here among the immigrants from 
 those countries, educates thousands of ignorant tailors and 
 peddlers, lifts their intelligence, facilitates their study of 
 English, and opens to them the doors of the English 
 library. The five million Jews living under the Czar had 
 not a single Yiddish daily paper even when the govern- 
 ment allowed such publications, while their fellow country- 
 men and co-religionists who have taken up their abode in 
 America publish seven dailies (six in New York and one 
 in Chicago), not to mention the countless Yiddish weeklies 
 and monthlies, and the pamphlets and books which to-day 
 make New York the largest Yiddish book market in the 
 world. If much that is contained in these publications is 
 rather crude, they are in this respect as good — or as bad 
 — as a certain class of English novels and periodicals from 
 
34 , INTRODUCTORY 
 
 which they partly derive their inspiration. On the other 
 hand, their readers are sure to find in them a good deal of 
 what would be worthy of a more cultivated language. 
 They have among their contributors some of the best Yid- 
 dish writers in the world, men of undeniable talent, and 
 these supply the Jewish slums with popular articles on 
 science, on the history and institutions of the adopted 
 country, translations from the best literatures of Europe 
 and America, as well as original sketches, stories, and 
 poems of decided merit. It is sometimes said (usually by 
 those who know the Ghetto at second hand) that this un- 
 natural development of Yiddish journalism threatens to 
 keep the immigrant from an acquaintance with English. 
 Nothing could be further from the truth. The Yiddish 
 periodicals are so many preparatory schools from which 
 the reader is sooner or later promoted to the English 
 newspaper, just as the several Jewish theatres prepare his 
 way to the Broadway playhouse, or as the Yiddish lecture 
 serves him as a stepping-stone to that English-speaking, 
 self-educational society, composed of workingmen who 
 have lived a few years in the country, which is another 
 characteristic feature of life in the Ghetto. Truly, the 
 Jews *' do not rot in their slum, but, rising, pull it up 
 after them." 
 
 The only time when Jewish laborers threatened to come 
 in serious conflict with the cause of American workingmen 
 was during the great 'longshoremen's strike of 1882, at 
 the very beginning of the new era in the history of Jewish 
 immigration. Ignorant of the meaning of strikes, the 
 newcomers blindly allowed themselves to be persuaded by 
 representatives of ship-owners to take the places of former 
 employees. No sooner, however, had the situation been 
 explained to the " scabs " than they abandoned their 
 wheelbarrows, amid the applause of the striking Gentiles. 
 Since then the Jewish workmen have been among the most 
 faithful members of the various trades-unions of the 
 country. So far from depressing wages and bringing 
 down the standard of living, the Jewish workingman has 
 been among the foremost in the struggle for the interests 
 of the wage-earning class of the country. If he brings 
 with him a lower standard of living, his keen suscepti- 
 bilities, his " intellectual avidity," and his '' almost uni- 
 versal and certainly commendable desire to improve his 
 condition " impel him to raise that standard to the level 
 
THE RUSSIAN JEW IN THE UNITED STATES 35 
 
 of his new surroundings. Unlike some of tlie immigrants 
 of other nationalities, the Essex Street Jew does not re- 
 main here in the same plight in which he came. Poor as 
 he is, he strives to live like a civilized man, and the money 
 which another workman perhaps might spend on drink and 
 sport he devotes to the improvement of his home and the 
 education of his children. If ''it may be stated as axio- 
 matic that home-builders are good citizens," the Jewish 
 immigrant makes a very good citizen indeed. 
 
 I have visited the houses of many American working- 
 men, in New England and elsewhere, as well as the resi- 
 dences of their Jewish shopmates, and I have found 
 scarcely a point of difference. The squalor of the typical 
 tenement house of the Ghetto is far more objectionable and 
 offensive to the people who are doomed to live in it than 
 to those who undertake slumming expeditions as a fad, and 
 is entirely due to the same economical conditions which are 
 responsibile for the lack of cleanliness in the homes of 
 such poor workingmen as are classed among the most 
 desirable contribution to the population. The houses of 
 the poor Irish laborers who dwell on the outskirts of the 
 great New York Ghetto (and they are not worse than the 
 houses occupied by the poor Irish families of the West 
 Side) are not better, in point of cleanliness, than the resi- 
 dences of their Jewish neighbors. The following state- 
 ment, which is taken from the report made by the Tene- 
 ment House Committee to the Senate and Assembly of the 
 State of New York on January 17, 1895, throws light on 
 the subject. 
 
 "It is evident," says the committee, '' that there are 
 other potent causes besides density of population at work 
 to affect the death-rate of the tenement districts, and the 
 most obvious one is race or nationality. It will be observed 
 at once that the wards showing the greatest house density 
 combined with a low death-rate, namely the Tenth and 
 Seventh Wards, are very largely populated by Russian and 
 Polish Jews. This is, in fact, the Jewish quarter of the 
 city. On the other hand, the wards having the highest 
 death-rate . . . constitute two of the numerous Italian 
 colonies which are distributed through the city. . . . 
 The greatest density (57.2 tenants to a house) is in the 
 Tenth Ward (almost exclusively occupied by Jews), v\^hich 
 also has the lowest death-rate. . . . The low death- 
 rates of the Seventh and Tenth Wards are largely accounted 
 
36 • INTBODUCTORY 
 
 for by the fact previously mentioned, that they are popu- 
 lated largely by Russian Jews. ' ' 
 
 To be sure, life in a Tenth Ward tenement house is 
 wretched enough, but this has nothing to do with the 
 habits and inclinations of its inmates. It is a broad sub- 
 ject, one which calls in question the whole economic ar- 
 rangement of our time, and of which the sweating system 
 — the great curse of the Ghetto — is only one detail. . 
 
 Is the Russian Jew responsible for the sweating system? 
 He did not bring it with him. He found it already devel- 
 oped here. In its varied forms it exists in other industries 
 as well as in the tailoring trades. But far from resigning 
 himself to his burden the Jewish tailor is ever struggling 
 to shake it from his shoulder. Nor are his efforts futile. 
 In many instances the sweat-shop system has been abol- 
 ished or its curse mitigated. The sweating system and its 
 political ally, the '* ward heeler," are accountable for 
 ninety-nine per cent, of whatever vice may be found in the 
 Ghetto, and the Jewish tailor is slowly but surely emanci- 
 pating himself from both. '' The redemption of the work- 
 ers must be effected by the workers themselves " is the 
 motto of the two dailies which the Jewish workingmen 
 publish for themselves in New York. The recurring tailor 
 strikes, whose frequency has been seized upon by the 
 '' funny men " of the daily press, are far less droll than 
 they are represented to be. Would that the public could 
 gain a deeper insight into these struggles than is afforded 
 by newspaper reports! Hidden under an uncouth surface 
 would be found a great deal of what constitutes the true 
 poetrj^ of modern life, — tragedy more heart-rending, ex- 
 amples of a heroism more touching, more noble, and more 
 thrilling, than anything that the richest imagination of the 
 romanticist can invent. While to the outside observer the 
 struggles may appear a fruitless repetition of meaningless 
 conflicts, they are, like the great labor movement of which 
 they are a part, ever marching onward, ever advancing. 
 
 The anti-Semitic assertion that the Jew as a rule avoids 
 productive labor, which is pure calumny so far as the Jews 
 of Russia, Austria, and Roumania are concerned, would 
 certainly be out of place in this country, where so many 
 of the Jewish immigrants are among the most diligent 
 wage-earners. As to the remainder, it includes, besides a 
 large army of poor peddlers, thousands of such " business 
 men " as news-dealers and rag-men, whose occupations are 
 
THE BUSSIAN JEW IN THE UNITED STATES 37 
 
 scarcely less productive or more agreeable than manual 
 labor. 
 
 Farming settlements of Jews have not been very success- 
 ful in this country. There are some Jews in Connecticut, 
 in New Jersey, and in the Western states, who derive a 
 livelihood from agriculture, but the majority of the Jewish 
 inmiigrants who took to tilling the soil in the eighties have 
 been compelled to sell or to abandon their farms, and to 
 join the urban population. But how many American farm- 
 ers have met with a similar fate ! This experience is part of 
 the same great economic question, and it does not seem to 
 have any direct bearing on the peculiar inclinations or dis- 
 inclinations of the Hebrew race. It may not be generally 
 known that in southern Russia there are many flourishing 
 farms which are owned and worked by Jews, although, 
 owing to their legal disabilities, the titles are fictitiously 
 held by Christians. 
 
 Hundreds of Russian and Polish Jews have been more 
 or less successful in business, and the names of several of 
 them are to be found on the signs along Broadway. 
 
 The first educated Russian Hebrews to come to this 
 country were attracted neither by the American colleges 
 nor by the access of their race to a professional career. In 
 the minds of some cultured enthusiasts, the general craze 
 for shaking off the dust of the native land and seeking 
 shelter under the stars and stripes crystallized in the form 
 of a solution of the Jewish question. Of the two move- 
 ments which were set on foot in 1882 by the Palestinians 
 and the Americans, the American movement seemed the 
 more successful. Several emigrant parties (the Eternal 
 People, New Odessa) were sent out with a view to estab- 
 lishing agricultural colonies. The whole Jewish race was 
 expected by the Americans to follow suit in joining the 
 farming force of the United States, and numbers of Jewish 
 students left the Russian universities and gymnasiums to 
 enlist in the pioneer parties. All these parties broke up, 
 some immediately upon reaching New York, others after 
 an abortive attempt to put their plans into practice, 
 although in several instances undertakings in the same 
 direction have proved partially successful. The would-be 
 pioneers were scattered through the Union, v/here they 
 serve their brethren as physicians, druggists, dentists, law- 
 3^ers, or teachers. 
 
 Only from three to five per cent, of the vacancies in the 
 
38 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 Russian universities and gymnasiums are open to appli- 
 cants of the Mosaic faith. As a consequence, the various 
 university towns of Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, 
 France, and Austria have each a colony of Husso-Jewish 
 pilgrims of learning. The impecunious student, however, 
 finds a university course in those countries inaccessible. 
 Much more favorable in this respect is the United States, 
 where students from among the Jewish immigrants find it 
 possible to sustain themselves during their college course 
 by some occupation ; and this advantage has to some extent 
 made this country the Mecca of that class of young men. 
 It is not, however, always the educated young men, the 
 graduates of Russian gymnasiums, from whom the Rus- 
 sian members at the American colleges are recruited. Not 
 to speak of the hundreds of immigrant boys and girls who 
 reach the New York City College or the Normal College by 
 way of the grammar schools of the Ghetto, there are in 
 the colleges of New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Bos- 
 ton, as well as among the professional men of the Jewish 
 colonies, not a few former peddlers or workmen who re- 
 ceived their first lessons in the rudimentary branches of 
 education within the walls of an American tenement house. 
 I was once consulted by an illiterate Jewish peddler of 
 thirty-two who was at a loss to choose between a medical 
 college and a dry goods store. '' I have saved two thou- 
 sand dollars," he said. '' Some friends advise me to go 
 into the dry goods business, but I wish to be an educated 
 man and live like one." 
 
 The Russian-speaking population is represented also in 
 the colleges for women. There are scores of educated 
 Russian girls in the sweat-shops, and their life is one of 
 direst misery, — of overwork in the shop, and of privations 
 at home. 
 
 Politically the Jewish quarter is among the most prom- 
 ising districts in the metropolis. The influence of the 
 vote-buyer, which is the blight of every poor neighborhood 
 in the city, becomes in the Ghetto smaller and smaller. 
 There is no method of determining the number of votes 
 which are secured for either of the two leading parties 
 by any of the several forms of bribery enumerated by Mr. 
 James Bryce. 
 
 If some immigrants have not the " adequate conception 
 of the significance of our institutions," of which Vice- 
 president Fairbanks speaks, it is the American slum poli- 
 
THE RUSSIAN JEW IN THE UNITED STATES 39 
 
 tician who gives the newcomer lessons in that conception; 
 and if it happens to be an object lesson in the form of a 
 two-dollar bill and a drink, the political organization which 
 depends upon such a mode of " rolling up a big vote " is 
 certainly as much to blame as the ignorant bribe-taker. 
 
 The ward heeler is as active in the Ghetto as elsewhere. 
 Aided by an army of " workers," which is largely made 
 up of the lowest dregs of the neighborhood, he knocks, on 
 election day, at the door of every tenement house apart- 
 ment, while on the street the vote market goes on in open 
 daylight as freely as it did before there was a Parkhurst 
 to wage war against a guilty police organization. This 
 statement is true of every destitute district, and the Jew- 
 ish quarter is no exception to the rule. As was revealed 
 by the Lexow committee, some of the leading district 
 " bosses " in the great city, including a civil justice, owe 
 their power to the political co-operation of criminals and 
 women of the street. Unfortunately this is also the case 
 with the Jewish neighborhood, where every wretch living 
 on the profits of vice, almost without exception, is a mem- 
 ber of some political club and an active ** worker " for 
 one of the two *' machines," and where, during the cam- 
 paign, every disreputable house is turned into an elec- 
 tioneering centre. If the Tenth Ward has come to be 
 called ^' the Klondike " of the police, so much the worse 
 for the parties who are directly responsible for the evil 
 which justifies both that appellation and the name of 
 *' Tenderloin," which is borne by a more prosperous 
 neighborhood than the Ghetto. 
 
 The malady is painful enough, but it is not the guilty 
 politician from whom the remedy is to be expected. As to 
 the Jewish quarter, the doctrine of self-help is practiced by 
 the workingmen politically as well as economically. In 
 proportion as the intelligence of the district is raised by 
 the thousand and one educational agencies at work, '* the 
 many characteristics of the best citizens," the Jews of the 
 East Side come to the front, and the power of the corrup- 
 tionist wanes. 
 
 The Jewish immigrants look upon the United States 
 as their country, and when it engaged in war they did not 
 shirk their duty. They contributed three times their 
 quota of volunteers to the army, and they had their repre- 
 sentatives among the first martyrs of the campaign, two 
 of the brave American sailors who were wounded at Car- 
 
40 * INTRODUCTOBY 
 
 denas and Cienfuegos being the sons of Hebrew immi- 
 grants. 
 
 The Russian Jew brings with him the quaint customs of 
 a religion full of poetry and of the sources of good citizen- 
 ship. The orthodox synagogue is not merely a house of 
 prayer; it is an intellectual centre, a mutual aid society, a 
 fountain of self-denying altruism, and a literary club, no 
 less than a place of worship. The study-rooms of the hun- 
 dreds of synagogues, where the good old people of the 
 Ghetto come to read and discuss ^' words of law '' as well 
 as the events of the day, are crowded every evening in the 
 week with poor street peddlers, and with those gray-haired, 
 misunderstood sweat-shop hands of whom the public hears 
 every time a tailor strike is declared. So few are the joys 
 which this world has to spare for those overworked, en- 
 feebled victims of *' the inferno of modern times " that 
 their religion is to many of them the only thing which 
 makes life worth living. In the fervor of prayer or the 
 abandon of religious study they forget the grinding pov- 
 erty of their homes. Between the walls of the synagogue, 
 on the top floor of some ramshackle tenement house, they 
 sing beautiful melodies, some of them composed in the 
 caves and forests of Spain, where the wandering people 
 worshiped the God of their fathers at the risk of their 
 lives; and these and the sighs and sobs of the Days of 
 Awe, the thrill that passes through the heartbroken talith- 
 covered congregation when the shofar blows, the mirth 
 which fills the house of God and the tenement homes upon 
 the Rejoicing of the Law, the tearful greetings and hum- 
 bled peace-makings on Atonement Eve, the mysterious 
 light of the Chanuccah (a festival in memory of the 
 restoration of the Temple in the time of the Maccabeans) 
 candles, the gifts and charities of Purim (a festival com- 
 memorating the events in the time of Esther), the joys and 
 kingly solemnities of Passover, — all these pervade the at- 
 mosphere of the Ghetto with a beauty and a charm without 
 which the life of its older residents would often be one of 
 unrelieved misery. 
 
II 
 
 GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE 
 POPULATION 
 
 {A) NEW YOEK 
 By Milton Reizenstein, Ph. D. 
 
 Superintendent Hebrew Educational Society, Brooklyn 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 By Chakles S. Bernheimer, Ph. D. 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By Philip Davis, A. B. 
 
 Resident Civic Service House, Boston 
 
^1 
 
 New York 
 Lower East Side 
 
GENERAL ASPECTS OP THE 
 POPULATION 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 
 There is no other city in the world that contains as many 
 Jews as there are in New York. A conservative estimate, 
 based upon the police census and the reports of the Board 
 of Health, places the total Jewish population of Greater 
 New York at about 600,000 persons, which is probably 
 less than the actual number. 
 
 The Russian Jews (under which generic name all the 
 immigrants from Russia, Roumania, Galicia, Poland and 
 other countries of Eastern Europe since 1881, are classed) 
 constitute by far the larger portion of this great aggrega- 
 tion of Israelites. 
 
 Within a few miles of New York, there are many thou- 
 sands more of the chosen people, for there are large settle- 
 ments of Russian Jews in Jersey City, Elizabeth, Bayonne, 
 Newark, and a census of Jews in New Jersey would prob- 
 ably show a surprisingly large number in that state. 
 
 Aside from the Jews distributed more or less thickly all 
 over the better residential sections of New York, there are 
 several well defined districts whose population is practic- 
 ally wholly Jewish. The largest of these is situated on the 
 lower east side of the Island and Borough of Manhattan, 
 and is easily entitled to be called the Great Ghetto. The 
 next largest is the settlement known as Brownsville, which 
 lies in the eastern district of the Borough of Brooklyn. 
 There is another extensive settlement of Jewdsh immigrants 
 on the upper east side of the Borough of ]\Ianhattan in 
 the vicinity of One Hundredth Street, and a fourth in the 
 northern part of the Borough of Brooklyn, the centre of 
 which is on Seigel, ]\Ioore, and Yaret Streets. Each of 
 the minor Ghettos has certain peculiarities due to its situa- 
 tion, but in any general study of conditions, the student 
 need only turn to the Great Ghetto (of whose main fea- 
 tures the smaller settlements are, after all, living minia- 
 
44 GEI^EEAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 tures) in order to get the best possible view of the life 
 of the Kiissian Jew in the American metropolis. 
 
 No walls shut in this Ghetto, but once within the Jew- 
 ish quarter, one is as conscious of having entered a distinct 
 section of the city as one would be if the passage had been 
 through massive portals, separating this portion of the 
 lower East Side from the non-Jewish districts of New 
 York. 
 
 If the entry into the Ghetto has been made from the 
 Bowery by way of one of the streets that run eastwardly 
 to the river — it may be Broome, Delancey, Rivington, or 
 Stanton, — the attention of the observant visitor is at once 
 engaged. On both sides of the streets, tower the gloomy, 
 dingy tenement houses, built on their long, narrow lots — 
 the curse of New York. The peculiar system of cutting 
 city lots into sections one hundred feet deep by twenty-five 
 feet wide has almost compelled the erection of buildings 
 which are bad from every sanitary point of view. It takes 
 two or more lots to give space enough to erect a tenement 
 house that will give necessary light and air to the residents. 
 
 As a happy offset to the miserable apologies for habitable 
 dwellings are the handsome and spacious schoolhouses, 
 many of them striking object lessons left by a reform city 
 government — still insufficient for the needs of this over- 
 crowded quarter, although they greet the eye «very few 
 blocks. 
 
 The main Ghetto of New York embraces the Seventh, 
 Tenth and Thirteenth "Wards, as well as the southern por- 
 tions of sanitary districts A and B of the Seventeenth 
 Ward, and of sanitary districts A and C of the Eleventh 
 Ward. This area contains about 500 acres, the average 
 density being approximately 500 to 600 persons to the 
 acre. 
 
 This great Jewish city is bounded on the north by Hous- 
 ton Street (although there are now many Russian Jews liv- 
 ing north of this point), on the west by the Bowery, and on 
 the east and southeast — for the shape of the Ghetto is that 
 of a square, with its southeastern corner cut off — by the 
 East River. Adjoining the Jewish quarter on the north 
 lies ^' Little Germany," whither its present residents 
 moved when driven out from Grand and Canal Streets by 
 the advent of the Russian Jews, and whence they bid fair 
 to be driven again owing to the encroachments of the 
 steady streams of Hebrew immigrants, who are still com- 
 
NEW YORK 45 
 
 ing in thousands from Russia and Roumania direct to New 
 York. 
 
 Along the East River front there is still a fringe of 
 Irish, Italian, and American-born residents, but otherwise 
 the whole five hundred acres are practically solidly in- 
 habited by Jews.^ 
 
 East Broadway, which is the main business thoroughfare 
 of the quarter, divides the Ghetto into two. The con- 
 ditions prevailing in the more southerly portion are 
 distinguishable from those of the more northerly half, not 
 so much because they are better, but because those prevail- 
 ing in the northern section are worse. Generally speak- 
 ing, the economic status of those who live in the streets 
 to the south of East Broadway is not so bad as that of the 
 residents farther to the north, because merchants, manu- 
 facturers — some of them doing business on a fairly large 
 scale — as well as their clerks and other employees, live in 
 the southern section, while in the northern portion are the 
 workshops and the badly built and worse kept tenements, 
 where thousands upon thousands of workers in the under- 
 paid needle industries are housed. 
 
 The streets in the southern portion are wider, too, than 
 the thoroughfares further north, and there are more pri- 
 vate houses to relieve the congestion which the tenement 
 houses, front and rear, cause in the areas in which they are 
 most thickly built. The tenements, too, are kept in bet- 
 ter condition in the southern half. 
 
 It is in the narrow streets extending to the north from 
 East Broadway, that the '' sweater " works and exists. 
 The tenement houses in this section are of two main types 
 — the old fashioned front and rear tenement, and the mod- 
 ern ** dumb-bell double-decker." A prominent architect 
 of New York has said that no misfortune that has ever 
 come to the metropolis in the way of fire, flood, or pesti- 
 lence, has been so disastrous as the way that the city has 
 been cut up into long and narrow lots, twenty-five by one 
 hundred feet, upon a single one of which it is not possible 
 to build a good habitation for many families. 
 
 Owing to the physical limitations of the Island of Man- 
 
 * The Federation of Churches and Christian Workers of New York, in a 
 report upon social conditions in the Fourteenth Assembly District, which in- 
 cludes the section of New York between Seventh and Fourteenth Street, east 
 of Third Avenue (the northern extension of the Bowery) shows 17 per cent, 
 of the families in this district are Jewish. The population of the section is 
 about 50,000 persons, of whom 20,000, or 40 per cent., are Germans. 
 
46 GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 hattan, the vastness of the population has caused the value 
 of land to rise to enoniious figures. Consequently, in 
 order to pay the owner of property a fair return upon his 
 investment, it has been found necessaiy to erect houses 
 sheltering many families in almost all portions of the city. 
 Even then the rents are xery high. Measured by square 
 feet of lot space there are few portions of the city where 
 such a high rate of rent is paid as in the Great Ghetto. 
 Take, for example, a dumb-bell double-decker of the most 
 modern t^-pe. Such a house is built with six stories and a 
 basement, making practically seven stories, for there are 
 stores in the basement, the floor of which is only a few 
 feet below the street level. There are four families to 
 each floor, and two stores and living rooms for two fam- 
 ilies in the basement. The absurdly low rent of $10 per 
 month for each apartment or store would bring $3,360 
 for the house for the year. This is, however, con- 
 siderably less than the actual gross return from such 
 houses, which is generally rather over ten per cent, than 
 under ten per cent, of the cost. A lot 25 feet by 100 feet 
 in the Jewish quarter would cost not less than $20,000, 
 and a similar sum, at least, would be required to erect a 
 dumb-bell double-decker of the regulation kind. Neverthe- 
 less, in spite of these high figures, the rents charged in 
 some of these tenements are so exorbitant that in spite of 
 losses from non-payment of rentals, a net return of ten 
 per cent, or more is realized upon the sums invested. 
 Many of the worst tenements are owned by Russian Jews 
 themselves, who live within the confines of the Ghetto. 
 
 The mode whereby they acquire title to such valuable 
 holdings is this: A house and lot may be worth $-10,000. 
 The " owner " can get a loan of at least $28,000 on such 
 a piece of property at 4% per cent, or even 4 per cent, 
 and then he puts as large a second mortgage as possible 
 upon the property, sometimes as much as $7,000, leaving 
 the owner to invest only $5,000 of his own money. Of 
 course, the risk is entirely his, for in case of disaster he 
 would be first to suffer. To offset this disadvantage, he 
 sees to it that he secures as much as possible from his 
 tenants, giving them as little as possible in return. In 
 many cases, the " owner " will net at least $1,000 on his 
 house by dint of good management, or 20 per cent, on his 
 investment. 
 
 Remark has already been made regarding the crowded 
 
 / 
 
NEW TOBK 4!7 
 
 condition of streets and sidewalks in the Jewish quarter. 
 This is the natural result of the dense population, for if 
 the weather is at all warm, it is almost impossible for the 
 residents to remain indoors, and there is no place to go but 
 the street. Even in cold weather, the apartments are so 
 small that the young people cannot receive their friends 
 at home, and the streets, the cafes, the dance halls, or 
 other places of amusement become the rallying point for 
 social intercourse. Most of the streets of the quarter are 
 paved with asphalt, which not only permits of frequent 
 and easy cleaning, but also deadens the noises of traffic, 
 of which more than enough, however, are left to disturb 
 the slumbers of the Ghetto dwellers. The front steps are 
 crowded during summer evenings, and also during the 
 days when they happen to be on the shady side of the 
 street, while during very hot weather in mid-summer, there 
 are sleepers on the sidewalks, front steps, fire escapes, and 
 roofs, as well as in the parks, on the docks and recreation 
 piers, and in all other places where there is opportunity 
 for a breath of air. 
 
 There are now a few open play spaces in the quarter 
 that are a blessing to the children. In the summer time, 
 some of the public schools throw open their yards as play 
 grounds, and besides this, the city has opened a number 
 of recreation piers along the water front, where sweltering 
 humanity may breathe in the revivifying breezes that play 
 over the East River upon the warmest days. Further- 
 more, the Educational Alliance has opened a roof garden 
 for the people upon the top of the building, and there is 
 also a garden on the roof of the Alfred Corning Clark 
 Neighborhood House, and one on the top of the University 
 Settlement. One would naturally draw the conclusion 
 from the undesirable conditions that prevail here, owing 
 to the overcrowding and defective way in which the houses 
 are built, that the mortality would be very high. It is a 
 remarkable fact that on the contrary, the death rate is low, 
 as is shown in the discussion on Health and Sanitation in 
 this volume. 
 
 This seems very favorable, but it takes no account of the 
 great amount of sickness and the depressed or exhausted 
 vitality of the residents, all of which are part of the 
 tremendous arraignment against bad housing and urban 
 overcrowding. 
 
 The best part of the social life of the Jewish quarter 
 
48 GEJ^EBAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 centres, as it should, in the home. The tenement house, 
 with its cramped quarters, does the very best it can to 
 destroy home life. But its best is not the worst possible. 
 For in spite of such physical limitations as the double- 
 decker tenement house imposes, and others slightly worse, 
 the clans — so many of them as can gather in the ten by 
 twelve front room — always assemble to celebrate a bar 
 mitzvah (when a Jewish boy is admitted to the faith at 
 the age of thirteen years) or a b'rith milah (circumcision). 
 The older people do pay visits to their brothers-in-law, or 
 other relatives, from time to time. The members of the 
 immediate family are close together (more or less neces- 
 sarily) all the time they are at home. 
 
 But the young people ! That is a wholly different story. 
 The social life for them, alas! does not make the three- 
 room apartment the common centre. In the first place, it 
 is not conducive to the observance of the convenances to 
 have the children put to bed in the same room where 
 Rebecca is entertaining Isaac. Yet the children must be 
 bedded somewhere, and the other two rooms, one of which 
 is the kitchen, are already pre-empted. Therefore, not only 
 does Eebecca refrain from receiving Isaac in her home, but 
 she is just as unable to entertain Esther or Sarah or Leah. 
 Such space as exists, the children and the older members 
 of the family occupy, and there is no place wherein the 
 young maidens can whisper to each other their little 
 secrets and hopes and plans, the discussion of which sweet- 
 ens the hours after the toil of the day. 
 
 What is the consequence? There is the street. Crowd- 
 ed, too, but there is isolation in such a crowd, and the 
 street becomes the common meeting place for man and 
 maid. Needless to say, the ethics and etiquette of the 
 streets are not elevating, and the degenerating effects are 
 not hidden from the eyes of the observant. Such young 
 people soon become inoculated with the shallow cynicism of 
 the ignorant. The Jewish faith, as they know it, with its 
 ceremonies and restrictions, is to them ridiculous and con- 
 temptible. ** Pleasure," and not *' duty," being their 
 watch-word, all that hampers freedom or self-indulgence 
 is a kill-joy to be avoided. Therefore, the dance hall, the 
 vaudeville theatre, the card game, the prize fight are places 
 of frequent resort. The synagogue, the lecture hall, the 
 concert room, the debating club, are not visited to any ex- 
 tent by thi& particular portion of Young Israel. 
 
NEW YORK 49 
 
 There is, on the other hand, a very appreciable number 
 of fairly well educated young people, who have left the 
 Jewish religion of their orthodox parents. There is a wide 
 field for work among these young people. They need a 
 leader possessing eloquence and personal magnetism and 
 the power of teaching by example the value of a religious 
 life as interpreted by the teachings of Judaism in its mod- 
 ern form. 
 
 k 
 
an o^ iSa BQcij-saB 
 
 ..i(^ I— :S-T r— ir— 1 tm.KTr-M-n , , , , 
 
 
 □ mm e-:j tm iiqs » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tl 
 
 mmims^mmm 
 
 '/■^_* — , „§-,„ sisUjv, IS.^ *.JKsi3=^»*'-UJji* ,„^_^ 
 
 c^3 r~^ l:zzi l-lf ,%p yi^if\ Vr"»'^ - tj i ji I L 
 
 I 1 lzsh 
 
 Philadelphia 
 Southeastern Section 
 
'(B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 There is something picturesque in the appearance of the 
 streets in the southern section of the city, though it may 
 not be necessarily attractive to the native who sees but the 
 squalor and the dirt that are part of the picture which 
 forms itself in the localities where the several nationalities 
 and races are congregated. The lower portion of the city 
 contains fairly well-defined groups, — Russian Jews, Ital- 
 ians, negroes, besides native Americans, Irish, Germans, 
 and people from Slavic countries, such as Russians, Poles, 
 Lithuanians, and Hungarians, which add to the variegated 
 character of the assembly of nations in the city. 
 
 The district to which I shall confine myself chiefly in- 
 cludes the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sev- 
 enth "Wards of the city of Philadelphia. The area of these 
 six wards is 2.322 square miles, ancl, as the total area of the 
 city is 129.583 square miles, the district is about one- 
 fiftieth of the entire surface of the city. The popula- 
 tion of these six wards is 165,385, according to the census 
 of 1900. The population of the city is 1,293,697. We 
 have, then, one-eighth of the people of the city in an area 
 which is but one-fiftieth of the city. The Third Ward is 
 the most densely populated in the city, the number of per- 
 sons inhabiting it being 24,693, and as its area is but .191 
 square mile, this is an average of 129.282 persons to the 
 square mile. 
 
 An inquiry into the Russian-Jewish population enables 
 me to assume 55,000^ as the number. This is deduced from 
 
 1 The method of the English Educational Department to ascertain the num- 
 ber of children of school age is to divide the population by six. This is ap- 
 plied by H. Llewellyn Smith, in Booth's " Life and Labor of the People," 
 Vol. in, p. 106. Notwithstanding the efforts of truant officers and others 
 interested in the education of children, the actual school attendance for 
 various reasons, never reaches the total of children of school age, but though 
 it may approximate it more closely with Jewish children than with most other 
 classes, in all but the higher grades, we cannot absolutely accept the multiple 
 of six to obtain the population as other elements vary in the public school 
 conditions between this country and Great Britain. Factors which must be 
 considered are the greater size of the Russian Jewish families on the one hand 
 and, on the other, the greater number of adults in the immigrant population, 
 some of whom would not be accounted for in a calculation based merely on 
 school attendance. However, these two factors in a measure neutralize each 
 
 51 
 
52 GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 the fig'ures as to the number of Jewish children attending 
 the public schools. The number in schools of the section 
 bounded by Spruce Street on the north, Moore Street 
 on the south, the Delaware River on the east, and Nine- 
 teenth Street on the west, is 11,686 out of a total of 21,515 
 pupils. 
 
 The negro population of these lower wards is 18,000 in 
 round numbers, according to the United States Census 
 statistics. The Italians are assumed to number 28,000, ac- 
 cording to the Census. The Christians from Slav countries 
 may number between 5,000 and 10,000. The remainder of 
 50,000 are Irish, German and native American. 
 
 When the Russian Jewish people first came here, as a 
 consequence of the persecutions, they settled in dwellings 
 in the lower section, because rents were as cheap there as 
 anywhere. With relatives and friends coming year after 
 year, and with natural accretions, the population grew and 
 grew until now it has become a fair proportion of the 
 southeastern section of the city. It has supplanted not 
 only the German Jewish and Polish Jewish population, 
 which was originally in this section, but it has swarmed into 
 Pine and Spruce Streets, formerly occupied by old Phila- 
 delphia families. It has, in some cases, made the streets 
 more respectable and less dangerous morally. It has even, 
 in some instances, displaced Italians, just as Italians have 
 displaced some native-born and others of foreign national- 
 ities in sections immediately west of the Jewish portions. 
 Some of the well-to-do Jews are in the northern portion of 
 the section on Spruce and Pine Streets. Lombard is lower- 
 grade, especially because of its mixture with the lower-class 
 negroes. South Street is a bee-hive of business activity 
 among the Jewish people. Parts of Bainbridge Street are 
 similarly active. Prom Fitzwater down, for several blocks, 
 we find a dividing line at Fifth and Sixth Streets, west of 
 which are Italians, and east of which are Russian Jews. 
 Below Christian the groupings are less distinct. The Jew- 
 ish population has, however, gradually moved down so that 
 some may be found as far south as Moore Street. Some 
 
 other. In our statement of more than 11,000 Jewish school children, we un- 
 questionably have a large majority of the children between the age of three and 
 thirteen. We must, in addition, account for all under the first and over the 
 second, apart from those_ not attending school. Let us arbitrarily assume that 
 the school children are. in a proportion, approximately one-fifth of the Jewish 
 population of the district. This will make the total about 55,000. There are 
 probably 15,000 Russian Jews in other sections of the city, making 70,000 
 out of a total of approximately 100,000 Jews. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 53 
 
 well-to-do families have moved to Yv'liarton Street and 
 streets running north and south in the neighborhood. Of 
 the north and south streets, Fourth contains the most thick- 
 ly settled Jewish population. Large numbers may be 
 found all the way from Spruce to Reed. Second and 
 Third also contain a large Jewish population, especially be- 
 tween Pine and Wharton. On Fifth Street, too, it is simi- 
 larly predominant as far as Washington Avenue, and on 
 Sixth Street as far as Fitzwater. Immediately west of 
 the northern portion of the Jewish section are nu- 
 merous negroes, and southwest is the section predominantly 
 Italian. 
 
 In the northern portion of this down-town district the 
 Jewish people mingle with the left-overs of Americans. 
 On Spruce Street they are with the so-called better element 
 of the Americans. On Bainbridge Street the Italians be- 
 gin to take a share. On Fitzwater Street the Italians 
 become more emphatic in their claim for attention by 
 virtue of their numbers. At Sixth and Fitzwater Streets 
 the Jews and Italians may be said to battle for supremacy 
 as to numbers. From this corner, west and south, Italians 
 are settled in in thick numbers. The main streets they 
 inhabit in this neighborhood are Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, 
 and Tenth, from Fitzwater Street to Washington Avenue, 
 including Catharine, Christian and Carpenter, besides a 
 number of smaller streets and alleys. At Fifth and Car- 
 penter Streets the Italians again m.eet the Jewish people, 
 who are preponderant east of this point. Sometimes a 
 block is inhabited in its outer boundaries by one nationality 
 chiefly, and in the streets within by another. 
 
 In the lower wards on the Delaware River front, besides 
 Irish and American, there are probably at least two thou- 
 sand persons from Slavic countries, chiefly Poles, but also 
 some Hungarians and Lithuanians. These are largely in a 
 block bounded by Lombard Street on the north. Carpenter 
 Street on the south, the Delaware River on the east, and 
 Third Street on the west. 
 
 The Jewish population has spread north as well as south. 
 Along Second Street particularly has there been a move- 
 ment north. For a distance of two miles there have been 
 streams formed in a narrow line along the eastern side of 
 the city. This is indicated, for example, by the population 
 around Second and New ]\Iarket Streets, details of whose 
 housing and sanitary conditions are given in the study 
 
54 GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 devoted to this subject.^ So, too, there are clusters around 
 Second and Poplar Streets. There is also a settlement in 
 Richmond in the northeastern portion of the city. 
 
 Jewish children attend the public schools in large num- 
 bers; no nationality down-town is more appreciative of the 
 public school system. The result is most gratifying to our 
 educational system, and to the adaptability and intellectual 
 ability of the Jewish population. The public night schools 
 are supplemented by private schools in the teaching of the 
 immigrant populations. Meetings, lectures, and discus- 
 sions held under the auspices of literary societies, bene- 
 ficial organizations and charitable institutions of one sort 
 or another, help fill out the intellectual life of the Jewish 
 people. 
 
 The intellectual ferment among the Russian Jewish pop- 
 ulation finds no counterpart among the other nationalities. 
 The educational activities initiated or responded to by them 
 are much less prominent. 
 
 A valuable element of the religious life of the orthodox 
 portion of the Jewish community is the synagogue. Some 
 of the congregations worship in halls or rooms, others in 
 buildings of their own.^ To the list of orthodox Jewish 
 congregations should be added the Congregation Israel, at 
 Fifth and Pine Streets, started from without and intended 
 for the less orthodox young people with a service in Hebrew 
 and English, and an English sermon. 
 
 From the religious to the social life is not so far a cry 
 
 1 There were 1,294 persons in the district investigated, of which 606, nearly 
 half, were Jews. The total number of families was 239, of which 100 were 
 Jewish. The total number of houses inspected was 179, in 73 of which the 
 occupants were predominantly Jewish. 
 
 - The location of congregations is an index of the localities inhabited by the 
 population. Starting with the most northern among the down-town congrega- 
 tions they may be enumerated as follows: 
 
 Beth Israel, 417 Pine Street. 
 
 B'nai Zion, 532 Pine Street. 
 
 Tiferes Israel Anshe Zitomir, 620 Addison Street. 
 
 B'nai Jacob, Fifth Street, above Lombard. 
 
 Kesher Israel, 421 Lombard Street. 
 
 B'nai Abraham Anshe Russia, 521 Lombard Street. 
 
 Agudas Achim, 514 S. Third Street. 
 
 Shomre Shaboth, 518 S. Third Street. 
 
 Emunath Israel Oheb Sholem, S. E. Cor. Fifth and Gaskill Streets. 
 
 B'nai Reuben, Sixth and Kater Streets. 
 
 Ahavas Chesed Anshe Shavel, 322 Bainbridge Street. 
 
 B'nai Joseph, 525 Bainbridge Street. 
 
 Ahavas Achim Anshe Nazin, 754 S. Third Street. 
 
 Gomel Chesed Shel Emes, 314 Catharine Street. 
 
 Ahawas Zion, 815 S. Fourth Street. 
 
 Independent Chevra Kadisho, 408 Christian Street. 
 
 B'nai Israel, 922 S. Fourth Street. 
 
 Poel Zodak Seerus Israel, 1021 S. Fifth Street. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 55 
 
 as may be thought, for with the older people the synagogue 
 is the social centre, and many social celebrations still occur 
 in connection with holidays and ceremonies. Social func- 
 tions of a public character are balls, Russian tea parties, 
 small dances, and musical entertainments given by one or 
 another of the societies. 
 
 Whatever cases of charity among the Jewish people are 
 not taken care of by any organization, are referred to the 
 United Hebrew Charities. "When the immigrant first ar- 
 rives here, if he needs immediate aid or advice, the agent 
 of the Association of Jewish Immigrants directs him. The 
 Sheltering Home, a Russian Jewish institution, may keep 
 him for a few days. Then the employment bureau of the 
 Hebrew Charities, or the Baron de Hirsch Fund is brought 
 into play, and he is found work. Later, he, or his family, 
 may require the services of the hospital, the orphan asylum, 
 or the burial society. All are provided for. It is still true 
 that Jews do not become public charges as the result of de- 
 pendency. 
 
 There is probably no nationality less prone to serious 
 crime than the Jewish. It is true, we see evidences of 
 juvenile delinquency among the immigrant portion of this 
 nationality, and the problem with reference to this is grave, 
 but as the conditions which have permitted it to develop 
 are to a considerable extent due to the city environment 
 of the children, to bad housing and street influences, to the 
 absence of sufficient play space, one remedy lies along the 
 lines of improving these conditions, which, with the greater 
 adaptability of the parents and the people of the neighbor- 
 hoods, as they continue here, will modify the evils. 
 
 The Russian Jewish population is, then, a very impor- 
 tant element of the southern section of the city in point of 
 numbers. Its social and economic relations need not be 
 further considered in this place. There can be little ques- 
 tion of its activity and progress along various lines, not 
 only as compared with other nationalities, in the lower sec- 
 tion of the city, but with the population generally. 
 

 Chicago 
 West Side 
 
 i 
 
l(C) CHICAGO 
 
 ** Two families," writes Prof. Zueblin iu an article on 
 *' The Chicago Ghetto,"^ '^ constituted the Jewish popula-' 
 tion of Chicago in 1843," when the first refugees from the 
 German persecution found their way to Illinois. In 1848 
 a society was chartered under the name Kehillath Anshe 
 Maariv (Congregation of the Men of the West). In 1849 
 a synagogue was erected on Clark Street between Quincy 
 and Jackson. Thus were laid the foundations of German 
 Jewry, and, a little later, of German reform Jewry of Chi- 
 cago. Russian and orthodox Jewry of Chicago has a later 
 origin and perhaps a more dramatic history. 
 
 The few who came before the eighties were unquestiona- 
 bly the lighter element of the Russian Jewish communi- 
 ties — the chaff, so to speak, driven by the playful winds 
 of adventure and gain. These early Russian Jewish set- 
 tlers were actuated not so much by the conditions which 
 they left behind as by the prospective chances of the new 
 land. They resembled more the stray adventurers of a 
 newly discovered gold field than an organic group of early 
 settlers bound together by strong communal interests. 
 
 It is only when the storm of the so-called '' May Regu- 
 lations " of 1882 (and again of 1892) broke upon the 
 Russian Jewish communities with the vehemence and 
 force of a hurricane that solid parts of these communities 
 were moved and carried off to American shores. These 
 masses brought with them not merely a dominating desire 
 for personal welfare, but also strong social ties. It was 
 these natural pre-existing relations which made social life 
 and the organization of congenial groups possible. 
 
 Recent additions to Chicago Jewry come from Rouma- 
 nia and Bessarabian parts of Russia. The fact of ex- 
 treme importance from the American point of view in 
 connection with these earlier and later tides of immigra- 
 tion is that they all originate in persecution. They have 
 
 * Hull House Maps and Papers, p. 91. 
 
 57 
 
58 GENEBAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 been unable to get along not because of shiftlessness or 
 economic reverses due directly to themselves, but because 
 of the action of the government. 
 
 The present size of Chicago Jewry, including all ele- 
 ments, Portuguese, German, Russian, and Roumanian, is 
 variously estimated. The best judges, however, agree on 
 60,000 as being the fairest approximation. These are dis- 
 tributed over the whole city area forming colonies at each 
 of the four corners — a fact worthy of note in a considera- 
 tion of the Chicago Ghetto, which to the minds of some 
 people still suggests an iron-barred fence encircling a lim- 
 ited area wherein all Jews dwell. 
 
 Chicago Jewry is scattered all over the South Side as 
 far as Sixty-third Street, on the East and North-East Side 
 up to the Lake, the North- West Side, where it numbers 
 nearly 15,000, and finally the West Side where there are 
 at least 30,000 Jews, mostly Russian and Polish. 
 
 A more exact idea of the location of the various Jewish 
 centres in Chicago may be had by designating the places 
 of our foremost synagogues: The Sinai Temple on Twen- 
 tieth Street and Indiana Avenue; the Temple Kehillath 
 Anshe IMaariv on Thirty-third Street and Indiana Avenue 
 and many others on the South Side; the Temple of the 
 North Side; Hebrew Congregation, on La Salle Avenue 
 and Goethe Street on the North Side; the synagogue of 
 Anshe Kenesseth Israel on Clinton and Judd Streets, and 
 a host of others on the West Side. 
 
 It is the West Side of Chicago that is commonly called 
 the Chicago Ghetto. In fact the city is supposed to have 
 two Ghettos, a lesser and a greater. The lesser '' is found 
 in the Seventh Ward bounded by Twelfth, Halsted, Fif- 
 teenth Streets and Steward Avenue, where ninety per cent, 
 of the population are Jews. The greater Ghetto, including 
 an area of about a square mile, comprises parts of the 
 Nineteenth, Seventh and Eighth Wards, and is bounded 
 by Polk Street on the North, Blue Island Avenue on the 
 west. Fifteenth Street on the south, and Steward Avenue 
 on the east." Roughly speaking, this is almost co-extensive 
 with the * * slum district ' ' as defined in the Seventh Special 
 Report of the Commissioner of Labor on the Slums of 
 Great Cities. It is this Ghetto, then, in the slum of ?. 
 great city, which is the home of the great majority of 
 Chicago Jews. How it looks to the *' outsider " may best 
 
CHICAGO 59 
 
 be judged from the following description of Prof. Zueb- 
 lin:^ 
 
 ^' The physical characteristics of the Ghetto do not dif- 
 fer materially from the surrounding districts. The streets 
 ma.y be a trifle narrower ; the alleys are no filthier. There 
 is only one saloon to ten in the other districts, but the 
 screens, side doors, and loafers are of the ubiquitous type ; 
 the theatre bills a higher grade of performance than other 
 cheap theatres, but checks are given between the acts, 
 w^hose users find their way to the bar beneath. The dry 
 goods stores have the same ' cheap and nasty ' goods within 
 which may be found elsewhere. The race differences are 
 subtle; they are not too apparent to the casual observer. 
 It is the religious distinction which every one notices, the 
 synagogues, the Talmud schools, the ' kosher ' signs on 
 the meat markets. Among the dwelling-houses of the 
 Ghetto are found the three types which curse the Chicago 
 workingman, — the small low, one or two story, ' ' pioneer ' ' 
 wooden shanty, erected probably before the street was 
 graded, and hence several feet below the street level; the 
 brick tenement of three or four stories, with insufficient 
 light, bad drainage, no bath, built to obtain the highest 
 possible rent for the smallest possible cubic space; and the 
 third type, the deadly rear tenement w^th no light in front, 
 and with the frightful odors of the dirty alley in the rear, 
 too often the workshop of the ' sweater ' as well as the 
 home of an excessive population. On the narrow pave- 
 ment of the narrow street in front is found the omnipres- 
 ent garbage-box, with full measure, pressed down and 
 running over. In all but the severest weather, the streets 
 swarm with children day and night. On bright days, 
 groups of adults join the multitude, especially on Saturday 
 and Sunday, or on Jewish holidays. A morning walk im- 
 presses one with the density of the population, but an 
 evening visit reveals a hive." 
 
 One thing which excites the wonder of the investigator 
 is the vitality of the Jew in spite of his living under the 
 double curse of slum and Ghetto. The Seventh contains 
 the largest Jewish population and the lowest death rate.^ 
 The same remarkable vitality as is shown by the low death- 
 rate in the ward containing a large Jewish population is 
 observed in other Jewish centres, and this vitality, let it be 
 
 1 Hull House Maps and Papers, p. 94. 
 -Ibid., p. 96. 
 
60 GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION 
 
 remembered, is not only ' ' purely physical. ' ' Hand in 
 hand with the energy of the body goes an energy of mind 
 which is equally challenging, — as a description of the 
 various forms of industrial and social activities plainly 
 shows. 
 
 Traditionally the Jew is a tradesman. But in this coun- 
 try, at least, the Jew's range of industrial activities has 
 been wonderfully extended. There are not only merchants 
 and manufacturers, not only the familiar tailors and cigar 
 makers, but great and ever growing numbers of brick 
 layers, carpenters, painters, decorators, and machinists, 
 and, in some instances, thoroughly trained engineers, grad- 
 uates of prominent technical schools. The Lewis Institute 
 and Armour Institute have helped not a little in opening 
 up these particular avenues of useful knowledge to the 
 Jewish youth. But the institution which is especially 
 responsible for a high standard of industrial education is 
 the Jewish Training School, situated in the very heart of 
 the Ghetto. 
 
 The number of clubs of a more social character indicate 
 a welcome departure from the old mode of self-centred 
 living among the Jews. Of all the Jewish clubs of Chicago 
 to-day, the Standard is the oldest, most prominent and 
 most influential. It was organized in 1869. The Lakeside 
 is next in prestige, and is but fifteen years younger. These 
 and the Unity Club are all situated on the South Side. 
 The West Side also has a number of very fine old club 
 rooms, as the West Chicago Club, the Lessing Club House, 
 the Lasalle Club. The last two are especially responsible 
 for the educational leaven on the West Side. Other edu- 
 cational agencies are Hull House, the evening schools, the 
 Jewish press, the Jewish theatres, and the like. The in- 
 tense intellectual life which the Jew leads in the midst of 
 all these institutions is only further proof of his enormous 
 vitality. The true explanation of this vitality may now be 
 suggested : Is it not likely that the Jew possesses qualities 
 which are too fine for the slum and Ghetto soil in which 
 they are planted, the result being a redoubling of energy 
 to overcome a particularly nasty environment? That he 
 has not succumbed to the distressing environment is still 
 a cause for wonder. 
 
Ill 
 
 PHILANTHROPY 
 
 (A) NEW YOEK 
 By Lee K. Frankel, Ph. D. 
 
 Manager United Hebrew Charities^ "New York City 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 By Louis E. Levy 
 
 President Association for the Protection of Jewish Immigrants 
 Philadelphia 
 
 {C) CHICAGO 
 By Minnie F. Low 
 
 Superintendent Bureau of Personal Service, Chicago 
 
PHILANTHEOPY 
 
 (A) NEW YOEK 
 
 On April 26, 1655, the board of directors of the Dutch 
 Yfest India Company wrote to Governor Stiiyvesant as 
 follows: '' After many consultations, we have decided 
 and resolved upon a certain petition made by said Portu- 
 guese Jews, that they shall have permission to sell and 
 to trade in New Netherland and to live and remain there, 
 provided the poor among them shall not hecome a hurden 
 to the company, or to the community, hut he supported hy 
 their oiun nation.'^ 
 
 The records of the Department of Charities of the city 
 of New York now show that (of a Jewish population ap- 
 proximating 700,000 in Greater New York) in the alms- 
 house on BlaclvAvell's Island there are twenty-six pauper 
 Jews, of whom the majority were blind, idiotic or pos- 
 sessed of some peculiar defect which prevented admission 
 to existing Jewish charitable institutions. 
 
 "What is true of New York Jews is true of their co- 
 religionists everywhere. The Jew has always cared for 
 his own poor. 
 
 In our modern day, under more favorable conditions 
 and auspices, the Jew has, to some extent, reverted to the 
 non-sectarian idea in his philanthropies. Hospitals, as a 
 rule, supported and endov/ed by Jews, throw open their 
 doors to sufferers irrespective of creed, color or nationality. 
 Other instances could be cited of charities, not medical, or- 
 ganized along similar lines. Jewish agencies, giving ma- 
 terial relief, or to use a better term, those which care for 
 the needy in their own homes, in the main confine their 
 work to beneficiaries of their faith, without, however, mak- 
 ing any rigid distinction. On the other hand, the trend 
 of Jewish charity has been in the direction of caring for 
 the Jewish poor, solely through Jewish agencies, and with- 
 out the intervention or co-operation of other sectarian or 
 non-sectarian societies or institutions. Such a condition 
 
 C2 
 
NEW YORK 63 
 
 of affairs is the resultant of the compulsion of the centuries. 
 The task which was at one time assumed of necessity has 
 to-day become a proud duty. What in Stuyvesant's day 
 was obligatory and mandatory is to-day accepted as a vol- 
 untary responsibility. 
 
 If the impoverished Jew requires the interference of his 
 wealthier co-religionist, it is because the latter is better 
 able to understand his needs and has a peculiar, specialized 
 knowledge of a peculiar class of individuals. Were it pos- 
 sible for public charities or for non-sectarian private chari- 
 ties to grasp the fundamentals of Jewish poverty, to ob- 
 tain that keen insight into the modes of living and thought 
 of a heterogeneous people whose common meeting-point is 
 their religion, an insight so necessary to bring the proper 
 forms of relief into play, there is no reason why the poor 
 Jew should not be the recipient of the charitable impulse of 
 the entire community. The Jew's religion per se is not a 
 factor in the solution of his physical needs. It is charac- 
 teristic of his history that the greater his poverty and 
 distress, the greater has been his religiosity and his stead- 
 fastness to his ethical and religious convictions. 
 
 The problem of the Jewish charitable societies of the 
 United States to-day is the problem of the care of the 
 immigrant. As such, it passes beyond merely local lines. 
 In some of its manifestations it is national in character 
 and in a few it has an international significance. The fact 
 that the large bulk of the needy Jews in the United States 
 reside in New York is accidental, and concerns the Jews of 
 Denver and San Francisco equally with those of the East- 
 ern seaboard cities. In so far the problem is a national 
 one. Moreover, to deal intelligently with the question re- 
 quires a knowledge of the immigrant's antecedents, the 
 impelling motive which brought him to the United States, 
 and an acquaintance with his previous environment. And 
 here the international phase of the question comes in. 
 
 Roughly speaking, it may be said that there are no Amer- 
 ican-born Jewish poor. Of the 10,334 families who applied 
 for assistance to the United Hebrew Charities of New York 
 during its last fiscal year, 2 per cent, were born in the 
 United States. And of these the majority of heads of 
 families were of the first generation. Jewish dependents 
 who have an ancestry in the United States of more than 
 two generations are practically unknown. Nor can it be 
 stated that there have ever been enough native-born de- 
 
64 PHILANTHBOPY 
 
 pendent Jews to make an issue, since the Stuyvesant epi- 
 sode. In tlie report of the president of the above society 
 for the year 1881, the statement is made that during no 
 time since the formation of the society had there been 
 less want than during the first six months of the fiscal 
 year just ended. It must have been gratifying for those 
 present at the meeting to learn that after all the poor in 
 the city had been given adequate relief, there was still 
 in the society's treasury a comfortable balance of over 
 $14,000. During the following year, so large were the 
 receipts of the society and so small the demands of the 
 regular recipients, that the balance in the treasury at the 
 end of the year had swelled to nearly $19,000. 
 
 In the year 1881 began that great wave of emigration 
 from eastern Europe, the end of which is not yet. Driven 
 by a relentless persecution, which endangered not only their 
 homes but frequently their lives, thousands of Jews were 
 compelled to flee and to seek new residence on these shores. 
 The Russio-Jewish committee which originally undertook 
 the work of caring for these immigrants turned it over 
 very shortly to the Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society, which 
 came into existence in December, 1881. In one year this 
 society spent $250,000, $50,000 less than had been spent by 
 the United Hebrew Charities of New York in the seven 
 years of its existence. In the first and only annual report of 
 the Emigrant Aid Society, its president outlined as tersely 
 as possible the efforts that had been made to provide homes 
 and occupations for the thousands of fleeing exiles who 
 reached these shores during the momentous summer of 
 1882. In the month of July the committee spent for board 
 and lodging alone over $11,700. Of the herculean efforts 
 of the members of the committee, of the sacrifices of time 
 and money, the report in its modesty makes but scant men- 
 tion. The full history of the Emigrant Aid Society is yet 
 to be written. 
 
 With the gradual falling off in immigration, the Emi- 
 grant Aid Society went out of existence, and the care of the 
 needy emigrants who remained in New York and who 
 became impoverished after residence, reverted to the United 
 Hebrew Charities. In 1885 immigration again began to 
 grow heavier and continued in such numbers that in the 
 following five years over 120,000 immigrants arrived at 
 Castle Garden. In 1890 the immigration reached the fig- 
 
NEW YORK 65 
 
 ures 32,321, the largest number ever recorded up to that 
 time. 
 
 With all that had been done, the real work of the chari- 
 ties was but to begin. In 1891 the religious persecution 
 of the Russian Jews reached a climax. In the year ending 
 September 30, 62,574 immigrants arrived at New York, of 
 whom nearly 40,000 arrived between June and September. 
 The entire charitable effort of the New York Jewish com- 
 munity was for the time directed out of the ordinary chan- 
 nels and applied to the monumental question of caring for 
 the arriving Russian Jews. The Baron de Hirsch Fund, 
 instead of utilizing its income for its educational work, ap- 
 propriated over $67,000 to the United Hebrew Charities 
 to assist in the work of the immigration bureau. Over 
 $175,000 was spent by the society during this year. In 
 September of 1891 it became apparent that there would 
 be no cessation to the immigration and that much larger 
 funds would be necessary to give anything like adequate 
 assistance to the unfortunates who were arriving at the 
 rate of 2,000 per week. The enthusiasm which was aroused 
 at a banquet tendered to the late Jesse Seligman was util- 
 ized in establishing the '' Russian Transportation Fund,'' 
 which added over $90,000 to the revenues of the United 
 Hebrew Charities and which was given by citizens of New 
 York, irrespective of creed. Later in the year, a standing 
 committee of the society, known as the Central Russian 
 Refugees Committee, was organized and was made up of 
 representatives of the Baron de Hirsch Fund, the Russian 
 Transportation Fund, the United Hebrew Charities, and 
 the American Committee for Ameliorating the Condition 
 of the Russian Exiles. The last committee was organized 
 to secure the co-operation of relief societies in other cities, 
 in order that the various European societies who were as- 
 sisting the persecuted Russians to emigrate should thor- 
 oughly understand the attitude of the New York organi- 
 zation. 
 
 The year, October, 1891, to September, 1892, will ever 
 be a memorable one in the historj^ of Russian emigration 
 and of Jewish philanthropy; 52,134 immigrants arrived 
 at the Barge office during that period. The treasurer of 
 the United Hebrew Charities paid out the enormous sum 
 of $321,311.05, of which $145,200 was spent by the Russian 
 Refugees Committee betv/een February and September. 
 Like the Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society, the history of the 
 
QQ ' PHILANTHROPY 
 
 Central Eiissian Refugees Committee is still to be written. 
 At present it is included in the bald statement of a treas- 
 urer's report. Should it ever be published, it will tell a 
 tale of devotion, of altruistic effort, of sacrifice, of noble 
 charitable impulse unparalleled in the history of American 
 Judaism. 
 
 Since the year 1881, fully 750,000 Jewish immigrants 
 have arrived at the port of New York alone. Of these the 
 bulk comprise refugees from Russian and Roumanian per- 
 secution, Austrians, and Galicians. They came from coun- 
 tries in which many of them lived under conditions of 
 appalling poverty. The records of the immigration bu- 
 reau show that in material wealth, these immigrants are 
 below the average of immigrants from other European 
 countries. Due to their previous condition, a percentage 
 is illiterate. On the other hand, the number of skilled 
 artisans and craftsmen is so large as to be distinctly no- 
 ticeable. From the standpoint of dependency, it will be 
 of interest to study to what extent this large body of im- 
 migrants has added to the dependent and delinquent classes 
 of the communities in the United States. The only figures 
 that are at hand are those of New York, which are higher 
 than would be found in other cities and towns for reasons 
 that are obvious. 
 
 In December, 1899, the writer made a study of 1,000 
 families who had originally applied to the United Hebrew 
 Charities for assistance in October, 1894. Of these 1,000 
 applicants it was found that 602 had not applied for as- 
 sistance after December, 1894. Of the remainder, 67 fam- 
 ilies were dependent on the society to a greater or lesser 
 extent in January, 1899. More detailed investigation dis- 
 closed the fact that nearly all of these 67 applicants were 
 made up of families where the w^age-earner had died, leav- 
 ing a widow with small children, or of respectable aged 
 and infirm couples unable to be fully self-supporting, or of 
 families in which the wage-earner had become incapaciated 
 through illness. In other words, after five years over 93 
 per cent, of the cases studied were independent of chari- 
 table interference. In October, 1904, it was found that 
 9nly 23 of the 1,000 families above mentioned were apply- 
 ing to the society for assistance. 
 
 While the above study was limited in its scope, and while 
 the deduction which can be drawn from it must be ac- 
 cepted with reserve^ it is nevertheless typical of Jewis?i 
 
NEW YORK 67 
 
 charitable conditions. The marked feature in the care of 
 the Jewish poor in the United States is the ahnost entire 
 absence of the so-called pauper element. Even the twenty- 
 three families above mentioned cannot be included in this 
 category. Widowhood is the resultant of purely natural 
 conditions, and when it afSicts the poor mother with a fam- 
 ily, it frequently produces a condition of dependence which 
 has in it no characteristics of demoralization. The bright- 
 est and most hopeful chapter in the history of Jewish 
 charity is the avidity and eagerness with which its bene- 
 ficiaries, bereft of the main wage-earner, become self-sup- 
 porting and independent as soon as the children are old 
 enough to contribute to the family income. 
 
 If there is one cause more than another leading up to 
 this condition, it is the absence of the drink evil among 
 Jews. The instances in whifch drunkenness lies at the bot- 
 tom of Jewish dependency are so infrequent that they may 
 be ignored. The matron of the police station in Browns- 
 ville, an outlying district of Brooklyn, recently stated that 
 in her 12 years' experience, she could not recall a single 
 instance of a Jewish woman having been arrested for 
 drunkenness. Combined with the absence of this vice, 
 there are other virtues engrafted on the Jew for centuries, 
 all of which tend to the preservation of his self-respect and 
 nis self-esteem. Among these are the love of home, the 
 inherent desire to preserve the purity of the family, and 
 the remarkable eagerness which he shows for education and 
 self-improvement. Poverty with the Jew does not spell 
 degeneracy. The history of the Jewish charities in the 
 United States demonstrates nothing more forcibly than 
 that the Jewish immigrant, be he German, Russian, Rou- 
 manian, or Galician, readily adapts himself to his Am^erican 
 environment, easily assimilates the customs and language of 
 his adopted country, and even though he may temporarily 
 require assistance, rapidly becomes independent of chari- 
 table interference. The immigrant Jew is frequently pov- 
 erty-stricken ; he is rarely a pauper, in the sense in which 
 the word is most commonly used. He is not found in the 
 besotted, degenerate, hopeless mass of humanity constitut- 
 ing the flotsam and jetsam of society, the product of gen- 
 erations of vice, crime, and debauchery, which makes up the 
 scum of our present civilization. Given the opportunity 
 and the proper surroundings, the immigrant Jew will be- 
 come a good addition to the body politic, not a menace. 
 
68 ' PHILANTHROPT 
 
 The work of the United Hebrew Charities of New York 
 is typical of similar Jewish organizations throughout the 
 United States. Its report for the fiscal year ending Sep- 
 tember 30, 1904, shows that 10,334 individuals and families 
 applied for assistance. Of these 5,525 had applied for the 
 first time. The society grants relief in kind, including 
 groceries, clothing, shoes, furniture, etc. There were dis- 
 tributed last year 57,535 garments and pieces of furniture. 
 The annual disbursements for material relief alone amount 
 to over $175,000. Ever since its organization thirty years 
 ago, the society has endeavored to uphold the principles of 
 organized charity. In some instances it has antedated the 
 charity organization societies themselves. We need but 
 mention the giving of relief in amounts adequate to make 
 the recipient independent of further intervention on the 
 part of the relief -giving agency, and the establishment of a 
 graded, carefully regulated and supervised system of pen- 
 sions covering if necesssary a long period of years. As a 
 rule, these pensions are given only to families where the 
 wage-earner has died, and where, unless such provision 
 were made, no recourse would be left, except the breaking 
 up of the family and the commitment of the children to 
 orphanages and similar institutions. To obviate the neces- 
 sity of such commitment, the United Hebrew Charities 
 disburses annually over $41,000 in pensions. In the his- 
 tory of the society there is no form of relief which shows 
 such good returns for the investment made. 'Jewish fam- 
 ilies so supported do not become pauperized; the subsidy 
 which is granted enables the surviving parent to devote her 
 time to the proper rearing of her children so that they 
 may become useful and intelligent citizens. 
 
 A word may be said here on the question of adequate 
 relief. In the revulsion which accompanied the indiscrim- 
 inate almsgiving of earlier decades, the so-called organ- 
 ized charities which resulted therefrom frequently went 
 to the other extreme and withheld material relief in the 
 fear of its baneful effect on the recipient. Nothing is more 
 characteristic of our present-day charities than the gradual 
 return to the sound doctrine that material relief is not 
 the end desired, but merely a means to the end, and that 
 it must be used, if necessary, equally with other forms of re- 
 lief, and must be given adequately if at all. Jewish char- 
 ity has always upheld this belief. 
 
 'Of all the problems which confront the average charity 
 
NEW YORK 69 
 
 organization, possibly the most perplexing is the one of the 
 family in which the mother must be the wage-earner. The 
 kindergarten and the day nursery have by no means solved 
 the problem. They are at best but makeshifts in an at- 
 tempt to help a situation which has its root in economic and 
 industrial conditions. Again, the factory removes the 
 mother from her sphere of influence over her children, and 
 opens opportunity for the growth of incorrigibility and 
 waywardness on the part of the latter. In the hope of 
 partially overcoming this difficulty, the United Hebrew 
 Charities has for some years conducted a work-room for 
 unskilled women in which the latter are taught various 
 needle industries, that they may eventually be sufficiently 
 accomplished to work in their own homes, and in this fash- 
 ion supplement the family income. The amount of such 
 work that can be found is limited. More and more, daily, 
 the factory is competing with home industry to the exclu- 
 sion of the latter. A study has shown that work could 
 be obtained for women to do at home in industries such as 
 silk-belt making, men's and women's neckwear, garters and 
 hose supporters, paper boxes, slip covers for the furniture 
 trade, over-gaiters and leggings, dressing sacques, hats and 
 caps, flowers and feathers, beaded purses and other bead- 
 work, dress shields, incandescent light mantles, embroidery 
 and art embroidery, passementerie work, bibs, knit goods, 
 etc. 
 
 The sisterhoods in various districts co-operate with the 
 United Hebrew Charities. They give material relief, have 
 developed day nurseries, kindergartens, clubs and classes 
 of various kinds, employment bureaus, mothers' meetings, 
 and in fact have become social centres for the poor of 
 their neighborhoods. Since a large percentage of the dis- 
 tress which is met with is occasioned by illness, medical 
 relief of all kinds has been organized. Each district as a 
 rule has its physician and its nurse, and where these are 
 not at hand, co-operation has been effected with other or- 
 ganizations specially equipped for such work. A very re- 
 cent development has been the inauguration of district or 
 branch offices of the United Hebrew Charities located on 
 the East Side of New York in the very heart of the con- 
 gested centres. In itself the district office is no novelty. 
 The value, however, of the new plan is due to the fact 
 that the Boards of Directors of these district organizations 
 are made up entirely of residents of the neighborhood and 
 
70 • PHILANTHROPY 
 
 represent' the descendants of or the original immigrants 
 who have come from Russia, Roiimania, or Galicia since 
 1881. The value of such co-operation cannot be overesti- 
 mated. The knowledge possessed by intelligent men and 
 women who are thoroughly in touch with the traditions, 
 customs and ambitions of the immigrants who have been 
 coming here and who still are coming is much more desir- 
 able in determining the right kind of assistance to be given 
 than information obtained where there is lack of such 
 knowledge. 
 
 In very recent years, the spread of tuberculosis among 
 Jew^s has merited the earnest attention of the society, and 
 among its other activities it has been a pioneer in devel- 
 oping a systematic plan for caring for such tuberculosis 
 applicants in their own homes, for whom no provision could 
 be made in existing sanatoria. The campaign thus begun 
 has been not only charitable, but social. Not only have 
 these unfortunates been given food, nourishment and medi- 
 cal care to aid them towards recovery, but in addition 
 thereto, instruction has been given them in the rudiments 
 of sanitation, and in the prevention of infection. It is 
 significant that the work of the United Hebrew Charities 
 in this field has been followed to some extent by the recent- 
 ly organized Committee on Tuberculosis of the Charity Or- 
 ganization Society. 
 
 The name '' United Hebrew Charities " as applied to 
 the New York organization is somewhat of a misnomer, 
 since it does not include all Jewish charitable agencies in 
 the city of New York. It would be more proper to speak of 
 it as the consolidation of all the purely relief societies which 
 existed in New York prior to 1874. Aside from these, there 
 are to-day hospitals, orphanages, technical schools for boys 
 and girls, trade schools, day nurseries and kindergartens, 
 guilds for crippled children, burial societies, loan societies, 
 societies for maternity relief, and a goodly number of 
 smaller organizations which have been founded by the 
 immigrants of the last twenty years. It is estimated that 
 there are over one thousand Jevv'ish organizations and so- 
 cieties in the city of New York to-day, whose activities to 
 a greater or lesser extent are directed along philanthropic 
 lines. Practically all of the larger organizations, such as 
 the hospitals, work in co-operation with the United Hebrew 
 Charities. 
 
 It is an old but true saying that the *' Poor help the 
 
NEW YORK 71 
 
 poor." Nowhere is this more forcibly illustrated than in 
 the New York Ghetto. It is a truth almost axiomatic 
 among charity workers that the poor man uses the larger 
 charitable institutions at his command only after he has ex- 
 hausted the kindness and generosity of his neighbors. For 
 this reason, it is difficult to approximate the amount of 
 philanthropic effort that the more prosperous Russian Jew 
 is making for his less fortunate brethren. Of the Jewish 
 congregations at present in New York City the majority are 
 chevras (societies) of Russian origin which bury the dead 
 and, where possible, give other forms of relief. Besides 
 these, there are a number of benefit societies and benevolent 
 societies which endeavor to assist their members in need. 
 Three societies, however, require more extended mention 
 owing to the character of work which they are doing. 
 These are the Gemilath Chassodim Society, the Beth Israel 
 Hospital, and the Chesed Shel Emeth. 
 
 The Gemilath Chassodim has been in existence since 
 1892. Its object is to loan money without interest in sums 
 from $5 to $50 to be paid off in weekly installments to any 
 deserving individual who can find a sponsor, or in other 
 words, who can find a responsible endorser for his note. 
 When the society was organized it had a net capital of 
 eighty dollars. The society has now a capital of $74,184.32, 
 according to its twelfth annual report ending December 31, 
 1903, and turned over its capital over four times during 
 the year, loaning $320,740 to 13,143 persons. Of the total 
 amount loaned, ninety-seven per cent, was repaid by the 
 borrowers. The value of such a society in the direction of 
 preventive charity can hardly be estimated. In the lan- 
 guage of one of the speakers at an annual meeting, the 
 Gemilath Chassodim may be likened to a dispensary and 
 the United Hebrew Charities to a hospital. In the former, 
 mild cases not yet requiring heroic surgical or medical in- 
 terference may receive attention. Here, however, the sim- 
 ile ends. The dispensary is intended essentially for the 
 poor man who has no other means of receiving medical as- 
 sistance. The Free Loan Association, by the requirements 
 of its constitution, bars the worthy poor man who cannot 
 find endorsers and compels him to apply to the United He- 
 brew Charities for the relief which he needs. 
 
 The Beth Israel Hospital Association was incorporated 
 in 1890 and at present has thirty beds, all of which are 
 free. The hospital itself is situated on Jefferson Street, 
 
72 PHILANTHROPY 
 
 in the heart of the congested district. It occupies an old 
 mansion which has been remodeled as far as possible to 
 meet the demands of the hospital. So progressive have the 
 officers been that the corner-stone of a new hospital, to 
 cost in the neighborhood of $200,000, has been laid. This 
 institution indicates very strongly the rapid strides that 
 are being made by Russian Jews to provide their poor with 
 proper facilities for relief. The Beth Israel Hospital was 
 organized by the Russian Jewish community and has prac- 
 tically been sustained by it. 
 
 The Agudath Acliim Chessed Shel Emeth has been in 
 existence for sixteen years. It maintains at present two 
 cemeteries, and is prepared to give free burial whenever 
 the family of the deceased are not in a position to pay 
 therefor. It has buried over twelve thousand persons. 
 
 It is not within the province of this paper to discuss in 
 detail the various Jewish charitable institutions which 
 New York possesses. Such organizations as the Mount 
 Sinai Hospital, the Home for the Aged, the orphan asylums, 
 and the various institutions under the De Hirsch founda- 
 tions, are too well known to require comment here. Nor do 
 they differ in the main from institutions of a similar kind 
 that exist in other large centres. There are at present in 
 the city of New York, exclusive of congregations and the 
 organizations mentioned above, at least seventy-five socie- 
 ties which cater to the needs of the dependent poor and 
 which can be classed as philanthropic agencies. Among 
 these organizations must be included day nurseries, kin- 
 dergartens, employment bureaus, fresh air charities, hos- 
 pitals, dispensaries, etc., of which only general mention 
 can be made. 
 
 The agitation in regard to tenement-house legislation in 
 New York is still too fresh in the minds of students of 
 this subject to require much further mention here. It 
 will be remarked, however, that in the campaign which was 
 made to preserve the vital features of the present tenement- 
 house law, the Jewish residents on the East Side of New 
 York were a unit in demanding that no drastic changes in 
 the law be made. Similarly at a recent municipal election, 
 it was the citizens and voters of this same district who rose 
 en masse and in a campaign that was startling in its 
 uniqueness and originality, purged their neighborhood of 
 the vices and immorality which existed there. And thi? 
 brings us to the point at issue. 
 
NEW YORK 73 
 
 The danger to morals which lies in overcrowding is due 
 primarily to the inability to carry on a natural home life. 
 The unit of society after all is the family, and the preserva- 
 tion of the latter means the preservation of the social fabric. 
 It is not difficult to understand how a people, who through 
 the ages have been heralded as the champions of purity in 
 the home, have through the conditions under which they 
 live, taken on some of the attributes of their surroundings 
 and absorbed some of the deteriorating effects of their en- 
 vironment. The natural concomitants of overcrowding are 
 disease and vice and crime. The Jew's power of assimi- 
 lation is proverbial. It was but natural therefore that he, 
 along with his Christian neighbor, should be attacked in his 
 moral fibre in the overcrowded tenements in which he lived ; 
 that he should contract diseases which were new and strange 
 to him, and to which he had formerly not been liable. In 
 fact his apparent immunity to tuberculosis to-day, in spite 
 of conditions, is a medical anomaly. The wonder is that a 
 greater percentage of the Jewish population residing in the 
 so-called '' Ghetto " of our large cities have not fallen vic- 
 tims to the vices and diseases which breed there. The 
 concern of the thinking Jew lies in the fact that the per- 
 centage of Jewish vice and crime and disease as found 
 to-day in our large cities, small as it may be, is nevertheless 
 distinctly larger than statistics show to have been the case 
 heretofore. 
 
 In the House of Refuge on Randall's Island, there were 
 260 Jewish boys and girls in November, 1904. In the Ju- 
 venile Asylum there are 262 Jewish children under sixteen 
 years of age committed for various misdemeanors. Com- 
 pared with the entire Jewish population of the city, the 
 number is insignificant, and the ratio will probably be 
 found to be considerably lower than that of the general 
 population. To the Jewish philanthropist and sociologist, 
 there is cause for alarm in these figures, because he sees that 
 the crowded life of the streets, the lack of playgrounds and 
 breathing spots, the absence of proper home surroundings 
 have injurious effects on the Jewish child, to whom the 
 simplest legal misdemeanors were in the past unknown. 
 And what is true of the child is true of the adult. What- 
 ever parasitic poverty may exist among Jews in the United 
 States and in particular in New York, whatever percentage 
 of criminals and vicious persons may have developed, the 
 
74 • PHILANTHROPY 
 
 results are in the main due to the overcrowding and con- 
 gestion, to which their poverty has subjected them. 
 
 The remedy is plain and simple. Those whom poverty 
 and oppression have thrown together in such close prox- 
 imity and who are compelled to live under such unnatural 
 conditions, must be given the opportunity to settle in lo- 
 calities where ample room will be given for normal, physi- 
 cal, intellectual, and moral growth. In New York, with 
 characteristic insight, many are realizing the impossibility 
 of full development in their present restricted environment 
 and are taking up residence in the less settled outlying 
 section of the city. There is no doubt that the improve- 
 ment in transportation facilities, resulting from subways 
 and tunnels, will considerably diminish the population of 
 the East Side. To effect large results, some comprehensive 
 scheme is necessary to relieve the congestion and to pre- 
 vent the possibility of a recurrence of this congestion. 
 
(B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 In view of the fact that a much greater number of 
 Russian Jews have congregated in New York than in any 
 other city in the country it would seem that any general 
 study of philanthropic and charitable activity, both as re- 
 gards what they accomplish among themselves as well as 
 that exerted in their behalf, should properly be made in 
 that centre. There are, however, considerations which 
 weigh in favor of taking a less congested community as the 
 subject of such an analysis, particularly in view of various 
 circumstances which obviously affect the conditions in ques- 
 tion. 
 
 In certain respects, so apparent as to have received gen- 
 eral recognition, Philadelphia is the typical American city. 
 It is pre-eminently the city of homes as distinguished 
 from dwellings on the tenement plan, which are so marked 
 a feature of urban life in Europe and whose American 
 counterpart is found in such extreme development in New 
 York and to a lesser degree in Chicago. 
 
 In the less crowded condition of the poorer precincts of 
 Philadelphia as compared with those of the other large cit- 
 ies of the country, with a correspondingly greater latitude 
 to the individual affected by this condition, the assimila- 
 tive force of American institutions has greater play. Its 
 processes are carried out with less hindrance both from 
 within and from without; the Ghetto is less constrained 
 by the surrounding pressure and therefore less intensified 
 within itself. In this light, the Russian Jews in Philadel- 
 phia may be regarded as affording a fair index of their 
 status and course of development in this country, under 
 comparatively normal conditions. 
 
 Our immediate subject, charity, presents indeed but one 
 aspect of that development, but it is a phase more essen- 
 tially Jewish, perhaps, than any other. For the Jew is 
 nothing if not charitable, and as the Russian Jews are 
 intensely Jewish, their activity in the field of philanthropic 
 endeavor is correspondingly marked. But as Jewish 
 
 75 
 
76 • PHILANTHROPY 
 
 charity compasses every element of the community we must 
 needs, in considering it as regards the Russian Jew, dis- 
 tinguish, as already indicated, between that which has been 
 and is being done for them by the older settled portion 
 of the community and that which is done by them and 
 among themselves. 
 
 A proper understanding of the conditions with which we 
 have to deal requires a passing glance at the historical 
 bearings of the subject. The conditions in general may be 
 regarded as dating from 1882, although a considerable 
 number of Russians, or rather of Polish and Hungarian 
 Jews, had reached here before that time. At that period 
 the immigration of Jews from the German states was fast 
 declining. It had gone on in considerable though no very 
 large numbers from 1820 to 1870. With the diminishing 
 needs of the older section of the community, its charitable 
 activities were extended in behalf of the later comers and 
 its various organizations were either merged in those of 
 the latter or were gradually supplanted by them. The 
 project of a Jewish Foster Home, first suggested in 1850, 
 was realized in 1855. In 1864, the Jewish Hospital was 
 organized. In 1868, the Familien Waisen Erziehungs 
 Verein, subsequently given its English title. Orphans Guar- 
 dians, replaced an earlier chevra (society) which supported 
 widows and orphans. In 1869 the sporadic efforts to raise 
 charity funds through banquets and balls, which had gone 
 on from an early date, were concentrated in a Charity 
 Ball Association and in the same year a similar movement 
 resulted in a number of the earlier aid societies being com- 
 bined in the organization of the United Hebrew Charities. 
 In the seventies all these organizations grew to increased 
 importance and power for good and were reinforced by 
 others, such as the lying-in aid society, Esrath Nashim, 
 in 1873, the Rappaport Benevolent Association in 1874, 
 and others of a more temporary character. 
 
 Up to this time the number of East European Jews 
 settled in Philadelphia was probably less than three thou- 
 sand of a total Jewish population of perhaps twelve thou- 
 sand. Those who were here had come, a few at a time, 
 as part of the normal throng of emigrants from Europe, 
 much as the majority of the German Jews had come in the 
 previous years almost invariably into circles of relatives 
 or friends who awaited them. 
 
 It was in Philadelphia, as it happened, that the first 
 
PHILADELPHIA 77 
 
 large ship load of Jewish refugees from Eussia landed, 
 early in March, 1882. They had a memorable reception. 
 Christians of every denomination joined with the Jewish 
 people of the city in offering these wanderers a welcome 
 to our shores. Special arrangements were made for hous- 
 ing, feeding and distributing them, and the entire number, 
 aggregating some four hundred souls, were gradually 
 placed in a position to help themselves. The belief was at 
 first entertained that the anti- Jewish riots which had 
 driven these people from their native homes were but a 
 passing ebullition of the dregs of the populace. But the 
 manifest connivance of the Russian authorities with the 
 plundering and murderous rabble and the leniency with 
 which the leaders of the mob were treated by the courts of 
 justice opened the way for further outrages in all parts 
 of the empire. Presently, in May, 1882, the work of the 
 rabble was taken up by the government under the provi- 
 sions of the notorious May laws. Gradually but steadily 
 the severity of these measures was increased until they 
 culminated in the widespread official outrages of 1890, 
 when Moscow and other large cities in the interior of the 
 empire were depopulated of their Jewish citizens and the 
 unfortunates herded in the so-called ' ' Jewish Pale ' ' along 
 the Western frontiers of the empire. Thence they have 
 made their way, those that could find a way, in the only 
 direction possible — westward — with little hope of better- 
 ment except across the channel in England or across the 
 Atlantic in America. And so the comparatively small 
 colony of Polish Jews who had previously reached our 
 shores was rapidly and abnormally augmented by refugees 
 from all portions of the Eussian Empire. 
 
 It was inevitable that under these circumstances the 
 existing machinery of charity, ample as it had been for 
 all previous needs, should become overwhelmed and all its 
 resources should be strained to the extreme. That the 
 older and native born Jewish communities were heavily 
 burdened, and that they rose to the occasion, is traceable 
 in the records of Jewish charities generally, and those 
 of Philadelphia may well serve as an example. The ex- 
 penditures of the United Hebrew Charities of this city, 
 which had been decreasing for some years previous to 
 1880, and which, exclusive of costs of administration, had 
 fallen to less than $12,000 in that year, rose to $18,000; 
 in 1882, to over $20,000; in 1883, to over $22,000; in the 
 
78 PHILANTHROPY 
 
 years from 1885 to 1890, to fully $31,000; in 1891, and 
 under the grievous stress of 1892 to nearly $48,000. In 
 1893-1894 the expenditures averaged nearly $40,000 
 yearly, and from then to the present the average has been 
 $26,000, varying with the number and condition of the new 
 arrivals. 
 
 Previous to 1882, the Russians, or as they mostly were 
 at that time, the Polish Jews, had formed but a secondary 
 factor in the work of the United Hebrew Charities. By 
 1884 the proportion of Russian Jews among the applicants 
 had reached 75 per cent, and since 1892 there has been 
 among these scarcely any other element whatever. 
 
 The records of the Jewish Poster Home reveal similar 
 conditions. Up to 1882 the proportion of children of 
 Polish or Russian parentage among its inmates was very 
 small. In that year the proportion rose to 75 per cent. ; in 
 1891 it rose to 91 per cent. — nearly two-thirds of the 
 number having been born in Russia; and in 1892 it 
 was 92 per cent., but only one-third of them of Russian 
 nativity. 
 
 The Orphans' Guardian Society, which places its charges 
 in private homes, has found its efforts taken up in a man- 
 ner not essentially different from that experienced at the 
 Foster Home. 
 
 In 1881 the proportion of East European Jews among 
 the patients at the Jewish Hospital was 11.5 per cent. ; in 
 1882 it rose to 34 per cent. In the following four years 
 the proportion averaged some 24 per cent. ; in the next 
 four years about 30 per cent., and in 1891 it rose to 42 per 
 cent. 
 
 Another of the older charity societies, the Esrath Nashim, 
 or Helping Women, is to be noted in this regard. This 
 society was organized in 1873 in aid of lying-in women at 
 their homes, and after the year 1882 devoted its efforts 
 chiefly to the needs of the refugee immigrants from Rus- 
 sia. In 1891 the demands on this charity, as on all others, 
 grew beyond the compass of the organization, and the 
 society found itself impelled to institute a central estab- 
 lishment for the care of its charges. The society was 
 reorganized as the Jewish Maternity Association in 1892 
 and established near Sixth and Spruce Streets a hospital 
 known as the Maternity Home, which has since been ma- 
 terially enlarged. In 1893 the patients treated at the hos- 
 pital numbered 116, and 15 were treated at their homes. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 79 
 
 In 1903^ the number of patients was 1,121, of whom 2-44 
 were treated at the hospital. A training school for nurses 
 was added in 1901, and at the same time a branch of the 
 work was inaugurated at Atlantic City as the Jewish 
 Seaside Home for invalid mothers and children. This 
 branch has been latterly reorganized as a separate society 
 and its work considerably enlarged. 
 
 The continuance and growth of the Russian Jewish im- 
 migration after 1882 soon brought the community to realize 
 the necessity of dealing with its difficulties in the pre- 
 ventive as well as palliative sense. In the fall of 1884 a 
 movement to this end, originally started by one of the 
 earlier refugees, Jacob Judelson, was taken up by the 
 *' uptown " community and resulted in the formation of 
 the Association for the Protection of Jewish Immigrants. 
 This society was framed with the idea of its continu- 
 ance by the Russian Jews themselves, but its work rapidly 
 grew beyond the ability of that disturbed element to cope 
 with it, and it has since been maintained almost exclusively 
 by the efforts of the older section of the community. 
 
 The association was organized, as stated in its constitu- 
 tion, *' to remove and lessen the distresses of arriving 
 Jewish immigrants and to aid and assist such as, for want 
 of acquaintance with the language and laws of the coun- 
 try, are in danger of being oppressed; to obtain employ- 
 ment for them and in other respects to aid and relieve 
 them." 
 
 To this end an agent was engaged to supervise the 
 landing of the Jewish immigrants at this port and to guard 
 and direct them in their course to their proper destinations. 
 At the instance of the association and with the co-operation 
 of the late Mahlon H. Dickinson, president of the State 
 Board of Charities, its agent was clothed with official au- 
 thority by that body, at that time acting as a commission 
 of immigration on behalf of the federal government. The 
 agent was aided by officers and members of the association 
 acting in rotation, and soon the system gave results that 
 commended it to all who were cognizant of its workings. 
 To further its purposes the association leased a large dwell- 
 ing at 931 South Fourth Street, and fitted up its 12 rooms 
 with all the requisites of a temporary shelter. An employ- 
 
 1 The number for this year is given in preference to the figures from the 
 following report, which contains records for sixteen months to conform to the 
 year of the Federation of Jewish Charities. 
 
80 . PHILANTHROPY 
 
 nient agency was organized and a competent agent was 
 placed in charge of the office and the shelter. In 1887 
 this lodge was discontinued, the wayfarers being housed 
 under contract with responsible Jewish boarding houses. 
 At the same time the functions of the employment bureau 
 were taken over by the Auxiliary Branch of the United 
 Hebrew Charities, which had been specially organized for 
 the purpose. In other directions, however, the work of the 
 association was largely extended, including the tracing of 
 relatives and friends in all sections of the Union for im- 
 migrants who sought them in this city, and the recovery 
 of baggage waylaid at numerous depots and stopping 
 places, from the Russian frontiers to the various ports on 
 both sides of the Atlantic. This charity is still active and 
 has done much to lessen the miseries of thousands of help- 
 less and hapless wayfarers in their troubled course. 
 
 From 1882 to 1904 the number of Jewish immigrants 
 at the port of Philadelphia is estimated at about 60,000. 
 Of this number the records of the Association for the 
 Protection of Jewish Immigrants contain the names of 
 the greater part. Other data regarding the newcomers, 
 such as the destination to which they were booked, the 
 points to which they were finally forwarded, their general 
 condition, etc., are also included in these records. The 
 annual influx at Philadelphia has varied from about 1,500 
 in 1884 and 2,310 in 1886, to 4,984 in 1891 and 5,324 in 
 1893, fluctuating since then down to 1,649 in 1899, rising 
 to 3,870 in 1900. The renewed proscriptions and more 
 widespread expulsions of Jewish citizens which blackened 
 the history of Russia in 1891 and 1893 are marked by the 
 high figures of the refugee immigration of those years and 
 a similar flood tide of Roumanian wickedness and folly is 
 indicated in the figures of 1900. The aftermath of these 
 harvests of misery is visible though not measurable in 
 Russian famines and Roumanian bankruptcy. 
 
 Passing reference has already been made to the employ- 
 ment bureau of the United Hebrew Charities. This was 
 instituted in 1886 through a special organization of young 
 men, which took the form of an auxiliary branch of the 
 charities and whose individual members gave their personal 
 efforts to the cause. The office was located in the southern 
 section of the city and eventually in the Hebrew Education 
 Society's Building, Touro Hall, where it is still conducted. 
 The number of applicants at this employment bureau, ex- 
 
PHILA DELPHI A 81 
 
 elusive of a large number of temporary sojourners, has 
 averaged over 600 per annum, of whom a considerable pro- 
 portion have been placed in positions to maintain them- 
 selves. Besides this bureau various organizations of 
 women have been formed as auxiliaries to the United 
 Charities, such as the Ladies' Auxiliary Committee, the 
 Ladies' Volunteer Visiting Committee, and the Personal 
 Interest Society, whose activity has aided to a great degree 
 in mitigating the suffering of the needy among the Russian 
 Jews. 
 
 The gravity of the conditions which the increasing dis- 
 tress of the Russian Jews entailed upon those of Western 
 Europe and America called forth in 1890 the monumental 
 effort of the late Baron Maurice de Hirsch for their 
 amelioration. Of the munificent endowment which he 
 founded for this purpose on this side of the Atlantic in 
 the form of the Baron de Hirsch Trust, a proportion of 
 the income is allotted to Philadelphia. Of this allotment, 
 $700 per month was dispensed directly to the needy among 
 the recent arrivals, for support while learning trades, for 
 tools, and for transportation to the interior. This charity 
 continues to be dispensed, in varying amounts, through 
 the Auxiliary Branch of the United Hebrew Charities. 
 Since 1892 a portion of this fund, amounting to $2,400 
 per year, has been allotted to educational work through 
 the Hebrew Education Society. 
 
 One important factor in the charitable work put forth 
 in Philadelphia yet remains to be considered, the central 
 agency of ways and means. This agency is now effected 
 through an organization chartered under the title of the 
 Federation of Jewish Charities, which took up in May, 
 1901, the work of financing the various charity undertak- 
 ings. Up to that time this troublesome task was performed 
 largely by the Hebrew Charity Ball Association, which 
 supplemented the sporadic efforts of the individual officers 
 and members of the different societies with the proceeds 
 of their annual entertainments. The Charity Ball Asso- 
 ciation was long a mainstay of Jewish philanthropic work 
 in Philadelphia. It was organized, coincidently with the 
 United Hebrew Charities in 1869, for the purpose of con- 
 tinuing regularly the charity benefit entertainments which 
 had previously been given at irregular intervals as occasion 
 arose. In time the Hebrew Charity Ball became one of the 
 most notable functions of the winter season in Philadel- 
 
82 . PHILANTHROPY 
 
 phia, attended by large and representative gatherings, 
 without distinction of creed. Its proceeds, generally 
 amounting to over $20,000, were distributed among the 
 various charity societies according to their respective needs. 
 These allotments, however, still left the major part of the 
 necessary income to be derived from other sources, from 
 membership dues, and endowment funds, donation day col- 
 lections, fairs, theatre benefits, and, in large measure from 
 contributions through the synagogues on the high holy 
 days, and finally through specially solicited funds. With 
 the growing demands of recent years these diffuse and often 
 conflicting agencies of financial support became more and 
 more unsatisfactory as well as inadequate. These con- 
 ditions led to the adoption of what has come to be Imown 
 as the *' Liverpool Plan " of raising charity funds, the 
 term being derived from the fact that the method was 
 first applied in Liverpool. It was subsequently adopted 
 by the Jewish communities of Cincinnati and Chicago and 
 latterly, as indicated, in Philadelphia, as well as in other 
 cities. 
 
 Under this system every member of the community who 
 contributes annually to the Federation a sum at least 
 equal to the total of a members' dues in all the constituent 
 societies has the right of membership in each of them, and 
 if the annual contribution be less than that sum, then to a 
 corresponding extent in such of the several organizations 
 as may be preferred by the contributor. On the other 
 hand the organizations themselves are pledged to refrain 
 from all manner of entertainments and assemblies for 
 pleasure in the name of charity, or to solicit funds from 
 the public otherwise than through the Federation, though 
 of course, voluntary contributions from friends and 
 patrons are not excluded. 
 
 The results of this measure during the first years of its 
 operation in Philadelphia have been very gratifying. 
 Where in the preceding year the income of the constituent 
 societies outside of that from endowment funds was not 
 over $95,000 the subscription to the Federation in its first 
 year realized U21,864.07, the second year $127,398.18, and 
 the third year, ending April 30, 1904, 121,650.80. The 
 Federation has sought, and to an encouraging extent has 
 already attained, the great object of unifying the forces 
 of the community in the direction of charity work. The 
 system gives promise not only of rendering the work itself 
 
PHILADELPHIA 83 
 
 more efficient but also of bringing a larger number of 
 individuals to join in it, and of imbuing the latter with 
 a due measure of public spirit. 
 
 Passing to the consideration of the philanthropic works 
 which the Russian Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia have 
 organized among themselves, we find much that illustrates, 
 at the same time that it reveals, the intense vitality of 
 the Jewish spirit. It must be remembered that we are 
 dealing with a community of refugees, rather than emi- 
 grants. The majority of these people did not leave their 
 native lands of their own free will and desire but were 
 forced to go, often not only without preparation for their 
 journey but frequently after being robbed of most of 
 their belongings through violence at home and of mucli 
 of the poor remainder through chicanery on the way. The 
 earliest Russian Jewish immigrants, those of the years 
 1882-85, were almost all of them victims of violence in one 
 form or another. So, too, were the thousands of their 
 countrymen who were driven out of Russia during the 
 renewed outbreaks of barbarism that centred at Moscow in 
 1890. Scarcely even those who followed their forerunners 
 with passage prepaid by relatives on this side could rea- 
 sonably be regarded as normal immigrants. They were, 
 as the majority of them still are, members of families that 
 had been broken up in the course of the persecutions; 
 wives and children joining some father who had preceded 
 them; sometimes parents with younger children called to 
 join older ones already settled here and frequentlj^ other 
 relatives and friends of earlier and more fortunate seekers 
 after freedom and fortune in America. 
 
 Like the first association of their Sephardic and German 
 predecessors, the first '* Russian " Jewish society was a 
 Chevra Bikur Cholim, or Brotherhood for Visiting the 
 Sick. The small community of Polish Jews v/ho settled 
 about 1870 in the northeastern section of the city, in the 
 Richmond district, organized a number of chevras that 
 gradually merged into a congregation which included the 
 usual mutual aid and eleemosynary features. Another of 
 these earlier associations for mutual aid and charity is the 
 Chevra Chesed Shel Emeth. 
 
 Following the example of their German predecessors, the 
 Polish immigrants soon organized national societies for 
 mutual benefit and aid, some of which were established 
 as early as 1860. During the seventies several lodges of 
 
84 . PHILANTHROPY 
 
 this character were established in Philadelphia and con- 
 tinued their activity to the present day. In the course of 
 time, as the immigrants from one or another of the East 
 European lands grew in numbers, new societies were 
 started, composed of individuals drawn together by closer 
 ties of origin. Among the earliest an association com- 
 posed of Galicians, formed in 1876 the Krakauer Con- 
 gregation, named after the capital of Galicia, and which 
 in 1879 was merged with a chevra of the same name. 
 Dating also from the decade of the seventies is the Hun- 
 garian congregation of the southern part of the city, and 
 the Austro-Hungarian Association in the northern section. 
 Both these institutions, in addition to other purposes, have 
 the usual functions of the mutual aid and charity organi- 
 zations. There are various other societies of this nature, 
 most of them in the southern section of the city, and all 
 of them active in their mission of charity and good will. 
 In general, the East European Jews of the earlier and 
 voluntary immigration prior to 1882 were of a class of 
 sturdy and self-reliant people, who were mostly quite 
 capable of taking care of themselves and of those depend- 
 ent on or connected v/ith them. They con:iprised but few 
 individuals needing charitable aid and these they provided 
 for among themselves. 
 
 It was different with the refugees who escaped hither 
 after 1882. These came not only in larger numbers but 
 also in greater need, and inevitably strained the resources 
 of their earlier settled countrymen as well as those of their 
 co-religionists of other origin. The several years following 
 the beginning of this movement comprised a period of 
 marked disorganization among the newcomers. As soon, 
 however, as the first years of stress and struggle were 
 past, reorganization began to become apparent and in the 
 course of the decade one after another of various mutual 
 aid societies were formed, so that in 1892 they had organ- 
 zied 28 mutual aid societies besides 5 lodges and 5 syna- 
 gogues. 
 
 A marked development of communal activity in the Rus- 
 sian Jewish community dates from about 1890. In that 
 year the immigrant shelter, carried on by the Association 
 for the Protection of Jewish Immigrants, was taken over 
 by the Hachnosas Orchim, or Wayfarer's Lodge. This so- 
 ciety, incorporated in 1891, opened a house for the tempo- 
 rary shelter and maintenance of immigrants waiting to find 
 
FUILADELPHIA 85 
 
 employment or relatives or friends of whom they had lost 
 trace, and has developed considerable activity in that 
 respect. The society now owns and occupies two adjoin- 
 ing houses at 218 and 220 Lombard Street, at times accom- 
 modating over 100 inmates. It has about 500 members 
 and 1,000 contributors paying a total of about $2,500 
 annually, besides donations of clothing, food, and other 
 supplies. In 1898 this society extended its sphere to in- 
 clude the maintenance of a Moshav Z'kenim or Home for 
 the Aged, where a number of superannuated men and 
 women are permanently sheltered. This feature of the 
 institution is being specially fostered, and will doubtless 
 form the main branch of the society's activity when, as is 
 to be hoped, the immigrant shelter will no longer be a 
 necessity. 
 
 In 1891 the Maimonides Clinic for the treatment of 
 indigent immigrants by Russian Jewish physicians was 
 estalDlished and was succeeded in 1896 by the Franklin 
 Free Dispensary. In 1889 a society of a similar nature was 
 organized under the name of the Beth Israel Hospital 
 and the following year the dispensary and hospital so- 
 cieties were merged. A fully equipped dispensary was 
 established at 236 Pine Street. At about the same time 
 the Mount Sinai Hospital Association was organized and 
 in a short time absorbed the dispensary society. It also 
 established an out-patient department. The hospital 
 erected at Fifth and Wilder Streets was opened in the 
 spring of 1905. 
 
 In 1892 the Independent Chevra Kadisho vv^as estab- 
 lished to afford free burial in cases where the family of 
 the deceased is too poor to bear the expense. Its member- 
 ship is about 3,000, who pay ten cents per month. The 
 society has purchased properties at 408-10-12 Christian 
 Street, on the site of which there are erected a synagogue, 
 school building, and hall in addition to the rooms used 
 for the society's own purposes. There are three smaller 
 free burial societies with a similar object. 
 
 A loan society, the Women 's Society, Gemilas Chaso- 
 dim, was organized in 1896. It makes loans without 
 interest to deserving persons in amounts from $5 to $25, 
 repayable in installments. Pledges of gold or silver are 
 required as security. The capital of the society is $2,378.87 
 and the amount loaned during the past year was $3,050. 
 There is a smaller organization with a similar purpose. 
 
86 PHILANTHROPY 
 
 Among 'relief societies should be mentioned the Malbish 
 Arumim (Clothing the Naked), which has been active 
 since 1894, with the object of helping the needy children 
 of the Talmud Torah schools with necessary clothing. It 
 has about 200 members. A very worthy charitable effort 
 is represented by the United Relief Association which 
 includes about 200 members and affords aid in cases re- 
 quiring immediate attention, furnishes matzos (unleavened 
 bread) to the poor, and wine and eggs to the sick. The 
 Roumanian Relief Association, established in 1900, has 
 developed into the Roumanian Educational Society, which 
 carries on a night school at 422 N. Fourth Street. One 
 of the latest and most active of the charitable societies is 
 the Ladies' Hebrew Emergency Society, organized in 1904, 
 which has a membership of 300 and an income of $1,600. 
 
 Among the important charities established by Russian 
 Jews is the Home for Hebrew Orphans, which occupies the 
 large building at the southwest corner of Tenth and Bain- 
 bridge Streets. It has a membership of about 3,000, who 
 contribute from 10 cents per month to $5.00 per annum. 
 The annual income last year to August 31, 1904, was 
 $12,315.35. The home gives shelter and training to 61 
 children. 
 
 From what has been here noted, it will be apparent that 
 the process of generating a stable and progressive com- 
 munity out of the disorganized and harried victims of 
 Slavic ignorance and brutality is well under way in Phila- 
 delphia. Much yet remains to be done, not only among 
 themselves, but by other elements of the community, to 
 further their progress toward stability and order, but the 
 advances already attained by the Russian Jewish com- 
 munity afford an ample reassurance for the future. 
 
(C) CHICAGO 
 
 During the Russian Jewish immigration of 1881-82, 
 about two thousand persons found refuge in the city of 
 Chicago. A special committee, known as the Russian 
 Refugee Aid Committee, had full charge of the immigrants 
 and of the many problems incident to their care. The 
 \ committee, which was composed of representative citizens, 
 ■^ was independent of the Hebrew Relief Association. It 
 succeeded in handling the difficulties of providing for the 
 immigrants in a satisfactory manner. About $14,000 was 
 contributed as a special fund to defray the expense in- 
 curred. 
 
 Families were separated in groups of ten, each group 
 being installed in a temporary home, with one family at 
 the head. The privileges of such a home were ordinarily 
 granted for three weeks. At the end of that time a family 
 was expected to be in a position to take quarters on its 
 own responsibility. Most of the people settled in a district 
 now knov/n as the Ghetto, which even at that early time 
 contained a large Jewish population. 
 
 Every possible effort was made by the committee to 
 procure employment for the heads of families; and so 
 responsive did the general public in the city prove that 
 it was only during the last few months of the year that it 
 was necessary to send the immigrants into the country 
 towns throughout the state. The majority of the men 
 were either merchants or peddlers; some were laborers, 
 and a very small number mechanics. A member of the 
 committee recently stated that most of the immigrants 
 succeeded fairly well in their various lines of employment, 
 and very few were afterwards forced upon the care of the 
 Hebrew Relief Association. 
 
 During the past twenty years or more, the many Jewish 
 relief-giving societies had been working independently, 
 without due co-operation, or a spirit of mutual helpfulness. 
 Each society had its own method of raising annually the 
 necessary funds for the year's work. The public was, 
 
 87 
 
88 PHILANTHROPY 
 
 therefore? continually annoyed by tlie receipt of benefit 
 tickets, through the mail, or otherwise, for balls, festivals, 
 theatrical performances, concerts, card parties, and other 
 forms of entertainment. In order to bring the various 
 philanthropic forces of the city, especially the relief 
 agencies, into closer and more sympathetic relation and to 
 establish a plan of raising money in a manner more accept- 
 able to contributors to charity, the Associated Jewish 
 Charities of Chicago was organized. 
 
 The new organization received its charter in April, 1900. 
 *' The particular business and objects for which it is 
 formed are to provide a permanent, efficient and practical 
 mode of collecting, administering and distributing the con- 
 tributions of the Jews and others of Chicago for private 
 charitable purposes; to put into practical and efficient 
 operation the best systems for relieving and preventing 
 want, and checking pauperism among the Jewish poor of 
 said city; to aid the sick, the aged, the poor, the unfor- 
 tunate, the widows and orphans." This new association 
 proved a financial success in the first year if its existence. 
 One of the most desirable results has been the consolida- 
 tion of all relief-giving agencies. Relief, such as donations 
 of cash, fuel and clothing, is distributed through one cen- 
 / tral body, the Relief Department of the United Hebrew 
 ! Charities. The women's organizations formerly contribut- 
 S ing relief have practically given up work of this nature, 
 I and are devoting their energies to specific charities desig- 
 
 (nated by the United Hebrew Charities. 
 The institutions and societies receiving support from the 
 Associated Jewish Charities are: The United Hebrew 
 Charities, for running expense of the Michael Reese Hos- 
 pital; Dispensary and Relief Department, with its 
 branches ; Home for Aged Jews ; Chicago Home for Jewish 
 Orphans ; Jewish Manual Training School ; Maxwell Street 
 Settlement ; Bureau of Personal Service ; Home for Jewish 
 Friendless and Working Girls; the Woman's Loan Associ- 
 ation ; Chicago Lying-in Dispensary and Hospital, for Dis- 
 pensary Department. Donations are also sent to the Cleve- 
 land Hebrew Orphan Asylum and the National Home for 
 Consumptives at Denver. 
 
 Although the institutions supported by the Associated 
 Jewish Charities are managed by their special boards of 
 directors, they are visited by sub-committees from the cen- 
 tral organization and are subject to that organization. 
 
CHICAGO 89 
 
 In October, 1859, the several societies dispensing charity 
 to the Jewish poor of Chicago organized for the purpose 
 of working jointly under the name of the United Hebrew 
 Eelief Association. The object was to aid distressed co- 
 religionists by providing medical assistance and material 
 relief. For the twenty years succeeding the formation of 
 this union of societies about $120,000 was expended in the 
 relief department proper. The subscriptions to this gen- 
 eral relief fund increased steadily from year to year, 
 $389,500 having been received from 1879 to 1899, inclusive, 
 the expenditures keeping pace with the receipts. During 
 the greater part of its existence, the Relief Department 
 has conducted under its auspices the Michael Reese Hos- 
 pital, the West Side Free Dispensary, and a labor bureau. 
 The organization is now known as the United Hebrew 
 Charities. It is located on the South Side at 223 Twenty- 
 sixth Street, somewhat distant from the congested districts. 
 The Relief Department confers the ordinary benefits of 
 such a department, distributing mainly cash, clothing and 
 fuel. Transportation is an item of considerable expense to 
 the association. Since the organization of the Associated 
 Jewish Charities, the scope of the work of the United 
 Hebrew Charities has been materially enlarged. 
 
 The Michael Reese Hospital (established in 1881) con- 
 tains fuljy 65 per cent, of Russian Jews among its patients 
 annually, according to its superintendent. The number of 
 patients, about 2,000, shows how large is the work of this 
 institution. An additional equipment is needed and the 
 sum of $400,000 has recently been raised for a new hos- 
 pital on the old grounds. 
 
 A dispensary for poor Jews was founded and located 
 in the Ghetto district during 1893. This dispensary is a 
 part of the United Hebrew Charities and is in charge of 
 a special board. The spacious quarters and excellent 
 equipment of a new building erected a few years ago have 
 delighted physician and patient alike and made it possible 
 to do much more effective work. 
 
 In February, 1884, an employment bureau was opened 
 in connection with the United Hebrew Charities in its office 
 on Twenty-sixth Street. The object of this bureau is to make 
 families self-supporting by securing employment for the 
 wage workers. The majority of the applicants are labor- 
 ers, mechanics, and factory workers. The stock yards, 
 iron j^ards, tanneries, various other factories, and depart- 
 
/ 
 
 90 * PHILANTHROPY 
 
 ment stores co-operate with this bureau. Merchants, 
 hucksters and peddlers are helped by the loan societies, 
 which thus materially supplement the work of the Em- 
 ployment Bureau. 
 
 The Chicago Woman's Aid, an organization for lit- 
 erary and philanthropic purposes, for three seasons sup- 
 ported a work-room for women. The work-room was in 
 charge of a paid superintendent, and members of the 
 society took an active part in the executive and personal 
 service departments. Work was provided for about five 
 months each year during the winter. Since the union of 
 all relief-giving forces, the work-room became part of a.nd 
 supported by the United Hebrew Charities. The members 
 of the Chicago Woman's Aid, however, superintended 
 the management of the work-room and were active in the 
 same manner as heretofore. The rooms were on the West 
 Side, within walking distance of Hull House, thus being 
 convenient for women who wish to leave their young chil- 
 dren at the Hull House Day Nursery. The hours were from 
 9 a. m. to 12 m., and from 1 to 4 p. m. The superintend- 
 ent was assisted by one permanently employed cutter and 
 several who work part of the time. In extreme cases, 
 work was supplied at home, but it was preferred to have 
 women come to the work room. The garments made were 
 baby outfits, including skirts, nightgowns, sheets, etc. 
 Other articles made were ladies' underwear, calico wrap- 
 pers, children's dresses, boys' blouses, overalls, physicians' 
 coats, and linens, such as towels, pillow cases and sheets. 
 The beneficiaries of the work room were such women as 
 would ordinarily be entitled to the benefits of relief so- 
 cieties, especially the United Hebrew Charities. Aban- 
 doned wives, widows, and women with invalid husbands 
 were employed. They received seventy-five cents a day. 
 The daily earnings were formerly fifty cents. When pa}^- 
 ment was made at this rate, it was still necessary, in most 
 cases, for the United Hebrew Charities to advance the rent 
 for the women employed. It was, therefore, considered 
 advisable to let the women earn the extra amount, instead 
 of having them apply to the Relief Department for it. A 
 warm lunch was furnished. 
 
 The employment of these women, requiring them to give 
 at least a partial equivalent for what they get, is a most 
 creditable way of helping them. It is far superior to the 
 old-time method of unconditional giving. It tends to keep 
 
CHICAGO 91 
 
 them away from the relief agencies, fosters self-respect, 
 and is, in many ways, a most wholesome substitute for 
 alms. It gives those who ordinarily spend their days in 
 dingy, unclean tenements an opportunity to leave the 
 crowded quarters for seven hours a day, to breathe purer 
 air, to learn the value of cleanliness, and to live in an 
 atmosphere of cheerfulness and refinement. 
 
 The Home for Jewish Orphans was founded in March, 
 1893. In the fall of the following year a private residence 
 was rented in the southern portion of the city, where 
 orphans were sheltered until 1899, when the present per- 
 manent Home was ready for occupancy. It is located 
 opposite the Home for Aged Jews, corner Drexel Avenue 
 and Sixty-second Street. It is for the benefit of orphans, 
 residents of Cook County, where the death of the parent 
 or parents occurs within the boundaries of the county. 
 Children of an insane parent are also eligible. The num- 
 ber of inmates is 172, of whom 90 per cent, are of Russian 
 or Polish Jewish origin. 
 
 The Home for Aged Jews was opened for occupancy 
 in 1893. Of the 71 inmates in the Home, 12 are Eussian 
 and Polish Jewish. Ordinarily, the aged Russian and 
 Polish Jews cannot be prevailed upon to enter this Home. 
 It is impossible to convince them that all the laws pertain- 
 ing to a strictly kosher plan (that is with food served 
 according to the Mosaic law) are enforced. For this rea- 
 son, the Russian Jews of Chicago have made strenuous 
 efforts to establish their own home for the aged, which 
 they maintain in a manner to suit the orthodox. 
 
 The Home for Jewish Friendless and Working Girls is 
 a recent addition. There are 120 occupants of its building. 
 
 Early in the winter of 1900, a number of Russian Jews 
 on the West Side held local meetings for the purpose of 
 enlisting the sympathies of the people in behalf of a home 
 for aged orthodox Jews. The idea was conceived by resi- 
 dents of the Russian district, where many of the aged live 
 in privation and want. Appeals for contributions were 
 sent to local societies, to the social and beneficial organiza- 
 tions, and to the Russian Jews at large. The project was 
 enthusiastically received. Ground valued at $5,600 was 
 purchased opposite one of the large parks of the city, far 
 removed from the haunts of poverty. For an entire week 
 during December, 1900, a bazaar was held for the benefit 
 of the Home fund. The Russian Jewish population 
 
92 • PHILANTHROPY 
 
 worked arduously to make this affair a success, and their 
 efforts were rewarded by a $11,000 cash account to be 
 added to the fund already in hand. The Home received 
 its first inmates May 3, 1903. There are 48 inmates 
 (1904). 
 
 The Bureau of Personal Service was organized in Novem- 
 ber, 1897. The Bureau is administrative in its policy, its 
 object being to bring into closer co-operation the philan- 
 thropic forces of the neighborhood, to establish a thorough 
 system of investigation and registration, and to promote 
 social service. It is non-sectarian, but is located in the 
 Russian Jewish settlement and fully ninety-five per cent, 
 of the applicants are of the Jewish faith. 
 
 The school census of 1898 showed that in the Seventh, 
 Eighth and Nineteenth Wards, immediately adjoining each 
 other, there were 15,339 foreign born Russian Jews, and 
 13,678 American born, making a total of 29,017. The 
 greatest number of these are located in the immediate 
 vicinity of the Bureau, which is in the heart of the Ghetto. 
 
 The Bureau gives relief only in emergency cases, refer- 
 ring applicants to the proper organizations for permanent 
 help. The giving of alms is not advocated, nor is a single 
 person recommended for such, unless no substitute can be 
 found. Despite the fact that the office is in the midst of 
 the greatest poverty in the city, it is not looked upon as 
 a relief agency. In all other matters pertaining to the 
 family life, or the needs of the poor apart from material 
 relief, the good offices of the Bureau are sought. Through- 
 out the neighborhood the bureau workers are called ^' the 
 mothers of the poor." This expression shows clearly the 
 sentiment of the people toward the Bureau and its relation 
 to them. As the mother aims to meet the needs of her 
 children, caring for their minor grievances and complaints, 
 as well as for their grave necessities and troubles, so the 
 Bureau endeavors to serve the poor of the vicinity. It 
 stands as a friendly service society, stopping only at the 
 repeated bestowal of alms. 
 
 The Bureau is in active co-operation with all the relief 
 societies of the city; with the courts, inasmuch as they 
 are concerned with ordinary problems of justice affecting 
 the poor; with the loan organizations; with other societies 
 engaged in preventive charity ; and with all medical, hous- 
 ing, and correctional institutions or societies. 
 
 Both the superintendent and the assistant superintend- 
 
CHICAGO 93 
 
 ent are probation officers of the juvenile court. The ques- 
 tion of caring for dependent children, not orphans, and for 
 delinquent Jewish children had not heretofore been con- 
 sidered by philanthropic workers among the Jews of Chi- 
 cago. The great need of doing preventive work with and 
 for the children, particularly of the West Side, was so 
 strongly forced upon the attention of the Bureau, that it 
 appeared an unpardonable neglect of duty to overlook it 
 any longer. The system of paroling a child not only gives 
 to the probation officer access to the home and authority 
 over the child, but brings her into close and sympathetic 
 relations with the entire family. It has been astonishing 
 to the Chicago public to learn that many of the children 
 of the Ghetto are on the road to delinquency. The success 
 of working in a friendly way with children and parents 
 has been most gratifying. 
 
 Fully one half of the entire time of the employees of 
 the Bureau is spent in personal service and friendly inter- 
 course with the neighborhood people. 
 
 A work-room for women was conducted in connection 
 with the Bureau, upon its premises. Payment was in kind 
 at the rate of fifty cents per day; cash was given only in 
 the most urgent cases and then not regularly. The pay- 
 ment in kind was on a very liberal scale. Besides food, 
 fuel and second-hand clothing, women had the privilege of 
 purchasing household goods, shoes, new wearing apparel, 
 or any necessary merchandise to the amount of their earn- 
 ings. From two to five days' work per week was allow^ed 
 applicants, according to their needs. It is very evident, 
 especially during the winter season, that the names of 
 many families appear on the records of relief societies 
 merely for clothing and fuel. Opportunity for purchasing 
 these necessities by a certain amount of labor was afforded 
 through the work-room. The reports for the winter 
 months show that nearly all the work was paid in coal, 
 shoes, and clothes. Second-hand clothing was solicited by 
 the Work-room Committee. In this way women could earn 
 dresses and wraps of fine, serviceable materials, which they 
 could not possibly have gotten otherwise. 
 
 The two work-rooms to which reference has been made 
 have gone out of existence, but a description of them has 
 nevertheless been thought desirable. 
 
 The Russian Jew of Chicago occupies a unique position 
 in his idea of regenerative philanthropy. No actual relief 
 
94 . PHILANTHROPY 
 
 distributing agency has been established through this popu- 
 lation. The need of such an agency has probably not been 
 felt, owing to the existence of the United Hebrew Charities. 
 Nevertheless, the Russian Jew loves to give; to give freely 
 in his own peculiar way, and never seems quite so happy 
 as when contributing his mite towards a charitable cause. 
 The demands upon him often become burdensome, for it 
 is the poor man, he who earns just enough to meet his own 
 meagre demands, who takes pleasure in giving to others. 
 His idea of method, or a discriminate bestowing of alms, 
 is indeed vague. In fact, he thinks very little about it. 
 If his neighbor is in distress, he considers himself respon- 
 sible, in a measure, for the welfare of that neighbor. If 
 necessary, all his friends and acquaintances are called upon 
 to share the responsibility. As he has established no relief 
 agency to which he may apply for aid, he works on the 
 theory that he is his brother's keeper. What is con- 
 tributed annually, in a quiet way, by private donations, for 
 special cases of distress, to individuals or to families, can- 
 not well be estimated, but the amount would without doubt 
 be surprising. 
 
 The liberal attitude that the Ghetto resident assumes 
 toward his neighbor in distress, the sacrifices he makes, the 
 inconveniences he suffers, the privations he endures, — his 
 generous bestowal of time and self — are worthy of emula- 
 tion ; the charity of the poor for the poor puts our own to 
 shame. The poor Russian Jew teaches us the highest type 
 of charity. There is always room in the smallest tenement 
 — though there be but two beds with seven occupants — 
 for the neighboring family that is temporarily homeless; 
 there is always a crust of bread, dry though it be, for the 
 hungry one who needs it. A little coal can be cheerfully 
 spared — though there be but a bucketful — if the children 
 nearby are suffering from the cold. How gladly the proud 
 possessor of a bonnet ties the precious object upon the 
 head of her less fortunate sister when the latter finds it 
 necessary to leave the neighborhood for some special pur- 
 pose. Not the bonnet alone, but very often dress and 
 wrap are loaned with equal readiness. How many a 
 woman, the mother of a large family of little ones, goes 
 into another home where sickness has entered, and nurses 
 the suffering one back to health. How earnestly she goes 
 about the work, preparing the necessary articles of diet, 
 ministering to the needs of the little ones, doing in that 
 
CHICAGO 95 
 
 strange home what she does in her own, even to the wield- 
 ing of the scrub brush for the Sabbath cleaning! It is 
 this beautiful spirit of sharing himself and what belongs 
 to him that constitutes the greatest charm of the Russian 
 Jew. 
 
 Among the local Russian Jewish organizations, there are 
 a few of minor importance, purely charitable in purpose, 
 each having a distinct object, so that none interferes with 
 or duplicates the work of the other. The most important 
 local society working in the Ghetto and deriving the 
 greater part of its support from the residents of the dis- 
 trict is the Society for the Free Burial of the Dead. About 
 $5,000 is raised annually, most of the money being sub- 
 scribed in weekly contributions of five, ten, or fifteen cents. 
 Two collectors are employed for gathering these small 
 amounts from hundreds of patrons. The society owns its 
 own burial ground and a hearse, and employs an under- 
 taker at a salary of $50 a month. 
 
 The Chicago Young Men's Hebrew Charity Association, 
 composed of young men, Russians or of Russian parentage, 
 does more or less relief work in the winter months, expend- 
 ing about $500 during the season. The Bread for the 
 Hungry Society distributes bread and meat once a week 
 to deserving poor. The Woman's Society, conducted in 
 connection with the Montefiore Free School, furnishes 
 clothing for poor boys of the school. A Sheltering Home, 
 a small institution, is for the benefit of strangers. Tran- 
 sients and newcomers are given temporary lodging free 
 of charge. 
 
 Most of the subscriptions to these various local charities 
 are raised in small amounts, five or ten cents weekly being 
 the usual contribution from each subscriber. In fact, this 
 is the method in vogue throughout the district for the col- 
 lection of monies for charitable purposes. 
 
 As has been indicated, the charities of the Russian Jews 
 do not show evidence of method or union of forces. In 
 fact, relief work, and all branches of philanthropy usually 
 classed under this head, are considered of secondary im- 
 portance to the provision of some wholesome substitute for 
 alms. Within the Ghetto proper, including an area of 
 about a dozen square blocks, twelve societies, each inde- 
 pendent, are engaged in loaning money to the poorest 
 classes. ^ All but one, the Woman's Loan, are managed in 
 connection with congregations. Loans, however, are not 
 
96 . PHILANTHROPY 
 
 restricted' to members of congregations. Any poor Jew, 
 regardless of belief or nationality, may become eligible to 
 its good offices, by complying with the conditions of the 
 societj'. This plan of offering a substitute for alms to the 
 self-respecting poor is one which, in its essentials, did not 
 originate in this country. It is a custom that the Russian 
 Jews brought with them from their native homes. 
 
 In all our large cities and even in many of the smaller 
 ones we find hospitals for the sick, institutions for the 
 afflicted and dependent, societies and relief agencies for the 
 benefit of periodically recurrent or emergency cases of dis- 
 tress. Yet we do not make adequate provision or offer 
 proper relief to the respectable poor, temporarily in want, 
 or handicapped through lack of employment, nor do we 
 reach those who might be able to help themselves by enter- 
 ing into some legitimate occupation on their own responsi- 
 bility and thus be spared the humiliation of receiving alms. 
 The particular phase of philanthropy which furnishes a 
 wholesome substitute for alms in the case of the independ- 
 ent, self-respecting poor, seems to have been strangely over- 
 looked by the Jewish people engaged in caring for the 
 needs of their Russian brethren. 
 
 We find many among our poor Russian and Polish Jews, 
 though utterly unskilled in the trades, or incompetent, 
 through lack of proper physical development, to serve as 
 laborers, who are still able to deal in certain wares, or con- 
 duct small business concerns, on their own account. The 
 amount required to give them a start and an occasional 
 lift is considerably less than would be the cost of pension- 
 ing them by a relief society. However opposed a man 
 may be to accepting gifts unconditionally, — when he be- 
 comes through force of circumstances initiated in the 
 pangs of hunger, when his family are suffering for want 
 of bread, and no employment is open to him, he is naturally 
 forced to accept aid either outright or conditionally. The 
 " outright " policy is most dangerous, for it opens invit- 
 ingly the doors to pauperism. The man who v/ith reluc- 
 tance and aversion tastes the first bitterness of alms gradu- 
 ally, with ambition and manhood stunted, looks upon 
 charity as a necessity, and finally as a natural right. 
 
 The Russian Jew, the Jew of the Ghetto, has taught us 
 the lesson of preventing such demoralization, by offering 
 to the poor not alms but a wise substitute. Give the honest 
 poor but half a chance and they will surprise the skeptical. 
 
CHICAGO 97 
 
 Loan a small amount to a man struggling for existence, 
 let him invest it in a legitimate occupation, let him by 
 thrift manage to keep body and soul together; let him at 
 the same time repay the loan in small installments, without 
 flinching, and without shirking his responsibility, and 
 what greater proof do we require that undaunted courage, 
 ambition, honor, and manliness are virtues of the poor? 
 Not to annihilate but rather to preserve these sterling qual- 
 ities is the mission of the loan organizations. Not only 
 are these societies educational, not only do they stand for 
 preventive relief, fostering self respect, but hundreds are 
 annually spared the necessity of becoming the victims of 
 chattel mortgage companies, pawn brokers and money 
 lenders. "What the contact of the poor with the latter 
 agencies means needs no explanation; their unscrupulous 
 methods, and the hardships endured through them are 
 patent facts. 
 
 The Russian Jews are a thrifty people, thoroughly ap- 
 preciating the benefits accruing to them as beneficiaries of 
 loan societies. The borrower soon realizes that the loan 
 organization is to him no more nor less than a savings 
 bank, where the original amount is loaned to him with the 
 privilege of borrowing it again when it has been repaid. 
 Thus, each time he pays his small weekly installment, he 
 is saving so much out of his earnings for his particular 
 use at some future day. It is this advantage that accounts 
 for the prompt returns on money loaned and the fact 
 that fully 95 per cent, of all money so loaned is promptly 
 repaid. 
 
 In the Chicago Ghetto, along the Jefferson Street mar- 
 kets, as well as throughout the entire district, there are 
 comparatively few of the peddlers, vendors, and keepers 
 of small stands and shops, who have not been given a start 
 in life or helped over rugged places by loans from local 
 organizations. Many confess that it is this opportunity 
 of periodically borrowing money that has saved them from 
 absolute need. It is marvelous that the poorest of the 
 poor, physically weakened from suffering and privation, 
 herded together like animals, seemingly without the neces- 
 sities of life, with homes barren of the most ordinary com- 
 forts, can have the courage to borrow money and return it 
 as they do dollar for dollar. It is gratifying to see many 
 slowly, very slowly, creeping up from urgent distress to 
 
98 . PHILANTHBOPY 
 
 comparative comfort without the loss of self respect and 
 with the ennobling conviction that they are meeting their 
 obligations honestly. 
 
 The business method in vogue in all the loan societies is 
 more or less uniform. Loans are made in purely a business 
 way. Each borrower gives his note, indorsed by a reliable 
 guarantor. He borrows the money with the knowledge 
 that he must repay it. All loans are returned in weekly 
 payments. The work in connection with the societies is 
 voluntary, no paid officers being employed. The reliability 
 of guarantors is always inquired into, and most of the 
 societies investigate the needs of the borrowers. This is 
 necessary in order to prevent fraud and the borrowing of 
 money as a subterfuge for obtaining alms, or for purposes 
 not consistent with the objects of the organizations. 
 
 The capital of these societies is altogether about $15,000. 
 The entire amount is reloaned about three times annuallj^, 
 the sum of about $45,000 being actually placed at the dis- 
 posal of borrowers during a year's time. In most societies 
 loans are returnable in ten installments. The Woman's 
 Loan Association allows twenty weeks. About fifteen 
 weeks is the average time for repayment in full. It can 
 therefore be readily seen that the original capital of 
 $15,000 is loaned at least three times during a year. The 
 loans are usually for amounts of $10, $15, or $20, and up 
 to $100 or more. Probably not less than one thousand 
 persons avail themselves of the offices of these societies. 
 
 The financial standing of the guarantor is not so grave a 
 consideration as might be inferred from the fact that his 
 signature to a note makes him liable for payment, in case 
 the borrower fails to meet his obligation. An honest bor- 
 rower is more desirable than the wealthiest guarantor. In 
 cases where a man has made his payments promptly, so 
 that his integrity and sense of honor have been established, 
 a second signature becomes a matter of form. There are 
 many instances where both borrower and guarantor are 
 equally poor, yet equally honest. Ordinarily, it is not the 
 well-to-do that act as guarantors. The shopkeeper with 
 an established trade, or the owner of a small tenement, 
 regardless of encumbrances, are the ones who stand ready 
 to confer a favor upon the needy. The risk is small. The 
 poor realize fully that the guarantor is a friend in the 
 hour of need and that it is necessary to keep faith with 
 him. 
 
CHICAGO 99 
 
 The Woman's Loan Association, composed of about fifty 
 prominent Russian Jewish women, claims to be the only 
 organization of its kind managed entirely by women. 
 Only women are accepted as active members, and all busi- 
 ness is transacted by them. Records of its work are kept 
 and a thorough investigation is made of all applicants for 
 loans, and of the financial standing of the guarantors. 
 The Bureau of Personal Service furnishes the investigators. 
 The loan committee meets at its office every Monday even- 
 ing from 7:30 to 10:30 for the transaction of business. 
 Not a single loan was lost in the first three years that the 
 association was at work. 
 
 In the fall of 1893, the first steps were taken in the Chi- 
 cago Ghetto to introduce this most creditable form of 
 philanthropy. 
 
 While at times alms are absolutely necessary, through 
 lack of forethought or failure to make adequate provision, 
 a relief organization is often responsible for implanting 
 habits that only too frequently become a menace to self 
 respect. Many applicants for relief could be educated to 
 a higher standard of accepting help. Where the question 
 of relief alone is considered, those who have become hard- 
 ened to asking aid and those who, on the contrary, are pain- 
 fully conscious of being forced to apply for alms, are com- 
 pelled to knock alike at the same door and pass through the 
 same ordeal. Under such circumstances, even the sensi- 
 tively inclined cannot be spared certain humiliating experi- 
 ences in their relations with relief societies. 
 
IV 
 
 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL 
 CONDITION 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 By Isaac M. Eubinow 
 
 Bureau of Statistics United States Department of Agriculture 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 By Charles S. Bernheimer 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By Abraham Bisno 
 
 Former State Deputy Inspector of Workshops and Factories 
 for Illinois 
 
 101 
 
ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL 
 CONDITION 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 
 By the some^vhat loose phrase, '' economic condition,'' 
 we usually designate the condition of distribution of 
 wealth. By '' industrial condition," a term equally indefi- 
 nite, the modes of acquisition of wealth are usually meant, 
 the trades, the professions, the various kinds of economic 
 activities. Though far from being scientifically correct, 
 these definitions will be found available for the practical 
 purposes of this short study. Our subject, then, is the 
 methods and results of production and distribution of 
 wealth in a large section of the cosmopolitan population 
 of our metropolitan city. 
 
 Economic science knows but one satisfactory method for 
 such a study — the statistical method. Only by means of 
 measurements can the quantitative relations be determined ; 
 and the problem of wealth production, and, still more, of 
 wealth distribution is primarily a quantitative problem. 
 Yet in the whole mass of American statistical publications 
 hardly any data can be found which would throw the 
 faintest light upon our problem. From purely scientific 
 considerations, it is to be regretted that the factor of re^ 
 ligion is omitted from our census statistics however justified 
 such omission might have been by reason of policy. We 
 are not even aware of the exact size of the Jewish colony 
 in New York, and the guess at 600,000 made by Joseph 
 Jacobs,^ though based upon sound statistical principles, is 
 still but a rough guess. The difHculties increase a hundred 
 fold if out of the whole Jewish population the Russian 
 Jews are to be differentiated. And if our knowledge is so 
 very limited in regard to this one item of population, how 
 nmch more difficult must it be to deal with the probh'iii 
 which we have attempted to touch upon. 
 
 1 Jeursh World, August 17, 1902. 
 
 102 
 
NEW YORK 103 
 
 As the first steps toward a scientific solution of this 
 problem still have to be made, general observations and 
 impressions, always subjective, always more or less biased, 
 must take the place of careful and accurate scientific data. 
 The widest differences in these impressions must be ex- 
 pected. Many a charitable Jew or Christian has seen in 
 the great New York Ghetto nothing but a huge collection 
 of misery and poverty. On the other hand, a Canadian 
 observer^ has come to a different conclusion: ^' The Jews 
 are about one eightieth of the population, yet they claim 
 115 out of the 4,000 millionaires of the country, about 
 two and a half times as many as they are entitled to. 
 . . . The business of the successful ones extends from 
 banking to pork-packing, from realty to dry goods, from 
 distilleries to cotton." 
 
 What is the truth? If we give an earnest thought to 
 the economic condition of the New York Jews, the very 
 first conclusion to which we must come is that there are 
 wide differences in the condition of different groups — ■ 
 social contrasts, if you will — a characteristic feature of 
 American life in general. It may or it may not be true 
 that the Jev/s have a larger percentage of millionaires than 
 they are statistically entitled to.- Glancing through the list 
 of American millionaires which the World Almanac has 
 published, we will come across many a Jewish name; and 
 yet, very few names, if any, that have an " ovitch " or 
 ' ' etsky ' ' at the end. While there are a considerable num- 
 ber of Jews among the '^ haute finance " of New York, 
 scarcely a Russian Jew has yet succeeded in entering these 
 exclusive circles. 
 
 With all that, the Russian Jewish population in New 
 York is far from being the uniform mass that it appears 
 to a superficial observer. It is true that for more than 
 twenty years a uniform stream of poverty-stricken Russian 
 Jews has flowed to New York — but we must not forget 
 that the process began more than twenty years ago and 
 
 ^ Beckles Willson, The New America, p. 172. 
 
 " Personally, I doubt the statement. First, Mr. Beckles Willson has given 
 us no indication of his sources. Secondly, he has left a very important point 
 entirely out of consideration, — that millionaires are only found amidst the 
 jiopulation of cities. If only the 33.1 per cent, of the American people which 
 live in the cities are counted then the Jews represent not 1/80, but 3/80 of the 
 American people, or 150/4,000, while their millionaires are only 115/4,000. 
 It is needless to add, however, that all such statistics, which are based upon 
 guesses, are more than worthless; they are absurd. 
 
104 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 that social differentiation has had time to work upon the 
 early comers. Almost every newly arrived Russian Jewish 
 laborer cames into contact with a Russian Jewish employer, 
 almost every Russian Jewish tenement dweller must pay 
 his exorbitant rent to a Russian Jewish landlord. It is 
 almost certain that both have originally come from the 
 same social stratum — for the rich Russian Jewish immi- 
 grant was an exception, so rare as to be almost statistically 
 negligible, — both at present represent two aspects of the 
 same '' economic condition." It is extremely probable 
 that at present the majority of Russian Jewish workers 
 work for Russian Jewish employers. 
 
 On the one hand, the ordinary business profits of manu- 
 facture and commerce, on the other the " unearned incre- 
 ment " in the value of real estate, have facilitated the 
 growth of a very large and tolerably prosperous Russian 
 Jewish middle class in New York. If there are no 
 ^' ovitches " and *' etskys " in the list of American mil- 
 lionaires, there are numbers of them in evidence on the 
 Broadway windows and elsewhere. A large proportion of 
 the great New York clothing industry (including the 
 manufacturing of white goods) is in Russian Jewish hands, 
 as well as a fair proportion of the trading in these goods, 
 both wholesale and retail. Many other lines of commerce 
 and manufacturing have attracted Russian Jewish hands, 
 brains and money; yet the needle industries so called, and 
 their accessories, have remained the great field of Russian 
 Jewish business activity in New York. 
 
 The years (1898-1903) of unprecedented business activ- 
 ity and '' prosperity " for the United States, caused an 
 unusually brisk demand for the products of this Jewish in- 
 dustry ; and the growth of Russian Jewish fortunes in New 
 York has been the immediate result of this demand. 
 Though we have no income statistics on which to base our 
 suppositions, there can be not the slightest doubt that many 
 fortunes, ranging between $25,000 and $200,000, have been 
 made within these years. It was but natural that these ex- 
 traordinary incomes should have been invested in real 
 estate, and the phenomenal growth of the so-called Ghetto, 
 which has earned the adjective " great " (used very fre- 
 quently without the slightest suggestion of sarcasm), has 
 had much to do with the formation of a num.ber of fortunes. 
 To one who has had an opportunity to watch the economic 
 development of the district south of Houston Street, the 
 
NEW YORK 105 
 
 formation of a well-to-do class in the mi^st of the Russian 
 Jewish colony has been a very interesting phenomenon. 
 The general improvement in the character of the stores, 
 the sudden appearance of a dozen or more commercial 
 banks, the well-furnished cafes of a type utterly unknown 
 five or six years ago, the modern apartments ' ' with an ele- 
 vator and a ' nigger boy ' on the stoop " all tell eloquently 
 of this growth. In the show windows of small street stores, 
 specimens of furniture have appeared which would not be 
 out of place in many an uptown residence. One might say 
 that some of the streets, lined with fine old buildings, 
 are retracing the steps in their history. Inhabited by the 
 '' best people " many years ago, they have gradually be- 
 come the abode of some of the poorest. And now poverty 
 is forced to fly into other streets and even other quarters, 
 to give space to this rising middle class. Many a Jewish 
 family has moved uptown, because it could not afford the 
 exorbitant rents demanded by the Ghetto landlords and 
 Ghetto conditions. 
 
 Yet the Ghetto, where so many of these Jewish fortunes 
 are made, is not the only place where the incomes derived 
 are spent. If the new conditions have driven many a poor 
 family out of the Ghetto, they have also forced the migra- 
 tion of the richer class. The possession of a larger income 
 has opened the eyes of many a Russian Jewish family to 
 the negative qualities of '' downtown life " which before 
 had been considered a necessary part of Russian Jewish ex- 
 istence in America. The monopoly of " uptown life," 
 which the German Jew was supposed to hold, has gradually 
 given way. Hundreds and thousands of families have 
 started northward in an effort to be as good as their Ger- 
 man cousins. Lexington Avenue, the abode of the German 
 Jew, became the ideal of the Russian Jew as well. Grad- 
 ually as the Russian Jewish colony on this thoroughfare 
 and the tributary streets grew larger, and the exclusive 
 character of this neighborhood disappeared, a further mi- 
 gration westward was started ; the noble thoroughfare which 
 divides our great metropolitan city into the '' elite " and 
 the '* plebes " was finally crossed, until to-day more Rus- 
 sian is spoken west of Fifth and Sixth Avenues than was 
 heard on East Broadway ten years ago. There is no doubt 
 that these fairly well-to-do Russian families in New York 
 reach scores of thousands. 
 
 It certainly is not ready-made clothing and dry goods 
 
106 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 alone thaf have brought about this prosperity in a part of 
 the Russian Jewish population. The jewelry business, the 
 liquor business, to a limited extent, and the drug business, 
 to a much greater extent, have all contributed to the same 
 end. New York Jews have come to play a very important 
 part in the theatrical business, but outside of Yiddish thea- 
 tres and music halls, within the limits of the Ghetto, the 
 Russian Jews have hardly entered this field. 
 
 It is a characteristic phenomenon of Russian Jewish life 
 in New York that professions have formed as important a 
 basis of prosperity as business, and perhaps even a larger 
 one. Some snug little fortunes and an enormous number 
 of comfortable incomes (a term of considerable latitude, it 
 is to be admitted) have been and are now derived from 
 what we define as professional work, and though we have no 
 statistics, we can safely make the statement that no other 
 element of New York population has so large a percentage 
 of professional people as the Jews. The German Jews 
 would probably show a higher percentage than the Russian 
 Jews, for the former lack the enormous working class. If, 
 however, we were to exclude the workingmen and consider 
 the middle class only, the German and Russian Jews would 
 have to change their places, as the educated and well-to-do 
 German Jew takes much more readily to business. 
 
 We cannot stop to consider at length the why and where- 
 fore of this phenomenon; an interesting problem it un- 
 doubtedly is. The love and respect of the Russian Jew for 
 education — unique in view of his economic condition in 
 the old country — is one of its positive causes. A certain 
 contempt for manual labor, noticed among a considerable 
 number of Russian Jew^s — a sad but inevitable result of 
 an enforced commercial life — is a cause much less praise- 
 worthy. It is needless to point out how quickly this con- 
 tempt vanishes under new surroundings, for, after all, the 
 vast majority of the Russian Jewish immigrants become 
 and remain manual workers. Be this as it may, it is a well 
 known fact that the Russian Jewish element is largely 
 represented in the professions of medicine, law, dentistry, 
 engineering. 
 
 Medicine has remained one of the favorite professions. 
 The laxity of entrance requirements, the awe of a doctor's 
 title the Russian Jew brings from the old country, and the 
 easy success of the older members of the profession have 
 all contributed toward the popularity of this vocation. 
 
NEW YORK 107 
 
 Probably from four hundred to six hundred of the 
 seven thousand physicians in greater New York are Rus- 
 sian Jews. Though of late symptoms of over-supply in the 
 market have been noticed, the influx into the profession 
 does not show any signs of abatement. The economic 
 status of the majority is fair; many older members are 
 well-to-do. In the real estate business of the East Side the 
 medical man plays a part by no means unimportant. The 
 dentists, less numerous, are much more prosperous. In the 
 legal profession, on the contrary, the Russians cannot boast 
 of any great success, either financial or otherwise. Phar- 
 macy, on the border line between profession and business, 
 has also attracted a large number of Russian youths, but 
 the returns are far less satisfactory than those of the other 
 occupations. 
 
 The teaching profession has probably provided a 
 livelihood for more Jewish families than the others which 
 we have enumerated. For obvious reasons, only the second 
 generation, i.e., those born on the American soil, or those 
 who had emigrated at a very early age, are fit for the pro- 
 fession; but it will certainly be a revelation to many an 
 American to learn how many Russian Jewish young men 
 and girls are doing this work of '' Americanization," not 
 only of Jewish, but of Irish, German, and Italian children. 
 There is no doubt that the Jews have supplied a greater 
 proportion of public school teachers than either the Ger- 
 mans or the Italians. The profession has never been a road 
 to fortune ; yet with the latest salary schedule, a very com- 
 fortable living has been provided for several thousand fam- 
 ilies. 
 
 The important position which the Russian Jew occupies 
 in the professions of New York City is more significant 
 because he entered them but a short time since. Ten years 
 ago, a Russian Jewish journalist^ found only a few dozen 
 representatives of his race in medicine and law, a few in- 
 dividuals in dentistry, and hardly any in the teaching pro- 
 fession, or in municipal service. These dozens have grown 
 into hundreds, and even thousands, within the following 
 decade. With a remarkable display of energy and enter- 
 prise, the Russian Jew was ready to grasp the opportunity 
 whenever and wherever it presented itself. No wonder, 
 then, that the professions soon began to feel the effects of 
 
 ^ Dr. Price. The Russian Jew in America (in Russian). St. Petersburg, 
 1891. 
 
108 ECONOMIC AND INDVSTBIAL CONDITION 
 
 this influx. The extraordinary profits of the pioneer have 
 vanished. At the same time the necessary increase in the 
 stringency of the laws regulating professional work has 
 very wisely cnt off the possibility of entering a profession 
 to many who were unprepared for it. 
 
 While the economic significance of the facts passed under 
 review cannot be denied, it is evident that business and 
 professional classes make up only a small percentage of the 
 Russian JcAvish population of New York City — much 
 smaller, indeed, than of the German Jews. 
 
 The vast majority of the Russian Jews are on a much 
 lower economic level. They belong to the *' masses," as 
 against the " classes." The cause will be easily under- 
 stood if we remember that the average Russian Jewish im- 
 migrant brings the magnificent capital of $8 into this coun- 
 try, while the average non-Jewish immigrant is the happy 
 possessor of double that fortune. 
 
 Within these ' ' masses ' ' industrial labor of various kinds 
 is the main source of livelihood. The New York Russian 
 Jew is a wage Avorker, notwithstanding the numerous ex- 
 ceptions to the rule. The examples of wage-workers of 
 yesterday changing into employers of labor almost over 
 night are many. Lately these examples have been rapidly 
 multiplying with the remarkable changes going on within 
 the clothing industry — a process of decentralization, due 
 to the legislative difficulties put in the way of the domestic 
 system, which was the backbone of the clothing industry 
 some years ago. In 1900, New York state had more than 
 4,000 establishments for manufacture of clothings, most of 
 them in New York City, and a very large proportion in 
 Russian Jewish hands. Yet the number of these proprie- 
 tors is insignificant in comparison with more than 100,000 
 workers in this same industry in the same state. The 
 vast majority of the newcomers also join this industrial 
 army, in this as well as other branches of manufacturing. 
 The question of the economic condition of the Russian Jew 
 in New York is therefore pre-eminently the question of 
 wages, hours, and conditions of labor in general. 
 
 The predominance of industrial laborers in a social 
 group that long had the reputation of being fit for com- 
 mercial life only is striking. The Russian- Jews in their 
 own country are largely engaged in commercial occupations 
 into which they were forced many decades ago. It was- 
 but natural that the first immigrants of the eighties contin- 
 
NEW YORK 109 
 
 ued here in the same channels. Hence the extreme popu- 
 larity of the peddler's basket, which has helped to sup- 
 port many a hungry family and has laid the foundation 
 for snug little fortunes to be invested in larger ventures. 
 Within the last twenty years the change has been remark- 
 able — in New York and a few other large cities, more 
 than in the rest of the country whither a few Russian Jews 
 have wandered. Ordinary door-to-door peddling has de- 
 generated into begging in its lower forms ; in its ' ' higher ' ' 
 form of custom-peddling it approaches a mild form of 
 swindling, and whatever the lucrative properties of the 
 occupation, the social standing of its members is far lower 
 than that of common every-day wage workers. 
 
 Whatever we may think of the practical advantages or 
 disadvantages of the concentration of the clothing indus- 
 try in Jewish hands, its scientific value cannot be denied. 
 Here we have an industry so thoroughly Jewish (in New 
 York) and with the Russian Jew predominating so strong- 
 ly that the statistical data of the clothing industry cannot 
 but reflect the conditions of the Russian Jewish worker in 
 New York. 
 
 The objection may certainly be raised that the data con- 
 cerning this industry tell us only of that part of the Rus- 
 sian Jewish colony which is employed in tailoring, and this 
 part, no matter how large, is still considerably smaller than 
 the whole. This objection must be sustained if we desire 
 scientific accuracy. But, on the other hand, a tendency 
 toward the leveling of wages in various related industries 
 cannot be denied; the entrance into the tailoring industry 
 is not obstructed by difficulties of a technical or legal na- 
 ture. It must be admitted, therefore, that there is no eco- 
 nomic ground for considering the condition of the Russian 
 Jewish tailor exceptionally high as compared with the 
 worker of the same nationality in other industrial branches. 
 The average earnings of the tailor will be nearer the bot- 
 tom than the top. 
 
 According to the Twelfth Census^ there have been em- 
 ployed in the various branches of the clothing industry of 
 the United States, over half a million wage earners, more 
 than 30,000 salaried men, in addition to probably more 
 than 50,000 proprietors (though the number is not given 
 of 48,497 establishments). The value of the production 
 
 ^Vol. IX, pp. 259-302. 
 
110 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 amounted' to $804,509,370. If we consider the factory 
 production of clothing exclusively, we shall have 205,631 
 wage earners and products having a value of $431,881,748. 
 Out of this. New York state shows an enormous share, more 
 than one-half of the total American industry — 90,519 
 wage workers and $233,721,653 of products. These figures 
 tell an eloquent story of the magnitude of the commercial 
 interests represented by the Jew, and primarily the Rus- 
 sian Jew. 
 
 The statistical data of the clothing industry in the city 
 of New York, especially interests us at this moment. Com- 
 bining the data for all the clothing industry proper, men's 
 as well as women's, factory work as well as custom work 
 and repairing, we find in New York City^ 8,266 establish- 
 ments with a capital of $78,387,849; 90,950 workingmen; 
 and a value of products of $239,879,414. So much for the 
 extent of the clothing industry. If we consider that twenty 
 years ago the capital invested in this industry throughout 
 the country was only $88,068,969, or hardly more than the 
 present share of New York City alone, the results of the 
 industrial activity of the New York Jews will be appreci- 
 ated. 
 
 The following tables will, it is hoped, be found both in- 
 teresting and instructive: 
 
 Average Weekly Wages (1900) 
 
 CHIL- 
 MEN WOMEN DREN 
 
 American manufactures in general. .$ 9.82 $5.46 $3.04 
 
 Men's clothing, factory product 11.36 5.08 2.75 
 
 Women's clothing, factory product.. 12.10 5.86 3.14 
 
 We should not trust wage statistics implicitly. Yet if 
 these data, calculated from official tables, mean anything, 
 they indicate that the economic position of the Jewish 
 worker in the clothing trade, while not at the top, is surely 
 not at the bottom of the American working class, as his 
 wages are considerably above the average. Let us continue 
 our investigation a little further, and compare the clothing 
 trade in New York with manufactures in general in the 
 same city. 
 
 1 Tzvelfth Census, Vol. VIII, p. 622. 
 
NEW YOBK 111 
 
 Taking the average of 264 specified industries in New 
 York/ we obtain the following data : 
 
 Average Wages, Workers in New York 
 
 CHIL- 
 MEN WOMEN DREN 
 
 Manufactures $12.38 $6.42 $3.36 
 
 Men's clothing, factory product 12.26 6.34 2.94 
 
 Womens' clothing, factory product. . 12.62 6.86 3.72 
 
 Again, this table corroborates the conclusions we reached 
 from the previous figures. The close correspondence of 
 these figures is no mere coincidence. It conclusively shows 
 that the Jewish trades are not below the average even in 
 New York, where wages are higher, because living is dearer 
 and labor better organized than in many other industrial 
 communities. 
 
 The foregoing figures are based upon the Federal Cen- 
 sus. A study of another authority, the reports of the New 
 York Bureau of Statistics of Labor, seems to lead to dif- 
 ferent conclusions. In the tables of average wages, which 
 this bureau publishes yearly, the wages in the clothing and 
 tobacco industries appear among the lowest. Mention of 
 this fact is made because the statistics of the Department 
 of Labor are very popular with the New York press. In- 
 vestigation reveals the fact that only the wages of union 
 trades are here enumerated, i.e., of the best paying, we 
 might say '' aristocratic " branches of labor. Of course, 
 the average Jewish worlanan has not yet reached the stand- 
 ard of the highly paid American union mechanic. But 
 in the vast majority of cases his condition is much above 
 that of the ignorant laborer. 
 
 Ordinary observation will corroborate the conclusions 
 drawn from statistical tables. If we disregard for the 
 present the very new arrival, who visually falls into the 
 clutches of the most unscrupulous employer, whether of 
 Jewish faith or any other faith, the condition of the aver- 
 age Jev/ish tailor is not so hopelessly bad as many pessi- 
 mists would make us believe. It is undoubtedly better 
 than the condition of those of his brethren whom he leaves 
 behind in the old country. If it were not so we should 
 have no constantly growing stream of immigration. This 
 
 1 Tzvelfth Census, Vol. VIII, pp. 625-28. 
 
112 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 is a matter of course. But what is more noteworthy is 
 that his general standard of life is much above that of 
 many other nationalities of the population of New York 
 City. He may not have the taste, the style, the general 
 *' savoir vivre " so characteristic of the American work- 
 ingman. Not only does he earn less, but his wife has not 
 been instilled with the same training of cleanliness and 
 neatness which characterizes the American women. On 
 the side of expenditure as well as income, the Jewish tailor 
 has much to learn from the American; aesthetically, his 
 home is much below the average American home. On the 
 other hand, he is free in the majority of cases from those 
 faults of wastefulness and dissipation which characterize 
 many Irish, Italian, and sometimes even German working- 
 men; and his home has many claims to comfort and well- 
 being. The ordinary, busy Jewish tailor keeps a fairly 
 good table, has a parlor with a parlor set of furniture, and 
 is able to indulge in an occasional visit to the Jewish thea- 
 tre. 
 
 The following table will show how prevalent the needle 
 industries are among the Russian Jews in New York: 
 
 MEN WOMEN TOTAL 
 
 Dressmakers 314 1,948 2,262 
 
 Hat and cap makers 278 298 576 
 
 Milliners 68 668 736 
 
 Seamstresses 1,286 4,021 5,307 
 
 Sewing machine operatives 273 273 
 
 Shirt, collar and cuff makers 1,043 509 1,552 
 
 Tailors 20,323 3,304 23,627 
 
 Total in needle trades 23,312 11,021 34,333 
 
 Total in manufacturing and me- 
 chanical pursuits 44,160 14,362 58,522 
 
 Per cent, in needle trades 52.8 76.8 58.6 
 
 Thus, almost 53 per cent, of male Russian Jewish work- 
 ers and 77 per cent, female are employed in the needle in- 
 dustries. There are also hundreds of '' non- Jewish '^ 
 trades, in which, nevertheless, scores of Russian Jewish 
 working-men can be found. Such are plumbing, cabinet- 
 making, paper-hanging, mirror-framing, printing, engrav- 
 ing, and many others. As is shown in the above table, how- 
 ever, the majority are still allied to the needle trades, and 
 
NEW YORK 113 
 
 it remains true that the needle has saved the Russian Jew 
 in New York. This tendency to enter other industries will 
 be more noticed in the future than in the past. Especial- 
 ly is this true of the second generation, the American born 
 Russian Jews: they are free from those conditions which 
 have forced their parents along narrower lines. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to prove that the average wages in 
 these enumerated Jewish trades, with the possible exception 
 of the tobacco industry, are not below the wages in the 
 clothing trades. As a matter of ordinary observation, 
 wages in many of these trades, as well as in some branches 
 of the clothing industry, rise above $12, and often reach 
 over $20 per week. 
 
 The claim is often made that while the nominal wages 
 of the Jewish tailor in the busy season may be compara- 
 tively high, his employment is irregular, and his actual 
 average weekly income is much smaller than would appear 
 at first sight. That there is a great deal of truth in this state- 
 ment cannot be denied. The needle trades are season 
 trades to a great extent, and, like all other season trades, 
 are subject to great irregularity. While the average em- 
 ployment of the union workers in all trades in the first 
 quarter of 1901 was, according to the New York Bureau 
 of Labor Statistics, 67 days, in the tailoring trades it was 
 54 days. The difference is not inconsiderable, but is part- 
 ly compensated for by the rush of work and almost con- 
 stant overtime during the busy season. The overtime work 
 is interrupted by long breaks, and is usually paid for at a 
 higher rate. The arrangement, however, is one that is by 
 no means conducive to the health of the Jewish worker. 
 The enforcement of the ten-hour day is about as efficient 
 in the case of Jewish union workers as in that of most New 
 York workingmen, with the exception of a few very strong 
 trades, the building trades for example, which have suc- 
 ceeded in reducing it below ten hours, and in keeping it 
 there. 
 
 The conclusions to which this necessarily brief statistical 
 study leads are almost too self-evident to require any 
 lengthy discussion. As far as the present condition of the 
 Russian Jew is concerned, we find that in New York, at all 
 events, it is not below par. The same differentiation in 
 economic classes exists in the Russian Jewish colony as in 
 the other elements of the population, it being inevitable in 
 modern society. In the small circle of millionaires, our 
 
\ 
 
 114 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 Kussian brethren may not have their proportionate quota; 
 their middle class, and what is more important, their work- 
 ing class, is certainly not below, and possibly above, the 
 average level economically, especially above the average 
 level of other foreign elements, such as the Italian, the 
 Irish, and the Austrian. This comparatively satisfactoij 
 condition is the more remarkable when all the great diffi- 
 culties which the Russian Jew w^as forced to overcome are 
 taken into consideration: the poverty of the new arrival, 
 his lack of knowledge of any practical trade, his muscular 
 weakness (as is pointed out by Dr. Fishberg in this vol- 
 ume). These difficulties cannot be denied. But only gross 
 ignorance or inhuman cruelty can hold the Russian Jew re- 
 sponsible for such conditions. History shows that for 
 many centuries the Jews have been forced away from man- 
 ual labor into commercial life. Yet at the first opportun- 
 ity, the Russian Jew became a hard and patient industrial 
 worker, and, let us add, an extremely useful worker. The 
 prime object of this work was necessarily the acquisition 
 of means of support. But the very success of the Rus- 
 sian Jew in attaining this object shows that there was a 
 place and demand for his industrial activity. The con- 
 centration of the Russian Jewish population in a few in- 
 dustrial centres has long been spoken of as an evident evil ; 
 yet this concentration has helped the Russian Jew to a 
 ready sale of his labor, and has saved hundreds of thou- 
 sands from dependence upon charitable institutions. It 
 is the much abused needle and sewing machine that have 
 solved the problem of how to dispose of swarms of Russian 
 Jewish immigrants. It is the needle that has revolution- 
 ized a large and important industry in which hundreds of 
 millions of dollars w^ere invested. It is the needle that has 
 contributed a share toward making this city an important 
 manufacturing centre of the country, and last, but not 
 least, it is this Jewish Russian needle that has made the 
 American nation the best dressed in the world. 
 
 It must be acknowledged that after all is said for or 
 against immigration, the fear of the American working 
 class that the immigrant, with his lower standard of life, 
 may reduce American wages, remains the greatest objec- 
 tion, nay, the only objection to immigration which has a 
 certain validity. Now, then, it was to be expected that 
 the Russian Jew should produce such an effect. What did 
 the Russian Jew who immigrated to America in the eighties 
 
NEW YORK 115 
 
 and early nineties know of unions and demands for a higher 
 standard? The reader will believe that I have stated 
 strongly the case against the Russian Jewish worker. The 
 more remarkable is the progress the Russian Jewish popu- 
 lation has made within the very short period of fifteen or 
 twenty years, the progress which has made the Russian Jew 
 a fighter within the ranks of the American labor move- 
 ments and a force for the betterment of the American 
 working class. 
 
 The report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics for 1902 
 furnishes the following data as to the membership for the 
 borough of IManhattan in the unions of the clothing and 
 allied trades, that is, those specifically Jewish: Buttonhole 
 makers, 150; cloakmakers (this includes Brooklyn), 8,000; 
 cloth examiners, 86; cloth spongers, 214; clothing cutters, 
 1,500; coat makers, 4,255; jacket makers, 350; kneepants 
 makers, 2,206 ; neckwear cutters, 230 ; overall workers, 49 ; 
 pants makers, 1,800; pressers, 1,500; tailors, 1,000; vest 
 makers, 1,550; wrapper makers, 839; cloth hat and cap 
 operators, 1,209 ; shirt cutters, 315 ; shirt-waist makers, 
 1,660. This is a total of some 20,000 for the borough of 
 Manhattan. These numbers refer almost exclusively to 
 Jewish workers; there are, besides, many Jewish working- 
 men members of various other unions. And if we con- 
 sider that the total membership of unions in the borough 
 is about 150,000, the part Jewish Vv^orkers play in the union 
 movement will easily be appreciated. It is true, of course, 
 that these unions are far inferior to the oldest American 
 unions in strength, that often they are ephemeral in exist- 
 ence; the very " round " figures of the official statistics 
 are an indication thereof. Frequently they organize for 
 a particular occasion, as a great strike, only to sink almost 
 into nothingness as soon as that particular purpose is ac- 
 complished. Their treasuries very seldom, if ever, contain 
 large sums. It is not surprising, then, if the opinion is 
 often expressed that the unions of Jewish tailors exist on 
 paper only. Yet this is far from being the unbiased truth. 
 The teachings of a circle of enthusiastic and energetic peo- 
 ple all through the eighties have not fallen on barren 
 ground. There certainly exists collective bargaining in the 
 clothing industry — and that is the most essential feature 
 of unionism. It is sufficient to talk to any clothing manu- 
 facturer in New York, and listen to his invocations against 
 
116 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 the unions, to be convinced that these unions are a real 
 power. 
 
 We agree that the picture drawn above is very optimis- 
 tic. It is because it is not complete. Not the whole of the 
 New York clothing industry is in such good condition as 
 to its employees, for who has not heard of the New York 
 sweatshops ? 
 
 Of the horrors of the sweatshops so much has been writ- 
 ten and spoken that scarcely an intelligent New Yorker can 
 be found who is not to some degree aware of their evils. 
 Private investigators as well as authoritative official bodies 
 have made thorough studies of the situation. The peculiar 
 conditions of the clothing industry which make home work 
 and the exploitation of ignorant immigrants so easy, have 
 facilitated the establishment of the system. The very 
 '' green " immigrant who knows nothing of the conditions 
 of the market is an easy prey to the sharks of his own or 
 any other nationality. The subcontracting system, once 
 established, was a terrible competitor to the legitimate fac- 
 tory. 
 
 To a certain extent, this pernicious system was even ad- 
 vantageous to the worker. It supplied him with a source 
 of immediate income almost the clay after his arrival; and 
 no matter how small the pay, he looked upon his employer 
 as his benefactor. As the pay was often too small to sup- 
 port the large family even in the poorest style, it became 
 necessary for his wife and children to join in work, and 
 the " benefactor," with his sweatshops, very often an old 
 friend from the old country, provided them all with work. 
 It was fortunate that this system extended only to a few 
 '^ Jewish " industries and so affected but little the New 
 York workingman in productive employments, or the op- 
 position against the Jewish workers would have been 
 strong, and in a measure justified. The sweatshop is not 
 an exclusively Jewish institution ; it has been, and remains, 
 very wide-spread. Italians to a large degree share it. 
 
 The sweatshop, with its inevitable trinity of harmful 
 consequences, — low wages, long hours, and female and 
 child labor — remains the essential economic problem of the 
 Russian Jewish population of New York City, as far as any 
 economic problem can be national in so cosmopolitan a city 
 as New York. The Jewish unions have tried to remedy 
 the evil, but the problem has proven too extensive for them. 
 It is evidently a problem for general social interference, 
 
NEW YORK 117 
 
 for legislative enactment. Luckily, the sanitary aspects of 
 the system have proven so dangerous that solicitude for 
 social safety has made possible a movement which consider- 
 ation for the interests of the poor immigrants could never 
 accomplish. The numerous laws against sweatshops en- 
 acted of late in New York, as well as in Boston and Phila- 
 delphia, though far from being decisive in their influence, 
 have yet had some beneficial result. The movement must 
 grow in force, if the final aim — the transformation of the 
 home industry into a factory system — is to be accom- 
 plished. Already the first steps in this direction are to be 
 noticed. Because of the difficulties put in the way of 
 sweatshops, the contract system is giving way in New York 
 to small factories. Home work will have to be fought 
 against, notwithstanding the constitutional difficulties of 
 interfering with the personal liberty of the American sover- 
 eign in his castle ; it will have to be fought in spite of the 
 resistance of the exploited homeworkers. In a pathetic 
 little story, a talented Yiddish writer wittily describes the 
 objection and fear of a Jewish tailor of a '' tyrannical 
 American law which will interfere with an honest Jew 
 working in the evening.^* The remoter results of such 
 legislation cannot be appreciated by the lower strata of the 
 working mass. The religious aspect of the question, the 
 necessity of a Sabbath rest, which often drives the old-fash- 
 ioned Jew from a well regulated factory into a dingy 
 sweatshop, will also command serious attention. Some 
 modification of the strict Sunday laws will probably be 
 found necessary. 
 
 The large Russian Jewish population presents, as we have 
 seen, the various elements of social stratification and is not 
 free from any social problem that confronts the great 
 American people. But in the economic field we do not 
 see any specifically Jewish question except those men- 
 tioned, whatever the condition of affairs may be in the edu- 
 cational or in the intellectual fields. And as the problems 
 are general, and not specifically Jewish, so the solution 
 must be. 
 
 The writer of 'these lines is conscious, however, of a wide- 
 spread and very different view. There is a very general 
 cry in certain Jewish quarters, even more than in the non- 
 Jewish ones, that the rapid increase of the Jewish popula- 
 tion in New York has given birth to a specific Jewish prob- 
 lem, which is mainly economic, but also moral and intel- 
 
118 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 lectual. * " The East Side Problem," " The Ghetto 
 Problem " are synonymous terms. The concentration (or 
 congestion, as they prefer to style it) of the Jews in New 
 York as well as the other large cities, is an unmitigated evil 
 as well as an economic mistake. Pathetic descriptions of 
 the dirt, misery and squalor of the Ghetto are commonly 
 associated with this argument. The fact is usually disre- 
 garded that there is a great deal more dirt, misery and 
 squalor in Italian, Irish and other kindred '' ghettos " of 
 Manhattan Island. 
 
 The following few lines are from an authoritative Jew- 
 ish source •} 
 
 " The conditions amid which the Jews of the New York 
 Ghetto are compelled to exist are slowly but surely under- 
 mining both that moral and physical health of which we 
 have hitherto been so proud. The unspeakable evils that 
 the tenements and the sweatshops as they still persist in- 
 evitably produce in the vfay of depressed vitality, sickness, 
 consequent poverty, and death, are evils that it behooves 
 us to endeavor to kill at the root. . . . Every attempt 
 to improve the tenement house, to remove present residents 
 of the Ghetto to outlying portions of the city, to small 
 towns and rural communities, should receive an earnest 
 help and active co-operation. . . . By its geographical 
 position, the city of New York has peculiar limitations with 
 respect to population which may not be overstepped with- 
 out a serious menace to the community." 
 
 This quotation is typical of the arguments which have 
 found their practical realization in the agitation for re- 
 moval. As the causes of concentration are pre-eminently 
 economic, so its economic results are of utmost importance. 
 There is a tendency to define these economic results in one 
 short and significant word, " poverty," and removal to 
 other cities is pointed out as a relief. The following statis- 
 tical data may help us to decide how far the claim is true 
 that poverty is the result of the Russian Jewish congestion 
 in New York, how far the condition of the Jewish worker 
 may be improved by his removal to a small town. Wages 
 being the source of income of the workingman, his pros- 
 perity depends financially upon the level of wages : 
 
 1 Lee K. Frankel, Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the United Hebrew Chari- 
 ties of the City of New York (1900), pp. 32-34. 
 
NEW YORK 119 
 
 Men's Clothing, Factory Product 
 
 AVERAGE WAGES MEN WOMEN CHILDREN 
 
 United States $11.36 $5.08 $2.75 
 
 New York City 12.26 6.34 2.94 
 
 Outside New York City .... 10.70 4.88 2.73 
 
 The last two lines indicate the difference in average wages 
 in the tailoring trade in New York and outside New York, 
 and tell a quite eloquent story. The same peculiarity is 
 observed in the women's clothing industry: 
 
 Women's Clothing, Factory Product 
 
 AVERAGE WAGES MEN WOMEN CHILDREN 
 
 United States $12.10 $5.86 $3.14 
 
 New York City 12.62 6.94 3.72 
 
 Outside New York City 10.62 4.98 2.83 
 
 Again : 
 
 Men's Clothing, Factory Product 
 
 AVERAGE WAGES MEN WOMEN CHILDREN 
 
 New York City $12.26 $6.34 $2.94 
 
 Chicago 11.86 6.12 3.40 
 
 Philadelphia 12.40 6.38 3.67 
 
 Other Localities 9.98 4.62 2.70 
 
 The table does not seem to afford any justification of the 
 claim that to remove the Russian Jew from New York to 
 the smaller towns is to adjust the labor market. 
 
 The other great branch of the tailoring industry, wom- 
 en 's clothing, shows exactly the same condition of affairs : 
 
 Women's Clothing, Factory Product 
 
 AVERAGE WAGES MEN WOMEN CHILDREN 
 
 New York City $12.62 $6.86 $3.72 
 
 Chicago 13.14 5.12 2.80 
 
 Philadelphia 10.80 5.16 3.16 
 
 Elsewhere 10.02 4.90 2.78 
 
 Such are the differences in the wage levels between the 
 large and small towns. 
 
 It is interesting to study the comparative women's and 
 
120 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 children's labor in some of the Jewish trades in New York 
 and elsewhere. The following table shows the smallest 
 proportion of this labor in New York City : 
 
 Percentage of Women's and Children's Labor Combined 
 
 MEN 'S WOMEN 'S 
 
 CLOTHING CLOTHING 
 
 New York City 33.6 57.2 
 
 Chicago 64.2 87.9 
 
 Philadelphia 35.4 71.1 
 
 Elsewhere 73.4 85.1 
 
 The closest attention of the reader is invited to these 
 tables. They tell at a glance why the Russian Jew prefers 
 at present to stay in New York. Instead of being an eco- 
 nomic mistake, it is the result of economic sagacity, un- 
 conscious perhaps. 
 
 The writer will readily acknowdedge that the one-sided- 
 ness of the argument leaves it open to serious criticism. 
 He is aware that money wages are often misleading and 
 may not strictly correspond to actual wages, measured in 
 terms of commodities and comforts. Unf ortuna cely a care- 
 ful search through American statistical literature has failed 
 to disclose information as to retail prices,^ and the working- 
 men's budgets, published by the Bureau of Labor do not 
 take the difference between large and small towns into 
 consideration. 
 
 It cannot be doubted, however, that lower wages go hand 
 in hand with lower expenditures, for the limited credit of 
 the average workingman does not permit his spending more 
 than he earns. But it is undoubtedly true that the gen- 
 eral conviction prevails that living is comparatively 
 cheaper in small towns than in large cities. Let us subject 
 the basis of this conviction to a short analysis. 
 
 Food, clothing, and shelter are the three prime channels 
 of expenditure in a workman's family. Food is certainly 
 cheaper in a great many rural and semi-rural communities, 
 where many articles are produced in the neighborhood. 
 With slight exception, however, in rural communities ap- 
 plication for industrial energy is not readily found. When 
 we turn to middle-sized cities, where the local supply of 
 vegetable and animal food stuffs is no longer available, 
 
 ^ American price statistics deal with wholesale prices and are therefore of 
 little value for the study of expenses of living. 
 
NEW YORK 121 
 
 this particular advantage vanishes altogether. Wholesale 
 prices for food stuffs are determined in the world's market 
 and only modified by facilities and expenses of transporta- 
 tion. In determining these expenses mere distances are 
 much less important than geographical position, terminal 
 facilities and other matters, in which large centres like 
 New York possess a great advantage over smaller inland 
 cities. Fresh meat, fruits and vegetables are more easily 
 obtained and cost less in New York than in Washington, 
 Syracuse, Oshkosh, or Kalamazoo. That this is especial- 
 ly true of clothing, dry goods, and the thousand and one 
 products of manufacture, daily used in the home, no one 
 will deny, as the large cities, particularly New York, are 
 centres for the production of these goods. 
 
 On the other hand, it is equally true that rents are lower 
 in the smaller cities, or rather that the working people pay 
 less rent in the smaller than in the larger cities. The lat- 
 ter form of the statement is preferred because in the 
 smaller town the working man pays less for a shelter, and 
 may even have more room, but seldom gets the many com- 
 forts and improvements that even a tenement home in New 
 York provides. Gas, water, washtubs, sometimes a bath- 
 tub, or even hot water, — all these are luxuries in the small- 
 er towns not to be found in many a workingman's home. 
 Though in the final analysis the worker in the small city 
 is favored in the matter of rent, the difference will hardly 
 overbalance the higher prices for clothing, provisions, and 
 many other incidentals of the household. 
 
 The conditions of labor will have to change before the 
 Russian Jew will find it advantageous to go further in- 
 stead of stopping in New York. The general improvement 
 in the conditions of labor in the smaller towns will have 
 to come first. Only when labor legislation shall have ac- 
 complished for the smaller towns what labor unions have 
 partially succeeded in accomplishing in New York will the 
 problem assume another aspect.^ 
 
 1 For a fuller discussion of this problem, the reader is referred to the fol- 
 lowing articles of the author: "Concentration or Removal — Which?" Ameri- 
 can Hehrezv, July 17 and 24, 1903, and " Removal! A New Patent Medicine." 
 Ibid. September 25. 1903. In the intermediate numbers of this publication, 
 discussions of this point of view may also be found. 
 
(5) PHILADELPHIA^ 
 
 To analyze the economic and industrial condition of a 
 people is intensely interesting, but it is painful to watch 
 the tense struggle for existence which is going on among 
 the population about to be described. There are, it is true, 
 influences at work which make the struggle hopeful, and 
 which lighten the burden at times, but the strife and the 
 stress are severe. Hardened to suffering, the people push 
 on tenaciously, grimly facing the by-stander, often scoffing 
 at the feeling of pity which may well up in him. 
 
 It is my purpose to present a picture of the economic 
 life of the Eussian Jews of the city of Philadelphia. A 
 forced immigration covering a period of twenty years is not 
 likely to produce a very settled population, and the picture 
 will therefore show features due to the rapid changes which 
 are going on. All stages of prosperity and lack of pros- 
 perity are to be found among the population. On the one 
 side are those who still need the helping hand of the relief 
 and the employment agencies, on the other are those who, 
 arriving here poverty-stricken, have amassed wealth and 
 employ large numbers of persons in their businesses. Be- 
 tween are the struggling masses. 
 
 The industries in which the Eussian Jewish population 
 are most largely employed may be summed up under the 
 head of needle industries. These include the clothing 
 trade, and the manufacture of cloaks, waists, wrappers, 
 skirts, shirts, overalls, and underwear. In the manufac- 
 ture of clothing in this city the majority of the employees 
 are Eussian Jews. 
 
 Some idea of their occupations can be obtained from an 
 examination of the assessors' list of voters in some of the 
 lower wards of the city. Some time ago I counted roughly 
 about 2,000 Jewish voters, and of these fully one-third, 
 about 700, were marked as tailors or as connected with the 
 tailoring trade. Over 300 were entered as merchants and 
 
 ^ The writer is indebted to Miss Helen Marot and Miss Caroline L. Pratt 
 for some of the data furnished in reference to the clothing trade. 
 
 122 
 
PHILADELPHIA 123 
 
 dealers. Under the euphemistic title of '' dealer " arc 
 doubtless a large number of peddlers. There were over 
 100 recorded as clerks and salesmen, 85 as cigar makers, 35 
 as butchers, 25 as grocers, and the remainder in a variety 
 of occupations. It would serve no purpose to give the de- 
 tails, for, aside from the lack of a system of classification 
 of occupations, one of the last places to go for an accurate 
 statistical record is a Philadelphia assessor's list of voters 
 in a downtown ward — or in many an uptown ward — so 
 that the figures given are not to be regarded as careful 
 statistical estimates, but merely as illustrations of the lead- 
 ing occupations. 
 
 An examination of the occupations of the Russian Jew- 
 ish pupils of three public night schools down town (Fifth 
 and Fitzwater Streets, Third and Catharine Streets, and 
 Sixth and Spruce Streets), one season, revealed the fact 
 that of about 900 young men and 600 young women, fully 
 a third were in the needle industries. It is of interest to 
 note, also, that there were about 50 peddlers and keepers of 
 stands, over 75 newsboys, and some 120 cash, errand, and 
 messenger boys. 
 
 In the absence of special skill for particular trades the 
 immigrants have gone into the easily acquired needle indus- 
 tries, in which, with their minute subdivision, a particular 
 occupation can, in many instances, be learned in a few 
 weeks. The immigrant becomes a sweatshop laborer, with 
 all that that implies. 
 
 There has been some endeavor to divert the steady stream 
 which leads from the immigrant ship to the sweatshop. 
 Families are at times sent into country towns to labor, and 
 individuals are forwarded into factory towns where they 
 can work imder better conditions than are afforded by the 
 over-crowded needle industries in the city. The movement 
 from this city, though small and slow, is nevertheless en- 
 couraging. 
 
 The schools of the Hebrew Education Society are an- 
 other example of an endeavor to remove the economic clog, 
 and to turn the immigrants into the direction of skilled 
 industries. Hundreds of graduates from this school can 
 testify to the effort in the direction of industrial education. 
 Cigar making and clothing cutting for young men, millin- 
 ery and dress making for young women, are taught in this 
 school. 
 
 The results are comparatively small, however. The 
 
12-1 ECONOMIC AND INDUS TBI AL CONDITION 
 
 problem of the congested needle industries is but little af- 
 fected by sucli efforts, when the condition of the thousands 
 in these trades is considered. 
 
 I have no means of determining with any degree of ac- 
 curacy the number of Russian Jews in this city in the vari- 
 ous trades. There is enough evidence from different sides 
 to show beyond a doubt that the needle workers are by far 
 predominant in numbers, and from examination of the 
 factory inspectors' reports and personal inquiry of leading 
 workers, I think an estimate of 10,000 as aggregating the 
 total number would not be an exaggeration. In the various 
 branches of the cigar trade there are about 1,000 employed. 
 There are between 500 and 1,000 peddlers and keepers of 
 stands, the number varying according to the season of the 
 year. Factory workmen, shop keepers of various kinds, 
 clerks and salesmen, girls in cigar, cigarette, and other fac- 
 tories, in shops and in stores, make up the bulk of the re- 
 mainder of the population. Then there are the workmen 
 in the ordinary vocations v\^hich every population affords, 
 and finally, the professional class. There are a number 
 of young men studying for the professions, so that within 
 the near future the list of the latter will be largely in- 
 creased. 
 
 A survey of the section in which the Russian Jewish peo- 
 ple reside reveals, on the outside, far less evidence of the 
 presence of the sweatshops and their workers than one 
 would imagine from reading lurid newspaper descriptions. 
 But this will not seem so strange when it is understood that 
 much of the work of the needle industries is done in the 
 homes, — and some of the worst results, both from the eco- 
 nomic and the sanitary standpoints, are in consequence of 
 home work, — and that there is no attempt to display large 
 signs advertising the business, as would be the case with 
 factories and mills of other industries and in other dis- 
 tricts. One must often sedulously seek the shops in order 
 to find them. 
 
 It is significant that in the reports of the factory inspec- 
 tors all the shops with w^hich we are dealing are designated 
 as sweatshops; garment and cigar factories are all under 
 this head, and it is only in the details of the reports that a 
 distinction is made as to the sanitary condition being good, 
 fair, or bad. 
 
 We enter a sweatshop on Lombard, Bainbridge, Monroe 
 or South Fourth Street. It may be on one of several floors 
 
PHILADELPHIA 125 
 
 in which similar work is going on. The shop is that of the 
 so-called contractor — one who contracts with the manu- 
 facturer to put his garments together after they have been 
 cut by the cutter. The pieces are taken in bundles from 
 the manufacturer's to the contractor's. Each contractor 
 usually undertakes the completion of one sort — pants, 
 coats, vests, knee pants, or children's jackets. There is 
 probably one whole floor devoted to the making of this one 
 kind of garment. It may be that two contractors divide 
 the space of a floor, the one, perhaps, being a pants con- 
 tractor, and the other a vest contractor, with an entirely 
 distinct set of employees. To his employees the contractor 
 is the '* boss," as you find out when you inquire at the 
 shop. Before you have reached the shop, you have prob- 
 ably climbed one, two, or three flights of stairs, littered 
 with debris. You readily recognize the entrance to one of 
 these shops once inside the building. The room is likely to 
 be ill-smelling and badly ventilated : the workers are afraid 
 of draughts. Consequently, an abnormally bad air is 
 breathed which it is difficult for the ordinary person to 
 stand long. Thus result the tubercular and other diseases 
 which the immigrant acquires in his endeavor to work out 
 his economic existence. 
 
 There are the operator at the machine, the presser at the 
 ironing table, the baster and the finisher with their nee- 
 dles — the latter young women — all bending their backs 
 and straining their eyes over the garments the people wear, 
 many working long hours in busy season for a compensa- 
 tion that hardly enables them to live, and in dull season, 
 not knowing how they will get along at all. 
 
 If we apply our ordinary standards of sanitation to 
 these shops they certainly come below such standards. By 
 frequent visits we may grow accustomed to the sights and 
 smells, and perhaps unconsciously assume that such shops 
 must in the nature of things be in bad condition. But a 
 little reflection will readily show the error of such an as- 
 sumption. 
 
 It is all the more harrowing that the workers have a 
 tenacity of life due to a rich inheritance of vitality, and 
 that through sickness and disease, through squalor and 
 filth, they proceed onward, often managing to pull them- 
 selves out of the economic slough, though retaining, per- 
 haps, the defects of bad physical development and sur- 
 roundings. 
 
12G ECONOMIC AND INFjUSTBTAL CONDITION 
 
 But thei^e is a larger social question involved. The 
 community at large incurs a danger through the germs of 
 disease whieli a dirty shop may spread in the garments it 
 turns out. And so the government steps in to inspect the 
 shops, supposedly requiring them to conform to certain 
 sanitary regulations, both because of the health of the em- 
 ployees and of the community generally. But, as a matter 
 of fact, most of the contractors' shops that I visited are 
 really not good places to work in. The best result of in- 
 specting them by the gov.ernment inspector would be to 
 " inspect " them out of existence. But the law and the 
 human instriunents of the law are not strong enough for 
 that. The inspection force is ludicrously inadequate for 
 the large number of places to be looked after, so that, with 
 the best intentions, the inspectors must feel themselves 
 helpless. The law, as it reads, would seem to be stringent 
 enough. It requires that before work of the kind under 
 consideration can go on in a place, the employer must have 
 a permit from the inspector '' stating the maximum num- 
 ber of persons allowed to be employed therein and that the 
 building, or part of building, intended to be used for such 
 work or business is thoroughly clean, sanitary and fit for 
 occupancy for such work or business." Not less than 250 
 cubic feet of air space are to be allowed for each person, 
 and " there shall be sufficient means of ventilation pro- 
 vided in each workroom." Manufacturers are required to 
 have the permit produced before giving work to a con- 
 tractor. There is a penalty attached to v/orking without 
 such permit. The manufacturer shields himself behind t\v? 
 permit issued to the contractor. The contractor likewise. 
 As ever, form without spirit is deadening, and so the con- 
 science of the community must be more thoroughly aroused 
 before there is a real remedy of the conditions. We have 
 here another illustration of how politics, v/hich is satisfied 
 with putting laws on the statute books and executing them 
 through inadequate agencies appointed through the usual 
 influences, menaces the health and economic condition of 
 a community, failing to realize the larger purpose which 
 would compel an intelligent carrying out of the law, or 
 a clear demonstration of its failure if it is inadequate. 
 
 It should be added, by way of information, that besides 
 the Russian Jews the largest other element in the needle 
 industries referred to is the Italian; and certain lines of 
 
PHILADELPHIA 127 
 
 goods made by Jews are sometimes handed over to Italians 
 for finishing. 
 
 The shops are chiefly conducted by the contractors, en- 
 tirely independent of the manufacturers, and the various 
 manufacturers for whom they work assume no liability 
 with reference to them or their employees. They merely 
 agree to pay so much per piece for the garments they give 
 out, and expect the garments to be returned to their estab- 
 lishments as agreed upon by the contractors. Few in this 
 city have " inside " shops, that is, shops in which the en- 
 tire garment is completed inside the establishment, or in a 
 separate building, under their own supervision. Wherever 
 these inside shops have beeii established the conditions are 
 very much better ; the shop is much cleaner, the light good, 
 the air bearable, and the compensation usually more steady. 
 
 The last statement requires elucidation. In one clothing 
 manufacturing establishment, there is in the rear a so-called 
 inside shop with a regular contractor in charge. The firm 
 furnishes its first work to this contractor and thus enables 
 him to give, in turn, steady employment, but claims it could 
 not extend such a shop without adding considerably to the 
 expense, as the rental and the assurance of regularity in- 
 volve a larger outlay than arranging with contractors who 
 compete on the basis of low rentals and the smallest possible 
 expense. 
 
 Another firm has some of its high-grade work completed 
 by inside hands, and here, too, the conditions are good, be- 
 ing more akin to the inside shops of the cloak trade. 
 
 One establishment for the manufacture of uniforms has 
 a large building as an inside shop, devoted to the completion 
 of the, garments as they come from the hands of the cutters. 
 Here were '' sets " of workers (a *' set "is usually an oper- 
 ator, a presser, and a finisher) who agreed to complete a 
 garment for a certain gross sum, dividing the receipts ac- 
 cording to a pro rata agreement, one of them being respon- 
 sible for the work. The light and air were good, and the 
 workers had the use of electric motor power. 
 
 In this connection, it should be noted with congratulation 
 that one of the largest clothing firms has a factory in the 
 southern section of the city that utilizes the services of about 
 a thousand employees, who come more immediately under 
 the supervision of the manufacturer. This will do away with 
 a small body of contractors and their shops, and with many 
 evil features consequent upon their maintenance. 
 
128 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTBIAL CONDITION 
 
 An analysis of the wages of the employees in the various 
 divisions of the garment industry collected chiefly in 1901 
 follows : 
 
 Through the kindness of one of the large trouser contrac- 
 tors, I am enabled to state exactly the amount which each 
 class of worker in his shop received in a year 's time ending 
 in the spring of 1901. But the amounts thus paid out, it 
 should be borne in mind, are of the highest range, inasmuch 
 as this contractor had work during the entire year, whereas 
 the usual employment in the contractors' shops during the 
 same period did not equal more than about 28 full weeks' 
 work. It has been calculated that for the year in question 
 the amount of work which was available for the average 
 worker did not amount to more than about v/hat would be 
 equal to 28 weeks' full time. That is to say, there 
 might be employment for some period for every working 
 day of the week, and for other periods for a smaller number 
 of days per week and but for a partial number of hours 
 per day, and sometimes practically no work. 
 
 We have here, too, an estimate as to what one of the 
 fastest operators in the city can earn. He was employed at 
 his trade 39 weeks, having been in some other employment 
 during 13 weeks of the year given. He worked on 4171 
 pairs of trousers in that time, or an average of 108 per 
 week, and received during the period $543.25, or an aver- 
 age of $13.93 per week, being equal to 13 cents per pair. In 
 the same shop a second operator, working 52 weeks in the 
 year on 4,680 pairs of trousers, or 90 pairs per week, re- 
 ceived $590.55, which is an average of $11.36 per week, not 
 quite 13 cents per pair. A third, working 42 weeks on 3,504 
 pairs, received $509.59, or an average of 83 pairs, at $12.13 
 per week. Though his average per week is higher than the 
 one before, he is not as well off for the year. 
 
 Records from trouser operators in other shops show that 
 the average earnings per year were considerably below this 
 owing to but partial employment. Payment is by the piece, 
 from 10 to 121/2 cents being a fair average price. A full 
 wreck's work will see the completion of perhaps 80 pairs. 
 The average workman will receive at the end of the week, 
 in full time, therefore, about $10. As the year's work (up 
 to the spring of 1901) did not amount to more than 28 
 weeks, the yearly earnings were not more than about $280, 
 or an average of about $5.40 in the week. 
 
 A vest operator is paid about 9 cents per garment. He 
 
PHILADELPHIA 129 
 
 can complete about 120 per week, which at $10.80 for 28 
 weeks would make about $300 per year. Statements from 
 operators in various shops show that with a full week's work 
 they earn about this sum, some of the best earning a little 
 more. But, as the year's work amounted to only 28 weeks, 
 the earnings per year would be about $300 a year, or an 
 average of about $6 per week. 
 
 The results as to coat operators were about the same. 
 They earned from. $15 to $18 per week, but had not more 
 than about 20 weeks ' work, so that their earnings were from 
 $300 to $360 per year, or an average of not much more than 
 $6 per week. 
 
 In children's jackets, the earnings were from $4 to $12 a 
 week; a year's work was equal to 30 weeks, making from 
 $120 to $360 per year, or an average of from $2.30 to $6.90 
 per week. The average payment would equal about $5 per 
 week. 
 
 In knee pants, the earnings for operators were from $9 
 to $10 in a full week. The number of weeks' employment 
 was about 25, and the earnings per year were from $200 to 
 $250, an average of from $4 to $5 per week. 
 
 Proceeding in the same way with reference to pressers, 
 we have our trouser contractor's record of $1,265.77 paid 
 out to three pressers in 43 weeks, or an average of $9.81 for 
 each man, and $330.44 paid out to four pressers in the re- 
 maining 9 weeks of the year, or an average of $9.18 per 
 man. This, be it remembered, is for the exceptional shop 
 with full employment the year round. Returns from inter- 
 viewing men in other shops showed earnings of from $5 to 
 $10, or $12 in a full week. With 28 weeks' work in the 
 year the earnings for the year would be from $140 to $336. 
 The average was about midway between these figures, or 
 $4.50 per week. 
 
 Vest pressers averaged about 31/2 cents per garment and 
 complete about 300 in a week, which is equal to $10.50, and 
 for a year of 28 weeks averaged a little over $300. Actual 
 records from vest shops showed earnings for pressers of 
 from $9 to $14, which, with 28 weeks' actual work, would 
 make the average about $300 per year, or $6 per week. 
 
 The earnings of coat pressers were about on a par with 
 those of the vest pressers, averaging not more than $300 
 per year, or $6 per week. 
 
 Those on the children 's jackets trade earned between $200 
 and $300 per year, or an average of from $4 to $6 per week. 
 
130 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 Knee pants pressers earned from $150 to $200 per year, 
 or from $3 to $4 per week, on the average. 
 
 The trouser baster of the same contractor from whom 
 data as to other employees were obtained received in a year 
 $287.91, or an average of $5.54 per week. He had practic- 
 ally full work the year round. Assuming the work for the 
 usual baster in a shop to have been equal to 28 weeks, the 
 pay on the average, for the year, would not have been more 
 than about $170, or a little over $3 per week. 
 
 For vest basters, the average from a number of shops 
 showed about the same result as for the trouser baster — 
 from $150 to $200 per year, or a weekly average of between 
 $3 and $4. 
 
 Among the coat basters, earnings were higher. The men 
 who do the basting are the chief mechanics on the garment. 
 Some earned as much at $350, but the average for the ma- 
 jority was about $300, which is approximately equal to a 
 weekly average of $6. 
 
 On children's jackets, basters and fitters earned from 
 $250 to $300 per year, or an average of from $5 to $6 per 
 week. 
 
 Coming now to finishers — who are young women — our 
 trouser contractor 's returns on which we have drawn before 
 showed the following payments respectively to three finish- 
 ers whom he employed the whole year: $220.99, or an 
 average of $4.25 per week ; $215.95, or an average of $4.15 
 per week; $205.25, or an average of $3.97 per week. The 
 ordinary finisher, however, having but 28 weeks' work, 
 would earn not more than $100, $125 or $150 per year, or 
 between $2 and $3 per week, on the average. 
 
 Average returns from vest shops showed earnings of 
 about $150 per year, equaling $3 per week. There were a 
 few who earned higher wages. 
 
 An average calculation based on returns from coat shops 
 showed practically the same result — not more than $150 
 per year, or $3 per week. 
 
 The same is the case among the children's jacket workers. 
 
 In all these instances, it should be noted, that in a full 
 week individual earnings may be higher, but when com- 
 puted for the year the average worker's earnings will not 
 be above the sums indicated. 
 
 We have presented the earning capacity of the chief 
 classes of piece workers in the clothing trade. There are, 
 however, other employees, paid usually by the week, and 
 
nilLADELPHIA 131 
 
 there are, of course, other outlays on the part of the 
 contractor. 
 
 Viewing the subject now from the standpoint of the con- 
 tractor, let us estimate the cost of the garments to him, and 
 his net gain. Taking the figures of our standard trouser 
 contractor, we find that he made 21,157 pairs in the year, or 
 an average of 407 pairs per week, and that his payments per 
 pair averaged as follows : Operating, 12.9 cents ; pressing, 
 7.5 cents; finishing, 6.6 cents; tacking and button holing, 
 2.2 cents ; basting, 1.3 cents. Adding to these items his esti- 
 mate of 2 cents for shop expenses, including rent, coal and 
 gas, and 1 cent for errand and delivery service, we have a 
 total of 33% cents. He received from the manufacturer 
 between 35 and 40 cents per pair, according to the nature 
 of the garment. Assuming an average of 371/2 cents, his 
 profit was 4 cents per pair, making more than $800 per 
 year, or some $16 per week. 
 
 Another trouser contractor paid out 20 cents per gar- 
 ment for operating, basting, finishing and tacking. He re- 
 ceived from 32 to 35 cents. He could turn out about 250 
 per week. Taking an average, the $33.75 per week is sub- 
 ject to a deduction of $3.50 for rent and other expenses, 
 leaving slightly over $30 per week, which, on the basis of 
 28 weeks' work would be $840 per year, or an average 
 earning of about $16 per week. 
 
 Similarily, let us accept the following calculation by a 
 vest contractor of the cost to him of a garment : Foreman, 
 4 cents; operator, 15 cents; baster, 10 cents; hand button- 
 hole maker, 15 cents ; finisher, 3 cents ; presser, 4 cents ; er- 
 rand boy, 4 cents ; total 56 cents. He received 60 cents from 
 the manufacturer. He could turn out about 800 vests in a 
 week. To his expenditures are to be added rent, fuel and 
 light. His net earnings in a full week were, perhaps, $25. 
 But if he has but 28 weeks' work in a year the total would 
 be not more than about $700, or an average of $14 per week. 
 This corresponds fairly well with the statement of another 
 vest contractor that net earnings would be from $13 to $18 
 per week. A third vest contractor who paid an average of 
 23 cents per garment to his operator, baster, finisher, and 
 presser, and who could turn out about 600 garments in a 
 week, received 27% cents for them. From the average of 
 $25 per week there must be deducted rental ($13 per 
 month) and other expenses, leaving, possibly, $20 earnings 
 
132 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 for a full week ; $560 for a year, on a basis of 28 weeks, or 
 an average of $11 per week. 
 
 The contractor is usually an operator or other worker 
 who becomes imbued with the desire to set up for himself. 
 Excessive competition among* the small contractors has con- 
 tributed to the bad economic state of affairs in the garment 
 trades. The contractor is between the upper mill-stone of 
 the manufacturer and the nether mill-stone of the work- 
 man, forced to take the prices of the one and trying to 
 make the utmost possible out of the other. Some few have 
 saved enough to become manufacturers themselves. Some 
 of the old established manufacturing firms have retired 
 from business as the result of the competition of this new 
 element. 
 
 In actual money gains, the contractors whose earnings 
 have been estimated are better off than their workmen. 
 Many said that if they could get their little capital back 
 they would probably return to their former occupation — 
 at least for a time, for the desire to be a '' boss " is strong 
 and would doubtless lead to other attempts. 
 
 In the cloak trades we find a somewhat better state of 
 affairs than in the clothing. The shop is part of the plant 
 of the manufacturer himself and under his direct sur- 
 veillance. Besides being well lighted and ventilated the 
 shops have machine power. There is in this trade compara- 
 tively little work given out to contractors, though there is 
 some, especially in busy seasons. 
 
 An operator on first class ladies' cloaks and suits earns 
 about $30 in a full week's time, and as there is about half 
 year's work in a year, his earnings are about $750 per year, 
 or an average of $20 per week. 
 
 A presser on first class work averages about $18 per week 
 a full week, but as the work in a year is not more than about 
 two-thirds time, the earnings are about $700 per year, a 
 weekly average of $14. 
 
 Finishers (girls) average about $8, in a full week, have 
 about 30 weeks' work and, therefore, earn about $240 per 
 year. 
 
 In the clothing trade the yearly earnings ranged from 
 $125 for finishers (who are young women), to $360 for 
 operators, with $300 as the average for the majority, be- 
 tween these being the basters at $175, and the pressers at 
 $250. 
 
 In the cloak trade, the conditions, as has been noted, are 
 
PHILADELPHIA 133 
 
 better not only with respect to the physical but the economic 
 status as well. 
 
 The condition of the cigar makers is much better, on the 
 whole, than that of the workers in the needle industries. 
 Earnings of between $500 and $600 per year, or an average 
 of from $10 to $12 per week, would be a fair estimate. 
 
 The people are branching out into various trades, but 
 there are none which employ such large numbers or in 
 which the conditions are peculiar, so as to call for specific 
 mention. 
 
 Peddling is an occupation into which new immigrants 
 easily enter. Many earn a very precarious livelihood. Some 
 develop into retail tradesmen. 
 
 A noticable tendency to go into the profession of medi- 
 cine is to be observed. Many a Russian Jew with intel- 
 lectual ability will be laying plans to go from the shop 
 into medical practice. Law, dentistry and pharmacy are 
 the other favorite professions. 
 
 Some of the Russian Jewish people are rising to com- 
 fortable positions in the professions and commerce. Among 
 the employers of labor there are several doing thousands of 
 dollars' worth of business yearly. There are merchants 
 and manufacturers, some who still live in the southern sec- 
 tion of the city, others who have moved up town, among the 
 prosperous elements of the community. Economically, they 
 can, of course, now take care of themselves, but their rise 
 upwards has often been severe and hazardous. 
 
 Real estate purchases are a growing element in the eco- 
 nomic progress of the population ; many a comfortable sum 
 is made through their means. 
 
 Some of the bank accounts would astonish the unknow- 
 ing. So, too, the growing number of those who become 
 insured is indicative of foresightedness and prosperity. 
 One Russian Jev/ish insurance agent in the down-town dis- 
 trict has a number of insured which would surprise those 
 who know merely the outward aspects of the district. 
 
 From our examination of the conditions of the needle 
 industries, the keen and difficult struggle that is going on 
 among the masses is readily seen. Many an one used to a 
 well-to-do existence can hardly conceive how some of the 
 men get along on their slender incomes, for they often must 
 support a large family. Instances are familiar in which a 
 worker has a whole bevy of children, all too young to assist 
 
134 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 in mretinj* the wants of a family, and the wife with her 
 hands full looking after the needs of the little ones. 
 
 In busy season the employees are required to work long 
 hours, sometimes as high as fifteen, perhaps eighteen, a day. 
 In slack season they must wait for the work that is doled 
 out to them. Where time enters at all into the measure- 
 ment of the pay, the employers endeavor to stretch it with- 
 out giving corresponding pay. There seem to be numerous 
 devices by which the workers can be taken advantage of. 
 The character of the work varies so much in any one trade 
 that it seems difficult to regulate the prices unless by the 
 most iron-clad arrangement, backed by the force of strong 
 organization. But the weakness of the organizations has 
 been apparent in the past. Sometimes they have been affili- 
 ated with one general labor organization, sometimes 
 with another. They are now welded together under 
 the United Garment Workers of America, into which they 
 liave gone during the past few years. With the exception 
 of the Cutters' Union the membership of these organiza- 
 tions is almost entirely composed of Russian Jews. 
 
 The competition of unorganized labor, especially of wom- 
 en and of people in the country towns, makes the regulation 
 of the trade exceedingly difficult, and tends, of course, to 
 the aggravation of the conditions regarding hours and 
 wages. 
 
 Surveying the entire field, emphasis has been laid on the 
 conditions in the needle industries, because of their impor- 
 tance as to the numbers dependent upon them and their 
 peculiar economic arrangements. The displacement of tlie 
 outside shops alleviates the sanitary and economic condi- 
 tions. Many of the contractors, as foremen or superin- 
 tendents, are enabled to earn as much in wages as they 
 formerly did in a mad endeavor to obtain profits ; and their 
 competition for prices being removed, there is a steadier 
 regulation as between the workers and the manufacturers. 
 Factories as part of the plant of the manufacturers, with 
 control by them, assisted by government inspection, and the 
 abrogation of the contractors ' shops, enable a better regula- 
 tion of hours and wages. 
 
 We have, then, a population of much intellectual and 
 moral strength capable of large economic advance, requir- 
 ing better physical influences and checks on individualistic 
 tendencies. 
 
(C) CHICAGO 
 
 Probably among no nationality does the economic condi- 
 tion change more rapidly than among the Russian Jewish 
 people in the United States. The transition period from 
 the junk peddler to the iron yard owner, from the dry 
 goods peddler to the retail or wholesale dry goods mer- 
 chant, from the cloak maker to the cloak manufacturer, is 
 comparatively short. True, the same causes which influ- 
 ence trade and industry in the economic world about them 
 also influence this population, yet they seem able to develop 
 business methods of their own, which, in many instances, 
 successfully defy or modify well established economic laws. 
 They can do business with little money, or practically no 
 money, right next door to a large house, ignoring the eco- 
 nomic rule that the latter, through competition, drives the 
 smaller house out of business. They continue to hold their 
 own in the trades in which they engage, growing in 
 strength as the years go on. 
 
 '' A Jew would rather earn five dollars a week doing 
 business for himself than ten dollars a week working for 
 some one else," was the observation of an Irishman who 
 worked in the same factory with me. This idea is held 
 quite extensively among the Russian Jewish people, as my 
 own experience among them will confirm. Quite a large 
 proportion of the men who worked with me in the same 
 trade ten or fifteen years ago are now in business for them- 
 selves or have entered professional life. Others have be- 
 come salesmen, traveling men, commission agents, insurance 
 agents, and the like. I have met very few wage-workers 
 among Russian Jewish people who regard it as their perma- 
 nent lot in life to remain in the condition of laborers for 
 wage. Almost all are bending their energies to get into 
 business or to acquire an education so that they may fit 
 themselves for some other calling than that of the wage- 
 worker of the ordinary kind. More of our boys and girls 
 who have attended the public schools enter stores and offi- 
 ces than shops and factories. This is especially true of the 
 
 135 
 
136 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 more intelligent of the population. Among those who stay- 
 in the shops as workmen there is a tendency to leave em- 
 ployments which require hard labor. 
 
 Scattered through the industries in this large city, Rus- 
 sian Jewish people are to be found in a large variety of 
 occupations, from the common laborers to the highly skilled 
 mechanics. I find them employed as iron molders, ma- 
 chinists, locomotive engineers, sailors, farm helpers, boiler 
 makers, butchers at the stock yards, street sweepers, section 
 hands on railroads, motormen and conductors on the street 
 cars; a number as building laborers — brick layers, carpen- 
 ters, steam fitters, plumbers; in bicycle plating shops; in 
 manufactories of electrical appliances, of iron beds and 
 springs, of shoes, of wood work, and of upholstery ; in tin, 
 mattress and picture frame factories ; and in bakeries. But 
 the industries in which they are employed in the greatest 
 numbers are the sewing and cigar trades. 
 
 I gather from my connection with the trade union move- 
 ment and from my observation while inspecting factories 
 for the state of Illinois for four years, that the Russian 
 Jewish people in Chicago have not nearly so great an in- 
 fluence on the sewing and cigar trades as in the east, par- 
 ticularly in New York. There are eight non-Jews to one 
 Jew employed in the needle industries in Chicago. The 
 proportion of non-Jews to Jews among the cigar makers is 
 not quite so large. It can only be said, therefore, that the 
 Russian Jews are an important factor in these trades. 
 Among the mattress makers, too, concerning trade regula- 
 tions, they must be regarded as an element to be reckoned 
 with. 
 
 The sanitary condition of the streets, homes, and shops in 
 the Jewish settlement proper is rather bad. It does not 
 compare favorably with that of the other nationalities, ex- 
 cept the Italian and the Polish, which in some respects are 
 worse. The streets and homes of the Italians are somewhat 
 dirtier, and the Polish crowd their people in the shops and 
 homes more than the Jews. Compared with the Germans, 
 the Scandinavians, and the Bohemians, the Russian Jews 
 make a poor showing, their places of abode and of work 
 being dirtier and more crowded. However, a change for 
 the better is taking place, at least in respect to the sani- 
 tary condition of the shops. Separate buildings are being 
 erected, so that before many years we shall have outgrown 
 many abuses as to sanitation. I have known many men to 
 
CHICAGO 137 
 
 be willing to work for smaller wages in better quarters. A 
 busy season with good wages tends to improve the sanitary- 
 condition, whereas dull times and small wages have a con- 
 trary effect. 
 
 Probably nowhere is the peculiar character of the Rus- 
 sian Jewish people better to be seen than in the trade union 
 movement, or rather, in the absence of this movement. One 
 cannot ascribe the condition of the trade unions among 
 them solely to their racial character, as many other factors 
 help to form their economic status and its relations to labor 
 organizations. The nature of the trades in which they are 
 engaged and the helplessness of the majority of the people 
 are among the factors affecting the situation. 
 
 One of the main reasons why they do not support trade 
 unions and labor organizations to the same extent as other 
 nationalities seems to be that most of them do not believe 
 themselves to be working men for life, nor do they think 
 that they will leave as a heritage to their children the lot 
 of a wage-worker. A very large number speculate on the 
 notion of opening, in course of time, a shop for themselves, 
 or going into business of some kind, or educating themselves 
 out of the condition of the working classes. A large part 
 of the tolerance of low wages, long hours of work, and in- 
 sanitary condition of the shops, that is, of the tragedy of 
 economic servitude, of poverty, and of suffering, is to be 
 ascribed to this state of mind. 
 
 Of other elements that interfere with the chances of 
 effective organization, the fact that in the sewing trade 
 women can and do replace men must be considered. Es- 
 pecially during strikes have they taken the place of men in 
 a large number of cases, and have thrown Jewish men and 
 women out of employment. The trades in which the Rus- 
 sian Jews are largely engaged are easily learned, especially 
 by women and children, so that there is a constant re- 
 cruiting of newcomers of all nationalities, thus overstock- 
 ing the trades with labor. 
 
 Generally speaking, the sewing trades in this city are in 
 a deplorable state. There is little organization among the 
 workmen. The reason for this among the Jewish people 
 is not the same as among other nationalities. With the 
 Poles and some of the Germans and Bohemians, the church 
 and the priests are factors in keeping them in an ignorant, 
 helpless, and '' scabbing " state of mind, but the Jewish 
 people are clever and quite well informed, so that the cause 
 
138 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 lias been not ignorance but unwillingness to make the 
 sacrifice necessary to bring about successful organization. 
 There is, however, some change for the better in progress. 
 They are beginning to realize, slowly, but surely, that their 
 hope economically, lies in alliance with the labor unions and 
 the socialist movement, and they will become a factor, I be- 
 lieve, in establishing the state of affairs in which labor 
 will be free and receive what it produces. 
 
 It should be noted, too, in modification of the general 
 statement as to unwillingness to organize: First, that 
 during actual strikes Jews have been much more loyal 
 and self sacrificing than other nationalities. I know of 
 many men, who, during strikes, with no bread for them- 
 selves or their families, attended meetings and insisted 
 on holding out until the strike was won. Second, a large 
 number are in unions of their trades, and many are ac- 
 tive in leadership. Third, in the socialist movement, a few 
 have been very active and have carried on propaganda at 
 a great sacrifice. 
 
 In all there are probably 4,000 Eussian Jews engaged in 
 the sewing trades in Chicago, less than one-eighth of the 
 total. The majority of men employees have an income of 
 from $400 to $600 per year. Several hundred Russian 
 Jews are either contractors or manufacturers. The Jewish 
 contractor who employs Jewish help is not so prosperous, 
 as a rule, as his neighbor, the Jewish contractor who em- 
 ploys Gentile help, or the Gentile contractor. The reason 
 seems to be that among the Poles and Bohemians, of whom 
 there are many in these trades, women and children are 
 employed to a much greater extent than among the Jews, 
 and one cannot get adult males to work as cheaply as wom- 
 en and children. A number of Jewish contractors have 
 moved into neighborhoods where they are enabled to em- 
 ploy Polish, German, and Bohemian women and children, 
 and they are prospering. But those who are in the First 
 Ward, or in the Jewish district, are simply making a living 
 a little better than their em.ployees. 
 
 About 1,500 of those in the sewing trades are engaged 
 in ''country order" coat making, a cheaper grade of cus* 
 torn coat making. The work is done according to the fac- 
 tory system of division of labor, as distinguished from cus- 
 tom work, in which the tailor makes the whole garment. 
 During the past three years, the employees have had work 
 from six to nine months in the year. They have earned 
 
CHICAGO 139 
 
 about the following wages. Operators from $11 to $25 
 per week; helpers (to operators), from $5 to $12 per 
 week; basters, from $10 to $18 per week; helpers (to bast- 
 ers), from $5 to $10 per week; pressers, from $10 to $18 
 per week; helpers (to pressers), from $4 to $8 per week. 
 The high priced men are about as one to four in a sho]). 
 The cutters in this trade receive about $15 to $18 per week, 
 and the designers and foremen from $30 to $40 per week. 
 There is no union in the trade, excepting a small mutual 
 benefit society. This trade competes successfully, I think, 
 with the country merchant tailoring and with ready-made 
 manufacture of clothing. During busy season the hours 
 are long, as high as twelve and thirteen hours a day. The 
 work is mostly piece work. This and cloak making are 
 considered the best of the sewing trades. Polish and Bo- 
 hemian women and children compete as workers, but the 
 Jewish men are holding their own as yet, because they 
 can adjust themselves better to the seasons of the trade. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that the rates of payment here 
 given are for a full week's work. Therefore an operator 
 who earns $11 in a full week will not earn more than 
 between $300 and $350 in a year or an average of between 
 $6 and $7 per week. The same applies to the other classes 
 of workmen, so that the average weekly wages are much 
 lower than would appear on the face of things. 
 
 The next division is the ready-made coat making trade. 
 In the past few years the Jews have been replaced by Poles 
 and Bohemians, so that there are not more than about 300 
 of the former. There were formerly about 1,000. Their 
 wages are considerably less than those of the "country 
 order " division, operators being paid from $10 to $15 
 per week, basters from $9 to $13 per week, pressers the 
 same as basters, helpers ranging from $4 to $9 per week, 
 hand sewers from $2 to $8 per week. There are about nine 
 or ten months' work in a year. An operator earns, there- 
 fore, about $400 per year on the average, which is equal to 
 $8 per week. The average weekly earnings for the other 
 workmen are subject to a corresponding reduction. 
 
 Both in the ready-made and in the country order, the 
 machines are run by foot power. The shops, as a rule, 
 are not in very good condition. 
 
 About 200 Russian Jews are employed as custom coat 
 makers proper, working for merchant tailors. They make 
 
140 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 the whole garment. Their earnings are from $12 to $18 
 per week and they work about nine months a year. 
 
 These and workers in the country order division often 
 become small merchant tailors, both in Chicago and in 
 the country towns. Some have become well-to-do. Among 
 them are merchant tailors in prominent sections of the city 
 worth from $10,000 to $15,000. 
 
 There are about 250 Russian Jews among the ladies' 
 tailors, making both suits and outer garments to measure. 
 The operators earn from $15 to $20 per week and have 
 from six to nine months' work in the year. The yearly 
 earnings are, therefore, from $400 to $700, or an average 
 of from $8 to $14 per week. A large number keep shops 
 for themselves and are doing a good business. One has 
 acquired about $20,000 worth of property during the past 
 eight years. The foremen, designers, and cutters in this 
 trade receive about $30 per week. 
 
 Ladies' cloaks and suit making is quite a large industry 
 among the population we are describing. About 800 are 
 employed in it. This is a season trade, with good wages 
 in the busy season and very low wages in the dull season. 
 In the cheaper and partly in the medium grades of this 
 business, the Jews have lost their hold during the last few 
 years. This is due to the establishment of shops employ- 
 ing girls, among the Polish and Bohemian people. In 
 the better grades they still hold on. In these, during the 
 busy season, they earn from $12 to $25 a week, in slack 
 season from $9 to $14 a week, working mostly ten hours 
 per day. There is about eight months' work. 
 
 Steam is being introduced in place of foot power, so 
 that if the Jewish people are not replaced by women this 
 trade seems likely to offer them a decent livelihood. 
 Women earn from $4 to $9 per week. It should be noted, 
 too, that competition with New York affects this trade. 
 
 No trade requires the influence of a labor organization 
 more than this. The cloak makers lost a severely con- 
 tested strike several years ago and they do not seem to 
 have been able to organize themselves since that time. 
 There are about 50 Russian Jewish cloak cutters who are 
 paid about $18 per week. A number of the designers are 
 from this population. Their wages are $50 a week and 
 upwards. Some of the Russian Jewish people have gone 
 into the manufacture of cloaks on a small scale. The 
 wealthiest is worth probably $10,000. 
 
CHICAGO 141 
 
 The cap makers are doing fairly well. They earn from 
 $9 to $18 per week. They seem to have withstood the 
 competition of women. When they have saved from $200 
 to $300 they open shops of their o^vn. There are about 200 
 employers. The wealthiest is worth in the neighborhood 
 of $10,000. 
 
 The children's coats, the men's trousers, the knee pants, 
 the overalls, and the shirt trades seem to be the poorest 
 the population are engaged in. Operators in these trades 
 earn from $5 to $11 per week, with about nine months' 
 work throughout the year; girls (helpers) from $2 to $5 
 per week ; pressers from $5 to $9 per week, working about 
 the same time. 
 
 Most of the contractors who employ Jewish help are 
 poor men themselves. Two or three who employ Polish 
 girls have made enough money to earn their homes and 
 shops. Those who have gone into the business of man- 
 ufacturing knee pants, pants, overalls, and children's cloth- 
 ing have, in a number of cases, done better. The wealthiest 
 is probably worth about $10,000. Altogether, there are 
 about 400 Russian Jews in these trades. 
 
 Furriers are earning from $12 to $18 per week and work 
 about nine months in the year. There are about 50 Russian 
 Jews among them. 
 
 To summarize the history of the trade union movement 
 in the foregoing trades: The cloak makers had an organ- 
 ization ten years, disbanded, and reorganized. They had a 
 number of strikes. The influence of the union on the trade 
 was beneficial. From 1881 to 1889, the workers were em- 
 ployed from twelve to sixteen hours per day. The union 
 and the strikes brought down the working day to nine or 
 ten hours. Wages are better than they were in those years. 
 
 The cloak makers' union was the first to have a public 
 meeting to protest against sweatshops and the employ- 
 ment of children, and together with the central labor 
 organization, Mrs. Florence Kelley and residents of Hull 
 House, succeeded in having a law passed prohibiting the 
 employment of children under fourteen years of age, and 
 the employment at trade in one 's own home of persons other 
 than members of the family. 
 
 The coat makers had an organization which was help- 
 ful in the improvement of their economic condition, but 
 a lost strike broke them up. Bohemians, Germans, and 
 Jews were organized in the trade. Through a lock-out of 
 
142 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 the clothing* cutters, in 1897, tlie nnions were forced out 
 on strike, and after six weeks were defeated by the manu- 
 facturers, who were able to replace the men by women's 
 labor, half-Americanized, and newly-arrived foreign la- 
 bor. 
 
 Knee pants makers, pants makers and children's coat 
 makers were also organized, and their organizations were 
 rendered useless through similar agencies. 
 
 In the cigar and tobacco trades, there are in this city 
 about 2,400 Russian Jews. A fair proportion are in busi- 
 ness for themselves, as store keepers or manufacturers 
 or both. About 1,500 men and 500 women cigar makers 
 earn from $300 to $600 per year. A large number who 
 work in the heart of the Jewish district earn only about 
 $300 to $400. Persons learning the trade earn $3, $4 and 
 $5 a week. There is employment about nine months in 
 the year. During the crisis from 1893 to 1897 there 
 was work for not more than four or five months in the 
 year, and the wages were lower per week. 
 
 There are a comparatively small number of Russian Jew- 
 ish workers in the cigarmakers' union, about 200 out of 
 a total membership of 1,800. One reason is that the cigars 
 made in the Jewish district are of a cheaper grade than is 
 provided for in the union scale. Then, too, in the large 
 cigar factories, which do not employ union help, they work 
 with other nationalities. The difference between the union 
 price and the factory price is large, from $3 to $7 per thou- 
 sand. The union has had several strikes in these factories 
 and has lost each time. Most of the cigars in Chicago are 
 made in the large factories. Employment in the factories 
 is steadier than in the small union shops. The union 
 keeps its wages for labor so high because there is a large 
 demand for the union label. One of the reasons why the 
 price of labor in the non-union shops is so low is because 
 the trade is comparatively easy to learn, and women and 
 children can take the place of men. 
 
 Probably the wealthiest Russian Jewish cigar manu- 
 facturer is worth about $20,000, and from this one they 
 run down to the man who keeps shop at night and works 
 in a factory during the day, or for whom the wife keeps 
 a little store while he works out. 
 
 The business of manufacturing cigarettes and smoking 
 tobacco employs about 200 Russian Jews. The workers 
 barely make a living. Men earn from $7 to $12 a week; 
 
CHICAGO 143 
 
 girls from $4 to $8. The employers are only moderately 
 thriving, as the revenue and municipal taxes heavily affect 
 their incomes. 
 
 There are about 80 Russian Jewish mattress makers. 
 They earn: men from $9 to $14; women, from $4 to $8 
 per week. Jews have displaced other nationalities in this 
 trade, mainly the Irish. They were organized with other 
 nationalities in a union. A union label was introduced, 
 wages were raised, and the union was maintained for 
 three years. Then, through the machinations of some 
 of the employers, the union was split and two organiza- 
 tions were formed, one composed of Jews and one of non- 
 Jews. The Jewish union joined hands with the employers 
 and formed what was really a ' ^ scab ' ' organization. 
 
 The Russian Jewish bakers number about 50 in all. 
 They work unreasonably long hours for very small wages 
 — about $5 to $13 a week — in very bad bake-shops. They 
 established a union several times, but were disorganized 
 for a reason similar to the one just described: Jewish 
 employers introduced non-Jews and kept the good union 
 men out of work for a long time. 
 
 From 400 to 600 are in the picture frame, tin can, and 
 bicycle factories. They earn from $7 to $15 a week and 
 assimilate quite rapidly with other nationalities in the 
 trades. Some of the large picture frame factories and 
 quite a number of picture frame stores are owned by Rus- 
 sian Jews. It is said some of the owners are worth $100,- 
 000. 
 
 In the professions, there are a number of physicians, 
 dentists, lawyers and teachers. 
 
 There are also mail carriers, post-office clerks, and hold- 
 ers of office under the state and city governments. 
 
 Perhaps from 2,500 to 3,000 are clerks in stores and of- 
 fices, book-keepers, stock keepers and in kindred occupa- 
 tions, ranging from the lowest paid shipping clerk to the 
 high-salaried department store manager. One is supposed 
 to attain business training in the stores and offices, and 
 there is a tendency to overstock this class of help, so the 
 good salesman or good book-keeper is likely to receive a 
 smaller salary than an experienced mechanic or worker at 
 a trade. 
 
 Among the peddlers and small store-keepers, the rag ped- 
 dlers form the largest group. Most of them are very poor 
 and hard working; they earn a precarious livelihood. I 
 
144 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTBIAL CONDITION 
 
 am told there are about 2,000. Very few of their chil- 
 dren follow in their footsteps; most work in stores and 
 some in factories. From the rag peddling business about 
 200 have become rag store-keepers. A large proportion of 
 these own their own homes. The wealthiest is said to be 
 worth about $20,000. The rag store cannot well be es- 
 tablished with a capital of less than about $400. 
 
 Some 95 per cent, of the peddlers own their own horse 
 and wagon; some of them, however, are so poor that they 
 live partially on charity. The majority work in the city, 
 but a portion ply their trade in the neighboring country 
 towns. 
 
 Closely related to the above are the old iron dealers and 
 peddlers. In fact, a rag dealer will often also deal in 
 old iron, furniture, clothing, etc. But the old iron dealer 
 is a sort of merchant, buying and selling iron and metal 
 only. There are several hundred of these. Their earnings 
 are higher than those of the rag peddlers. A number 
 own their own homes and are quite prosperous. In their 
 case the children are generally absorbed into other oc- 
 cupations. 
 
 The iron yard owners are a prosperous class. Some 
 are reputed to be worth over $200,000. They do an exten- 
 sive business. They are generally former iron or junk 
 dealers. 
 
 Dealers in old bottles buy their goods from the rag ped- 
 dlers. Their business has been developed only in the past 
 few years. There are but 15 or 20 in the city and they are 
 doing well, several being worth as much at $20,000, I am 
 told. 
 
 Second-hand furniture store-keepers buy their goods, too, 
 mostly at the rag peddlers. There are about 20 or 30 and 
 they are making a fair living. 
 
 Of the fruit and market peddlers there are about 1,000. 
 As they have not much to do in the winter, many go into 
 the delivery business. In season they can earn from $20 
 to $35 per week. But as they are idle a great part of the 
 year their average earnings are very low, and they are 
 really poor people. Only a few are comparatively well-to- 
 do, and own their homes. Some develop into grocery store 
 keepers. Very few of the children of these peddlers fol- 
 low the occupation of their fathers. 
 
 The dry goods peddlers seem to have lost ground during 
 the last few years, but there are still several hundred. I 
 
CHICAGO 145 
 
 presume the department stores and mail order houses af- 
 fect their business. Their business is done mostly among 
 the foreign population of the city. Some, however, do 
 peddling in the country, but keep their families in the 
 city. With few exceptions, these are quite poor, barely 
 making a living. Yet from this class are developed the 
 dry goods merchants, wholesale and retail, who establish 
 themselves in the city and through the country towns. 
 Some of the wholesale merchants have grown to be wealthy. 
 In a few instances they are worth several hundred thou- 
 sand dollars. One house, I am informed, did a business of 
 $8,000,000 last year, employing over a thousand persons. 
 Most of those who have established places in small towns 
 are doing well, and some have broadened their business 
 into department stores. 
 
 From a thousand to fifteen hundred families are sup- 
 ported from dry goods, notions, and gentlemen's furnish- 
 ing goods stores. The children receive a good education, 
 and often enter offices as clerks, book-keepers, and the like. 
 
 Only about 20 are in the furniture business. Some 
 two or three have grown well-to-do, the wealthiest being 
 worth about $25,000. 
 
 Some of the clothing store-keepers in the First Ward in 
 the centre of the business district are doing an extensive 
 business. One is worth, perhaps, $50,000. Not more than 
 about 30 keep clothing stores proper, as distinct from sec- 
 ond-hand stores or pawn shops, selling clothing. 
 
 There are some 20 or 30 shoe store-keepers. None are 
 wealthy. A few are worth from $2,000 to $3,000 and 
 the rest are doing fairly well. 
 
 There are a large number of store-keepers of various 
 kinds throughout the city, selling crockery, ten cent goods, 
 hats, etc. 
 
 About 100 Russian Jews are in the saloon business and 
 are making a good living. 
 
 To me several points have established themselves quite 
 clearly in this inquiry. In factories labor is divided so 
 minutely that the work is very monotonous. As a con- 
 sequence the Russian Jewish people, who as a rule are 
 intelligent, will not continue to labor in factories and work- 
 shops, but will go into business, distributive occupations, or 
 professions. If, therefore, a condition arose under which 
 there would be no further immigration I believe that within 
 the next twenty-five or thirty years but a small number of 
 
146 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION 
 
 the Russian Jewish people would be found as wage workers 
 in factories. But since immigration every year brings a 
 large number into this country, the very poor are by force 
 of circumstances compelled to begin as wage workers. The 
 transition from this position to that of the merchant and 
 the professional man will, therefore, be continuous, at least 
 for some time to come. 
 
 It should be added that at the present time Russian Jews 
 are covering the country as small merchants and are de- 
 veloping into business men for the sale of clothing, dry 
 goods, furniture, and the like. 
 
 In my judgment, the establishment of industrial schools 
 to which Jewish people could readily go would be very 
 helpful in diversifying their occupations. With their wit 
 and ability the Russian Jews ought to be able to develop 
 in scientific and mechanical pursuits. In the process of 
 civilization they would become much more important fac- 
 tors if they proceeded to qualify themselves along such 
 lines. I find, however, that among graduates of our scien- 
 tific and mechanical schools, through lack of the proper in- 
 fluence, it is often difficult to get a good footing, and this 
 tends to abate the desire to prepare for such pursuits. 
 
V 
 EELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 By Louis Lipsky 
 
 Managing Editor American Hebrew, Neio York City 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 By Rabbi Julius H. Gkeenstone 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By Mks. Benjamin Davis 
 
 147 
 
EELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 
 The subject of this inquiry is rather difficult, owing to 
 the complexity of its elements and the diversity of defini- 
 tions given to religion. 
 
 There are two conceptions of religion involved in this 
 subject, interwoven with the intensely interesting psychol- 
 ogy of the Jew. They are found side by side in the same 
 household and, consciously or unconsciously, are strug- 
 gling for supremacy. The one has pressed itself into the 
 very life of the older generation, and the other is as yet 
 an inchoate view — which has had no vital and permanent 
 influence on the lives of those who hold it. 
 
 That of the older generation amounts to this: Judaism 
 is a religion with its centre in the synagogue and ramifica- 
 tions in every department of life — in business, in the 
 home, in society. Affiliation with the synagogue is essen- 
 tial to a member of the Jewish religion. The Jew who 
 attains the proper age at once enters upon the responsibili- 
 ties of his Jewish citizenship, and ipso facto becomes a 
 member of a religion which requires obedience to law. Tra- 
 ditions are not only a heritage — the subject of scholarly 
 research — but an ever present and active influence on 
 every day life. Religion is the greatest part of life and 
 the synagogue the register in which every family enters 
 its name. 
 
 Had only this conception of religion existed with us in 
 New York, there would have been no difficulty in ascer- 
 taining the numerical strength of those affiliated with re- 
 ligion by means of a census of the Jewish community. But 
 with the Jews, and especially with that Jewish community 
 to which reference has been made, there never has been 
 self -consciousness enough to produce a desire to make a 
 numerical estimate of its strength, except when required 
 by the law of the land. 
 
 148 
 
NEW YORK 149 
 
 Now, the East Side is the battle ground where this old 
 representation of religion, accepted by the old generation, 
 meets in conflict with a new conception, as yet unorgan- 
 ized, feeble and vague, which is held by the new gen- 
 eration. 
 
 Conflict is to be expected in every progressive com- 
 munity. The conflict in the Jewish community of the 
 great metropolis is abnormally intensified by the various 
 democratic influences which radiate from the community at 
 large and which effectively bring about the assimilation 
 of the more adaptable individuals. 
 
 What is the attitude of the old generation to the forces 
 that are sweeping away their offspring from the ancient 
 strongholds? Seldom is it on their part more than mere 
 lamentation. They acquiesce in the inevitable and only be- 
 rate the modern spirit w^hich is radically undermining their 
 influence. 
 
 The older generation of Russian Jews show a lack of or- 
 ganizing power and not even the new influences of a demo- 
 cratic city have resulted in giving them that power. With 
 them, the new generation is incorrigible and they accept 
 this fact with the fatalistic resignation of the oriental. 
 They do not understand the new world. 
 
 The position of the newcomer to New York city is impos- 
 sible of conception by the ordinary observer. The stand- 
 ard of monarchy must give way to that of democracy; 
 authority is displaced by sectional anarchy. Communal 
 pride of a petty sort impresses the foreign Jew with the 
 necessity of joining a synagogue, but he finds very soon 
 that the necessity is not so forceful as he had at first sup- 
 posed. 
 
 The effect of this change in standards is to be seen in 
 the medley of congregations which may be found in the 
 city of New York, each with its limited territory and its 
 ignorance of the others. Instead of one compact Jewish 
 community with an organized centre we see group after 
 group forming on the basis of democracy, with a steady 
 defiance of all ecclesiastical authority beyond its own boun- 
 daries. 
 
 In the recent history of the Jewish community down- 
 town this group-anarchy may be noted by a few illustra- 
 tions. The Suwalker Chevra does not recognize the au- 
 thority of the Rev. So-and-So. The Roumanians settled 
 themselves in the upper part of down-town and are clearly 
 
150 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 a distinct clan. The immigrants from Suwalk, Minsk, 
 Odessa, etc., have their own congregations. 
 
 Formerly the rabbi of a congregation enjoyed his prerog- 
 atives with a feeling of power and a knowledge that obe- 
 dience to law as interpreted by him was the one evidence 
 of the true Jewish heart. In the loose community of New 
 York the same rabbi found rival authorities, and — more 
 important than all — a positive dislike of rabbinical au- 
 thority not the free choice of the layman. America means 
 to orthodoxy the breaking up of old communities, and the 
 consequent attempt to establish a community with elements 
 representing various local traditions and habits. 
 
 It will be of interest to note that practically all the con- 
 gregations have adopted the ceremonies of the old S3ma- 
 gogue, with very slight modifications — each with its own 
 idiosyncracies. The ritual is practically the same, except 
 in a sermon now and then, on a special occasion. The ser- 
 mon, or derasha, is usually given before the afternoon serv- 
 ices. The preachers, or maggidim, are seldom perma- 
 nently connected with any one synagogue ; they travel from 
 one congregation to another and receive their compensa- 
 tion by collections from the faithful the day following the 
 sermon. Few of these synagogues have religious schools 
 connected with them, and even the chedarim (schools), 
 which were often in the old country part of the synagogue, 
 are here, with a few exceptions, usually entirely severed. 
 The organization of modern children's schools is opposed 
 by virtually all the modern orthodox synagogues. The op- 
 position is based on the fear that is felt for all innovations. 
 
 The down-town synagogues are really institutional 
 churches. An enumeration of the activities connected with 
 the Forsyth Street synagogue will show this. It has a 
 chevra kadisha, consisting of over twenty members, who 
 perform all the rites connected with the burial of the mem- 
 bers of the congregation: the chevra is social, for it gives 
 banquets very often; on certain Sabbaths, its members 
 are accorded privileges at the reading of the law. The 
 same synagogue has organized a chevra schas or mish- 
 nayoth. This society has forty or fifty members, and 
 there are no dues; the members study the Talmud every 
 evening in the vestry rooms of the synagogue. The La- 
 dies' Benevolent Society consists of ^ over one hundred and 
 fifty members ; the dues are paid monthly, and are devoted 
 to charity. The congregation is interested in distributing 
 
NEW YOBK 151 
 
 matzoth during Passover. On specified Sabbaths prom- 
 ises of gifts are made for the Beth Israel Hospital, the 
 Machsike Talmud Torah of the East Side, and other good 
 works that may be brought to the attention of the congre- 
 gation. The synagogue supports a rabbi, a cantor or 
 ehazan, and a choir, and its doors are open for worship 
 morning and evening of every day. Its rabbi has no di- 
 rect supervision over the slaughterers of meat ; this matter 
 is in the hands of other communal functionaries. The 
 membership of the congregation is 150 and its annual in- 
 come is seven thousand dollars. 
 
 Though the synagogue is not directly interested in the 
 chedarim, the old generation shows its influence in the 
 numerous chedarim with which the East Side is dotted — ■ 
 all conducted strictly on old country methods. Children of 
 a Yery tender age are admitted to these schools and some 
 ambitious parents send their offspring to a cheder even 
 before it has attended a public school. The methods of 
 instruction are as antiquated as one could imagine. The 
 first years are devoted to teaching the art of reading, then 
 translations and finally the study of the Talmud. The 
 drill is continuous and wearing. Specimens of children 
 who attend these chedarim are not at all creditable as mod- 
 els of physical development. The cheder-bred youth has 
 his ear-marks, of which he is unable to rid himself even 
 when fully grown. The schoolrooms are insanitary and 
 often a menace to health, but from the opposition of the 
 patrons of these schools, one vfould gather that just these 
 features — the incessant drill, the long hours, the lack 
 of ventilation, the crowdedness, are essential. It has been 
 estimated that these schools on the East Side are equal to 
 the number of congregations; but figures cannot tell us 
 anything of value in this respect, because the number of 
 retired rabbis, chazanim (cantors) and sehochtim (official 
 slaughterers), who earn a pittance by instructing children, 
 cannot be counted; they are hidden away in the recesses 
 of many a tenement. 
 
 The older generation shows its influence also in the 
 Gemilath Chasodim Society, which is an altogether admir- 
 able society for the loaning of money to poor borrowers; 
 but this society, it must be confessed, would have been 
 of very little influence were it not for the substantial 
 assistance it received and still receives from gentlemen con- 
 nected with the up-town organizations. 
 
152 liELlGlOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 What is the attitude of this older generation to reform? 
 
 It is clearly and unmistakably orthodox, and has not 
 been as yet touched in the least by the reform wave which 
 has swept over the German communities. If anything, the 
 German reform movement appeals to very few — even 
 of the more advanced class in the down-town population. 
 The repulse of the Russian community by the German con- 
 gregations, though not meant, has resulted in a feeling of 
 distrust and dislike on the part of those who live down- 
 town. As a result, anything that may be attributed to 
 German reform is at once discountenanced by those who 
 are in charge of down-town affairs, or who may contem- 
 plate certain innovations. The old cling tenaciously to 
 all the customs possible of realization and form a com- 
 pact and immovable opposition to progress. 
 
 Yet the orthodox elements represent all the organized 
 forces of religion down-town, with the exception of one 
 or two societies which we shall mention hereafter. 
 
 It would be a narrow mind, however, that would look 
 only to the organized expression of religion for a com- 
 plete inventory of the religious life of any community. 
 Generally in every active community there is an under- 
 tow of radicalism which in its essence is religious and 
 which because of the unpalatable form which religion 
 takes with the orthodox, finds it impossible to affiliate. 
 
 The organized religious community is generally one-third 
 dead. That proportion of its adherents are successfully 
 ossified. Another third is composed of sluggish minds, 
 or those whom habit conquers, who cannot conceive of 
 anything new. The other one-third is composed of the 
 hangers-on, who are neither here nor there — too weak to 
 organize on their own platform and too timid to tear away 
 entirely from the old. 
 
 A large majority of the younger people of the East Side 
 are fully impregnated with genuine religious feeling. They 
 are opposed to religion because they think that the re- 
 ligion they oppose stands for the essence of all religion. 
 They are under the delusion at the present time that 
 the form of the religion is its spirit. 
 
 It is no exaggeration to say that one-half of the ma- 
 turing generation of the East Side is religious, and is 
 gradually finding itself, and it is not too much to hope that 
 it will soon give expression to its feelings on the subject 
 
NEW YORK 153 
 
 in some organized way. This does not mean, however, that 
 the spirit is specifically Jewish. 
 
 Already there are two organizations on the East Side 
 which represent the influence of the younger generation. 
 One organization is known as the Jewish Endeavor Society, 
 which is practically a self-supporting movement of young 
 men and women, directed by theological students. The aim 
 is a revival of interest in the orthodox Jewish religion. 
 The society has established Saturday afternoon services 
 and has placed on a respectable basis a number of classes 
 for the study of Jewish religion, Jewish literature and 
 Jewish ethical subjects. With one or two exceptions, all 
 the classes meet down-town, and are led by theological 
 students. Much has been expected of this society and 
 interested persons are of the opinion that it would serve 
 as an entering wedge for more religious organizations. 
 
 In the opinion of the writer, the Jewish Endeavor So- 
 ciety cannot be in any way effective as a focus for the lat- 
 ent religious feeling on the East Side; at the best, it 
 can only hope to gather about it a very small portion of 
 the yoimg people of the district. 
 
 It is a great error to think that all the young people 
 of the East Side have kept aloof of religion because the 
 ceremonies have proved distasteful or discordant. Such a 
 petty reason cannot be charged against them. Their oppo- 
 sition to the Jewish religion is not based on mere externals. 
 There are many among them who have been affected by the 
 progress of science and the spread of philosophical ideas 
 and have given serious consideration to the fundamentals 
 of religion. These enlightened minds, while not as yet 
 fully confirmed in a theory of religion, are still so pos- 
 itive as to what they do not believe that they cannot be 
 influenced by a revival of purified orthodox service. 
 
 Any form of religious service intended to be perma- 
 nent, or as a focus for the younger people of the East 
 Side, must combine not only a reverence for purified 
 ancient ceremonies and religion, but a clear conception 
 of the newer definition of religion which is taking hold of 
 modern men and women. 
 
 Another organization which does not lend itself so well 
 to the classification of a religious organization is the down- 
 town Society for Ethical Culture; however, the serious- 
 ness of the movement permits of its classification under 
 
154 • BELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 this head'. The latest utterances of Dr. Felix Adler on the 
 subject of sjTiibols, ceremonies, and religion, allow for the 
 prophecy that this society will have much to do in a positive 
 religious line of work in the near future. 
 
 The down-town section of the Ethical Culture Society 
 is in the hands of the East Side young men and young 
 women. It does its work in an educational way and has 
 under its charge a number of classes in the kindergarten. 
 Its weekly meetings have not been successful. The in- 
 fluence of this organization has been somewhat checked 
 by the method of its formation. The purpose was to 
 unite the young people of the district on a common eth- 
 ical creed, but the fact that the society accepted a sub- 
 sidy to do its work when it should have raised the required 
 money from its own membership gives countenance to the 
 prejudice that has arisen in some minds against the or- 
 ganization. The Ethical Society should not rest entirely 
 on the saintliness of its leaders and should demand of those 
 who affiliate with it a contribution to the cause equal to the 
 benefit they receive. 
 
 It is unnecessary to mention the benevolent organiza- 
 tions and charitable societies organized outside of the syna- 
 gogue, whose members are actuated by true religious feel- 
 ing. 
 
 It seems that the Jewish religion has had its effects on 
 the Jewish people in a way which gives one great hope for 
 their future. Everywhere they have settled, whether affil- 
 iated with a synagogue or not, their efforts have been di- 
 rected to good work in getting into right relations with 
 one's neighbors, which is the essence of religion. 
 
 Ranging on the fringes of the community, and in some 
 cases in the very heart of it, is that confused and defiant 
 army of radicals, w^hose fulminations against religion by 
 their very exaggeration lose their force. The student of 
 the East Side must not neglect this army; it is both a 
 menace and a benefit. It is a menace in its persistence 
 and the passion and rancor which it displays against 
 all forms of religion — all forms of enthusiasm, and every 
 phase of idealism, which the community may express. It 
 is a menace because the violent socialists and the enthu- 
 siastic anarchists seem to include in their condemnation 
 of religion the ethical side of religion. But even this army 
 has its good in its stinging of .the self-complacent ortho- 
 
NEW YORK 155 
 
 dox to defend themselves.^ These forces in their very na- 
 tures are doomed to be ineffective, for they stand for dis- 
 organization and anarchy. They represent in the Jewish 
 community what Robert Ingersoll represented in the Chris- 
 tian community: that is, opposition. 
 
 The radicals have of late come under the influence of 
 the Jewish national idea, and as a result they are less 
 bitter against the religious element than before. In their 
 newspapers they have abandoned the advocacy of inter- 
 nationalism, and have declared themselves Jews, but in a 
 national sense. No amount of rationalizing will check 
 the growth of the feeling that their interests are closely 
 allied to those of the Jewish people, and as a result we 
 may see a more friendly spirit toward religion and a more 
 liberal openness to essential religious influence than here- 
 tofore. 
 
 The elements I have described form a complete inventory 
 of the religious activity of the East Side, in so far as 
 such an inventory can be made.^ 
 
 The problem before those who would influence the growth 
 of religion on the East Side is not easy. The East Side 
 looms up before the imagination of the American Jew 
 as in a difficult situation because he has not been able to 
 grapple with the situation. When he contemplates the 
 East Side, he interprets its life to fit his own conceptions 
 and views dissimilar conditions without discernment. If 
 there is any improvement he believes it must follow the 
 line of his own thinking and experience. 
 
 Now, obviously, the work on the East Side cannot be 
 conducted without consideration of the elements which may 
 be found there. There are orthodox Jews on the East 
 Side, there are atheists, there are disciples of Emerson, 
 there are followers of Kant and Comte, there are even the- 
 osophists and spiritualists in some number. 
 
 ^ The Christian missions for children have become very active. They, too, 
 are arousing the orthodox Jews of the district to the need of providing some 
 religious instruction, based on modern methods, for their children. But the 
 absence of precedents, the lack of a common understanding, makes the success 
 of any venture decidedly problematic. The so called " up-town " element is 
 also interested and may initiate some institutions which will counteract the 
 work of the missionaries, (whose work cannot be commended for its good 
 influences). The Lucas classes may be mentioned. The Emanu El Brother- 
 hood is also working on the same lines. 
 
 - I prefer not to give statistics on this subject. A thorough study of the 
 figures is being made by Superintendent David Blaustein of the Educational 
 Alliance, but there will, in my judgment, be little illumination in the figures, 
 for in such a heterogeneous mass the mere statement of numbers has little 
 significance. 
 
156 * RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 The true educator is he who fits his methods to his pupils, 
 and if the aim is the development of religious feeling he 
 has no right to impose any phase of religious belief 
 on those to be instructed. 
 
 It is not with the children that the religious problem 
 concerns itself. The propagandists can effect very little 
 in the community by imposing a form of religion. The 
 Jewish religion can boast of being creedless. It demands 
 simply a true heart, and to walk in the right path. 
 
 The only way that feeling can be instilled as a belief 
 in life is by developing it according to the best methods with 
 the material that is found among the people, with the 
 germs of the religious feeling that are there. 
 
 If there are orthodox young men the philanthropist or 
 educator should instill orthodoxy in them. If there are 
 Emersonians among the young people (and no one will 
 deny that the Emerson influence is religious), it is their 
 duty to lead the Emersonian philosophy into an organized 
 form. If there are believers in Kant, whose belief is so 
 strong within them that they may be stimulated to or- 
 ganize for the propagation of their beliefs, the duty of 
 the worker is to assist them and ask them no questions as to 
 the orthodoxy or reform of their Judaism. If there are 
 young people who believe that ethics only are essential, and 
 religion secondary, and they are firm in their belief, the 
 true worker will use this as a basis of organization among 
 these young people — the point being always to utilize the 
 germs of religious feeling in the formation of an organi- 
 zation — there to allow it to be developed. 
 
 Religion is a great indefinable influence, which no man 
 can mark or limit, and it shows itself in innumerable 
 aspects. In its essence it is neither Jewish nor Christian. 
 It includes all of these, and he who would stimulate religion 
 in a community which is so complex as the Jewish com- 
 munity of New York must make it his purpose not to fur- 
 ther partisan views of religion but to be content if he 
 further the growth of that greater religion which holds 
 in its hands all minor revelations of itself. 
 
(B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 That Judaism is more a religion of deed than of creed is 
 best illustrated in the present time by the life of the Rus- 
 sian Jew. Religion with him is co-extensive with life, it 
 regulates every detail of his daily existence and is so inter- 
 woven with every movement and action of his being that 
 he never stops to question its authority. Even those who 
 by contact with other civilizations and with other forces 
 have changed their opinions about many of the sources and 
 reasons of Jewish observances, are reluctant to abolish these 
 observances from their daily life, so strong is communal 
 opinion and so ingrained have these customs become in the 
 very being of the Jew. The communities are organized in 
 accordance with these customs, the whole social fabric in 
 the Pale of Settlement is dependent upon these habits and 
 ceremonies, the dignity and position of the members of the 
 community are measured by their adherence to these laws 
 and ordinances. So that, whereas we frequently meet with 
 Jews in the smallest towns of the Pale who entertain the 
 most unorthodox views, there are few, indeed, who would 
 dare to indulge in unorthodox observances. The custom 
 and habit of many centuries have not only surrounded all 
 truly religious observances with halo of inviolable sanctity, 
 but have also stamped many other actions — accretions from 
 without — that have nothing to do with Judaism, with the 
 religious sanction. For example, it took many years of 
 heated discussion and disquiet before the Russian Jew be- 
 came reconciled to the idea that the wearing of a short 
 coat is not in conflict with Judaism, or that sitting bare- 
 headed in one's house is not necessarily an indication of 
 religious laxity. In fact, there are hundreds of Jewish 
 communities even now in Russia, the members of which 
 are horrified to see one of their brethren dressed in accord- 
 ance with European fashion. It is the reverence for prece- 
 dent and tradition which in the minds of the Russian Jew 
 led to the inclusion of many such outward details that 
 have apparently no bearing on religion. 
 
 157 
 
158 . RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 What 'a tremendous shock all these views and opinions 
 receive when the same Russian Jew enters this land of per- 
 sonal liberty and unrestrained individualism. A complete 
 stranger to the public, the force of its opinion dwindles into 
 insignificance so far as he is concerned. Coming in most 
 cases with the intention of improving his economic condi- 
 tion, he is soon confronted with the awful problem of 
 Sabbath observance. His veneration for the old observ- 
 ances having been shaken, his opinions about the sacred- 
 ness of the institutions of society, as they exist in the old 
 world having been changed when he first viewed the statue 
 of liberty and received the explanation of its significance, 
 and later when he listened to the first stmnp orator or read 
 the first newspaper that came his way, it was easy to sub- 
 mit to the custom of the land, which to his mind, became 
 identical with breaking away from all that was regarded 
 as sacred and inviolable in his native province. The power 
 of discrimination and acute analysis is not the common 
 property of the multitude. The majority of men are un- 
 able to distinguish between the essential and the non-essen- 
 tial, and the average Russian Jew is no exception to this 
 rule. With one sweep of the hand he changed his notions 
 about religion and religious observance, together with his 
 ideas about politics and government. Many a young man, 
 who was firm in his religious convictions, while in his native 
 village, who having heard of the religious laxity prevalent 
 in America, had fully made up his mind not to be misled 
 by the temptation and allurements of the free country, suc- 
 cumbed in his struggle and renounced his Judaism when 
 first submitting his chin to the barber's razor,^ at the en- 
 treaties and persuasions of his Americanized friends and 
 relatives. Religion then appeared to him not only distinct 
 from life but antagonistic to it, and since it was life, a free, 
 full, undisturbed life that he sought in coming here, he felt 
 compelled — and gradually habit and example made the 
 compulsion agreeable — to divorce himself from all the re- 
 ligious ties that had hitherto encompassed him. Thus it is 
 that the immigrant Jewish youth, not only those who had 
 embraced other teachings and theories before their arrival 
 in America, not only those who had cast their lot with the 
 Russian martyrs for liberty in their native land, but even 
 the simple, unsophisticated young men or women who had 
 
 1 Shaving is prohibited according to ancient Jewish law. Leviticus, xix, 27; 
 xxi, 5. Comp. Talmud, Makkoth, 20a et seq. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 159 
 
 been faithful and loyal to tlie institutions of old and who 
 desired to conduct their lives in accordance with the pre- 
 cepts of their religion, became estranged from Judaism and 
 suffered themselves to be carried along by the tide, with- 
 out offering any struggle for the maintenance of their cher- 
 ished ideals. The old had become impracticable, had inter- 
 fered with their pursuits and desires, and they were not 
 strong enough, morally or intellectually, to select the good 
 and the essential, and harmonize them with the new life 
 into which they had been forced. Thus it is that the immi- 
 grant Jew in America has frequently become callous and 
 indifferent, and sometimes cynical and antagonistic, to 
 everything pertaining to Judaism. 
 
 Although the great bulk of early Jewish immigrants to 
 America consisted of young people, it was not very long 
 before their elders, their fathers and mothers, were invited 
 to settle here. After one member of the family had ac- 
 cumulated some wealth, and established himself in business, 
 he was anxious that the other members should be provided 
 for, and when two or three brothers and sisters had settled 
 here, it was natural that they should desire to have their 
 parents with them. It is comparatively easy for a young 
 man, especially one who is confronted with the disagreeable 
 duty of serving for four years in the army without any 
 prospect of advancement, to renounce all ties and leave the 
 place of his birth, but it becomes an entirely different mat- 
 ter when older people, who have spent most of their lives 
 in one place, are asked to sever all connections and begin 
 life over again under new conditions. There are also the 
 troubles of the journey, the passage of the boundary line, 
 the great sea voyage, all of which appear insurmountable 
 to the old, inexperienced villager of the Pale. Still, the 
 love for their children, and the desire to be with them, in 
 most cases enabled the parents to overcome all these difficul- 
 ties and fears, and they safely arrived in the '' free coun- 
 try," were lovingly received by their children and estab- 
 lished in the new home provided for them. The old mother 
 immediately assumes the duties of the household, and her 
 husband, after a few days of sight-seeing, is either initiated 
 into some easy labor, or is left alone to spend his time as he 
 sees fit, his support being provided for by his children. 
 Glad as they are of the fine appearance of their children, 
 of their modern ways and their business successes, 
 they cannot suppress a sigh at beholding their shaved chins, 
 
160 . RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 or at seefng them eat their breakfast without having put 
 on their phylacteries, prayed, washed their hands and pro- 
 nounced the blessings before and after the meals — customs 
 which they held sacred and inviolable. Their religious sen- 
 timents are constantly outraged by the actions of their 
 children, and their cup of sadness and disappointment is 
 filled to overflowing, when, on the first Sabbath they behold 
 their children depart for their daily occupations. Who can 
 measure the misery and wretchedness of the parents, 
 strangers in a strange land, at seeing that which they re- 
 garded as dearer than life violated, voluiijtarily, by their 
 own children? Many a father spent his first Sabbath in 
 America in weeping and lamentation, many a mother turned 
 hers into a day of mourning, a real Tisha B'ab (the ninth 
 day of the month of Ab, the anniversary of the destruction 
 of Jerusalem; the Jewish memorial day of mourning). 
 They could not command as they would have done in their 
 old home, for they are dependent upon their children. 
 They cannot argue, for their arguments are met either with 
 ridicule or with explanations of inexorable, unanswerable 
 problems of economy which they do not understand. They 
 can only silently weep at their misfortune and regret the 
 day that they set foot in this ' ' tref a medinah, ' ' this unclean 
 land. In course of time, however, they become reconciled 
 to conditions and though they themselves still adhere to the 
 old customs and institutions of their religion, they regard 
 as natural that the younger generation should disregard 
 religious precepts and ceremonies. Some have engaged in 
 business themselves and learned by experience the many 
 temptations and allurements which constantly beset the 
 way of the young and to which even some of the older peo- 
 ple succumb. The old Jewess may still curse Columbus for 
 his great transgression in discovering America, where her 
 children have lost their religion, the old father may still 
 relieve his burdened heart on the high holy days by reciting 
 the confession of sins, but in the course of the year, they are 
 either too much engrossed in other affairs or they become 
 too much accustomed to religious violations to utter words 
 of censure or regret. Thus the young go their way unmo- 
 lested by the importunities of their parents. The old go 
 theirs also. They organize synagogues and try to introduce 
 here all the provincialisms and crudities to which they were 
 accustomed in the small villages of Russia or Galicia whence 
 they came. At home, some of the young men or women. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 161 
 
 whose regard for their parents' sensibilities is greater than 
 for their own convenience, perfunctorily observe the minu- 
 tiffi of religion, whilst others disregard them even when in 
 the presence of their elders. Among the enthusiastic Rus- 
 sian Jewish youth there may also be found some, who, en- 
 snared in' the meshes of nihilism or socialism, as they under- 
 stand the terms, consider it their duty to make converts to 
 their new faith, and begin their missionary labors at home, 
 thus embittering the lives of their parents by senseless and 
 vexatious disputes. But these are in the minority; most 
 of the young people are entirely indifferent and callous to 
 their religion; they follow the smallest details of religious 
 observance in the presence of their parents out of respect 
 for them and disregard the most elemental institutions of 
 i'udaism when away from their homes. In neither case 
 does there exist a genuine sympathy between the young and 
 the old. The religious activities of the early Russian Jew- 
 ish settlers were therefore entirely one-sided, made to har- 
 monize with the needs and the habits of the older people. 
 The generous, young, Americanized Jews permitted their 
 parents to introduce the old ways into the new land. Even 
 when they contributed toward the support of the syna- 
 gogue, they did so not out of the sense of supporting an 
 institution that was needed, but to indulge the old people 
 in their whims and follies. They did not attempt to gain 
 control of these institutions, for they did not want them. 
 The institutions have therefore become counterparts of sim- 
 ilar ones in the small villages of Russia, wanting, however, 
 the features which make the latter influences for good in the 
 community. The congregations are sometimes character- 
 ized by a spirit of conmiercialism, not at all in harmony 
 with the cause they represent and lacking the essential char- 
 acteristics of a congregation by failing to unite the various 
 elements into one body or to inspire them with broad relig- 
 ious feeling. 
 
 When Russian Jews first came in large numbers to Phila- 
 delphia most of the Jewish congregations in the city had 
 already introduced reforms in their services. Religious 
 scruples, social differences, and a spirit of clannishness that 
 is natural to foreigners caused the Russian Jews to form 
 synagogues of their own. The only orthodox synagogue 
 where the services were conducted in strict accordance with 
 tradition was the Portuguese Synagogue Mickve Israel, but 
 Xhere the social distinction was still greater and the differ- 
 
162 EELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 ence in the pronunciation of the Hebrew and in the ritual 
 made the service almost unintelligible to the Russian Jewish 
 immigrant. The German Jewish population had at that 
 time moved to the upper sections of the city, whereas the 
 Russian immigrants settled mainly in the district south 
 of Spruce Street, so that distance combined with other causes 
 to force the newly arrived immigrants to organize congre- 
 gations of their own in the districts where they lived. Al- 
 ready before the general exodus from Russia in the early 
 eighties there was a small Jewish community in Port Rich- 
 mond, in the northeastern section of the city, which main- 
 tained its own synagogue. But, as it appears, the later 
 arrivals preferred to remain in the southern section, and 
 in the course of but a few years a flourishing Jewish com- 
 munity with synagogues and other religious institutions was 
 established in the district bounded by Spruce Street on the 
 north, "Washington Avenue on the south. Broad Street on 
 the west, and the Delaware River on the east. The two 
 largest synagogues belonging to the congregations B'nai 
 Abraham Anshe Russia (organized in 1882) and Kesher 
 Israel (formerly B'nai Jacob, organized in 1883), are situ- 
 ated on Lombard Street, the first on the north side above 
 Fifth, the second on the south side above Fourth Street. 
 These, however, were not the first congregations organized 
 by the Russian Jewish immigrants, nor were they the only 
 ones. In many cases the founding of a congregation pro- 
 ceeded along the following lines : A few individuals, usual- 
 ly such as came from the same town or district, feeling the 
 necessity of some concerted action, banded themselves to- 
 gether to form a beneficial society ordinarily bearing the 
 name of the town or district whence most of the members 
 came. The aim of such societies, in the first instance, was 
 to assist financially any of the members who might be sick, 
 to provide burial for the dead, and a death benefit for the 
 widow or orphan of a deceased member. After the society 
 became strengthened in numbers, a hall was hired for meet- 
 ing purposes and was converted into a praying room. With 
 the approach of the high holy days, a season when every 
 Jew feels the need of a synagogue, a reader was engaged 
 and seats sold to members or non-members. This brought a 
 considerable revenue to the society and after a few years, 
 in many cases, the organizations saved enough money to 
 begin negotiations for a synagogue building. Jews evinced 
 no scruples in regard to turning a church into a Jewish 
 
PHILADELPHIA 163 
 
 synagogue, and since the neighborhood was becoming more 
 and more Jewish, the Christians gradually moving to other 
 parts of the city, a church building was easily obtainable. 
 In fact, most of the Jewish synagogues in Philadelphia 
 were formerly Christian churches. The building was 
 bought and altered for purposes of Jewish worship and the 
 society imperceptibly turned into a congregation, retaining, 
 however, for a long period, its beneficial elements. In this 
 manner most of the Russian Jewish synagogues were 
 formed. The distinction between a chevra and a congrega- 
 tion consists in the fact that the former has no special build- 
 ing for religious worship, whereas the latter has. We 
 frequently meet with two or more chevras worshiping in 
 the same building on various floors, either because they 
 are unwilling to unite and buy a building of their own or 
 because, as is often the case, even when united they are un- 
 able to procure sufficient funds for a building. As might 
 be expected, these chevras conduct their services in many 
 cases in an undignified manner, the officers being interested 
 in the money they expect to realize from the service rather 
 than in the religious and moral improvement of the wor- 
 shipers. 
 
 The position of the rabbi in the Russian Jewish commun- 
 ity is peculiar. In Russia the rabbi is, as a rule, not con- 
 nected with any particular congregation but is regarded as 
 the ecclesiastical head of all the Jews. In larger commun- 
 ities he is given one or more assistants (dayyanim — • 
 judges) who help him in the administration of justice, 
 which is still one of the functions of the Russian rabbi, or in 
 the decision of ritual cases. Some congregations may select 
 for themselves preachers (maggidim) who interpret legal 
 or homiletie works to large gatherings, every day at dusk, 
 between the afternoon and evening services, and deliver 
 religious discourses on Saturday afternoons. The rabbi, 
 however, is looked upon as the chief of the community. He 
 rarely preaches, he sometimes visits the constituent syna- 
 gogues, and on the Sabbath preceding Passover and on the 
 penitential Sabbath (between New Year and the Day of 
 Atonement) delivers learned discourses at the largest syna- 
 gogue in town, to which all are invited. The majority of 
 the people rarely come in contact with the rabbi ; his great- 
 ness is measured not by his work among them, but by his 
 knowledge of Jewish lore and by his assiduity in study ; his 
 position is of the highest dignity and honor. 
 
164 • RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 It is ^tirely different with the rabbi in this country. On 
 account of the diverse elements of nationality and religious 
 proclivities, no one rabbi is satisfactory to all the members 
 of the community. Where the institution of chief rabbi 
 was tried it invariably failed for this reason. The individ- 
 ual congregations were either unable or unwilling to engage 
 the services of a rabbi and many of them even dispensed 
 with a hired reader, since almost every Jew is able and 
 anxious to read the services. The lay officers conduct all 
 the affairs of the congregation, the spiritual needs of the 
 older people are attended to by themselves or by one of 
 their number more learned than the rest, reading and inter- 
 preting portions of the rabbinic literature in the room ad- 
 joining the synagogue. The children are taught Hebrew 
 and religion at their homes or at the established religious 
 schools. The young people of older growth do not visit 
 the synagogue and do not care for religious instruction, so 
 that the services of a rabbi are regarded by them as super- 
 fluous. Still, with the increase of the population and the 
 more perfect organization of the community, the need of 
 a communal leader became obvious and some congregations 
 have elected a rabbi. To import a rabbi from Russia and as- 
 sure him a respectable livelihood was beyond the ability of 
 any single body, and the union of a few congregations in the 
 election of a rabbi, although attempted in a few instances, 
 could not succeed because of the divers elements and differ- 
 ent tendencies of each congregation. So that those con- 
 gregations which desired a rabbi had to satisfy themselves 
 with the material at hand and select from their midst a 
 learned man, authorized to decide religious questions, and 
 to undertake the control of their spiritual affairs. The 
 salary offered is usually very small, but many perquisites 
 fall to the share of the rablji. These consist of wedding 
 fees, fees for the supervision of the ritual slaughter of ani- 
 mals, fees for the supervision of the ritual preparation of 
 various articles of food for the Passover, and of occasional 
 presents by wealthy members. In return the rabbi is ex- 
 pected to preach occasionally in the s3Tiagogue and to an- 
 swer questions of law and of ritual. It will be noticed from 
 his various duties and privileges here enumerated that the 
 relation between rabbi and congregation is not close, not 
 one of thorough sympathy and mutual \mderstanding. The 
 rabbi is still the rabbi of the community, not of an organ- 
 ized community, but one of individuals. Congregations 
 
PHILADELPHIA 165 
 
 frequently permit their rabbi to be elected by other con- 
 gregations also, without there being any union of interests, 
 and, on the other hand, many so-called rabbis arise who are 
 not connected with any congregation, but, being supported 
 by a few individuals, exercise the functions in a certain 
 district. There are always, however, two or three, who by 
 virtue of their activity and tact, succeed in making them- 
 selves nominally at least the heads of the community, and 
 in causing the people to respect their opinions on communal 
 questions. In Philadelphia, Rev. B. L. Levinthal, the rabbi 
 of the B'nai Abraham Congregation since 1891, and subse- 
 quently elected by a few other congregations, is recognized 
 as the chief of the Russian rabbinate, vv^iile Rev. A. H. 
 Ershler, of the Ahavas Achim Anshe Shavil Congregation, 
 and Rev. Nathan Brenner, of the B'nai Israel Congrega- 
 tion of Port Richmond, are also recognized authorities in 
 Jewish law and identified with a number of communal move- 
 ments. Besides these, there are a number of other rabbis, 
 some connected with congregations, others deriving a liveli- 
 hood from occasional fees — frequently given in an unbe- 
 coming manner. The evil of this system, however, is being 
 recognized by the Russian Jews as well as by their rabbis, 
 and the Union of Orthodox Rabbis, a national organization 
 established a few years ago, has made many attempts to 
 regulate the rabbinate, but so far with very little success. 
 There are three classes of educational institutions in a 
 Jewish community of Russia, the cheder, the Talmud Torah, 
 and the yeshibah. The first is usually a private venture 
 conducted by an individual who receives a stipulated sum 
 per semester for every child he instructs. The instruction 
 continues for the whole day and the subjects included in 
 the curriculum extend over the entire range of elementary 
 Jewish education, from the Hebrew alphabet to the study 
 of the Talmud and its commentaries. Religion per se, or 
 Jewish history is rarely taught in the cheder, the pupil 
 being expected to derive his knowledge of these subjects 
 from his study of the Bible and the Talmud. The Talmud 
 Torah is a public institution maintained by the commu- 
 nity for giving instruction free of charge to the children 
 of the poor. It is like the cheder except that it is less 
 modern in its methods. The yeshibah is a higher institu- 
 tion of learning where the Talmud and subsequent rabbinic 
 literature only are studied, under the guidance of a rosh 
 yeshibah (chief of the academy). This is usually a public 
 
166 • RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 institution and is maintained by contributions from various 
 communities and in a few instances from the whole Jewish 
 body, and even Jews outside of Russia. In the yeshibah 
 the instruction imparted by the teacher is of very little im- 
 portance. The greatest stress is laid on individual study 
 and research. The Russian government, true to its policy 
 of preventing assemblies of young people, no matter what 
 the object, looks with suspicion upon these academies, and 
 in 1892 closed the doors of the oldest and most famous, the 
 Yeshibah of Volosin, the pride of the Russian Jews. 
 Still many of greater or lesser reputation, depending en- 
 tirely on the erudition of their chiefs, still exist in Russia, 
 where the growing j^outh devote their years to the mastery 
 of the intricate literature of the rabbis. There is one 
 characteristic feature in all Jewish educational institutions 
 in Russia, — they are consciously or unconsciously kept 
 distinct from the synagogues. 
 
 The American public school system, under which every 
 child is expected to spend the greater part of the day in 
 secular studies, prevented the earlier settlers from introduc- 
 ing the educational methods to which they were accustomed. 
 The problem was partly solved for them by the Hebrew 
 Sunday schools which had been in existence in Philadelphia 
 many years before the Russian Jewish exodus. The Hebrew 
 Sunday School Society and the Hebrew Education Society 
 immediately took steps toward meeting the increasing de- 
 mands of the growing community and established schools 
 in the sections where the settlement was most dense. But 
 these schools, though largely patronized by children of 
 Russian Jews, were not considered sufficient by their par- 
 ents, either because Hebrew was not regarded as of prime 
 importance in the curriculum, or because the modern 
 methods employed in these schools were looked upon by 
 them with suspicion. Hence the cheder was introduced 
 here, of course in a greatly modified form. The most com- 
 mon custom is to have the teacher come to the pupil 's house 
 after school hours every day and instruct him in the rudi- 
 ments of Hebrew, especially that which is used in public 
 worship. These teachers receive a very moderate compensa- 
 tion. They are frequently altogether unacquainted with 
 pedagogic principles. The more advanced teachers, after 
 some struggle and privation, succeeded in obtaining a 
 patronage large enough to warrant their opening a school 
 for the afternoon hours, where Hebrew is the chief and 
 
PHILADELPHIA 167 
 
 frequently tlie only subject of instruction. That these pri- 
 vate religious schools are productive of so little good is due 
 to various causes of which but a few will be mentioned here. 
 The teacher or rabbi, if he is experienced in teaching, which 
 is not always the case, is usually of foreign birth and train- 
 ing and has very little sympathy with the wants and desires 
 of the American child and no understanding of his tricks 
 and subtleties. The language used in instruction is in most 
 cases Yiddish, a language that is foreign to the pupil even 
 though he use it in conversation at home. The rewards 
 and punishments in use in these schools are obnoxious to 
 a child acquainted with the more refined methods of the 
 public schools. The system with which these teachers are 
 acquainted is the old system of the cheder under which the 
 child was expected to devote the whole day to Jewish sub- 
 jects, and it is very difficult for them to adapt themselves 
 to new conditions. If there is lack of sympathy and un- 
 derstanding between the immigrant father and the Ameri- 
 can trained child, there is open hostility between the rabbi 
 of the cheder and his pupils. These and other causes 
 militate against the cheder. 
 
 The need of providing instruction for the children of the 
 poor was made obvious to the leaders among the Russian 
 Jews, and a free school (Talmud Torah) was established in 
 1890, where religious instruction is given free of charge or 
 for a small fee, to the children of the poor. In course of 
 time, when the Jews began to move up-town, another school 
 was established there, and recently a third has been organ- 
 ized in the far southern section. These schools are attended 
 altogether by about 1,000 children and are supported by a 
 regular membership and by voluntary contributions. Ses- 
 sions are held every day of the week, including Saturdays 
 and Sundays, and the method of instruction differs very 
 little from that pursued in the cheder. During the past 
 year, in accordance with a resolution passed by the Union 
 of Orthodox Rabbis, a Hebrew high school (later, Yeshibah 
 Mishkan Israel) was organized by Rabbi Levinthal, where 
 instruction in Talmud and in the higher branches of Jewish 
 lore are imparted to boys of advanced age, with the view 
 to preparing them for the rabbinate. Judgment must be 
 reserved on this new venture until a later time. Some con- 
 gregations have attempted to organize schools in connection 
 with their synagogues, and in a few instances this has 
 proved highly successful. It should be added that in al- 
 
168 • RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 most all these institutions only boys are admitted, the girls 
 being left entirely without any religious instruction or re- 
 ceiving it at home or in the Hebrew Sunday School Society 's 
 classes. 
 
 A few attempts have been made to organize the young 
 people for religious purposes, but these have invariably 
 failed. The numerous societies of young people in the 
 southern section of the city make little or no provision for 
 religious education, their endeavors being mainly along 
 social and literary lines. The Hebrev/ Literature Society 
 is the oldest and strongest of the kind down-town. Its 
 former radical tendency is gradually disappearing and lec- 
 tures on strictly Jewish subjects are listened to with atten- 
 tion in its halls; but it has not yet taken a positive stand 
 in religious matters. The Young Men's Hebrew Union's 
 activities are social and broadly educational. There are 
 other societies composed of young people which make no 
 pretence, even in name, to any religious activity. The 
 Zionist societies, however, though not aiming directly at 
 religious improvement, exert a decidedly good influence on 
 their constituencies. Lectures on Jewish subjects are the 
 rule in these organizations and classes for instruction in 
 Jewish history and Hebrew meet with some success among 
 them. Since the establishment of the Zion Institute in 
 1902, a building especially devoted to Zionistic purposes, 
 the activity in these lines has increased. There is a library 
 and reading room, where a majority of the books and 
 periodicals are in Hebrew. Recently a decorous service 
 for the high holy days w^as instituted. The Zionist ideal, 
 which presupposes a strong national Jewish consciousness 
 among its devotees, cannot but be productive of stronger 
 religious sentiments, of a more virile interest in Israel's 
 past. 
 
 An attempt was made a few years ago to organize a 
 reform s^magogue down-town for those to whom the service 
 in the existing synagogues had become distasteful, Friday 
 evening services were held in a hall, in accordance with the 
 reform mode of worship and an English sermon was deliv- 
 ered by one of the up-town reform rabbis. But the attempt 
 failed for many reasons, the most prominent being the lack 
 of interest on the part of the down-town Jews. After a 
 short existence, the congregation was dissolved. Another 
 attempt to organize the young people in a religious body 
 was made under the name of the Jewish Endeavor Society, 
 
PHILADELPHIA 169 
 
 modeled after the New York society of the same name. 
 With the financial aid of the Council of Jewish Women, 
 this society arranged for Saturday afternoon services at one 
 of the largest synagogues down-town, with attractive sing- 
 ing and an English sermon. The services were conducted 
 in strictly orthodox style but were made decorous and at- 
 tractive. This also failed and its failure may be ascribed 
 to lack of interest in religious matters on the part of the 
 young people. As the result of a suggestion made by Eev. 
 Dr. Joseph Krauskopf , president of the Central Conference 
 of American Rabbis, at its convention in St. Louis during 
 the summer of 1904, more active propaganda were made 
 in the lower section of the city for the establishment of a 
 reform congregation. The Union of American Hebrew 
 Congregations sent its representative, Rabbi George Zepin, 
 to organize the movement. He succeeded in interesting 
 some down-town Jews in the movement and an organization 
 was effected under the name of Congregation Israel. 
 Down-town orthodox rabbis and laymen viewed the move- 
 ment with alarm, and a circular advising parents not to 
 permit their children to attend the services was distributed 
 broadcast in the down-town districts. During the high holy 
 days the attendance was quite large. It remains, however, 
 to be seen whether this mxovement will meet with greater 
 success than those that preceded it. 
 
 To obtain a glimpse of the future religious status of the 
 Russian Jews now living in Philadelphia, it is necessary 
 to consider the elements making up that body. It is quite 
 evident that from the older immigrants who arrived in this 
 country with settled habits and ideas very little can be ex- 
 pected. They will continue to live in the same manner as 
 they were accustomed to and observe the ceremonies that 
 have become part of their lives. Such as have become 
 estranged from religion are too few and their influence too 
 insignificant to demand particular attention. The hope of 
 Judaism in America rests with the young people and es- 
 pecially with those of the Russian immigrant class, both 
 because of their numbers and increasing influence and of 
 their superior intellectual attainments. It is these young 
 people that demand our especial consideration if we venture 
 a forecast of the future of Judaism in this or any other 
 part of the land. 
 
 Broadly speaking, we may divide the young people of 
 ^own-to\\Ti Jewry into three classes. Such a division is not 
 
170 • RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 compreliensive, but it will be sufficient to give an insight 
 into present conditions and will permit of conjecture as to 
 the future. 
 
 First. The young people that hail from the lower classes 
 of Russian Jewish society who have never had the advan- 
 tages of culture or education of any kind. These, on 
 arriving, constitute in America the great army of sweat- 
 shop workers and soon become the playthings of every un- 
 scrupulous demagogue. Oppressed by their employers, 
 who, in most cases, belong to the same social class, they 
 rebel, and in their ignorance confuse economic and relig- 
 ious problems and misinterpret the new theories of social 
 economy presented to them by the labor leaders. They be- 
 come not only indifferent to religion but also actuated by a 
 hatred toward everything that has a religious flavor. 
 Their leaders are mostly disappointed Russian students, 
 banished political offenders, or such other persons as have 
 become embittered by the state of affairs in Russia and who 
 carry their dissatisfaction with the political status in that 
 land into the realms of economy and religion. They find 
 ready listeners in the group of wretched, overworked, and 
 underfed laborers, who are glad to find sympathy among the 
 learned and who become willing disciples of all their the- 
 ories. 
 
 Second. The young people who come from the middle 
 classes of Russian Jewish society, who have had opportun- 
 ities for some refinement at home and some education at the 
 cheder and other institutions of Jewish learning and have 
 acquired some modern education through private instruc- 
 tion. These, on coming to America, either become petty 
 tradesmen, store-keepers, or, if they are successful in ob- 
 taining some support at the beginning, enter a professional 
 school and are graduated as lawyers or physicians, the two 
 favorite professions among Russian Jews in America. The 
 peddlers who sell on the installment plan, or the shopkeep- 
 ers, though many of them possess a good knowledge of Juda- 
 ism and of Jewish history, and are especially attracted by 
 the Zionist movement, having been compelled at first to 
 abandon many religious customs and institutions, become 
 careless about religion and indifferent to its behests. The 
 professional men also forsake religious practices either be- 
 cause they have become convinced atheists or agnostics or 
 because it pays them better to stand aloof from the syna- 
 gogue. It is an old paradox that Jews have greater respect 
 
PHILADELPHIA 171 
 
 for him who stands at a distance from them in religious 
 matters than for one who takes a most active part in the 
 synagogue. 
 
 Third. The young people who were born in this country 
 or were brought here in childhood and have had the ad- 
 vantages of a public school training. These should be the 
 chief concern of the communal worker, for on them the 
 future of Judaism mainly depends. Their religious edu- 
 cation is defective and their religious observances, if they 
 do observe anything in deference to their parents, lacks 
 spirit and interest. Most of them are not antagonistic to 
 religion, but are indifferent to it, and wholesome influences 
 may have a salutary effect upon their religious attitude. 
 They are unsympathetic with the existing synagogues be- 
 cause the synagogue offers them very little, it being entirely 
 managed and directed by the older people, who do not and 
 cannot understand them. They are indifferent to Jewish 
 practice because it has never been presented to them in a 
 light that would appeal to their more modern and more 
 cultured tastes. If synagogues were established exclusively 
 for these young people and their management directed 
 toward the needs of this rising generation, they could yet 
 be won over to a staunch Judaism. The time is probably 
 as yet unripe for such work, but it is not very far distant. 
 Modern synagogues, presided over by trained American 
 rabbis, will eventually be introduced in the Russian Jewish 
 sections of our large cities, and a more perfect and homo- 
 geneous religious body will be formed in American Israel. 
 
(C) CHICAGO 
 
 We find upon investigation that the Russian Jewish 
 people have accomplished more than they are generally 
 credited with, and that as soon as opportunity is open to 
 them they make good use of it and stand at least on a par 
 with their brethren of other nationalities. 
 
 They do not wish to be patronized, they desire to be 
 understood, and not being understood by their German 
 Jewish brethren, who often look down upon them, they 
 choose to dwell among their own kind and to live according 
 to their traditional customs. They are generally industri- 
 ous and thrifty, and their first interest, after providing for 
 their families, is in the synagogue and the religious school. 
 
 They are often charged witli being dirty, sometimes 
 filthy ; but if we reflect that after arriving on these shores 
 their first residence is generally in a neglected section of 
 the city, and the first object lessons they receive consist of 
 dirty streets and alleys and broken down tenements with- 
 out sanitary accommodations, we shall be less ready to find 
 fault. Put these immigrants into model houses where bath 
 rooms, pure air, and sunshine are not unknown, where the 
 members of the family can have sleeping rooms apart from 
 the common living rooms, so that privacy is not infringed 
 upon, and then if they do not come up to your expectations, 
 blame them if you will; but not while they are in such 
 dirty, restricted and ill-kept quarters. Blame, first, the 
 city administration that allows such disgraceful conditions 
 to exist; second, the niggardly householder who will not 
 keep his premises in decent condition, but extorts from the 
 poor exorbitant rental; and last, the weary mother of 
 numerous children, whose two hands must keep house and 
 children clean and perforin the many duties that devolve 
 upon her. Surely, the maxim of one of our sages, ' ' Judge 
 not thy fellow man until thou hast been put in his place, ' ' 
 should be borne in mind v/hen such charges are made. 
 
 Surrounded by so many unfavorable conditions, many 
 Eussian Jews notwithstanding consider it imperative to be- 
 
 172 
 
CHICAGO 173 
 
 long to a congregation and to provide religions instruction 
 for their children. They know that the public school will 
 attend to their secular education, so out of their scant 
 earnings they pay synagogue and Talmud Torah (relig- 
 ious school) dues. The synagogue plays a very important 
 part in the daily life of the orthodox Russian Jew, for his 
 life and religion are so closely interwoven that public divine 
 worship is to him a duty and a pleasure. The synagogue 
 is the religious and social centre around which the activity 
 of the community revolves and has now become, since the 
 formation of auxiliary loan societies, a distributing agency 
 for its various philanthropies, where " personal service " 
 is not a fad, but has always been recognized in dealing 
 with the unfortunate. Small wonder is it that the ortho- 
 dox Russian Jew clings to his synagogue. It is open not 
 only *' from early morn till dewy eve," but far into the 
 night, and in some cases the doors are never closed. Daily 
 worship begins early, so that the laboring man can attend 
 service and yet be in time for his work. There are morn- 
 ing, afternoon, and evening services — seldom attended by 
 women. Often the peddler 's cart can be seen standing near 
 the entrance while the owner is at prayer within. On 
 Sabbaths and holy days services are always well attended by 
 men and women, the latter occupying a gallery set apart 
 for their use. 
 
 Expense is not spared in making the exercises interest- 
 ing to the older people, but little is done to attract fhe 
 younger generation. The beautiful Hebrew language, 
 which they do not understand, is used exclusively in the 
 service. And when there is a sermon it is in Yiddish, and 
 rather tedious and uninteresting for the young people, who 
 are almost starving for that religious food which would 
 satisfy the heart and mind. 
 
 Connected with the synagogue is the beth hamedrash, or 
 house of learning, where students of religious literature 
 are always welcome, and Bible and Talmud are studied and 
 discussed. Many take advantage of the opportunity thus 
 afforded, and form study circles or meet for devotional 
 reading. There is much to attract and hold the older gen- 
 eration, who are continually receiving accessions from 
 abroad and in their lives the synagogue means much, if 
 not all worth striving for. 
 
 The beginning of a congregation is generally a minyan 
 or gathering of at least ten men for divine worship. This 
 
174 . RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 is held in* rented quarters. As soon as a sufficient number 
 of members are gained they resolve to form an organiza- 
 tion, and when funds are forthcoming a house of worship 
 is bought or built. 
 
 The Ohave Sholom Mariampol, the oldest congregation, 
 began in this way in 1872. Its property was destroyed 
 by fire in 1874, after which a hall was again rented. Its 
 membership increased rapidly, smaller congregations 
 joined it, and its present structure was erected in 1888 
 at a cost of $6,250. Nearly all the charitable organiza- 
 tions of the West Side can trace their origin to this 
 congregation, whose membership is now one hundred and 
 fifty. In 1890 certain members became displeased and 
 seceded, forming the Mislme U'gemoro Congregation, 
 excluding from membership all who were not strict ad- 
 herents of traditional law. They now have 55 members 
 and own their building. 
 
 The largest congregation is the Anshe Kenesseth Israel, 
 which was organized originally as Anshe Russia in 1875. 
 In 1887 it united with Kenesseth Israel and later Anshe 
 Suwalk joined. It now numbers 200 members, possesses 
 a building valued at $35,000, twenty Sepher Torahs (Scrolls 
 of the Law), and a large library for religious study circles. 
 
 The synagogues not only serve religious needs but do 
 a large amount of philanthropic work. There are about 
 twenty-five on the West Side, representing an investment 
 of approximately $90,000, and a membership of more 
 than 2,000. These congregations are self-supporting, 
 members contributing annual dues, ranging from $6 to 
 $12. Permanent or life seats are from $100 to $150 each. 
 Yearly rentals are from 50 cents to $5, entitling the 
 holder to a seat for himself and one in the gallery for his 
 wife or other female relative. In addition to synagogue 
 dues there are dues for the Talmud Torah (Hebrew Free 
 School) ; the Hachnosis Orchim (Shelter for Strangers) ; 
 the Beth Moshav Zkeinim (Home for the Aged) ; the 
 Lechem L'rovim (Bread for the Hungry) ; the Gomley 
 Chesed Shel Emeth (Association for the Free Burial of 
 the Poor) ; the free loan associations which loan money 
 to those in need and charge no interest; the yeshibahs or 
 strictly orthodox advanced schools of Jewish learning in 
 this city and in Russia; the Palestine chaluka or charity 
 for indigent Jews of the Holy Land. Before Pesach, or 
 Passover, a fund is raised to supply the poor with matzoth 
 
CHICAGO 175 
 
 (Passover cakes) and other necessaries, and when winter 
 sets in coal is given to poor familes. The Mariampol Con- 
 gregation now gives sick benefits and endowments to 
 members, but how this plan will work as time goes on re- 
 mains to be seen. 
 
 The few well-to-do men of a congregation often distribute 
 many tons of coal among the struggling poor, and with 
 the gift is generally given the friendship of the giver. 
 The poor man is not regarded as a beggar; he is encour- 
 aged to tell his troubles and difficulties and receives in 
 return friendly advice and assistance. The free loan 
 associations have proven a great success and deserve 
 special mention because the recipients of aid show a de- 
 sire not to accept charity except when dire necessity 
 compels. 
 
 The dues for all the auxiliary societies are collected by 
 paid agents who receive about six or seven dollars per 
 week. They are furnished with perforated stamp books, 
 in which each stamp is a receipt for five or ten cents. They 
 give these when they make the weekly collections. This 
 way of paying dues is found the most convenient for the 
 people of small income. 
 
 We should not be surprised that the Eussian Jews have 
 not established large institutions with their own means, 
 as the capital to be drawn upon is limited. It is estimated 
 that out of an income of seven or eight dollars per week 
 an average man gives twelve dollars per year for religious 
 or charitable purposes, that is, three per cent, of his gross 
 income. 
 
 The use of the synagogues is given freely for meetings, 
 religious, charitable, or educational. It shows a broad 
 sentiment, when, as was the case one winter, women were 
 allowed to speak from the pulpits of orthodox synagogues 
 and make appeals for the Beth Moshab Zkeinim Bazaar, 
 which was given for the purpose of erecting a home for 
 aged Jews, to be conducted according to orthodox custom. 
 The religious sentiment underlying this movement was 
 strong; it served to enlist orthodox Jews all over the city, 
 with the result that in less than a year's time the B. M. Z. 
 Association had bought a lot of ground in a good loca- 
 tion. The bazaar was then undertaken by a band of noble 
 men and women and the gross receipts amounted to over 
 $13,000, the expenditures about $2,000. This large 
 amount came chiefly from the pockets of the middle class 
 
176 , RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 and the poor, for tlie wealthy German co-religionists, with 
 a few noteworthy exceptions, held aloof. A Jewish phil- 
 anthropist encouraged the movement by a donation of 
 $20,000, on condition that a building valued at $40,000 be 
 erected. On May 3, 1903, the Home, costing in all about 
 $85,000, received its first inmates and it has been success- 
 ful in upholding religious regulations. A second bazaar 
 for the purpose of paying off a mortgage of $20,000 was 
 recently given and the amount realized was sufficient, leav- 
 ing the building free of debt. 
 
 One excellent result of this movement was the bringing 
 out of the younger people interested in orthodox Judaism 
 and the evidence it gave them of the effective power of 
 organization. Would that these young men and women, 
 reared in this blessed land of liberty, with enthusiasm 
 unbounded, with spiritual yearnings unsatisfied, could 
 find adequate provision made for them in the synagogue. 
 But there is none and they remain away. The only op- 
 portunity they have of hearing an English sermon or 
 prayer is in the reform or conservative temples, where 
 changes in the service have been made, of which they can- 
 not approve, but which they are gradually led to condone. 
 The strong attachment they feel for the traditions of 
 their fathers could yet be maintained and developed and 
 directed into desirable channels if the eyes of their elders 
 could be opened and they would insist on having a mod- 
 ern orthodox English preacher in the synagogue and some 
 portion of the service in English. 
 
 The young people are gradually drifting away from re- 
 ligious influences. They cannot and will not adapt them- 
 selves to the old methods that do not appeal to their spir- 
 itual instincts, and their elders cannot be made to realize 
 the necessity of the compromise, but go blindly their own 
 way. The result is that their sons and daughters are be- 
 coming ethical culturists, free thinkers, agnostics and 
 atheists. From a strict and to them unintelligent ortho- 
 doxy these have gone to the other extreme, because they 
 were not properly instructed in the principles of their re- 
 ligion, which are exemplified by its ceremonies. The 
 Sabbath is desecrated, and indifference in religious mat- 
 ters reigns. A modern orthodox English preacher imbued 
 with the old Jewish spirit could influence the younger 
 generation. A young people's synagogue should be estab- 
 lished on the West Side with attractive services and a 
 
CHICAGO 177 
 
 sermon on Sabbatli afternoons and at any other time that 
 might be deemed advisable. The older people do not will- 
 ingly break their Sabbaths and would be only too glad to see 
 that their children did not, but it seems they cannot take 
 the initiative in providing a religious stimulus for the 
 young people in accordance with modern methods. That 
 must come from those who understand the necessity 
 for immediate action. There are some who realize this 
 necessity but the opposition to any innovation is still 
 great and v/e can but hope that time and intelligence will 
 solve the serious problem. In the meantime, the young 
 people find satisfaction in forming Zionist societies and 
 literary, social and educational organizations, which fur- 
 nish them an outlet for their surplus energies. Foremost 
 among these are the Hebrew Literary Association (or- 
 ganized in 1885), the Self Educational Club (organized 
 in 1894), and the Gates of the Order Knights of Zion. 
 
 What is being done for the religious needs of the chil- 
 dren of the district? For the boys much, for the girls 
 comparatively little. The Moses Montefiore Hebrew Free 
 School, which is the principal religious school on the West 
 Side, has an attendance of 800 boys, ranging from four to 
 thirteen years of age. This is inadequate for the popula- 
 tion and the management has built a branch school which 
 accommodates about 600 boys. Chedarim or private 
 classes, are to be found in many blocks of the crowded 
 district. The hours and subjects taught are the same as 
 at the Talmud Torah, but in some instances more modern 
 methods are employed. Many of the classes are held 
 amid unhealthy surroundings in basements and living 
 rooms. They usually number from twenty to forty 
 pupils. About 1,200 boys receive instruction in these 
 classes. The children attend until they become bar mitz- 
 vah (formally admitted to the faith at the age of thir- 
 teen) or go to high school, when, if the parents can 
 afford, private teachers are employed. Probably 600 
 children take private lessons, paying from $2 to $5 per 
 month. The hours for those who attend the Talmud 
 Torah are from 9 A. M. to 3 :30 P. M. for children not at- 
 tending public school, and for older children from 4 P. 
 M. to 7:30 P. M. The subjects taught are the Hebrew 
 alphabet, reading, grammar, translation of the Penta- 
 teuch, Prophets, Hagiographa, into Yiddish, and portions 
 of the Mishna and Gemara. Sixteen teachers and two 
 
178 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 janitors are employed. Books are furnished to pupils 
 gratis when they are unable to pay for them. 
 
 During a visit to the Hebrew Free School, I found it a 
 rare treat to hear boys of six years of age and upwards 
 translate into Yiddish the Hebrew of the Pentateuch and 
 the Prophets and then repeat in English the substance of 
 what they had been learning. I was surprised to note 
 that many ethical lessons had been imparted by the 
 teacher during the course of his instruction. We are apt 
 to condemn the methods of these teachers because they 
 are not up-to-date. I doubt, however, if all our boasted 
 progress in educational work can produce as successful 
 results. Little boys translating and explaining from the 
 original the stories of Noah, of Joseph, of the Tribe of 
 Benjamin, or a chapter from Isaiah, with the ethical les- 
 sons to be derived therefrom, and receiving from the 
 teacher such commentary as no English translation con- 
 tains. And no breath of higher criticism, so-called, inter- 
 feres with the implicit belief in the occurrence of the 
 events described, but a deep sense of the omnipotence and 
 mercy of God and an unquestioning faith in divine provi- 
 dence are inculcated. 
 
 I almost forgave the uncleanly condition of the build- 
 ing, the lack of ventilation of the rooms, although there 
 were many windows through which fresh air could have 
 entered; the loud tone of the recitations; the pounding on 
 the desk for order, and the untidy appearance of some of 
 the boys, — when I saw before me so many bright faces 
 full of energy and intelligence, and above all, faith. Why 
 need we feel discouraged as to the future of Judaism in 
 this country when we see a rising generation trained in 
 Jewish lore, and in the secular knowledge which the pub- 
 lic school offers, that will mold its destinies? For these 
 children of Russian and Polish Jewish parentage have 
 within them all the elements that will give them power 
 when they grow to manhood. The ambition, perseverance 
 and scholarship which is their inheritance and which will 
 find an outlet under the free institutions of this great 
 country, if properly directed by men and women of cul- 
 ture and piety, will serve to hasten the end of what Zang- 
 will terms a ** transitional " period in Judaism. 
 
 But to direct them aright? Have they the men and 
 the women to do it? Some who could be leaders have de- 
 serted their people, have moved to fashionable quarters, 
 
CHICAGO 179 
 
 and to their sliame, be it said, pay no heed to the needs 
 of the district from which they hailed, and rather wish to 
 sever their connection with those they left behind. Others 
 have the ability and the will, but cannot spare the time. 
 Let us hope that the period is not far distant when from 
 their own ranks will arise teachers and leaders, imbued 
 with the modern spirit and the old scholarship and rever- 
 ence for the law and its traditions, who will instill into the 
 minds of the children such respect for the historical cere- 
 monies of Judaism, by dwelling upon the great ethical 
 principles that underlie them, that they will not fail to 
 observe them, for only by the intelligent practice of these 
 ceremonies can Judaism be preserved and fulfil its 
 mission. 
 
 The ethical value of religious observance is great, 
 though not so generally recognized because the mechanical 
 performance of a precept — although it in itself carries 
 an ethical lesson with it — has been impressed upon the 
 child's mind to the exclusion of its spiritual meaning. 
 However it may be in Europe, in this country a boy or 
 girl instinctively seeks a reason for everything. When 
 he is not taught the reason for religious observances, they 
 lose their value in his eyes, and he often disregards them 
 as unworthy of the enlightenment of the present day. 
 Where, as is so often the case, home training is insuifi- 
 cient, the religious school should step in and supply the 
 deficiencies. Not only should the meaning of the laws 
 and ceremonies be taught to young and old, but also the 
 difference between an obligatory and an optional precept 
 (din and minhag). The neglect of this branch of instruc- 
 tion brings about serious dangers. The local rabbis in 
 their Yiddish derashas (sermons) are content to expound 
 this or that passage of Holy Writ, ignoring entirely pres- 
 ent conditions and dangers; an English speaking rabbi 
 who could influence the young is unknown in the district. 
 Even the sanctity of the Sabbath is being violated to a 
 much greater extent than would be the case were some 
 powerful voice raised against it. While the majority of 
 the older people are strict in their observance of it, 
 especially in the home, where it is greeted by even the 
 poorest with a little special preparation, many of the 
 young men and women are compelled by economic condi- 
 tions to work on the Sabbath. Are these to be censured 
 as much as the Russian Jews who own large mercantile 
 
180 BELiaiOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 establishtnents in the heart of the Jewish district, who are 
 far beyond want, whose employees are Jewish, whose 
 customers are Jewish, and who keep their places of busi- 
 ness open on the Sabbath and on Sunday as well? Many 
 realize the insidious danger of such flagrant violations of 
 the Sabbath, but as yet only a feeble effort has been made 
 to check them. If the rich, who are the employers of the 
 poor, could be influenced, some effective work might be 
 accomplished. 
 
 The fact that there is no provision made for religious in- 
 struction of the girls, except through their home training, 
 led the Chicago Section of the Council of Jewish Women 
 to open a Sabbath school for them. It was successful from 
 the start. Three hundred girls took advantage of the op- 
 portunity afforded; many more were turned away for 
 lack of accommodation. Sinai Congregation contributed 
 the greater part of the funds and flnally took the school 
 under its supervision. The sessions are held weekly on 
 Sabbath afternoons from 2 to 4 o'clock in the Jewish Man- 
 ual Training School. There are now over 400 pupils in 
 attendance. 
 
 A few of the residents who understand the needs of the 
 district have started a religious school where 200 boys and 
 girls receive instruction in Hebrew, Jewish history and re- 
 ligion; but the school is yet in its infancy and struggling 
 for existence owing to lack of financial backing. Sessions 
 are held twice a week. 
 
 Another hopeful sign of an awakening to the needs of 
 the present day was the opening of a religious school by 
 the Chicago Zion Gate, Order Knights of Zion. About 
 150 boys and girls attend this school, which holds its ses- 
 sions on Sabbaths and Sundays. Fifty of the older boys 
 have organized a club called Sons of American Zionists, 
 and have bought out of their own treasury a small library 
 of Jewish books in the English language. English is used 
 by the teachers and modern methods prevail in the school. 
 Hebrew songs are included in the course of instruction. 
 There should be many such schools not only for weekly 
 but for daily sessions, and where girls as well as boys are 
 welcome. But help must come from outside the district, 
 for the drain upon the income of the residents is already 
 too great. 
 
 The Zionist movement is also one of the causes which 
 has led to a religious awakening, and has resolved itself 
 
CHICAGO 181 
 
 largely into an educational revival, chiefly on matters of 
 Jewish interest. Although the older people have not to 
 a great extent joined the movement, their sympathies 
 have been enlisted; the young people, however, grasped 
 its great significance, and many who had drifted away 
 from Judaism have been won back, have begun to take an 
 interest in Jewish subjects, and to study the Jewish situa- 
 tion. The Zion societies study Jewish history and litera- 
 ture and the Hebrew language, and do literary and social 
 work. After the second Basle Congress the success and 
 stability of fraternal orders in America being noted, the 
 order Knights of Zion was organized, and has proven suc- 
 cessful. It consists of a number of Gates. The Chicago 
 Zion Gate, besides holding study meetings for its own 
 members, opened the religious school referred to. The 
 Kadimoh Gate, composed of young men, conducts a read- 
 ing room and gives courses of Friday evening lectures on 
 Jewish topics. The Clara De Hirsch Gate has a Bible 
 class and furnishes a teacher for the religious school. In 
 fact, wherever a Zion organization is formed some kind 
 of religious study is introduced, and the seeds sown will 
 undoubtedly bear fruit in the future, for the Jewish con- 
 sciousness has been aroused. These Zionist societies and 
 other fraternal orders, in conjunction with the Hebrew 
 Literary Association, the Self Educational Club, the 
 Beaconsfield and sundry social clubs, together with the co- 
 operation of the rabbis of the city, and the Council of 
 Jewish Women, could by united action maintain a young 
 people's synagogue and daily religious schools free from 
 the objections urged against the chedarim. The younger 
 generation would attend in large numbers and the chil- 
 dren would be kept from the evil influences of the street 
 and the alley. 
 
 The Rabbinical Association has made the experiment of 
 holding Friday evening services in the Jewish Manual 
 Training School, and reports sufficient encouragement to 
 warrant continuance. 
 
 The young people are aroused to the importance of ac- 
 tion. This is evidenced by their interest in a movement 
 which is now launched by them for a Chicago Hebrew 
 Institute that shall include synagogue, religious schools, 
 classes, clubs, gymnasium, and the various forms of mod- 
 ern culture and entertainment, physical, moral and in- 
 tellectual, under Jewish auspices, with the doors open for 
 
182 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITY 
 
 worship; study, and recreation. The time is ripe for such 
 a movement. The Russian Jews are overburdened by their 
 obligations. The young people, particularly, need intelli- 
 gent, unselfish, enthusiastic leadership. Who will become 
 the torch-bearer to this people, singularly gifted with re- 
 ligious enthusiasm and respect for scholarship? 
 
VI 
 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 U) NEW YORK 
 By J. K. Paulding 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 By Chakles S. Bernheimer 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By Philip Davis 
 
EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 
 The agencies at work for the education of the Russian 
 'Jew in New York are so various that their mere enumera- 
 tion would extend, in all probability, over a whole page of 
 this present volume. In the wider sense attaching to the 
 word education at the present day there would have to be 
 included in such an enumeration more than a passing ref- 
 erence to the conditions, physical, industrial, and moral, 
 in which the lives of the Jewish immigrant and his chil- 
 dren are set. The mere geography of his environment, 
 when consideration is had for its effect upon overcrowd- 
 ing, could not be ignored. The influence of the shop, of 
 the home, and of the society about him, would have to be 
 examined and estimated if one would gain a correct con- 
 clusion concerning the education — in this, its wider sense 
 — which the Jew is receiving in the process of his trans- 
 formation from an Old-World subject into a citizen of 
 the New. 
 
 It is not, however, primarily with this wider aspect of 
 the educational problem that the present paper has to do. 
 In its narrower sense, education includes only those agen- 
 cies that are consciously at work for the training of mind, 
 body or character. In a sense narrower still, the term ed- 
 ucation is sometimes confined to the first of these three — 
 the training of the mind; but since the discoveries of 
 Froebel and Pestalozzi of the value of the children's 
 play-hour, to say nothing of the possibilities of character- 
 building through direct moral instruction, this would be 
 held but an unsatisfactory definition of the province of 
 human life over which education, as a science, is set in 
 authority. 
 
 Such conscious agencies for the education of the people 
 are everywhere divided into three classes: — (1) the State 
 directed; (2) those instituted and carried on by private 
 philanthropists whether in societies or as individuals; and 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 185 
 
 (3) those arising from the people themselves. To one 
 or another of these three classes may be referred every 
 effort making at present for the education of the Russian 
 Jew in New York. 
 
 Of course the first of all such agencies, in the extent of 
 its influence, is the public school. There are public schools 
 in New York, which, on the Day of Atonement, or some 
 other religious holiday, are almost emptied of their pupils. 
 A reference to the subjoined table^ will give ample evi- 
 
 SCHOOL LOCATION 
 
 131 272 2nd St. 
 
 79 42 1st St, 
 
 13) (289 E. Houston St. 
 
 13 \ 1239 E. Houston St. 
 
 22 / I Stanton and Sheriff Sts. 
 
 22 3 ( Stanton and Sheriff Sts. 
 
 174 125 Attorney St. 
 
 20 ) I Rivington and Eldridge Sts. 
 
 20 f ) Rivington and Eldridge Sts. 
 
 160 I \ Rivington and Suffolk Sts. 
 
 160 i 1 Rivington and Suffolk Sts. 
 
 4 Rivington and Ridge Sts. • 
 
 88 Rivington and Lewis Sts. 
 
 140 116 Norfolk St. 
 
 161 Delancey and Ludlow^ Sts. 
 92 Broome and Ridge Sts. 
 
 120 187 Broome St. 
 
 34 ) ( Broome and Sheriff Sts. 
 
 34 ) I Broome and Sheriff Sts. 
 
 110 Broome and Cannon Sts. 
 
 137 Grand and Ludlov^^ Sts. 
 
 75) (25 Norfolk St. 
 
 75 ( 125 Norfolk St. 
 
 71 i Hester and Chrystie Sts. 
 
 7 f ) Hester and Chrystie Sts. 
 
 42 ) ( Hester and Orchard Sts. 
 
 42 i i Hester and Orchard Sts. 
 
 144 Hester and Allen Sts. 
 
 1 ) ( Henry and Catharine Sts. 
 
 1 J ( Henry and Catharine Sts. 
 
 2 116 Henry St. 
 147 289 E. Broadway 
 
 12 371 Madison St. 
 
 177) (Monroe and Market Sts. 
 
 177 J 1 Monroe and Market Sts. 
 136 68 Monroe St. 
 
 31 Monroe and Gouverneur Sts. 
 112 83 Roosevelt St. 
 
 REGISTRATION 
 
 NO. JEWS 
 
 PER CENT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 JEWS 
 
 1496 
 
 
 
 1448 
 
 99 
 
 2197 
 
 
 
 1800 
 
 82 
 
 951 
 
 (G. 
 
 D.) 
 
 893 
 
 94 
 
 2203 
 
 (P. 
 
 D.) 
 
 2140 
 
 97 
 
 1267 
 
 (B. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1238 
 
 98 
 
 2607 
 
 (P. 
 
 D.) 
 
 2575 
 
 99 
 
 1925 
 
 
 
 1897 
 
 98 
 
 2474 
 
 (B. 
 
 D.) 
 
 2411 
 
 97 
 
 2168 
 
 (G. 
 
 D.) 
 
 2073 
 
 96 
 
 1482 
 
 (B. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1471 
 
 99 
 
 1806 
 
 (P. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1797 
 
 99 
 
 2183 
 
 
 
 2178 
 
 99 
 
 2895 
 
 
 
 2766 
 
 96 
 
 1617 
 
 
 
 1610 
 
 99 
 
 1797 
 
 
 
 1784 
 
 99 
 
 1741 
 
 
 
 1705 
 
 96 
 
 761 
 
 
 
 741 
 
 91 
 
 992 
 
 (B. 
 
 D.) 
 
 914 
 
 93 
 
 1940 
 
 (P. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1903 
 
 98 
 
 1654 
 
 
 
 1391 
 
 84 
 
 1565 
 
 
 
 1552 
 
 99 
 
 756 
 
 (B. 
 
 D.) 
 
 743 
 
 98 
 
 1527 
 
 (P. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1416 
 
 93 
 
 1744 
 
 (B. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1687 
 
 97 
 
 1633 
 
 (G. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1558 
 
 95 
 
 1365 
 
 (P. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1347 
 
 98 
 
 1320 
 
 (G. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1303 
 
 99 
 
 1723 
 
 
 
 1704 
 
 99 
 
 1324 
 
 (B. 
 
 D.) 
 
 938 
 
 71 
 
 1493 
 
 (G. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1077 
 
 72 
 
 3256 
 
 
 
 3238 
 
 96 
 
 2933 
 
 
 
 2732 
 
 93 
 
 2011 
 
 
 
 1748 
 
 87 
 
 1056 
 
 (G. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1032 
 
 98 
 
 1502 
 
 (P. 
 
 D.) 
 
 1409 
 
 94 
 
 630 
 
 
 
 620 
 
 98 
 
 2144 
 
 
 
 2105 
 
 98 
 
 467 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 12 
 
 64,605 
 
 61,103 
 
 dence of this. The preponderance of Jewish pupils over 
 all others in the schools situated below Houston Street on 
 the East Side is so overwhelming as to render of compara- 
 
 1 The table was made up by the editor from a record of the registration and 
 attendance of each of the schools on October 1st, 1903, which was the Jewish 
 Day of Atonement of that year. 
 
 Of the total of 64,605 puoils in the district, 61,103, or 94.5 per cent., are 
 Jews. 
 
186 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 lively little value questions directed to the teachers con- 
 cerning the relative scholarship and aptitude of Jewish 
 and non-Jewish pupils, unless these teachers have had ex- 
 perience elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is much in the tes- 
 timony of teachers to confirm the prevailing impression that 
 these pupils — the children, for the most part, of poor 
 Jewish immigrants from Russia — are among the bright- 
 est in attendance at the public schools. Certainly they 
 rank high in all examinations for advancement to the sec- 
 ondary institutions of learning such as the high schools 
 and city college, — and this not merely, it may be be- 
 lieved, because of a keener instinct of competition. 
 American boys have this instinct in an equal degree, al- 
 though it may be true that it is more strongly developed 
 in the young Jew than in other children of foreign birth 
 or parentage. In itself, and provided that it submits to 
 correction, it may be little more than the index of an alert 
 mind. 
 
 In spite of the bad industrial conditions prevailing 
 ' among the Jews of the lower East Side, the parents, or if 
 not the parents, the children themselves are quick to avail 
 themselves of whatever privileges their new surroundings 
 extend to them. Among these the privilege of most worth 
 is the education offered them, and they are not slow to 
 appreciate its advantages. The children begin their at- 
 ^ tendance at the public school within a very short time after 
 their arrival here, the younger ones finding their way into 
 the numerous kindergartens connected with private insti- 
 tutions. Very soon, especially to the little girls, the public 
 school teacher becomes a strong, in many instances the 
 strongest, influence in the lives of these children. They 
 learn to look upon her as a model of good taste — first, it 
 is true, chiefly in external things, such as clothes and man- 
 ner of speech, — but afterwards, very often, as a pattern 
 of deportment as well. Happy the teacher v/ho can '' live 
 up to " the ideal that has been formed of her! These 
 children, most teachers report, are singularly docile, — not 
 the girls only, but the boys as well. In some cases, indeed, 
 this docility amounts to a defect (of which, however, 
 teachers are not wont to complain), — the children seeming 
 to lack those healthy instincts for mischievous play that 
 are the accompaniment of happier childhood. Later, 
 however, when the influence of the street (not always a 
 bad one) has had time to make itself apparent, they are 
 
NEW YORK 187 
 
 apt to develop the high spirits that are a prerogative of 
 their years. 
 
 Of the interest and ability displayed by these children 
 of the public school age, let some of their teachers speak: 
 
 ^' Jewish children, as a rule, are bright, attentive and 
 studious. ' ' 
 
 '' They are generally anxious to learn, and except in 
 English, compare favorably with other nationalities." 
 
 '' They rank among the highest. They are far more 
 earnest and ambitious [than other scholars] and many of 
 them supplement their school work with outside reading. ' ' 
 
 '' As a race, their ability to comprehend instruction is 
 excellent. The poorer class of Jewish children is ahead of 
 the poorer class of other nationalities. They are not so 
 smart (?) as the average American, but have greater emo- 
 tional capacity. They are more receptive than self -active. ' ' 
 
 Other teachers have observed no marked distinction be- 
 tween their pupils of Jewish birth and those belonging to 
 other races. 
 
 Concerning the scholarship developed, the teacher last 
 quoted says, ' ' They seem to grasp ' beautiful ideas ' eager- 
 ly. Manual training they enjoy." 
 
 Other opinions are : 
 
 " They have a special aptitude for studies that appeal 
 to the imagination, while matters of fact excite less 
 interest. ' ' 
 
 '' They excel in mathematics, English and history. They 
 are deficient in drawing and shop-work." 
 
 '* Their scholarship is affected, I think, by their ig- 
 norance of other surroundings than those to which they are 
 habituated. . . . There is a decided lack of the power 
 of concentration and steady application, owing, probably, 
 to a very nervous temperament. The study of good Eng- 
 lish poetry seems to have developed a writing in rhyme, 
 in a good percentage ; in the few, it is even poetry, ' ' — but 
 the same teacher adds, in another place, '' We rarely find 
 the artistic temperament except as expressing itself in 
 music. ' ' 
 
 Most teachers agree that the young Jewish children are 
 exceedingly patriotic, although it is suggested that the 
 patriotism must be, in some cases, of a merely imitative 
 order, considering the tender age at which it is developed. 
 One principal expresses the opinion that the Jewish boys 
 of the East Side *' are born politicians and their chief in- 
 
188 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 terest in American institutions arises from the fact that 
 they furnish an area for political contests." Certainly 
 the East Side boy grows up in a perilous atmosphere, po- 
 litically considered, and too often develops into the thing 
 to which we need not believe him born. This public school 
 '^ patriotism," of which we hear so much, is by no means 
 a product deserving of unqualified praise. With no desire 
 to disparage the good work of the schools in familiarizing 
 the little foreigner with the more elementary of those ideas 
 that lie at the root of the national political institutions, it 
 is doubtful whether in practice he is not very often im- 
 bued with a military chauvinism very far removed from 
 the true spirit of American patriotism. We are all rather 
 prone to forget that it is the coarser side of any abstract 
 proposition that inevitably impresses itself upon the minds 
 of boys, of whatever nationality, and that the concrete 
 image that is carried away from this " patriotic " cult is 
 apt to be the mere drum-beating and flag raising that 
 makes such easy and instant appeal to instincts but little 
 allied to those of justice, fair-play, and an elevated love 
 for humanity as a whole. 
 
 Coming back to the subject of the proficiency, as well 
 as the special aptitudes, displayed by the Russian Jewish 
 children in the public schools as compared with those of 
 other nationalities, it does not appear to the present 
 writer that sufficient material is at hand to warrant the 
 formation of a judgment having much claim to accuracy. 
 As a general rule, and taking into consideration the moral 
 as well as the mental qualities that go to the formation of 
 good scholarship, it will probably be found that the best 
 scholars come from the best homes. Now the Jewish peo- 
 ple have long been celebrated for the beauty of their fam- 
 ily life, and we should therefore expect them to furnish a 
 good percentage of the best scholarship realized in the 
 schools; but it cannot be disputed that the homes of too 
 many of the recent refugees from Russia, Roumania, and 
 other European countries, partly by reason of industrial 
 conditions, in part owing to a moral break-down incident 
 to the upturning of the tradition of centuries, have ceased 
 to be homes at all in the true sense of the word, and it 
 would be unfair to look to the children of these dwellings 
 for an exemplification of the highest attainable type of 
 scholarship. Often, indeed, individual scholars come sur- 
 prisingly near it, especially on the intellectual side, and 
 
NEW YORK 189 
 
 it is no part of the writer's purpose to suggest that as a 
 class they fall farther below it than the equally unfortu- 
 nate of other nationalities. 
 
 It seems clear that whatever the defects of the scholar- 
 ship realized, they are attributable as much to the teacher 
 and to the system employed as to the pupils. Considering 
 the responsiveness of Jewish children to imaginative 
 stimuli of one variety or another, it would seem desirable 
 to emphasize to a greater degree than is done in other mat- 
 ters such as the training of the pov/er of observation and 
 the cultivation of habits of application. These receive 
 admirable illustration in the system of manual training 
 afforded by the work shops, but the work shops are few in 
 number, and there seems at present but little disposition 
 on the part of the school authorities to increase them and 
 extend their efficiency. The probability is, if this were 
 done, that they would form an admirable corrective to the 
 too exclusively intellectual activity of the class-rooms. 
 
 One of the great aims of all education, undoubtedly, is 
 to develop the true individuality of the child; and it is 
 not surprising that but little attention can be devoted to 
 this in the overcrowded class-rooms of our public schools. 
 But sometimes directly wrong methods are adopted, as 
 when a teacher encourages in a forward or self-conscious 
 child the tendencies that require stimulation in an unduly 
 retiring or modest one. There seems to be a smaller 
 proportion of bashfulness among Jewish children than 
 among those of other nationalities, and therefore less need 
 to have resort to devices, such as public declamation and 
 quotation-citing, designed to overcome this evil. I have 
 often been present at such exhibitions in down-town school- 
 houses where the display of vanity and of a certain self- 
 conscious forwardness inconsistent with the modesty of 
 childhood was painful in the extreme, and I have observed 
 such a display more frequently among the little girls than 
 among their little brothers. 
 
 The story is told (by President G. Stanley Hall, I think) 
 of a class of children in a Boston school, the majority of 
 whom believed the real size of a cow to be the space oc- 
 cupied by its picture in their spelling books. This points 
 a finger at the city child's ordinary ignorance of nature 
 and country surroundings, and we should expect to find 
 this ignorance intensified in the little Jewish children 
 whose lives have been confined within such narrow city 
 
190 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 boundaries as limit the district cramped on two sides by 
 the river, and on a third side by the Bowery, that broad and 
 dangerous thoroughfare which an unwritten rule forbids 
 the younger children ever to cross. The remedy for this 
 is not school, but more parks and open air life, and the 
 remedy is being rapidly applied, every year adding to the 
 number of parks and open-air play grounds. The Jewish 
 people are generous patrons of the parks, and with the 
 natural intelligence of the children, it is probable that the 
 defect of experience which at present hampers some de- 
 partments of the school work will tend more and more to 
 disappear. 
 
 When we come to a consideration of the secondary 
 schools, we are struck with the large percentage of Jewish 
 scholars and their relatively high rank, particularly in ex- 
 amination tests. Of course, a considerable proportion of 
 these students are the children of parents who have been 
 settled long in this country, and are not, therefore, to be 
 identified with the class we are studying, but in the re- 
 cently established boys' high schools, the children of re- 
 cent Jewish immigrants numbered about 41 per cent, when 
 inquiry was made. These high schools (both for boys and 
 girls) are doing an excellent work, both in filling a need 
 long unsupplied in the city's educational system, and in 
 setting the pace for a higher standard than has hitherto 
 prevailed in such institutions as the City College (for 
 boys) and the Normal College (for girls). The high school 
 teachers speak in the highest terms of the natural ability 
 and persistence of their pupils of Russian Jewish origin 
 and have many instances to relate of hardships overcome 
 by boy and girl scholars in their struggle for an education. 
 The girls, in especial, seem anxious to make up for every 
 lesson they are compelled to lose, and after the holidays 
 would keep the teachers occupied until the late evening of 
 every day hearing omitted recitations, had not a rule been 
 adopted excusing their absences. It is not with the grade 
 of scholarship attained by their pupils that criticism (if 
 criticism there is to be) need concern itself, so much as 
 with the motive and spirit at work beneath their activity. 
 That the motive of commercial advantage holds a very 
 high place in the whole movement is the common testi- 
 mony of teachers. Parents who are themselves at a disad- 
 vantage as compared with their neighbors would naturally 
 be quick to respond to such a motive in behalf of their 
 
NEW YORK 191 
 
 children, and there are many indications that a lively 
 realization of this is present with the children as well. The 
 instinct of success, so strong in the Jewish people, accounts 
 for much prize-taking and high standing in the class-room, 
 but for the formation of a finer type of scholarship there 
 is necessar}^ the cultivation of a greater degree of disin- 
 terestedness. The comparative absence of such a quality 
 (difficult, indeed, of development under the prevailing in- 
 dustrial conditions) is what constitutes the principal flaw 
 in the scholarship at present attained by the children of 
 Jewish immigrants. That it will tend to disappear as a 
 more comfortable material standard is realized, is easy to 
 believe when we bethink ourselves of the strain of ideality, 
 the endowment of imaginative power, that exists side by 
 side in their souls with the instinct for material advance- 
 ment. 
 
 Two institutions, already mentioned (the City College 
 and the Normal College), stand at the head of the city's 
 free educational system and in both the attendance of Jew- 
 ish pupils is very large. These two institutions, together 
 with the Training School for teachers, a state institution, 
 supply the great majority of the new teachers who are re- 
 ceived each year into the city's public school system. What 
 proportion of these new teachers are Russian Jews would 
 be an interesting inquiry, were the facts accessible. That 
 the teaching profession is an attractive one to the chil- 
 dren of these immigrants admits of no doubt whatever. 
 The only real question concerns the degree of its attrac- 
 tiveness as compared with other professions, such as law 
 and medicine, and this is difficult to determine, among 
 other reasons, for the economic one that the pursuit of all 
 special studies involves an outlay of time and money be- 
 yond what is commonly expended upon obtaining the qual- 
 ifications necessary for a teacher's equipment. 
 
 Finally, with respect to the higher learning, the great 
 increase in the number of Jews in attendance upon the 
 classes at Columbia and the University of New York has 
 been the subject of recent remark. That this increase is 
 drawn from the class of recent immigrants is, on the face 
 of it, probable, and can be easily demonstrated by a refer- 
 ence to the secondary schools of which these pupils are 
 graduates. Nor is the number confined to those who are 
 pursuing the full university course, since many whose eco- 
 nomic position compelled them to accept employment as 
 
192 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 teachers or otherwise supplement their earlier training 
 by attending special courses held at hours adapted to their 
 convenience. 
 
 Coming now to the private agencies at work in New 
 York for the education and spiritual advancement of the 
 Russian Jews, we find a great number, of w^hich it will only 
 be possible, within our present limits, to go into particu- 
 lars concerning a few. Some of these institutions are sup- 
 ported and managed by American Jews for the benefit of 
 their co-religionists from Russia and other parts of East- 
 ern Europe; others are conducted entirely by non-Jews on 
 a completely non-sectarian basis, and the people sought 
 to be benefited avail themselves, without distinction, of 
 both. This readiness to embrace the opportunities offered, 
 combined with the keen intellectual curiosity of the race, 
 has rendered this people, in the opinion of many, the most 
 promising of all in the field of social experiment. 
 
 The largest single work of the character now under dis- 
 cussion is carried on in New York by the Educational Al- 
 liance, — a union, originally, of three societies, Jewish in 
 their membership, established to bring culture within the 
 reach of the more destitute of the race. The consistent 
 aim of this institution, since its foundation, has been the 
 Americanization of the foreign Jew, and the first steps in 
 this process (the English classes for immigrants) have fol- 
 lowed closely upon the earlier Baron de Hirseh classes, 
 long housed in the building of the Alliance. In these 
 classes it happens not seldom that children are found on 
 the very day of their landing in America. They are regu- 
 larly prepared, both as regards language and scholarship, 
 to enter the class at the public school appropriate to 
 their age. During the season of the year when the public 
 evening schools are closed, evening classes for immigrants 
 are opened by the Alliance, so that no tii'ae may be lost in 
 the acquisition of the first requisite of intelligent citizen- 
 ship. 
 
 But besides these elementary classes designed to meet 
 the needs of the immigrants and their young children, 
 there are classes for nearly every grade of culture, the 
 subject-list including languages, literature, history, civics, 
 mathematics, natural science, music, cookery, book-keeping, 
 drawing, millinery, typewriting, philosophy, gymnastics, 
 and religion. At first the most successful of these classes 
 were those that addressed themselves to a practical result 
 
NEW YOBK 393 
 
 — the enabling of pupils to pass the state, or regents' ex- 
 aminations in specified subjects. A change, greatly to be 
 commended, has recently been introduced, to favor the 
 classes designed to stimulate general culture, with the 
 result that " cramming " for an examination is now dis- 
 couraged. As a result, principally, of the influence of the 
 late Prof. Thomas Davidson and Mr. Edward King, a 
 group of earnest students of the higher laws of history 
 and social science has been formed, and some of these are 
 beginning to take an active part in the conduct of the out- 
 lying portions of the institution's work. There is some 
 reason to suppose that too great leniency was observed at 
 first in the matter of permitting students to select at ran- 
 dom the classes they preferred to attend, the evil showing 
 itself in a constant shifting interest from one subject to 
 another, as one or another enthusiasm predominated in an 
 unripe brain. Greater systemization and a limitation 
 upon the number of classes permitted to be attended by a 
 single pupil have assisted in reducing this tendency. The 
 building of the Alliance includes an assembly-hall, a 
 library and a gymnasium in addition to its class, club and 
 play-rooms, and lectures (for the most part under the 
 auspices of the Board of Education), entertainments, ex- 
 hibitions, and concerts follow one another in quick suc- 
 cession through the winter and spring months. In partic- 
 ular, the concert feature has been carefully developed, the 
 resources of the neighborhood being drawn upon to form 
 a promising chorus and orchestra. Picture exhibitions 
 have also been held, and one was held in which the work 
 of East Side artists alone was illustrated. On Sunday 
 afternoons children's entertainments have been held, 
 while legal holidays and Jewish festivals are always hon- 
 ored with appropriate observances. A comparatively recent 
 departure has been to open the building on Friday even- 
 ings for social purposes only. 
 
 The three leading social settlements of the lower East 
 Side are the Nurses', College, and University Settlements, 
 the first two having women as residents, the third having 
 men. Of the work of these institutions it is, perhaps, cor- 
 rect to say that it is individual rather than general, in- 
 tensive rather than widespread. 
 
 The children that begin in the kindergarten and grow 
 up through a whole series of clubs, coming to the house of 
 the settlement for most of the amusement and some little 
 
194 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 of the discipline of their most impressionable years, have 
 a chance to acquire something that shall exert a profound 
 influence upon their future lives. The danger is lest they 
 come to regard themselves as a society apart, by reason 
 of an external superiority of manners and taste, or, escap- 
 ing that, lest they mistake the refinement of settlement 
 life for the end in itself and content themselves with an 
 effort to realize that, careless of the more pressing con- 
 siderations that occupy their less privileged neighbors. 
 But though such dangers exist, the young men and women 
 are numerous who owe to the settlement an enlarged pur- 
 pose and a more satisfying outlook upon the world than 
 they would have been likely to obtain, at least so early in 
 their lives, without its instrumentality. Except among the 
 clubs of the youngest there is little direct instruction in 
 any settlement with which I happen to be acquainted, — 
 and this not because it was undesired, but because classes 
 did not seem to flourish in the atmosphere of sociability 
 and light-hearted amusement that usually prevailed there. 
 But all the more, on this account, is the influence per- 
 meative, that it does not seem to come in the way made 
 familiar, and therefore disliked, of the instruction in 
 school, but rather to be distilled through the medium of 
 games, conversation, etc., until it is unconsciously ab- 
 sorbed. Therefore I think that the little immigrant chil- 
 dren of the East Side who have drifted into the settle- 
 ments (only a very small proportion of the whole) have 
 come out of them again much modified in character, pur- 
 poses, opinions — in nearly every way. 
 
 The value of a technical training for boys, fittmg them 
 to practice the mechanical trades, has been recognized by 
 Jewish philanthropists as having a special application to 
 their race, by reason of some inherited deficiencies in this 
 regard; and in illustration of their belief two admirable 
 institutions — the Hebrew Technical Institute and the 
 Baron de Hirsch Trade School have come into existence in 
 New York. The first of these, the Technical Institute, 
 does not teach boys a trade, but takes them at an early 
 age (twelve and a half years) and instructs them in such 
 studies as will be most likely to fit them for success in me- 
 chanical pursuits. For the first two years this instruction 
 is quite general in character, but during the last year they 
 are permitted to specialize their studies in the direction of 
 the particular taste they may have acquired, without 
 
NEW YORK 195 
 
 actually studying a trade. The studies necessary to the 
 development of a general intelligence — English, mathe- 
 matics and history — are maintained throughout the three- 
 year course, and along with them goes a graduated instruc- 
 tion in wood-work, free hand and mechanical drawing, 
 metal work, and applied science. The tuition, tools, and 
 text-books are all furnished free, together with shower 
 baths, bathing forming part of the exercises, and the only 
 charge made in connection with the institution is that of 
 one cent a day, or five cents a week, for the warm lunch 
 provided in the school refectory. The present number of 
 pupils is 249, and the school has 476 living graduates, of 
 whom 72 per cent, are following mechanical work. 
 
 At the Baron de Hirsch Trade School the instruction 
 is also free, but the applicant for admission, who must be 
 sixteen years old, must show that he has some means of 
 support while learning the trade. The aim of the school 
 is to afford a working knowledge of one of the following 
 trades: Plumbing and gas-fitting, carpentry, house paint- 
 ing, sign-painting, machinist and electrician. The time 
 taken to acquire this knowledge is five and one-half 
 months, the first portion of the course being devoted to a 
 teaching of the principles of the trade and the latter part 
 to their practical application. A preference is given, in 
 the matter of admission, to Jewish boys born in Russia 
 and Roumania, and statistics taken from seven successive 
 classes show that these boys form about 48.3 per cent, of 
 the whole number of graduates, the other pupils of foreign 
 birth numbering 19.2 per cent., while 32.5 per cent, are 
 Jewish boys born in the United States. Over 77 per cent, 
 of the graduates of the previous five years were reported 
 in 1899 to be still working at the trades learned in the 
 school. 
 
 Closely adjoining the boys' trade school is the Training 
 School for Girls, instituted by Baroness de Hirsch. This 
 contains 35 training girls, who live there all the time 
 and receive instruction in millinery, cooking, washing, 
 machine-operating, hand-sewing, and dress-making, be- 
 sides sheltering some 65 more working girls, who pay three 
 dollars a week for their board. Provision is made for 30 
 free scholars. The institution is non-sectarian, Baroness 
 de Hirsch having prescribed as a condition to this gift that 
 ten per cent, of the inmates should be Gentiles. 
 
 The trade education for girls is looked out for by the 
 
196 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 Hebrew 'Technical School for Girls, which has a commer- 
 cial department, containing, according to the last report, 
 108 pupils, and one of manual training, containing 45 
 pupils. The girls attending this school are about fifteen 
 years old, and are all graduates of the public schools. The 
 aim of the commercial department is to turn out good as- 
 sistant book-keepers and stenographers; and the graduates 
 readily secure positions. The graduates of the manual 
 training department are also making profitable use of 
 their knowledge. The school is quite strict in its require- 
 ments both at entrance and graduation, no girl being re- 
 ceived who cannot pass a good examination in English, 
 and diplomas being refused to those whose proficiency in 
 the subjects taught has not come up to the standard. The 
 school has grown very rapidly, and looks forward to a 
 career of growing usefulness. 
 
 The passage over from institutions of the character of 
 those just described to efforts at educational improvement 
 having their origin in the people themselves may well come 
 through the People's Singing Classes, an institution hav- 
 ing some of the better elements of both, but more of the lat- 
 ter than the former. The impulse for the formation of 
 this great union of working-people for the study of song 
 came, indeed, not from the people, but from its present 
 director, Mr. Frank Damrosch; and he and his assistants 
 supply the necessary instruction without pecuniary com- 
 pensation, but this not from the motive of charity, so much 
 as out of a disinterested love of the musical art and a de- 
 sire for its dissemination among the people. The people, 
 on their side, pay the entire expenses of the movement, 
 which has never received a contribution from anyone out- 
 side of it, and undertake besides its entire management, 
 electing its officers and committees, who gratuitously give 
 in its service the time snatched from their working-hours. 
 It may, therefore, be best described as a great co-partner- 
 ship for the furtherance of a given end — the extension 
 of the love and culture of music among the working- 
 people ; a co-partnership to which each contributes what is 
 his to give, and in which none feels himself the recipient 
 of charity. Music is still the art to which the mass of man- 
 kind is most strongly inclined, and when compared with 
 the plastic arts — painting, sculpture and architecture — 
 its appeal appears to be relatively stronger in the Jewish 
 race than among other peoples. Certainly, some of the 
 
NEW YOEK 197 
 
 most earnest and enthusiastic workers in the musical cause 
 since the inception of the People's Singing Classes have 
 come from the Russian Jewish population of the lower 
 East Side. 
 
 Among what may be called the native forces at work 
 for the education of the Russian Jew a high place must 
 be assigned to the socialist propaganda. The mind of 
 many a young man, depressed by the soul-deadening con- 
 ditions of a sweat-shop existence, would never have awak- 
 ened to the higher life of the intellect in response to any 
 stimulus less immediate and personal than that extended 
 by the socialist theories of society. Clubs and classes in- 
 numerable for the study of economics and history, science 
 and literature, have grown up in the work of the socialist 
 movement, and if the knowledge acquired was often one- 
 sided, because studied in the shadow of a theory to which 
 all the facts must be made to conform, still the ideal of a 
 regenerated society was present to inspire other faculties 
 than the intellect. Unfortunately for their cause, many 
 of the older socialists adopted methods of propaganda 
 modeled more upon German than American patterns, and 
 this forfeited the sympathy of a young element that grew 
 up in closer touch with American ideas. 
 
 Anyone who Imows the East Side knows that it swarms 
 with clubs almost as much as it swarms with sweat-shops 
 and peddlers' carts. Some of them owe their origin to the 
 schoolroom, to the settlement, or to the stray philanthro- 
 pist who affords them " a local habitation and a name," 
 but a vast host of them are of spontaneous generation, and 
 constitute an expression of needs that are not the less gen- 
 uine because sometimes unconscious. Boys' and girls' 
 clubs are so numerous that lately the school authorities 
 have been brought to see the wisdom of opening a limited 
 number of school-buildings in the evening to serve as 
 ** play-centres" and to supply the want for club space. 
 It is noticeable that nearly all of these open schools are 
 on the lower East Side, the demand for them in other parts 
 of the city being as yet comparatively small. The boys' 
 clubs nearly all indulge in debates and have a ^' literary " 
 programme, one of the elected officers being usually an 
 " editor," who conducts a manuscript journal in which 
 original matter may appear together with quotations from 
 well-known writers, the whole being liberally seasoned 
 with '' jokes." Much oratory and some juvenile eloquence 
 
198 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 is developed in the debates, and the effect of this upon the 
 bright boys of the race is generally bad, since it is apt to 
 start them upon careers of law and politics which, under 
 prevailing conditions, tend rapidly to corrupt the truthful 
 and scrupulous instincts of youth. Circles for quiet 
 study are more rare, but these do exist, and excellent work 
 of a public character such as that accomplished by Col. 
 Waring 's Street-Cleaning Brigade, has been done by boys' 
 clubs, but this usually under the direction of a leader from 
 without. The little girls' clubs, while far more restricted 
 in their interests than the boys', are subject to fewer 
 temptations and under the influence of reading and quiet 
 work, have been productive of much good to their mem- 
 bers. At a later age, these clubs, both youths' and maid- 
 ens' divide sharply into two classes, one of which is in- 
 spired by an ideal of some abstract subject or of one con- 
 nected with their particular trade or employment, the 
 other by an ideal of pleasure with which is sometimes con- 
 nected a charitable purpose. In clubs of the first class 
 earnest work is often accomplished, though there is apt 
 to come a time in the life of every such club when the per- 
 sonal interests of its members, love and the starting of in- 
 dividual careers, come to interrupt the course of its activ- 
 ity. Among the older people, no clubs or associations for 
 mutual improvement other than of a material order, as 
 exemplified in the lodges and benevolent societies, exist. A 
 league of young men 's clubs under the title of ' ' Federa- 
 tion of East Side Clubs" has recently been formed for dis- 
 cussion and action upon matters of common interest affect- 
 ing the welfare of the neighborhood, and much good is to be 
 anticipated from the existence of such a body. 
 
 In the foregoing review of the educational influences at 
 work among the Russian Jews of New York, nothing has 
 been said of the libraries — Astor, Columbia, New York 
 Free Circulating, and others — to which they have resort 
 in so great numbers. If the place to speak of libraries is 
 liot wholly that assigned to influences of self-help, it comes 
 pretty close to being so. The library, indeed, is provided 
 by others, but nothing can make it of service to the people 
 if they do not themselves manifest the disposition to use 
 it. This disposition is certainly present in a large pro- 
 portion of the recent Jewish immigrants, even among 
 many who are seriously hampered in the struggle for learn- 
 ing by the economic conditions of their lives. It is this 
 
NEW YORK 199 
 
 disposition, developed into an attitude habitual to them in 
 the face of every opportunity with which they are brought 
 into contact, joined to their natural ability, that will vin- 
 dictate the claim of the Russian Jewish people to a high 
 place among the intellectually-disposed nations of the 
 earth. 
 
(B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 The observer of conditions in the lower section of the 
 city is surprised by the remarkable intellectual interest of 
 the Russian Jew. Accustomed to associate a low intel- 
 lectual plane with a low economic plane, and to expect a 
 lack of learning where there is a lack of the order and 
 grace of the well-clad and the outwardly polished, he is 
 surprised that amid the so-called *' slum " population 
 there should be a people who have a high standard of 
 ability, an intense desire to acquire knowledge, and great 
 strength of purpose in carrying it out. To class this peo- 
 ple as to educational ideals with the mass of low class 
 American residents, the foreign immigrants, and the ne- 
 groes among whom they live, is to misunderstand their 
 history and their aspirations. 
 
 It is the purpose of this study to examine the attitude 
 of Russian Jews toward education as it is indicated in the 
 institutions here, and to ascertain the effect which these 
 institutions are having on their individual and social de- 
 velopment. 
 
 Probably no single agency has a more far-reaching edu- 
 cational influence, especially in molding ideas in accord- 
 ance with the standards of our country and our time, than 
 the public school. It gives to the son of the inmiigrant 
 the same advantages as to the son of the native born, and 
 in many instances the transformation to similarity with 
 the latter is swift and complete. 
 
 One of the most striking features which the free educa- 
 tional development of the country has helped to bring 
 about is the difference in habit of mind between parent 
 and child. The parents are usually too old, too set, and 
 too depressed by economic conditions to acquire the Eng- 
 lish language and to adapt themselves to the ways of the 
 English-speaking people. But they give their children 
 the opportunity; and these seize it with great eagerness 
 and determination. 
 
 The teachers of the schools in the lower section of the 
 
 200 
 
PHILADELPHIA 201 
 
 city, are, as a rule, so far as I have been able to gather, 
 pleased, on the whole, with the Jewish pupils. They are 
 impressed with their keenness and alertness, and regard 
 them as better material than other pupils of foreign 
 parentage or birth. The Jewish pupils come to school 
 with the disadvantage of hearing a foreign tongue spoken 
 in their homes. This disadvantage once overcome, they 
 are abreast of the best American-born pupils. 
 
 I visited a vacation school class in the southern section 
 where the pupils were as neat, clean, and bright as could 
 any where be found. There was no appearance of " slum- 
 miness ' ' such as the up-town resident would look for. The 
 principal of the school explained that as the vacation 
 school was regarded as privileged, there being not room 
 enough for all who applied, the parents took particular 
 pains to have their children present a tidy appearance. 
 The principal, for my benefit, asked all who were Jews to 
 raise their hands. Up went the hands of nearly the whole 
 class of youngsters, a showing which alike surprised the 
 principal, the teacher, and me. In the other classes of the 
 vacation school the attendance of Jewish pupils was also 
 large and their general appearance attractive. 
 
 Some of the teachers of the public schools take a strong 
 personal interest in the pupils. Where the parents seem 
 short-sighted they endeavor to influence them^ so that the 
 children shall be kept at school with regularity and shall 
 not be taken from school till they have completed the 
 several grades. Where they observe special proficiency 
 they try to have it developed. An instance of this is the 
 sending of pupils to the Industrial Art School. They see 
 much latent ability, which owing to the rush and push 
 of our hurried life cannot be developed ; and its possessors 
 are doomed to eke out a humdrum existence. 
 
 In one of the poorest localities a principal informed me 
 that the instances were rare in which the pupils of her 
 school proceeded to the higher schools. Economic pres- 
 sure apparently compelled the parents to take their chil- 
 dren from the schools as they reached the higher grades. 
 
 With the betterment of economic conditions among the 
 Russian Jewish people, there has been a steady growth 
 of attendance in the upper grades, the higher schools, and 
 the professional institutions. Our high schools and col- 
 leges are enrolling a remarkably large number of Rus- 
 sian Jewish pupils, who show a high standard of scholar- 
 
202 
 
 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 ship, of wliich. a notewortliy indication in the past few 
 years has been the securing of prizes and honors. 
 
 The following compilation made up of data furnished 
 by the principals of the respective schools shows the total 
 number of pupils and the proportion that are Jews, in the 
 section bounded by Locust Street on the north, Moore 
 Street on the south, the Delaware River on the east, and 
 Nineteenth Street on the west, — a district comprising the 
 greater portion of the Russian Jewish community of the 
 
 ■ city. 
 
 '. The result shows that of a total of 21,485 pupils in the 
 public schools of the described area, measuring about two 
 square miles, 11,683, or 54.4 per cent., are Jews.^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 PER 
 
 
 
 
 NO. 
 
 CENT. 
 
 SCHOOL 
 
 LOCATION 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 JEWS 
 
 JEW^S 
 
 Locust Street 
 
 12th and Locust Sts. 
 
 175 
 
 38 
 
 22 
 
 Horace Binney 
 
 Spruce below 6th St. 
 
 935 
 
 700 
 
 75 
 
 Horace Binney Kindergarten 
 
 Spruce below 6th St. 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 76 
 
 J. S. Ramsey 
 
 Pine and Marvin Sts. 
 
 408 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 ' U. S. Grant 
 
 17th and Pine Sts. 
 
 807 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 Alice Lippincott 
 
 19th below Pine St. 
 
 500 
 
 90 
 
 18 
 
 * George M. Wharton 
 
 3rd below Pine St. 
 
 1345 
 
 1210 
 
 90 
 
 George M. Wharton Kinder- 
 
 
 
 
 
 garten 
 
 807 Lombard St. 
 
 68 
 
 66 
 
 97 
 
 James Forten 
 
 6th above Lombard St. 
 
 633 
 
 576 
 
 91 
 
 James Forten Kindergarten 
 
 502 S. Front St. 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 79 
 
 Ralston (Boys) 
 
 American and Bainbridge Sts. 
 
 197 
 
 171 
 
 87 
 
 Ralston (Girls) 
 
 American and Bainbridge Sts. 
 
 220 
 
 198 
 
 90 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 208 Bainbridge St. 
 
 69 
 
 65 
 
 94 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 705 S. 112th St. 
 
 81 
 
 18 
 
 58 
 
 Wm. M. Meredith 
 
 5th and Fitzwater Sts. 
 
 1011 
 
 950 
 
 95 
 
 -James Campbell 
 Fagen 
 
 8th and Fitzwater Sts. 
 
 1560 
 
 782 
 
 50 
 
 12th and Fitzwater Sts. 
 
 585 
 
 285 
 
 49 
 
 Mt. Vernon 
 
 Catharine above 8rd St. 
 
 1200 
 
 1070 
 
 89 
 
 , Beck 
 
 Catharine above 6th St. 
 
 301 
 
 181 
 
 60 
 
 ; Beck Kindergartens 
 
 Catharine above 6th St. 
 
 63 
 
 30 
 
 48 
 
 Florence 
 
 Catharine below 8th St. 
 
 650 
 
 325 
 
 50 
 
 Lyons 
 
 Catharine above 10th St. 
 
 840 
 
 350 
 
 42 
 
 - Lyons Kindergarten 
 
 Catharine above 10th St. 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Fletcher 
 
 Christian above Front St. 
 
 958 
 
 755 
 
 79 
 
 Kindergarten 
 
 924 S. 9th St. 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 Geo. W. Nebinger 
 
 6th and Carpenter Sts. 
 
 1158 
 
 671 
 
 58 
 
 \Vashington 
 
 Carpenter above 9th St. 
 
 1338 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 Watson Kindergarten 
 
 League below 2nd St. 
 
 67 
 
 54 
 
 81 
 
 Wharton 
 
 5th St. below Wash'ton Av. 
 
 1885 
 
 1411 
 
 74 
 
 John Stockdale 
 
 13th St. below Wash'ton Av. 
 
 , 258 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 John Stockdale Kindergarten 
 
 13th and Alter Sts. 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 Weccacoe 
 
 2nd and Reed Sts. 
 
 603 
 
 145 
 
 24 
 
 Henry Clay 
 
 S. Howard above Reed St. 
 
 356 
 
 122 
 
 34 
 
 Henry Clay Kindergarten 
 
 S. Howard above Reed St. 
 
 70 
 
 33 
 
 47 
 
 Tohn P. Baugh 
 
 Dickinson above 6th St. 
 
 797 
 
 329 
 
 41 
 
 C. S. Close 
 
 7th and Dickinson Sts. 
 
 940 
 
 460 
 
 49 
 
 Tasker 
 
 9th and Tasker Sts. 
 
 607 
 
 200 
 
 33 
 
 Morris 
 
 Morris below 2nd St. 
 
 526 
 
 44 
 
 8 
 
 Francis Read 
 
 11th and Moore Sts. 
 
 561 
 
 179 
 
 32 
 
 
 31,485 11,683 
 
 
 1 In 1899, of the total number of pupils, 17,000 in round figures, in practi- 
 cally the same territory, about 7,500, or 15 per cent, were Jews. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 203 
 
 One principal, in whose school nearly one half of the 
 pupils were Jews, said: " A close study for years with 
 these children enables me to make the statements from 
 actual knowledge. Of all foreign children, the Jews are 
 to be preferred as citizens of the future." The response 
 to the specific queries was as follows on the part of this 
 principal ; the questions being those put in each case where 
 inquiry was made: 
 
 Q. '' How do the Jewish pupils compare in scholarship 
 with those of other nationalities? " 
 
 A. '' Very much above all others in behavior, in apti- 
 tude, and general deportment and scholarship." 
 
 Q. ** Their interest in American institutions? " 
 
 A. '* Great interest in anything patriotic." 
 
 Q. '' Encouragement of parents toward education? " 
 
 A. *' Most liberally encouraged and urged to become 
 proficient. ' ' 
 
 Another, in whose school a large majority of the pupils 
 were Jews, wrote: " Only for the difficulty in learning 
 English they would compare very favorably with Ameri- 
 can children." 
 
 A report from a school in which nine-tenths were Jews 
 stated: " The parents attend our school exhibits in large 
 numbers. ' ' 
 
 In reference to a school in which half were Jews the 
 statement w^as made that, '' They manifest a lively inter- 
 est in American history and institutions; that the encour- 
 agement of education by parents is ' active ' and that they 
 are, with remarkably few exceptions, appreciative of ef- 
 fort on the part of the teacher." 
 
 The head of a school in which nearly all were Jews 
 wrote: '* As a rule brighter and more studious than 
 other nationalities. This is particularly noticeable when 
 we compare them with the Italians." 
 
 The comment of a principal, three-fourths of whose pu- 
 pils were Jews, was: '' As a rule, the Jewish children 
 are quick at figures. They are attentive to school work. 
 So many, even of American birth, hear a foreign tongue 
 spoken that the teaching of language is difficult." 
 
 A kinder gartner of whose pupils all but three were Jews 
 wrote : ' ' I have always considered them very bright and 
 apt. They soon overcome the difficulty of the unknown 
 tongue and make themselves understood. ' ' 
 
 The replies were almost unanimous in agreeing that the 
 
201 EDUCA TWNAL INinA'hlNCES 
 
 p;n-(Mits cneournc:o odncnlioii. Fi-oin Mk' loacluM's' stjind- 
 poiiit, this moans that llioy take an inl.civsl. in tlio school 
 record, attendance, and coiulnct of tlieii* chihlren. 
 
 One of the mutters of complaint is the failnre of many 
 parents to enforce the attendance of cliihlren on th(^ days 
 preceding: holidays and the Sabbath. Evidently they are 
 required at home to help "" clean up " previous to these 
 special days, and both parents and children do not seem 
 to realize the importance of conforminj]: to the school rou- 
 tine when it comes into conflict with some of the set habits 
 of the home. It is snj^'^ested that ])ar(Mits' meetinjjjs with 
 the teachers would remedy this as well as some other mat- 
 ters connected with school discipline. Hut tlu^ fact that 
 many of the parents do not uiulei'stand Enjjjlish and most 
 of the teachers know only that language, is an eifectual bar 
 to the success of such meetings. 
 
 The following observation of a pi-incipal should be con- 
 sidered: ''They (the parents) e!icourage the boys, but 
 less interest is shown in the girls. The latter leave at an 
 earlier age." This is ({uite true and in accordance with 
 ancient orthodox cnstom. It does not apply to Jews who 
 have adopted the modern occidental ])oint of view. 
 
 The children show a decided interest in American in- 
 stitutions so far as the teachers have been able to observe. 
 '^I'hey learn the patriotic songs and study the history and 
 constitution of thi^ country with the same earnestness as 
 other pupils, and have ;i general ch^sire to adapt themselves 
 to the prevalent cust(mis and hahits. The rapidity of 
 adaptation is in accordance with tlu^ cosmopolitanism of 
 the Jew. 
 
 The results, on the whole, seem to indicate that the 
 Jewish pupils excel the other pupils with whom they are 
 associated in the lower section of the city, namely, the 
 negroes aiid those of foreign extraction, chiefly Italians, 
 and that they are fully on an int(^llectual plan(^ with 
 those of American extraction ; that tin; parents (Micourage 
 education; and the children show an active interest in tlui 
 country, and c()nse(|uently ])()ssess the initial elements for 
 becoming intt'lligent, law-abiding citizens. 
 
 In one school, where the children outside of the Jewish, 
 were largely of American parentage, the Jewish pupils 
 showed fully as high a standard of scholarship as the lat- 
 ter. This was brought out by an (*xann nation of the aver- 
 ages of boys in the higher grades. 
 
villi. MiKLriUA. 205 
 
 The James Foi-Umi l^'JciiuMilnry Manual Training School, 
 on Sixth SIrmM, alxu'c Ijonihard, was at one tinio lar}j:('ly at- 
 Ivndcd by negroes. Now owv niniMy p(M' ('.(Mil. of tho 
 ])upils ai'c flews.' Then* is a, lar^e ne^ro po|>ulaiion in 
 llio neighborhood of this school, which does not [)atroniz(^ 
 it, wliereas tho Jewish popnhition has taken stronjj: ad- 
 varitn^e of it. In fact, nieasnred by thi^ test of their 
 nei«^hborhoods, tlie attendance of Jewisli ])npils at scliools 
 is exceptionally larjjje. 
 
 Then* is a. larii:e attendance of Jewish |)npils in s(*V(M'al 
 of the nij^ht schools (h)wn-town. At t.lie William M. 
 Meredith, Fii'Ui Street abovc^ Fitzwater, fully ninety per 
 cent, of th(^ avera<;'e aitendaiice is of Jews. In tlie Mount 
 Vernon, Catharine Street above Third, tlu* i)ercentaj]f(^ is 
 ecpially larj»-e. 
 
 It is not my purpose to discuss the cfKiciency of tho 
 public ni^ht schools, in this connection, thou«;h a, careful 
 investi^'atioii would, I feel confident, i-eveal nnich to criti- 
 cise. It is certain, however, that the needs and demands 
 of th(» forei<^n sp(»akin«^ ])opuIations are not adeipiatdy 
 considered, when th(» fact is i)ointed out that, tlies(* schools 
 are open but from October to Fei)ruai'y, three evenin<»*s 
 of two liours each to the week, with adjourtunent durinj^ 
 the Christmas liolidays. The foreign ])opulaiions, cer- 
 tainly tlie flewisli, arc^ eai^er to learn, and the educational 
 authority is actin*^ aj^ainst theii* best i?it;erests as citizens, 
 in not j^ivin^' them a, mor(» adiMjuaie system of (education 
 in tlie same s|)irit, as thai wliich is accoi'ded the i)upils in 
 the day schools. It is because the re(juiremeids of th(^ 
 ])()pidati()ns are not sufliciiMdiy considered in ])ul)lic nij^ht 
 school instruction tluit supplemental t(^acliin<2: in other in- 
 stitutions is made necessary. In the district there are a 
 number of public kindergartens havin<]: an attendance of 
 Jewish children varying from two to nin(»ty-seven per cent, 
 of th(^ total number of pu|)ils. In addition thei'e are a f(^w 
 ])rivate kindei-j^artens to b(^ considered, amon^ which ?jiay 
 \)i\ mentioned thosc^ of the Younjjj Women's Union, the 
 
 ^ " The nationality of tlie pupils has changed in the last two yc:iis in a re- 
 markable degree— instead of a majority of negroes, tlirrt' is now a prcpondrr- 
 ancr of Russian Tews, who must he taught I'Jiglish before ihcy can enter the 
 regular graded classes. And this adds to the re«piiretiicnts in the teachers. 
 JCven in the class now under the eari; of the school, the well known character- 
 istic of (he Jews, that of a carefidly guarded family life, is evident, so tliat th(' 
 school has much belter »u|)i)ort from parents than heretofore, and consider.ible 
 api)reciation of the beJiefils the children receive." Kcj'ort of tin' I'rcsidi-iil of 
 the Board of liduaition (Samuel B. Hucy) for the year endini: neeendier 
 P. 1st, 1K<)«. 
 
206 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 Home of J)eliglit, and the College Settlement (433 Chris- 
 tian Street), in which nearly all the pupils are Jewish. In 
 some respects, the kindergarten is more valuable to the 
 child of foreign origin than to one whose parents are na- 
 tive, for correct language, in accent and tone, can be 
 taught, so that it will not have the disadvantage of some 
 of the older children, whose English is spoilt at home in a 
 way that is sometimes difficult to correct when they come 
 to school. 
 
 It has been shown that Eussian Jews attend the James 
 Forten Elementary Manual Training School in large num- 
 bers. Manual training is regarded as especially valuable 
 for children who live in the densely populated districts 
 and are thus thrown upon the streets. And it is of par- 
 ticular worth for the Jewish people. The teacher of the 
 Sloyd work in this school informed me that the Jewish 
 pupils show full average proficiency, and he has not the 
 failures in drawing to report which were reported in the 
 regular schools. The mind and the hand work in har- 
 mony, and the result is not only good finished products, 
 but the formation of a finer finished product in the pupil 
 himself.^ 
 
 Among the Jewish institutions performing an important 
 work in the educational development of the immigrant 
 population is the Hebrew Education Society. In its 
 building, Touro Hall, at Tenth and Carpenter Streets, 
 there is a night school for English branches, in which 
 hundreds are being taught our language. Such a school 
 as this is especially valuable to the newly arriving for- ] 
 eigners, w^ho, with their utter lack of knowledge of the 
 language, would be helpless in most public night schools. 
 Industrial education is pursued in the form of dressmaking, ' 
 millinery, garment cutting, cigar making, and stenog- 
 raphy. The reading room, the library, and the audi- 
 torium for lectures and entertainments are valuable ad- 
 juncts in the work of this institution. The auditorium,! 
 which has a seating capacity for fully six hundred per-'' 
 sons, is used by other organizations, without cost to them, 
 for literary and social events. Free religious exercises on ^ 
 New Year's Day and the Day of Atonement are held here 
 under the auspices of the society. 
 
 Also located in this building is the Manual Training 
 
 ^ See Speirs, The James Forten School, an experiment in social regeneration 
 through elementary manual training. Civic Club, Philadelphia, 1901. 
 
PHI LA DELPHI A 20 / 
 
 School conducted by the B'nai B'rith fraternity. Boys 
 from eleven to sixteen years of age attend. The hours are 
 arranged so that they will not conflict with those of the 
 public schools. Some boys who have attended its classes 
 are assisting in mechanical trades. The work of this 
 school, though small, is important in helping, if ever so 
 little, to turn the trend of development in the direction 
 of manual trades and diversity of occupation. 
 
 One of the large schools of the Hebrew Sunday School 
 Society holds its sessions at Touro Hall, the others in the 
 lower section of the city being located in rented halls at 
 Eighth and South and Fourth and South Streets. The 
 largest attendance in the three schools is about twenty-five 
 hundred altogether. The pupils are taught chiefly Bible 
 history. 
 
 The Young Women's Union, at 428 Bainbridge Street, 
 is an important centre of influence. It is developing in 
 its personal work. Formerly devoting itself to the day 
 nursery and shelter for young children and to classes con- 
 ducted along institutional lines, it has been adding the club 
 feature. The young people are formed into small groups, 
 usually with a leader, whose personal contact with the club 
 is valuable in molding the conduct and adapting the point 
 of view of the individuals. Then, too, the Juvenile Aid 
 Association, which takes charge of all matters pertaining 
 to the delinquent young people within the age of those 
 subject to the juvenile court law, has become a most val- 
 uable feature of the Union's work. The probation officer 
 who is given charge of all boys and girls brought up in 
 the juvenile court is an appointee of this association. A 
 part of the work of the association which promises good 
 results is the placing out of young delinquents. To recur 
 to the activities of the Union in its building, besides the 
 clubs and the classes, the gymnasium and the library are 
 adjuncts of its work. 
 
 The Home of Delight, at 426 Pine Street, embraces a 
 kindergarten, a library and reading room, game rooms, 
 savings bank, classes and clubs. The class work includes 
 sewing, embroidery, drawing and general elementary sub- 
 jects. The Home serves as a centre of social activity for 
 the people in the northern portion of our southern district. 
 The matron lives in the house with her family. 
 
 Among the influences particularly for the young people 
 none has been more important in my judgment than the 
 
208 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 Philadelphia College Settlement, at 433 Christian Street. 
 The beneficiaries are chiefly Jews. I have had occasion 
 carefully to study and observe the work for seven years 
 and I can testify to the valuable results which are accom- 
 plished — not results, it is true, that can in any adequate 
 degree be put down in tabulated statistical form, but 
 which count for much in the uplifting of the individuals 
 and the upbuilding of their characters. Not only is the 
 personal contact of the residents and their associates with 
 those who come to the settlement promotive of refinement 
 and culture, but the educational value of the class and 
 club work is of decided benefit, especially in broadening 
 the point of view. The games and dances, the concerts 
 and theatricals, the English instruction and discussions are 
 effective means for promoting the finer development of the 
 young people in the hands of the Settlement workers who 
 endeavor to bring into their house an atmosphere of cheer 
 and good breeding. The head worker of the Settlement, 
 Miss Anna F. Davies, has prepared for me the following 
 appreciation: '' My experience in the Philadelphia Col- 
 lege Settlement has led me to believe that the Russian 
 Jewish population furnishes the element of our congested 
 districts which is most responsive to educational effort. 
 This seems true of the wider education of a social type, 
 the value of which the Settlement especially emphasizes, 
 no less than of instruction pure and simple. Feeling and 
 taste are sensitive, and where there is acquaintance with 
 good standards, will usually and instinctively choose wise- 
 ly. It is safe to assume that the Jewish applicant for club 
 or class may be appealed to on the mental side; that he 
 has a brain and will enjoy exercising it. To the teacher 
 or club leader who has the tact to smooth away the ob- 
 stacles of a slightly known language the returns in interest 
 and appreciation are large and immediate. Students who 
 cannot be trusted with the spelling of English monosylla- 
 bles and whose composition is unintelligible except to a 
 kindly intuition, have read Emerson and Shakespeare, 
 under guidance, with keen interest. One such said on one 
 occasion, ' That is grand, but if I'd try to read it at 
 home I couldn't make out at all.' In the familiar phrase 
 the Russian Jcav needs only ' half a chance.' That given 
 he will do the rest. He does need greatly wider eco- 
 nomic opportunities and the intercourse with the more 
 privileged which will form, unconsciously to himself, a 
 
PHILADELPHIA 209 
 
 finer type of social standards than his Russian past has 
 developed. ' * 
 
 Among the Russian Jewish people themselves the Hebrew 
 Literature Society has developed. It has a house of its 
 own at 310 Catharine Street. At its meetings discussions 
 on religious, scientific, political, and social subjects are held. 
 The lectures, usually on Sunday afternoons, are given by 
 well qualified men from the universities and colleges, and 
 the large audience which is attracted is thus afforded well 
 digested information. There are also on other occasions 
 addresses and discussions in Yiddish on Friday evenings. 
 In addition to participation in debate, members may avail 
 themselves of the library, which contains volumes in Eng- 
 lish, Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian and German. In the dis- 
 cussions the language employed is sometimes English, some- 
 times Yiddish. The society promotes the social life by 
 entertainments and dances. A gymnasium is contemplated 
 and with it there is likely to be developed physical train- 
 ing, both for the older and the younger generation. 
 
 The Educational Alliance, located at 516 Spruce Street, 
 is so called because it is the result of an amalgamation of 
 the Educational League and the Hebrew Students' League. 
 Its chief work, which was organized by the former in 1903, 
 is free instruction to the immigrant in English, elementary 
 and advanced arithmetic, algebra, history, and literature. 
 The instruction is given four evenings each week, and the 
 enrollment is over 200, with a nightly attendance of about 
 100. This season (1904-05) a paid superintendent has been 
 engaged. The main result of the direct co-operation of the 
 Students' League has been the availability of its members 
 as teachers, the Students' League having given up its own 
 class work. It, however, retains its identity for social pur- 
 poses and for the founding of a scholarship at the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania. Its members are college students 
 and graduates and higher school men. 
 
 The Young Men's Hebrew Union is the outgrowth of a 
 number of small literary societies. It is the most rep- 
 resentative of the young people's societies whose members 
 are imbued with American social and educational ideas. 
 The character of its work can best be judged by reference 
 to its debates, mock trials, lectures, amateur dramatic per- 
 formances, entertainments, receptions and dances. Its 
 Women's Auxiliary, which holds separate meetings, helps 
 
210 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 in the 'social work of the organization. Its rooms are at 
 229 Pine Street. 
 
 Literary societies come and go among the younger peo- 
 ple. The names change, but many of the members are the 
 same in a list of societies that may be made up at any time. 
 These organizations are a valuable feature in the self -edu- 
 cational efforts of the young people, and though they tend 
 at times too much to mere dialectics, this is by no means a 
 serious result compared with the good accomplished. 
 
 We have, then, some large societies, besides a number 
 of smaller ones, promoting the intellectual life among the 
 Russian Jewish people themselves, as distinguished from 
 the public schools, the settlements, and the educational so- 
 cieties organized more or less from without. 
 
 It would be valuable to have one of the branches of the 
 public library in this district. There may not be a neigh- 
 borhood spirit that understands how to call for it, but there 
 is no question in my mind that once established the library 
 would be most largely patronized. 
 
 In connection with the subject under discussion it should 
 be noted that a number of young people take advantage 
 of the low tuition fees of the Drexel Institute and Temple 
 College and are thus materially helped in their efforts to 
 improve their education. 
 
 No reference has been made here to the religious educa- 
 tion of the young people because that has been amply 
 treated in the chapter on the subject of religion. 
 
 This review of the educational influences surrounding 
 the Russian Jews of Philadelphia should be convincing 
 evidence of the intellectual desire of the community and 
 the intellectual stimulus which it is receiving — a desire 
 and a stimulus which make for high class citizenship. 
 
(C) CHICAGO 
 
 Endeavoring' to deal more directly with the educational 
 work actually done for the Russian Jewish people by the 
 public schools, the various settlements and private insti-, 
 tutions, in and about the Ghetto, we shall, at the same time - 
 try to make some analysis of this work as affected by Amer- :' 
 ican Jewish conditions. I 
 
 There are eight public schools which minister chiefly to^; 
 the educational wants of the Jewish young people. Five! 
 of these are situated in the very heart of the Jewish dis-J 
 trict, with a proportion of Jewish children as high as 93 J 
 per cent. The other three fairly mark the northern, west- ' 
 ern and southern limits of the West Side, and have a pro- 
 portion as low as 20 per cent. The names of these schools, 
 together with the total number of pupils and proportion 
 of Jews are, according to statements received from the 
 principals, as follows: 
 
 SCHOOL TOTAL JEWISH PUPILS PER CENT. 
 
 Washburne 1575 1465 93 
 
 Garfield 1525 1400 92 
 
 Smythe 1225 1078 88 
 
 Foster 2075 1640 80 
 
 Goodrich 1200 786 65 
 
 Medill (elementary) ... 837 335 40 
 
 Dore 1093 328 30 
 
 Polk 1250 250 20 
 
 Jewish Training School 650 647 991/2 
 
 Total 11430 7929 68.9 
 
 Thus we find that in a total of 11,430 pupils, 7,929, or 
 68.9 per cent., are Jewish. 
 
 It must be remembered that it is not the fortune of every 
 one of these eight thousand children to go uninterruptedly 
 through all eight grades provided for by the public schools. 
 Prof. Bamberger, of the Jewish Training School, in the 
 
 211 
 
SEVENTH 
 
 EIGHTH 
 
 GRADE 
 
 GRADE 
 
 110 
 
 48 
 
 113 
 
 73 
 
 145 
 
 65 
 
 212 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 Tenth Annual Keport, asserts that the statistics in the 
 school reports of the city of Chicago show that not over 
 three per cent, of all pupils of the public schools are grad- 
 uated, i e., pass through all eight grades. And when one 
 comes to examine any group of schools he will find con- 
 siderable confirmation of this statement. 
 
 Of the eight schools mentioned, three, Foster, Polk, and 
 Washburne, have no seventh and eighth grades at all. 
 That there is a falling off even in the fifth and sixth grades 
 is proved by the small number of pupils in the seventh 
 and eighth grades in those schools where such grades are 
 maintained. The following are figures for Goodrich, 
 Smythe, and Garfield, as compiled by Miss Witkowsky, who 
 investigated the subject -} 
 
 SCHOOL TOTAL NO. 
 
 Goodrich 1165 
 
 Smythe 1183 
 
 Garfield 1328 
 
 Total 3676 368 186 
 
 This table shows clearly that out of a total of 3,676, 368, 
 or ten per cent., reach the seventh grade and only 186, or 
 about five per cent., reach the eighth grade. 
 
 What tends to aggravate these conditions, and further 
 to interfere with the educational career of the Jew- 
 ish child is, on the one hand, the apparently natural tru- 
 ancy of some boys, and on the other, the necessity — always 
 pressing on the workingmen 's children — of leaving school 
 and going to work. This they do very soon after they reach 
 the age of fourteen, thirteen, or even twelve. As many 
 of them begin school at a late age, probably because they 
 have come to this country within but a few years, one can 
 judge what inadequate education these future workingmen 
 take with them. Some of the principals feel this keenly, 
 deploring the early removal from school, especially when it 
 affects a boy who has already attained high scholarship. 
 
 These are some of the undesirable features connected 
 with the present status of education on the West Side. 
 However, the outlook is exceedingly bright. When we 
 
 1 Report of the Seventh Ward District Bttreau of Charities, 1897-1899, 
 Chicago. 
 
CHICAGO 213 
 
 remember that there are already eight large, fine school 
 buildings, warm and comfortable, equipped with books and 
 stationery, libraries and gymnasiums, ornamented with ap- 
 propriate pictures ; when we remember that these are con- 
 trolled by large faculties of teachers and earnest principals, 
 many of whom have as their deepest interest the education 
 and development of our children, studying and counteract- 
 ing their drawbacks in English, and in physical health, in 
 which many of them are so deplorably deficient, then 
 gloomy thoughts vanish. When we remember that the 
 ability and scholarship of this army of eight thousand 
 children, fostered and encouraged in these schools, might 
 have remained dormant, neglected or even stifled in the 
 land they came from ; when we think that the interest and 
 anxiety of the parents to see their children educated, — 
 which is certainly satisfied here *to a large degree ; — we 
 can readily realize the worth and success of the effort 
 made to educate our Jewish young people on the West Side. 
 
 Of the other schools in the city, with Jewish pupils, es- 
 pecially of those on the Northwest Side, little or nothing 
 can be said. There the problem of dealing with the Jewish 
 children as such does not at all arise, so completely have 
 they become an integral part of the neighborhood they live 
 in. That this is actually the case is clearly corroborated 
 by the reports of the principals of six Northwest Side 
 schools. The principal of the Wells School, speaking of 
 the scholarship of the Jewish children, says: " Have 
 noticed no difference ; in fact, could not pick out the Jew- 
 ish children from the others in appearance or scholarship. ' ' 
 The principal of the Burr School says : ' ' Parents interested 
 in schools and what is done for the children, but no more 
 so than non- Jewish parents." This simply shows the proc- 
 ess of Americanization that is going on, and an investiga- 
 tion of the schools in other parts of the city would probably 
 further emphasize the same fact. 
 
 Side by side with the public school, and doing an educa- 
 tional Avork which in essence is even more valuable to the 
 Jewish children than the regular school instruction, is the 
 Jewish Training School. This school was founded in 1888, 
 in recognition of two great principles : First, that trading 
 is too much a part of Jewish life ; that it is becoming detri- 
 mental to its welfare in the present industrial age; that, 
 therefore, trades must supplement trading. Secondly, 
 that the three R's are too much a part of school life and 
 
214 . EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 the three 'H 's — the perfect union of heart, head and hand 
 — not enough. As a result of these two basic principles, 
 there stands to-day on Judd Street, between Jefferson and 
 Clinton, a fine brick building, erected by the private effort 
 of wealthy Jews of Chicago. The grades of instruction 
 include a kindergarten, primary department, and grammar 
 department. The manual w^ork is carried on in two divi- 
 sions, the art and the mechanical. The art division com- 
 prises modeling and free hand drawing, taught in all the 
 classes, and designing, taught in the grammar classes only. 
 The mechanical division comprises Sloyd, cardboard 
 work, wood work, machine work, sewing, cutting, fitting, 
 and draughting, and domestic economy. Particular em- 
 phasis is laid on physical development, gymnastics being 
 taught in all the classes. Music, too, is taught in the sev- 
 eral grades. It is testified by many who have studied its 
 progress and results, that, from the pedagogic standpoint, 
 the school is successful. 
 
 Still another factor subsidiary to the public school and 
 influential in the educational and social development of our 
 Russian Jewish children is the settlement kindergarten. 
 The one at Hull House takes the lead. It contains 50 chil- 
 dren, of whom a little over half are Jew^ish. 
 
 The kindergarten in the Jewish settlement on Maxwell 
 Street near Halsted has also done its share of good work 
 for the Jewish child. The number of pupils is limited 
 to 25. 
 
 A settlement of comparatively recent origin, the Henry 
 Booth House, is doing almost exclusively kindergarten 
 work, and that mainly among our Jewish children. It is 
 situated at 125 West Fourteenth Place and is under the 
 direction of the Ethical Culture Society. 
 
 The institutions so far described are undoubted^ work- 
 ing for the highest good that is in the child. There is one 
 other institution which must be dealt with in connection 
 with the educational work done for children. This is the 
 Talmud Torah, or Hebrew Free School. It occupies a large 
 brick building only a dozen houses away from the Jewish 
 Training School, on Judd Street near Clinton. The outside 
 of this building is really attractive and in great contrast 
 wdth the dilapidated shanties around it. This structure, 
 together with an older one in the rear, is valued at $4,000. 
 The seating capacity is barely 500. About 600 pupils at- 
 tend the school, 200 aged from 4 to 6 years, during public 
 
CHICAGO 215 
 
 school hours, and the other older children, from 6 to 13 
 years of age, from 4 to 7.30 P. M. They are taught the 
 Hebrew alphabet, reading, grammar, translation into Yid- 
 dish of the Pentateuch, prophets and Hagiographa. 
 Twelve teachers are employed. The annual income is about 
 $15,000, contributed as follows: (1) Five cents weekly 
 dues from all members; (2) ten to fifteen cents weekly for 
 tuition unless parents are unable to pay; (3) contributions 
 from congregations; (4) donations on various occasions, 
 such as weddings, bar mitzvahs, b'rith milahs (ceremonies 
 of circumcision), and the like. 
 
 Subsidiary to the Talmud Torah, are the chedarim, or pri- 
 vate Hebrew classes, which are to be found on almost every 
 block of the Ghetto. The hours and subjects are about the 
 same as at the Talmud Torah ; in some instances more mod- 
 ern methods are employed, in others more mediaeval or an- 
 cient, according to the progressiveness or backwardness of 
 the individual teacher. The classes are invariably conduct- 
 ed in the houses of the " rabbis " and usually number 
 from 20 to 40 pupils. The children attend until they 
 become bar mitzvah (thirteen years of age, the age accord- 
 ing to the orthodox custom for admission of the child into 
 the faith). 
 
 Instruction is also given privately to younger children. 
 A host of ' ' rabbis ' ' go the rounds early in the morning in 
 order to help children *' zu sogen broche " (offer morning 
 prayer). 
 
 So much concerning elementary education. Turning 
 now to secondary and higher education, we shall find the 
 facts far more telling. All in all, there are perhaps 1,000 
 Jewish boys and girls in the different secondary and high 
 schools of the city, public and private. 
 
 The two high schools of the West Side district are the 
 Medill and the English High and Manual Training School. 
 The total number of Jewish pupils in the Medill is about 
 200, or one third. The number in the other is about 100, 
 or about 10 per cent. This difference may be partly due 
 to the location of these schools, the Medill being easily ac- 
 cessible, while the Manual Training is far removed from 
 the district. The fact that the former is of the regular 
 type of American schools, offering an education which is 
 essentially intellectual and literary, while the latter offers 
 an education that involves manual training, may have some- 
 thing to do with the difference. 
 
216 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 Aside from these two public high schools, there is also 
 a private institution, for secondary or academic education, 
 which is growing in popularity among the young men on 
 the West Side. This is the Lewis Institute of Science, Lit- 
 erature and Technology. There are about 60 Jewish pupils 
 in this institute, most of them paying $60 a year for tuition. 
 The intellectual work of some is particularly notable. Pro- 
 fessor Carman thinks that the Jewish pupils represent the 
 extremes, ' ' the best and the poorest. ' ' The selected 
 courses of study are mainly literary, scientific and sociolog- 
 ical, but not technological. On the other hand, the Ar- 
 mour, a thorough-going institute of technology, is rather 
 avoided by our Eussian Jewish boys. Here again the ques- 
 tion of location might come in, but certainly cannot be the 
 only one. As against those in the constructive sciences 
 there are scores of young men in the medical and legal 
 sciences. 
 
 There are about 30 Russian Jews in the College of 
 Physicians and Surgeons, and 30 in the Rush Medical Col- 
 lege. In the less prominent medical schools, like the Ben- 
 net or the Harvey (a college having night sessions), many 
 more are to be found. In the John Marshall Law School 
 there are 10 Russian Jewish young men; while others are 
 scattered among the different law schools of the city. The 
 fact that the number of Russian Jewish young men in these 
 schools exceeds that in 'the two institutions of technology 
 furnishes further material for future analysis. 
 
 More indicative of educational progress is the fact that 
 many of our Jewish boys on the West Side are realizing 
 that there is a LTniversity of Chicago in this city, and that 
 it is not open to the boys on Michigan Avenue exclusively. 
 Those in the department of literature predominate. It is 
 not for me to speak of their success in the different 
 branches. Several are here on scholarships, and they pro- 
 ceed with their studies from one year to another in spite 
 of many financial difficulties. 
 
 It is difficult to tell how many West Side boys would 
 gladly take advantage of the educational opportunities 
 offered by the University if these difficulties were over- 
 come. There is many a young man, sitting in a cold, lamp- 
 lit bedroom on the West Side over a book on physics, study- 
 ing perhaps the First Three Laws of Newton, which he 
 would like to re-establish by actual experiment in the labor- 
 atory, but is denied this privilege because he happens to 
 
CHICAGO 217 
 
 be a poor workingman. Hoav many young men whose edu- 
 cational careers have been cut short in Russia, whose 
 identity in America is lost amid the numberless bundles of 
 shirts or knee-pants in the factories of Chicago, — how many 
 of these would joyfully occupy some of the vacant seats 
 in the lecture halls in the university if the tuition fees, and 
 the high living expense, were not so difficult to meet. 
 Nevertheless, while the money question is serious with the 
 majority, for the few opportunities are open in the Uni- 
 versity, as well as in the Lewis Institute. The road may 
 not be so easy, but with a little self-sacrifice, combined with 
 the sympathy and help of others, it is possible for these to 
 win a college or university education. 
 
 Hull House can point to more than one young man and 
 woman who have from year to year bettered their English, 
 increased their knowledge of men and things, and im- 
 proved their taste, receiving all in a natural, free and truly 
 glad-to-give manner. Nor are they slow in taking advan- 
 tage here. In general two-thirds of the membership of 
 Hull House clubs and classes are Jewish young people. 
 They predominate most in the classes in English, literature 
 and social studies, and least in manual training, drawing 
 and art studies. In fact, the English classes are at times 
 composed entirely of Jews. The art classes are entirely 
 non- Jewish in membership. Supplementing the work of 
 these classes are the clubs, many of which are Jewish in 
 membership. Their interest is chiefly in debating, in the 
 reading and discussion of literature, in dramatics and 
 musical and social entertainments. 
 
 Very similar to these, though not quite so extensive, are 
 the various clubs and classes at the Jewish settlement. The 
 personal attention, help and guidance which these are re- 
 ceiving may be judged from the fact that there are forty 
 workers connected with the settlement, ten of whom are 
 college-bred men and women. The subjects of special edu- 
 cational value which are offered at the present time are : 
 drawing, debating, handwork, weaving, clay-modeling, vio- 
 lin, reading, and piano playing. 
 
 As has been mentioned, the Booth House lays chief em- 
 phasis on the kindergarten, which is much needed in the 
 Henry Street neighborhood. There are, however, two dis- 
 tinctly educational clubs besides those of a social or merry- 
 making nature. The chief interest about these two clubs 
 is that they are composed of working boys and girls and 
 
218 EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCES 
 
 are conducted by self-educated young men who have been, 
 and in all probability will continue to be, workingmen 
 themselves, who come directly out of the ranks of rising 
 ' ' Young Russia. ' ' 
 
 Independent of the settlement or any other institution, 
 yet widely influential in their respective spheres, are three 
 Jewish educational societies, known as the Self Educational 
 Club, the Lassalle Political and Educational Club, and the 
 Hebrew Literary Association. It is here in the humble 
 educational work of these clubs of coat operators, cloak 
 operators and cigar makers that one gets the first glimpse 
 of that ' ' ever-glorious revolt of toiling humanity ' ' against 
 unrelieved sameness, and daily weary monotone of present- 
 day factory life, '' against being shut up in one single 
 chapter of life," as Miss Addams says. Yet I am afraid 
 that the people who " go slumming " seldom discover these 
 more essential elements and nobler manifestations of the 
 Chicago Ghetto. How many know of the existence and the 
 great needs of the Club House (of the Self Educational 
 Club), the Labor Lyceum (of the Lassalle Club) and the 
 Reading Room (of the Hebrew Literary Association) on the 
 West Side ? 
 
 Standing on the very edge of the educational map and 
 perhaps as far remote from each other socially as are the 
 north and south poles, are the numerous lodges, the chev- 
 ras, classes for the study of the Talmud, and congrega- 
 tions on the one hand; and the trade unions, the political 
 and socialistic clubs on the other. What these institutions 
 do educationally and socially for the uplifting of the 
 masses can be seen, felt, and perhaps described, but not 
 satisfactorily dealt with ; nor is it possible to show by means 
 of figures the educational influence of a similar type of 
 social forces located, figuratively speaking, just mid-way 
 between the synagogue and the socialist headquarters, 
 namely, the Jewish stage, the press, and the professions of 
 medicine, law, and the like. It would unquestionably prove 
 exceedingly interesting to examine the effect, for example, 
 of the more thoroughly educated doctor on the particular 
 neighborhood he lives in on the health and culture of the 
 families he comes in contact with. But such a discussion 
 is out of my domain. 
 
 However inadequate the treatment may have been, the 
 facts already presented are sufficient to indicate that there 
 is in the limited district of the Chicago Ghetto a host of 
 
CHICAGO 219 
 
 educational forces, emanating from widely different quar- 
 ters, but blending to shape and mold anew the Jewish 
 type of mind to suit the new standards and conditions and 
 to produce those rapid changes which have aroused so much 
 interest in recent studies of the East Side of New York 
 and the Whitechapel of London. 
 
 As a result of this education there is rising out of the 
 ranks of the public schools a class of young men and women 
 whose like is almost new to Jewish life. The note of mer- 
 riment in the young American Israelite, foreign as it is to 
 him, from the historic point of view, is certainly full of 
 promise. There is no longer in him — especially in the 
 better educated j^oung man — that extreme asceticism and 
 sour-facedness which mark his Hebrew educated prototype, 
 the yeshibah bochur (student of the Talmud). Tending to 
 overshadow these typical characteristics there appear grad- 
 ually on the face of the modern young man, " lines and 
 angles of smiles," indicative of a more agreeable, if not so 
 typical, a nature as that of the yeshibah bochur of Russia. 
 The education of the school and the culture of the settle- 
 ment tend to make the Jewish young man more of a social 
 being; more varied in his likes and dislikes; more easily 
 sharing the faults and virtues of German, American, and 
 Irish young men. 
 
 In the frequent large social or public gatherings on 
 Friday evening in Turner Hall, for example, where boys 
 and girls dance away until four o 'clock next morning, there 
 is obviously just as much to be commended as there is to be 
 condemned. The fact that the Jewish young people are 
 outgrowing their self-centred natures and are learning to 
 meet different people on a social plane is certainly of great 
 significance. On the other hand, when this social tendency 
 is carried too far, when the hour is unusually lengthened, 
 the sobriety of the young men and the modesty of the young 
 women must inevitably suffer. 
 
 What proportion of these dancing clubs and parties con- 
 sists of public and high-school graduates is difficult to tell. 
 It is enough to say that they take a large share of interest 
 in organizing and maintaining these operatic, dramatic and 
 pleasure clubs, as they are so frequently called. It remains 
 to be seen how soon they will organize a social settlement, 
 a municipal voting league, an ethical culture society. 
 
VII 
 
 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL 
 LIFE 
 
 (A) NEW YOEK 
 By a. H. Fbomenson 
 
 Editor English Department Jewish Daily 'News, Neio York City 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 By Mrs. Simon N. (Charlotte Kimball) Patten, 
 
 A.M. 
 
 Former Headicorker Neighlorhood House, Louisville, Ky. 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By I. K. Friedman 
 
 Author of " Poor People," etc. 
 
 221 
 
AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 {A) NEW YORK 
 
 Although it may be accounted a negligible factor, yet the 
 liquor saloon has some value in a study of the social life 
 and amusements of the Russian Jew in New York City 
 (and doubtless in the other large Jewish centres in the 
 United States). Its relation to the topic is inverse; in 
 other words as the Jewish population of a given district 
 increases the number of " gin mills " decreases. Contrary 
 to the advent of butcher-shops, grocery stores, and " coffee 
 and cake parlors," the disappearance of a saloon from a 
 street corner where it had seemed moored for all time to 
 come, and where it had been located for a period beyond 
 memory, has always, on the East Side, and latterly in the 
 newer Ghettos of New York City, signaled the ousting from 
 that district of its former denizens and their supplanting by 
 a population between which and the saloon there is no 
 affinity. Not that there are no liquor saloons in the Ghet- 
 tos. The Russian Jew is not a teetotaler, but he has no 
 need for the solicitous guardianship of a temperance organ- 
 ization. He drinks when he feels so inclined, or when it 
 seems to him the occasion warrants. But there must al- 
 ways be some reason for his drinking; there is the " ge- 
 fillte " fish on Sabbath eve and for Sabbath lunch. It is 
 almost a desecration of the joy of the Sabbath not to have 
 a little brandy before the fish-course, once with the course, 
 and once after. Then there are the festal occasions, the 
 ** Rejoicing of the Law," the anniversary of the hanging of 
 Haman, the celebration of the Maccabean victories and 
 the miracle of the lights — surely, these are sufficient v/ar- 
 rant for looking upon the wine when it is red, or tasting 
 of strong drink. Then, too, the great family events: the 
 b'rith milah (circumcision), the pidyon ha ben (a ceremony 
 relating to the first-born), the bar mitzvah (thirteenth an- 
 niversary of a male child), the tnoyim (engagement), the 
 wedding — surely one cannot invite friends to these great 
 
 222 
 
NEW YOBK 223 
 
 functions without previously having a small keg of beer 
 brought in ; people cannot sit at a dry table ! 
 
 But the drinking that is done on any of these occasions 
 is done in the house. The Russian Jew does not lean on 
 the bar; nor does he sit around in the saloon. If he likes 
 a glass of beer with his meals, he can have a bottled supply 
 on hand. 
 
 What saloons there are on the East Side do but an im- 
 poverished business and are dependent to a large extent 
 upon the chance passer-by or upon the steadily waning 
 " kettle " trade. The brilliantly illuminated, lavishly 
 decorated, expensively equipped saloons that may be seen 
 in other sections of the city are unknown on the East Side. 
 What brilliant illumination there is on the East Side, what 
 lavish decoration, what rich furnishing, is in the restaur- 
 ants, the latest response to the steadily growing social in- 
 stinct and material development of the East Side. 
 
 Instead of the saloon the " coffee and cake parlor," and 
 from the " coffee and cake parlor," by a process of steady 
 and marked evolution, the restaurant, with its nouveau art 
 decorations, mission furniture, table d'hote, and string or- 
 chestra ! Ten years ago it would have been impossible for 
 even one of these restaurants, the acme of social life on the 
 East Side, to have paid even running expenses ; to-day there 
 are a half-dozen taxed to their utmost capacity daily and 
 nightly, and more are preparing to m.ake a bid for the 
 profitable approval of the East Side with brighter illumina- 
 tions, gaudier trimmings, more a?sthetic furnishings than 
 those which now ride on the golden crest of popularity. 
 Five years ago the proposed establishment of a ''high 
 class " restaurant on semi-philanthropic lines was hailed 
 with the joy of anticipated gastronomic delight by the ap- 
 parently limited number of young Russians and sons of 
 Russians who yearned for '' better things." Now, the 
 semi-philanthropic venture is not so popular, and its pat- 
 ronage is not so typical of the elements that go to make up 
 the East Side as some of those established by the people 
 themselves. 
 
 But though these high class restaurants have fitted them- 
 selves into the daily life of the East Side, they have not 
 done so at the expense of the humbler resorts of which they 
 are the offspring. After all, it is in the " coffee saloon " 
 — where many times more tea is consumed than the bever- 
 age from which it takes its name — that the East Side 
 
224 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 finds recreation. Whether it is to play chess or checkers, 
 or to discuss Karl Marx or Bakounine, or to analyze Tolstoi 
 or Ibsen, or to debate the relative merits and demerits of 
 the naturalistic or romantic drama — or the wonderful col- 
 orature of the last night 's prima donna at the Metropolitan 
 — (for all of these are included in the light converse of the 
 East Side), or to denounce the critics of Adler, the actor, 
 or to excoriate the traducers of Gordin, the playwright — 
 these topics are handled best, thoughts come lucidly and 
 words eloquently, over the glass of tea a la Busse — with 
 a floating slice of lemon, and the cigarette. 
 
 It is estimated that there are between 250 and 300 of 
 these coffee and cake establishments on the lower East Side, 
 which figure is the best proof of the popularity of these 
 ** workingmen's clubs." Unlike the occasional liquor sa- 
 loon on the East Side, they are absolutely independent of 
 transient trade. The chance passer-by does not enter into 
 the calculations of the proprietor, and is stared at as an 
 intruder by the regular habitues. We have called these 
 places "workingmen's clubs." They answer that descrip- 
 tion more truly and more pleasantly than the Bishop 's tav- 
 ern, for here there is an absolute guarantee of sobriety, and 
 a free, democratic foregathering of kindred spirits. If 
 one is up in the coffee and cake geography of the district, 
 he knows where he may find the social and intellectual di- 
 version most to his liking. It is each to his own; the 
 Socialist has his chosen headquarters, the chess-crank his, 
 the music-lovei his, and so on right down the line. Some, 
 indeed, combine two or three cults or fads, but even these 
 have a tendenz which stands out clearly after the first clash 
 of impressions. 
 
 Two or three of these " clubs " have considerable life 
 in the afternoon, especially those in which the radical 
 literati and journalists, the compositors on the Yiddish 
 dailies, and students and insurance agents and others who 
 have a few hours of the day to kill congregate. But, for 
 the most of them there is no life until late in the evening. 
 It is generally ten o'clock before the social phase manifests 
 itself ; if the ' ' popular price ' ' performance at the Metro- 
 politan Opera House is a worthy one, or if there is some- 
 thing worth while on the boards in the Yiddish theatre, it 
 may even be later before the roll-call would have a full 
 response in certain of these places. The resort of the chess- 
 player is naturally quiet enough, but the philosophers and 
 
NEW YORK 225 
 
 critics are oracular and demonstrative. Often it is '' mine 
 host " who leads the discussion, or sits in judgment of the 
 pros and cons. When he says his say, it is boldly, reckless- 
 ly almost, viewed from the mercenary aspect of retaining 
 his patronage. Nor does he fail to castigate a stubborn 
 adherent of a contrary view. But the heat of controversy 
 never assumes a petty, sulking character; to tear ''mine 
 host's " arguments to tatters, to utterly rout him at every 
 point, is no mean accomplishment and worth hazarding 
 many defeats, for generally he is very well informed on the 
 topic under discussion. In fact, it is his known views and 
 predilections that decide the character of his patronage. 
 Thus, if his establishment is frequented by Socialists, it is 
 fair to assume that he belongs to that political school; if 
 his clientele is made up largely of musicians, he is an ama- 
 teur critic or patron of the liberal art. 
 
 And where the cigarette smoke is thickest and denuncia- 
 tion of the present forms of government loudest, there you 
 find women ! One wishes he could write these women down 
 gently. But to none would gentle words sound more 
 strange than to the women of the radical coffee " parlor," 
 who listen to strongest language, and loudest voices, nor 
 fail to make themselves heard in the heat of the discussion. 
 Yet it is hard to criticise them. The hall-bedroom is such 
 a dingy, dreary place ; the walls so close they seem to crush 
 the unfortunate whose '' home " is within its oppressive 
 limits. The " coffee saloon " is light and cheerful; the 
 noise is only the swelling chorus of spirits with whom they 
 are in harmonious accord. If they are not the objects of 
 fine courtesies and considerateness, they do not miss them; 
 perhaps they never knew them. The stern realities of life, 
 the terrible disappointment of thwarted ambition, the bruis- 
 ing friction of tradition and '' emancipation," the struggle 
 for existence, — all these have conspired to rob them of the 
 finer attributes of womanhood. These are the stalwarts of 
 the radical movements, the Amazons, or, as they have been 
 dubbed, " die kaempf erinen, " whose zealotry rallies the 
 flagging courage of their " genossen." Unromantic, per- 
 haps, and yet we hear of them toiling, slaving, denying 
 themselves until some man has won a degree and an entry 
 into one of the professions. But, as they sit there in an 
 atmosphere of tea-steam and cigarette smoke, one who does 
 not know sees them only as unwomanly women; pallid, 
 tired, thin-lipped, flat-chested and angular, wearing men's 
 
226 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 hats and shoes, without a hint of color or finery. And to 
 them, as 'to the men, the time of night means nothing until 
 way into the small hours. When one must sleep in a hall- 
 bedroom there is no hurry about bedtime. 
 
 Even when these radical resorts have reluctantly surren- 
 dered their habitues, night life in the Ghetto is not at an 
 end. There are still some resorts that are aglow with light 
 and strident with color. The actor-folk and their admir- 
 ers and satellites are still awake, talking " shop,'' posing, 
 sneering, joking, romancing, fawning, and flattering, until 
 the gray light of dawn paling the glowing incandescent ad- 
 monishes them that sunrise, and therefore bedtime, is near 
 at hand. The great " star " or the distinguished play- 
 wright about whose table, as at an altar, sat the worshipful, 
 gives the signal; the lesser lights, down to the chorister, 
 know the meaning of that prodigious yawn — and night life 
 in the Ghetto is at an end, — that is, the night life that is 
 not lived behind the tight-drawn shades, to the melody of 
 clicking ivory chips. But of this life this is not the place 
 to speak. 
 
 Theatre-going is so much a habit with the Russian Jew 
 in New York City that at the moment of this writing three 
 theatres are deriving large profits from catering to it. 
 All of these theatres, with seating capacities equal to 
 the largest patronized by the non- Jewish elements of the 
 city's population (one built for the specific purpose of 
 housing a Yiddish stock company) are located within five 
 minutes ' walk of each other in the down-town Ghetto. An- 
 other, in the newer, but rapidly growing and more prosper- 
 ous Harlem Ghetto, has failed. There were five Yiddish 
 theatres up to a very recent date, and there may be that 
 number again shortly. It is estimated that the patrons of 
 the Yiddish theatres number from five thousand to seven 
 thousand a night, and as performances are given on each 
 of the seven nights in the week, with two matinees (Satur- 
 day and Sunday) the importance of the theatre as a source 
 of amusement in the Ghetto may be realized. 
 
 And because it has such an important place in the life 
 of the Ghetto, it is all the more deplorable that the Yiddish 
 stage is not a better institution than it has been permitted 
 to become. What good may be said of the Yiddish theatre 
 is not owing to those whose first duty it should be to make it 
 possible to speak well of it ; rather, it is due to the people 
 
NEW YORK 227 
 
 themselves, who have compelled the theatre-folk to show 
 some little deference to popular taste. 
 
 The players, with but few exceptions, are not educated 
 and anything but artistic. Their mimetic powers are high- 
 ly developed, undoubtedly, but most of them lack creative 
 power. Naturally, they are at their best in photographic 
 reproductions or in caricaturing types and characters with 
 which their lives and environments have familiarized them. 
 There is no desire here to deny to any of the leading men > 
 and women of the Yiddish stage the credit that rightfully 
 belongs to them. Indeed, it is perhaps the greatest tribute ' 
 that can be paid to them when it is said that if they pos- i 
 sessed that education which is a requisite for even a moder- :■ 
 ate success on the American stage, they would by now have I 
 been the greatest actors in the world, so wonderful are their . 
 talents within their mental limitations. ^ 
 
 Still another factor that tends to prevent the stage from ; 
 rising is the discouragement of authorship. The Yiddish 
 playwrights are few, because some of them, in combination 
 with business managers and players, have conspired to limit 
 the number. About eighteen years ago a Yiddish company 
 was eking out a precarious existence by giving performances 
 of the Goldfaden operettas in a converted " concert-hall " 
 which had been renamed the " Oriental Theatre." Pos- 
 sessing more business than literary ability, one ^' Profes- 
 sor ' ' Hurwitz gathered about himself a number of Yiddish 
 players who had drifted here from Europe, among them 
 Moguelesco (perhaps the greatest of all Yiddish actors), 
 Kessler, Feinman, and others. He started a rival theatre 
 of which he became the manager and author. Except the 
 Goldfaden plays, which were used as *' stop-gaps," none 
 but the emanations of his pen, in the main clumsy imita- 
 tions of the wholesome creations of the * ' father of the Yid- 
 dish stage," were permitted to be heard in the playhouse 
 of which he contrived to gain control. How many 
 ' ' plays ' ' he wrote no one can say ; not even Hurwitz him- 
 self. Besides " historic " dramas and operas, he wrote 
 * ' zeit-piesen " — " news melodramas ' ' they might be 
 called. Hardly a sensation of the day, such as the Blood 
 Accusation of Tisza Eslar (a full performance of which re- 
 quired eight acts rendered in two evenings), the Dreyfus 
 Case, the financial panic of 1892, the volcanic eruption on 
 the Island of Martinique, went undramatized by his as- 
 toundingly prolific pen. Twenty-four hours was sufficient 
 
228 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 time for him to conceive, write and stage. a play. The au- 
 thors of the sensational American melodrama are rank 
 amateurs by contrast with him. 
 
 Another prolific playwright is Joseph Lateiner. Lately, 
 however, his pen products have been few and far between, 
 and for the most part unsuccessful. His plays, like those 
 of the Goldfaden type, have musical settings. They differ 
 from the Hurwitz productions in that they have sustained, 
 coherent plots, which though as artificial as most stage pro- 
 ductions, are yet not without a basis of verisimilitude and 
 logical sequence of events and climax. 
 
 It is worth while mentioning here that Sigmund Moguel- 
 esco is responsible for most, and also for the best music of 
 the Yiddish stage (except that written by Goldfaden). 
 Much of it is original, some of it borrowed either from the 
 compositions of the great chazanim (cantors) of Russia, or 
 *' adapted " from the more popular Italian operas. But 
 even these adaptations have been so altered in rhythm and 
 tempo as to become almost characteristically " Yiddish." 
 
 To-day Jacob Gordin is the dominant figure of the Yid- 
 dish stage, and his impress is the strongest. Some others, 
 among them Libin and Kobrin, have managed to get a 
 hearing, and not without success, but they are disciples of 
 Gordin, and at times have ventured farther than their 
 master. Gordin has excellent literary skill and powers 
 and, if he were tolerant of criticism and amenable to dis- 
 cipline, could become the greatest factor in the development 
 of the Yiddish stage. But it would be absurd to grant 
 him all that he and his followers claim for him. Although 
 he has written many plays which he probably regards as 
 greater, his ' ' Yiddish King Lear ' ' must stand out indica- 
 tive of his great possibilities if he had not chosen to become 
 a philosopher and a problem play writer. What gives 
 Gordin his greatest vogue, and what tends to confuse many 
 of his zealotic followers, is his ability to write strong 
 scenes. When at his best he has produced living, breath- 
 ing entities, in contrast to the artificial, impossible creat- 
 ures produced by his predecessors. His main faults are 
 his stubbornly mistaken conception of " realism " and his 
 persistent exposures of phases of life which are better left 
 unrevealed. The concensus of opinion is that '* God, Man 
 and Devil " is Gordin 's master-work. It is a combination 
 of Job and Faust and its lesson is that even the most saint- 
 like man may be tempted and fall. It has been witnessed 
 
NEW YORK 229 
 
 and approved by college professors, and is unquestiona- 
 bly a lasting contribution to the literature of the drama. 
 
 Besides the playwrights already discussed, must be men- 
 tioned Shaike witch (Schomer), a half-dozen of whose plays 
 have won popular esteem; Seiffert, with a few good plays 
 and several adaptations to his credit; Sharkansky, whose 
 specialty is the dramatization of the High Festival liturgy 
 (the names of two of his plays, '' Unsane Tokef " and 
 " Kol Nidre," will serve as illustrations) ; and Sigmund 
 Feinman, an actor with a fair education, who has been 
 particularly fortunate in adaptations. Other of the Yid- 
 dish actors, Kessler and Tomashefsky, have permitted their 
 names to appear on the posters as co-authors, but their 
 pretensions have been met with knowing smiles — there are 
 some ' ' hack ' ' writers who want money, not fame. 
 
 Jacob P. Adler, the nestor of the Yiddish stage, has 
 been so much written of that it would be idle to say any- 
 thing at length about him here. But very little has been 
 written about David Kessler, who is the equal of Adler, 
 and in a few roles his superior. 
 
 Of the women of the Yiddish stage, it needs only be said 
 that Bertha Kalisch is an actress of such rare ability that 
 even so discriminating a critic as '' Alan Dale " has said 
 of her that she is as good as Sarah Bernhardt at Sarah's 
 best, but never as bad as Sarah at Sarah's worst. The 
 others, with the possible exception of Mme. Dina Feinman 
 and Mrs. Sarah Adler, count for very little indeed. 
 
 Unwittingly, the people themselves have been factors in 
 lowering the tone of the Yiddish stage by fostering the 
 pernicious system of " benefits." At one time or another, 
 lodges and societies of the East Side, of which there are a 
 countless number, will ' ' buy a benefit ' ' ; that is, they will 
 pay the management a certain sum of money, a little over 
 half of the box-office receipts in the event of every seat 
 being occupied; for this sum the benefit buyers are given 
 tickets representing the extreme seating capacitj^ and stand- 
 ing room of the theatre. A play is selected by the com- 
 mittee representing the organization to be presented on the 
 night of the benefit. The tickets are sold by the members 
 of the society and every dollar received over the price paid 
 to the management is the society's profit. This is no 
 philanthropy on the part of the theatre managers; on the 
 contrary, it is good business. The theatres may be reason- 
 ably certain of ^' crowded houses " on Friday, Saturday 
 
230 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 and Sun'clay evenings and at the matinees on Saturday and 
 Sunday afternoon, but the other nights of the week are not 
 very lucrative. Without these '' benefits " the theatres 
 would have to run the risk of financial straits. It may 
 readily be seen how these '' benefits " could become a pow- 
 erful weapon in the hands of the people, if properly 
 directed. 
 
 It is on the ^' benefit " nights that the Yiddish theatre 
 is best worth visiting, provided the play is not the thing. 
 The audience is made up of family parties and neighbor- 
 groups; from the grandsire to the infant and the boarder 
 the whole tenement house is there with its luncheons and 
 its bedlam. Half of the audience has never been to the 
 theatre before, and would not have been there now, only 
 they could not " insult " by not buying tickets, or because 
 it is a " mitzvah " (good deed) to contribute to the good 
 cause for which this '* benefit " is given. And having 
 earned the ' ' mitzvah ' ' why not partake of the earthly joy 
 in its train? Here and there is the '' veteran " theatre- 
 goer, who may be a member of the society, or also could 
 not '^ insult " by refusing to buy a ticket, or also wanted 
 the '^ mitzvah " and all that goes with it. The veteran 
 may be easily discovered, the centre of a group of 
 novitiates explaining the play, naming the actors, criticis- 
 ing them audibly if they are lesser lights, telling where the 
 laugh will come in and repeating lines lost in the noise. Al- 
 together they are joyous occasions, these benefits. Presents 
 are passed over the footlights to the ' ^ stars, ' ' the officers 
 of the society strut out before the curtain between acts and 
 make " sp itches," the member who sold the greatest num- 
 ber of tickets has a gold-medal pinned on his palpitating 
 bosom, and all bathe in a sea of ecstasy, with a feeling of 
 good deeds well done, philanthropic purposes well served — • 
 if the '' benefit " is a success. 
 
 Although the Yiddish drama is decadent, there is no 
 evidence of a similar degeneracy among the people. As al- 
 ready pointed out, the value of plays like those written by 
 Gordin and his disciples is due entirely to *' strong " 
 scenes and powerful acting. Take these two attractions 
 away, and the plays must fail, as many of them have. The 
 social tendency of the people is constantly upward. Every 
 sign-post in this period of transition points higher and 
 higher. Their conceptions of life, of morals and ethics are 
 expanding. Those who have worked among them for a con- 
 
NEW YORK 231 
 
 siderable number of years see these signs clearly. It must 
 be borne in mind that the population of the so-called Ghetto 
 is increasing rapidly, and it is but natural that under the 
 circumstances there should be added to it such individuals 
 who are below the average of decency, or are forced down 
 in the social scale by inability to cope with conditions. 
 Hundreds of influences are at work in the Ghetto which 
 make for higher ideas and chief among these is the natural 
 inclination, or rather aspiration, of the Jew to live the 
 higher, better life, in accordance with that ethical code 
 which has been his guide through the centuries. 
 
 The ladies of the Ghetto are never '' at home," but the 
 welcome visitor is always sure of his glass of tea, his dish 
 of preserves, and some fruit. There are no " Kaffee 
 Klatches " here; nor progressive euchres, or bridge-whists. 
 Hospitality is simple, homely, genuine. There are no so- 
 cial circles, " social life " as that term is understood does 
 not exist. ' ' Parties ' ' are given ; not ' ' coming out ' * 
 parties, but ** engagement parties," '' graduation parties," 
 ' ' bar-mitzvah parties. ' ' The wedding, of course, is the big 
 function. Hundreds of societies give dances and '^ recep- 
 tions " (the latter being a more pretentious name for the 
 former) during the winter, to which anyone may come if he 
 can pay the price of a ticket and ' ' hat check. ' ' Some so- 
 cieties couple entertainments with these receptions. The 
 great social events are the ' ' entertainment and ball ' ' of the 
 Beth Israel Hospital, the Hebrew Sheltering House and 
 Home for the Aged, the Daughters of Jacob, the Young 
 Men's Benevolent League, and the New Era Club. It is at 
 these functions that the East Side makes its most gorgeous 
 sartorial display, and it is by no means either a crude or 
 cheap display. The women for the most part are as exqui- 
 sitely clad as their sisters who visit the Horse-Show, and the 
 diamonds worn at these affairs can be outblinked only by the 
 collection on the grand tier at the Metropolitan Opera 
 House. Strange as it may sound to many, the East Side is 
 not all poverty and suffering. 
 
 The Harlem contingent has acquired some ** society " 
 manners, but like newly acquired things, these manners do 
 not fit very snugly, and their wearing is very amusing. 
 Perhaps, with much effort some of the social aspirants will 
 become accustomed to the new burden. The ' * climbing ' ' is 
 confined, for the most part, to the wives of physicians and 
 lawyers and manufacturers. The great mass regards it all 
 
232 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 with quief derision, and will have nothing to do with '* vis- 
 iting lists ' ' and the rest of what they call ' ^ blowing from 
 themselves." With the mass, relatives and friends are to 
 be visited when time allows, or when occasion demands. 
 
 Owing to home-conditions on the East Side there is 
 only such social life for the young folks as is made pos- 
 sible by organization membership, and as may express itself 
 in the dances mentioned above, or in * ' open-meetings, ' ' in- 
 dulged in by the *' literary " societies, the Zionist societies, 
 and the clubs in the settlements. In the summer time there 
 are the picnics, which are dances in an open pavilion, with 
 a few patches of grass surrounding it, all enclosed with a 
 high fence. Much has been said against these ''picnics '* 
 and it must be admitted that many of them are not very 
 desirable. There is great need for healthy, wholesome 
 recreation, for expression of the buoyancy of youth; and 
 it is greatly to be regretted that the facilities for the things 
 that help to make boys and girls better, purer men and 
 women are so very few. 
 
(B) PHILADELPHIA^ 
 
 Sharply contrasted with the middle aged, transplanted 
 Russian Jews who accept even their pleasures sadly are the 
 young immigrants, pioneers rather than refugees, and the 
 native born, who seize eagerly on every social outlet offered 
 by a niggardly environment. Unworn enthusiasms hurry 
 them to tawdry American amusements while their fathers 
 stand steadfastly by their old world observances. For 
 of all the incoming peoples of European birth, the Russian 
 Jew, after half a lifetime under religious and political 
 ban, adjusts himself least easily to American forms. Flee- 
 ing from his dread birthplace, where home and synagogue 
 trembled in every political breeze, to a strange unstudied 
 land, his attention is held by the one great and splendid 
 fact that home and synagogue are here secure as long as 
 he and his can bear their share of the burden of the day. 
 The logical centre of his pleasures as well as his pains is, 
 then, chevra (synagogue) and home. Not infrequently a 
 social evening is opened for him and his old wigged wife by 
 the wedding of the child of a Ghetto neighbor who was also 
 his neighbor in a little Lithuanian village before a ukase 
 depopulated it. And the funerals of friends, who through 
 a long life endured many things in both the old world and 
 the new, take him with increasing frequency from his books 
 and business. 
 
 There are, also, annual charity balls to which his ever 
 ready generosity calls him and leaves him stranded, a 
 quaint anachronism, an oriental patriarch awkwardly avoid- 
 ing the rush of prize waltzes and Smoky Moke two-steps. 
 Finally, he is a member of charitable lodges and beneficial 
 associations, which hold semi-social dialectic business meet- 
 ings. 
 
 But of amusement pure and simple, of seeking pleasure 
 and jollity for their own sweet sake, without the base of a 
 ramifying religious impulse, the Russian Jew of the pass- 
 
 ^ The data for this paper were gathered chiefly in 1900 when the writer was 
 a resident of the Philadelphia College Settlement. 
 
 233 
 
234 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 ing generation has never learned. Body and mind have 
 hungered and thirsted under conditions so wearisome that 
 when ease comes he acquiesces to its circumstantial pleas- 
 ures as an old person whose senses tire and dull, acquiesces 
 to the fall of the cards in the palling game of life. 
 
 Against the parti-colored background of our city life 
 he is a somewhat lonely and pathetic figure, in a free land 
 still an exile by inheritance, unwilling to adopt and unable 
 to understand new ways of life and happiness, and in the 
 new wa^^s the conduct of his own children most bewilders 
 and alarms him; and his ignorance of English befogs his 
 conjectures as to the meaning of their Americanisms. 
 Their days he knows are long days, filled sometimes with 
 the easy routine of school and oftener with hard work in 
 tailor shop, department store or factory, — in any niche of 
 our more or less ramshackle foundations of industry. But 
 their nights are most certainly not spent as his are, in the 
 study of the Word, or even by the quiet light of the home 
 lamp. 
 
 To the parents this is anxiety; to those who work for a 
 more unified national life through the acquaintance of all 
 the new elements of population with established manners 
 and customs it is a hopeful sign. They find a richness of 
 promise in the young Russian Jewish citizens, who, living 
 under the severest economic pressure, in an environment 
 which has received but a blurred impress from art and cul- 
 ture, have yet preserved serene good temper and a dauntless 
 spirit. Given such natures, already equipped with a strong 
 mentality, the lever of civic machinery by which the mass 
 may raise itself to a higher social and aesthetic plane is not 
 hard to find or difficult to operate. 
 
 Some civic educators express the opinion that the uplift 
 of the whole can be accomplished by a general system of ex- 
 tensive, organized, and endowed amusements, the pro- 
 gramme which shall produce an ultimate art and cul- 
 ture as the school programme endeavors to produce them. 
 
 In the old world ostracism under which the Jew devel- 
 oped circumscribed his pleasures until they were nearly co- 
 incident, one may say, with the mental and moral activities 
 which were intensely racial and aloof. 
 
 What opportunities for amusement does Philadelphia 
 offer? 
 
 They are bounded by easy access to a few cheap theatres, 
 many cheaper dance halls, and occasional rooms given over 
 
PHILADELPHIA 235 
 
 by scattered regenerative agencies to higher social purposes. 
 First in its formative influence is the theatre, after which 
 comes that distinct class of pleasures clustering about the 
 desolate dance hall : the Pleasure Social, the Hall Wedding, 
 the Dancing Class, the Ball or Masquerade Dance for Char- 
 ity, and the Literary Concert and Ball of the political and 
 industrial bodies. About the last group are found debating, 
 literary, and dramatic societies, dancing and social clubs, 
 and Sunday school and philanthropic entertainments con- 
 ducted by Jews of an up-town district. 
 
 There were three play houses patronized by Russian 
 Jews, and by comparing the policies of these houses with 
 those of neighboring theatres not frequented by the Jews 
 it is easy to determine the quality which attracts the Ghetto 
 population. The least successful of the three was the the- 
 atre on Arch Street, which was conducted as a Yiddish play 
 house for a while, and the reason for this anomaly is 
 due in part to its '' old fashioned " plays and to the fact 
 that the language used was Judeo-German, a jargon Avhich 
 the young people not only do not wish to remember but pre- 
 tend they do not know. Many young men and women, 
 whose weekly evenings at the theatre is as regular a func- 
 tion as their wage payments, expressed surprise and amuse- 
 ment when told that systematic visits had been paid to the 
 Arch Street Theatre.^ They thought it all right for the 
 *' green-horn," but probably a mistake in judgment on the 
 part of those of us sufficiently acclimated to " know the 
 ropes." '* That? Why ain't it a rank play? Something 
 about Siberia, ain't it? Now, you ought to see ' The Elec- 
 trician.' There's a great coon song in it; it goes this way 
 * * * * * '' j£ -j-j^Q older Jews were threatre-going 
 and amusement-seeking people, a house so centrally located, 
 offering plays based on the most vivid realities of racial and 
 religious life, would do a thriving business. 
 
 The ' ' Standard, ' ' centrally located at Twelfth and South 
 Streets, the business section of the Ghetto, presents a weekly 
 bill with afternoon and evening performances. A stock 
 company has occupied it for several years, and its members 
 are neighborhood exemplars and household names. The 
 personal and stage morals of each player are weighed and 
 pronounced upon, from the virtues of the leading woman 
 to the dramatic atrocities of the villain, whose private ca- 
 
 1 The Academy of Music is now used occasionally for a Yiddish perform- 
 ance. There is also an up-town Yiddish theatre of a lower grade. 
 
236 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 reer supposedly made a girl of fifteen remark: *'Not one 
 of our crowd would be found dead walking the street with 
 him. ' ' It is, however, the custom of her coterie to follow him 
 on the other side, drawn by the attraction of a bad name. 
 
 On the whole, the stock company does better work than 
 might be expected from its weekly change of bill and its 
 double daily performance. Old popular plays of five acts, 
 supplemented by long entre-acte vaudeville turns, often ex- 
 tend the matinee from two until six o'clock. " The Two 
 Orphans," *' The Three Musketeers " and the greatest 
 " charmer " of them all, " The Black Flag," are given 
 yearly to large audiences which can anticipate the details 
 of every act. More recently, melodramas of American life, 
 " Hero, the "Warm Spring Indian Chief," '' M'liss," '' The 
 Span of Life," and " The Fire Patrol," have been added 
 to the repertoire and may be depended upon to furnish an 
 appalling amount of misinformation concerning the man- 
 ners and the customs of our country. But this failure to 
 picture national characteristics is thrust into the back- 
 ground when the cunning of the playwright stirs the crowd 
 to accurate and vehement reactions on all moral issues. 
 
 Ask the cynic and the doubter of his kind, he who has 
 been saddened by the photographs of the seamy side of life 
 shown by our first-rate theatres, to come to this theatre and 
 buy a ten-cent seat beside the gallery loafers and unskilled 
 working-boys. He will look down upon the floor crowded 
 with young men and women, trouping in from nearby 
 shops, markets and factories; clerks, and garment-workers 
 of the upper class of industry, — who can pay thirty cents 
 for an orchestra seat, and an additional dime for the wares 
 of refreshment vendors. He will note that the majority of 
 the audience are Judeo-Americans of the first generation, 
 and that they jump to their feet, not like the sons of their 
 fathers, but with a native nervous thrill when virtue is for 
 the moment overborne by vice or when real flames envelop 
 the heroine. If the hero demands the whereabouts of the 
 concealed heroine some self -forgetful person in the audience 
 tells him. Applause, hisses, groans, advice, are heaped upon 
 the stage folk. Given this hearty interest in simple old 
 tales of love and hate, it is not necessary to touch the coarse 
 or the immoral. Only once during the period of personal 
 attendance did a performer do a turn based on dubious 
 anecdotes, and his was the only act that day that did not 
 receive hearty applause. The vaudeville is often horse-play 
 
PHILADELPHIA 237 
 
 and the songs are rank bathos and silliness murdered by 
 ruined voices; the stage settings are drearily inadequate 
 and the mechanisms creak; yet here an average number of 
 eighteen hundred people daily run the gamut of human 
 emotions and are molded by the deportment of the players. 
 
 We are proud of the marked compliment paid us by the 
 management, whose playhouse in another part of the city 
 is wholly vicious, in thus recognizing the sound morale in 
 our district. 
 
 The '' National " attracts a different patronage. It is 
 ten squares north of the Standard, at Callowhill and Tenth 
 Streets and outside of the geographical bounds occupied by 
 the Russian Jews. Prices of admission range from 75 to 
 15 cents, and the plays are given by second rate and third 
 rate road companies. Scenery and property are richer 
 than they are at the Standard, and the place is sensational 
 but not spectacular. There is little glare, glitter, or fan- 
 fare, but an abundance of the heavily tragic relieved by 
 series of the lightly comic. ' ' The Man of Mystery ' ' and 
 '' The Great Train Robbery " enjoyed long runs this sea- 
 son, and the *' Acrobatic Farce " of " Eight Bells," with 
 its tumbling fooleries, crowded the house to suffocation. 
 A large share of its patronage is drawn from the down- 
 town shop-keepers whose social aspirations point north- 
 ward, warning them not to mingle with the democratic 
 throngs at the Standard; from grammar and high school 
 pupils; from the higher ranks of labor — the men who 
 belong to unions and read the literature of their craft; 
 and from the over-running swarms of boys who know 
 every coign of fun from Kensington to Point Breeze. 
 Traditions of intellectuality propelling this mass were re- 
 vealed when the Jewish play *' Zorah " was given here. 
 By the low murmurs of sympathy and applause which 
 greeted incidents of Russian autocracy, of hasty flight, of 
 stern execution, persecution of the Jewish professional 
 class, religious meekness and filial devotion, one knew that 
 many of the audience criticised the verities at first hand. 
 Threats of Siberian torture had sounded before, under 
 different circumstances, in the ears of university-bred and 
 professionally trained fathers of these auditors. It is an 
 oversight on the part of our society that mental pabulum 
 is not offered instead of the froth with which this strong 
 body is fain to satisfy itself. 
 
 The Pleasure Social and its causes measure the lack of 
 
238 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 any adequate outlet for hospitable impulse and a gracious 
 well-mannered expression of it. The Jew is instinctively 
 hospitable and the quality enters into and complicates his 
 confused attempt to solve the social problem of his life. 
 He greatly desires to be entertained, to entertain, and to 
 adjust to his persistent money stringency the degree of 
 excitation made necessary by his early indulgence in highly 
 spiced amusements. 
 
 His own home cannot meet his requirements in this di- 
 rection. The rooms are seldom large enough to accommo- 
 date a number of his friends and the custom of inviting 
 one or two of them to dine with him is almost unknown. 
 Indeed, the formal sitting down to food is not usual enough 
 to make a social function of the act. There is in general 
 but one small, poorly lighted room, common in the evening 
 to the old people and the children, so that the sense of 
 something different and brighter and dressed up is alto- 
 gether missing. From these conditions has developed the 
 Pleasure Social, which after Hall Weddings is the most fre- 
 quent form of social intercourse. 
 
 There are three distinct kinds of social. The first, as 
 the name implies, is a friendly group of a dozen or more 
 young men combined for pleasure with the sub-motive of 
 pecuniary profit; the second is a business association of 
 three or more men giving dances under club names for 
 profit alone ; and lastly the ' ' chartered social, ' ' a gambling 
 concern masquerading as *' The Early Rose," " The Jolly 
 Fifteen," " The Jolly Bunch," or the '' Ad Libitum." In 
 order to rent a room where cards may be played regularly 
 and without interruption it is necessary to hold a charter, 
 and, by suggestion, clubs taking a charter may not be in 
 good repute. Therefore, pleasure-seeking young people 
 hesitate to do so even though it would be a step toward a 
 more permanent organization than they usually succeed in 
 maintaining without an assured meeting place. The lead- 
 ing spirits weigh the prospects, drop in to talk it over with 
 the girls, canvass it with members of last winter's de- 
 funct clubs, and at length choose a name and elect officers. 
 After a few weeks, if wages are good, they may hire a 
 small, cheap, dirty hall. Each member invites a '' lady 
 friend," and they give a tentative private '' spiel." How- 
 ever successful it may be it does not establish the Social. 
 For if it rests its claim to recognition at this point, scoffers 
 will say of it, * * Them ? nothin ' but cheap lovers ! " So an 
 
PHILADELPHIA 239 
 
 elaborate affair is projected by generalship and daring, at 
 a date when the market does not seem to be overcrowded 
 with big public balls. It is called to the attention of pleas- 
 ure seekers by window placards, reading like this : 
 
 ROUDIOS SOCIAL 
 
 December 2nd 
 
 Kilgallon, America's White Champion CAKE WALKER 
 
 Last Chance to see him prior to him going to NEW YORK 
 
 PRIZE WALTZ for up-towners and down-towners 
 
 GREAT SPORT 
 
 Ad. 15 cents. Pennsylvania Hall 
 
 Sometimes a swell Social, a very aristocrat distinguished 
 among its fellows because it is three or four years old, pays 
 its heaviest expenses by the advertisements on its dance 
 programmes. When the financial strain is thus relieved be- 
 fore the day arrives the occasion is a gala one, and the 
 promoters exercise a simpler hospitality than is possible 
 when it is necessary that strangers buy beer to pay for the 
 orchestra. The larger halls, Pennsylvania or Washington, 
 may be rented for $25.00 ; the orchestra hired for $12.00 or 
 $15.00 ; and the bar stocked with multiple kegs of beer and 
 bottles of soda, whiskey, wine, according to taste. To these 
 expenses add the printing of window placards and a large 
 number of tickets, prizes for cake walk and waltz, and it is 
 evident that the expenditure is large and that possible loss 
 may be heavy. 
 
 The assertion upon the tickets that admission will be 
 fifteen cents is usually no more than current fiction, for 
 the cards are distributed as advertisements, the profits 
 being reckoned by the ward-robe fee levied upon all comers, 
 and by the returns from the bar. A movement toward 
 higher prices is noted. It is possibly a desire to raise a 
 barrier against the chance entrance of any passer-by. At 
 any rate the members now give complimentary tickets in 
 numbers to their acquaintances, whereas the total stranger 
 is confronted with the admission fee of fifteen cents plus 
 ten cents " ward-robe." 
 
 If this process of selection is more than a season's fash- 
 ion it will in a measure arrest the worst tendency of the 
 Social — the unchecked publicity which kills the sense of 
 
240 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 personai responsibility in living np to any defined stand- 
 ards of behavior. On the other hand, if the Social's ball 
 advances on its present lines a few years longer, the condi- 
 tions it is creating by its entire lack of supervision by ma- 
 ture and steady people, its indiscriminate contact with 
 some vicious phases of our city life and — if the adjective 
 is not too far fetched — by a touch of the French in masque 
 dancing, all these will set a problem before the Jews which 
 in the guarded Russian days they have been blessed in 
 escaping. 
 
 In illustration of the occasional use of this freedom sud- 
 denly thrust upon young people strictly reared by parents 
 and rabbis, one incident may serve. At a much heralded 
 Fifth Annual Ball given by a Social whose boast it is that 
 it has always barred the " hoboes " from its functions by 
 high admission prices and that it never admits a " lob- 
 ster " to membership, the president, a nineteen-year-old 
 cutter in a fashionable tailor-shop, shook hands with his 
 incoming acquaintances with a somewhat unusual manner 
 of kindly interest. '* I hope youse will entjoy the even- 
 ing " was his formal welcome. Perhaps he had been 
 drinking before he came, perhaps not, but half an hour 
 later, dazed and wandering, he approached a guest and 
 her escort and quavered, " If youse want a good time 
 why don't you go to the bar, boy?" He continued in this 
 state, drinking with his " lady-friend " who, according 
 to custom, ordered soda, until the girl decided to take 
 him away. She was unwilling to expose him to the wrath 
 of his people and guided him along the streets to her own 
 home at four o'clock in the morning. Her parents shel- 
 tered him there until he was sober enough to take care of 
 himself. 
 
 The occurrence is not usual, but it was not adversely 
 criticised by the circle which heard of it. Some of the 
 comments summed it up as a good joke on him and a bit 
 of luck that the girl had a " good head on her." 
 
 Although the inducement to drink is always present, 
 noticeable drunkenness is seldom seen. The racial tem- 
 perateness bred by a stern environment has not yet been 
 appreciably encroached upon by a laxer habit of life. 
 Flushed faces, restless eyes, and stumbling sibilants are 
 chiefly indicative of the frequent treats; even in the small 
 hours the large majority is no more than merry. In the 
 early part of the evening it seems scarcely that. First im- 
 
PTIILADELPIIIA 241 
 
 pressions are indeed dispiriting*. The room is cold, half 
 filled, and every sound echoes from its unclean, barren 
 walls. There is a little desultory music which does not 
 affect the young men huddled on one row of benches or 
 the young women opposite on another. Spirits are appar- 
 ently at a low ebb. Suddenly the big drum booms, the 
 fiddle squalls horribly with every vocal cord, the clario- 
 net playfully caterwauls, the piano emits fearful jangles, 
 people jump into the air, electrified by this orchestral 
 joke, and the dance begins. It moves easily without other 
 diversions until midnight, when a Grand Prize Cake Walk 
 is announced and babies of four years, with other contest- 
 ants ranging to twenty-five years, gather at one end of the 
 room. 
 
 They are fantastically and hideously dressed, the little 
 girls in short fluffy skirts, soiled fancy shoes and stock- 
 ings, hair floating or strangely coiffured, necks and arms 
 bare, and prize medals won at cake walks of other socials, 
 proudly decorating their little chests. The young men 
 appear as darkies, Uncle Sam or vaudeville tramps, 
 their faces grotesquely painted with ugly daubs. Pair by 
 pair they go down the lines of clapping spectators, through 
 the contortions of the cake walk. A child of ten years may 
 dance with a young man of thirty. Many couples are, in 
 fact, semi-professional walkers who go from one hall to 
 another, competing for prizes. Such rounds are more fre-" 
 quently made by Italians and ' ' Americans ' ' than by 
 Jews. The performance itself is a vulgar and debasing 
 exhibition rapidly becoming worse. Its tendencies are 
 vicious, and although the majority of onlookers, familiar 
 with its easy descent, evidently enjoy it, yet expostulatory 
 murmurs are heard here and there. 
 
 After the customary " walk," general dancing con- 
 tinues an hour or two, when the Prize Waltz, either double 
 or single or both, is announced. Correct form, conven- 
 tional steps, are not winning methods, but novelties are. 
 The girl who can whirl pivot-like an incredible number of 
 times is the " champeen. " Others who undulate with 
 fewest points of contact with the floor also take prizes. 
 
 When the ball is a masquerade the fun naturally 
 marches a little faster. More prizes are offered and '' the 
 most amusing, the most character, the most beautiful " 
 and so on, being individually rewarded, makes it worth 
 while for a minority to spend time and money on cos- 
 
242 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 tumes. • Fifty maskers among four hundred non-maskers 
 can change the entire atmosphere of a night. To 
 schottische against a clown walking across the dancing 
 space upon his hands, to dash him prone, to be pursued 
 by him in gesticulating vengeance, to have your lancers 
 set stampeded by a pair of Polish peasants, cracking their 
 long whips about your ears and threatening you in an in- 
 comprehensible tongue, — this makes all hail fellows very 
 well met. 
 
 It is a picture tinted with an old world, continental 
 tone, but emphatically there is among the Jews themselves 
 no indecormn, no ever-present conscious principle of evil 
 in the fun, which is but a coarser expression of the buf- 
 foonery that sometimes animates the New England husking 
 bee. Judaism and Puritanism both are faithful watch- 
 dogs. But it is a certainty that the principle of evil is 
 just at the door. On one Halloween, masked parties made 
 the tour of public halls and after midnight began to ar- 
 rive at a Jewish Pleasure Social Ball. One party not 
 masked consisted of a number of women who came in 
 quietly. They looked like American sales girls and were 
 unobstrusively dressed in silk shirt waists and dark skirts. 
 But they were slightly rouged, their eyes were darkened, 
 and upon them was the indefinable stamp of the street. 
 They ordered beer and fell into casual talk with young men 
 at the same table. In pairs they joined the dancers and 
 carelessly mingled with the Jewish maidens of the set. 
 They were invited to dance as often as was anybody else 
 and, since an introduction to a partner is not a necessary 
 preliminary, there are no checks placed by custom upon 
 the number of acquaintances these women of a separate 
 world can make in a single evening. This is but one of 
 many indications that the younger American generation 
 of Jews has neither the social desire nor the religious 
 scruple to keep itself to itself v/hich has been the basic 
 principle with its Russian born parents. 
 
 The distinction between the ball given by the genuine 
 Pleasure Social and the business ball of the pseudo-social 
 is entirely economic. The business ball tends to manifest 
 itself as an incipient trust, borrowing somewhat from the 
 better developed corporate creature in the field of more 
 material necessities and yet not restrained by standards of 
 living or of aesthetic tastes. An analogy of the Business 
 Social may exist in the middle man who arranges for his 
 
PHILADELPHIA 243 
 
 employer the entertainments at a summer resort. The lat- 
 ter, however, acts upon instructions, whereas the man- 
 ager of the Business Social receives no orders from 
 society. He offers what he will and pockets the returns. 
 If " the push " enjoys cake walks, he invites us to one 
 gayer than that of last week; if we want a masquerade he 
 advertises the article with more prizes, more promenades, 
 more specialties, and cheaper drinks than the less skilled 
 promoter dares to promise. He is the '' soulless corpora- 
 tion " entity, and his influence is felt. 
 
 The third class, the '' Chartered Social," as a gambling 
 club meeting behind closed doors in an unsocial fashion, 
 is outside the legitimate fields of fun. It thrives on the 
 gambling trait in the Jewish character, and manifests it- 
 self in raffles, lotteries, policy playing, and that elaborate 
 underground system in chance which is a symptom of 
 social disorder. 
 
 Hall Weddings outnumber the Social Balls nearly ten 
 to one. The ancient Mosaic customs, the ceremonial dance, 
 the tearful kissing, the cries of mazel tov (good luck), sug- 
 gest permanence, privacy, affairs between friends, and 
 family celebrations. But the impression is false and 
 springs from the fact that the world-loved lover is here 
 the centre of things, and belongs to the jovial stranger 
 within the gates as well as to the numerically insignificant 
 circle of personal acquaintances. To join a wedding party 
 it sometimes costs nothing at all, sometimes ten cents, 
 which is a low price to pay for the combined pleasures of 
 a dance, a pageant, and a feast. None is denied admission. 
 Neither the work-grimed boy, who, seeking what he may 
 devour, drops in on his way home from his daily grind, is 
 questioned, nor the society stranger who wears a cellu- 
 loid, perhaps a linen collar, and also frankly exploits the 
 occasion. 
 
 The bride and groom, reckoning upon scores of sueli 
 guests among the hundreds of friends' friends formally 
 invited by card, often spend literally their last cent upon 
 their entertainment. Yet it is cheerfully offered as a sac- 
 rifice to fate and enjoyed as an augury of future pros- 
 perity. Not long ago at the wedding of a daughter of a 
 family desperately poor, the various sources of supply 
 were drained to the bottom. The newly-made husband 
 and wife were bankrupt, but every guest was fed with 
 chicken, potatoes, bread, fruit and cake, nor were the beer 
 
244 AIWSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 and whiskey allowed to ebb. Tlie pair was radiant and 
 3^et — To-morrow loomed from tlie wreckage on the tables. 
 The groom looked at his bride : ' ' Well, girl, we got mar- 
 ried on our nerve." She smiled and murmured, ** Yes, 
 something fierce, ain 't it ? " 
 
 A synagogue ceremony increases the wedding expenses 
 so heavily that the number of such ceremonies is falling 
 off year by year. It is also necessary to approximate 
 punctuality, an unlovely condition guests do not like 
 to face. If a synagogue service is dated for six o'clock it 
 must take place between that hour and eight when the 
 wedding-party is expected at the Hall to receive its guests. 
 The Hall wedding invitation announces that the wedding 
 ceremony will take place at six. An hour later carriages 
 call for the nearest friends of the pair and then proceed 
 to the groom's home. Thence in procession they go for the 
 bride and escort her to the ball. There in front of a 
 stage upon a raised platform painted with the immemorial 
 sacred insignia of the Hebrew faith and punctuated with 
 red, white and blue electric lights, the pair receive their 
 friends. Women cry, men kiss each other and the bridal 
 couple wait restive until the hall is full, frightened when 
 it is, since this is an indication that the ceremony will 
 soon take place. When the last stragglers presumably 
 have arrived between ten and eleven o'clock, a large plat- 
 form surmounted by the chuppah (marriage canopy) is 
 pushed into the middle of the floor. Willing hands are 
 laid upon it, for whoever pushes is '' forgiven many sins." 
 
 The orchestra plays the latest two-step and the groom, 
 followed by ten friends holding candles aloft, slowly goes 
 to meet his bride. Half solemn, half laughing, the bridal 
 party marches under the canopy. The rabbi lifts his voice 
 in the strange wail of the ritual. The onlookers laugh and 
 whisper, and some old man beside the groom flashes his 
 sombre eyes upon the offenders. He lifts his candle and 
 peers at them. *' Be silent there," he cries. 
 
 The music begins again and frivoling couples, under its 
 influence, break from the mass and dance enthusiastically 
 over the cleared space. When the glass is broken and the 
 wine is drunk, the bridal party is kissed all around amid 
 cries of " good luck " and the music of shear (a Bulgarian 
 quadrille). All the guests form the v/edding march round 
 and round the hall, which terminates in the move toward 
 the supper room. On the moment, the leisurely progress 
 
PHILADELPHIA 245 
 
 waxes without disguise into a rush for place and the feast 
 becomes a plunge for food. Instantly the food disappears 
 from the plates, the bottled beer is seized, a dozen forks 
 dive into the scattered platters of fish or chicken or potato, 
 and supper is over in a twinkling. Healths are drunk, con- 
 gratulatory telegrams are read (fakes, say the critics), 
 and the wedded pair is taken to the rabbi's corner for a 
 last word of blessing. 
 
 The guests dance till four o'clock, — strange old world 
 dances to tuneless music; peasant dances from Roumania, 
 Austria and Eussia; competitive dances between men, 
 circling dances of women whirling, laughing and embrac- 
 ing each other. It is greatly enjoyed by all except the 
 bride, who is often desperately tired and ill after her 
 twenty-four hours' fast. But etiquette demands that she 
 remain until the fun is abandoned, and she bravely keeps 
 at her post. She goes at length to her new home and an- 
 other day finds her going to market while her husband is 
 at w^ork again in the old place in shop or factory. 
 
 The ' ' Dancing Class ' ' usually meets in a second story 
 room over a shop or in a tenement. It is conducted by a 
 man or men who may know how to dance but who do not 
 know how to teach. There is evidently no appreciation of 
 the value of etiquette and convention as supplements of 
 the waltz step. The '' class " does as it pleases and at- 
 tends the '' benefits " which the teacher gives his " col- 
 league " and those which the *' colleague " gratefully ar- 
 ranges for the teacher. The attendance on class nights, 
 Friday by choice, is not very large, but there are many 
 classes in the entire district. The same young people may 
 be found in the same place night after night dancing for 
 the entire evening with the same partner. In the course 
 of time these partners develop specialties of their own 
 which, when carried to a certain degree of perfection, pro- 
 mote them as prize waltzers at public balls or to the rank 
 of cake walkers. The class may be mixed in its nationali- 
 ties. Jews, Italians, Irish, and " Americans " meet ami- 
 ably, waiving all differences of race and religion but cling- 
 ing to personal differences in step and bearing. 
 
 In the amusements developed by industrial and political 
 parties and literary and charitable societies, there is at 
 length accented that intellectual quality, that spontaneous 
 mental activity of the Russian Jewish mind, which reveals 
 to the observation the scholar garbed as the factory hand. 
 
246 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 Here is higher thinking, frequently yoked with plainer 
 living than that known to the theatre-going Pleasure So- 
 cial population. The distinction is not that named the eco- 
 nomic '' standard of living " which falls into the molds 
 cast by the student of sociology, but rather that strong and 
 intangible distinction between those individuals who spirit- 
 ually aspire and those who do not. 
 
 In fact, the pressure of material wants seems to bear 
 more heavily upon these mentally active thousands than it 
 does upon their fellows living upon the same economic 
 plane. The latter spend the larger share of their wages 
 upon personal decorations, the former upon the acquire- 
 ment of invisible goods. They would rather engage_ a 
 party leader to speak to them than to attract patrons with 
 the glare of a hired band. They choose to pay the travel- 
 ing expenses of an out-of-town '' Yiddishe " poet rather 
 than to put the money into the treasurer's hands whence 
 it ultimately converts itself into neckties and cigars. In 
 practice, the dancing half of ''Concert and Ball " or 
 " Speeches and Ball " is tacitly postponed until the long 
 programme has been enjoyed to its final midnight number. 
 Literary and charitable societies incline to addresses, reci- 
 tations, songs, and piano and violin music, and legerde- 
 main. The programmes of the two great parties, Social La- 
 bor and Social Democratic, are made of the sterner stuff 
 of political and industrial agitation; the charitable and 
 literary societies view our situation as less acutely serious, 
 and arrange their material Avithout propaganda. If the 
 material is original with the person who presents it so 
 much more does the audience enjoy it. If not, it is re- 
 ceived with sufficient attention, although the listeners also 
 talk together with a free and easy appreciation of the so- 
 cial motive of the hour. 
 
 The programme of the Russian Tea Party given from 
 time to time by unofficial individuals to aid persons or to 
 further plans not falling under a formal charity, fairly 
 represents this section of amusements. A home-sick, 
 broken-down girl had been saying for some time that she 
 would never be well unless she could go back to Odessa, 
 and accordingly the proceeds of the next Russian Tea 
 Party were given to her. The services of fifteen volunteer 
 performers were accepted. The first one came upon the 
 stage at half past nine o 'clock. Piano solos and duets, vocal 
 solos and duets, legerdemain and recitation alternated, 
 
PHILADELPHIA 247 
 
 with intermission, v/liile tea was served from shining 
 samovars, and bread and apples were piled again upon the 
 tables. There was some noise and confusion during the 
 music, but when a vest-making poet recited a long poem in 
 classical Hebrew, satirizing the poet's income from his 
 verse and the comparative wealth of the tailoring trade, 
 the house quieted to absorbed attention. They seized it 
 hungrily, this product of mind, and they called the author 
 back again and again. They received each new poem with 
 intuitive appreciation of a well turned phrase and a critical 
 survey of the art for the art's sake. When the poet smiled 
 and pointed to their '' wounds," they smiled too; at a hint 
 of playfulness mirth lightened grave faces. There were 
 ripples of laughter here and there and it seemed as if sun- 
 light had flashed across the room. 
 
 The labor parties and the labor unions attain perhaps 
 the highest level of excellence. Native born men of repu- 
 tation are asked to speak — a Socialist mayor was warmly 
 welcomed — and there is a sustained interest in American 
 civics and in practical and Utopian legislation leading to 
 industrial relief. 
 
 Their balls are not so much balls as opportunities for 
 general conversations, friendly smoking, and food. The 
 anarchists, for several years, have varied the winter's rou- 
 tine by making of their Grand Annual Ball a visual satire 
 upon the institutions of church and state. Young men 
 dressed as Cossacks, policemen or Royal Guardsmen, pa- 
 trol the hall and when ' ' the people, ' ' armed with whistles, 
 give shrill signals they throw themselves upon a bystander 
 and drag him to a buffoon judge. He mouths at the of- 
 fender and fines him five cents for the good of the an- 
 archist propaganda. A priest of the Greek church 
 marries couples for five cents under the Jewish chuppah, 
 and these unions have in more than one case formed the 
 sole ceremonial basis of an American home. There is 
 much laughter and merriment as the anarchist " priest " 
 goes through his mummery. It is a surprise to learn that 
 his gibberish has in truth made a marriage. All the time 
 while whistles and shrieks of soldiers and people fill the 
 air and while the " priest " intones, persistent hawkers 
 cry, ' ' Buy bar tickets ! Buy bar tickets ! ' ' and thrust for- 
 ward checks entitling one to drink. Many buy, induced 
 by a business trick of the management, which turns on 
 the steam heat, closes the windows, and so generates an 
 
248 • AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 almost 'insufferable atmosphere with its concomitant 
 thirst. The green-horn on these occasions is subjected to 
 sore-throat, dizziness and general malaise until he ceases 
 to be a green-horn. 
 
 From this gaiety that stings and fun brewed in bitter- 
 ness, from the boisterous laughter of a group whose criti- 
 cism of Society is anarchy, it is but a step to gaiety that 
 seeks to soothe, to fun springing from sympathy and the 
 disciplined quiet of another group whose criticism of So- 
 ciety is without a party name. Here and there and far 
 apart are the regenerative agencies, the endowed club 
 rooms, the social settlements, and the philanthropies, all 
 overcrowded and closing their doors to those who would 
 say '' yes " to an invitation to enter. Everywhere are 
 those other agencies v/hich would make for the brutaliza- 
 tion of their habitues were it not for the innate fineness of 
 those habitues themselves. They are trained to the desire 
 for better things and they do not know how to find them 
 in America. Wherever they can gain a foothold, a corner 
 for their debates, literary societies persevere and thrive. 
 A rare evening of good music echoes for months in the 
 memories of the young men and women who almost night- 
 ly hear the clattering discords of the dance-hall; a lecture 
 on the unseen beauties of our environment arrests the 
 gaze upon quaint doorways and curling smoke. In this 
 great neglected garden of human-kind the gardeners are 
 too few. Sometimes the greatest pity and pathos of it 
 all seems to be the fertility of the field which awaits the 
 seeds of Order, Beauty, and Knowledge so seldom flung 
 within its boundaries. 
 
(C) CHICAGO 
 
 In general the Russian Jew takes his amusements seri- 
 ously. It is no mad endeavor to be epigrammatic which 
 induces the statement that his amusement is almost a busi- 
 ness, his business all but his amusement. Persecution in 
 the old country, the struggle for existence in the new, 
 have been anything but conducive to lightness of heart or 
 of touch. It is enticing to enter on the subject of the 
 philosophy of amusements, to make comparisons and to 
 draw wider conclusions, but the limits of this paper 
 forbid. 
 
 The breaking of a glass in the orthodox wedding cere- 
 mony of the Russian Jew is deeply symbolical of every 
 amusement of the Ghetto. The glass is broken — so runs 
 the explanation — to warn the Jew that he must not com- 
 pletely surrender himself to mirth no matter how festive 
 the occasion : Zion lies in ruin and it behooves the sons 
 of the Covenant to be cast down until its v/alls be built 
 up. Metaphorically the glass is broken in the very com- 
 edies of the Yiddish theatres. The sound of its shattering 
 runs through the strains of Jewish folk music, you hear 
 it in the heavy mongrel tones of the Yiddish jargon itself, 
 and the serious faces of the older folk of our modern 
 American Ghettos are as constrained as if they were ever 
 awaiting the melancholy crash of the fragile stuff of which 
 life itself is made. 
 
 The sober cast of Ghetto, of Russian Jewish amuse- 
 ments, becomes strikingly apparent the moment one takes 
 even a cursory bird's-eye-view of the subject in its entirety. 
 While outlining my theme for this series of papers, to 
 take an instance, I found it difficult to draw a hard and 
 fast line between the diversion afforded by the synagogue 
 and its festivals, and the pastimes which are purely secu- 
 lar. I am not sure that a comprehensive paper should 
 not include both; so intimately do the beth hamedrash 
 (house of learning connected with the synagogue) and 
 the religious rites and festivals enter into the amenities of 
 
 249 
 
250 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 Ghetto life, so much does religion contribute to the mere 
 pleasure of the orthodox Russian Jew — pleasure which 
 his less orthodox brethren seek in the secular world with- 
 out. And beyond all this there are a reason and a philoso- 
 phy that lie deeper than a superficial observation might 
 at first lead one to suppose; but again the lack of space 
 forbids the digression. 
 
 Chicago's one Yiddish theatre, formerly the Metropoli- 
 tan, next called the Irwin, and afterward Glickman's, was 
 almost exclusively devoted to the presentation of Jewish 
 historical and religious plays, and to operas historical or 
 religious in theme. The literary standard of the dramas 
 presented here was about on a par with those produced 
 in English theatres attended by audiences of the same 
 status in life as the Eussian Jews of the Ghetto, and 
 where the price of admission is about the same. In the 
 old Metropolitan theatre I saw a Yiddish adaptation of 
 " The Streets of New York " and "Woman Against 
 Woman," which to the discerning will sum up the story 
 fairly well. " Fairly well " is used advisedly because the 
 standard of comparison is by no means rigid; for now and 
 then Mr. Ellis F. Glickman, who is actor, manager and 
 play^vright, too, puts a play on the boards which is su- 
 perior in most respects to the average attraction offered 
 by the surrounding theatres of the English-speaking dis- 
 tricts. The same assertion may be made, within certain 
 bounds, of the acting of the members of Mr. Glickman 's 
 Yiddish stock company. The theatre is now closed be- 
 cause it did not comply with the city regulations passed 
 in the fall of 1903 after the disastrous Iroquois fire. There 
 is therefore no regular Yiddish theatre here, " The Pa- 
 vilion " being merely a hall for vaudeville performances 
 and in no way representing the better intelligence of the 
 Chicago Russian Jew. 
 
 However, certain allowances ought to be made for the 
 Yiddish actor when comparing him with the English 
 speaking members of the profession who appeal to audi- 
 ences of about the same grade at about the same price. In 
 the first place, the Yiddish actor is harder pushed — every 
 week sees a change of bill and he scarcely has had time to 
 connnit the lines of one part before he is rehearsing the 
 roles of a new play (which is the reason, by way of paren- 
 thesis, why the prompter is always in evidence) ; and sec- 
 ondly, the Yiddish actor is nine times out of ten a Yid- 
 
CHICAGO 251 
 
 dish singer as well. He is more apt to win popularity 
 among our Chicago Russian Jewish audiences by good 
 singing than by an artistic rendering of a character. The 
 Ghetto audiences are clamorous in their insistence on mu- 
 sic and singing, and the encore and the applause always 
 go to the most pleasing song and the best voice. Fine 
 music finds quick appreciation here; and in this one re- 
 spect certainly both audience and performers are far su- 
 perior to the audience and performers of the English 
 theatres of a corresponding grade. The orchestra of the 
 Yiddish theatre is excelled by few in Chicago, nor is this 
 in any wise accidental, for the Yiddish theatre Avithout 
 good music were equivalent to a play without scenery. 
 
 I saw in the Irwin theatre a play which was a Yiddish 
 adaptation of Hamlet and the whole performance struck 
 me as very much like the play of Hamlet with the part 
 of Hamlet left out. Shakespeare was most neatly adapted 
 out of the tragedy to make room for up-to-date melo- 
 dramatic situations, for orthodox Jewish religious ceremo- 
 nials, and for the dramatic triumph of the production — 
 the singing of the Kaddish (prayer for the dead). A line 
 or two copied from the programme may suffice to give 
 even those who were not privileged to see " The Jewish 
 Hamlet " an idea of the broad license that the adapter 
 allowed himself. ' ' Act IV, Scene 2 — Great scene of the 
 Jewish cemetery. Beautiful scenery painted specially for 
 this production. Sad wedding of Vigder (Hamlet) and 
 his dead bride Esther- (Ophelia) according to the Jewish 
 religion. ' ' 
 
 From the plays which any manager may supply it is 
 always unsafe to draw conclusions of what the audience 
 may demand. I should be loath to deduce from the mere 
 presentation of this Yiddish Hamlet and plays of its type 
 that Russian Jewish audiences were eager for the spilling 
 of blood and for ultra-sensational situations and scenes. 
 I noticed, and with more than a little rejoicing, that those 
 sins against good taste which were intended to appeal to 
 the sympathies of the audience won applause from the 
 galleries only, and that the parquet, which represented the 
 better class of the Russian Jews of the Ghetto, looked on 
 in ominous silence at what they were unable to translate 
 emotively. 
 
 I believe that the younger element of the Ghetto is far 
 more attracted by Vv^hat lies without than what lies within 
 
252 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 the confiiTes of that narrow district, and the constant tend- 
 ency in amusements, as in other things, is centrifugal. 
 The variety theatres down-town, the play-houses on the 
 surrounding streets, draw a larger audience of young Rus- 
 sian Jews than the Ghetto theatre itself. With very few 
 exceptions — it may be doubted whether the phrase is 
 half strong enough — the younger Russian Jews are 
 neither proud of their Yiddish jargon nor of the ways of 
 their ancestors, and they are only too quick to accept any- 
 thing that may have an Americanizing influence. In Chi- 
 cago, at any rate, the Yiddish theatre is not likely to out- 
 last the life of the present generation, and it is fairly open 
 to question whether it will endure that long. 
 
 The lodges form a most significant element in the 
 amusement of the Ghetto and contribute not a little to its 
 social life, while like almost every other diversion, they 
 add, or at least carry along, an element of religion arid 
 charity. The various lodges, with their numerous orders 
 and divisions, ramify through the entire Ghetto, spread- 
 ing out in every direction, leaving few families uninflu- 
 enced by their existence. The Chicago Ghetto contains 
 seventy-five recorded lodges, thirty-two of which belong 
 to the Order of B'rith Abraham and twenty to the West- 
 ern Star, — a purely Chicago organization, and the other 
 twenty-three to orders of less prominence. Like their 
 Christian prototypes, the western lodges render an impor- 
 tant economic service, namely that of life insurance, 
 which, when all is said and done, serves as the chief rea- 
 son and the best cause for their existence. 
 
 Every once in so often, one of the seventy-five lodges 
 will announce a ball or a party by way of benefit for the 
 impoverished family of a defunct member, and so it is 
 that these orders indirectly contribute their share to the 
 amusement of the Ghetto. 
 
 Regarding all balls and parties given in the Russian 
 Jewish district, it may be asserted that there is little if 
 anything to distinguish them from the social functions of 
 a like nature given by Christians of the same status, and 
 what little there is goes in favor of the Russian Jew on 
 the side of decorum. I know from my own studies in the 
 district through which Milwaukee Avenue cuts diagonally, 
 and which represents one of the most cosmopolitan popu- 
 lations in the city of Chicago, that the moral effect of the 
 weekly Saturday night balls and masquerades is anything 
 
CHICAGO 253 
 
 but elevating, and that the road to ruin for many a young 
 girl begins here. 
 
 Cases of moral depravity resulting from any dance 
 given in the Ghetto district are rare enough to be prac- 
 tically unknown. Of course, home training, custom and 
 other elements must be taken into consideration when 
 weighing the moral problem, and this lies "outside of this 
 paper's boundaries. 
 
 Zionism, which so deeply imbues the life and spirit of 
 our American Ghettos at the present time, may be re- 
 garded as the chief religious feature of the lodges, for they 
 are more or less animated by its doctrines and given to the 
 promulgation of its benefits. 
 
 The same religious purpose sublimates the one impor- 
 tant literary society of our Ghetto, the Hebrew Literary 
 Association, which has a regular meeting place on West 
 Twelfth Street. The library of the association numbers 
 over 2,000 volumes devoted all but exclusively to modern 
 Hebrew literature as contradistinguished from the still 
 more modern Yiddish jargon. The club holds regular 
 Sunday night meetings to listen to lectures in English and, 
 Yiddish given by local authorities on Jewish history and 
 literature, and less often to lectures on classic English 
 prose and poetry. The surplus in the treasury of the club 
 is given to the Order of the Knights of Zion, which con- 
 tains six branches, numbering over 500 members in all, 
 and this society in turn holds regular meetings in Porges, 
 Schwarz, or Turner Halls, to spread a knowledge of 
 Hebrew history, language and literature, with the central 
 object of stimulating the Zionistic movement. The young- 
 er members of the Knights of Zion Order have their lec- 
 tures and lessons in English, the older members in Yid- 
 dish. Besides the assistance which the Hebrew Literary 
 Association lends the Knights of Zion, it also contributes 
 liberally to a Zionistic Sunday school for children, where 
 instruction is given in what may be broadly termed Juda- 
 ism and Zionism. So again in surveying Ghetto amuse- 
 ments in their entirety, the religious impulse and fervor 
 become salient. 
 
 The Lessing Club, which is far removed from the 
 Ghetto district, is composed of wealthier Russian Jewish 
 members than any of the organizations yet mentioned, and 
 is, I believe, higher in social rank. There is nothing in 
 particular to differentiate the Lessing from a hundred and 
 
254 AMUSEMENTS AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 one othep clubs in tlie city, althougli the younger members 
 have formed the Lessing Self-Educational Club, which is 
 just what the name would imply. Like the Hebrew Liter- 
 ary Association the Lessing Self-Educational Club em- 
 ploys specialists to give lectures on literature and the arts ; 
 and meetings are held with exercises and papers, for the 
 purpose of spreading education and culture. 
 
 The feast and ceremonies of the weddings contribute at 
 least an element of amusement, and so by a liberal inter- 
 pretation may be given a place in the topic. The more 
 orthodox of the Russian Jews are married in the syna- 
 gogue, the less orthodox, who are in a rapidly growing ma- 
 jority, are married without its walls, either at home or in 
 one of the public halls. In the synagogue weddings the 
 glass dish is broken and the parents of the bride lead her 
 three times around the groom, who stands under the 
 canopy. The postnuptial festivities vary in brilliancy ac- 
 cording to the means and liberality of the bride's parents; 
 dancing and music are an important feature and few, if 
 any, weddings are without them. The tendency to copy 
 the forms observed by the non-Ghetto and richer Jews 
 grows stronger with the passing of every day, and the cus- 
 toms peculiar to Jewish weddings are fighting a battle for 
 survival in which apparently they must soon lose. In 
 short, the Americanization of the Russian Jew is thorough- 
 going; and his amusements, his customs — all the outer 
 reflections of at least the superficial part of his inner life 
 — are taking on the color and form of his environment, 
 standing out less and less as an entity distinguished by a 
 color and form all its own. 
 
VIII 
 POLITICS 
 
 (A) NEW YOEK 
 By Emanuel Heetz 
 
 Memier 'New York Bwr 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 By Charles S. Bernheimer 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By Elijah N. Zoline 
 
 Member Chicago Bar 
 
 255 
 
POLITICS 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 
 All political parties, whether national or local, find re- 
 cruits and adherents among the people who have been 
 forced to leave the realm of the Czars for the past quar- 
 ter of a century. Contrary to expectation, these new 
 voters are not grouped and collected under the banner of 
 any one political party or any one clan. 
 
 Their political activity dates back to the early eighties, 
 when the first wave of the great mass of Russian Jewish 
 immigration reached these shores. It was then that the 
 influx of Russian students began and lent a peculiar color 
 to the character and activities of the Jewish immigrants. 
 As might have been expected, the effect of liberty upon 
 the masses of Russian Jews downtrodden in their mother 
 country was in the beginning apparently disastrous. The 
 anarchists and the socialists found some of their most ac- 
 tive supporters among these younger Russian fugitives. 
 The older class, either because of ignorance of politics or 
 by reason of the immediate problem of supporting their 
 usually large families, could not avail themselves of the 
 same educational facilities. Their sons in the short space 
 of time required for citizenship, after a course at the day 
 or evening schools, were able to cope with other electors. 
 But the older immigrants were not long to remain behind 
 in their duties as American citizens. After a remarkably 
 short time, old and young became citizens and set to work 
 to master the fundamental principles of American consti- 
 tutional government. Questions of the municipality began 
 to engage their attention. Soon they not only mastered 
 the problems that were propounded by the national and 
 state parties, but also became eager students of municipal 
 affairs. So important a factor has the Russian Jewish 
 vote become in recent years that all parties have made a 
 bid for its united support. 
 
 We are now brought to the consideration of the position 
 
 256 
 
NEW YORK 257 
 
 the Russian Jew has of late years assumed with respect 
 to the dominant political parties. As a rule, each class of 
 voters belonging to a particular nationality before natural- 
 ization is claimed in toto by either one or the other of the 
 two great political parties. The Russian Jews, however, 
 in spite of the fact that they were distributed among 
 all the parties as to national questions, have in municipal 
 affairs occupied a unique position of late. In the cam- 
 paign of 1897 they were very largely among the reform 
 forces then organized by the Citizens^ Union. AlthoiTgh 
 the almost solid vote of the Russian Jews had little effect 
 upon the general result, at that time it was sufficiently im- 
 portant to arrest the attention of the fusion party in the 
 next municipal campaign of 1901. It is almost incredible, 
 but is nevertheless a fact, that the entire machinery of the 
 fusion campaign was largely directed to that portion of 
 the city mostly inhabited by the Russian Jewish citizens. 
 It was there that the successful candidates for mayor and 
 district attorney made their strongest appeals and re- 
 ceived the most encouraging response. Little did they know 
 the character of the citizens they so anxiously tried to con- 
 vince of the justice of their cause. For never in their 
 wildest dreams did they expect such an upheaval. But 
 those who know the Russian Jew expected nothing less. 
 Be that as it may, however, the phenomenal majorities of 
 Tammany Hall were almost entirely annihilated and the 
 Russian Jew — this time justly — may claim the lion's 
 share in the result of the municipal election of 1901. The 
 Second, Fourth, Eighth, Tenth, Twelfth and Sixteenth As- 
 sembly Districts, which in former years ran up insur- 
 mountable Tammany majorities, showed such a remarkable 
 change that the other districts in the city normally in 
 favor of reform movements had an easy task. Many have 
 claimed the credit for this remarkable performance; few 
 care to see the facts of the case. To the Russian Jew, with 
 a mind quick to grasp simple business propositions, this 
 problem of municipal reform was a very simple matter. 
 They all remembered the first abortive effort at reform un- 
 der the Strong administration with its few cases of good 
 work accomplished among the desert of promises unper- 
 formed and unfulfilled. They all remembered and suf- 
 fered during the era of night under Tammany's regime 
 from 1897 to 1901. Given this contrast, placed before the 
 Russian Jew in a clear and intelligent manner, those who 
 
258 . POLITICS 
 
 knew hiili had neither fear nor doubt as to which course 
 he would pursue. 
 
 Perhaps the most remarkable phenomenon of this cam- 
 paign was the revelation of the Russian Jew as an active 
 campaigner. He was not content with voting for the right 
 cause alone; — he appropriated every street corner, every 
 hall, every truck, every temporary platform in the various 
 districts, and for an entire month called upon the passer- 
 by to hear his reasons for supporting the fusion ticket. 
 Young and old, these speakers, in English, in German, 
 and in all the Jargon dialects conceivable, thundered 
 against the iniquities of Tammany Hall and conducted a 
 campaign the like of which New York had not seen. They 
 demonstrated for all time that the Russian Jewish vote 
 is a factor to be reckoned with. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting phenomenon that has 
 challenged our attention in recent years is the appearance 
 of the rapidly developing types of Russian Jewish poli- 
 ticians. From year to year they have progressed along 
 the various lines. Whether as district captains, election 
 watchers, ballot clerks, campaign orators, they are becom- 
 ing as distinct types as the Irish, the German, or the Yan- 
 kee politicians. 
 
 To them the problems of the ever-changing ballot laws 
 are simple in the extreme. So well are they informed as 
 to the provisions of these that results in their districts are 
 tabulated as accurately as in the most enlightened sections, 
 and their election officers perform all their work with the 
 same speed and accuracy as do the ballot clerks and elec- 
 tion officers of other neighborhoods. 
 
 As is but natural, in course of time these young as- 
 pirants for political preferment pass through a process 
 of crystallization, and the efficient district captains and 
 election clerks of two or three years' experience become 
 budding leaders in the various localities of the Ghetto as- 
 sembly districts. Their development is gradual and in- 
 teresting. The Russian Jewish young man, generally a 
 lawyer, who casts his fortunes with Tammany Hall, grad- 
 ually assumes the habits of his Tammany confreres. He 
 chews, smokes, drinks, gambles, visits the club-rooms re- 
 ligiously, attends the politico-social functions of the year, 
 is prominent in the purchase and dissemination of chow- 
 der tickets, and is rewarded, perhaps, by being permitted 
 to play at the Tammany chowder game of poker with the 
 
NEW YORK 259 
 
 elite of the district. He is gradually taken into the con- 
 fidence of the assembly district leader, in most cases called 
 the " old man," and from time to time becomes the re- 
 cipient of some political news emanating directly from 
 the fountain head of Tammany Hall Democracy — the 
 Democratic Club — or Tammany Hall proper. In time 
 this aspiring politician becomes the constant companion 
 of the leader, and at all dinners, meetings or functions 
 acts as the host and direct personal representative of the 
 all-powerful leader. For the leader in his bailiwick is su- 
 preme, and to be in touch with him is to become in course 
 of time a political power. If the young aspirant is faith- 
 ful, the leader delegates a measure of his authority to his 
 new fledgling, who, encouraged by the tokens of apprecia- 
 tion on the part of his political sponsor, begins to see 
 visions of power and is, possibly, led to aspire to the lead- 
 ership himself. In a few instances, such young men get 
 the nominations for the minor elective offices. 
 
 Usually this is done only to test their fealty, for they 
 are expected to stick to the organization in victory as well 
 as in defeat. The many unsuccessful aspirants for elec- 
 tive office try to find consolation in appointments such as 
 positions in the corporation counsel's and district attor- 
 ney's offices. So great has been the crop of candidates 
 for these offices of late years, that in every assembly dis- 
 trict we find the young men organizing independent Dem- 
 ocratic clubs, generally bearing the name of the founder, 
 for the purpose of demonstrating how great a vote they 
 can command and thus either compelling recognition from 
 the organization or, in case of failure, forcing their way 
 into the regular organization of opposite political faith. 
 They have but one ambition, and that is to attain judicial 
 position, and to attain it they seek election as assembly- 
 man or alderman as a stepping stone. 
 
 As a rule, these young Russian Jewish men who make 
 their way into Tammany Hall belong to a lower order. In 
 some cases the office holders are taken from the most color- 
 less class, having nothing but regularity and party fealty 
 as their redeeming features. Usually, their education has 
 ended with the completion of a course in the public schools. 
 From that time they, mutatis mutandis, are close readers 
 of the Daily Neivs, the World, and the Journal, and keep 
 *' posted " on all political questions. Add to this the 
 mellowing influences of the Tammany leaders' discourse 
 
260 . POLITICS 
 
 and soei(?ty, and the young men are fit for any office within 
 the gift of the '' people.'' 
 
 The Republican Jewish politician is another remarkable 
 product of the metropolis. Socially he is, perhaps, a grade 
 higher than the former ; his parents, by dint of hard work, 
 have amassed a comfortable fortune, and their offspring 
 has possibly had the benefit of a better preliminary educa- 
 tion and has come in contact with wealthier young men, 
 who are Republicans in their political affiliations. He, 
 like his Tammany Hall cousin, is a growth gradual in 
 development, but is as positive a character as the former. 
 A little more credit may be due to him by reason of the fact 
 that his party is rarely, if ever, in power in the city of 
 New York and most of his political '' patronage " consists 
 of promises, conditioned upon its success and the disrup- 
 tion and defeat of Tammany Hall, a hope upon which 
 every Republican spellbinder loves to dwell. The fact that 
 the state or national elections generally are favorable to 
 his party makes small difference, as little or nothing per- 
 colates from the state or national board to these dreamers 
 of the Ghetto. A picturesque character this young 
 " statesman " undoubtedly is. From early citizenship 
 he carries himself like a " statesman." He believes him- 
 self treading in the steps of Lincoln, Grant, Garfield, and 
 Blaine, as his cousin in those of Jefferson, Jackson, Tilden, 
 and Cleveland. His garb, his features, his periods, all 
 savor of the statesman to be. Now and then one of the 
 more inventive discovers that a page of Macaulay would 
 fit into some stirring appeal and the speech or essay or 
 paragraph is pressed into service and is sent resounding 
 from a truck or platform over the heads of a host of boys 
 who for the time being become ' ^ fellow citizens. ' ' The 
 youngsters thus get their first baptism of political elo- 
 quence from these campaigners. 
 
 The Republican Russian Jewish politician gains admis- 
 sion into the counsels of his party more readily than the 
 Democratic. The power of the district leader is not so 
 absolute as that of the Tammany man and the young men 
 become members of the County Committee; some have 
 even been known to raise their voices in that august as- 
 sembly of archons of the local Republican party. In one 
 or two cases revolt is ripe against the ** carpet-bag- 
 ger " Republican leader. In time two or three Republi- 
 
NEW YORK 261 
 
 can and Democratic assembly district leaders will be none 
 other than the young Russian Jewish politicians. 
 
 There is another political factor in the Ghetto which 
 must not be lost sight of. In some respects this is the 
 most remarkable of all. I refer to the Socialists. As a 
 rule the Socialist leaders are students, whose collegiate 
 course has been prematurely cut off by reason of migra- 
 tions caused by anti-Semitism, or economic distress. After 
 a short apprenticeship, either as a peddler or mechanic 
 or unskilled worker at one of the trades, he quickly regains 
 his equilibrium and — as has often been the case — man- 
 ages to complete his studies in one of the colleges or uni- 
 versities, of this city. Rarely, if ever, has another na- 
 tionality furnished so many splendid examples of the 
 hard working student who prosecutes his studies while 
 undergoing great privations in his efforts to support not 
 only himself, but in many cases the family as well. 
 
 Regardless of what his privations may be, he throws 
 himself into the study of literature, poetry and political 
 economy and becomes a powerful debater or excellent 
 journalist. One or two such bid fair to rival our ablest 
 editors and campaign speakers. They are generally good 
 Hebrew and Russian scholars and are able to draw upon 
 the literatures of these languages to make their arguments 
 acceptable and clear to all. 
 
 The noblest type which has of late become general is 
 the Russian Jewish mugwump ; the man who votes and 
 thinks upon the highest planes of civic patriotism without 
 regard to political preferment. As a rule, he is not a 
 candidate for office, is either a professional or business 
 man, and helps to form the great silent vote which in the 
 last few years has upset the calculations of the wiseacres 
 of all political parties. His class are the people who vote 
 *' split tickets," who examine the characters of the candi- 
 dates, and who thus sway the power from party to party 
 as desert and political virtue are divided. These form the 
 great portion of the uncontrollable and unapproachable 
 vote of the Ghetto ; so much so that word goes forth from 
 both political camps that time spent on attempted con- 
 version of such voters is time wasted. This class furnishes 
 the most valuable election officers and campaign speakers 
 and the most promising guarantees of the ultimate com- 
 plete redemption of the Ghetto from the influence of the 
 machines. The arts of the older parties, which their de- 
 
262 POLITICS 
 
 votees have stnclied for a lifetime, these progressive young 
 voters, and for that matter the old ones as well, have mas- 
 tered in a remarkably short time. The young people, 
 aided by such journals as the Times and the Evening Post, 
 and the older people by the German and Jewish news- 
 papers, have become adepts in discussing municipal ques- 
 tions and really form the most formidable menace to the 
 continuance of Tammany rule. No audience in the city 
 is quicker to grasp the questions at issue. Also no speaker 
 is better informed or better prepared by example, quo- 
 tation and explanation than the middle-aged Ghetto orator. 
 He resorts to comparatively few devices of voice or diction. 
 With examples drawn either from daily life or Biblical 
 lore he brings home an argument to an intelligent audience 
 more forcibly than do his younger and more progressive 
 sons. He cares little for their political veneer. He is a 
 plain spoken advocate of clean streets, parks, public schools, 
 and honest police, and prates not of the immortal principle 
 of the democracy of Jefferson and Jackson, as do his 
 younger descendants. 
 
 The following editorial from the Nation of December 1, 
 1904, confirms the observations of the writer: ** It is 
 clear . . . that our Jews and Southern Europeans do 
 vote. A more important question, however, is whether they 
 vote with discrimination. Do they always support the 
 same parties; do they ever vote split tickets? A study of 
 the returns for the last four years — including those for 
 the November elections — shows that there are only eight 
 assembly districts in Manhattan which, in both local, State, 
 and national elections, do not invariably go one way. They 
 are Manhattan 's * doubtful districts, ' which are appar- 
 ently influenced by argument, and which may be expected 
 to split their tickets. They are the Fifth, the Eighth, the 
 Tenth, the Sixteenth, the Twenty-first, the Twenty-third, 
 the Twenty-ninth, and the Thirty-first. Some of these are 
 only slightly independent; the Twenty-ninth, for instance, 
 gets into this good company simply because, this year, it 
 voted for Roosevelt and Herrick. The average foreign 
 population of these independent districts is 42 per cent., or 
 just about the average for the whole island. Chiefly im- 
 portant, however, is the fact that this list includes the 
 Eighth, the Tenth, and the Sixteenth Assembly Districts. 
 These are also situated south of Eleventh Street and east 
 of the Bowery. 
 
A^i^TT^ YORK 263 
 
 * ^ By all odds the most interesting is the Eighth. This is 
 the district with the largest foreign population, and its 
 population is very largely Jewish. It has such well-known 
 Ghetto streets as Hester, Delancey, Eldridge, and Allen. 
 Yet politically it is one of the most uncertain sections ; the 
 majority of the winning candidates is always small. It 
 voted for Bryan in 1900 ; for Roosevelt in 1904 ; for Coler 
 in 1902; for Higgins this year. Its representative at Al- 
 bany is alternatively a Republican and a Democrat. The 
 Tenth District, which also shows unmistakable signs of in- 
 dependence, is strongly Jewish. This year it voted for 
 Roosevelt and Herrick. The Sixteenth, which also divided 
 on State and national lines, is populated almost exclusively 
 by Jews from Austria-Hungary. Similar independence is 
 evidenced in districts largely native, such as the Fifth, the 
 Twenty-first, and the Twenty-third ; but at least it is plain 
 that the Jewish localities, chiefly recruited from immigra- 
 tion, are not lacking in the first essentials of good citizen- 
 ship.'/ 
 
 It is but natural that so many shades of political leader- 
 ship should lead to the creation of political organizations. 
 In most instances, these are ephemeral and rarely survive 
 a fatal election. Even in case of success at the polls they 
 usually survive just long enough to provide a number of 
 the ambitious with berths at the public crib. On the other 
 hand, some have builded better than they knew, and have 
 become powerful political bodies to the extent of either 
 carrying the assembly district for good government or 
 gradually making such inroads into the vote of the dom- 
 inant party that success is but a question of time. The 
 leaders of such political organizations have in a few in- 
 stances received recognition from the party of good govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Perhaps no other phase of this discussion can be ap- 
 proached with more certainty than the problem of deter- 
 mining whether the Russian Jewish vote is controllable. 
 Inquiry as to how votes are acquired or controlled by 
 illegitimate or questionable means will demonstrate the con- 
 tention that the Russian Jewish vote is neither controllable 
 nor purchasable. The Russian Jewish citizens as a body 
 are not an office seeking or office holding class. They have 
 but few representatives in departments not under civil 
 service regulations. The civil service protected officers 
 carry with them independence in voting. The offices whose 
 
264 POLITICS 
 
 occupants change with each administration are sought for 
 by all but Russian Jewish voters. Candidates for such 
 offices are the habitues of the Tammany assembly district 
 clubs — the saloon brigade of candidates for office, who 
 drink with every newcomer. The Russian Jewish citizen 
 will have none of the inferior positions, such as those in 
 the street cleaning or dock department, nor are there Rus- 
 sian Jewish laborers in the department of parks or public 
 works. The higher offices of these departments are not yet 
 within his reach and he therefore concludes to wait his 
 chance. Meanwhile, he continues to demonstrate his fit- 
 ness, his ability, his readiness, to pass civil service examina- 
 tions such as are imposed by the post office and custom 
 house. 
 
 The club and the saloon are the marts where voters are 
 either *' influenced " or bought outright. The class of 
 votes obtained in the latter place are rather risky ** invest- 
 ments ' ' in these days of the secret ballot. For he who sells 
 his vote may nevertheless go into the booth and vote as his 
 ^' conscience '* dictates. As to the former method, most 
 Russian Jewish citizens are an industrious class, and think 
 more of earning an honest livelihood than of bartering 
 their votes for cash. 
 
 One need but examine the registration lists of a single 
 assembly district, as the writer has done, to convince him- 
 self that the Russian Jew is very much in earnest where 
 politics are concerned. The overwhelmingly Republican 
 districts, the best and wealthiest in the city, have an alarm- 
 ingly large number of citizens who neither register nor 
 vote. An even larger proportion of those who register do 
 not vote. To the Russian Jew the day of election is not 
 a holiday in the sense that he is to have his annual ex- 
 cursions or trips of recreation out of the city. Many days 
 before election, he informs himself as to the merits of the 
 respective candidates, by attending meetings, reading 
 papers, and by discussion at his cafe or after his lodge 
 meetings. When election day arrives he has made up his 
 mind how to vote and he does vote, neither pleasure nor 
 business exigency preventing him. A great many other 
 citizens of foreign extraction mistake election day and turn 
 it into a riotous feast, to the discomfiture of the election 
 officers, who find it difficult to cope with the curious in- 
 ventions of the Bacchanalians that wield the power of the 
 ballot in the secrecy of the election booth. Not so with 
 
NEW YORK 265 
 
 the Russian Jew. He does not drink anything stronger 
 than tea before he votes and after he has voted he goes 
 about his business without celebrating or rioting. Com- 
 pared with the American cycling, golfing, automobiling, 
 and football fraternity, who either intentionally forget or 
 do not care for the issues and principles at stake, the Rus- 
 sian Jew is certainly an excellent example of new citizen- 
 ship. 
 
 A most important factor in the political development 
 of the Russian Jew has been the Jewish press. Although 
 published and for the most part sold on the lower East 
 Side, the Yiddish papers have reached the remotest corners 
 of the country. 
 
 The oriental substratum in the mind of Russian Jews 
 must be appealed to in a different manner from that of 
 the humdrum, every day, political intelligence of the voter 
 who is swayed by newspaper reading. The Russian Jew 
 examines with the eye of a critic the arguments presented 
 on the editorial page. He wiio would convince him must 
 put forth his best efforts. The Russian Jew is witty by 
 nature and appreciates the political diatribes which are 
 placed before him by these many advocates of heterogene- 
 ous factions. There is a novelty, a charm, an ingenuity 
 about these papers on political questions. 
 
 No matter how adaptable the Russian Jew may be and 
 no matter how true the statement that no party can claim 
 him to the exclusion of others, still it is a fact daily more 
 and more apparent, that the independent reform element 
 on municipal questions has become a most alarming sign of 
 the times in the political parties. The younger element 
 who have had a college or university education form the 
 hotbeds of independent voting and reform ideas. As this 
 class is growing larger year by year they will certainly 
 have to be reckoned with by every party which has success 
 at the polls as one of its objects. 
 
 If the proportion of Russian Jewish electors to the total 
 vote be a consideration for assigning public office to the 
 representatives of any particular class, the Russian Jews 
 are far behind all others in the distribution of offices. 
 Even if we include the elective offices they receive much 
 the smallest share of party patronage. While it is true 
 that whatever positions are distributed among them are 
 generally positions of importance, still most of these they 
 attain by competitive examination, which in recent years 
 
266 POLITICS 
 
 has really taken the vast majority of offices from the gift 
 of the party in power. It is, therefore, to the elective 
 office or confidential appointive ones that we must direct 
 our attention. In the Federal service, if we exclude a 
 number of specialists or statisticians, there are none. 
 These, too, are civil service appointments. As to those 
 elected to office, our field of vision is of necessity limited by 
 the fact that the Russian Jew has graduated but a very 
 few of such office-holders. An alderman, here and there, 
 two or three assemblymen, probably one justice and a dep- 
 uty district attorney, and perhaps a deputy cor- 
 poration counsel, and the list is complete. Taken all 
 in all, these elected representatives of the Russian Jew 
 are not brilliant examples of what they have produced by 
 way of good citizenship. For in those firstlings of elected 
 officers party spirit is developed to an alarming degree and 
 in most cases they simply register the fiat or party caucuses 
 with as scrupulous care and obedience as the most thorough- 
 going machine men. Small wonder, then, that in one case, 
 when a little independence was about to be developed the 
 bold office-holder was promptly called to account and with 
 the fatality of the punishment of the Mafia the victim was 
 denied renomination and his usefulness in the office held 
 was forthwith dispensed with — all because of a too ready 
 desire to air his opinion and discuss questions which were 
 simply to be voted upon. The machine resents nothing so 
 much as disobedience in any form. The elective office- 
 holder is but one small wheel in the scheme of machine 
 government. All that he is expected to do is to obey and 
 to vote ; to talk, unless requested so to do, means political 
 annihilation. 
 
 It is yet too early, however, to judge the Russian Jewish 
 office-holder of either kind. We have witnessed but the 
 earliest beginning of such careers. The college and uni- 
 versity men are still in the early twenties and have not 
 yet had an opportunity to be put upon their mettle. 
 Another ten years will witness the elevation to office of some 
 of these young men ; they will compare favorably with other 
 candidates of the older parties, having a fundamental edu- 
 cation that will aid them materially in their preparation 
 for the public office which they are bound to occupy. 
 
 Time was when a great portion of Russian Jews could 
 be found in the Socialist and Anarchist camps. The So- 
 cialist party in particular had its remarkable leaders and 
 
NEW YORK 267 
 
 editors, who made such noteworthy strides in these sec- 
 tions of the city that their party spread to almost every 
 state of the Union. Their emissaries organized the party 
 in every state. The Anarchist elements at one time num- 
 bered among its hosts a number of Russian Jewish immi- 
 grants fresh from the country where they had been op- 
 pressed. But as time went on, as prosperity dawned on 
 them, they gradually drifted by way of the Socialist party 
 into temporary political obscurity, only to reappear in one 
 or the other political parties. The Socialist Labor party at 
 one time was the third largest party in the city. By reason 
 of the Social Democratic schism, its numbers have been deci- 
 mated and we have ardent DeLeonites combating still more 
 ardent followers of Debs with even greater bitterness than 
 they do the other parties. The two sections of the Socialist 
 party today are each firmly held together by rigid plat- 
 forms, containing very nearly all their declarations of be- 
 lief and articles of creed. But they have yet to demon- 
 strate that they will ever wield any power in the city as a 
 whole. In one or two assembly districts they are ripe for 
 the election of either an assemblyman or alderman or both. 
 But the Socialist assemblyman or alderman pure and simple 
 is as yet a figment of the imagination, although in a num- 
 ber of instances the candidates are of so high a character 
 that their possible election could be considered as much of 
 a personal tribute as an experiment in having a Socialist 
 in office. It cannot be denied, however, that small as it is, 
 the Socialist party has mastered the principles of active, 
 nay, of aggressive campaigning, and its leaders are re- 
 markably able orators and debaters, and explain and enun- 
 ciate the principles for which they stand in a manner sec- 
 ond to none of the speakers of the other political parties. 
 
 And so the stream of Russian Jewish citizens grows 
 through constant accretion, naturalization as well as by the 
 coming of age of the younger immigrants who have been 
 educated in this country. Each day has its number of 
 these industrious craftsmen or business men both at the 
 state courts and Federal courts. To many understanding 
 of the mysteries of English chirography and reading have 
 been denied. And though old and decrepit, many of these 
 men have toiled two and three terms at the evening schools 
 of the city gradually preparing themselves for citizenship. 
 
 An examination will disclose hundreds of newly made 
 citizens weekly. A new trade has sprung up in the Jewish 
 
268 POLITICS 
 
 bookstores; thousands and thousands of civil service and 
 citizenship manuals are annually printed and sold for the 
 purpose of enabling immigrants to be admitted to citizen- 
 ship. 
 
 It is not possible even approximately to guess at the 
 number of Russian Jewish voters in this city. With the 
 American education and citizenship come also in many 
 cases the desire to Americanize the names, yea, even the 
 first names of their owners. "When Tultchinsky becomes 
 Anthony; Tonkinogy Thomas; Tabatchnikoff Tobias, and 
 Tamashefsky O'Brien or McCarthy, the city record con- 
 taining a list of voters may tell a deceitful story. 
 
 Perhaps the most difficult problem that could be set 
 before an observer of these children of the Ghetto is to form 
 a true estimate of their character as citizens. Some opin- 
 ions have the ravings of anti-Semitism as their sole inspira- 
 tion ; those who hold them see nothing in this host of newly 
 made citizens save miscreants, and if there be brilliant ex- 
 amples these generous critics regard them merely as excep- 
 tions to the rule previously laid down. On the other hand, 
 such impartial observers as Jacob A. Riis, Ida M. Van 
 Etten and others have sent forth into the world different 
 opinions of these Russian Jewish citizens. Thus : 
 
 ^' Politically the Jews possess many characteristics of the 
 best citizens. Their respect and desire for education make 
 them most unlikely to follow an ignorant demagogue, while 
 for a still deeper and more radical reason they make the 
 enlightened selfishness their standard of all political warth. 
 The centuries during which every conscious or unconscious 
 tendency of the government, under which they lived, has 
 been to make their individual and race advancement their 
 single object have developed traits of character most unfa- 
 vorable to that blind partisanship which is requisite for the 
 successful carrying out of the objects of political organiza- 
 tions like Tammany Hall. The education given by the 
 modern labor movement has, in a great degree, transformed 
 their race-feeling into a class-feeling and they now look 
 with zeal to the advancement of the working people, in 
 whose elevation they recognize that their hope for the fu- 
 ture lies. 
 
 ** The one or two Jewish political demagogues who strive 
 to create a following on the East Side have met with 
 doubtful success. In fact, there does not exist a more un- 
 promising field in New York for the political trickster than 
 
NEW YORK 269 
 
 the Jewish quarters of the city. Their quiet, critical analy- 
 sis of political nostrums is most disheartening to the district 
 leaders of Tammany Hall. ' ' ^ 
 
 That the Russian Jew has come to stay is conceded, that 
 his influence in this as well as in other spheres of life will 
 have to be reckoned with, is equally clear. 
 
 * Ida M. Van Etten, " Russian Jews as Desirable Immigrants," Forum, April, 
 1893. 
 
(B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 The Russian Jew comes from a country where despotism 
 holds sway, where he has had little chance for the exercise 
 of political privileges. He comes here with a tradition so 
 different from ours that at first he is bewildered by the 
 political conditions. He observes contradictions and com- 
 plications. His spirit is foreign to the American and 
 Anglo-Saxon, which seemingly tolerates many abuses until 
 it is ready to act. His attitude is apt to be cynical or in- 
 different; and in either case he may fall in with the pre- 
 vailing notions of politics, with all that they imply. Or he 
 may, by virtue of the unsatisfactory condition of his eco- 
 nomic life and because of an idealism typical of a certain 
 class of Russian thinkers be in constant revolt against the 
 powers that be, actively joining in the meetings and demon- 
 strations in behalf of the Anarchist or the Socialist cause, 
 and refraining from co-operation with the regular political 
 parties. If the Russian Jew is a young man born on Amer- 
 ican soil, or one who came here at an early age, he is likely 
 to imbibe the American and Anglo-Saxon tradition, and 
 may be like the ordinary easy-going American, or lil?:e the 
 American who ''is in it for all it is worth," or of those 
 who are fighting for reform, or finally, among those who 
 desire an entire change of the social system. 
 
 The study of practical politics among a particular class 
 will reveal many features of the general condition. The 
 large American cities present the worst sides of American 
 practical politics, and Philadelphia stands out in unholy, 
 pre-eminent glory in this respect, for here the overwhelming 
 control by politicians of both state and city have made pos- 
 sible the corruptions of politics in an extreme degree. 
 
 Politics, to the ordinary American mind, imply a bus- 
 iness, conducted by a regularly organized band who have 
 secured control of public offices, public franchises, and 
 public influences of all kinds, and use them for their per- 
 sonal purposes, and for extending their authority as non- 
 official controllers of the public purses of the citizens. He 
 
 270 
 
PHILADELPHIA 271 
 
 who wishes something in the political line must go to one 
 of this band. In every section of the city, in the various 
 wards and divisions, there are those who are known to have 
 a ' ' pull. ' ' They do not necessarily hold office ; their power 
 depends on their influence in the political organization. 
 The ordinary American citizen, with his blind worship of 
 party politics, bows to the will of this organization, and is 
 subservient to its leaders. 
 
 Should it be a matter of surprise, therefore, that the 
 immigrant from Russian and Eastern Europe, with such 
 a conception placed before him, should succumb to the 
 temptations to which many a so-called American citizen 
 succumbs, or be as indifferent to political effort as this same 
 American citizen? Can it be a matter for wonder if the 
 teachers of practical politics, the '' heelers," and the 
 *' rounders," are such as we allow to control our wards 
 and divisions, that they graduate from their schools the 
 promising pupils of nationalities and classes whose votes 
 and influence are desired? To any one who knows our 
 politics as conducted it must be clear what sort of tools a 
 politician will use, and we consequently find a coterie of 
 Russian Jewish workers fully as unscrupulous as their 
 leaders; and being poor men, with small ways for the low 
 class work they do, their actions present a most unlovely 
 appearance. But from the point of view of public morality 
 they are not worse than leaders who do their work with all 
 the semblance of decorum. 
 
 The wards in which the Russian Jewish population 
 chiefly resides are the First, Second, Third, Fourth and 
 Fifth, covering an area of nearly two square miles. The 
 boundaries are. Chestnut Street on the north from Dela- 
 ware River to Seventh Street; the Delaware River on the 
 East to the foot of Mifflin Street; Mifflin Street on the 
 south to Passyunk Avenue; thence north along Passyunk 
 Avenue to Ellsworth Street, to Broad Street; thence with 
 Broad Street as the western boundary to South Street; 
 along South Street to Seventh Street, and up Seventh to 
 Chestnut Street. 
 
 It should be noted that there is very little Jewish popu- 
 lation in the northern end of this section above Spruce 
 Street. 
 
 The number of votes will grow not only because of in- 
 creased naturalization among those of the population bom 
 abroad, but because of the young men coming of age. It 
 
272 POLITICS 
 
 must be -borne in mind that we are considering a population 
 which began to migrate to this country in large numbers 
 in 1882, so that only in 1903 did the first American-born 
 descendants of this main body become voters. All others 
 must go through the form of naturalization. 
 
 There was a second large stream of immigration in the 
 early nineties, and a larger naturalization as a result of 
 this has doubtless taken place in the last few years, five 
 years being required for the acquiring of citizenship. The 
 younger men, born abroad, but in touch with our institu- 
 tions, naturally proceed to become naturalized as soon as 
 they attain the age of twenty-one years. 
 
 In national politics some of the Russian Jews are Re- 
 publicans, some Democrats, and some Socialists. With the 
 strongly prevalent Republican party sentiment in this city 
 one would naturally expect to find many in the ranks of 
 this party, yet there was a strong current of feeling for 
 Bryan and Debs in one campaign. In the Third Con- 
 gressional District fight for a seat in the national House 
 of Representatives, many took an active part for McAleer, 
 the Democratic incumbent, who was running for re-election 
 against the Republican machine candidate. A committee 
 of Jewish representatives, the Hebrew McAleer Campaign 
 Committee, assisted in the campaign, and a number of meet- 
 ings were held under its auspices. 
 
 There can be no question of a strong Socialist sentiment. 
 When a prominent Socialist speaker addresses a meeting 
 he can count upon an audience of fully five hundred per- 
 sons. The Socialist newspapers are read in goodly num- 
 bers. At labor, social and literary gatherings. Socialism 
 is an active, interesting subject of discussion. 
 
 I have been much impressed with the nobility of purpose 
 which inspires leading Socialists among the Russian Jewish 
 population. The ordinary politician, the party American, 
 the political reformer even, may regard it as a fanaticism, a 
 vain striving after an impossible ideal. And yet it is help- 
 ing to educate the community in social responsibility; it 
 stands for a purity which will some day help to cleanse 
 the city of some of its political dirt. Many of the most 
 intelligent Russian JeY\^ish men and women are Socialists. 
 They are animated by a strong propagandist spirit and are 
 helpful to the leaders of the Socialist cause. 
 
 The radical and reactionary element of the other extreme 
 is the Anarchist. It is not so strong in numbers as the 
 
PHILADELPHIA 273 
 
 Socialist. Most of the members of this party are philosoph- 
 ical Anarchists and not the red-handed agitators pictured 
 by the newspapers. 
 
 Mere political reform, or municipal reform, does not find 
 much favor. I remember addressing a society composed 
 of Russian Jews on the subject of political reform, and 
 besides giving my own views quoted those of John Jay 
 Chapman, I was told in the discussion which followed that 
 the description of the political disease as it had been pre- 
 sented was as strong as any of their most radical members 
 could give, but the remedy was ' ' Oh ! so weak ; it was like 
 attempting to cure a thoroughly diseased body with a por- 
 ous plaster." 
 
 I was not surprised, therefore, to find that there was 
 very little affiliation with the independent municipal party, 
 the Municipal League. Here again they were not different 
 from their neighbors, for it has been difficult to maintain 
 Municipal League organizations in the wards to which our 
 discussion is being confined. 
 
 The Jews of older residence here, those of the immigra- 
 tions before the Russian migration of the early eighties, 
 have always held aloof from any movement looking to the 
 concentration of a so-called Jewish vote, and the formation 
 of any political organization composed wholly of Jews. 
 Such organization is much more possible among the Russian 
 Jewish population, because of its settlement in large masses 
 in one district, with a community interest of race and re- 
 ligion intensified by close social union and mutual responsi- 
 bilities and needs. In this district there are other nation- 
 alities which form distinct groups, such as the Italians and 
 the negroes. There are also Irish and Americans. 
 
 The Russian Jews have not voted as a class for one par- 
 ticular party, but have organized distinctive clubs and 
 committees for one party or another. The objections to 
 such organizations are well set forth in a petition to the 
 court in 1895 against the granting of a charter to the Fourth 
 Ward Hebrew Republican Club. It stated that it was " a 
 racial or religious political club," that it was *' against 
 public policy in that it tends to the union of church and 
 state;" that its objects "tend to introduce religion into 
 politics and to excite racial and religious prejudice." 
 Adolph Eichholz, who acted as attorney for the objector, 
 wrote as follows to the counsel of the club, expressing views 
 generally held by Jews of older residence : 
 
274 • POLITICS 
 
 ** . .' . Not only is it opposed to the spirit of Amer- 
 ican institutions that any set of men belonging to one 
 race or to one religious denomination should band them- 
 selves together for political purposes, but it is also reason- 
 ably certain that the members of such organizations will be 
 made the victims of unscrupulous schemes. One of the 
 prime motives prompting the filing of these exceptions on 
 the part of a co-religionist is a solicitude for the welfare 
 of the misguided members and prospective members of this 
 and all other so-called ^ Hebrew ' and ' Jewish ' political 
 clubs. The organizers of such clubs are, as a rule, men 
 who for their own selfish ends, use this means of impressing 
 party leaders Vvdth the fact that they control a large number 
 of ' Hebrev/ ' votes. Organizations formed upon such lines 
 mmst necessarily interfere with the elevation of the standard 
 of true citizenship. Hebrew citizens take an interest in 
 politics, and there is no reason why they should not do 
 so after the manner of all other citizens, but their political 
 activity has been and should be solely and purely that of 
 good, loyal, and patriotic American citizens regardless of 
 what may have been the country of their birth and inde- 
 pendent of any religious belief or racial connections. 
 
 ' ' In the past those v/ho held more exalted views of citi- 
 zenship have necessarily been limited to merely persuading 
 others from joining such anti- American organizations. 
 Now that judicial approval is sought it becomes a duty to 
 interpose more formal objections." 
 
 That the agglomeration of masses of foreigners into sep- 
 arate political organizations of voters is subversive of their 
 best interests as citizens there can be no doubt. The Rus- 
 sian Jewish element, like other elements of foreign origin in 
 the down-town section, is in the habit of working unitedly 
 and finds it natural to form political clubs. The common 
 religion is but one feature that differentiates this body from 
 the rest of the community; and the effect of this feature 
 ought not to be exaggerated, where division along racial 
 lines in the lower part of the city is so common. 
 
 The attempts to conduct political organizations have met 
 with obstacles among Russian Jews, because of individual- 
 ism of this population, which owing to jealousies constantly 
 disrupts. The United Citizens' Club, which was organized 
 for the protection of Jewish immigrants and citizens, and 
 which has a membership of about a thousand, participated 
 in the campaign of the winter of 1904, supporting the Dem- 
 
PHILADELPHIA 275 
 
 ocratic ticket. During active political campaigns clubs are 
 organized, but when the excitement of the campaign dies 
 out the interest in the clubs flags, and the promoter of the 
 club, a candidate or a ward leader, often finds it diliicult 
 to maintain it. Some of the clubs, like many other clubs, 
 no matter what the class of its members, flourish as card- 
 playing concerns. 
 
 The Russian Jewish politician has been able to gain but 
 little in party power in this city. The willing tool of the 
 political boss, he bewails the fact that he cannot control 
 a large Jewish vote, so that his influence will be stronger. 
 As a division '' heeler," he controls a number of votes and 
 is rewarded with some petty office, or opportunity, which 
 will enable him to '' squeeze " his neighbors. 
 
 Public offices held by this population are insignificant in 
 importance and small in number. They include a member 
 of the Board of Education, two common couneilmen, several 
 school directors, some x^olice officers, constables, and park 
 employees. The negro must be a much more valuable 
 political worker from the point of view of the office dis- 
 tributers, for of 170 city employees from the Fifth Ward, 
 when inquiry was made some years ago, about 40 were 
 negroes.^ 
 
 When we come to the matter of a controllable vote, the 
 subject is difficult, — that is to say, it is difficult to point out 
 which element of our entire city population is the worst 
 offender in this respect. The Russian Jcavs doubtless con- 
 tribute a quota. Some are said to sell their votes outright ; 
 others to vote according to the instructions of the police 
 officials who protect them against the rigorous enforcement 
 of ordinances. For example, the push cart dealers and ped- 
 dlers must have licenses and are required to be kept moving. 
 Police officials can exercise their " discretion " if a peddler 
 will vote as they direct. The dealer who has his shop open 
 on Sunday can secure protection against enforcement of the 
 Sunday law if he is '' in with " the police. Many a prac- 
 tice which violates the law can be connived at if the viola- 
 tor will vote the ' ' right way. ' ' He may, in addition, have 
 to secure '' immunity " through other considerations as 
 well. The system of illicit protection and control among 
 this population does not differ in principle from that in 
 other sections of the city ; it merely varies according to the 
 nature of the business. The politicians in control of the 
 
 ^Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro, p. 381. 
 
276 POLITICS 
 
 city know the means of exploitation available. The 
 Philadelphia Ledger^ in an article in its issue of De- 
 cember 11, 190-4, on " The Organization and Extortion," 
 contained the following: " The small dealers along South 
 Street and Second Street, Germantown, Frankford and 
 Kensington Avenues are subjected to an almost perpetual 
 demand for both money and services. In the Third and 
 Fifth Wards the merchants are coerced into padding the 
 assessors' lists; to recognize non-resident office-holders as 
 inmates of their own homes, and to hand up money regu- 
 larly to the accredited representatives of the organization. 
 They get, for their money and service, the right to use the 
 sidewalk beyond the three-foot line for displaying their 
 wares, and they may employ barkers without fear of mo- 
 lestation. The toll upon these merchants ranges all the 
 way from 25 cents to $5 a week each. The same applies to 
 push cart men and itinerant peddlers, who, in addition to 
 paying the usual peddlers' tax to the city, must submit 
 to petty larceny at the hands of the police, who take all 
 manner of small wares without even saying * by your 
 leave.' The money and goods thus taken from small deal- 
 ers and peddlers amounts in the aggregate to thousands of 
 dollars annually. ' ' 
 
 The Russian Jews as a class are capable of political 
 thought far superior to that of any other foreign element 
 which the slum politician seeks to control, and with the 
 growth of a body of young voters who are coming of age 
 the intelligent voting population will become stronger and 
 stronger. These young men are showing an active interest 
 in political and social subjects, and if their present interest 
 is any indication of their strength of action as voters we 
 may look to a vigorous political element. If they realize 
 their opportunity and are not swamped by the desire for 
 mere material success, they can become a powerful factor 
 which will help to redeem us from the degradation of slum 
 politics. 
 
 Many of these young men, brought up in the public 
 schools, living to a considerable degree in the environment 
 of the average American, imbued with the spirit of patriot- 
 ism, will with the socialists and the thinkers of the older 
 generation, form a body of voters possessing a high, intel- 
 ligent idea of citizenship. They will have a principle which 
 will place them in the van with those who are working for 
 political and social ideals. 
 
(0) CHICAGO 
 
 While honor is said to be the iinderlying principle in an 
 aristocracy and fear in a despotic monarchy, civic virtue is 
 fundamental in a republic. The citizen who is fully con- 
 scious of his civic duties towards his governm.ent and his 
 country, who is willing to lay aside his personal interest for 
 the greatest good of the greatest number of his fellow citi- 
 zens, is the citizen who preserves our freedom and institu- 
 tions, and so long as there is a majority of citizens endowed 
 with that sterling quality of civic virtue, so long there will 
 be no danger as to the stability of our republican institu- 
 tions. Our naturalized citizens, coming now as they do, 
 mostly from countries where either despotism or pretended 
 '' honor " is the basic principle of government, very quick- 
 ly, upon becoming citizens here, realize their new respon- 
 sibilities, which inspire them with loyalty to the country 
 of their adoption. They are grateful for the confidence 
 reposed in them, in giving them a share in the administra- 
 tion of our government. 
 
 To all of this, the Russian Jew is no exception. Having 
 no civil rights in Russia, he seizes the opportunity given 
 him by our laws, and becomes a citizen of the United States. 
 No one can, on the average, be more depended upon to 
 vote rightly on all public questions than the Russian Jew. 
 Whereas the average naturalized citizen leaves behind him 
 a country where his race predominates, and to which he 
 could return in safety in case of adversity, the Russian Jew 
 is not so situated. He comes here to stay. To him this is 
 almost the only country that offers relief and shelter. 
 
 The Russian Jew in America is well pleased with the 
 freedom granted him and has not looked to any considerable 
 extent for public ofiice as a means for a livelihood or pro- 
 motion. In the city of Chicago, and county of Cook, with 
 a Russian Jewish population of about 75,000 and comprise 
 ing not less than 18,000 voters, only a hanaful hold public 
 offices, most of them unimportant. An exception is that 
 of Mr. Abel Davis, a Russian Jew, who was elected recorder 
 
 277 
 
278 POLITICS 
 
 of deeds in the election of November, 1904. His nomina- 
 tion was brought about by Russian Jewish Republican 
 clubs. Mr. Davis was a lieutenant in the Spanish- Ameri- 
 can war, and saw actual service in Cuba. He was for one 
 term a member of the Illinois legislature. Other officials 
 include deputy health inspector, deputy clerks of the court 
 and recorder, and assistant state's attorney. 
 
 There is good prospect that in the future the Russian 
 Jews will participate at the primary election of both par- 
 ties ; they will endeavor to elect their own delegates. 
 
 The Russian Jews, as a whole, are for personal liberty 
 in the fullest sense of the word. Believing that the Demo- 
 cratic party can be more trusted in safeguarding the per- 
 sonal liberty of the people, and fearing a revival of the 
 Blue Laws in Chicago, they generally vote the Democratic 
 ticket. This is not, hoAvever, the general rule in congres- 
 sional and presidential elections. The following is a table 
 of the votes in the Ninth Ward, the majority of which have 
 been cast by Russian Jews since the year 1900.^ 
 
 City Election, April 4, 1899: For Mayor— Carter, Re- 
 publican, 2316; Harrison, Democrat, 3130; Altgeld, Inde- 
 pendent, 750; Keroin, Prohibitionist, 12. 
 
 Presidential Election, November 6th, 1900 — McKinley, 
 3034; Bryan, 3591. 
 
 City Election, April 2, 1901 : For Mayor— Henecy, 3088 ; 
 Harrison, 3991. 
 
 Congressional and County Election, November 4, 1902: 
 For State Treasurer — Busze, Republican, 2853 ; Duddleson, 
 Democrat, 2946. 
 
 At the city election, which took place on April 7th, 1903, 
 Mayor Harrison, Democrat, carried the ward by 1679 ma- 
 jority over Stewart, Republican. 
 
 At the election of November, 1902, a very notable event 
 took place in the 17th Senatorial District, largely popu- 
 lated by Russian Jev/s, when Clarence S. Darrow, chief 
 counsel for the miners' union before the Anthracite Coal 
 Commission at Philadelphia, was elected to the legislature 
 by a majority of 6000 on an independent ticket. 
 
 In the November, 1904, election, the most representative 
 Russian Jewish ward, the Ninth, was carried for Roosevelt 
 by about 900 majority. 
 
 1 The Russian Jewish settlement emhraces the Ninth Ward, part of Tenth, 
 part of Eleventh, part of Nineteenth, oart of Fourteenth, Fifteenth. Sixteenth. 
 
CHICAGO 279 
 
 Socialism does not flourish to any considerable extent 
 among tlie Russian Jews in Chicago. Of all the Russian 
 Jewish voters throughout the city only about 500 cast 
 Socialist votes. 
 
 The new generation of the Russian Jews will be the 
 Jews of America. They will lead in thought and morals. 
 As to politics, I believe they will safeguard the interests 
 of the people, and will have in time considerable influence 
 in the government of our country. 
 
IX 
 HEALTH AND SAKITATION 
 
 (A) NEW YOEK 
 By Maurice Fishbekg, M. D. 
 
 Medical Examiner United Hebrew Charities, New York City 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 By Chaeles S. Beenheimer 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By Kate Levy, M. D. 
 
 Former Instructor hi Clinical Medicine 
 Woman's Medical College, Northwestern University 
 
 281 
 
HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 
 Physically the Jews appear to be inferior to the Anglo- 
 Saxons in the United States. They are about five feet five 
 inches in height on the average, which is more than the 
 Jews in eastern Europe measure. There, it v/as found that 
 the average stature of the Jews was about five feet three 
 to five feet four inches. It appears that the immigrant 
 Jews, like immigrants of other races, are taller than the 
 average of the stock from v/hich they come. This is best 
 explained by the fact that it is mostly the taller and per- 
 haps also the stronger physically who venture on a long 
 journey to a distant land. In general it can be stated 
 that this shortness of stature of the Jews is primarily due 
 to race influence. It seems that the ancient Jews were 
 also not tall. They are said to have been, compared with 
 the Amorites, sons of Anak, as ' ' grasshoppers in their own 
 sight.'* It has also been shown that the races and peoples 
 among whom the eastern European Jews have lived for 
 centuries, are mostly of a short stature, as for instance, the 
 Slavonians in Russia, Galicia, and Roumania. Added to 
 this, their abject poverty, the underfeeding, the insanitary 
 conditions of the European Ghettos, have conspired to re- 
 duce the physique of the Jew. It is a striking fact that 
 wherever they have been given a chance to recuperate, they 
 have gained one or two inches of stature.^ Thus the native 
 Jews in New York city, the children of the immigrants, are 
 much taller than their parents, and Joseph Jacobs has found 
 that in London also the West End Jews are taller than 
 their poorer coreligionists in the East End.^ 
 
 Another characteristic of the Jews is their narrow chest. 
 It is known that in the majority of healthy individuals the 
 
 1 For details about the stature of the Jews in the United States, and how it 
 is influenced by heredity and environment, see M. Fishberg, " Materials for the 
 Physical Anthropology of the Eastern European Jews," Annals of the New York 
 Academy of Sciences, 1005. 
 ''Studies in Jewish Statistics, p. 80. 
 
 282 
 
NEW YORK 283 
 
 girth of the chest exceeds one-half of their stature. In the 
 case of the Jews it is found that the girth equals or is 
 less than half their height. This, with their poorly devel- 
 oped muscular system and frequency of ansemia, gives 
 them the appearance of sickly people. But considering the 
 fact that for the last two thousand years they have mostly 
 been town dwellers, and in the towns they have mostly 
 inhabited the poorest districts in insanitary conditions, 
 crowded in small, badly ventilated dwellings, as we learn 
 from the histories of the various European Ghettos, it would 
 be surprising if all these adverse conditions had not re- 
 duced the physique of the Jews. 
 
 Paradoxical though it may seem, the East Side Jews 
 of New York City, notwithstanding their apparent physical 
 inferiority externally are not inferior pathologically — 
 they do not swell the mortality returns of the city ; in fact 
 they enjoy an unprecedented longevity, far above most 
 other non- Jewish races of the city. *' The Jew, particu- 
 larly amid large Jewries of the East," says Leroy Beaulieu, 
 '' is often small and puny — he looks wretched, sickly, 
 shrunken and pale. But all this should not deceive us; 
 under the frail exterior is concealed an intense vitality. 
 The Jew may be likened to those lean actresses, the Rachels 
 and Sarahs, v/ho spit blood and seem to have but a spark 
 of life left, and yet who, when they have stepped upon the 
 stage, put forth indomitable strength and energy. Life 
 with them has hidden springs."^ 
 
 On his arrival at New York, the Russian Jcav is con- 
 fronted by sanitary conditions which are as foreign to him 
 as the language of the country. It is of course quite diffi- 
 cult for him to adapt himself to his new surroundings ; but 
 my observations, which have been very extensive among the 
 foreign population of New York, have convinced me that 
 the Jew adapts himself to his new environment far more 
 easily and more speedily than his neighbors, the Italians, 
 the Bohemians, the Poles, the Scandinavians, and others. 
 
 In New York the immigrant Jew is principally a dw^eller 
 in the tenement house. Although scattered all over the city 
 a large proportion of Russian Jews live on the East Side, 
 south of Fourteenth Street and east of the Bowery; prin- 
 cipally in the Seventh, Tenth, Eleventh and Thirteenth 
 Wards. These wards enjoy the evil disinction of being the 
 
 ^Israel Among the Nations, p. 150. 
 
284 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 most densely populated spots in the United States, and 
 probably on the earth. The Tenth Ward has over 700 per- 
 sons to the acre, the Thirteenth about 600. They are over- 
 crowded with tenement houses w^hich are known as '^ dou- 
 ble-deckers," *' dumb-bell " tenements, a type of abode for 
 human beings which New York has the unenviable reputa- 
 tion of having invented. No other city in the United States 
 has any such houses. Their characteristics, according to 
 the report of the Tenement House Commission, are: (1) 
 Insufficiency of air, light, and ventilation due to narrow 
 courts or air-shafts; undue height, owing to the occupation 
 by the building and adjacent buildings of too great a pro- 
 portion of land area; (2) overcrowding; (3) danger in case 
 of fire; (4) lack of separate water-closets and washing fa- 
 cilities; (5) foul cellars and courts. 
 
 A *' double-decker " is usually a building six to seven 
 stories high, about twenty-five feet wide, and built upon a 
 lot of the same width and about 100 feet deep. Each 
 floor is usually divided into four sets of apartments, there 
 being seven rooms on each side. The front apartments gen- 
 erally consist of four rooms each, and the rear of three 
 rooms each, making altogether fourteen rooms upon each 
 floor, only four of which receive direct light and air from 
 the street or from the small yard at the back of the build- 
 ing. Of these four rooms only two are large enough to 
 deserve the name of rooms. The front one is generally 
 about 10 feet 6 inches wide by 11 feet 3 inches long ; this is 
 used as a parlor. The next room is a kitchen, generally 
 of the same size as the parlor, which receives its air and 
 light from a window opening into the narrow * * air-shaft ' ' 
 or such a supply which may come to it through the door 
 opening into the front room. This room contains a range, 
 a sink, and one or two glass-door closets for dishes. Behind 
 these two rooms are two bed-rooms in the four-room apart- 
 ments, or only one in the three-room apartments. The 
 name of bed-room is applied to these holes by the landlords 
 who charge rent for them, but in reality they are hardly 
 more than closets, being each about 7 feet wide and 8 feet 
 6 inches long. When a fair-sized bed is in position, there is 
 'hardly left sufficient space for one to pass through the 
 room. These rooms get no air or light whatever save such 
 as comes from the window opening into the air-shaft, and 
 with the exception of the highest stories are generally al- 
 most totally dark. Water-closets are provided in the hall- 
 
NEW YORK 285 
 
 way, one for two apartments or for two families. The vast 
 majority of these " dumb-bells " contain no bath-rooms, 
 though some of the latest models do contain a bath-tub in 
 each apartment or one for the entire building — for about 
 twenty-five families. 
 
 The ventilation in these houses is obtained through the 
 so-called air-shafts, which have been called by some witness 
 before the Tenement House Commission " foul air shafts," 
 '' culture tubes on a gigantic scale." Owing to its nar- 
 rowness and its height, evidently the air-shaft cannot af- 
 ford light to the rooms, particularly the bed-rooms, but 
 only semi-darkness. The air that it does supply is foul, 
 because it contains the air coming from the windows of the 
 other apartments (there are as many as sixty windows 
 opening in some of these air-shafts). Moreover, the air- 
 shaft is used by some as a convenient receptacle for garbage 
 and all sorts of refuse and indescribable filth thrown out of 
 the windows, and this filth is often allowed to remain rot- 
 ting at the bottom of the shaft for weeks without being 
 cleaned out. In many houses this air-shaft is also used 
 for the clothes lines, and on washing days the air and light 
 are obstructed by the linens hung on these lines to dry. 
 
 It will be observed that the ventilation of the houses in 
 these tenements is reduced to a minimum. But there is an 
 older kind of tenement house in the Jewish quarter of our 
 city which is even inferior to the one just described. These 
 houses have no air-shaft — and consequently no windows 
 at all in the kitchens and bed-rooms — one sink for the 
 supply of water in the hallway on each floor for four apart- 
 ments, only one water-closet in the yard for all the sixteen 
 to twenty-five families of the building, and have no gas 
 fixtures, and the light at night is obtained from kerosene 
 lamps. These inferior old tenements are inhabited chiefly 
 by the very poor Jews, and almost invariably by the non- 
 Jewish part of the Ghetto population. It is, in fact, re- 
 markable how rarely the Irish, German, Bohemian, Italian 
 and other Gentiles inhabit the new tenements in this dis- 
 trict, which are therefore left almost exclusively to the 
 Jews. As we shall see hereafter, this is because the Russian 
 Jew's home is comparatively cleaner than that of his non- 
 Jewish neighbors of the same social and financial status, 
 and he therefore prefers to live in a house having a handy 
 water supply, a water-closet, wash-tubs, a modern range, 
 and the like. 
 
286 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 The number of persons to an apartment depends on the 
 size of the family inhabiting it, on the financial and social 
 condition of its members and on their personal habits. The 
 better class live in three or four rooms. Considering that 
 a family of the Ghetto consists on an average of six persons 
 the better class require three or four rooms for every six 
 persons. But the large majority of the East Side Jews are 
 very poor, and cannot afford to pay ten to eighteen dollars 
 rent per month; they therefore resort to lodgers to obtain 
 part of their rent. In the four-room apartments, one bed- 
 room is usually sublet to one or more, frequently to two 
 men or women, and in many houses the front room is also 
 sublet to two or more lodgers for sleeping purposes. The 
 v/riter on many occasions while calling professionally at 
 night at some of these houses, beheld a condition of affairs 
 like this: A family consisting of husband, wife, and six 
 to eight children whose ages range from less than one to 
 twenty-five years each. The parents occupy the small bed- 
 room, together with two, three or even four of the younger 
 children. In the kitchen, on cots and on the floor, are 
 the older children; in the front room two or more (in rare 
 cases as many as five) lodgers sleep on the lounge, on the 
 floor and on cots, and in the fourth bed-room two lodgers 
 who do not care for the price charged, but who desire to 
 have a '' separate room " to themselves. 
 
 When we bear in mind that the Ghetto population is the 
 poorest in the city and that the rents charged are the high- 
 est, we are not surprised at the condition of affairs just 
 described. It is only surprising that, in spite of such over- 
 crowding, the Jews manage to be the healthiest and longest 
 lived class of the population of Nev/ York City. 
 
 Of the homes of the poor population of the city, the Jew- 
 ish home is the cleanest. In the small three-room or four- 
 room apartments, which a poor family inhabits, we find, as 
 a rule, the largest, called the '' front room," covered with 
 some oil cloth and rugs; sometimes, perhaps, with carpets; 
 in the very poor houses the bare wooden floor is usually 
 kept clean. The front room in tidy homes is kept closed, 
 and the children are kept out of it the greater part of the 
 day. Such a clean, tidy room for the reception of friends 
 and guests, and for social purposes, is not seen in most of 
 the homes of the other slum population. The second room, 
 as we have seen above, is the kitchen, v/hich is also used as 
 a dining-room at meal time, and as a sitting-room for the 
 
NEW YORK 287 
 
 father, mother and children. The entrance to the house 
 is through this kitchen, and outside visitors, beholding the 
 entire family around the stove or table, and some of the 
 children playing on the floor, gain the impression that 
 the home of the Russian Jew is untidy and even filthy. 
 But careful inspection of the contents of the room will show 
 the contrary: The range is sparkling — the Russian Jew- 
 ish woman takes great pride in the condition of the range. 
 Where the landlord does not provide one, a Jewish woman 
 will spend as much as $20 for a good range " with much 
 nickel, ' ' and give hours of hard labor in cleaning and pol- 
 ishing it daily. I have actually seen houses with a pitiful 
 scarcity of furniture, but vv^ith ranges v/orth from $15 to 
 $20. The sink, which in modern houses is also found in 
 this room, is in the majority of cases kept as clean as in any 
 home of the American family, and much cleaner than by 
 people of other nationalities (for instance, Poles, Bohem- 
 ians, Italians, etc.) of the same social status. The third, 
 and in four-room apartments also the fourth room, is the 
 bed-room — the contents are, as a rule, a large double-bed, 
 and, if there are small children, a baby carriage or a small 
 children's bed. The cleanliness of this room depends usu- 
 ally on the readiness of the housekeeper to work and clean 
 it of the vermin that are apt to be found in such dark, 
 unventilated places. 
 
 The personal cleanliness of the Russian Jew is far above 
 that of the average slum population. The Russian baths 
 are very numerous in the Jewish quarters, and very much 
 frequented. ^' I cannot get along without a ' sweat ' (Rus- 
 sian bath) at least once a week," many a Jew will tell you. 
 On the days when these Russian baths admit only women, 
 they are also crowded with women and children. During 
 the summer, the public baths on the East River are crowded 
 with Jewish people from daybreak till late in the evening. 
 It is to be regretted that the city does not provide more of 
 these baths. It must also be borne in mind that the re- 
 ligious Jew cuts the nails of his fingers and toes at least 
 once a week, because, according to the rabbinical teaching, 
 dirt under the nails contains " devils " or *' evil spirits." 
 Before each meal he must wash his hands, and repeat this 
 operation immediately after meals, and must then also 
 rinse his mouth ; and he must not walk four steps from his 
 bed in the morning without careful ablution of his face and 
 hands. A Jewish woman must visit a bath at least once 
 
288 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 a month; the nails of her fingers and toes mnst be cut off. 
 These religious rites and customs are carefully observed 
 by the older generation who are generally pious; the 
 younger people, though they do not observe these rites re- 
 ligiously, follow some of them. These religious rites are, 
 in the opinion of modern sanitarians, highly conducive to 
 the health and cleanliness of the Jews, and, as a matter of 
 fact, the sanitary condition of the Jew's person and home 
 is not inferior to that of any other race living under similar 
 conditions of poverty, want and overcrowding. 
 
 One reason for the impression of uncleanliness that the 
 casual observer may obtain is the filthy streets in the New 
 York Ghetto. This is due in great measure to the negli- 
 gence of the city officials; they permit in the Jewish 
 streets nuisances which would not be tolerated in any other 
 quarter of the city; the street cleaning department clears 
 the Ghetto only after it has cleaned the other streets. The 
 residents have enough to care for the houses, which are 
 overcrowded, and leave the streets to the city. But after 
 all this, I can state, and I am convinced that I will be sus- 
 tained by all who are justly entitled to an opinion, that 
 even the streets in the New York Jewish quarter are as 
 clean as those inhabited by the poor Italians, Bohemians 
 and other immigrant populations. These other nationali- 
 ties do very little marketing on the streets. They procure 
 their groceries, dry goods, crockery, etc., in stores or mar- 
 kets. The Jews generally buy most of their goods on the 
 streets from push carts, stands, and the like. The reason 
 for this is, probably, that the habit is very prevalent in 
 Russia and Galicia, and they have brought it over from 
 their old home ; besides, the Jew has somewhat of a mercan- 
 tile nature — when he cannot satisfy this instinct on ac- 
 count of his poverty by opening a store, he will at least sell 
 from a push cart or do some peddling. Streets used as 
 markets cannot be kept very clean. 
 
 The food of the Russian Jews is considered to be above 
 reproach. The meat consumed, as is well known, has, 
 before being placed on sale, undergone a thorough inspec- 
 tion as to the health of the animal killed. The meat is 
 therefore more wholesome and more fit for human con- 
 sumption than that in the average non-Jewish butcher 
 shop. As we shall see hereafter, this has some influence 
 on the liability of the Jew to tuberculosis. Moreover, the 
 meat consumed by the Jew is fresh. Meat more than three 
 
NEW YORK 289 
 
 days old is not kosher (ritiially clean), and in order that it 
 may be made kosher it must be carefully rinsed in clean 
 water. Religious butchers for this reason do not keep meat 
 for more than a day or two. The same applies to fowls, 
 such as chickens, turkeys, etc. Those sold in Jewish shops 
 are fresh, and come from healthy animals. 
 
 Fish is one of the most important articles in the diet of 
 the Jew. Those who do not consume much of it must at 
 least have fish for Friday night and for Saturday, and 
 when fish is scarce a Jewess will pay a high price for at 
 least one or two pounds of it for Sabbath. I am informed 
 that the Jews consume proportionally more fish than any 
 other race in New York. 
 
 A very important article in the Jewish diet is herring. 
 In very poor Jewish families, when other food cannot be 
 procured, they can live for days on bread, herring, and tea 
 alone. Potatoes, too, are much in vogue. With the excep- 
 tion of horse-radish, carrots, cabbage, beets, and a few 
 others, the Jews consume very few vegetables, although 
 fruits of all varieties are very freely used. 
 
 Another important fact is that the Jews do not eat much 
 
 — a pound of meat per diem is sufficient for a poor family 
 of a husband, wife and a few children. While this may be 
 partly due to the expense — kosher meat is very expensive 
 
 — still it is a fact that the well-to-do eat comparatively less 
 than non-Jews. Gluttony is considered a sin among the 
 Russian Jews. This trait has also been retained from 
 Russia, where the multitude of the Jews are very poor, and 
 food, particularly meat, is expensive, because of the special 
 tax levied on kosher meat {takse). Jewish women gen- 
 erally differ from the men in this respect. You will quite 
 often meet a woman who likes to eat much and well. This, 
 added to the fact that the Jewish women usually do noth- 
 ing but housework after marriage, is probably the reason 
 why obesity is more frequently met with among them than 
 among non-Jewish women. 
 
 It is well known that alcoholism is very rare among Jews, 
 particularly those from Russia. It is even thought by 
 many that Jews are total abstainers. Though this may be 
 so with a small proportion, many Jews partake more or less 
 of alcohol in its various forms, and those who do not or- 
 dinarily drink, usually do so at least on Saturday and holi- 
 days for religious purposes (kiddush) and on various other 
 occasions. One thing must be conceded — Jews only rarely 
 
290 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 drink to*intoxication; living in the Jewish quarters of New 
 York for ten years, I have seen a Jewish " drunk " only 
 rarely, although in my practice as a physician, I have re- 
 peatedly met with Jewish patients suffering from the ef- 
 fects of chronic alcoholism as cirrhosis of the liver, alcoholic 
 gastritis, etc. One of the reasons why Jews are not seen 
 in an intoxicated condition on the streets is because the 
 Jew generally knows when to stop drinking, and when he is 
 somewhat intoxicated, those near him will at once remove 
 him to his home and will not permit him to behave boister- 
 ously on the streets. An officer of the Society Chesed Shel 
 Emeth, which has as one of its objects to give poor people 
 Jewish burial, informed me that among the unclaimed Jew- 
 ish dead in the New York morgue he has during more than 
 one year's service met with only one case in which alcohol- 
 ism was stated to be the cause of death, and this among 
 an average of five to six corpses weekly (including chil- 
 dren). When we recall the fact that the unclaimed bodies 
 in the morgue almost invariably come from the lowest 
 classes of society, and that at least seventy-five per cent, of 
 the Gentile unclaimed dead in the morgue are directly or 
 indirectly caused by alcoholism, we are the more surprised 
 at the infrequency of alcoholism among the Jews in New 
 York. But still it can positively be stated that the vice is 
 growing in frequency among the Jews in New York City. 
 We occasionally meet a Jewish patient in the alcoholic ward 
 of Bellevue Hospital. In their old home in Russia, the 
 Jews abhor a drunkard; they name him with converts and 
 outcasts. To have a drunkard in the family means diffi- 
 culty in contracting suitable marriages for the children. 
 The Jew knows that it does not pay to be drunk. Having 
 lived for centuries under the ceaseless ban of abuse and 
 persecution in the European Ghettos, he has found it ad- 
 vantageous to his well-being always to be sober. But here, 
 alcoholism is increasing, particularly among the yoimg gen- 
 eration, who are adapting the habits and customs of life 
 of their gentile neighbors — their virtues as well as their 
 vices. 
 
 The Russian Jews are generally inveterate smokers of 
 cigarettes; only few, those who are more or less " Ameri- 
 canized," smoke cigars. The Russian Jews prefer ciga- 
 rettes with mouth-pieces, such as they were wont to smoke 
 in their old home. Others smoke cigarettes which they 
 roll very dexterously with their fingers from tobacco in 
 
NEW YOBK 291 
 
 cigarette paper. Pipes are not very common. Another 
 habit of the older people is snuffing pulverized tobacco. 
 Chewing tobacco is unknov/n among Russian Jews. 
 
 Tea is probably consumed by Russian Jews far more than 
 by any other nationality living in New York. We fre- 
 quently see one who drinks more than a dozen glasses of 
 this beverage daily. In the cafes of the Ghetto one may 
 always observe people sitting for hours and drinking tea. 
 This habit has been acquired in Russia, where excessive 
 tea drinking is common. One advantage of the tea drunk 
 b}^ the Russian JeAvs over that consumed by the Americans 
 is the fact that the Russians never drink tea that has been 
 boiled ; they make of the tea an infusion with boiling water ; 
 the amount of tannin retained is thereby reduced to a 
 minimum, and it is consequently less liable to cause indiges- 
 tion, and only the volatile oil which gives the aroma is 
 extracted. 
 
 Considering the fact that the Jews are the most nervous 
 of people, as we shall see hereafter, it is not surprising that 
 they consume much tea. Having their nervous system 
 often fatigued and exhausted from worry, care and anxiety, 
 they require some agreeable stimulant which will remove, at 
 least temporarily, the sense of fatigue, and give a feeling 
 of well-being. Other nations use alcohol for such purposes, 
 but the Jews prefer tea, which in the long run, of course, 
 overstimulates their nervous system, and a depression is the 
 result, which requires larger doses of tea to overcome it. 
 A vicious circle is thereby established, v/hich by no means 
 contributes to the health and well-being of the Russian Jew. 
 
 Coffee is used by the Jews in Russia only rarely. Here 
 in the United States it is more frequently consumed, but 
 not so freely as tea. Drug habits, such as the use of opium, 
 chloral, cocaine, etc., are almost unknown among the Rus- 
 sian Jews. 
 
 While speaking of the evils of the New York tenement 
 houses, the various Tenement House Commissions were al- 
 ways wont to point out that the mortality in the tenements 
 is considerably higher than that of the private dwellings. 
 They succeeded in obtaining from the vital statistics of the 
 city figures showing that the mortality in some wards was 
 between two and five times higher than that in the wards 
 without, or with few, tenement houses. But on careful 
 analysis it was discovered that the wards which enjoy the 
 lowest mortality of the other wards in New York are most 
 
292 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 densely populated spots in the city, overcrowded with tene- 
 ments, each of which affords a dwelling place for between 
 200 and 400 human beings. 
 
 The wards showing the lowest mortality in Greater New 
 York are those inhabited by the Russian Jews. The wards 
 showing the highest death rates are inhabited chiefly by 
 Italians, Irish, Bohemians, etc., and with none or only few 
 Jews. *' In certain blocks in the Italian quarter of the 
 city there is a very high death rate, ' ' says the Report of the 
 Tenement House Commission of 1900,^ '' while in certain 
 other blocks only half a mile away, in the Jewish quarter, 
 the death rate is only one-half as great as the average death 
 rate of the city ; yet in the latter district there was a greater 
 population, the tenement houses were taller, and the gen- 
 eral sanitary conditions were worse." 
 
 In fact, when we observe the comparative death rates of 
 the Seventh, Tenth, Eleventh and Thirteenth Wards, which 
 are chiefly inhabited by Jews,^ we find that during 1899 the 
 death rate per 1,000 population was : In the Seventh Ward 
 18.16 ; in the Tenth, 14.23 ; in the Eleventh, 16.78, and in 
 the Thirteenth, 14.52; for New York City the death rate 
 was, in the same year, 18.53 per 1,000. It will be observed 
 that the Seventh Ward had the highest death rate of the 
 Jewish districts, 18.16, nearly approaching that of the city. 
 But considering that in this ward the non-Jewish, particu- 
 larly the Irish population, makes up at least 35 per cent, 
 of the total, we must conclude that the mortality of the Jews 
 in this district is also lower than the average of the city. 
 
 When we recall that the death rate in New York City 
 was in 1880, 26.40 per 1,000 of population, and that ever 
 since it has been with slight fluctuations, steadily declining, 
 we may find that, possibly, there may be some correspond- 
 ence between this reduction of mortality in the city and the 
 steady influx of Jewish immigrants. While the activity of 
 the Board of Health towards the lowering of the death 
 rates of the city is evident, still the thousands of Jews with 
 their low mortality may also have contributed somewhat to 
 this effect. 
 
 The low mortality of the immigrant Jewish population in 
 New York City was noticed in the report compiled by Dr. 
 John S. Billings, for the Eleventh Census of the United 
 
 ^ De Forest & Veiller, The Tenement House Problem, Vol. 1, p. 55. 
 
 2 It is estimated that over 75 per cent, of the population in these wards are 
 Jews — the Tenth and the Thirteenth almost exclusively, the Eleventh with at 
 least 80 per cent., and the Seventh 65 per cent. 
 
NEW YORK 293 
 
 States.^ According to these statistics the Russian and 
 Polish Jews showed the lowest rates of mortality in New 
 York during the five years ending May 31st, 1890. The 
 highest mortality rate — 43.57, was found to be among the 
 Bohemians ; the Italians are next, with 35.29 ; the Irish, with 
 32.51, etc., while those whose mothers were born in Russia 
 and Poland enjoyed the lowest mortality rates — only 14.85. 
 The mortality of children was also the lowest among the 
 Russian Jews — only 28.67 per 1,000 population, as against 
 82.57 among the Bohemians, 76.41 among the Italians, and 
 so on. Y\f. Z. Ripley,- in speaking of the longevity of the 
 Jews, aptly illustrates it by the following example : * ' Sup- 
 pose two groups of one hundred infants each, one Jewish, 
 one of the average American parentage (Massachusetts), to 
 be born on the same day. In spite of all the disparity of 
 social conditions in favor of the latter, the chances, deter- 
 mined by statistical means, are that one-half of the Ameri- 
 can will die within forty-seven years; while the first half 
 of the Jews will not succumb to disease or accident before 
 the expiration of seventy-one years. The death rate is but 
 little over one-half of the average American population. 
 This holds good in infancy and in middle age.'' 
 
 The longevity of the Jews has always appeared paradoxi- 
 cal to those who have investigated the question. As we 
 have seen above, the Jew is by external appearances the 
 least physically developed of the European nations; in 
 stature he is the shortest, the girth of his chest is the nar- 
 rowest, he is paler and poorer in blood than most of the 
 non-Jewish nations among whom he lives. But his long- 
 evity and resistance to disease surpasses those of his ap- 
 parently stronger neighbor. The cause of this paradox is 
 plain when we consider the Jew's history. The Jewish race 
 has, for the last two thousand years, spread widely over the 
 face of the earth. During all his migrations from conti- 
 nent to continent and from country to country, the Jew 
 was always exposed physically and mentally to the most 
 diversified conditions. The variety of climate, the re- 
 peated changes of habits and attempts at acclimatization 
 have wrought great changes in his physical organization. 
 His struggles against adverse circumstances, endeavoring to 
 readjust his organism in adaptation to new conditions, 
 defending himself against his mediaeval x3ersecutors who 
 
 1 Vital Sfatistics of Nezv York City and Brooklyn, p. 15, 
 
 2 The Races of Europe, p. 383, 
 
294 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 mercilessly gloated over his agonies, torturing liim with a 
 fiendish glee of hate and intolerance, have left him a physi- 
 cal wreck as far as external appearance is concerned. 
 But on the other hand, these inimical conditions have 
 also had other effects on the Jew's organization. 
 Partly by weeding out, either by death or bap- 
 tism, all those of the Jews who, by reason of physical, 
 mental and intellectual inferiority, could not withstand the 
 ban of poverty, abuse, and persecution, and partly by 
 keenly sharpening the senses, and by developing the 
 functional activity of the brains of those who were suffi- 
 ciently brave, stulDborn enough to remain Jews in the face 
 of that brutal persecution, natural selection has left behind 
 a race which is at present fully equipped with means to re- 
 sist poverty, misfortune, and even death more easily than 
 other races who have had no such struggle for their exist- 
 ence. Only those most resistant to the effects of disease, the 
 healthiest who could easily adapt and acclimatize them- 
 selves to new external conditions on short notice, — in brief, 
 only the fittest have survived. At one period of their his- 
 tory they had to withstand the effects of contagious 
 diseases, all those predisposed, the weak, sickly and infirm, 
 succumbed, and those left behind were more or less immune. 
 This inununity was transmitted to future generations. At 
 another period of their history, intelligence and intellect 
 were the best weapons for the preservation of the race in 
 the struggle against persecution, and only those who 
 possessed the most intelligence and knowledge and the 
 toughest, the shrewdest, who were best fitted to cope 
 with the adverse circumstances, survived; the weak- i 
 est, the most stupid and the most ignorant, went / 
 to the wall. These qualities were inherited by the sue-^' 
 ceeding generations. The final result is that the Jews 
 at present are a picked race which can resist pain, 
 misfortune, grief, worry, starvation, disease, and even death 
 better than other civilized races. Those who were shiftless, 
 immoral, lazy, incorrigible, drunkards, could not remain 
 Jews under the medieval persecutions. Only those who 
 were strong, healthy, and energetic could venture to remain 
 Jews — hence their longevity. 
 
 Of the diseases to which Jews are most liable those of the 
 nervous system stand out most prominently. Neurasthenia 
 and hysteria are more frequent among them than among 
 any other race. Some physicians have even gone so far as 
 
NEW YORK 295 
 
 to state that the vast majority of the Jews are neurasthen- 
 ics, and that nearly all the women are hysterical. The ob- 
 servations of the physicians who practice among the Rus- 
 sian Jews in New York sustain these contentions. Hysteria 
 is very frequent among women, and among men is far more 
 often met with in Jews than among any other people. 
 
 Insanity is very frequent among the Jews. It appears 
 that it was very frequent among the ancient Hebrews. At 
 present we find, wherever statistics on the subject are avail- 
 able, that the Jews suffer proportionately from two to five 
 times more frequently from mental alienation than non- 
 Jews. Here in New York City we meet with similar condi- 
 tions. Recent statistics show that the Jev/s in this city sup- 
 ply a greater number of insane to the asylums than any 
 other race living here.^ The same can be observed in the 
 asylums for idiotic and feeble-minded children of our city. 
 It is stated on good authority that more than fifty per cent, 
 of the inmates are of Jewish origin. Remembering that the 
 Jews constitute less than twenty per cent, of the total popu- 
 lation of Greater New York, we can appreciate the fearful 
 proportion of insanity and idiocy among the Jews. 
 
 A disease of which the Jews suffer more than any other 
 nationality is diabetes. Dr. Heinrich Stern^ examined care- 
 fully the mortality from diabetes in New York City during 
 1899, and found that out of a total of 202 deaths due to this 
 cause, fifty- four, i. e., twenty-five per cent., occurred among 
 the Jews. And as the Jewish population of New York City 
 is scarcely tv/enty per cent, of the total population, it fol- 
 lows that the Jews suffer about three times more often than 
 others from diabetes.^ Varicose veins, hemorrhoids, rup- 
 tures and some form of diseases of the nervous system are 
 also more frequent among Jews than non-Jews. 
 
 The greater liability of the Jews to nervous diseases, par- 
 ticularly neurasthenia, hysteria, and diabetes is to be con- 
 sidered as the outcome of a long series of events in the Jews ' 
 history for the last two thousand years. It is a result of 
 the anxiety, prolonged worry, grief, and cerebral overwork 
 of the Jews under the ban of medieval persecution. These 
 diseases, as we all know, are diseases of great urban centres, 
 and they signify that the organism of their possessor has 
 
 ^ See articles " Idiocy " and " Insanity," by the author, Jewish Encyclopedia, 
 Vol. VI. 
 
 - Medical Record, November 17, 1900. 
 
 ^ For a more thorough discussion of the subject, see article " Diabetes," by 
 the author, Jezvish Encyclopedia, \''oI. V. 
 
296 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 entered on a race of competition for which it is not ade- 
 quately equipped. The Jew has been for centuries an urban 
 resident. According to Jacobs, four-fifths of the Jewish 
 population live in large towns.^ The diseases of the city 
 population are therefore accentuated in the body and mind 
 of the Jew. Of non-Jews onlj^ one-third of the population 
 are town-dwellers; and the case is consequently different 
 with them. It has been shown by Mr. Cantlie, in his book, 
 *' Degeneration Amongst Londoners," that the London 
 poor do not survive beyond three, or at most, four genera- 
 tions; the same has been proved to be the fate of the poor 
 inhabitants of Paris. It is, indeed, rare to find among the 
 poor in modern large cities families which could trace their 
 ancestors back for five or six generations as city dwellers. 
 The population of the cities is kept up by the constant 
 influx of good, pure, fresh blood from the country, which 
 counteracts the deteriorating influences of the busy, ener- 
 vating city life. Dr. Otto Ammon has conclusively shown 
 that the large majority of the town-dwellers in Baden, Ger- 
 many, are either themselves immigrants from the country 
 or else the children of immigrants. The same has been 
 shown to be true of nearly all the other cities in Germany — 
 nearly one-half their population is of direct country 
 descent. One-third of the population in London is of coun- 
 try birth; the same is true of Paris. For thirty of the 
 principal cities of Europe, according to Eipley, it has been 
 calculated that only about one-half of their increase is from 
 the loins of their own people, the overwhelming majority 
 being of country birth. The Jews have not had this ad- 
 vantage of draining the pure, fresh, healthy country blood 
 for the rejuvenation of their own, which is deteriorated by 
 town-dwelling, and as a result we find that the evil effects 
 of the strained, nerve-shattering city life have been deeply 
 rooted in their bodies and minds, and this in turn has been 
 transmitted to their offspring. With each new generation 
 the nervous vitality of the Jewish race lessened, and as a 
 final result, we find that most of the diseases that increase 
 with the advance of civilization, particularly the neuroses 
 and psychoses and also diabetes, are relatively more fre- 
 quent among the Jews than among the non-Jews. '' The 
 Jew, ' ' says Leroy Beaulieu,^ ' ' is the most nervous and in so 
 far the most modern of men. He is, by the very nature of 
 
 * " Anthropology," Jexvish Encyclopedia, Vol. I. 
 ^Israel Among the Nations, p. 109, 
 
NEW YOBK 297 
 
 his diseases, the forerunner of his contemporaries, preceding 
 them on that perilous path upon which society is urged by 
 the excesses of its intellectual and emotional life, and by the 
 increasing spur of competition. The noisy army of psycho- 
 pathies and neuropathies is gaining so many recruits among 
 us that it will not take the Christians long to catch up with 
 the Jews in this respect. ' ' 
 
 Consanguineous marriages, which are very frequent 
 among the Jews, have been assigned as a most potent cause 
 of their nervousness and also of the frequency of diabetes 
 among them. I do not believe that this is a satisfactory ex- 
 planation. Modern medical science teaches that consan- 
 guineous marriages between healthy people, per se, do not 
 cause any disease or infirmity in the offspring — except- 
 ing those, of course, which are contracted between diseased 
 people. 
 
 A very important factor in the production of the nerv- 
 ousness of the Jews is that they are essentially a commer- 
 cial people — many prefer speculation in business pursuits 
 to manual labor. This can be observed in New York City, 
 where a number of Jewish laborers, after having succeeded 
 in saving a few dollars, begin business on a small scale ; they 
 peddle or sell from push-carts, stands and small stores. 
 
 Business, particularly that done with lack of funds, in- 
 volves prolonged morbid emotional excitement, such as 
 worry, vexation, grief, and anxiety ; and the importance of 
 these as factors in brain exhaustion cannot be over- 
 estimated. The Russian Jew, again, as we have seen, is 
 under-fed, emaciated and anemic. The disproportion be- 
 tween his mental activity on the one hand, and his lack of 
 physical development on the other, are added to the fact 
 that he comes into this world already handicapped; the 
 nervous vitality of his parents has also been more or less 
 affected by the same causes and an additional very potent 
 cause of nervous exhaustion, persecution, which has strained 
 and shattered them physically and emotionally. All these 
 factors taken together give us more than suf^cient reason 
 to expect nervousness among the Russian Jews. 
 
 The education of the Russian Jews in their old homes is 
 acquired in the so-called cheder, at an early age. At four 
 or five years a Jewish child attends school, and studies ar- 
 dently the Hebrew language. Between seven and ten years 
 he studies the Bible, and in instances the Talmud. The 
 Jp.wish schools in Russia, the chedarim, are anything but 
 
298 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 conducive to the healthy functional development of the 
 young children's nervous s^^stem and bodily activity. 
 
 If we bear in mind further that systematic exercises, such 
 as billiards, golf, tennis, hunting, gymnastics are not in 
 vogue at all among immigrant Jews, we have the picture 
 complete — the restless, overworked and exhausted nervous 
 system gets no recreation, and breaks down under the 
 slightest provocation. 
 
 Suicide has been observed to be infrequent among the 
 Jews in Eastern Europe, but in New York City it appears 
 to be growing among them. We have no exact statistics as 
 to its proportion, but the fact is, we hear of Jewish suicides 
 quite often. Here again we see the effects of modern 
 civilization on the Jew.^ 
 
 By immunity is understood the resistance of the tissues 
 of the system to the development of infectious diseases. It 
 has only a relative meaning, because there is no absolute 
 immunity. A¥hen we say that a race is immune to a cer- 
 tain disease, as the negro is, for instance, to yellow fever, we 
 do not mean to convey the idea that the negro never suffers 
 from that disease, but that he is affected less frequently 
 than the white races are, or only rarely. Using the term 
 immunity in this sense, I can positively state that the Jews 
 in New York are relatively immune to most of the infectious 
 diseases. I make this statement with the full loiowledge 
 that most of those who have not made a special study of 
 the mortality from contagious diseases in New York have 
 always entertained a decidedly contrary opinion. But I 
 think that a careful analysis of the statistics given below, 
 will convince all skeptics as to the truth of the assertion. 
 
 As we have seen above, there are four wards in New 
 York City which are chiefly inhabited by Jev/s — namely 
 the Seventh, Tenth, Eleventh and Thirteenth. At least 75 
 per cent, of the people living in these wards are Jews. By 
 computing the mortality from infectious diseases in these 
 wards as they are recorded in the annual reports of the 
 Board of Health, we can easily see if the Jews have a lower 
 
 ^ It is worthy of notice that the same phenomenon has been observed among 
 the Jev/s in Western Europe: About fifty years ago it was very rare to meet 
 a Jewish suicide. At present the number of Jews who commit suicide has 
 increased to an alarming extent. Thus the latest statistics for Prussia show 
 that self destruction is more frequent among the Jews than among the Chris- 
 tians; from 1893 to 1897 there occurred among the Christians 31.17 male and 
 8.02 female suicides per 100,000 population. Among the Jews the proportion 
 was 36.50 male and 11.89 females per 100,000. (Arthur Rupin, Die Socialen 
 Verhaeltnisse der Juden in Pretissen xind Deutschland. Berlin, 1902). 
 
NEW YORK 299 
 
 mortality from these diseases. An analysis of these figures 
 shows that diphtheria and cronp killed in New York during 
 1897, 1898 and 1899, 64.20 per 100,000 population, and of 
 Jews in the four wards referred to only 59.55. Scarlet 
 fever and measles appear to have been the exceptions, the 
 former being for the city only 24.17 and for the Jews 34.14 
 per 100,000, the latter showing 21.69 and 21.15 respectively. 
 In Dr. Billings' report on Vital Statistics of New York City 
 and Brooklyn, published by the Eleventh Census of the 
 United States, there is given the mortality from certain 
 diseases of the various races and nationalities confirming 
 these figures. I have assumed the figures in this report 
 which refer to Russians as applying to Russian Jews, as 
 these are the greater part classified under the nationality 
 in these cities. 
 
 Diarrhoeal diseases are also less fatal among the 'Jews. 
 Every year we hear that when philanthropists are clamor- 
 ing about the great mortality of children from diarrhoeal 
 diseases during the summer months, they point to the con- 
 gested tenement districts inhabited by the Jews as being 
 the stronghold of the scourge. If they had studied the ques- 
 tion more closely, they would have ascertained that the Jews 
 in the Seventh, Tenth, Eleventh and Thirteenth Wards have 
 a lower mortality from this disease than any other national- 
 ity — the average annual mortality in New York City dur- 
 ing 1897, 1898 and 1899 was 125.54 per 100,000 population. 
 Among the Jews in the four wards mentioned only 106.79. 
 For the six years ending May 31st, 1890, the mortality fori 
 New York from diarrhoeal diseases was 316.85 ; among the 
 Bohemians, 766.73 ; Italians, 425.58 ; United States, white, 
 398.34, and among the Russian and Polish Jews only 195.55. 
 The same is true of typhoid fever. It is proportionately 
 less frequent in the East than in the West Side of the city. 
 
 The mortality from diseases of the nervous system among 
 the Russian Jews of New York during six years ending May 
 31st, 1890, as given in the Eleventh Census was 117.68, as 
 against 336.76 among the Bohemians, 293.48 white Ameri- 
 cans, 242.44 Irish, and so on.^ This is contrary to the opin- 
 ion of many demographers v/ho consider the Jews the 
 greatest sufferers from nervous diseases. But if we bear in 
 mind the fact brought out by the author while speaking of 
 the nervousness of the Jews that * * only the functional nerv- 
 
 ^ Billings, Vital Statistics of New York City and Brooklyn, p. 41. 
 
300 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 oils diseases, as hysteria and neurasthenia, are more preva- 
 lent among the Jews, while the organic degenerative nervous 
 diseases are even less frequently met with among them,'* 
 we are not surprised at the low mortality from this cause 
 among the Jews of Russia and Poland in New York. 
 
 Of the venereal diseases, such as syphilis, the Jews ap- 
 pear to suffer less frequently than other races. Many 
 writers in Russia have recorded statistics to that effect. 
 We have no exact statistics about the prevalence of syphilis 
 and gonorrhea among the Jews in New York, but the tes- 
 timony of physicians practicing among them shows that 
 while among the Jews syphilis is often met with, it is not 
 so frequently encountered as among non-Jews. Gonorrhea 
 seems at present to be very much on the increase among 
 the Jews in the East Side of New York, which again shows 
 the effects of their sojourn in our metropolis. 
 
 The most important disease to which the Jews show a 
 relative immunity is tuberculosis, or, as it is commonly 
 known, consumption. The author of this article has shown 
 this to be a fact among the immigrant Jewish population 
 in New York City in his paper on the '* Relative Infre- 
 quency of Tuberculosis Among Jews," to which the reader 
 is referred for details.^ One fact we desire to emphasize 
 here, namely that consumption is very much on the in- 
 crease among our population on the East Side, particular- 
 ly among the poorer classes of the Jews living in New 
 York City. Dr. Lee K. Frankel, manager of the United 
 Hebrew Charities, has shown that, while in 1895 the ratio 
 of consumptive applicants for relief was 2 per cent., in 
 1899 it reached 3 per cent. ; i. e., that is, an increase of 50 
 per cent, in four years, which is appalling. Dr. Frankel 
 also shows that consumption as it exists among the Jews 
 in New York is almost wholly confined to the lower classes, 
 the poorer element of the Jewish population, and that the 
 foreigners who suffer from this disease have contracted it 
 after their arrival in the United States. He bases his de- 
 duction on an examination of 10,000 death certificates in 
 the New York City Board of Health, beginning with Jan- 
 uary 1st, 1900. In 888 of these the cause of death was 
 stated to be tuberculosis; 72 of these were Jews. If we 
 recall the fact that the Jewish population of New York 
 City is estimated to be at least 15 per cent, of the total 
 
 ^ American Medicine, November 2, 1901. See, also, article " Consumption^" 
 Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. IV. 
 
NEW YORK 301 
 
 population, we may from Dr. Frankel's figures, also find 
 that if consumption was as prevalent among the Jews as 
 among the general population, the number of deaths due 
 to this cause should have been 133. As it is, only 72 were 
 recorded, a little over one-half that of the population of 
 the city. We also find from Dr. Frankel's figures that of 
 the 72 Jews who died of consumption, 39 died in tenement 
 houses, 23 in institutions and only 1 in a private house. 
 This tends to shov/ that those Jews who are socially and 
 economically on a higher plane, are even less liable to con- 
 sumption than the unfortunate poor who are huddled to- 
 gether in congested tenements, in poverty and in want, 
 exposed to infection to the highest degree. It can be posi- 
 tively stated that in case the conditions of over-crowding 
 and misery among the immigrant Jewish population on the 
 East Side shall keep on as they are at present, the Jews 
 living here will in the near future show a yet greater 
 mortality from the *' white plague " than the Irish and 
 Italians do at present. 
 
 The low mortality of the New York Jews from the con- 
 tagious diseases is the more remarkable when we bear in 
 mind that everything that is conducive to the spread of 
 infection is at hand in the East Side — poverty, overwork, 
 ill-ventilated sweat-shops, overcrowding in the tenements, 
 lack of fresh air and sunshine — in fact, the New York 
 Ghetto is considered the most densely populated spot on 
 earth. When we remember that, in spite of all these ad- 
 verse conditions, the Jews show a lower mortality from 
 contagious diseases, we are forced to conclude that they 
 do possess some relative immunity or a greater power of 
 resistance to the noxious effects of contagious diseases. 
 
 The causes of this relative immunity of the Jews are to 
 be sought in their past history, their religious customs and 
 habits of life; to their devotion as husbands, as wives, as 
 parents and as children. Although the nervous system 
 of the Jews is more or less shattered as a result of the 
 ceaseless persecution, abuse and oppression they have un- 
 dergone for centuries, still the organic nervous diseases are 
 infrequent among them — the reason for this is plainly 
 evident — and alcohol and syphilis are also infrequent. 
 We know that any poison that depresses the vitality of the 
 system, as alcoholism and syphilis, predisposes infection 
 by pathogenic micro-organisms. Pneumonia, consiunption 
 and many other fatal diseases have alcoholism as a remote 
 
302 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 cause of their origin. The Jev/s, not being addicted to alco- 
 holism, ate consequently less freqnentl}^ affected by these 
 diseases. Another important point is the fact that the 
 prognosis of most of the infectious diseases depends on 
 the patients' antecedents. A mild attack of disease in an 
 alcoholic is more liable to kill than a severe case in a tem- 
 perate man. The vitality of the offspring also depends 
 very much on the presence or absence of alcoholism and 
 syphilis in the parents. Children begotten of parents suf- 
 fering from these virulent poisons are easy prey to the 
 infectious diseases. The Jewish children show a lower 
 mortality, because their parents bestow on them a vitality 
 untainted by alcoholism and syphilis, and they can there- 
 fore more easily resist the effects of contagious diseases. 
 Jewish parents are also more devoted to their children than 
 others, their anxiety in case of slight illness is greater than 
 that of poor people of other races, and they seek medical 
 assistance far more frequently. Added to this fact, that' 
 Jewish women do not after marriage work in factories as 
 frequently as poor women of other nationalities and have 
 more time to attend to their children, and we have all the 
 factors that reduce the mortality, particularly of infants. 
 
 The lesser mortality of the Jews from consumption is ex- 
 plained by the above factors, and an additional very im- 
 portant religious rite — the inspection of carcasses in the 
 slaughter-house as to the health of the cattle. The Jew is 
 prohibited from consuming meat coming from diseased cat- 
 tle, particularly such which have suffered from diseases 
 of the lungs and pleura. We know that a great proportion 
 of the tuberculosis has its origin in the consumption of 
 meat coming from tubercular cattle. In the ease of the 
 Jews the chances of infection from this source are reduced 
 to a minimum. 
 
 To the cleanliness of the Jewish home from the moral 
 and sanitary point of view we must ascribe most of the 
 health, longevity, and immunities of the Jews. "When the 
 Jew assimilates with his non- Jewish neighbors, adopting 
 their modes of life and habits, he gradually loses his im- 
 munity and his longevity, and in time does not differ as to 
 health and sanitation from the people among whom he 
 happens to live. 
 
 It is agreed that the immigration of sober, healthy, and 
 industrious people to the United States is desirable, and in 
 view of all the facts we have collected, the Russian Jew is 
 
NEW YORK 303 
 
 as desirable as any other class of foreigners and better 
 than many. We all know that notwithstanding the fact 
 that the Russian Jew comes from a country where typhus 
 and smallpox are endemic and cholera quite often rages 
 epidemically, he has never brought these diseases with 
 him; even during 1891-1894, when cholera was raging in 
 Russia, the numerous Jewish immigrants did not import 
 the disease to the United States. 
 
 The fact that they are not addicted to alcoholism is also 
 one of the most important qualities that make the Russian 
 Jew a desirable immigrant. Those few insanitary habits 
 which he acquired in Russia the Jew does his best to for- 
 get after living a longer time in the United States. And 
 as his children attend public school almost invariably, we 
 are convinced that the generation which will succeed the 
 Russian Jews of to-day will prove to be good Americans 
 morally, physically, and intellectually. 
 
(B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 It is well recognized that housing conditions in Phila- 
 delphia are different from those in other large cities, and 
 that whatever the evils, we do not have to contend with 
 the evils of the tenement. However, it will not do for 
 Philadelphians to gloat over the fortunate situation which 
 has enabled so many working-men of the city to live in 
 their own little homes, sometimes under their own " vine 
 and fig-tree," for we, too, have evils which call for rem- 
 edy; we have allowed congestion among our foreign popu- 
 lations ; we have permitted bad housing to grow up ; we 
 have failed to make and to enforce regulations which pre- 
 vent sickness and disease and contagion; and, through 
 negligence, the City of Philadelphia has problems which 
 it should have coped with ere they rose to large dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 A little study of housing conditions in the southeastern 
 section of the city was made in the spring of 1902 under 
 the auspices of the Octavia Hill Association. The writer 
 had the pleasure of taking part in the investigation, the 
 entire results of Vv'-hich were placed at his disposal. 
 
 The five wards of the district to which attention was 
 given, the Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth and Seventh, con- 
 tain about one-eighth of the population of the city and 
 cover about one-fiftieth of the area. The average density 
 of the most thickly populated ward, the Third, is 209 per- 
 sons per acre.^ The average density for the entire city 
 is 14 persons to the acre. It is therefore evident that we 
 are dealing with a congested portion of the city. 
 
 I shall take up the figures of the Jewish block, among the 
 three examined in the investigation referred to, the other 
 two being Italian and negro blocks respectively, — so de- 
 nominated because the greater part of the inhabitants are 
 of the particular class. In the Jewish block. Third to 
 Fourth Street, South to Bainbridge Street, I have noted 
 75 houses occupied by Jews; 9 on Third Street, 13 on 
 
 » Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science, July, 1902, p. 111. 
 
 304 
 
PHILADELPHIA 305 
 
 Fourth Street, 13 on South Street, 23 on Kater Street, 3 
 on Orianna Street, and 14 on Bainbridge Street. This is, 
 in many respects, a good illustrative block for our purpose, 
 representing as it does several elements, from the economic 
 standpoint. On South Street, there are stores where all 
 sorts of goods may be purchased; it is a regular retail 
 street. Third and Fourth Streets are likewise occupied 
 by shop-keepers. Bainbridge Street contains old clothes 
 and second-hand shops. In the upper stories of these 
 buildings, those portions not occupied by the store-keeper 
 are rented to tenants, whose occupations are tailoring, 
 peddling and the like. The residents of the smaller streets, 
 Orianna and Kater, and the upper floors of the buildings 
 of the main streets are a poorer class than the merchants 
 of South Street and the shop-keepers of Third and Fourth 
 Streets. 
 
 Let us take up for examination one of the small streets 
 of the block and ascertain the condition with reference to 
 housing. On Kater Street we have a record of 23 houses 
 with Jewish families. There were among them 9 tailors, 
 3 peddlers, 1 huckster, 1 shirtmaker, 1 paper-hanger. This 
 is sufficient to give some idea of the economic position of 
 the inhabitants. The average rental per house was $15.04 
 per month. This is equal to $8.06 for each family, as there 
 were 40 families in the 23 houses. There are thus an aver- 
 age of 1% families to the house. The total number of per- 
 sons in these houses was 299 — 197 adults and 102 children 
 (under 14 years of age). This is an average of about 5 
 to a family, and 8.65 persons to a house. The houses aver- 
 age three stories each, or 5.83 rooms each, there being alto- 
 gether 134 rooms. The result is that there were 1.48 per- 
 sons to each room, a condition of crowding not only from a 
 Philadelphia point of view, but from that of congestion 
 generally. It is a larger number than was found in an in- 
 vestigation in three similar districts in Chicago, where the 
 average was 1.28. It must be admitted, however, that a 
 comparison based on the number of persons to a dwelling 
 does not show a bad state of affairs for this population 
 contrasted with the average of the population in some of 
 the large cities. In Philadelphia the number of persons 
 in 1900, according to the Twelfth United States Census, 
 was 5.4. In Baltimore the average number was 5.7, in St. 
 Louis 7, in Boston 8.4, in Chicago 8.8, in Brooklyn 10.2, in 
 the boroughs of Manhattan and Bronx (of. Greater New 
 
306 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 York) 20.4. But we are justified in making compari- 
 son with congested sections, for our purpose.^ 
 
 Of course, to make the comparison absolutely accurate 
 as a basis for sanitary and health conditions we should 
 have to take into consideration the number of cubic feet 
 in the rooms, the surroundings of each, and the like, but it 
 is sufficient here to bring out the fact that a state of crowd- 
 ing exists. 
 
 Belonging to the 23 houses on Kater Street there were 
 22 water closets and 5 privies. This is an average of 1.17 
 to a house, or .67 to a family, or, to put the fact in another 
 Avay, 7 adults and children had the use of one water-closet 
 or privy. 
 
 The total number of bath-tubs in these 23 houses was 2, 
 of which one is used only in the summer time. 
 
 Twelve of the 23 houses had as their sole water accom- 
 modation one hydrant each, in the yard. Three additional 
 houses had a total of one hydrant for common use. Two 
 others had one hydrant in common. Thus there is a to- 
 tal of 14 hydrants for 17 houses occupied by 20 families 
 composed of 102 persons, an average of more than 7 per- 
 sons (adults and children) to one hydrant for washing 
 clothes and persons. The other 20 families had altogether 
 20 faucets. 
 
 These statements show housing conditions in a poor 
 street, merely from the standpoint of the barest and most 
 ordinary health and sanitary accommodation. 
 
 "When one considers that comfortable houses with good 
 accommodations can be found in other sections of the city 
 at $15 per month, it is a fair inference that the landlord 
 profits by a condition of affairs which permits bad hous- 
 ing; that, in any event, the tenant does not obtain a good 
 return for his rental as compared with other sections. 
 
 Now, taking in the entire block, as regards the 75 houses 
 containing Jewish residents, we find that the total number 
 of persons was 688 — 372 adults and 316 children. These 
 represent 142 families. As there were 496 rooms in these 
 houses, the average number of rooms per house was 6.6. 
 The average number of persons to the room was 1.39, a 
 condition of crov/ding above that quoted for Chicago.^ 
 As the total number of families in these 75 houses was 142, 
 
 1 Tenement Conditions in Chicago, p. 64. Of the three Chicago districts one 
 is composed of Italian and Jewish residents and the average in this was 1.26 
 persons per room. 
 
 2 Tenement Conditions in Chicago, p. 64. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 307 
 
 the average of families to the house was 1.9, and as the 
 total number of persons was 688, the average was 9.17 per- 
 sons to the house. This is considerably more than the aver- 
 age for the city at large (which is but 5.4 persons to the 
 house). It is also more than the average in the three dis- 
 tricts in Philadelphia which were studied. Their average 
 was 7.55. The average for the Italian block was 9.88 and 
 for the negro 5.73. It will be seen that the crowding in 
 the Italian block is the greatest. 
 
 In this block in the 75 houses there were 86 water closets 
 and 22 privies, making a total of 108, an average of 1.46 to 
 a house, or 1.31 to a family, that is, 6.4 had the use of one 
 water closet or privy. As to quality, some of these closets 
 and privies are reported as being in bad condition, which 
 may mean not kept cleanly, insufficient flush of water, so 
 arranged as not to allow of the exhalation of gaseous 
 odors, and the like. Though something may in instances 
 be due to the carelessness of tenants, many faults which 
 affect the permanent health of the community are due to 
 the landlords in not providing adequate and approved 
 appliances. 
 
 There were in the 75 houses altogether 8 bath tubs, of 
 which 3 were used only in the summer. This is an average 
 of about 86 persons to a tub. 
 
 Such a condition, on its face, bespeaks a failure to ap- 
 preciate the value of the bath. It should be understood, 
 however, that the public bath is often patronized in the ab- 
 sence of a home bath. There are five private bathing es- 
 tablishments down-town conducted by Jews and patronized 
 almost entirely by the Jewish population of this section. 
 They have the ordinary bath and the Russian or sweat-bath 
 — somewhat similar in principle to the Turkish bath. The 
 superintendent of the Public Baths Association at Gaskill 
 Street above Fourth, informs me that about 40 per cent. 
 of the establishment there are Jews. Then, too, the public 
 baths of the city are patronized to a considerable extent. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that there is more use of bathing 
 facilities than the absence of bath tubs in the houses indi- 
 cates. At the same time, it seems that the population needs 
 considerable education in the use of water for the body. 
 The habits of Russia and cold climates, where there was 
 less need for the bath, must be adapted to the at times 
 heated atmosphere of America and to the modern notions 
 of frequent bathing of the body as a measure of health. A 
 
308 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 similar absence of baths is found in the houses of other 
 foreign born and of the negroes in this section of the city, 
 but it is regretable to have to institute the comparison be- 
 cause along other lines the Jew's education and point of 
 view are so far advanced over those of other nationalities/ 
 Somewhat similar results to those above narrated were 
 obtained with reference to a block further south. The 
 study referred to was made by a resident of the College 
 Settlement, Miss Edith Jones. The study embraced Car- 
 penter, Christian, Fourth and Fifth Streets, and the north 
 side of Christian Street between Fourth and Fifth. The 
 investigator noted the following: " One observation as 
 regards nationality needs to be recorded. An Irish fam- 
 ily, unless hopelessly untidy, is thoroughly clean, not only 
 inside but outside the house and all its surroundings. . . 
 On the other hand, the majority of the Jewish homes are 
 clean inside, but stairways, closets, yards, etc., which must 
 be used in common by several families, are scarcely cared 
 for at all. . . . They seem unable to act together or 
 to form any agreement for division of common duties. 
 
 In an uptown district an investigation into housing con- 
 ditions was made in 1904 by Miss Emily W. Dinwiddle for 
 the Octavia Hill Association.^ I visited a number of the 
 houses with her. The district contained 35 houses on North 
 American Street, 30 on New Market Street, and 8 on 
 Wood Street, making 73 in which the inhabitants were 
 predominantly Jews out of a total of 179 houses investi- 
 gated. The number of Jewish families in these 73 houses 
 was 100, an average of 1.45 families to a house. The total 
 number of Jewish persons was found to be 606, of which 
 341 were over fourteen years of age and 265 under that 
 age. The number of rooms occupied by the Jev/ish families 
 was 3.72, making an average of 1.66 persons to a room. 
 The number per house was 8.36. 
 
 The number of water-closets was 32 and of privies 42, 
 making a total of 74 toilets, an average of one to a house, 
 or of one to 8.19 persons each. There were 122 faucets 
 (usually the only one for a house being connected with a 
 hydrant in the yard) an average of 1.67 per house, or 1.22 
 per family. The number of baths (whose faucets were 
 included in the total) was 5. That is, there was an average 
 of 121 persons to a tub. 
 
 1 See Tenement Conditions in Chicago, p. 108. 
 
 2 Housing Conditions in Philadelphia. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 309 
 
 The rentals of the Jcv/ish families may be judged by 
 those for the district generally. Families occupying one 
 house paid $8.78 monthly, or $2.32 per room. In houses 
 for more than one family the average was $5.18 per apart- 
 ment and $2.40 per room. 
 
 The occupations of the heads of the 100 Jewish families 
 were as follows: Baker 4, blacksmith and iron worker 3, 
 button-maker 1, buttonhole-maker 1, carpenter and cabinet- 
 maker 4, cigar-maker 4, cobbler and shoemaker 4, cooper 1, 
 driver and expressman 4, fruit huckster and fruit-stand 
 dealer 9, glazier 1, hatmaker 3, horse dealer 1, Jewish teach- 
 er 2, junk dealer 1, laborer 1, laundryman 2, leather worker 
 3, masseur 1, nurse 1, operator on clothing 5, optician 1, pic- 
 ture framer 1, polisher 1, presser 3, safemaker 1, salesman 1, 
 shirtmaker 4, shopkeeper 10, tailor 10, ticket collector 1, tin- 
 smith 3, trunlonaker 1, unskilled employee in factory 7. 
 
 In the houses referred to v/e have illustrations largely of 
 poor conditions and ill-kept surroundings. It is doubtless 
 true that in the matter of housing, so far as 'can be present- 
 ed by average statistics, no highly flattering results are to 
 be adduced with reference to a number of sections in the 
 down-town portion of the city. The results, to be sure, 
 show standards on the whole not deficient as compared 
 with surrounding populations of foreign immigrants and 
 would in many respects be on a par with American fam- 
 ilies of the same economic status. 
 
 If we now proceed more generally we shall find that 
 among the immigrant Jewish population, with economic 
 strides there have been made vast social strides. A num- 
 ber have moved into what are regarded as more respectable 
 streets, where the surrounding conditions are more attrac- 
 tive, the houses better built and modernized, with advan- 
 tages of good plumbing, ample water accommodation, well 
 ventilated rooms and the like; and they have been fur- 
 nished in a becoming manner. So that when one steps into 
 one of these homes of the Russian, Eoumanian or Hun- 
 garian Jew of better grade and should have any precon- 
 ceived notions as to dirty, ill-smelling apartments in the 
 *' slums," he will be quickly disillusioned, and will find a 
 superior state of affairs. He will see in the family a social 
 attractiveness, an intellectual interest, and an enthusiastic 
 whole-souledness that may at times take him aback, and he 
 may be compelled to admit that the family has even some 
 points of superiority over many of his acquaintances who 
 
310 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 do not live in the '' slums " and who pretend to be in an 
 ^ ' advanced ' ' state of mind. And the description does not 
 necessarily apply to families which have progressed to a fair 
 state of comfort. It has equal application to large num- 
 bers of persons of modest income who keep their homes 
 tidily, who live in small streets in small houses, but who 
 nevertheless maintain an appearance superior to that of 
 their neighbors. I know a number of such, but cannot 
 bring out their existence in a statistical statement covering 
 any particular block, for they are in scattered groups. 
 
 When, therefore, we cast up the account of the im- 
 migrant Jew on the score of cleanliness we must take into 
 consideration these families, for they give tone, dignity 
 and worth to the population, and nowhere can be found 
 an immigrant class which shows the advanced state which 
 these show. 
 
 In all my wanderings in the southern section of the city 
 I have rarely seen a drunken Jewish man. My experiences 
 with reference to other nationalities of all sorts, including 
 native Americans, would place the immigrant Jewish pop- 
 ulation at the head of the list of the non-drunken portion 
 of the community. The temperateness of the Jewish pop- 
 ulation and of the Russian Jewish population in particular 
 is so patent a fact, even to the ordinary observer, that there 
 is hardly any necessity for dwelling on the subject. But 
 it must be taken into consideration to the credit of this 
 element whenever detractors may bring charges against it, 
 for a people that will preserve itself against the evils of 
 drink is entitled to be regarded as in a most progressive 
 state of civilization and to be counted as in so far a de- 
 sirable factor in the community. Those who see the evil 
 moral and economic consequences of drunkenness among 
 other portions of the community cannot gainsay this. 
 
 Russian tea may be said to be a national beverage. It is 
 quite common to observe this drunk in the homes, the 
 societies, and the cafes of the Russian Jewish popula- 
 tion. 
 
 There is a very prevalent habit of cigarette smoking. 
 With the college young man the cigarette habit sometimes 
 gives way to that of the pipe. With the prosperous busi- 
 ness man the cigarette is likewise replaced by the cigar. 
 But, as a rule, the cigarette may be said to be the prevail- 
 ing means of inhaling tobacco among the Russian Jewish 
 population. In his hours of relaxation, therefore, we may 
 
PHILADELPHIA 311 
 
 think of the Russian Jew with his Russian tea and his 
 cigarette. 
 
 Let us now take up the subject of health and disease 
 among this population. 
 
 *' Slums Free of Disease " was the heading of an ac- 
 count in one of the Philadelphia newspapers in the sum- 
 mer of 1903. The article stated: '' The fact that not a 
 single case of smallpox has existed in that section of the 
 city known as the ' slums ' during the present spread of 
 the disease and the consequent absence of the vaccinating 
 corps in that locality was thus explained by an official of 
 the Bureau of Plealth to-day: ' In every foreign country, 
 with the exception of England, compulsory vaccination is 
 in force,' he said. ' Those who might have escaped the 
 vigilance of the physicians or who hail from England are 
 inspected before they are permitted to land in this country, 
 and if they have not been successfully vaccinated they 
 must submit to the operation, or go back. 
 
 ** * Then, again, their children are not allowed to enter 
 the public schools until they have been vaccinated, so you 
 can readily see that the people in the slum district are the 
 best vaccinated in this city. ' ' ' 
 
 Whether this is the whole explanation or not, I do not 
 know, so far as concerns the various elements of the popu- 
 lation, but it will be noted further on that in regard to the 
 Jewish element, there is a special reason in the wide-spread 
 belief in, and practice of, vaccination. 
 
 Not only was there comparatively less spread of small- 
 pox in the lower wards of the city, but also diphtheria, 
 scarlet fever and typhoid, of which diseases epidemics 
 raged in portions of the other parts of the city. No deduc- 
 tion can be made in regard to this in behalf of the Jews in 
 the down-town wards of the city, except that they shared 
 with their neighbors the absence of epidemic in these 
 diseases. 
 
 I have availed myself of some observations in regard to 
 phases of the subject under discussion, which have been 
 made by two Philadelphia physicians. 
 
 The following in regard to diseases among the im- 
 migrant Jewish population, with special reference to con- 
 ditions in Philadelphia, is by Dr. David Riesman, and was 
 presented as a discussion on a paper on " Health Prob- 
 lems of the Jewish Poor," read by Dr. Maurice Fishberg, 
 
312 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 of New* York, at tlie Jewish Chautauqua Summer As- 
 sembly in Atlantic City, N. J., July, 1903 : 
 
 The problems that present themselves to those engaged 
 in an effort to ameliorate the condition of the Jewish poor 
 may, from the medical standpoint, be stated as follows: 
 (1) What diseases afflict the Jewish poor? (2) Why do 
 those diseases afflict them? (3) How can these diseases be 
 prevented ? 
 
 The Jewish poor are, of course, subject to the same 
 maladies as is the general community in which they live. 
 Scarlet fever, diphtheria, measles, influenza, whooping 
 cough, pneumonia and typhoid fever prevail among them, 
 according to season and epidemic influences. With regard 
 to the first two, scarlet fever and diphtheria, the records 
 of the LIunicipal Hospital of Philadelphia, as my friend. 
 Dr. Jay F. Schamberg, informs me, show the admission of 
 a far larger number of JcAvish children than is warranted 
 by the ratio of these to the general population. I was in- 
 deed startled to learn that not less than 25 per cent, of the 
 cases of scarlet fever had occurred in children of Russo- 
 Jewish parentage. In the case of diphtheria the figures 
 are lower, but none the less striking. It is highly improb- 
 able, however, that the terrible frequency of these two af- 
 fections in the children of the Jewish poor indicates any 
 racial tendency ; it is much more likely to be due to living 
 in crowded quarters, several families usually being hud- 
 dled together in one house. 
 
 Smallpox, it seems, does not so often attack the Jews as 
 it does their Gentile neighbors. Among 2,700 cases of that 
 disease received into the Municipal Hospital within the 
 last two years, there was only one Jewish patient. This 
 remarkable immunity is unquestionably due to the fact 
 that the Jews have an abiding and most laudable faith in 
 the efficacy of vaccination as a preventive of smallpox. 
 An unvaccinated Jev/ish adult is a great rarity. 
 
 The multitude of diseases due to alcoholic excess, also, 
 are rarely met with among the Jewish poor; for intemper- 
 ance in drink is not common with them. If, however, I 
 might judge from my own limited experience, I should say 
 that there is a growing fondness for alcohol in the Jewish 
 population; and that this may in time need to be com- 
 batted. 
 
 In addition to scarlet fever and diphtheria, there are yet 
 other diseases to which the Jewish poQr seein more prone 
 
PHILADELPHIA 313 
 
 than their fellow races. With regard to some of these it is 
 not possible to give figures; and the belief in a racial pre- 
 disposition rests upon impressions rather than upon sta- 
 tistics. Thus, disorders of the blood — anaemia and pur- 
 puric (hemorrhagic) conditions appear to be more 
 
 prevalent among the Jews. The reason for this is, pri- 
 marily, the deleterious effects of poverty and over- 
 crowding; and also the insufficient use of green vegetables 
 and wholesome food in general, and probably the early 
 maturing of the sexes. 
 
 Diseases of the stomach are extremely common among 
 the Jews, particularly among the Jewish poor — more com- 
 mon than they are in other races of this dyspeptic country. 
 The cause of this is not intemperance in eating, which 
 plays such an important part in producing stomach trouble 
 among the general American population; for the Russian 
 Jews are quantitatively frugal. Hasty eating, however, 
 poor food — or, rather food unsuited to this climate, tea 
 drinking, and perhaps undue indulgence in soda water and 
 kindred beverages, — all these serve to produce gastic dis^ 
 orders. The confinement occasioned by the chief occupa- 
 tions of the Jewish poor is also a factor, as it is a factor 
 in the majority of diseases afflicting them. 
 
 Morbid conditions of the blood vessels are likewise more 
 common among them than they should be and than they 
 need be. Arterial diseases, such as hardening of the ar- 
 teries, occur especially in the men, and are in large meas- 
 ure due to the abuse of tobacco begun early in life. This 
 and other excesses that I need not specify are also respon- 
 sible for the frequency of palpitation of the heart. 
 
 Erysipelas is, I believe, a trifle more common among the 
 Jewish poor than among the Gentiles (though I have no 
 extensive data with which to substantiate the correctness 
 of this view). At the Philadelphia Hospital, among sixty 
 Russian Jews admitted during the two years from July, 
 1901, to July, 1903, there were six cases of erysipelas, or 10 
 per cent., a percentage far larger than that in non-Jews, 
 which was only 4.2. (There were, for instance, twice as 
 many cases of erysipelas as of rheumatism among the Jews 
 admitted. ) 
 
 Dr. Fishberg has most admirably discussed the prev- 
 alence of tuberculosis among the Jewish poor; and my 
 friend, Dr. S. Solis-Cohen, did much on a former occasion 
 to bring this important matter before the public. They 
 
314 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 have covered the subject so fully that I can add nothing to 
 what they said. 
 
 Of the frequency of diabetes, to which the poor Jews are 
 probably not quite so prone as their wealthy co-religionists, 
 I need not speak. We know, at present, too little about the 
 causes of the disease to make preventive measures possible. 
 
 The exceeding prevalence of nervous affection among the 
 Jews is recognized as an axiom in medicine. Nearly all 
 writers upon nervous diseases, including insanity and 
 idiocy, refer to the fact and try to find reasons for it. The 
 chief cause, it seems to me, is heredity in the larger sense 
 — a racial predisposition transmitted through generations. 
 For this hereditary taint, the grinding intensity of the 
 struggle for existence to which the Jews of Central and 
 Eastern Europe have for ages been subjected is responsible. 
 I need not describe the deplorable and pitiable conditions 
 in Russia, whence the majority of our poor Jews come. 
 ** In all Europe," says Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, " there is 
 no people poorer, none that is compelled to earn its bread 
 under greater difficulties than are nine-tenths of the Rus- 
 sian Jews;" and the noted Zionist, Dr. Mandelstamm, 
 says, with grim humor, that there is no people on which 
 experiments in starvation and in the results of insufficient 
 light and air may be made with more ease than on the 
 Ghetto Jews. 
 
 These down-trodden Jews come, therefore, to this coun- 
 try with a high-strung, unstable, nervous system, which the 
 conditions of American life are not likely to improve in 
 the first, or even in the second, generation. Our mode of 
 living is in itself productive of various nervous disorders. 
 Nervous prostration (or, as it is called, neurasthenia) had 
 been discovered in this country by the famous New York 
 physician. Beard, and Dr. S. Weir Mitchell had devised 
 his renowned rest-cure treatment for nervous disease, long 
 before the Russian hegira had begun. 
 
 Some authorities, such as Professors Erb and Kraepelin, 
 of Heidelberg, and the late Krafft-Ebing, have maintained 
 that in-breeding is, among the Jews, a factor in producing 
 hereditary weakness of the nervous system; but Dr. Mar- 
 tin Englander, of Vienna, denies this, holding that from 
 eight to ten millions of people are sufficient to preserve a 
 healthy race. He points to the Americans — a race pro- 
 duced by the very opposite of in-breeding, and yet one 
 among which neurasthenia is widely prevalent. Among the 
 
PHILADELPHIA 315 
 
 older stocks of Jews in this country, the Portuguese and 
 the Germans, there has necessarily been some in-breeding, 
 but apparently without harmful effect. The contrary, 
 rather, is the case; the race has been improved physically. 
 This improvement is noticeable in greater stature and in 
 the development of a generally finer type of men and 
 women. 
 
 Neurasthenia is most common among the Jews, but hys- 
 teria and insanity and idiocy are likewise frequent. The 
 neurasthenic Russian Hebrew is an interesting tj^pe, and 
 was aptly compared by Charcot to the Wandering Jew. In 
 an entertaining monograph, Henry Meige, one of Charcot's 
 pupils, traces the legend of the Juif-Errant, and compares 
 it with the actual conditions seen in the migratory, rest- 
 less Jews of Eastern origin. From the farthest corners of 
 Europe, undismayed by the bitterest hardships imposed by 
 poverty, they find their begging way to La Salpetriere at 
 Paris. After a few visits to the famous clinic, they vanish 
 as noiselessly as they come, wander back to their far-off 
 home and by singing the praises of the great French 
 specialists, induce others to undertake the wearisome 
 journey. 
 
 How can w^e prevent the spread of nervous affections 
 among the Jews ? How can we eradicate the sinister taint ? 
 Dr. Fishberg has indicated the direction in which the an- 
 swer lies. We must improve economic conditions. 
 
 There must be less over-crowding, shorter hours of work, 
 and rational recreation. If we cannot keep the Jewish im- 
 migrants from settling in the large cities, we must dis- 
 perse them there. There is a tendency to spontaneous dis- 
 persion in Philadelphia. Gradually the Russian Jews are 
 migrating northv/ard and southward from the central 
 Ghetto, but it will take decades before they are sui^ciently 
 scattered to make the hygienic and moral surroundings 
 w^hat they should be. 
 
 The Jewish poor must be taught that the new climatic 
 conditions require the adopting of another sort of food. 
 They must be instructed in the harmfulness of the abuse 
 of tobacco. 
 
 I should also like to see them cultivate the manly sports 
 — baseball, football, rowing, swimming — which do much 
 to develop the body and to imbue the mind with a spirit of 
 self-respecting, fearless manhood. 
 
 Tuberculosis, that other great scourge, can best be com- 
 
316 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 batted by 'education, under the segis, as Dr. Fishberg lias 
 properly said, of charitable organizations assisted by medi- 
 cal advisers. Out-door life and participation in the na- 
 tional sports will help to develop the chest, which is decid- 
 edly smaller in proportion to height than that of non-Jews. 
 The dissemination of knowledge regarding the communica- 
 bility and the prevention of tuberculosis that has been un- 
 dertaken vv^th such good results, first by Dr. Biggs, of the 
 New York Board of Health, and now by the authorities in 
 Philadelphia, Cleveland, and other cities, will do much to 
 lessen the frequency of the dreaded disease. Establishing 
 sanatoria near large cities will also prove of great benefit, 
 as it will render possible an earlier treatment of the dis- 
 ease ; and this is essential if a cure is to be effected. 
 
 With all his proverbial tenacity of character, the Jew, 
 especially the Eastern Jew, is physically and psychically 
 extremely plastic, and only needs a reasonably favorable en- 
 vironment to develop into a noble specimen of man. His 
 energy, intelligence and integrity will solve many of the 
 perplexing economic problems, and in that way the sani- 
 tary and hygienic questions will in part, at least, be 
 ansvv^ered. 
 
 On the subject of consumption, the following is taken 
 from the discussion of Dr. Solomon Solis-Cohen on Dr. 
 Fishberg's paper upon the same occasion as Dr. Riesman's 
 discussion : 
 
 The knowledge of how to prevent consumption is neither 
 absent nor new. It is old and thoroughly recognized, but 
 it is not acted upon. Liability to the infection of con- 
 sumption comes from lack of food, from overwork, from 
 over-anxiety, from lack of fresh air, from lack of sunshine, 
 from lack of cleanliness. The infective agent thrives in 
 dampness, darkness and filth — dies in cleanliness, sun- 
 shine and fresh air. You cannot shut people up, six or 
 nine in a room hardly big enough for one, and too damp, 
 dark and dirty for any, — you cannot have them work in- 
 doors under factory, tenement and sweatshop conditions, 
 sixteen hours a day for starvation wages, and expect racial 
 resistance to tuberculosis or religious dietary laws to save 
 them. It is an utter impossibility. Some years ago Dr. 
 Riesman and I went over the records of our dispensary 
 service at the Philadelphia Polyclinic to see approximately 
 how large a proportion the number of consumptive Jews 
 bore to the number of consumptives of other social groups 
 
PHILADELPHIA 317 
 
 who came to the same clinic. We found that a very large 
 proportion — I think something like 12 per cent, of the 
 poor Russian Jews of Philadelphia who applied to that dis- 
 pensary, were consumptive; but we also found that the 
 proportion of the consumptives among these poor Jews 
 was less by one-third or more than that among the poor 
 people of other races who came to the same dispensary. In 
 other words, the racial immunity apparently saved some 
 poor Jews, but evidently did not save all. Sweeping con- 
 clusions cannot be drawn from the experience of one physi- 
 cian, no matter how great that experience may be; for 
 after all, any one person has but a very limited experience 
 compared with that of the profession at large. Yet in so 
 far as I may draw guarded conclusions from my own ex- 
 perience, it would appear that consumption is largely on 
 the increase among the poor Eussian Jews of Philadelphia ; 
 that the relative immunity to-day is less than it was at the 
 time Dr. Riesman and I made the investigations referred 
 to, for my Gratz College lecture. I see proportionally more 
 Jewish consumptives than I used to see, and after making 
 all necessary corrections for personal factors, that means 
 that the stress and storm of the struggle for existence are 
 bearing more hardly upon them, that they are more nar- 
 rowly crowded, more poorly fed, more excessively over- 
 worked, in a more deplorable economic condition. This is 
 so, notwithstanding the obvious fact that many among 
 those who have come to Philadelphia from Russia, during 
 the past twenty j^ears, have left the ranks of the poor and 
 comparatively poor, and entered into those of the well-to- 
 do and the comparatively wealthy. The large increase in 
 immigration and the natural increase among those who re- 
 main very poor, continue to keep up this disproportion. 
 
(C) CHICAGO 
 
 Among the many injustices of Russian despotism is her 
 cruel discrimination against Karaites, Stimdists, Finland- 
 ers, and Jews. Crowded as millions of the latter are into 
 the comparatively small southwestern portion of Russia 
 they cannot live under conditions as favorable as they 
 might were they permitted to settle in the interior where 
 space is less valuable than it is on the frontiers. 
 
 It is very difficult for one who has not visited the coun- 
 try to get a true conception of the surroundings of the 
 Jew in ' ' White Russia " or " The Pale. ' ' Writers like Leo 
 Errera and Harold Frederic have given us interesting liter- 
 ature on this subject, but they have been so touched by the 
 intolerance of Russian Christianity ( ? ) that through their 
 sympathetic minds we can see only the picture of a great 
 Inferno. 
 
 The Russian immigrant in America tells a somewhat dif- 
 ferent tale from theirs. We must, however, remember that 
 his native love of home and the fatherland lends a rosy 
 coloring to all his memories of far-away Russland. He 
 really loves his country and hates only the government re- 
 strictions against him. He will tell you that the microbe- 
 holding, smell-emitting air-shaft of our modern tenement 
 is unknown in Russia. The tenements are rarely over 
 three stories high, and each is provided with a court-yard 
 where the children may play free from the dangers and 
 temptations of the streets. 
 
 American sanitary plumbing is the finest in the world. 
 But about three-quarters of our population are permitted 
 to live in homes unprovided with this new preventive of 
 disease ; so we are really in this matter not very far ahead 
 of Russia. Laws for the prevention of contagious diseases 
 in America are more rigid and more carefully enforced 
 than are those of Russia, which may partly account for our 
 smaller child mortality. 
 
 The death rate among non-Jews in Russia is larger than 
 that of the Jewish population. This is due, above all, to 
 
 318 
 
CHICAGO 319 
 
 the temperance of the Jew, who rarely drinks the intoxi- 
 cating vodka, and lives according to the Mosaic law. Al- 
 though orthodox Judaism is not so strong as it was a gen- 
 eration ago, yet as habit is powerful there still exists a 
 strict adherence to the customs of the Mosaic code. Early 
 marriages are still the rule and home life throws its safe- 
 guards about the health and life of the individual. 
 
 In Chicago there are Russian Jews of every class, from 
 the semi-millionaire to the day laborer, from the oriental- 
 looking Jew whose education is purely Talmudical to the 
 professional man who occupies a prominent position in 
 modern literature or science. 
 
 Among the wealthier and the indifferent who do not care 
 to live near the orthodox shops and synagogues we find, of 
 course, all modern appliances for sanitation and health. 
 These now live on the avenues and boulevards where money 
 is the open sesame to comfort and convenience. One would 
 hardly recognize in these people the same human beings 
 who ten or fifteen years before had lived on the West Side 
 in uncomfortable surroundings. No people rise more rap- 
 idly than these so soon as they find opportunity. 
 
 This paper will deal mainly with the poorer classes, — 
 mechanics, factory '' hands," small manufacturers, shop- 
 keepers, clerks, day laborers, and the like. These are set- 
 tled in four main districts, viz. : Englewood, Brighton 
 Park, the Northwest Side, and the West Side, in the Ninth 
 Ward and its vicinity. Many have also migrated to subur- 
 ban towns, — Pullman, Evanston, Kensington, East Chi- 
 cago, South Chicago and Hegewisch. In Englewood rents 
 are low and housing conditions excellent. Yards, bath- 
 rooms, and modern laundries are plentiful. Here we have 
 an example of how the Russian Jewish workingman and 
 his family will live if given the chance. While the moral, 
 financial, and educational status of the people there is 
 about the same as that of the Jews in the Ninth Ward, no 
 one has yet called the Englewood district a Ghetto, nor 
 has anyone so designated the wards where wealthy Jews 
 have chosen to live near their temples, relatives, friends 
 and social or business interests. 
 
 The Northwest Side is the home of many of Chicago's 
 most intellectual Russian Jews. There are many artistic 
 homes here even where there is little money, the educated 
 mother and housewife making this possible. 
 
320 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 Brighton Park bids fair to become another Englewood 
 for the Jewish artisan and small trader. 
 
 The West Side district contains about 30,000 Russian 
 Jews, who pay high rents for the privilege of living in in- 
 sanitary houses. Fortunately conditions are not so bad 
 there as they seem on first sight. Walking through the 
 streets of the neighborhood one is shocked by the dirt and 
 disorder. But it is the aesthetic and not the moral sense 
 which is outraged. The district is not really a slum. Evi- 
 dences of education, morality, and intelligence are found 
 in abundance. With the exception of incorrigible boys and 
 petty gamblers, there is no vicious element. Temperance 
 rules supreme. Soda water is sold at the grocery stores at 
 two cents a bottle and at the stands for one cent a glass. 
 This in summer and weak tea in winter are the national 
 drinks of the Russian Jewish populace. No neighborhood 
 in our city, with the exception of Prohibition districts, 
 shows so few saloons to the number of population. 
 
 A growing demand for accommodations is causing land- 
 lords to build on yard space. Accordingly, little children 
 are compelled to use the streets for play grounds, and there 
 are little children galore. Passing wagons and trolley cars, 
 defective plank pavements, disease breeding garbage boxes, 
 and falling missiles play sad havoc with these innocents 
 who furnish ample material for the nearby clinics and dis- 
 pensaries. 
 
 Boys and girls with faces and frocks besmirched, care- 
 worn men and women, disorderly shops, rickety shanties, 
 which bring on pneumonia and rheumatism, all on streets 
 shamefully neglected by the city authorities, miake up a 
 scene which must cause us to blush for our much vaunted 
 civilization. 
 
 There is the aloofness and indifference of those who could 
 be a powerful help in changing the state of affairs. They 
 should use their influence for the enactment and enforce- 
 ment of a law prohibiting the renting of apartments 
 which are not provided with proper sanitary appliances. 
 
 Our West Side settlement of Russian Jews is essentially 
 a community of homes. The " bunk " system, cheap 
 lodging houses, trashy restaurants, and men's boarding 
 houses are conspicuous by their absence. The free lunch 
 saloon is rare. Single men and women without homes 
 either rent furnished rooms or board with families. Sel- 
 dom v/ill a family take more than one or two '' roomers " 
 
CHICAGO 
 
 321 
 
 or boarders. The restaurants are high-priced and whole- 
 some. There is no hotel in the whole district. The poor- 
 est individual pays a family one dollar a week for lodg- 
 ing and coffee or tea in the morning. A penny roll for 
 breakfast and another for supper make up the morning 
 and evening fare of some of these lodgers. For dinner 
 the kind housewife adds five cents' worth of meat to her 
 pot for the lodger and furnishes the cooking free. Thus 
 much against his habit and personal inclination many a 
 poor student or peddler lives temporarily on one dollar 
 and fifty cents a week. However, the large majority of 
 the inhabitants of the district average about $3 per person 
 for board alone. 
 
 In some few isolated cases a family occupies one room, 
 l)ut usually the poorest have two rooms or more. The ma- 
 jority have three or four. 
 
 At the Foster Public School 1,730 children were ques- 
 tioned as to the number of rooms occupied by their par- 
 ents. The information obtained was as follows: 
 
 CHILDREN CLASSED ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF ROOMS OCCUPIED BY THEIR 
 FAMICIES 
 
 Havinj 
 
 1 room 
 
 for each fami 
 
 2 rooms 
 
 
 3 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 4 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 5 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 6 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 7 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 8 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 9 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 10 
 
 ' 
 
 " " •' 
 
 14 
 
 ' 
 
 " " " 
 
 195 
 
 778 
 
 305 
 
 215 
 
 70 
 
 79 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Total 1730 
 
 The majority of the children in this school are of Rus- 
 sian Jewish parentage. 
 
 At the Washburne School 798 were questioned. The 
 result was as follows : 
 
 Having 1 room for each family 
 " 2 rooms 
 
 3 
 " 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 102 
 289 
 159 
 122 
 
 47 
 
 Total 798 
 
322 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 The Wasliburne is attended almost entirely by children 
 of Russian Jews.^ 
 
 In the majority of West Side homes among these peo- 
 ple the kitchen is the only room that is suitably heated 
 for bathing purposes. It is also used for the family sitting 
 and dining room. The statement has often been made 
 that soap and water are cheap, but what of the warm pri- 
 vate bath-room? Here there are thousands of people com- 
 pelled to live under conditions, that, to say the least, make 
 the bath at home exceedingly difficult. Often the tired 
 workingman or workingwoman and the growing boy or 
 girl must wait until after midnight before the only com- 
 fortable room in the flat is vacated. A r^al estate agent, 
 who has been fifteen years in the Ninth AVard, says that 
 in the district east of Halsted Street there is not one apart- 
 ment in four hundred furnished with a bathroom or hot 
 water connections. In the district bounded by Halsted, 
 Canal, West Twelfth, and West Fourteenth Streets, the 
 distinctively Jewish section, but 373 out of a population of 
 10,452, or 2.56 per cent., have bath tubs.^ Many families 
 are moving west of Halsted Street in the search for apart- 
 ments with bath rooms. 
 
 There are some wealthy residents who occupy the few 
 modern steam-heated flats which are in great demand. 
 There is one model apartment house at the corner of 
 Bunker and Desplaines Streets, but of its twenty-four 
 families only four are Jewish. These flats are heated by 
 steam and have sanitary plumbing and bath rooms. All 
 the rooms are light and well ventilated. There are 
 porches, flower boxes, paved court-yards, and fire escapes. 
 The rents are from thirteen to sixteen dollars a month for 
 a flat of four or five rooms. The building is under the 
 management of an able social settlement worker, who her- 
 self lives in one of the flats. She says that after deducting 
 from the profits a sufficient amount to pay for the natural 
 depreciation in its value the house pays five per cent, on 
 the investment. 
 
 Such buildings, with good sanitary arrangements, and 
 with humane and intelligent agents on the premises, would 
 mean the saving of life and health to hundreds of men and 
 
 ^ These statistics were gathered through the courtesy of Miss Flowers of the 
 Washburne School and the Misses Schgoldager and Bernstein of the Foster 
 School. 
 
 - Tenement Conditions in Chicago, p_. 108. 
 
CHICAGO 323 
 
 women in our crowded city districts. In our West Side 
 community of Jews such tenements would help to lift the 
 lives of the young from discomfort and despair to hap- 
 piness and hope. It must be admitted, however, that 
 agents would sometimes be necessary to combat the slovenly 
 housewife; not all the defects are due to the landlord. 
 
 At present the Ninth "Ward is covered with small frame 
 and brick buildings originally intended for one or two 
 families, but now subdivided into four or five apartments 
 which rent for from $2 to $3 a month per room. 
 
 A few enterprising landlords have already put up in- 
 sanitary tenements with dark, disease-breeding bed-rooms. 
 The time seems very near at hand when Chicago is to de- 
 velop the tenement-house horror as it exists in New York 
 City. Shall we not take warning now and prevent it? 
 Mere laws on the statute books, we have found by experi- 
 ence, do not wholly protect the poor from municipal evils. 
 The workingman is often too busy earning a living to be 
 able to protect his interests. The leisure class should ex- 
 ercise eternal vigilance for the proper housing of the poor. 
 Behind the laws are needed interested individuals con- 
 stantly watching in reference to their enforcement. 
 
 Ninth Ward plumbing and closets are unhygienic. 
 Rarely is there a house fitted with screens. Thus, flies 
 carry disease germs from house to house. There are no 
 laundry rooms. Chimneys are defective. The rooms are 
 cold and smoky during our long winters and close in sum- 
 mer. Frequently dead rats lie rotting beneath the flooring 
 in these old shanties. Pavements are broken and steps are 
 rickety. Ventilation without the admission of draughts is 
 almost impossible. Yet who cares? The poor tenant can- 
 not be forever quarreling with his landlord, who will tell 
 him to move on if he does not like conditions. There are 
 people who could alter these things if they would. Some 
 have suggested moving the Jewish people from the Ninth 
 Ward to other places. This would still leave the same vile 
 buildings to be inhabited by other human beings. The 
 erection of model dwellings and shops, with the abolition 
 of the street stand, would remedy many of the evils. 
 
 That the Russian Jew does not belong to the life he is 
 compelled to live in the Ninth Ward is proven by the gen- 
 eral discontent among the residents, who live there only 
 because of strong business or social ties which make it 
 seem to them necessary. Many regret this necessity, but 
 
324 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 like the' majority of humanity are ruled by circumstance. 
 
 This neighborhood supports six or more large private 
 bathing establishments, which charge from fifteen cents to 
 twenty-five cents each for baths. Besides, the barber shops 
 do a thriving business by furnishing baths for the younger 
 men and boys. The women and older men patronize the 
 Eussian bathing establishments. They are too expensive 
 for the children and are rarely used by the younger un- 
 married women whose income is frequently not more than 
 $4 per week. There are many classes of poor in a great 
 city. Each has its virtue. One virtue of the poorest Rus- 
 sian Jewish family is that the bath house is patronized 
 by them. Another is that their standards of living are not 
 low, as is amply proven so far as house rents go, by the 
 statistics in the report of the City Homes Association, 
 ** Tenement Conditions in Chicago." 
 
 If they are not better cared for, others as well as they 
 are responsible. It is criminal to permit the renting to 
 human beings of apartments which are not better fitted for 
 that purpose than are dog kennels. The health of a whole 
 city is endangered by insanitary conditions in any of its 
 parts. For our own protection we should insist on good 
 housing throughout the city. 
 
 You ask if the Russian Jew is discontented with his sur- 
 roundings in the Ninth Ward why does he not move to 
 where rents are lower and houses better? It is because 
 of his peculiar observances. He does not ride on the Sab- 
 bath day. Consequently he wants to live within walking 
 distance of his orthodox synagogue. He desires to eat 
 food which can be obtained only at the kosher (ceremonial- 
 ly clean) shops. Consequently he wishes to live near these 
 shops. Often he can speak only the Yiddish language. 
 Then, too, in many cases he can best earn his living among 
 his own people. Sometimes his work or business is within 
 walking distance and he wants to save care fares. He has, 
 too, family ties and social interests. Even if streets are 
 neglected and houses are vile, he endeavors to adapt him- 
 self to his environment. Who is to blame? He is, in so 
 far as he does not take action to compel landlords and 
 city authorities to furnish sanitary necessities and clean 
 streets. We all are, in so far as we heap cold *' charity " 
 on the community and do not co-operate with its members 
 to secure justice. These people give us untainted, splen- 
 did m?)terial for the future American citizen. They toil 
 
CHICAGO 325 
 
 in factory and store to supply onr needs, to give onr 
 children wealth and comfort. We owe them, at least, 
 health-preserving habitations; else our civilization is no 
 civilization and our social ethics are worthless. 
 
 A syndicate of the philanthropic could build model 
 dwellings, shops and market houses. These could be 
 rented at reasonable rates to bring a small profit. The 
 sharp landlord would be driven out of business by such an 
 organization. He could no longer thrive at the expense 
 of human life and health. Such a philanthropic corpora- 
 tion would have large profits in the joy of having saved 
 families from disease and disgrace. The aesthetic sense of 
 the tenant would be stimulated by making order and 
 cleanliness possible and easy. Prizes offered in the schools, 
 synagogues, and chedarim (Hebrew schools) for well kept 
 homes and shops might wholly change the character of the 
 ward. Much municipal carelessness would be checked by 
 a powerful association working in co-operation with the 
 tenants of insanitary neighborhoods. At present greedy 
 landlords club together to pay lawyers to prevent even 
 much needed street paving, thus leaving catch holes and 
 culture beds for all sorts of disease germs on our wooden 
 pavements. 
 
 Those who think they will scatter the Russian Jewish 
 people over other parts of the city, when every law of 
 nature, circumstance and religion causes them to segregate 
 as they do on the West Side, are much mistaken. What they 
 may hope to do is to change the character of the so-called 
 Ghetto. For the last thirty years thinkers and philan- 
 thropists here in Chicago have tried to help the Jewish 
 poor. They are learning that to know and truly help a 
 people one must live with them, love them, and extend to 
 them not only charity but friendship, sincere, earnest, 
 and on a plane of equality. Men here have talked and 
 talked of the " poor Russian.'^ The '' poor Russian " 
 who knows that he is a strong, great-hearted Russian in 
 all but money has both laughed and wept as he has lis- 
 tened to these discussions. You have not heard his answer 
 because he has not always had the command of your lan- 
 guage. Read his Yiddish newspapers. You will find his 
 answer in them. He has for generations been a student 
 and thinker. He is rapidly learning our language. He 
 will work out his own salvation in time, even though left 
 severely alone. The philanthropist may hasten that time 
 
326 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 ])y judiGioiis assistance, or defer it lay '' charity " which 
 weakens and pauperizes. Those who are ashamed of an 
 American Ghetto — and well they may be — have now 
 the opportunity of working for better conditions in the 
 homes of their less fortunate co-religionists and of show- 
 ing the world by example that ^' the fittest place for man 
 to live is where he lives for man." There are wise, power- 
 ful, and cultured Jews in Chicago. They belong to the 
 Ninth Ward as much as to any other and should go there 
 frequently for its improvement. 
 
 Yflien we consider the individual habits of these people 
 we must admit that all is not as we would wish. The 
 Russian Jewish housewife, although a good cook, is a poor 
 laundress. She is often not methodical or neat. She is 
 intensely sociable and will frequently be found visiting 
 her neighbors when she should be cleaning her sinks or 
 arranging her closets. She will wear soiled aprons, and 
 have many useless dust-holding gewgaws in her home and 
 is careless of her personal appearance. Her husband 
 often, in the words of George Eliot, '' matches her." 
 They are both greatly overburdened by work and care. 
 They will sit down to brood over their troubles in the 
 new country and thus sap the energy and ambition which 
 should be used for the betterment of their home surround- 
 ings. 
 
 Fortunately, they have many religious holidays. The 
 advent of these and of the Sabbath rouses them from their 
 lethargy. There is a general cleaning of the houses. 
 Children are bathed in preparation for the holidays and 
 the Sabbath. Men and women flock to the bath-houses. 
 Special meals are prepared. Tired brains and bodies are 
 given a much needed rest. The Passover in the spring is 
 the occasion for a complete housecleaning and for remov- 
 ing every crumb of leavened bread. With the bread 
 crumbs many a heap of dust and microbes is also re- 
 moved. 
 
 A large number of the younger generation have de- 
 parted from the ways of their ancestors in the matter of 
 religion. So long as they are single, and when away from 
 home, they eat without scruple foods prepared in other 
 than Orthodox Jewish ways. When, however, they marry 
 and have homes of their own, the wishes of parents, other 
 relatives, or friends are respected and a new orthodox 
 
CHICAGO 327 
 
 home is established. Besides, their tastes are for custo- 
 mary Jewish foods. 
 
 The minimum for which a family of six can ordinarily 
 have its table supplied is about a dollar a day. Half the 
 food is bought at the Jewish shops. The women are ex- 
 pert fish buyers. They will accept none but the freshest. 
 Orthodox Jews will buy only live fowl or those newly 
 killed by their own experts, who sever the blood vessels 
 of the throat and drain the animal of its blood. The blood 
 is still further removed from all meat by soaking and 
 salting. After killing the animal the schochet (slaughter- 
 er) looks over it for any diseased or abnormal condition, 
 which if found makes it immediately unfit for food and 
 causes its rejection. No Jewish butcher of repute among 
 the people will sell meat which is over six days old. 
 
 As their religion enjoins waiting six hours between the 
 meat and the milk meal, and as the Jewish housewife has 
 an entirely separate set of dishes for the meat meal — 
 which is prepared with much care — she becomes a splen- 
 did ally of the physician in the treatment of rheumatism 
 and similar diseases. Few of the orthodox families have 
 more than one meal a day at which meat is served. 
 
 The Jew is supposed to search the carcass of any animal 
 used as food, to ascertain whether it is diseased. This, 
 unfortunately, is not done according to our modern knowl- 
 edge of infectious diseases, so that the ritual search of the 
 schochetim (slaughterers) v.^ho are employed by the great 
 stockyard packers here amoimts to almost nothing as a 
 preventive of any disease other than tuberculosis. The 
 very careful examination of the lungs results in discarding 
 the tubercular animals. 
 
 The orthodox housewife is compelled to be minutely 
 careful in the selection of food. As the maggot is forbid- 
 den food, she will not buy factory cheese. She carefully 
 picks cherries, prunes and other fruits. Cereals are tested 
 on a warm tin plate in the search for maggots. Cabbage 
 is carefully picked for insects. Foul vegetables cannot be 
 used. 
 
 The wine cup is in imiversal use for ceremonial purposes 
 on all holidays and on each Sabbath. The wine and 
 brandy bottle have their place in every home. There is 
 no Jewish temperance organization, yet where can one find 
 less drunkenness and fewer saloons than in the West Side 
 settlement of Russian Jews? 
 
328 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 Tobacco- is everywhere in evidence. So are the tobacco 
 throat and nervousness. The cigarette and pipe are the 
 boon companions of young men and old. But the 
 woman cigarette smoker finds no place among the Russian 
 Jews, The orthodox never smoke on the Sabbath ; at every 
 step their religion fosters self-control. 
 
 To the credit of those great educational factors among 
 Russian Jewish Americans, the penny Yiddish and Eng- 
 lish newspapers, it must be said that modern ideas of 
 sanitation and health are being widely disseminated. It 
 is, however, doubtful whether the newer laws will be so 
 strictly adhered to as those that have the adamantine 
 binding of religion. 
 
 It is worthy of passing notice that the Russian Jew 
 seldom has the Roman nose. There seems to be a de- 
 cided difference, too, in the features of the younger 
 immigrants as compared with the older. 
 
 Placing side by side the statistics of two of our Chicago 
 hospitals, one markedly non-Jewish in the nationality of 
 its patients, the other in which no less than 75 per cent, 
 of the patients are Russian Jews, we find in about 1,000 
 cases in each the following ratios : 
 
 JEWISH HOSPITAL 
 
 NON-JEWISH HOSPITAI. 
 
 Pneumonia 
 
 41 
 
 24 
 
 Rheumatism 
 
 47 
 
 20 
 
 Hernias 
 
 56 
 
 29 
 
 Neurasthenia 
 
 39 
 
 17 
 
 Diabetes 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Delirium tremens 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 Morphinism 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 Syphilis 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 These statistics are meagre, roughly compiled, and 
 somewhat inaccurate, but they will illustrate what physi- 
 cians coming much in contact with Russian Jews con- 
 stantly notice, namely, that they are especially prone to 
 rheumatism, neurasthenia, hernias, and pneumonia. 
 
 Dr. A. W. Schram, of Chicago, during his residence as 
 interne at the Michael Reese Hospital, told the writer that 
 in his opinion the many hernias were due to a weak mus- 
 cularity. 
 
 Rheumatism and pneumonia are undoubtedly brought 
 on by a lowered resistance due to exposure in our severe 
 climate. 
 
 The neurasthenia and hernias may be attributed to the 
 
CHICAGO 329 
 
 fact that the people are descendants of students and them- 
 selves frequently follow sedentary occupations. 
 
 As the two hospitals above referred to do not admit 
 patients suffering from tuberculosis, no statistics relative 
 to this disease could be obtained from those sources. Dr. 
 Maurice Fishberg^ places the death rate from tuberculosis 
 among Jews at only 110.56 to 100,000 of population as 
 against 565.06 per 100,000 of other residents of New York 
 City. _ 
 
 Statistics of tuberculosis among the living are unreliable- 
 because frequently patients that are declared tubercular 
 show in course of time no development of the disease. 
 Though many leave their homes in search of health, the 
 majority of the really consumptive go home to die, so that 
 the death rate may be considered a fair basis. 
 
 Tuberculosis is much too prevalent among Jews in Chi- 
 cago but not more than among other people; probably 
 less. Unquestionably there is less consumption in the 
 Ninth Ward than in other wards where equally criminal 
 housing conditions prevail. 
 
 Carcinoma is comparatively frequent. Syphilis is 
 rarely seen in its worst forms, and the ulcerated sore 
 throat almost never. General paresis and locomotor 
 ataxia are also very rare among orthodox Jews. That 
 circumcision is not a preventive of specific disease is 
 proven by Chicago clinics and dispensaries. 
 
 Osler^ states that the Jew is especially prone to diabetes. 
 English physicians point out that the Jew furnishes a 
 large proportionate quota of the insane. The enemy of 
 the Jew has been quick to attribute his nervous diathesis 
 to greed for gain, and to consanguineous marriages, and 
 diabetes to overfeeding. Has it ever occurred to those 
 who make such statements that the Jew comes of a studi- 
 ous ancestry, that his weak muscular system and high 
 nervous temperament are caused by student habits and 
 religious zeal? The Jew is by custom and religion the 
 most temperate man in the world. Diabetes is now be- 
 lieved by many to be a disease of the nervous system. 
 Have the critics ever endeavored to ascertain how many 
 of their insane Jewish patients show a history of consan- 
 guineous marriages? There are, unfortunately, many of 
 
 ^ " The Comparative Infrequency of Tuberculosis among Jews." American 
 Medicine, November 2nd, 1901, 
 - Practice of Medicine, p. 320. 
 
330 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 our Russian co-religionists in " the living death " at the 
 institutions for the insane of Illinois at Elgin, Watertown, 
 Kankakee, and Dunning. In the few cases which I have 
 been able to investigate I have not found one with a his- 
 tory of the marriage of near relatives. It is to be hoped 
 that some neurologist will give us ample statistics on this 
 subject. 
 
 Among a learned people, where one rarely finds an il- 
 literate man, where the field for gaining a livelihood has 
 been narrowed down by the oppressor, and where religious 
 enthusiasm is at its height, we need not look further for 
 causes of the high-strung nervous system and relaxed 
 muscularity of the Russian Jew. 
 
 Venereal disease is less frequent than among many 
 other classes. Early marriages prevent in a measure that 
 promiscuous association which so often causes infection. 
 Home life and purity are encouraged. It is considered 
 an act of charity to help an orphan or friendless girl to 
 marry. Frequently collections of money are made to start 
 a young couple in life. The professional matchmaker 
 facilitates matrimony among all classes. 
 
 The religious marital bath is largely patronized by the 
 women. This institution was created by men, who were 
 the law-makers. They forgot to make like laws for them- 
 selves. Let us hope that they thought their superior in- 
 telligence did not need the the whip of religion, and that 
 they were as cleanly as they commanded their wives to be. 
 Assuredly the religious bath is a wise institution for the 
 ignorant. Specific disease is not absent but is rare even 
 among the lowest class of orthodox Jews. 
 
 During the year 1900 the Ninth Ward (formerly the 
 Seventh) had a remarkably low death rate in spite of its 
 unfortunate environments. To every 1,000 of population 
 the proportion was 11.99. For comparison, the following 
 figures as to death rates are quoted : 
 
 To every 1,000 of population, 1900: Philadelphia, 
 19.38 ; New York City, 19.59 ; Chicago, 14.68 ; Twenty-third 
 Ward, Chicago, 18.69; Twenty-ninth Ward, Chicago, 
 15.62 ; Ninth Ward, formerly the Seventh, Chicago, 11.99. 
 
 The Twenty-third and Twenty-ninth Wards have about 
 the same number of inhabitants as the Ninth and similar 
 poor housing conditions. The annual death rate for sev- 
 eral years for these three wards is appended : 
 

 CHICAGO 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 SEVENTH 
 
 TWENTY-THIRD 
 
 TWENTY-NINTH 
 
 YEAR 
 
 (now ninth ward) 
 
 
 WARD 
 
 WARD 
 
 1891 
 
 16.80 
 
 
 19.74 
 
 19.38 
 
 1892 
 
 14.18 
 
 
 17.22 
 
 16.43 
 
 1893 
 
 11.92 
 
 
 13.38 
 
 16.86 
 
 1894 
 
 12.34 
 
 
 11.32 
 
 14.27 
 
 1895 
 
 14.01 
 
 
 14.71 
 
 14.81 
 
 1896 
 
 12.96 
 
 
 12.27 
 
 15.57 
 
 1897 
 
 12.34 
 
 
 13.09 
 
 13.10 
 
 1898 
 
 13.37 
 
 
 14.81 
 
 14.37 
 
 These figures, taken from Chicago's public health re- 
 ports, show a constant low death rate for eight years in 
 the Russian Jewish settlement. 
 
 Some writers have claimed for circumcision that it will 
 prevent zymotic disease. The practice is universal among 
 Russian Jews, yet statistics covering fifteen years for what 
 was formerly the Seventh Ward indicate as large a ratio 
 of deaths from this class of cases, as compared with the 
 total number of deaths, as in any ward in Chicago. The 
 experience of physicians here is that typhoid fever, scarlet 
 fever, croup, diphtheria, smallpox, diarrheal diseases are 
 not especially respecters of the persons of the orthodox. 
 A writer in an American medical journal^ recently com- 
 plained of permitting ritual circumcision by any but regu- 
 larly qualified physicians. We should reinforce his ef- 
 forts in behalf of the Jewish infant. Much mischief is 
 done by mohelim who are not competent surgeons. A 
 thorough knowledge of asepsis, hsemostasis, and stimula- 
 tion are necessary for the work. It should at least be 
 done under the supervision of a physician, and only with 
 his permission. 
 
 It is the custom in orthodox homes to bury the dead 
 within twenty-four hours after death, and with but little 
 exposure. The body is not allowed to remain on the fam- 
 ily bedding but is removed to the cold, bare floor. The 
 custom is crude and primitive, yet the early removal of 
 the dead from among the living is best where disease may 
 cause infection. The washers of the dead are not paid. 
 They do the work as an act of charity for rich and poor 
 alike. Flowers are forbidden. Simplicity is the rule. 
 Every visitor to the house of the dead is enjoined to wash 
 his hands before returning home. Doctors who know the 
 customs of the people often advise the washers to use an 
 
 * Ferd. C. Valentine, M. D., " Surgical Circumcision," Journal of the Ameri- 
 can Medical Association, March 16, 1901. 
 
332 HEALTH AND SANITATION 
 
 antiseptic solution for their hands after they have per- 
 formed their service. This should be made compulsory. 
 
 An insurance agent whose patronage is largely among 
 Russian Jews states that they are considered excellent 
 risks by all life insurance companies. I have been unable 
 to procure figures as to the average life of the Russian 
 Jew, but for the Jew in general the expectation of life is 
 greater than that of the people among whom he lives.^ 
 
 The Russian Jew is accustomed to self control. He 
 loves his family. He is very rarely guilty of murder. 
 His wife and daughter are chaste and moral, statements 
 to the contrary notwithstanding. Sifted down we find 
 such statements based largely on hearsay evidence or on 
 exceptional cases of moral depravity. Those who know 
 the people well and can judge them without prejudice 
 realize that there is no class who have so little vice among 
 them. Who better than the physician has the opportunity 
 of knowing the birth of illegitimate children ? To a popu- 
 lation of over 20,000 West Side Jews there are probably 
 not over ten illegitimate births a year. The mothers are 
 usually young, almost children, and the fathers not always 
 Jews. The calculation was made after careful inquiry 
 among physicians who have a large West Side practice. 
 
 The low dance hall does not exist as we see it in some 
 other wards of large cities. The young people do attend 
 dances, but in the same way as the sons and daughters of 
 the wealthy go to South Side club " receptions '' and 
 ^' parties," namely, for innocent amusement and for socia- 
 bility. 
 
 The working girl on the West Side indulges in wine 
 more rarely than does her wealthier sister. Her mother 
 does not play poker and whist. If fashionable clubs were 
 raided as much as poor saloons the gambling passion would 
 be found in the former just as much as in the latter. 
 
 The small boy is the small boy here as elsewhere. He 
 needs careful guarding and guiding. When the home is 
 healthful and wholesome and the mother intelligent he may 
 be under her watchful eye. When homes are cubbyholes 
 and mothers incompetent, he seeks diversion elsewhere. 
 
 Russian Jewish women have been instructed by their re- 
 ligion to care for their persons, pots and pans. Educa- 
 tion must be added to cultivate the sense of the aesthetic. 
 
 * See article " Expectation of Life," Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. V. 
 
CHICAGO 333 
 
 We have in these people an illustration resulting from the 
 notion that it is the woman's business on earth only to 
 bear children. To care for the home and to train the 
 children requires as cultivated a mind as does any noble 
 profession. This the parents of the Russian girl have not 
 always realized. These women have only their intuitive 
 sense of goodness and their religious instruction to guide 
 them. Sometimes they are stubborn and will not allow 
 the daughter to inaugurate her better way in the home. 
 Often there is a pitiful breach between parents and chil- 
 dren owing to differences in tastes and ideas. 
 
 Some of the Russian Jewish people are so poor that 
 they permit their women to be used for teaching purposes 
 during childbirth. This saves for them the obstetrician's 
 fee. Chicago medical colleges draw their obstetrical in- 
 struction largely from Jewish mothers. From one to four 
 students usually witness the birth at the home of the wom- 
 an. Colleges vie with each other to get these obstetrical 
 " cases." 
 
 There are some who see the faults of the Russian Jew 
 through a magnifying glass and hasten to proclaim them 
 from the house tops. They do not seek to find his virtues 
 and are surprised when these are pointed out. Very often 
 his critics have never associated with a single Russian 
 Jewish family on terms of equality. Their ideas are gath- 
 ered from mendicants whom they meet in connection with 
 the charity societies. Many of these critics know nothing 
 of the Russian Jews as a whole. They see them through 
 a charity office, which is a clearing house for the poverty 
 stricken, the unfortunate, or the degraded. To judge a 
 whole people in this way is like judging the ocean by the 
 foam on its waves. 
 
 There is a tendency now among Russian Jews to take 
 up agricultural pursuits. An agitation is afoot to build 
 a gymnasium and to establish an employment bureau in 
 connection with the proposed Hebrew institute. All this 
 will help toward other occupations than in shops and fac- 
 tories. The Russian Jew has awakened to the necessity of 
 self help and co-operation. As he progresses he will be on 
 a par physically and financially where he already is men- 
 tally and morally. The necessity in reference to Russian 
 Jews in America is to help them to help themselves. They 
 have intelligence. With the acquisition of other qualities 
 they will take an important place in the community. 
 
X 
 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 (A) NEW YORK 
 
 1. By Walter Scott Andrews, M. A. 
 
 2. By Adam Wiener 
 
 Treasurer Society for the Aid of Jewish Prisoners, New York City 
 
 (B) PHILADELPHIA 
 By Isaac Hassler, LL. B. 
 
 Member Philadelphia Bar 
 
 (C) CHICAGO 
 By Elijah N. Zoline 
 
 335 
 
LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 (A) NEW YORKi 
 
 The student of the comparative criminology of the city 
 of New York is confronted at the outset, by the difficulty 
 which arises from the lack of unity in the systems of classi- 
 fication of nationalities, adopted by the various agencies 
 whose reports furnish him with his material. The Bureau 
 of Municipal Statistics would perform a signal service in 
 securing the adoption of a common system, and the value 
 of a vast amount of matter would be increased a thousand- 
 fold. The classification is too summary, in the otherwise 
 valuable reports of the Board of City Magistrates, and the 
 same may be said of the reports of the Board of Health. 
 While the following study is based partly upon estimates, 
 the results are, it will be seen, in general confirmed by 
 comparisons of actual counts. The estimates of popula- 
 tion are calculated from the police census of 1895, which 
 places that of the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx 
 for that year, at 1,851,060.- The population of the two 
 boroughs for 1898, the year chosen for this investigation, 
 was, according to the estimate of the Board of Health, 
 1,976,600. Besides the authorities named, recourse has 
 been had to the report of the Commissioner of Immigration 
 for 1900, and valuable suggestion has been derived from 
 an interesting series of papers published by Judge Deuel, 
 president of the Board of City Magistrates, in Town 
 Topics,^ and from his report for the year 1898. Judge 
 Deuel reaches the comforting conclusion that, upon the 
 whole, serious crime in New York city is on the decrease. 
 His tables show the same large relative proportion of crim- 
 
 ^ The study by Mr. Andrews was originally published in the Year Book of 
 the University Settlement Society of New York, 1900. 
 
 ' See Report of the Board of Health, 1895. 
 
 ^ The papers were published at intervals in Town Topics during the years 
 1897 and 1898, and were summarized in two articles, which appeared during the 
 jnonths of September and November, 1898. 
 
 336 
 
NEW YORK 337 
 
 inality among the natives of the United States as is shown 
 in the table given below, and the proportionate contribu- 
 tions of the various nationalities are constant enough, 
 within certain limits, to justify us in taking the records 
 of a given year as a term of comparison. The basis for 
 the study is the record of persons actually held for trial 
 or summarily tried, by the police magistrates. It is only 
 of these that the details as to nationality are given, and, 
 moreover, they furnish better evidence of presumptive 
 criminality than do the mere arraignments. 
 
 The lower East Side of New York lies mostly within 
 the jurisdiction of Essex Market police court, which ex- 
 tends over a region bounded by East Eiver, Catharine 
 Street, the Bowery, East Houston Street, Clinton Street, 
 Avenue B, and Fourteenth Street. An estimate of its 
 population for 1898 places it at 351,800, or 17.85 per cent, 
 of the total population for the boroughs of Manhattan 
 and the Bronx. In 1897 the births, where both parents or 
 the mother only were natives, constituted but 14.80 per 
 cent, of the whole number in the district; while those in 
 which the mother only or both parents are given as Polish- 
 Russians, were 40.35 per cent, of the total number. Be- 
 sides this, both parents or the mother only in 30.07 per 
 cent, of the total births were classed as ** from other coun- 
 tries," and these include large numbers of Austrians 
 (Poles, Hungarians), and some Roumanians. The German 
 births contribute 5.90 per cent., the Italian 6.33 per cent., 
 and the Irish but 2.55 per cent., the mother, at least, be- 
 longing to the country named. These figures are adduced 
 to give statistical support to what is a matter of common 
 knowledge; namely, that a study of the lower East Side 
 of New York in any aspect, is a study of the population 
 which constitutes the recent and present immigration from 
 Eastern Europe to this country, an immigration consisting 
 mostly of Jews, one of the most important displacements 
 of sections of the race known in history, and one which 
 has resulted in making of New York perhaps the most 
 populous Jewish city that has ever existed. The tables 
 given below are intended to show, first: the general rela- 
 tions of the lower East Side to its chief lower criminal 
 court, Essex Market court (the Third District), by a com- 
 parison of the total number of persons held for trial, or 
 summarily tried and convicted in this court for certain 
 specified offenses, with the whole number so held or so 
 
338 . LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 tried and convicted, in the two boroughs of Manhattan 
 and the Bronx ; second, the proportion of the criminality in 
 the district which may be attributed to the Russians, they 
 being the only nationality of those named above which re- 
 ceives a place by itself in the classification adopted by the 
 Board of City Magistrates. As it is eminently true of a 
 district v/hich includes the Bowery within its limits, that 
 a certain proportion of the crimes and offenses committed 
 there are committed by non-residents, further tables are 
 given, showing the proportionate contributions of the Rus- 
 sians, as well as those of natives of the United States and 
 of each of several nationalities for the two boroughs, both 
 in the matter of total criminality as compared with popu- 
 lation, and in the matter of the commission of the same 
 crimes and offenses specified in the previous table. If we 
 leave aside the figures of population, and consider the pro- 
 portionate contribution of a given nationality to the sum 
 total of criminality as its norm of social activity in this 
 direction, we will have a term which v/ill permit us to dis- 
 cover in what direction the given nationality is disposed 
 to sin most. And in this comparison we will have the 
 advantage of relying entirely upon records, and not at all 
 upon estimates. Following Judge Deuel's scheme in gen- 
 eral, but not in detail, the crimes the commission of which 
 involves the implication of moral turpitude head the list. 
 Then follow less serious offenses — the assaults which are 
 mere quarrels, the larcenies which may be mere detentions 
 of goods. Next are placed three offenses — the keeping 
 of a disorderly house, gambling and the keeping of a 
 gambling house — in which convictions, and even the ar- 
 raignments are so few as to suggest that, apart from the 
 difficulty of securing evidence, they are regarded with a 
 certain degree of benignity by the police.^ In this group, 
 and in the last, where convictions are numerically very 
 few, percentages would be misleading and the actual num- 
 ber of cases is given. 
 
 Table I. showing (1) The total number of persons held 
 or summarily tried and convicted for certain specified of- 
 fenses in the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx for the 
 year 1898, as shown by the report of the Board of Police 
 Magistrates for that year. (2) The proportionate con- 
 
 1 This is truer of the period under consideration than it is now. 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 1339 
 
 tribution, according to nationalities, in the two boroughs 
 (3) The proportionate contribution of the population 
 within the jurisdiction of Essex Market police court, and 
 the share of the Russians in the criminality of the district. 
 
 C u (y o 
 
 O "i '-' o <x 
 
 Assault (felony). .. 
 
 Burglary 
 
 Forgery 
 
 Homicide 
 
 Larceny (felony) .. 
 
 Robbery 
 
 Assault (Misde- 
 meanor) 
 
 Disorderly conduct 
 
 Disorderly person. 
 
 Intoxication . 
 
 Larceny (M isde- 
 meanor) 
 
 Vagrancy 
 
 Violation of Corp.. 
 Ord 
 
 531 
 
 769 
 
 58 
 
 81 
 
 1,590 
 
 232 
 
 1,313 
 
 23,503 
 
 544 
 
 12,955 
 
 2,511 
 5,149 
 
 9,808 
 
 44.2 
 65.4 
 58.6 
 42.8 
 55.6 
 62.5 
 
 43.3 
 43.2 
 43.7 
 42.0 
 
 57.1 
 49.6 
 
 12.2 
 
 14 
 9.9 
 6.9 
 
 21.4 
 8.3 
 
 15.6 
 
 8 
 
 17.1 
 12.1 
 
 
 
 13.2 
 25.4 
 
 7.1 
 10.1 
 
 8.7 
 11.9 
 10.0 
 
 6.46 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.7 
 17.8 
 8.0 
 
 9.8 
 13.6 
 
 18.6 
 3 6 
 3.4 
 6.0 
 4.5 
 
 14.9 
 6.2 
 2 3 
 1.3 
 
 4.9 
 1.2 
 
 19.5 
 
 4.3 
 5.9 
 10.3 
 6.0 
 9.0 
 2.7 
 
 5.9 
 10.1 
 10.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 1.8 
 
 17.7 
 
 2.6 
 0.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.6 
 1,5 
 2.2 
 1.3 
 
 0.16 
 0.6 
 
 Ph 
 
 4.3 
 3.1 
 
 3.4 
 10.7 
 6.7 
 2.7 
 
 3,5 
 5.4 
 6.6 
 2.0 
 
 4.14 
 2.7 
 
 10.5 
 23.8 
 13.8 
 47.6 
 18.5 
 17.7 
 
 10.7 
 26.0 
 
 19.8 
 
 27.8 
 
 15.4 
 
 19.2 
 
 8.6 20.1 02. 4 
 
 .2 ^ 
 
 -- U UJ 
 
 0, <u o 
 
 23.1 
 20.2 
 62.5 
 12.5 
 33.0 
 9.8 
 
 35.0 
 32.0 
 42.6 
 
 3.7 
 
 27.7 
 3.25 
 
 ACTUAL NUMBER OF CASES 
 
 Disorderly House. 
 Gambling . .. 
 
 154 
 33 
 
 66 
 17 
 8 
 
 10 
 36 
 
 36 
 11 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 41 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 
 18 
 
 83 
 
 37 
 
 Gamblingr House 
 Abduction 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 ■3' 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Rape 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Table II. — Distribution of criminality according to na- 
 tionality in the boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx, for 
 the year 1898, according to the report of the Board of City 
 Magistrates for that year. The percentages in the last 
 column are taken as the normal contributions of the given 
 nationalities to the total criminality. By comparing this 
 percentage with the percentages under the nationalities in 
 Table I, the offenses in which a given nationality sur- 
 passes its general average, and those in which it is inferior 
 to it, are shown : 
 
340 
 
 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 
 
 Total number 
 
 
 Per cent, per- 
 sons of given 
 nativity held 
 for trial or 
 
 
 
 of persons 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 s u m m a r i ly 
 
 Nativity 
 
 Population 
 
 held for 
 
 given nation- 
 
 tried and 
 
 
 
 trial, or 
 
 ality to total 
 
 convicted, to 
 
 
 
 summari- 
 
 population 
 
 whole num- 
 
 
 
 ly tried and 
 
 
 ber so held, 
 
 
 
 convicted 
 
 
 or tried and 
 convicted 
 
 United States 
 
 417,100 
 
 26,995 
 
 21.1 
 
 40.2 
 
 Ireland 
 
 409,200 
 434,700 
 
 13,137 
 6,454 
 
 20.7 
 22.0 
 
 19.5 
 
 Germany 
 
 9.6 
 
 England 
 
 42,500 
 
 2,030 
 
 2.15 
 
 8.0 
 
 Scotland 
 
 13,800 
 
 555 
 
 o.r 
 
 0.8 
 
 France 
 
 11,900 
 
 982 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 Italy 
 
 120,600 
 
 4,641 
 
 6.1 
 
 6.9 
 
 Russia 
 
 221,300 
 5,000 
 
 5,481 
 
 11 2 
 
 8.2 
 
 Greece 
 
 3,659 
 
 0.25 
 
 5.4 
 
 Other countries.. 
 
 300,500 
 
 3,267 
 
 15.2 
 
 4.9 
 
 Totals 
 
 1,976,600 
 
 67,201 
 
 100.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 With 17.85 per cent, of the total population of the two 
 boroughs, that within the jurisdiction of Essex Market 
 court furnishes 22.13 per cent, of the total criminality, 
 23.8 per cent, of the burglaries, 47.6 per cent, of the 
 homicides, far more than its fair share of the cases of 
 disorderly conduct and intoxication, and somewhat more 
 than its proportion of vagrants. It is below its reputation 
 in its contribution of both grades of assault. The Rus- 
 sians in the district are prominent in their commission 
 of forgery, violation of corporation ordinances, as dis- 
 orderly persons (failure to support wife or family), both 
 grades of larceny, and of the lighter grade of assault. The 
 reputation for general restlessness of the clientele of Essex 
 Market court seems to be due to the large proportion it 
 furnishes of the totality of arraignments, namely 28 per 
 cent. These and the numerous summons he is asked to 
 issue, often for trivial causes and petty quarrels, may well 
 furnish a magistrate with a vast amount of unpleasant 
 business. 
 
 Turning to the other tables, we find that the Russians, 
 with 11.2 per cent, of the whole population, furnish but 
 8.2 per cent, of the criminality, and applying this last 
 figure, which is their percentage of the total criminality 
 (apart from any question of population), to the per- 
 centages in the list of specified offenses, we find that they 
 
NEW YOIiK 341 
 
 surpass their norm iu some of the same offenses which 
 furnish their contribution to the criminality of the East 
 Side, i e., forgery, felonious larceny, as disorderly persons, 
 and as violators of corporation ordinances; but that, as a 
 whole, they are far below their average in the commission 
 of assault. The Russian on the East Side seems somewhat 
 more inclined to violence than his compatriot in the city 
 at large. He is notably but little addicted to intoxication, 
 and furnishes a very small proportion of vagrants. This 
 sobriety and this avoidance of the workhouse are also char- 
 acteristic of the Italians, who, on the other hand, are more 
 addicted to violence. Further comparisons will be left to 
 the reader, but attention may be called to the remarkable 
 fact that the very small population of Greeks in the two 
 boroughs commit more than 33 per cent, of the violations 
 of corporation ordinances. The high contribution of na- 
 tives, shown also in Judge Deuel's table, is worthy of note, 
 in that the relative position toward crime of the native of 
 the United States, as compared with that of the foreign- 
 born citizen or resident, shown by the United States census 
 of 1890, seems reversed. The discrepancy is probably due 
 to the fact that the census counts as foreigners, the chil- 
 dren born in the United States of parents born abroad, 
 while these appear as natives in the tables here used. 
 
 Turning to the civil courts, we find no such official de- 
 scription of their business as is furnished by the reports 
 of the Board of Magistrates, but must rely upon the sum- 
 mary statements issued by the commissioners of accounts, 
 supplemented, it is true, by the information furnished by 
 ihe valuable report of the Legal Aid Society. Thanks are 
 also due to Judge Roesch, of the Fourth District municipal 
 court for statistics of his court. The litigation of the 
 lower East Side is transacted in the Fourth and Fifth 
 District municipal courts, which include in their jurisdic- 
 tion the district bounded by the Bowery, Fourteenth 
 Street, East River, and Catharine Street. Below are given 
 tables comparing the number of summons issued by them 
 to those issued in the First and Eighth Districts. The 
 First District transacts an abnormally large proportionate 
 business, because it is the down-town court most convenient 
 to the offices of business men and lawyers, and the court 
 naturally used in many cases where one or both of the 
 litigants is a non-resident with a business office in the city 
 of New York. The Eighth District court, on the West 
 
842 
 
 L.4TT' AND LITIGATION 
 
 Side, witk a jurisdiction extending from Fourteenth Street 
 to Fortieth Street, and from Sixth Avenue to Hudson River, 
 is chosen for a term of comparison, because a compara- 
 tively large proportion of the population which resorts to 
 it is native born. 
 
 Table III. showing the number of summons issued in 
 the specified district courts — both actual, and per 1,000 
 of population, and the proportion of free to paid summons 
 in each court: 
 
 MUNICIPAL COURT 
 
 Population, 189S 
 
 Population, proportion to total.... 
 
 Paid summonses 
 
 Free summonses 
 
 Total both 
 
 Summons per 1,000 of population. 
 
 Summons per 1,000, 1S90 
 
 Proportion of free summons 
 
 Proportion of free summons, 1899, 
 Nativity: percentage of 100 births: 
 
 Both parents U. S 
 
 Both parents Russian 
 
 FIRST 
 
 FOURTH 
 
 FIFTH 
 
 DISTRICT 
 
 DISTRICT 
 
 DISTRICT 
 
 .56,120 
 
 197.600 
 
 235,100 
 
 2.84% 
 
 10% 
 
 11.9% 
 
 5,260 
 
 2,795 
 
 3,239 
 
 135 
 
 1,650 
 
 1,543 
 
 5,395 
 
 4,445 
 
 4,782 
 
 96.1 
 
 22.5 
 
 20.35 
 
 85.5 
 
 22.3 
 
 20.89 
 
 2.5% 
 
 37 % 
 
 32 % 
 
 3.6% 
 
 34.6% 
 
 38.6% 
 
 
 13 % 
 
 8.7% 
 
 
 42.6% 
 
 42.6% 
 
 EIGHTH 
 DISTRICT 
 
 163,020 
 
 8.25% 
 1,799 
 695 
 2,494 
 15.30 
 13.01 
 27.8% 
 32.6% 
 
 38.7% 
 2.6% 
 
 Table IV.— Municipal 
 cases ( dispossessions ) . 
 
 courts — Landlord and tenant 
 
 MUNICIPAL COURT 
 
 Population, 1898 
 
 Dispossessions, actual number, 1898 
 1899 
 
 per 1,000, 1898 
 
 1899 
 
 " actual number, 1900 
 per 1,000, 1900 
 
 FOURTH 
 
 FIFTH 
 
 DISTRICT 
 
 DISTRICT 
 
 184,895 
 
 219,751 
 
 6,498 
 
 9,372 
 
 6,336 
 
 9,853 
 
 35 
 
 42.6 
 
 34 
 
 44.8 
 
 6,575 
 
 9,767 
 
 35.5 
 
 44.4 
 
 EIGHTH 
 DISTRICT 
 
 152,399 
 
 4,868 
 
 5,324 
 
 31.9 
 
 34.9 
 
 5,156 
 
 33.8 
 
 These tables reveal it is true, a somewhat greater tend- 
 ency to resort to litigation on the East than on the West 
 Side; between 5 and 9 more people in 1,000 apply for a 
 summons on the East Side than do in the Eighth District. 
 But they reveal more strikingly the poverty of the dis- 
 trict, in the large proportion of free simimonses issued. 
 For a free summons can be issued only when the suit is for 
 a smn of less than $50, or when a person sues '' in forma 
 
NEW YORK 343 
 
 pauperis.*' The relatively greater number of evictions is 
 evidence of the same poverty, and so is the large business 
 done by the East Side Branch of the Legal Aid Society. 
 This business consists largely of efforts to recover small 
 sums of money due as wages ; $15 would be a high average 
 for all the claims brought to its notice. Many letters are 
 v/ritten for the recovery of sums of less than $1, and 
 suits brought for the recovery of $5, and of even smaller 
 sums. Seventy-five per cent, of its business is done for 
 Polish and Russian Jews, 50 per cent, of the remainder for 
 Austrian and Roumanian Jews. 
 
 Of the total number of judgments obtained, quite a 
 large number are returned unsatisfied (no larger a pro- 
 portion, however, according to the society's marshal, than 
 in other districts of the city), and this fact might be ar- 
 gued in support of the accusation that the East Side acts 
 upon a low standard of commercial honesty. But a com- 
 parison instituted in this manner is not fair. Of the 
 total number of applications to the society, many are 
 settled without recourse to the courts, and many are set- 
 tled before judgment. In a list of 261 suits examined, 88 
 were dismissed or discontinued, or resulted in judgments 
 for the defendant; 79 were settled or reported settled; 39 
 judgments were satisfied, thus leaving 55 cases or a little 
 more than 25 per cent, only, of executions returned unsat- 
 isfied. Quite as consonant with the facts at hand as the 
 theory of commercial dishonesty would be the one of 
 the prevalence of a spirit of enterprise out of proportion 
 to the capital of the community; and the frequency of 
 settlements before final judgment may well mean that in 
 a majority of cases the cause of the non-payment of wages 
 is the sheer inability to pay. With regard to the accusa- 
 tion of untruthfulness so freely brought against the liti- 
 gants of the district, statistics are silent, and the matter 
 must be one of personal impression. In the course of an 
 experience of several months in the East Side office of the 
 Legal Aid Society, the writer believes that usually he has 
 listened to the truth, often colored, of course, by the bias 
 of the relator. The actual and complete denial of a claim 
 is not frequent. 
 
 To sum up: The interpretation of these figures seems 
 to show that, judged by the records of the police courts, 
 the native of the United States is, in the city of New York, 
 at least, a more frequent criminal than is the foreign-born 
 
344 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 resident or naturalized citizen. They confirm to a certain 
 degree the reputation of the lower East Side for general 
 lawlessness, but absolve the Jew, as judged by the Russian, 
 who is shown to constitute a probably preponderating ele- 
 ment in the population, from anything like a proportion- 
 ate contribution to this lawlessness, excepting as to a few 
 specified offenses. Examining the record of the Russian 
 in the city at large, it is found that he furnishes a low 
 proportion of the general criminality, Avith a relatively 
 high percentage in the matters of forgery, felonious lar- 
 ceny, refusal or inability to support his family, and in the 
 violation of corporation ordinances. The records of the 
 civil courts seem to show him to be rather more litigious 
 than the average citizen, but they show him, above all, to 
 be poor. As to the matter of commercial dishonesty, the 
 statistics at hand do not justify the accusation, in more 
 than a limited degree, and as to that of untruthfulness, 
 they are silent. A low criminal record, somewhat liti- 
 gious, very poor, yet "furnishing an extremely low con- 
 tingent to the vagrant classes, these are the characteristics 
 of the East Side Jew, as judged by the Russian. If, from 
 the economic standpoint his very poverty renders him an 
 undesirable competitor, his combination of thrift with 
 sobriety and his slight tendency to crime may well be 
 set off as compensating qualities in any estimate of his 
 value as a future citizen. 
 
 Thirty years ago the conviction of a Jew for a felony 
 was almost unheard of in the city of New York. To-day 
 there is not one penal institution within the area of the 
 Greater New York which does not harbor some offenders 
 of the Jewish people. 
 
 It is not difficult to realize the effect of having 
 thousands of Russians and other wandering Jews and 
 their families turned loose on Manhattan Island,^ caus- 
 ing them to drift into the Ghetto of our metropolis and 
 other congested districts, where immorality and squalor 
 march hand in hand, and side by side. The Jew has 
 been tainted by the new city life into which he has been 
 cast. 
 
 If the tribe of Baron de Hirsch would only multiply 
 
NEW YORK 345 
 
 and increase as the tribes of Abou Ben Adam, how many 
 of these poor families might be removed from poverty, 
 hunger and dirt to peaceful pastoral sections of our coun- 
 try, there till the soil and thrive in the agricultural pur- 
 suits as some now do in New Jersey. 
 
 Appreciating the need of having good Jewish influence 
 brought to bear upon the minds of these offenders and to 
 better them, the Society for the Aid of Jewish Prisoners 
 was ushered into existence in 1891 to take up the work 
 that had been looked after by the Conference of New York 
 Rabbis. Its object is " to improve the moral condition of 
 Jewish prisoners in the state of New York, and to lend 
 them a helping hand after their release from penal in- 
 stitutions. ' ' 
 
 Under the guidance of this organization. Rev. Dr. A. M. 
 Radin holds divine services at the Penitentiary and Work- 
 house, Blackwell 's Island, on every Saturday ; at the House 
 of Refuge, Randall's Island every Sunday; at the Kings 
 County Penitentiary in Brooklyn every other week and 
 at the Tombs Prison on Mondays. At Sing Sing Dr. 
 Israel Davidson makes frequent visits, conducts meetings, 
 and looks after the Jewish prisoners. He also performs 
 a similar task at the state penal institution at Naponach. 
 At Auburn Rev. Dr. A. Guttman, of Syracuse, is the Jcav- 
 ish chaplain, and at Clinton Prison (Dannemora) Rabbi 
 Judelson officiates. 
 
 The crimes of the Russian Jew are more or less of a 
 nature similar to those of other nationalities and races, 
 although the basest of crimes, murder and manslaughter, 
 are practically unknown to them. 
 
 Some years ago there was a tendency to commit arson, 
 but this too has become almost entirely eliminated from 
 the category of offenses among the immigrant Israelites. 
 Most of the offenses are committed by the children of 
 immigrants, who have been contaminated by the vice of our 
 great city and who spurn the advice of their elders, whom 
 they frequently term *' greenhorns '^ and who are unable 
 to exert the necessary influence over them or to command 
 the proper respect. 
 
 Offenders guilty of petty larceny and other misdemean- 
 ors or of a grand larceny in a minor degree are generally 
 committed to the Blackwell 's Island Penitentiary and about 
 eight per cent, of the prisoners at that institution arp 
 Jews. This includes persons arrested for selling or ped- 
 
346 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 dling on the streets without a license, who are unable to 
 pay a fine. 
 
 Vagrants, drunkards, and disorderly characters are com- 
 mitted to the Work House at Blackwell's Island, and 
 it is gratifying to learn that at all times less than two 
 per cent, of the two thousand inmates of that institution 
 are of the Jewish persuasion. 
 
 At the Kings County Penitentiary in Brooklyn there are 
 comparatively few males and it is indeed a rarity to 
 find a Jewish girl or woman on the roll. 
 
 At the Tombs Prison and Ludlow Street Jail, where per- 
 sons under indictment are detained, pending trial, the num- 
 ber varies. 
 
 About ten per cent, of the young people at Elmira Re- 
 formatory are Jewish, but this includes unfortunates from 
 all over the state of New York. 
 
 At Auburn Prison there are generally less than a dozen 
 Jewish convicts sentenced for heinous crimes out of a total 
 of more than thirteen hundred. 
 
 The same average holds good for Clinton Prison; and 
 at Sing Sing where the New York City convicts, who 
 have committed felonies, are incarcerated, the average 
 number is less than ten per cent, among the Jev^^s. 
 
 * ' Evil associations corrupt good morals, ' ' is applicable to 
 the conditions existing in the so-called Ghetto of Nev/ 
 York City. During the regime of Tammany Hall the 
 lower East Side of New York City was a hot bed of vice 
 and immorality and the *' red light district," as it was 
 termed, became as offensive a glare to the eye as the Tam- 
 many rule was a stench to the nostrils. 
 
 Young men and women were lured away from their 
 parental roofs and employed as '* cadets " to aid as bad 
 a gang of degenerates as ever lived in a civilized com- 
 munity and the then chief of police looked on, and retired, 
 or rather was turned out of office, after Tammany's de- 
 feat on the ill-gotten gains of his office. 
 
 Young working girls were scoffed at by those who wore 
 silks and satins and had money in their pockets; while the 
 former wore rags and had barely a few coins that they 
 could consider their own. The bad influence and effects 
 can readily be imagined. From lives of immorality de- 
 veloped vagrancy, petty thefts, and more serious offenses. 
 The banal influence of some of the wretches who called 
 
NEW YORK 347 
 
 themselves men and women, not only on girls but on boys 
 as well, can be pictured without much difficulty. 
 
 Another trait developed by this state of affairs was gam- 
 bling and when the losses in gambling became extensive, 
 the temptation to forge and steal developed but too soon. 
 
 How could such influences help but offset the virtuous 
 instincts of a parental abode, a father's advice, or a moth- 
 er's prayer? 
 
 There was but one solution when the reform government 
 entered on its duties under the leadership of Mayor Low, 
 whose efforts for good were directly turned towards ame- 
 liorating the conditions of these depraved and downtrod- 
 den Jews and Jewesses, and whose noble purposes must 
 be thoroughly appreciated, — to prosecute all offenders and 
 purify the congested quarter of the great metropolis. 
 
 Through the suggestions of this administration the 
 youthful criminals, or rather offenders, were separated 
 from the hardened convicts, as will appear later. 
 
 All offenders are brought before a magistrate's court 
 and where the charge is one of disorderly conduct, vagran- 
 cy, disturbing the peace, etc., the court sentences them to 
 Blackwell's Island for a few days or sometimes for some 
 months, and sometimes simply imposes a fine and if it is not 
 paid the culprit is sent to the Workhouse on Blackwell's 
 Island. 
 
 In instances where a misdemeanor is committed, such as 
 petty larceny, grand larceny in a minor degree, assault in 
 a minor degree, and the like, the accused is held under 
 an amount of bail for the court of special sessions, pre- 
 sided over by three justices at a session — and without a 
 jury — whose authority extends to sentencing offenders 
 for any period not exceeding one year and in imposing 
 fines not in excess of five hundred dollars. Before the case 
 reaches the court of special sessions an indictment must 
 have been found by the grand jury. 
 
 In other instances, where the more serious and heinous 
 crimes are committed the city magistrate holds the pris- 
 oner, with or without bail, as the exigencies of the case 
 may require, for the grand jury, and in some cases such 
 matters are submitted to the district attorney in the first 
 instance, and he may take the initiative in submitting the 
 facts to the grand jury. After an indictment has been 
 found, the prisoner, where he cannot or may not give bail, 
 is confined in the city prison, familiarly called the Tombs, 
 
348 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 until his -case is reached in the court of general sessions 
 of the peace, or occasionally in the criminal term of the 
 supreme court, both of which are conducted under the 
 jury system. 
 
 Upon conviction the prisoner may be sentenced to any 
 of the state prisons and fined, or in case of minor offenses, 
 which are sometimes disposed of in the last named court, 
 to the penitentiary. 
 
 In Brooklyn there is also a court of special sessions, and 
 the Kings County court which possesses criminal jurisdic- 
 tion in Brooklyn takes the place of the court of general 
 sessions in New York. 
 
 Women convicted for felonious crimes are committed to 
 Auburn or to Blackwell's Island or to some reformatory, 
 while males are sent to any one of the penal institutions 
 herein referred to. 
 
 During the past two years a number of excellent in- 
 novations have become established tending towards pre- 
 serving youth under sixteen years of age from contamina- 
 tion with older and more hardened and confirmed crim- 
 inals. 
 
 Wherever a boy or girl of tender years is brought before 
 a magistrate, except in heavy criminal cases, the matter is 
 referred to one of the justices of the court of special 
 sessions who presides over a part called the children's 
 court in an entirely separate building away from the en- 
 vironments of the criminal tribunals. 
 
 The courts have parole officers whose duty it is to super- 
 vise the conduct and movements of the youthful offen- 
 ders, on whom sentence is suspended. These parole offi- 
 cers report to the court front time to time, and if the 
 reports are favorable the culprits are again free to go 
 where they please and are thus saved from the evil sur- 
 roundings of a criminal atmosphere in penal institutions. 
 
 This parole system is also in vogue in the magistrate's 
 court and frequently sentence is suspended pending favor- 
 able reports submitted to the court by parole officers. 
 
 Mrs. Sophie C. Axman, a Jev/ess, who co-operated with 
 the Educational Alliance and looked after the parole cases 
 in the children's court, has now been appointed chief 
 parole officer by the board of justices of the court of special 
 sessions. 
 
 In all of the penal institutions, religious services are 
 held for the Jewish inmates by Jewish rabbis, with the 
 
NEW YOBK 349 
 
 possible exception of the protectories. At the Catholic pro- 
 tectory the boys are taught useful trades and if at any time 
 a Jewish rabbi desires to interview Jewish children he is 
 generally received very cordially. 
 
 In sending children or young men to a reformatory the 
 judge or magistrate selects the institution which is conduct- 
 ed in conformity with the religion of the prisoner. 
 
 Last year a certificate of incorporation was granted for 
 a Jewish protectory to be managed on the lines similar to 
 the Catholic protectory. Several meetings of the incor- 
 porators of the new Jewish Protectory and Aid Society 
 have been held in New York City and more than two 
 hundred thousand dollars have already been subscribed 
 by Jewish members of this great municipality, men whose 
 wealth of heart is commensurate with that of worldly 
 goods, and it is to be expected that in the very near future 
 ground will be bought and buildings erected on the cot- 
 tage system, and wayward boys and girls taught trades 
 of all kinds. Under the state laws and county regulations 
 the society will receive $2 per week or $114 per annum 
 for each youth cared for, but it is estimated that it will 
 cost again as much to maintain the inmates and the re- 
 mainder of the requisite fund will be raised through do- 
 nations and annual dues. Hon. Julius M. Mayer, who was 
 recently elected attorney general' of New York state, is the 
 president of the new society. Its work will, beyond doubt, 
 be far reaching. "When a youthful offender receives his dis- 
 charge from the protectory he will be proficient in the 
 trade which he has learned and able to support himself 
 in a respectable manner. Through the co-operation of the 
 societies having a hand in the work of the Removal Bureau 
 he may be sent to other parts of the country to work at 
 his trade, to support himself and others, and bequeath to 
 the next generation a fair type of American manhood. 
 
 No particular mention has been made as to the litigation 
 in the criminal courts applicable to Jews for the reason that 
 they are all on the same plane with others. 
 
 In cases where a Jewish prisoner or other wishes to 
 stand trial and has no attorney the court will always 
 name some member of the bar to defend the case, and 
 there are always interpreters to assist, although there are 
 instances of miscarriage of justice at times. 
 
 However, we may be fairly well satisfied with the con- 
 ditions during the past year in New York, when we realize 
 
350 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 how vastly different the empire state treats its Jewish 
 offenders compared with almost every European nation, 
 other than those of the English-speaking countries. 
 
 After a Jewish prisoner is discharged, having completed 
 his term of imprisonment, Jewish societies give him a 
 helping hand, and in some instances lead him back into the 
 paths of virtue; often, too, to the greatest paradise on 
 earth, a happy Jewish home circle. 
 
(B) PHILADELPHIA 
 
 What is the relation of the newly arrived Jew of East- 
 ern Europe, generally termed for convenience, the Russian 
 Jew, to American law? In the absence of statistical infor- 
 mation or because of ignorance of his peculiar mental and 
 native equipment, erroneous conclusions might be arrived 
 at. The conspicuous presence of the Russian Jew in our 
 courts calls occasionally for hasty, often prejudiced opin- 
 ions, which the light of the real facts must dispel. If the 
 Russian Jew seems to appear with frequency in the courts, 
 the tendency of the observer, however calm and reserved, 
 to magnify the impression of a novel and individual spec- 
 tacle must not be forgotten. In the general melange of 
 all kinds of persons of which the assemblage at the courts 
 is made up, few will specially attract the eye save those 
 who are distinguished by some peculiarities of appearance 
 or address or language. Recent immigrants of any nation- 
 ality almost will be liable to the distinction. The " out- 
 lander ' ' is very easily singled out from the throng in what- 
 ever country he may be. But in our courts many national- 
 ities, such as English, Irish and German, for obvious rea- 
 sons, will attract but little special attention because of 
 their near approximation to accepted American types. 
 But when to a latent prejudice is added the striking in- 
 dividual appearance of the Russian Jews, it will be seen 
 that the impression made by them, standing out clearly as 
 they do in the eye of the observer from the rest of the 
 crowd of litigants and suitors, may easily be exaggerated, 
 and a rapid judgment will come to the sincere but perhaps 
 erroneous view that Russian Jews make over frequent ap- 
 pearance in the public forums. Under such circumstances 
 ' * one swallow may make a whole summer. ' ' This caution 
 is here expressed because the writer has found the view to 
 exist upon the part of many persons that the Russian Jew 
 is unduly litigious. 
 
 Something needs also to be said of the Russian Jew^s 
 previous life and circumstances. His status under the 
 
 351 
 
352 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 laws of his native land is uncertain. The only certainty 
 consists m the restrictions which are laid about him and 
 which forbid his assertion of public rights of the common- 
 est order. He is not equal with Russian Christians before 
 the Russian law. It must not be supposed that this dulls 
 his desire for the rights that are withheld and makes him 
 indifferent to their acquisition or importance; on the con- 
 trary, as is natural with any people, particularly a people 
 of strong intellectual and moral fibre, the desire is 
 merely whetted by deprivation. Again, in consequence of 
 this civic discrimination and by force of Russia's policy 
 with respect to him, the Jew is shut out of the current 
 of the national life, such as there is, and is thrown 
 back upon himself. From the cares of every day exist- 
 ence, his religion and its books are his recreation, nay, even 
 the chief aim and purpose of his life, and discussion of 
 Jewish law, particularly as contained in the Talmud, be- 
 comes the intellectual bread upon which his strong men- 
 tality is nourished. The Jewish law will rival in every 
 respect the most important bodies of law which have ap- 
 peared among men in history; it has its codes and codi- 
 fications, digests and dicta, precedents, professors and stu- 
 dents, great underlying principles, refined scholastic dis- 
 tinctions, quibbles and strength, as have all systems of law. 
 It differs from any modern system in that it makes no 
 distinction between civil law and moral law; all the 
 '' civil " law is moral law and all the " moral " law is 
 civil law, a thing which is not true of the common law in 
 force in England and many parts of the United States, 
 in which obligations ex foro CGnscientice are not necessar- 
 ily enforceable in foro legis. There is a whole great range 
 of hum.an relations, rights, and obligations into which the 
 common law does not enter and with which it does not con- 
 cern itself, but the Jewish law concerns itself with all 
 relations between men, and even between men and God, 
 and has been the supreme regulation of Jewish life for long 
 centuries. An aptitude for law, an appreciation of its 
 value, a delight in its intellectual contests, and a reverence 
 for its decision is a natural inheritance of the Jewish peo- 
 ple. The repressions of Russian policy do not destroy 
 this abiding faith in law; and the freedom of America 
 encourages it. So much for a few points of general ap- 
 plication. 
 
 The situation of the Russian Jew in Philadelphia does 
 
PHILADELPHIA 353 
 
 not differ materially from his situation in other cities of 
 similar size except in a small degree caused by local pe- 
 culiarities. He is alert, progressive, and thrifty.. He en- 
 ters quickly into business and by hard work and energetic 
 application has made a place for himself in a short time. 
 He is fairly successful in the small shop and by gradual 
 stages comes to have the large manufacturing establish- 
 ment, and his signs may be seen in all the important 
 wholesale streets of the city. He is a handicraftsman and 
 an employer of labor, and there is probably no branch 
 of trade in which he is not represented in some way. In 
 the mazes of business and investment with others, intri- 
 cate relations result naturally in a proportionable amount 
 of *' lawing " and its incidents. He is a quick student 
 and has early learned the lesson that legal advice in time 
 is a preventive of law suits; conscious of certain handi- 
 caps of speech and the other concomitants of a foreign 
 birth, he avails himself freely of the training and skill 
 of the lawyer. 
 
 An important part in the legal life of the Russian Jew is 
 played by Russian Jewish notaries public. A number of 
 Russian Jews hold commissions as notaries and have offices 
 in the Russian Jewish district. Their contact with law 
 gives them a smattering of legal knowledge and they not 
 only authenticate papers notarially, but do a quasi-legal 
 business, drawing with more or less skill contracts and 
 papers, engaging in real estate transactions, insurance, and 
 the like, and acting as semi-professional, semi-friendly ad- 
 visers generally. These " notary public shops," as they 
 have been aptly termed, are the necessary local requirement 
 of a people who need legal services and who turn naturally 
 to those they know best for such assistance. Usually there 
 is a qualified attorney-at-law who either maintains a branch 
 office with the notary public or to whom the latter refers 
 the more difficult part of his business. 
 
 No other class of citizens not native born figures as large- 
 ly in the civil lists of the courts, because no other class 
 as quickly makes its way in the industrial world and enters 
 so keenly into its life and intricacies. But as compared 
 with the whole population, and keeping in view the Rus- 
 sian Jew's business interests, statistical data do not show 
 any undue litigiousness.^ Of a total of 1,330 cases listed 
 
 ^ It is estimated that there are about 100,000 Jews in Philadelphia (of whom 
 76,000 are Russian Jews), out of a total population of 1,300,000 for the city. 
 
354 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 for trials in a trial term of the Philadelphia courts of com- 
 mon pleas, Russian Jews were plaintiffs or defendants or 
 both in 112 cases, a percentage of 8.42 ; a similar list of 770 
 cases of another period showed 54 Russian Jewish cases, a 
 percentage of 7.01. The percentage of Russian Jewish cases 
 may safely be placed between seven and eight, a result veri- 
 fied from other court list data. This is close to the Rus- 
 sian Jew's actual percentage of population and would 
 indicate a closer identification with its business and other 
 interests than is the case with other immigrant peoples, 
 whose percentage of '' lawing " is not so high and whose 
 activities are correspondingly not so great. The figures 
 therefore show not an indication of obnoxious assertive- 
 ness, but a plain result of business and industrial activity. 
 
 In the magistrates' or justices' courts (having a civil 
 jurisdiction of cases where not more than one hundred 
 dollars is involved) no very accurate information is ob- 
 tainable, owing to their number and the relative inaccessi- 
 bility of their records. Certain magistrates in sections 
 of the city near to the Russian Jewish districts have a 
 large proportion of their business emanating from Jews. 
 The cases are vigorously pressed and as vigorously fought, 
 but one of the magistrates, who had a large amount of 
 this class of business, informed the writer that there is 
 a strong tendency to arbitrate cases, and this is a well 
 known practice, whether before or after a case is begun 
 in court. Some rabbi, a well-known banker, or business 
 man, a notary public, is selected as arbitrator and the diffi- 
 culty is peaceably adjusted. The rabbi has great influence 
 in this direction and it would seem is most frequently the 
 arbitrator. 
 
 A reference to his standing in the world of real estate, 
 including its buying, selling, mortgaging and the like, 
 which is closely allied to the world of general law, will show 
 that the Russian Jew is alive to the merits of the build- 
 ing association system, and to the merits of real estate, 
 whether for investment or personal use. A considerable 
 number of Russian Jewish real estate brokers, agents 
 and dealers of good standing, whose clientele grows rap- 
 idly beyond the Russian Jewish circle, attests his active 
 participation in this important field. The daily news- 
 paper lists of real estate transactions show an increasing 
 number of Jewish names ; and the Russian Jew is well repre- 
 sented at the sales at leading real estate exchanges. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 355 
 
 That he is provident is markedly shown in these real 
 estate dealings. He buys real estate with the idea of 
 saving his money ; he buys when he has but a small amount 
 of money to invest, leaving the rest upon easy payment 
 mortgage, which he slowly and surely pays off, though his 
 earnings be but small; he buys not expecting or antici- 
 pating to be foreclosed, but intending to save and 
 eventually to acquire clear a home, a shop, or an invest- 
 ment, and the mortgage acts as a spur instead of a weight. 
 Hence he is considered a good " moral risk " in the mat- 
 ter of mortgage loans. He is besides steadily advancing 
 into the field of the larger real estate and building opera- 
 tions. 
 
 The field of criminal law presents some interesting 
 features. There is a considerable amount of this class 
 of litigation. There was a time when the presence of a 
 Jew in the criminal court was of exceeding rarity; it is 
 not so now. Yet this important fact must be remembered ; 
 as noted above, when the Russian Jew does appear his 
 striking individuality will stand out in such strong relief 
 as to leave a lasting impression and draw many to the 
 conclusion that the Jew is occupying a considerable part 
 of the time of the criminal court. The writer has heard 
 court officers speak in this way; they forget the thousands 
 of cases in which men of no special peculiarity appeared 
 in court but remember with great vividness the Jews who 
 pass before them. This is understandable, but quite 
 wrong. An illustration of how this alien appearance works 
 against the Jew may not be out of place. If a Jew in 
 business difficulty should confess judgment to those whom 
 he wishes to prefer among his creditors, the fact would 
 be remembered, while if it were done by a non-Jew, no one 
 would remember it as a tendency of the particular class. 
 Recently a large corporation with public purposes confessed 
 judgment in favor of certain creditors who were also its 
 managers and officers; by this process a large number of 
 claims against the company were effectually rendered 
 worthless. The matter attracted passing attention but it 
 will certainly not be stigmatized as a characteristic of the 
 people who effected this highly inequitable result. Yet 
 the incident was as flagrant as any that could be cited. 
 
 An examination of the kind of crimes prevalent among 
 Jews reveals no cause for serious alarm. The majority 
 are assault and battery cases of a trivial description and 
 
356 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 they arige quite naturally. The living together in large 
 numbers, several families in a house, the keen business 
 rivalry, l3ring, with a people of the excitable, nervous tem- 
 perament of the Jew, frequent occasions when high words 
 pass and — infrequently — a blow is struck; — infre- 
 quently because in many cases the whole trouble is mere 
 hot language and threatening gestures. As the slightest 
 touching in anger is in technical law a battery, ample ma- 
 terial for a prosecution on the part of an angry man or 
 woman is provided. Not unusually the other party, 
 spurred on by the institution of legal proceeding and as 
 a measure of protection by way of counter offense, insti- 
 tutes a cross-charge, and it is found that a large proportion 
 of these Russian Jewish assault and battery cases consists 
 of counter bills. The result is generally that by the time 
 the matter comes to court, both parties, now in cooler 
 blood, are heartily sick of the whole matter, a better feel- 
 ing ensues, and both cases are submitted by agreement and 
 dropped. When they proceed so far as a trial, it gen- 
 erally results in the jury acquitting both sides, being 
 unable to determine from the conflicting evidence who is 
 guilty; the presumption of innocence until guilt is proven 
 controls and there is a happy ending for the contestants. 
 But not infrequently the mediation of some cool-headed 
 friend, who makes an appeal to their good '' Jewish feel- 
 ing," produces the desired result of peace. 
 
 These conclusions are not merely the result of collated 
 opinions of those informed on the subject, but are verified 
 by statistical data. The result of one hundred and sixty 
 assault and battery cases against Jewish defendants 
 tried in the Philadelphia courts in one year was but 
 twenty-nine convictions and one hundred and thirty-one 
 acquittals. 
 
 Other crimes committed by Jews are quite below the 
 proportion in the whole community. Some of them grow 
 out of the Jew^s prominence in business. Cases of lar- 
 ceny by bailee arise, as where in a dispute over the amount 
 due by a manufacturer of clothing to a finisher, the finisher 
 retains the articles until he is paid, and the manufacturer 
 causes his arrest. These are really civil disputes, which, 
 however, may be brought technically within a criminal 
 statute; they are generally settled amicably. Isolated 
 cases of embezzlement, forgery, larceny, malicious mischief, 
 conspiracy, receiving stolen goods and the like, sometimes 
 
PHILADELPHIA 357 
 
 technically, sometimes substantially true, occur, but they 
 are not unduly frequent. 
 
 Before the institution of the juvenile court, a consid- 
 erable number of larceny cases appeared against Jews; so 
 also a fair number of malicious mischief cases. Many of 
 these were cases of petty depredations by boys which would 
 now be met by the more adequate remedies of the juvenile 
 court. It is true that the once unsullied name of the Jew 
 is not now unsj^otted, but the fault is not so much with 
 the Jew as with those trying conditions, for which he is 
 not responsible, under which these deplorable results have 
 appeared. The tyranny practiced against him in his old 
 home and the utterly different conditions of American life 
 to which he is suddenly transported, conditions of bad 
 housing and the like, and the demands of a business world 
 whose prevailing standards are not always of the highest, 
 demanding tense vigilance and strenuous zeal, contribute 
 to the cause. 
 
 Data of tried cases in a year show the following results : 
 Twenty cases of obtaining money or a valuable thing by 
 cheating or misrepresentation showed four convictions and 
 sixteen acquittals; four cases of receiving stolen goods re- 
 sulted in one conviction and three acquittals; five cases of 
 perjury resulted in no convictions and five acquittals; of 
 arson not a single case was found during the year in ques- 
 tion; homicide is almost unknown. 
 
 If the keeping of bawdy houses and prostitution, once 
 practically unknown among Jews, have made their ap- 
 pearance in Philadelphia as in other American cities, it 
 is to be remembered that the former freedom of the Jews 
 from these evils rather over-emphasizes their spread. 
 
 Some curious violations of the criminal law and the 
 laws of marriage occur through reliance upon the pro- 
 visions of the Jewish law, in ignorance of the law of the 
 state. The gett ( divorce ) duly granted according to the 
 Jewish law, is of course of no avail in the courts here, 
 though it is in Russia. 
 
 Similarly cases of marriage within consanguineous de- 
 grees forbidden by the state law but allowed by the Jew- 
 ish law and innocently contracted, have arisen. No dis- 
 position of the authorities to punish innocent defendants 
 in such cases appears. The rabbis have taken some steps 
 to prevent this conflict of laws, one suggestion being a 
 
358 • LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 refusal fb grant the Jewish divorce until the civil divorce 
 has been obtained. 
 
 The following data of the inmates of prisons and reform 
 institutions in Philadelphia are of interest: 
 
 In the Eastern Penitentiary (prisoners committing the 
 graver crimes in the eastern part of Pennsylvania are sent 
 to this prison) there were on November 17, 1904, in all 
 1,121 prisoners, of whom 20 were Jews, a percentage of 
 1.78, which is very small as compared with the percentage 
 of population, which is 7.7 per cent. Of these, 11 or not 
 quite one per cent, of the whole number of prisoners, were 
 Jews of Eastern Europe, Russia, Austria, etc.; 7 were 
 Jews born in the United States, one in England, and one 
 in Scotland. The nativity of the parentage of these has 
 not been ascertained. The following were the crimes com- 
 mitted by the Eastern European Jews : Murder 1,^ lar- 
 ceny and receiving 1, larceny and entering 2, burglary, 
 larceny and horse stealing 1, false pretenses 1, forgery 1, 
 counterfeiting 1, assault and battery with intent to rape 1, 
 distilling whisky without giving bond 1, breaking and 
 entering 1. 
 
 In the Philadelphia county prison the total number of 
 convicts (December 12, 1904) was 509, of whom 18, or 
 3.54 per cent., were Jews. Of these, 12, or 2.36 per cent., 
 of the total number of prisoners, were born in Russia, 3 in 
 the United States, 2 in Germany and 1 in England. The 
 following were the charges: Larceny 6, aggravated as- 
 sault and battery 2, forgery 3, receiving stolen goods 3, 
 robbery 2, burglary 1, involuntary manslaughter 1. 
 
 Grouping these data it is found that Jews are inmates 
 of the prisons for serious crimes to the extent of 2.66 per 
 cent., while the Jew's percentage of the population is 7.7 
 per cent., or nearly three times as great. 
 
 Juvenile delinquency among Russian Jews has perhaps 
 aroused the most discussion. The causes of this are again 
 largely economic; housing conditions are bad; the parents 
 are hard-working and too busy with earning the liveli- 
 hood to pay sufficient attention to their children, who, left 
 to themselves, learn idle or vicious habits on the streets 
 and in the thousand ways of imitative childhood. Besides 
 many children very early help in the family support and 
 as newsboys in large numbers on the streets and in the 
 
 ^ As noted above, it is an isolated case. 
 
PHILADELPHIA 359 
 
 lower classes of employment are deprived of the oppor- 
 tunity of refining influences. In addition, the child, quick- 
 ly Americanized, speedily finds a gulf between itself and 
 its parents in respect of religious and other sentiments, and 
 the parental authority grows less and less of a restraint. 
 The juvenile court, with its system of probation officers, 
 and Jewish agencies and the settlements and other kindred 
 institutions, is working acceptably with this condition. 
 
 In the House of Refuge for boys at Glen Mills, Pa. 
 (which is a high grade corrective institution and not a 
 prison), out of a total of 766 inmates, 61, or 7.96 per cent., 
 were Jews, almost all of whom were Eastern European. 
 Of these, twenty-seven were charged with larceny, twenty- 
 four with incorrigibility and the others with various de- 
 linquencies, such as running away from home, fighting, 
 keeping bad company, malicious mischief, and the like. 
 
 In the Girls' House of Refuge, out of a total of 127 in- 
 mates, 8, or 3.81 were Jewish, all charged with being 
 incorrigible. 
 
 There is no specifically Jewish institution to receive de- 
 linquent children, but Jewish organizations are providing 
 private places for their care. There is no doubt that the 
 previous rarity of delinquency of this kind among Jews 
 accentuates the dismay felt at its recent manifestation. 
 As economic conditions better for the Jew, however, 
 and as some of the agencies now at work grow in 
 influence and assist where the parents are unable to in- 
 fluence, the matter will be adjusted. 
 
 The Russian Jew on the whole appears in a favorable 
 light from the standpoint of the law. Such criticisms as 
 may be made are apt to be exaggerated, and where just 
 should rather be made against conditions for which he is 
 not responsible and of which he is the victim. He has not 
 lost his character as, and is pre-eminently, a law-abiding 
 citizen, earnestly interested in the welfare of the state, and 
 no less keenly alive to his civic responsibilities than to his 
 civic privileges. 
 
(C) CHICAGO 
 
 I shall first review the litigation most common amongst 
 Russian Jews in the civil branch of the courts. They are : 
 Suits growing out of contracts of bargain and sale of mer- 
 chandise, personal injuries, matters relating to personal 
 property, marriage and divorce, real property, bankruptcy. 
 
 A little more than half of the Jewish population in the 
 city of Chicago are engaged in the mercantile business 
 and hence disputes often arise as to the quality of the 
 goods, manner and time of delivery and similar matters. 
 Suits are also frequently brought for goods sold and de- 
 livered. In most of the cases, there is generally a good 
 and bona fide defense. Cases of this kind seldom go by 
 default, unless the defendant be a bankrupt, or contem- 
 plates bankruptcy. The courts, however, are not much 
 bothered with litigation of this class. A great many of 
 the cases are tried and disposed of by arbitration, or are 
 submitted to the orthodox Jewish rabbis for decision. In 
 this connection, it is worth while mentioning that the ortho- 
 dox Jewish rabbis of this city have organized a tribunal 
 with all the formalities and forms prescribed by the Tal- 
 mudic law, which has proven a blessing to the Jewish 
 community in keeping the people out of courts. Matters 
 are disposed of with great dispatch and all parties inter- 
 ested seem to be always satisfied. 
 
 Personal Injuries. Since so large a portion of the Jew- 
 ish population is engaged in industrial pursuits, working 
 in factories of every description, which are operated by 
 dangerous machinery, many become injured in the usual 
 course of such employments. The number of injured Rus- 
 sian Jews is augmented by the terrible condition of the 
 street car system of the city of Chicago. It is a note- 
 worthy fact that during working hours it requires a great 
 effort for a workingman to reach home. Conductors do 
 not stop at the crossings, the cars are always overcrowded; 
 people become maimed in their efforts to either get on or 
 off the cars. As a consequence considerable litigation is 
 
 360 
 
CHICAGO 361 
 
 pending in our courts in behalf of Russian 'Jews, growing 
 out of personal injury sustained by them, either during 
 their employment or while going or coming from work. 
 There are very few suits of this kind pending against 
 them as defendants. 
 
 Marriage and Divorce. There is considerable litigation 
 in the courts growing out of the relation of husband and 
 wife. Hasty marriages and marriages on the part of girls 
 for the sake of quitting work in the sweat-shops or other 
 undesirable factory places, without regard to the fitness 
 and temperament of contracting parties, are in a great 
 measure responsible for this condition, but with all this, 
 it cannot be said that there is a greater percentage of di- 
 vorce cases than among other nationalities in Chicago. 
 
 Real Estate. To judge of the progress that Russian 
 Jews have made in this city, we must take into considera- 
 tion the large extent of real estate acquired by them within 
 the last fifteen years. It may be said with a certainty that 
 65 per cent, of all the real property in the so-called Ghetto 
 district, comprising the portions of the Ninth, Tenth, 
 Eleventh, Eighteenth, Nineteenth and Twentieth Wards 
 occupied by Russian Jews, is owned by them. This is ex- 
 clusive of real estate owned by Russian Jews in other parts 
 of the city of Chicago and county of Cook. It is natural 
 that men owning real estate should have disputes with 
 tenants and hence litigation growing out of the relation- 
 ship of landlord and tenant, but during all my experience 
 as a practicing attorney among Russian Jews I did not find 
 one case of a heartless landlord in the true sense of the 
 word, but in most instances there were circumstances, some 
 in favor of the plaintiff and others in that of the defend- 
 ant, which at least justify litigation in court. The 
 proportion of suits of this kind is considerably less among 
 Russian Jews than among other classes of citizens in the 
 city of Chicago. 
 
 Bankruptcy. The Russian Jew arriving in this country 
 without capital usually establishes his business with a small 
 capital, saved up as result of hard work. A recent immi- 
 grant, he is not in a condition to enable him to scrutinize 
 business transactions without blunder. He is not yet up 
 to the nice business tricks practiced by the Boards of Trade 
 and the great financiers and business men of America, 
 who are so proficient in organizing trusts and corporations. 
 Therefore he frequently mistakes the course of action necr 
 
362 LAW AND LITIGATION 
 
 essary ia his business ventures and as a consequence is 
 sometimes led into bankruptcy. Russian Jews were there- 
 fore obliged to avail themselves of the benefit of the bank- 
 ruptcy law. An investigation of the clerk's office of the 
 district court of the United States in Chicago discloses the 
 fact that every Russian Jew who filed a petition in bank- 
 ruptcy was granted a discharge by the courts, thus show- 
 ing a presumptive absence of fraud in business transac- 
 tions. 
 
 Crimes. There were a number of cases tried in the po- 
 lice courts against Russian Jews, in which men were 
 charged with abandonment of wife and children, but in 
 most cases the magistrates effected a reconciliation and the 
 charge was dropped. I could find no record in the criminal 
 court of any case against a Russian Jew charged with ab- 
 duction of an unmarried female. No indictments were 
 found in the year 1904 against a Russian Jew or Jewess 
 on the statutory crime of abortion. No convictions were 
 had in the criminal court on the charge of adultery. 
 
 The oft-repeated charge of arson against the Jews finds 
 no substantiation in the annals of the criminal court of 
 Cook County. During the year 1904 not a single Jew was 
 indicted by the grand jury on a charge of arson. The po- 
 lice courts in the Ghetto districts are often called upon to 
 try cases of assault and battery, but in a majority of in- 
 stances there is no prosecution when these cases are called 
 for trial. There were three convictions of Russian Jews 
 in the criminal court, during the years of 1903 and 1904 on 
 the charge of bigamy; they were brought about by the 
 energetic action of the United Hebrew Charities. There 
 were no indictments against Russian Jews on the charge 
 of bribery within the last fifteen years. There were three 
 cases of burglary against Russian Jews during the year 
 1904, resulting in two convictions. 
 
 Four Russian Jews were convicted during the years 1903 
 and 1904 for conspiracy to commit an illegal act. Cases of 
 embezzlement and extortion by threats were quite rare; 
 while there might have been cases of this kind in the police 
 courts very few of them ever reached the criminal court. 
 There were a number of cases in the criminal court against 
 Russian Jews on the charge of obtaining goods under false 
 pretenses, but in most instances there were acquittals. 
 There were no convictions of any Russian Jew on the 
 charge of forgery in the criminal court within the last three 
 
CHICAGO 363 
 
 years. Ten Russian Jews were convicted for bucket-shop- 
 ping. Two Russian Jews were tried and convicted in 1904 
 for manslaughter. In both cases, insanity was the defense. 
 During the entire history of the criminal court of Chicago 
 there was not a single case of a Russian Jew on the charge 
 of incest or kidnapping. About twenty Russian Jews, 
 mostly junk dealers, pa^^ni-brokers, and second-hand deal- 
 ers, were indicted during the year 1904 for receiving stolen 
 property. One of the convicted men was sentenced to the 
 penitentiary and the others received jail sentences and were 
 fined. There were no convictions on charges of malicious 
 mischief and mayhem, and no indictments for perjury 
 were returned during the year 1904. Not a single Russian 
 Jew was convicted on the charge of vagrancy. 
 
 Violations of City Ordinances. It is a fundamental 
 principle of law that everybody is supposed to know the 
 law and that ignorance of the law is no excuse. The word 
 ' ' law ' ' includes the common law, constitutional law, statu- 
 tory and municipal ordinances. 
 
 It is monstrous to suppose that a Russian Jew, a recent 
 immigrant, should know all these laws, much less the mu- 
 nicipal ordinances which are passed at one session of the city 
 council and repealed at another. (In this connection, T 
 call attention to the legal absurdity, that while everybody 
 is supposed to know of the existence of municipal ordi- 
 nances, the judge who tries the case is not supposed to 
 know that such an ordinance in fact exists. He takes no 
 judicial notice of a municipal ordinance unless it has been 
 exhibited to him in proper form and proved up in accord- 
 ance with all the rules of evidence.) 
 
 It is therefore natural that there should be violations 
 of municipal ordinances, because of the ignorance of the 
 people of the existence of such ordinances, and not neces- 
 sarily because of a desire to violate them. Russian Jews 
 are frequently the victims of police officers, who delight in 
 arresting for a violation of a city ordinance with prospect 
 of the harvest of the ward politicians and professional 
 bailers, who are always on hand to help out a * * friend. * ' 
 
 The information furnished above is based upon personal 
 investigation and knowledge of the writer with litigation 
 among Russian Jews during a law practice, in the city of 
 Chicago, for the past twelve years. 
 
XI 
 DISTKIBUTION 
 
 By David M. Bressler 
 
 General Manager Industrial Removal Office, New York City 
 
 365 
 
DISTRIBUTION 
 
 A consideration of the status of any people would be 
 incomplete without determining the effect of their geo- 
 graphical situation. This is particularly applicable to the 
 Jews, because of their remarkable adaptability to environ- 
 ment. The Jew in America is still a stranger in a strange 
 land. True, there are a few who can boast of two or three 
 generations in this country, but they are largely in the 
 minority. 
 
 There is only one noteworthy tendency that can be ob- 
 served in the distribution of the Jews in this country that 
 is different from the tendencies in other large classes of 
 immigrants. Scandinavian immigrants, for instance, are 
 largely found in one section of the country, in the wheat- 
 fields of the Northwest. Italians are where there is need 
 for laborers in gangs or for what might be termed itinerant 
 labor. The Slavs from Russia and Austria are in the min- 
 ing districts. These three large classes of immigrants move 
 along simple, well-defined lines. The distribution of the 
 Jews, though not so well defined on the surface, is due to 
 tendencies that are peculiar to himself. Having been a 
 city-dweller for centuries, the love for city life is strong 
 within him. We cannot therefore expect to find him on 
 the prairies of the West, in the coal mines of the East or 
 the plantations of the South. We see him in the larger 
 cities of the country, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, St. 
 Louis, Cincinnati, San Francisco and others nearly as 
 large; and wherever he is found in the smaller towns and 
 villages, the original settlement, we can rest assured, was 
 made by those whose headquarters had first been a large 
 city in the vicinity. 
 
 This being practically the only phenomenon to be ob- 
 served in the distribution of the Jew in America, how 
 meagre was our knowledge of the situation, and how un- 
 satisfactory and discouraging to those who realized that 
 the peculiar conditions attendant upon the large influx of 
 Jews and their consequent congestion in the sea-port towns 
 
 366 
 
DISTRIBUTION 367 
 
 made it necessary that they be distributed. Either the 
 courage of those who undertook the enterprise must be 
 commended or the pressing need deplored, or, perhaps, 
 both. Artificial distribution was begun four years ago and 
 the movement, self-styled " Industrial Removal," has be- 
 come known in every city and town in the country where 
 Jews are to be found. Whether this stimulated distribu- 
 tion will show results markedly different from those con- 
 sequent upon a more natural distribution cannot, of course, 
 be accurately determined for some time. Be that as it 
 may, however, the movement itself is most interesting and 
 the results thus far obtained will be instructive in throw- 
 ing some little light upon the question as a whole. 
 
 In consequence of the many restrictive laws of Roumania, 
 there began in the year 1900 a large influx of Roumanian 
 'Jews into this country. The normal Jewish immigration 
 then averaged about 45,000 annually, the majority of whom 
 remained in New York, which city already at that time 
 contained over 500,000. This large immigration has been 
 going on since 1881 ; over 70 per cent, of those who arrived 
 in the United States remained in New York. One of the 
 results of this movement was the gradual congestion of the 
 immigrant population in one part of the city, called the 
 East Side. So much has been published of the conditions 
 prevailing in the so-called New York Ghetto that it is not 
 necessary here to dwell upon them. 
 
 Those who were actively interested in the question of 
 Jewish immigration realized that, though the conditions 
 in Roumania demanded the continuance of this immigra- 
 tion, it was essential to divert the stream away from New 
 York. They understood, too, that the problem of Jewish 
 immigration to the United States was not local merely be- 
 cause the vast majority of ocean steamships disembarked 
 their human cargoes in the harbor of New York. They 
 argued that these people do not come to New York; they 
 come to America, and so the question of immigration is 
 of national interest; that is to say, it was incumbent on 
 Jews all over the country to help bear the burden of car- 
 ing for these friendless refugees and making them self- 
 supporting. The plan to be pursued, therefore, must be 
 one by which the immigrants were to be distributed all 
 over the country, in towns where economic and industrial 
 conditions are better than in the metropolis. 
 
 The question that arose in the minds of these men was 
 
368 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 how to arouse the Jewish communities to a sense of their 
 duty in accepting as many as they had reasonable assurance 
 of placing in self-supporting positions. What agency 
 could be employed that would effectively reach these com- 
 munities? The answer to this query was the Independent 
 Order B'nai B'rith. It was peculiarly fitted to undertake 
 the stupendous task of distributing these immigrants upon 
 their arrival by virtue of its character as a strong and com- 
 prehensive organization, represented in most important 
 towns and cities in the Union. The Executive Committee 
 of the B'nai B'rith issued bulletins to the various lodges 
 in the West and South, explaining the situation, earnestly 
 requesting them to organize in such a way as to make it 
 possible to effect the purpose in view. As a result of the 
 encouraging assurance of co-operation on the part of these 
 lodges, a committee was organized in New York for the 
 purpose of handling the situation in systematic fashion. 
 This committee established a local office, whose business it 
 became to open communication with the lodges which had 
 responded, and to prosecute the work of distribution prac- 
 tically. 
 
 In a short time it was discovered that there were many 
 difficulties in the way of conducting this v/ork successfully, 
 by no means the least of which was the necessity of over- 
 coming the unwillingness of the newly-arrived Roumanians 
 to leave New York after they had found friends and rela- 
 tives there. Owing to this difficulty, and also to the fact 
 that there were many Jews in New York from other coun- 
 tries who were also out of work, the subject acquired a 
 new aspect. The conviction forced itself upon the minds 
 of the committee that in order not to augment the conges- 
 tion in New York, particularly in view of the fact that in 
 addition to the Roumanians, there were thousands of Rus- 
 sians and Galicians constantly coming, it was necessary 
 that a process of clearing the way should be put into exe- 
 cution. The number of Roumanians sent away was so 
 small as hardly to affect the conditions here ; and, as these 
 conditions were not improving, it was decided to extend the 
 privilege to all of our co-religionists who were out of work 
 and who showed promise of becoming self-supporting. 
 This conviction showed itself in a practical manner in the 
 establishment of the Industrial Removal Office in February 
 of 1901. 
 
 Removal work was undertaken with well-defined pu^'poses 
 
DISTRIBUTION 369 
 
 in view. On tlie one hand it was to assist in making self- 
 siipporting those nnemploj^ed Jews of New York who were 
 willing to go West or South. On the other hand these 
 persons were to become the centres of attraction for others 
 in Europe who were destined for the United States. That is 
 to say, they were to become a means to divert those immi- 
 grants from New York to various points in the interior who 
 would under any circumstances come to this country, and 
 who would otherwise take up their domicile in New York. 
 As far as the former function is concerned, the Industrial 
 Removal Office is a philanthropic institution seeking to bet- 
 ter the social and economic conditions of New York Jews. 
 The other purpose it is seeking to carry out is broader and 
 has as its motive the desire to establish a permanent plan 
 of relief for thousands of Jews, who in the aggregate pre- 
 sent a serious problem to American Jewry. The movement 
 in its conception is thoroughly rational and scientific, be- 
 cause it is, so to speak, cleansing and inoculating the entire 
 body by local treatment, and in so doing it is at the same 
 time helping to relieve the local distress.^ 
 
 Hon. Frank P. Sargent, Commissioner General of Immi- 
 gration,2 stated: '^ In my judgment the smallest part of 
 the duty to be discharged in successfully handling alien 
 immigrants with a view to the protection of the people and 
 institutions of this country is that part now provided for 
 by law. Its importance, though undeniable, is relatively 
 of secondary moment. It cannot, for example, compare in 
 practical value with, nor can it take the place of measures 
 to insure the distribution of the many thousands who come 
 in ignorance of the industrial needs and opportunities of 
 this country, and, by a more potent law than that of supply 
 and demand, which speaks to them here in an unlmown 
 tongue, colonizes alien communities in our great cities. 
 Such colonies are a menace to the physical, moral and po- 
 litical security of the country. They are hotbeds for the 
 propagation and growth of those false ideas of political 
 and personal freedom, whose germs have been vitalized by 
 ages of oppression under unequal and partial laws, which 
 find their first concrete expression in resistance to the con- 
 
 ipor detailed information of the actual results of removal work see reports 
 of Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society for 1901 1902 and 1903. 
 See also paoer read before Jewish Chautauqua Summer Assembly m 1903, and 
 paper read 'before the Third Conference of Jewish Chanties in the United 
 States, New York, 1904. 
 
 ^Annual Report of the Commissioner General of Immtgration, 1903, p. 60. 
 
370 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 stituted' authority, even occasionally in the assassination of 
 the lawful agents of that authority. They are the breed- 
 ing grounds, also, of moral depravity ; the centres of prop- 
 agation of physical disease. Above all, they are the con- 
 gested places in the industrial body which check the free 
 circulation of labor to those parts where it is most needed 
 and where it can be most benefited. Do away with them 
 and the greatest peril of immigration will be removed. ' ' 
 
 The Commissioner's official recommendation v/as antici- 
 pated when the Removal Office was established; that is to 
 say, artificial distribution is of itself one of the strongest 
 advocates of unrestricted immigration and will continue to 
 be so as long as it is effective. Whether the Removal Office 
 has been effective in carrying out its objects can be judged 
 by the actual results thus far obtained. Though four years 
 seem a very short time in which to pass upon the results 
 of the work, it is not excessive enthusiasm that prompts 
 those engaged in it to say that it has evolved out of its 
 experimental stage and has shown its necessity for con- 
 tinuing, so long as large members of Jews emigrate. Of 
 course the movement must be judged in its two aspects. 
 As a philanthropic undertaking it has assisted over 16,000 
 persons to become self-supporting, who before were on the 
 verge of dependency. So far as its second function is 
 concerned, the results, though not quite so definite, are still 
 encouraging to a surprising degree, as those results were 
 not expected to be seen for years to come. The percentage 
 of those Jewish immigrants who remained in the city in 
 the years 1898 and 1899 was 79.9 per cent, and 79.2 per 
 cent, respectively. These, it should be noted, are the two 
 years preceding the establishment of the Removal Office. 
 In the year 1903, two years thereafter, the percentage of 
 immigrants who remained in New York was 71.9 per cent., 
 showing that about 8 per cent, more left for the interior 
 in that year than in 1898 and 1899. Though this is not 
 conclusive evidence that the diversion of Jewish immigra- 
 tion has been effected so quickly, yet this discrepancy is 
 due in a large degree to this artificial distribution. The 
 records of the Removal Bureau also show a large number 
 of persons that went into the interior directly from Europe 
 to persons originally sent away by the Bureau from New 
 York, who for the most part would have come to the sea- 
 port metropolis had their relatives remained there. 
 
 The results could have been much more imposing were 
 
DISTBIBUTION 371 
 
 it not for a two-fold obstacle that has largely hampered the 
 activities of the Bureau. It has taxed the energies of the 
 management to the utmost to adjust and reconcile in every 
 practical and legitimate manner the prejudice and timidity 
 of the immigrant with the same qualities — in a different 
 form — as the majority of the people of the interior com- 
 munities. It has been a process mainly of gaining the 
 confidence of the beneficiary on the one hand and of 
 the benefactor on the other. The interior communities, 
 realizing in a large degree the extreme and pressing neces- 
 sity for the work, still failed at the beginning to thoroughly 
 grasp the situation ; there was a sentimental desire on their 
 part to help the refugees from Eastern European oppres- 
 sion, but when they found that the practical manner of 
 helping them along the lines of the Removal Office meant 
 not only sacrifice of time and money, but real annoyance 
 and disagreeable experiences, then their charitable senti- 
 ment received a shock, from which some have not recovered 
 to this day. Industrial conditions all over the country have 
 also been such as to force restrictions upon orders for peo- 
 ple and prevented the removal of some deserving persons 
 wiio have been so unfortunate as not to come within the 
 requirements demanded by the communities of the interior. 
 All this has been the great difficulty on the one side. The 
 obstacle to be met with in New York, on the other, has been 
 the unwillingness on the part of the majority of the people 
 to leave the city. Not merely have the attractions of the 
 wonderful seaport metropolis held them back, but ignorance 
 and consequent fear of the unknown and mysterious have 
 largely deterred them from applying at the Bureau. Only 
 such as have been possessed of a comparatively fearless 
 and independent character, or who have received encour- 
 aging reports from friends or relatives in the interior have 
 had the courage to ask that they be sent away. This forced 
 selection, artificial in a large measure, will probably show 
 results different from that brought about by a natural dis- 
 tribution. What this difference will be is hard to con- 
 jecture. 
 
 The Bureau has attempted to settle some of the more 
 promising men in the small towns of the South and the West 
 where few or no Jews are found. In a number of cases 
 such settlement has been permanent, but better success can 
 be obtained in settling the people in the smaller towns when 
 such towns are within a reasonable distance of some large 
 
372 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 city. THe Bureau's experience has shown that the best 
 results can be obtained Avhere the artificial distribution 
 observes as closely as possible the natural law of distribu- 
 tion mentioned before. Indeed, of late the exigencies of 
 the work have also helped to gradually develop a system 
 of agencies in the large cities, which already have begun to 
 place a portion of those sent them to the small towns and 
 villages in their immediate vicinities. 
 
 Though this law of distribution is practically the only 
 definite phenomenon that has appeared, it cannot be 
 doubted that the movement contains far-reaching possibili- 
 ties. What the effect of this distribution will be ethnically, 
 what it will be religiously, as well as what it will be eco- 
 nomically are questions of intense interest, v/hich unfortu- 
 nately cannot be answered at the present time. 
 
 Then, too, the question can be viewed from the subjective 
 standpoint ; that is, not merely as to the effect upon those re- 
 moved, but what will it be upon those who are good enough 
 to receive them? Among the many communities that have 
 been enlisted in the cause of removal and who co-operate 
 with warmth and sympathy with the Bureau are such as 
 were practically altogether isolated from the rest of Amer- 
 ican Jewry until after the visit of the Bureau's representa- 
 tive. Such a visit not only succeeded in arousing their 
 interest in removal work, but encouraged interest in other 
 Jewish questions. In other words '' removal " has already 
 shown itself to be a factor in arousing among our country 
 cousins what is commonly called, in the pulpit, a Jewish 
 consciousness. 
 
 It is too obvious to require comment that a great many 
 dependents apply at charitable institutions who are out of 
 employment because there is no work to be found in their 
 peculiar line. However, there may be a demand for work- 
 men of just such trades in other cities in the Union. That 
 is to say, much poverty is caused by the immobility of la- 
 bor, and " inter-removal," so to speak, is a method of re- 
 ducing this evil. For the present, of course, no such 
 general scheme of removal would be justifiable in view of 
 the pressing needs of the seaport metropolis, which is la- 
 ])oring under the enormous burden of a stupendous immi- 
 gration. But should the happy time come when the stream 
 of immigration is successfully diverted from New York to 
 many points in the interior, then such a scheme would un- 
 doubtedly be instrumental in helping a great many poor, 
 
DISTRIBUTION 373 
 
 deserving persons and families in becoming self-support- 
 ing, and in a manner containing elements of smaller danger 
 than any other form of charity. 
 
 The immigration of nearly one million Jews to this 
 country since 1881 has made necessary various plans for 
 their welfare, of which that for their distribution through- 
 out the country should receive hearty encouragement. 
 
XII 
 RURAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 (A) EASTERN STATES 
 By Jacob G. Lipman, Ph. D. 
 
 Soil Chemist and Bacteriologist 
 New Jersey State Experiment Station 
 
 (B) WESTERN STATES 
 By Rabbi A. R. Levy 
 
 Secreta/ry Jewish Agriculturists* Aid Society of America, Chicago 
 
 375 
 
EUEAL SETTLEMENTS 
 (A) EASTERN STATES 
 
 THE SOUTH JERSEY COLONIES 
 
 The southern part of New Jersey contains vast stretches 
 of stunted pine and scrub oak. Traveling from Camden 
 over the West Jersey and Seashore Railroad one soon comes 
 into the heart of this region, the home of the garter snake 
 and the hare. The silence of the tangled plain is unbroken 
 save for the woodman's axe and the noise of the passing 
 trains. Occasionally isolated farms and small villages come 
 into view, and as they are passed the struggling vegetation 
 again stands out against the arching sky. The train rushes 
 on to the coast, but before the song of the ocean is heard 
 many a mile of bushland must be passed. In the winter 
 and in the early spring the piercing northern winds find 
 little to stay their course ; they wail and bluster among the 
 helpless pines ; they sing their sombre song down the chim- 
 ney until one feels chilly and sad. In the late spring and 
 summer the skies are sunny and mild; there is the briny 
 flavor of the ocean in the air, the breeze laden with memo- 
 ries of the sea is tender and caressing. But for the inex- 
 orable mosquito one could wish for no kinder starry nights, 
 with their fragrance, their indefinite noises, and their pass- 
 ing music. Then come those incomparable autumn even- 
 ings whose coolness does not chill one, but the warm, moist 
 breath of the sea fills the heart with dreams and content- 
 ment. The same moon that smiles on the ocean and plays 
 with its waves raises misty shapes over the sandy plain, 
 listens to the song of the whip-poor-will, and to the stridu- 
 ous unceasing music of the cricket hosts. Such is the re- 
 gion where Russian Jews have sought to gain a livelihood 
 from a not over-rich soil. 
 
 The first attempts at colonization in South Jersey date 
 back to the early eighties of the nineteenth century. With 
 an enthusiasm that often amounted to a creed, men from 
 
 376 
 
EASTEBN STATES 377 
 
 different walks of life worked side by side, dreaming of 
 the regeneration of a race too long excluded from the field 
 and the forest. Alliance, Carmel, Eosenhayn, and finally 
 Woodbine grew up and led an existence unique in the his- 
 tory of the race. Had the land been more responsive there 
 would have been fewer neglected acres; as it is the many 
 flourishing farms conquered from the wilderness by Jewish 
 hands bear witness that from among the exiles from Russia 
 there were men of earnest and steadfast purpose who 
 shrunk from no hardship. Many years of self-denial and 
 of unceasing toil have borne their fruit, and while one re- 
 joices with those who succeeded, one cannot help thinking 
 regretfully of those who found themselves compelled to give 
 up the unequal struggle, and returned to the city and the 
 tenement house. 
 
 The spring of 1882 marked the arrival of the first Jew- 
 ish settlers in South Jersey. In the place now called Alli- 
 ance twenty-five families undertook to do the pioneer work 
 of the settlement. The tract of land, comprising eleven 
 hundred acres, was purchased for the purpose by the He- 
 brew Emigrant Aid Society. It was for the most part a 
 wilderness of bushland, and the few small areas that showed 
 signs of a once attempted cultivation had again returned to 
 their primitive state. Alliance is located in Pittsgrove 
 township, county of Salem. It is thirty-three miles from 
 Philadelphia, as the crow flies, rather less than five miles 
 from Vineland, about nine miles from Millville, and almost 
 ten miles from Bridgeton. Carmel and Rosenhayn, situated 
 within a few miles of Alliance, were founded in 1883 ; the 
 former by Michael Heilprin, the latter by the Hebrew Emi- 
 grant Aid Society. Carmel and Rosenhayn are both situ- 
 ated in Cumberland county, the one between Millville and 
 Bridgeton, the other between Bridgeton and Alliance. 
 Finally in 1891, the Woodbine colony was founded by the 
 Baron de Hirsch Fund. Woodbine is in Cape May county, 
 fifty-six miles from Camden and twenty-five miles from 
 Cape May City. Within nine miles of Woodbine is Sea Isle 
 City, and Ocean City is sixteen miles distant. The early 
 days of Alliance, Carmel, Rosenhayn, and even Woodbine 
 had many features in common. They needed all the enthu- 
 siasm and determination of the would-be farmers, for it 
 soon became evident that there were almost innumerable 
 difficulties before them. The land had to be cleared and 
 made fit to receive the seed, and months were to pass before 
 
378 . RURAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 any returns could be expected. Meanwhile they were 
 obliged to live in barns or in over-crowded houses. Pro- 
 visions were scarce, the roads were poor. In Alliance the 
 colonists lived during the first year on $8 to $12 a month 
 given to them by the Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society. In 
 Carmel and Rosenhayn they found what work they could 
 with the neighboring farmers or secured tailoring work 
 from the city. In Woodbine they were more fortunate in 
 that there was enough to do for everybody in clearing a 
 part of the fifty-three hundred acre tract of land, digging 
 cellars, cutting out streets, building roads, and the like. 
 It was hard work, especially for those not used to outdoor 
 life. Yet with all the privations of overcrowded quarters, 
 unsatisfactory food, and lack of warm clothing in the win- 
 ter months, few complaints were heard. The work on the 
 wind-swept plain was hard, but the management paid liv- 
 ing wages and the colonists bore their hardships cheerfully. 
 However, there came a time in the life of Woodbine — as it 
 did with Carmel, Alliance, and Rosenhayn, — when the fu- 
 ture seemed full of gloom. When the poor, wild soil did 
 not yield what it could not yield, when willing hands failed 
 to find work that would help fill the bread basket, and 
 when the aid of charity had to be invoked ; then there was 
 but little sunshine to cheer the dismal gloom. And the 
 colonists had reason to feel discouraged. Theirs was a 
 thin, shifting soil, which ages ago had been sorted and re- 
 sorted by the waves, and the ocean was chary about leaving 
 it little besides the rounded grains of quartz which compose 
 98 per cent, of the soil. Long years of hopeless toil, theirs 
 and their children's, were before them, and after all that 
 v/ork honestly and conscientiously performed what would 
 they have? Unlike the fertile plains of the northwest, or 
 the Tcliernosyem of southern Russia, these South Jersey 
 soils call for the application of manures or of commercial 
 fertilizers, and without them they yield scarcely anything. 
 But even with these in their possession the colonists were 
 at a disadvantage. The use of artificial manures requires 
 considerably more knowledge of the soil and of soil condi- 
 tions than where none are used. The colonists had not that 
 knowledge, nor the knowledge of market conditions in the 
 large cities, or even adequate local markets. Yet if ^ the 
 South Jersey colonies are to attain prosperity as agricul- 
 tural colonies, or if they are to retain that measure of pros- 
 perity which they have already achieved, they must have 
 
EASTEBN STATES 379 
 
 local markets. It will be shown below that such markets 
 can be had. As to the New York and Philadelphia mar- 
 kets, the colonists found that their produce had to compete 
 with the harvests of the alluvial soils of the east and the 
 south, and the owners of these soils had the experience, the 
 means, and the favorable railroad rates that the South 
 Jersey settlers did not possess. The survival of the four 
 colonies is due to the establishment of factories. In Alli- 
 ance a cigar factory and later a shirt factory were in opera- 
 tion during the early years. In Carmel and Rosenhayn, 
 the shirt, wrapper, and clothing factories which were in 
 operation at one time or another made possible the agri- 
 cultural development that has taken place. In Woodbine 
 the establishment of a village and factories was provided 
 for by the founders. Men with large families could send 
 some of their members to the factory while the others 
 worked on the farm ; men of small families could sell their 
 produce to those who had none. 
 
 The men who came to live in the South Jersey colonies 
 hailed from many parts of European Russia. Poland and 
 Great Russia were well represented, but the greatest num- 
 ber came from South Russia — such as Bessarabia, Podolia, 
 Volhynia, Kiev. Their antecedents were as different as 
 their birth-places. There were among them men who had 
 farmed to some extent in Russia. There were those who 
 had lived in villages and traded there and had become fa- 
 miliar with farming life. There were skilled laborers and 
 small shop-keepers. Among the 3'ounger men there were 
 also a few who had enjoyed some educational advantages 
 and were carried to the settlements by their enthusiasm, 
 the desire to help the return of the Jew to agricultural life. 
 This heterogeneous mass, coming as it did from many 
 places, and from different stations in life, was made homo- 
 geneous by a common purpose. The early days of the col- 
 onies, with their communal life, were marked with a feeling 
 of solidarity. Even the most ignorant settler was not a 
 stranger to the sentiment of a common purpose. In every 
 colony early provision was made for public buildings, and 
 the synagogue and the public school rose side by side. Not- 
 withstanding the similar conditions of settlement, the three 
 older colonies soon came to have very distinctive peculiari- 
 ties. Alliance from the first devoted more time to agricul- 
 ture; the appearance of its people, their mode of living, 
 showed the farmer; while in Carmel and Rosenhayn the 
 
380 BUBAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 greater predominance of the tailoring trades showed itself 
 in the physique and to some extent in the radical views 
 that one finds among the factory employees in the East Side 
 of New York. 
 
 The life in the South Jersey colonies has produced a 
 visible effect on their inhabitants. It has influenced the 
 thought and action of the older people, it has molded the 
 character and the ways of the young. It offers to both 
 advantages which would not be at their disposal in a large 
 city. Of the settlers in Woodbine seventy-five per cent, 
 own their homes, as do one-half of those in Kosenhayn. 
 The factory life for those who are obliged to work in the 
 factory is not as injurious to health as in the large cities, 
 for the ventilation is better, the space allotted to each is 
 greater, the light and sunshine have more easy access. 
 The relations between employer and employee are more 
 personal, the individual is a more important part of the 
 population and his direct participation in communal affairs 
 reacts favorably on him. If there are no rich men in the 
 colonies, there are also no poor — poor as measured by the 
 standards of the New York Ghetto. The neighbors know 
 one another and are always willing to help those who are 
 less fortunate than themselves. But above all there are 
 the great advantages to the young. The young lungs ex- 
 pand freely in the bracing air; the young eyes roam 
 freely over the wide expanse of field and forest ; the young 
 legs run as they will. With the free skies above them, with 
 a healthy home atmosphere surrounding them, with the 
 duties of citizenship instilled into them, and the love for 
 their country growing with them as they grow, they are 
 laying the foundations for normal and useful membership 
 in society. Should the time come when they shall long for 
 a wider sphere of activity than their native village affords, 
 they can go forth equipped in strength and vitality. 
 
 With all these advantages there are conditions which 
 place the colonists at a great disadvantage. Those of their 
 number who work in the factory have a very limited field 
 of employment. When the house becomes too small for 
 the farmer he must get along as best he can; when the 
 factory in which his children are employed is idle he is 
 often obliged to run into debt. When his children grow up 
 and find no congenial occupation in the small village they 
 leave him to go to the city to live among strangers and to 
 be exposed to its many temptations. When the crops fail 
 
EASTERN STATES 381 
 
 he often finds himself obliged to sell his horse or his cow, 
 and must at times walk miles in order to reach the nearest 
 store or the post-office. He has not as many creature com- 
 forts as his city cousin, nor has he his discomforts. 
 
 Local differences occur in the soils of Alliance, Carmel, 
 Rosenhayn, and Woodbine, but on the whole, they belong 
 to the same type of soils with a common geological history. 
 The prevailing type is a sandy soil to sandy loam with a 
 clayey to gravelly sub-soil. The underdrainage is excel- 
 lent and the upper soil, being light and porous, is seldom 
 in danger of becoming waterlogged. Thanks to the splen- 
 did underdrainage and openness, the soil is mellow and 
 warm and admirably adapted for the raising of early truck 
 and berries. On the other hand, it is more liable to suffer 
 and actually does suffer in dry seasons for lack of moisture, 
 because of its slight waterholding power. Such is not the 
 case with the heavier soils of North Jersey. Owing to its 
 lightness and shifting character, the surface soil is apt to be 
 blown away by the strong winds in winter and spring. 
 For this reason it is best not to plow the land in the fall 
 and to keep it covered with some crop during the winter. 
 
 The crops raised in the colonies for the local and more 
 distant markets are berries and grapes, tomatoes, sweet 
 potatoes, and fruit. These are the more important crops, 
 and many other crops are raised to a slighter extent. The 
 South Jersey peaches are famed for their delicious flavor; 
 Vineland peaches always find ready buyers, and the Wood- 
 bine peaches are fully as good. Then there are sweet pota- 
 toes, which have not their equal outside of New Jersey, 
 and they command a correspondingly higher price in the 
 market. The farmers in the colonies raise large quantities 
 of berries, notably strawberries. Part of these are made 
 into wine and have a limited but appreciative circle of 
 patrons. Grape wine is produced in large quantity, par- 
 ticularly in Alliance. Many gallons are sold in New York 
 and Philadelphia, the greater part to supply the Passover 
 trade. It is claimed by competent judges that some of the 
 port wine from the South Jersey colonies is superior to that 
 from California. 
 
 In the spring of 1900 a canning factory was established 
 in Alliance. Its short career has already demonstrated its 
 great usefulness and the results that may be expected. 
 There have been canned strawberries, blackberries, cherries, 
 pears, apples, peaches, plums, beans, peas, beets, tomatoes, 
 
882 BUBAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 sweet potatoes, and in smaller quantity, grapes, corn, cit- 
 rons, hnckleberries, cranberries, and gooseberries. The Al- 
 livine Company, which owns the canning factory, is also 
 trying to give object lessons on its own farm, and has estab- 
 lished lecture courses on agricultural topics. The Jewish 
 farmers thus find a local market for their produce, are ren- 
 dered independent of the commission merchant in the city, 
 who is at times unscrupulous, and are, moreover, instructed 
 in the proper methods of farming. 
 
 Dairying has been receiving considerable attention. The 
 milk produced is sold in the local markets at satisfactory 
 prices. Bridgeton, Vineland, and Millville are convenient 
 markets for the three older colonies, while the milk pro- 
 duced in Woodbine is sold in the village of Woodbine itself, 
 and to a slight extent at the seashore resorts. The dairy 
 of the Baron de Hirsch Agricultural School, conducted 
 according to the most modern methods, and producing milk 
 of the finest quality, tried to run a milk wagon to Ocean 
 City. The milk was in large demand, but the distance vras 
 too great and injurious to the horses, and it was therefore 
 decided to dispose of the milk in Woodbine itself. There 
 is no doubt, however, that the several dairymen in Wood- 
 bine could combine to establish a milk depot in Ocean City, 
 shipping their milk by rail. 
 
 There are, probably, about 4,000 acres under cultivation 
 in the colonies. In the three older settlements there are 
 about 1,100 acres under field crops, 600 acres under truck, 
 550 acres under berries, and 250 acres under grapes. Of 
 the three. Alliance is by far the most prosperous, and agri- 
 culturally the most important. Thus, the value of the 
 Rosenhayn farms, with a total acreage of 1,800, is only 
 about $60,000, whereas that of the Alliance farms, with a 
 total acreage of some 1,700, is about $135,000; and the 
 value of the products sold from the Alliance farms was 
 greater than that of the others put together. 
 
 The colonies have not had a continuous growth. Periods 
 of comparative prosperity alternated with periods of de- 
 pression, depending largely upon the condition of the fac- 
 tories. Woodbine, like the rest, had its periods of depres- 
 sion; nevertheless, its growth has been more steady, and 
 to-day it has a population of about 2,500 persons, while 
 Alliance, Carmel, and Rosenhayn (including Carton Road), 
 taken together, have a population of somewhat about 1,000, 
 
EASTERN STATES 383 
 
 and this, notwithstanding that they were founded nine 
 years before Woodbine. 
 
 The original 25 families that came to Alliance in 1882 
 were joined by others until there were in all 67 families 
 in the place. As the hardships increased, many became 
 discouraged and by 1884 only 50 families remained. At 
 this critical time aid was extended to the colonists, and 
 the condition of the colony improved perceptibly. The 
 crop returns gave additional encouragement leading to the 
 increase of the cultivated area. In 1889 the total popula- 
 tion was 529, and it has remained about the same. In 
 1889 the farmers owned 1,400 acres of land, of which 889 
 were under cultivation; in 1901 they owned 1,702 acres, 
 of which 1,379 were under cultivation. These few figures 
 indicate clearly enough that those of the Alliance settlers 
 who remained on their farms gradually added to their 
 holdings, and have extended their agricultural holdings. 
 
 In Carmel there were 16 families that came out in 1882 ; 
 seven of these left in discouragement; others came to take 
 their places, and the population changed from time to time 
 until in 1889 there were 286 persons in the place. To the 
 original tract of 848 acres 1,500 were added in 1889, and 
 36 new houses were erected. There are now about 600 
 persons. In 1889 there were 124 acres cleared; now more 
 than 700. 
 
 In Rosenhayn there were 6 families in 1883. In 1889 
 there were 67 families, containing 294 persons. They 
 owned 1,912 acres, of which 261 were under cultivation. 
 The number of persons has not increased much. In 1901 
 they owned 1,862 acres, of which 662 were cleared. 
 
 In the late summer of 1891 a few men stepped from the 
 train on the old wooden platform of the Woodbine station, 
 located on the West Jersey Railroad. These were the van- 
 guard of the settlers. There was not much to greet them. 
 Three old dwellings stood along the Dennisville road, quite 
 near the station ; beyond and around them were the darken- 
 ing woods. Save for the broad avenue along which their 
 train was even then speeding towards the end of the Cape 
 there was scarcely a dozen square rods free from the un- 
 tamed oak and pine. As one looks from the new station plat- 
 form over the hundreds of cottages, at the row of busy fac- 
 tories, and the straight streets with their poplars and ma- 
 ples, he would not recognize the wilderness of thirteen years 
 ago. This is the industrial Woodbine, forming the nucleus 
 
384 . TiUBAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 around which are clustered about 50 farms. The growth 
 of the village has depended entirely on the growth of its 
 industries, and the activity of the farmers has been regu- 
 lated by the local market. Of the public buildings in 
 Woodbine there are the Woodbine Central School building, 
 which is used for municipal, educational and social pur- 
 poses, and the synagogue. Near by is the Talmud Torah 
 (Hebrew school). A Baptist church has been converted 
 into a synagogue. Woodbine has the distinction of having 
 established the first kindergarten in the county. Of the 
 250 houses in the village, nearly all are owned by the inhab- 
 itants. Twenty miles of streets have been laid out and 
 partly graded; 12 miles of farm roads have been built, an 
 electric light plant and pumping station have been estab- 
 lished, a volunteer fire brigade has been organized. There 
 are a large hotel in the village, three public schools besides 
 the central school, a public bath house, a meeting hall, and 
 two parks reserved from the forest area. The 50 families 
 that came in 1891 increased in number by the influx of new 
 arrivals until now there are about 2,500. Five building and 
 loan associations have invested thousands of dollars in 
 Woodbine real estate, thus proving their confidence in its 
 stability and prosperitj^ 
 
 Throughout the colonies the mercantile pursuits that have 
 arisen are rather insignificant. Grocery stores and meat 
 markets have been started. Shoe stores, clothing stores, 
 bakeries, and the like have been established to supply local 
 needs. As a possible exception it may be admitted that 
 some stores in Woodbine sometimes serve to supply the 
 needs of neighboring villages. Moreover, the brick yard in 
 Woodbine sells bricks outside of the village, and consider- 
 able quantities of cord wood are sold from Woodbine to the 
 Millville, Vineland and other glass factories. 
 
 Recent statistics show that there are a considerable mnn- 
 ber of factories in the colonies. Alliance has a cloak factory 
 and a canning factory; Kosenha>ai has a clothing factory 
 and a brick yard, and manufactures to some extent tin- 
 ware and hoisery. Carmel has a clothing factory, and two 
 others where ladies ' waists and wrappers are manufactured. 
 Woodbine has a clothing factory, a machine and tool plant, 
 a hat factory, a shirt factorj^, a small cigar factory, a Imit- 
 goods factory, an establishment for making driven well 
 points, and a brick yard. 
 
 As compared to the dormant existence of the small vil- 
 
EASTERN STATES 385 
 
 lages in South Jersey, the Jewish colonies are wide awake 
 and progressive. There is a greater range of social ques- 
 tions discussed there. There is the consciousness of common 
 aims. Political clubs, social clubs, literary societies, mili- 
 tary organizations, benevolent organizations have been es- 
 tablished, and many are contributing to a better and broader 
 Jife. Though most of the voters have been naturalized in 
 recent years they display an intelligent interest in national 
 as well as in local politics. It may sound strange, yet it is 
 true, that, unlike their neighbors, they consider national 
 and international affairs above the local affairs. This seems 
 to be characteristic of the Jew. He watches with deep con- 
 cern the happenings in various countries, as if he felt him- 
 self a citizen of the whole world. World politics, the events 
 which concern all men, are to him of paramount interest. 
 It may be that his long wanderings have taught him to as- 
 sume this mental attitude. It may be that this habit of 
 thought is inherent in him, yet the visitor to AVoodbine, for 
 instance, can convince himself of the truth of the above ob- 
 servation. On a Saturday afternoon he will find the older 
 people of the village gathered in the post-office or in the rail- 
 road station warmly discussing the happenings in Germany, 
 France, or Russia. The sewing machine, the plow, or the 
 lathe are forgotten for the moment. Dressed in his Sabbath 
 clothes and wrapped in the Sabbath mood, he looks into the 
 outside world and judges it according to his light. The 
 Jewish newspaper informs him in Yiddish of the doings 
 outside his own narrow sphere of activity and with this in- 
 formation as a basis he indulges in endless discussion. 
 
 It is otherwise with his children. Growing up as they do 
 under freer skies, they imbibe something of the new spirit. 
 The old traditions are not as infallible to them as to their 
 fathers and their thoughts Avander in other directions. For 
 them the English newspaper replaces the Yiddish, the school 
 history is a greater authority than oral tradition. And yet 
 they are not altogether unmindful of this tradition. They 
 stand between the old and the new. They are in a transition 
 stage, and they partake of what their fathers are, and also 
 of what their own children will be. They are Americans, 
 with a touch of the foreign spirit still clinging to them, but 
 somehow they do not seem to be the worse for it. Their 
 home life is healthy, there is no viciousness, and little dis- 
 obedience to established authority. They are fond of danc- 
 ing, of private theatricals, and of social gatherings in gen- 
 
386 , BUBAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 eral. The factory atmosphere is often reflected in their 
 mode of thought. It is no rare occurrence to see boys 
 of fifteen or sixteen discussing in all seriousness some ques- 
 tion in sociology, or political economy, of which they biow 
 little or nothing. 
 
 Most of the factories are closed "on Saturday. The elders 
 solemnly repair to the synagogue and as solemnly return 
 when the services are over. The village is in a Sabbath 
 spirit, peaceful yet joyous. When evening comes there is 
 usually some entertainment. 
 
 Theft and drunkenness are practically unknown in the 
 colonies, although wine and beer are consumed in consider- 
 able quantities. But there are features which are less fortu- 
 nate and not at all commendable. One comes across ig- 
 norance and narrowness, stubbornness of spirit and unclean- 
 liness of person. Yet even these are not as frequent as they 
 used to be. But there is one feature that deserves mention 
 — this is the neighborly spirit, and the true charity that the 
 colonists display. Quietly, unostentatiously, they help one 
 another, often sharing the last crust of bread. When the 
 severe winter days come, men often walk a long distance to 
 cut some fire wood for a sick neighbor; women frequently 
 walk for miles through the snow in order to bring food or 
 money to a needy individual. The women in Woodbine 
 have organized a Woman's Aid Society and the good work 
 it is doing deserves commendation. Those who are inclined 
 to accuse the Russian Jew of unwillingness to work, and of 
 dependence upon charity, will find upon visiting the South 
 Jersey colonies, only peaceful and industrious people always 
 ready to work. There are no loafers, no tramps, no 
 gamblers. 
 
 The colonists spend a considerable portion of their income 
 on public buildings. They have their lodges, circulating 
 libraries, evening schools, lecture courses and the like, and 
 this healthy social and home life speaks well for the individ- 
 uals and the community. 
 
 The many vicissitudes through which the colonists have 
 passed have left their mark. Some of the earlier settlers 
 have returned to the city population, and in their leisure 
 moments recount perhaps the hardships which confronted 
 them. It is for them to decide whether they acted wisely. 
 But those who stayed have continued to do their work. 
 They have not attained great wealth, nor great fame, but 
 they have lived and honestly earned their bread. 
 
EASTERN STATES 387 
 
 Let those who liave so generously worked to found the 
 colonies remember that the mere withdrawing of people 
 from the tenement districts in the great cities and their 
 settling in the country is in itself a worthy work, and if 
 there should be ten per cent., or even one per cent, of these 
 settlers who entirely depend on farming, the work remains 
 worthy. Let the colonies have more factories. The farmers 
 v/ill take care of themselves, and the greater the local de- 
 mand for their produce, the greater will be the area under 
 cultivation. If the liberal policy of inducing reliable man- 
 ufacturers to establish themselves in Woodbine is continued 
 by the Trustees of the Baron de Hirsch Fund there is little 
 doubt that the next ten years will see considerable growth. 
 
 The experience of years brought out quite clearly the fact 
 that it is practically impossible in many instances to con- 
 vert a small trader into a farmer. The ancestral conditions 
 and the habits of a lifetime cannot be changed at a mo- 
 ment's notice. Earnest as is the purpose of the would-be 
 farmer, and great as is his determination, he very often 
 finds himself obliged to admit that the opportunity has come 
 to him too late in life. The occupation of a lifetime has 
 unfitted him for farming. With this experience in mind the 
 founders of the Baron de Hirsch Agricultural School at 
 Woodbine have formulated a plan for the education of the 
 children of immigrant Jews. In the few years of its ex- 
 istence the school has given ample proof of its usefulness. 
 It aims to give its pupils a practical, agricultural education, 
 in order that the graduates may ( after an apprenticeship of 
 some years with practical farmers) be competent to manage 
 farms of their own. The school has now about 120 pupils, of 
 whom about ten per cent, are girls. Theoretical instruc- 
 tion in the class-room is given together with practical work 
 on the school farms, in the dairy, blacksmith shop, poultry 
 houses, green houses, etc. 
 
 Independently of the Woodbine school, an agricultural 
 school has been established at Doylestown, Pa. The curri- 
 culum is somewhat different from that of the Woodbine 
 school, but its aim, as in the other case, is primarily the in- 
 struction of the children of immigrants in the arts of hus- 
 bandry. 
 
 The work of these two institutions is watched with deep 
 interest. The visitor to the schools, as he sees the boys work- 
 ing in the fields, or as he watches them in their moments of 
 recreation, rushing a foot ball against the opposing line, or 
 
388 RURAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 running on a base ball field, can not but feel glad and hope- 
 ful. He remembers the stooping, narrow-chested men in the 
 crowded thoroughfares, he remembers the long centuries of 
 artificial Ghetto life, and he rejoices for those who shall 
 grow broad of shoulder and brawny of arm, who shall have 
 laughter in their eyes, who shall contribute as great a share 
 to the physical work of the world as has been contributed 
 by their race to the mental and the spiritual life. 
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND FARMS 
 
 Individual Jewish farmers are scattered through the New 
 England states, and own farms in Rhode Island, Massachu- 
 setts, Connecticut, Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire. 
 By far the greater number are located in Connecticut, and 
 they form the most important section of the Jewish farming 
 community in New England. The first settlement dates 
 back to 1891, when a Jewish family, having saved some 
 money by work in a New England mill, purchased a farm 
 near New London, Connecticut. The gregarious instincts 
 of the race, and particularly the desire for adequate reli- 
 gious life, led this family to exert itself in inducing friends 
 and relatives to establish themselves in the neighborhood. 
 In 1892 a creamery was erected by the Baron de Hirsch 
 Fund, and new settlers established themselves in the vicinity 
 of New London, Oakdale, Palmerton, Chesterfield, and 
 Salem. In 1893 a number of Russian Jews employed in the 
 woolen mills, then in operation in Colchester, invested their 
 savings in the purchase of farms in the neighborhood. Hav- 
 ing had experience with dairy farming in Russia, they found 
 it more profitable to devote themselves to dairy farming on 
 their new lands. Most of these settled in New London 
 County and also in the neighboring counties of Middlesex 
 and Hartford. Some farmers also located about eight miles 
 from Bridgeport and New Haven. These two cities are ex- 
 cellent markets for dairy products, and but for the great 
 cost of land near the cities the settlers would have estab- 
 lished themselves nearer to the market towns. 
 
 The position of the Jewish farmers in New England is 
 quite different from that of the colonists in South Jersey. 
 The character of their land, their methods of farming, the 
 market conditions are all different. Yet the greatest dis- 
 tinction is due to their comparative isolation from their co- 
 religionists. They do not have distinct Jewish agricultural 
 
EASTERN STATES 389 
 
 colonies like those in New Jersey ; they bought farms where 
 they could get them, and are therefore surrounded in most 
 cases by Yankee neighbors. These played a momentous part 
 in molding the farming life of the Jewish settlers. The 
 latter had many difficulties to contend with. Beginning 
 with limited means and a limited knowledge of their en- 
 vironment they were placed at a still greater disadvantage 
 by the exhausted condition of their land; because of their 
 comparatively small means they found themselves obliged to 
 purchase some of the so-called ' * abandoned farms. ' ' These 
 are farms which had been treated carelessly and unscien- 
 tifically for generations until their productivity was so 
 reduced as to render them unprofitable for further cultiva- 
 tion. In many cases their owners found themselves com- 
 pelled to sell them for a much smaller price than the cost 
 of the buildings alone. It is evident that the improvement 
 and the profitable cultivation of such exhausted land re- 
 quires the unceasing work and care of years. The fact that 
 90 per cent, of the Jewish farmers remain on their lands 
 speaks much in their favor. Notwithstanding their limited 
 capital, their insufficient knowledge, and the poverty of the 
 land, they gradually accustomed themselves to their new 
 surroundings, adapted themselves to the ways of their 
 Yankee neighbors, and are now successfully pursuing their 
 new vocation. The friendship and advice of these neigh- 
 bors help them at critical moments, and it was the children 
 who in many instances threw the parents together, for the 
 Jewish children soon learned to know their schoolmates and 
 formed friendships which grew until they included the 
 parents. 
 
 Dairy farming is the occupation of most of the New Eng- 
 land settlers. It is peculiarly adapted to their land and has 
 been productive of greater profit than market gardening or 
 fruit growing. In dairy farming but little of the fertility 
 of the soil is sold off the farm. The comparatively large 
 number of cattle and the feeding material purchased make 
 possible a more thorough manuring of the land than would 
 be practicable with the same expenditure in any other kind 
 of farming. As a result of this the New England farms are 
 being improved gradually, and are growing more productive 
 from year to year. Moreover dairy products find in New 
 England a ready sale at good prices, and thus yield to the 
 farmer almost immediate cash returns. The Jewish farm- 
 ers utilize the large markets of Hartford, New London, and 
 
390 . RURAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 Norwich^for cream and butter. Large quantities of milk 
 are sold at the creameries in Colchester and Chesterfield. 
 The former is a very important milk centre and is situated 
 at the end of a short branch of the air line division of the 
 New York, New Haven and Hartford Road, and is about 
 three miles from Turnerville, on the main line. Colchester 
 has a separating plant which offers very good prices for 
 milk. From 3 to 3% cents per quart are paid there, and in 
 the large market it is sold according to the market quota- 
 tions. 
 
 The Jewish farmers realize the value of modern meth- 
 ods. They are careful, in many instances, to select the very 
 best cows that they can get. They have built a number of 
 silos for the preservation of corn. They follow the instruc- 
 tions of their experiment station officers in regard to the 
 compounding of rations for their cattle. On many farms 
 the equipment is still incomplete, but the officers of the 
 Jewish Agricultural and Aid Society have taken an active 
 interest in the affairs of the Jewish farmers and are not 
 backward in extending aid and encouragement where they 
 are needed most. 
 
 Like the colonists in South Jersey, the Jewish farmers in 
 New England had various occupations in Europe. Most of 
 them, however, were either artisans or petty traders. Men 
 with large families were more certain of success, for at the 
 beginning at least they were obliged to look for a part of 
 their income to the mill or factory. The enthusiasm that 
 marked the early days of the South Jersey colonies was not 
 lacking here. The farmers went to work and bore their 
 hardships bravely. They seemed to have imbibed something 
 of the spirit of their Yankee neighbors, for they show much 
 self-reliance and independence of character. In their reli- 
 gious life they are as a rule orthodox and provide for the 
 instruction of their children in Hebrew and Jewish history. 
 There is also a measure of social life, particularly during 
 the holidays. Their relations with one another are friendly, 
 and they represent on the whole an intelligent portion of 
 the Russian immigrants. 
 
 Most of the farms were purchased by the settlers at two- 
 tliirds the original costs of the buildings. The purchase 
 price varied from $1,200 to $1,500 with an immediate cash 
 payment of one-third to one-half the purchase price. The 
 houses are in most cases frame buildings, and the farms are 
 supplied with the necessary outbuildings. The land is roll- 
 
EASTERN STATES 391 
 
 ing or \\i\\j, and the soil is gravelly or loamy. Although 
 the most important branch of agriculture that is followed is 
 dairy farming, they also engage in truck farming, grain 
 growing, poultry keeping, and fruit growing. A beginning 
 has been made in the construction and management of green 
 houses. A number of farmers have purchased incubators, 
 and are raising chickens for the market. Like their Yankee 
 neighbors, they derive an important part of their income 
 from summer boarders. Many Jewish people from New 
 York and Boston prefer to board with Jewish farmers in 
 New England, because of the kosher board that can be se- 
 cured. This " agricultural industry," if it may be called 
 such, offers the additional advantage to the farmers that 
 they have a home market for the products of their farms. 
 The canning of tomatoes has also been started at Colchester, 
 and gives promise of greater development. The Jewish 
 farmers of New England utilize their grapes for wine mak- 
 ing and in some cases earn a little money in lumbering and 
 the cutting of railroad ties. The children of a number of 
 the farmers work in the small mills near Oakdale, Norwich, 
 and Palmerton, and thus contribute something to the re- 
 sources of their families. Yet the New England farmers de- 
 pend upon the factories but to a limited extent, and these 
 do not play the important part in their life that they do in 
 the life of the South Jersey colonists. 
 
 There are probably about 400 Jewish farmers in the New 
 England states. The farms average about 100 acres each, 
 and the total acreage is therefore about 40,000. On the 
 average there are probably ten head of cattle on each farm, 
 and enough horses to do the farm work. The Jewish farm- 
 ers are gradually paying off their obligations and improv- 
 ing their holdings. Their future in New England has much 
 promise. 
 
(B) WESTERN STATES 
 
 In describing the condition of the Jewish farmers located 
 in the north-western states of the Union as observed by the 
 writer, who, accompanied by Mr. William Kahn, of the Jew- 
 ish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, of New York, 
 visited the homes of a large number of these people during 
 the summer of 1903, more than a mere narrative to gratify 
 the curious is intended. How the Jew lives and works as an 
 agriculturalist in America must be of the deepest interest to 
 every well-meaning and earnest Jew and Jewess. For, how- 
 ever favorable the '' chances " city life offers to the poor 
 Jewish immigrant from Russia and Roumania to rise from 
 a peddler to an importer or from a sweat-shop operator to 
 a manufacturer, it is the farm that holds the true key to a 
 difficult situation. Less than a decade or two ago it seems 
 to have been a conviction with even the best of our people 
 that the city offers larger opportunities for the immigrant 
 Jew. Here, it was held, he can lift himself into prominence 
 by means of the industries. The educational institutions, 
 too, it was held, will develop the talents of his children ; his 
 son may become a lawyer, physician, or a professor; his 
 daughter may attend the university and become learned in 
 the classics, or she may become an artist, a vocalist, or a 
 pianist. These '' chances " are good in the city, while on 
 the farm the Jew will drop out from the world's noticing 
 eye and become, at best, a producer of the plain Irish potato 
 and the artless yellow pumpkin. Such argument seems to 
 have been convincing to many not very long ago. But there 
 is ''not the ill wind which blows no man good." The 
 heavier Jewish immigration to the United States caused a 
 wiser attitude. The newer condition as it developed among 
 the Jews living in the congested quarters in the larger cities 
 has taken off the sharp edge of the ' ' chance-in-the-city ' ' ar- 
 gument and the advisability of having the Jewish poor ap- 
 ply themselves to agriculture is no longer questioned by any 
 thinking Jew. 
 
 But while the advisability of bringing the Jew to farm- 
 
 392 
 
WESTERN STATES 393 
 
 ing is generally acceded, the feasibility of such a movement 
 is still an open question with many. Can and will the Jew 
 make a successful farmer is a question of more than passing 
 concern to those who, much as they would assist in the move- 
 ment, cannot bring themselves to believe that the Jew is 
 capable of making farming a successful calling. It is, 
 therefore, for the purpose of forcing home the conviction 
 of the Jew's willingness and ability to till the soil that the 
 following facts and figures concerning the Jewish farmers 
 are given publicity. What is told of conditions is the state- 
 ment of an eye-witness, what is drawn and concluded by in- 
 ference is based on years of experience in the work of assist- 
 ing Jewish poor to make farming their calling, and what is 
 given as impressions is the result of careful study and close 
 observation among these farmers in their own homes and 
 surroundings. 
 
 Before relating, however, what was seen and learned on 
 these visits to the various farmers in Dakota, Wisconsin, 
 Michigan, Indiana and Illinois, it is deemed proper — and 
 it will surely prove news to many — to state that, most con- 
 servatively estimated, there are more than one thousand 
 Jewish farmers located in the territory west of the Alle- 
 ghenys and east of the Rocky Mountains. With nearly 
 three hundred of these Jewish farmers the Jewish Agricul- 
 turists' Aid Society of America (whose office is in Chi- 
 cago) is more or less in constant touch. These farmers are 
 engaged exclusively in agriculture; no other industry is 
 followed by them save what comes within the sphere of their 
 calling. They are actively engaged in all forms of the 
 work ; from gardening and dairy farming near the cities in 
 Illinois to wheat farming and cattle raising in the Dakotas ; 
 from truck farming in Florida to diversified farming in In- 
 diana and Wisconsin; from fruit farming in Michigan to 
 cotton raising in Oklahoma. They were all, at the outset, 
 unfamiliar with the work of farming as it is carried on in 
 this country, but, thanks to their untiring energy, they have 
 succeeded — some most admirably, others quite satisfac- 
 torily — in their undertaking. There can be little doubt as 
 to the ultimate success of these willing workers, among 
 whom, more than anything else, is manifest a spirit of great 
 contentment and a true delight in their new calling. 
 
 After a forty hours' trip from Chicago by way of St. 
 Paul and Bismarck to Wilton, North Dakota, we left the 
 railroad and started on a tour through the countiy. Going 
 
394 RURAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 eighteen miles northwest of Wilton we came to the farm of 
 L, C. This farmer is one of the latest arrivals in North 
 Dakota, he having come out from New York with his wife 
 and eight children at the end of last year. He is located, 
 like all our farmers in Dakota, on a homestead of 160 acres, 
 and though this is his first summer on a farm he has made 
 considerable improvement on the place. He has broken 35 
 acres of land, 32 of which he has put in flax and the balance 
 in corn, potatoes and garden stuff. He has the assistance 
 of a son, eighteen years of age, and a younger daughter, 
 who, like Whittier 's ' ' Maud MuUer ' ' does not shun raking 
 the hay on a hot summer day. On our arrival at the farm 
 we found these two young people in the field " haying "; 
 the son on the mower, and the girl on the hay rack, and they 
 were at it with a readiness as if they had been accustomed to 
 it from early childhood. The father was busy putting a 
 curbing in the well, and was assisted by one of his younger 
 children. Another one of his boys was herding the cows. 
 The best help, however, this man has is his good wife. Her 
 hand is visible in every part of the home. The modest 
 dwelling they erected was yet incompleted. It was in a 
 condition to afford shelter for the summer but not for win- 
 ter. In spite of its incompleteness the house was arranged 
 to afford the best comfort to the large family of ten people 
 that occupies it. Both husband and wife are appreciative 
 of the situation. They know that there is great work before 
 them, but they are ready for it, and the satisfaction they 
 expressed at having reached even this state in their under- 
 taking, their hopefulness for the future, and the cheerful- 
 ness with which they and their children are at their work, 
 augurs well for their success. They are the people who in- 
 deed will succeed. An incident which occurred while we 
 were at the house of this family deserves special mention. 
 It illustrates the good quality of the people; a quality es- 
 sential in the character of those Jews who desire to build up 
 their homes and establish themselves as agriculturists. The 
 C. family, prior to making their homestead entry, conducted 
 a grocery store on the East Side in New York City. Among 
 the relies of that time is a photograph showing the whole 
 family arrayed in all the pomp and finery becoming the 
 position of an East Side grocery merchant. On that photo- 
 graph the father appears with a heavy watch chain, the 
 mother with her earrings and finger rings, while the chil- 
 dren are bedecked with laces and ribbons in great profusion. 
 
WESTERN STATES 395 
 
 Noticing this family picture we ventured to remark on the 
 fine appearance of the family, and suggested that here on 
 the farm such finery will hardly be appreciated, as there 
 are so few people to notice it. In answer to our remark the 
 woman said : ' ' We are glad we shall not need it. There in 
 New York we worked for the dress and nothing more, here 
 we dress to work and v/ork for a home.'' 
 
 About four miles from this farm are located the home- 
 steads of T. and I. K., father and son. They entered on 
 their homesteads a few months before our visit. They also 
 came from New York, where the other members of 
 the family — mother and children — were left. Hav- 
 ing come to their farms at the early spring, they 
 had to go to land-breaking and hence could not build 
 their home so as to enable them to bring the family 
 to the farm. On our arrival at their '* shack," we found 
 them preparing for haying. They had built a stable, dug a 
 well and cellar, and the material for their dwelling was 
 on the place ready to be put up as soon as time would per- 
 mit them to do so. In the field they had done good work. 
 They had broken 40 acres of land, seeded it in flax, which 
 was in an excellent state. The '^ breaking " which was 
 done by the son, an ex-cloak maker, showed that it did not 
 take the young man much time to learn how to guide the 
 plow. The acreage worked indicated that the work, so well 
 done, was accomplished in a reasonably quick time. Speak- 
 ing with this family of the change they had made and of the 
 many hardships they had already endured, and which they 
 will still have to endure before they will be able to have 
 their family comfortably housed on the farm, they ex- 
 pressed their absolute confidence in the future, asserted that 
 they w^ill shun no v/ork and mind no difficulty in carrjdng 
 out their intention of making the homesteads in reality what 
 they were now but in name. 
 
 From here we drove eight miles, south by east, passing 
 the homesteads of J. M. and M. Z., whom we expected to 
 meet at the farm of M. brothers, the place of our destina- 
 tion. The M. brothers' farm, with its large dwelling house, 
 stables and outhouses, its live stock of nine horses, five cows, 
 and as many calves, makes an attractive showing. The 
 dwelling house is situated on a somewhat elevated place and 
 is visible from quite a distance. As we drew near we 
 noticed the cattle in the pasture, the light green fields of 
 young grain and the darker green of the young flax stretch- 
 
396 BUBAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 ing before us in large patches, the whole forming a picture 
 indicating life, human energy, and intelligent activity. 
 
 The brothers M. are Roumanians who came to this coun- 
 try within the last few years. One of them came to 
 America during the early part of 1899, and the other two 
 followed him a year later. To a limited extent they fol- 
 lowed agriculture in their native home, but, here in America 
 they, like most of the newcomers from Eussia, Roumania 
 and Galicia, went to the city — Chicago, in this instance — 
 where they found the usual employment in the sweat-shop 
 and in the picture frame factory. Accustomed to rural life 
 and to work in the open air they could not well bear the 
 change the new condition imposed upon them. Especially 
 did the wife of the oldest brother suffer by this change. 
 She could not endure the life in the congested quarters in 
 the city and fell sick. Learning of the work of the Jewish 
 Agriculturists' Aid Society of America, these people, to- 
 gether with Max Z., a brother of the wife of one of the M.'s 
 and a young man of exceptionally fine physique, made ap- 
 plication for a loan to enable them to take up the work of 
 farming. Their application received favorable considera- 
 tion at the hands of the directors of the society and loans 
 aggregating the sum of $2,000 were granted to them. They 
 located on homesteads in Burleigh County, North Dakota, 
 and though this was their first season on their homesteads 
 they were already well established. They have over eighty 
 acres under cultivation on their various homesteads. Most 
 of the acreage is seeded in flax with every prospect of a 
 good yield. On one of the homesteads they built a com- 
 modious six-room house, on the other a large barn, and with 
 the smaller buildings on the other homesteads, cellar, stable 
 and sheds, their improvements in this respect represent a 
 value of twelve hundred dollars or more. Their live stock 
 is worth more than one thousand dollars, and with wagons, 
 harness, buggy and other implements they offer ample se- 
 curity for the money loaned to them. More than this 
 security, however, must be counted their eagerness and 
 ability to improve their estates. 
 
 Our next stopping place was at the farm of V. B. We 
 arrived here after dark and were cordially greeted by Mr. 
 and Mrs. B., who expressed their delight at the opportunity 
 of having us stay at their home over night. Entering the 
 house we found that our hosts had already some company. 
 Two boys, sons of one of the Jewish farmers in the neigh- 
 
WESTERN STATES 397 
 
 borhood, were here. Their father had purchased a cow and 
 a calf from a farmer a few miles away, and the boys were 
 on their way home with the purchase. They had yet about 
 six miles to their home, and turned in here for the night, ex- 
 pecting to start again on their journey with the break of 
 day. Expressing our doubt as to the ability of our hosts to 
 shelter so many guests in their home, we were assured that 
 there was plenty of room for all. It was, indeed, pleasing 
 to note with what cheerfulness the hospitality was extend- 
 ed ; a cheerfulness which partook of a sense of thankfulness 
 to Divine Providence for having granted the blessings that 
 made possible the hospitality. 
 
 For the first three years on their homesteads the oc- 
 cupants lived in a sod-house erected by their own hands, 
 which afforded them a mere shelter. They did bide their 
 time, and in 1902 were able to build for themselves a modest 
 but comfortable home. They look with just pride on the 
 work they have accomplished. They have one of the finest 
 quarter-sections in the township. Sixty-five acres of this 
 they have under cultivation. They have eight milch-cows, 
 three heifers and calves, five horses and a colt, besides all 
 the machinery and implements. They are indebted, all 
 told, to the amount of a little over $1,000, but their estate 
 is worth to-day three times that amount, and the money they 
 owe is well secured. Five years ago these people arrived 
 here in Chicago from Russia. The man went to work in a 
 sweat-shop, earning from six to seven dollars a week. He 
 soon learned that the conditions in the city were not prom- 
 ising for him, and he applied for a loan in order to take up 
 a homestead of free government land. At first a loan of 
 $600 was granted to him, and with that — not having a dol- 
 lar of his own — he started at his venture. The family 
 went through considerable hardship, but were not daunted. 
 
 An object lesson of how the Jew will live as a farmer was 
 given through a slight incident which happened while we 
 were at this farm. It has always been maintained by the 
 writer that the Jew, with his high regard for life and his 
 indomitable ambition to make life bright and worthy, will, 
 when he takes to farming, broaden the view of the agricul- 
 turists and do much towards dispelling the odium which 
 hangs on to the " hay-seed " by reason of his proverbial 
 narrow-mindedness. While at the breakfast table in the 
 home of our friend B., the hostess waited on us and talked 
 to us of the future plans of the family. Among others she 
 
398 . RURAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 stated that, if the crop turned out as expected, she could 
 go the coming fall to Bismarck to have a tooth fixed. Dur- 
 ing the afternoon we had occasion to visit the home of a 
 non-Jev/ish farmer with whom we had some dealings in the 
 past. This farmer is an old settler and quite well-to-do. 
 As we drove into his yard we pulled up before a low shed 
 covered with straw, the house of this farmer. We found 
 that our man was not at home. His wife came to the door, 
 barefooted, and as she spoke one could not fail to notice the 
 exceedingly bad condition of her teeth. This made a de- 
 cided impression, and a thought not unfamiliar came for- 
 cibly upon us. Here was an old settled farmer whose pos- 
 sessions were worth ten times as much as those of his Jewish 
 neighbor, housed in a one-room shed, compared with which 
 the house of our friend B. is a veritable palace. The Jew- 
 ish farmer's wife having one defective tooth is ready to 
 have it attended to, while the wife of the other, if not 
 w^holly ignorant of the existence of the dentist, seems never 
 to have thought of availing herself of the good service of 
 that individual. "What a difference in the conception of 
 life. Oh, for the day when the Jew will again be a farmer ! 
 The Jewish seer's dream of beautiful homes, where every 
 man will dwell peacefully and contentedly under his own 
 vine and fig-tree, can best be realized through the Jewish 
 conception of life and by the Jewish tiller of the soil. In 
 more than one way has the Jew brought home to the world 
 the lessons of life, teaching the way to sweeten and to 
 beautify it. 
 
 From the V. B. farm we went to the house of H. B. 
 This man has the distinction of being the first settler in 
 his township. He came here from Chicago four years ago, 
 and pitched his tent in the open country, several miles away 
 from any neighbor. He had the choice of the best lands 
 and he selected a fine homestead. He was, however, not 
 long without neighbors. Within less than two years the 
 homesteads in his township were taken, and to-day there is 
 not an acre of free government land left unoccupied in his 
 vicinity. We found B. in the field cutting hay. He was on 
 the mower looking every inch a farmer. There was nothing 
 about him which would denote the uninitiated worker. 
 There was a fine span of horses before the machine, har- 
 nessed after the most approved farmer 's style. The mower, 
 too, though four years old, was in excellent condition — 
 the whole outfit equal to any that can be found among the 
 
WESTERN STATES 399 
 
 Swedish, Norwegian, and German farmers in the vicinity. 
 We drove along his farm looking at the crops. He had 
 nearly one hundred acres under cultivation, forty of which 
 were seeded in wheat and spelt, though with a poor pros- 
 pect of any yield. He had, however, nigh fifty acres in 
 flax which is in excellent condition. He had also a few 
 acres in corn, and oats, besides potatoes, beans, beets, etc. 
 His live-stock, consisting of seven horses and twelve head 
 of horn cattle, we also found to be in splendid condition, 
 and it alone easily represents a value fully covering the 
 amount of the indebtedness of this farm. 
 
 In the extreme northern portion of McLean County, in 
 township 150, Range 78, are located sixteen Jewish home- 
 steaders. The homesteads are all within a radius of about 
 twelve miles, the nearest being about eight miles from Bal- 
 four. Our first visit was to the homesteads of the R. family. 
 This family, consisting of father, two married sons and a 
 son-in-law, have entered on four homesteads, two of which 
 are located together while the others are about two miles 
 apart. Considering the short time they had been on their 
 respective homesteads — having filed their entries the winter 
 before — the improvements they made bear evidence not only 
 of their willingness to work as farmers but, what is more 
 important, of their ability to do so. They built a large 
 barn which was serving them as shelter until the house un- 
 der construction would be ready for them. They also erect- 
 ed stables for their cattle, dug wells, constructed cellars and 
 made the necessary fences around their yards. They had 
 nearly one hundred acres under cultivation, eighty of which 
 were seeded in flax, and, they had, at the time of our visit, 
 made nearly forty tons of hay. Their live stock consisted 
 of eight horses, three cows, two heifers and three calves. 
 We stayed for more than a day and had an opportunity to 
 observe the farmers at their work. The favorable impres- 
 sion which we had of these people was strengthened by 
 this observation. 
 
 From here we went about ten miles south where, in 
 township 149, we came to the homestead of G. This settler 
 had come out from New York with his wife and eight chil- 
 dren during the fall of 1902. He was assisted by the Jew- 
 ish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society and established 
 himself upon a fine tract of fertile land. Though about 
 eighteen miles away from the railroad, the homestead has 
 been wisely chosen, it being well watered and free from 
 
400 . BUBAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 stony and'alcoholated patches so often found in the prairies 
 of the Dakotas. G. has built for himself a comfortable 
 dwelling, a good barn and stable, and has broken over 
 forty acres of land since he settled upon his homestead. 
 He has four horses, two cows and two calves. He has the 
 assistance of his eldest son, seventeen years of age, and 
 of a good wife who looks after the comfort of her husband 
 and children. About a mile away to the west is located 
 a sister of Mr. G., a widow with her three children. In 
 this vicinity also are located two young men, who, not 
 being able to find any free government land nearer their 
 own homes, came out further west and located in McLean 
 County. We found them here on their claims engaged in 
 hay-making, but who expected by the following year to 
 begin the improvements on their homesteads as required 
 by the law. In this connection it is also worthy of men- 
 tion that six more young men, sons of Jewish farmers of 
 Ramsey County, had the previous spring gone as far west 
 as Ward County, and located as homesteaders. The action 
 of these young men is a telling answer to the often repeated 
 question, " Will the sons of our Jewish settlers stay 
 farmers ?" We had occasion to speak with these young 
 men and from all we could ascertain we are convinced 
 that it would require very strong inducements to bring 
 them to live in the city. They love the country and their 
 chosen vocation, and are on their respective homesteads to 
 stay and work as agriculturists. 
 
 Another young man broke fifty-four acres of land dur- 
 ing last spring. He also is the son of a farmer located in 
 Ramsey County. The boy was about eight years of age 
 when he came with his father to the farm. He has grown 
 up at the work, and has now filed an entry for a homestead 
 of his own in McLean County. He came to his homestead 
 equipped with the necessary implements and live stock, 
 all of which are in first-class shape and condition, and 
 second to none that can be found in charge of any young 
 farmer in the state. A third Jewish young boy, who two 
 years ago, was working in a factory in Chicago, broke forty 
 acres of land during the spring. This is excellent work 
 for a novice. Undoubtedly the good example of his young 
 friends, their valuable advice, and their encouraging 
 words, have contributed no little to the success of this 
 novice farmer. Seeing these three young men together, 
 one could not help being thoroughly impressed with the 
 
WESTERN STATES 401 
 
 absurdity of the usual saw that the Jew cannot or will not 
 make a farmer. It would be hard indeed to find in any 
 farmer community three young men better equipped and 
 more willing to do the work and lead the life of the farmer. 
 
 From McLean County we went hy way of Minot do\¥n 
 to St. Paul, and from there to Northern Wisconsin where 
 we visited some of our older settlers in that vicinity. We 
 have here some Jewish farmers who have, so to speak, 
 grown up with the country; having purchased wild lands 
 about ten years ago when the country was but very spar- 
 ingly settled. Unfamiliar with the work they were to per- 
 form and unaccustomed to a life of such thorough seclu- 
 sion as was necessarily theirs in this new country, they 
 endured much trial and privation. However, they have 
 suffered and labored till they have learned and succeeded, 
 and they are to-day well established in a most fertile coun- 
 try, surrounded by kind and pleasant neighbors, with whom 
 they stand on an equal footing as self-respecting produc- 
 ers. A more contented people than our Jewish farmers in 
 Burron County, Wisconsin, will be hard to find anywhere, 
 and their contentment is well founded. 
 
 We can not refrain from giving, as concisely as possible, 
 the story of one of our families located in this vicinity. 
 It will illustrate the possibilities farming holds for even 
 the poorest among the poor, and will also demonstrate the 
 fact that the means applied in helping the Jewish poor, 
 ready and willing to work, to change the condition from 
 poverty to affluence need be no waste of money, but an 
 interest-bearing investment, ample and v/ell secured. Nine 
 years ago the family in question, consisting of husband, 
 wife, and six children, the oldest of whom was a boy of 
 thirteen years of age, lived in the city in dire poverty. 
 The husband worked in a factory, earning eight dollars 
 per week when work was plentiful. Through sickness in 
 the family he fell back in paying the rent for his house, 
 and within less than a year the family was evicted three 
 times. With the assistance of the Jewish Agriculturists' 
 Aid Society the family removed from the city to the farm. 
 Eighty acres of wild land were purchased — title being taken 
 in the man's name — and after the most necessary build- 
 ings had been erected on the premises, a few implements 
 and some live stock obtained, the family was indebted to 
 the society to the amount of over $1,000. After the first 
 year on the farm our friend was in a position that required 
 
402 BUBAL SETTLEMENTS 
 
 further aid from the society, and $200 more was invested 
 to enable the man to hold out on the farm. After the 
 lapse of the second year the family was able to maintain 
 itself, but was unable to pay even the few dollars of taxes 
 levied against the property. The progress the people made 
 during the first years on the farm was slow. The work 
 they did was very superficial. No one could handle the 
 tools needed on such a farm properly, and it was not until 
 after the family had been five years on the farm that the 
 society felt justified in purchasing suitable tools and plac- 
 ing them at the disposal of the people. All these years 
 advances of various sums of money had to be made in order 
 to help them. These sums, together with the interest of 
 four per cent, on all amounts advanced, brought up the 
 indebtedness of this family to nearly $1,500. During this 
 time, while the process of turning the Jewish family who, 
 like other Jewish families, were not farmers, into a people 
 of the soil, not a few insisted that the money was wasted. 
 In fact, a gentleman who, four years ago, went out west 
 for the purpose of visiting the Jevvdsh farmers and inves- 
 tigating their condition, and who also visited the family 
 in question, was not slow in asserting that the society is 
 ** sinking money on that farm." The society, however, 
 disregarded these statements and went, as this society 
 always does, the full length of its endeavor, and the desired 
 end has been attained. The family to-day is not only in a 
 position to make the annual payments on its indebtedness, 
 but has already an equity of $1,500 in the estate. Fully 
 sixty acres of the wild lands have been cleared and the 
 property, with the buildings on it, is marketable for $2,500 
 at any time. This price has been set upon the farm by 
 the bank at Barron, as being so reasonable that a purchaser 
 for the property can be had for it at a day's notice. Be- 
 sides the equity in the land, the family has six cows, four 
 heifers, four steers, three calves, a fine span of horses, a 
 farmer wagon, a light spring wagon, all the implements, 
 among which there is a mower, a rake and binder, besides 
 plows, harrows, etc., and a stump-puller that cost over 
 $100. It need hardly be added that the indebtedness of 
 the family is now well secured and that the money invested 
 has not been '' sunk," but judiciously and advantageously 
 applied. It should be stated, however, that while the fam- 
 ily having learned the work, is now in a position to pay 
 back what has been advanced on its account, it is at the 
 
WESTERN STATES 403 
 
 same time improving the property and within six or eight 
 years, when the full amount of the indebtedness will have 
 been paid, will be in possession of an estate of from six to 
 eight thousand dollars. But while the repayment of the 
 investment has been assured, and a nice little estate created 
 for that poor family, the Jewish Agriculturists ' Aid Society 
 has worked for an aim by far higher than the one. to which 
 can be applied a money standard. The people have been 
 raised from a condition of depending, cringing poverty 
 to the dignified state of self-reliant manhood. 
 
 Numerous other instances could be given showing the sat- 
 isfactory progress made by the proteges of the Jewish Agri- 
 culturists^ Aid Society of America. However, the forego- 
 ing descriptions fully suffice to point the great lesson which 
 American Jewry must, of sheer necessity, learn and take to 
 heart. Nor can it be overlooked that the success attained by 
 these Jewish farmers is due to their own efforts and to the 
 readiness and willingness with which they undertook the 
 work. True, they had to be assisted in order to be able to 
 take up the work, but it was their own perseverance and 
 the undaunted courage with which they bore the hardships 
 and privations incidental to the undertaking that assured 
 success. To say that the Jew is no farmer is simply stating 
 an accepted fact, but to maintain that he will not become a 
 successful farmer is a grave error. What the few hundred 
 Jews have attained and are attaining by tilling the soil in 
 our western states, many thousands of the Jewish poor that 
 at present are crowding the settlements in the cities will 
 attain if they are given the chance. This fact cannot be 
 too strongly emphasized. In the face of existing condi- 
 tions, under which it is apparent that the Jewish centre of 
 gravity is shifting from the Russian Pale of Settlement to 
 America, the fact that the Jew will successfully work as an 
 agriculturist is of the upmost importance ; it is the essential 
 in the proper adjustment of the social-economic position of 
 the Jew in America. Whatever might have been the politi- 
 cal, economic, and religious condition of the Jew in the old 
 world, here in America his complete emancipation can be 
 accomplished. Nothing will aid more effectively in the 
 consummation of this end than his employment at agri- 
 culture. 
 
XIII 
 
 co:NrcLUsiONS 
 
 By Chaeles S. Beknheimer 
 
 405 
 
CONCLUSIONS 
 
 We have now concluded a study bearing on possibly one 
 million out of total of one and a half million Jews in the 
 United States. 
 
 We have seen in the consideration of the economic con- 
 dition of the immigrant Jews in the several cities that they 
 stand out pre-eminentl}^ in the clothing trade.^ 
 
 Many of the workers have risen to the position of con- 
 tractors, as has been pointed out, but this has often been, 
 so to speak, a false rise, being begotten of the desire to be 
 an employer, or '' boss," and having as its effect the in- 
 crease of these go-betweens of the laborers on the one side, 
 and the manufacturers on the other. The latter were thus 
 enabled to bring to bear a pressure resulting in a com- 
 petition which lowered the profits of the contractors and 
 the wages of the laborers. From this there arose constant 
 friction, reacting on the manufacturer and inducing a 
 tendency on his part to deal with the laborer in a factory 
 of his ov/n, thus doing away with the small shop and its 
 concomitant evils. On the part of the worker we have a 
 constantly increasing recognition of the value of organiza- 
 tion, with the consequent appreciation of the importance 
 of maintaining standards as to hours, wages, and comforts. 
 This maintenance, is, however, made difficult by that very 
 mobility to which we have adverted, by constant additions 
 of newly arrived immigrants, and by unorganized workers 
 from without, such as farmers' families and the like, who 
 can successfully compete in lines of industries requiring 
 little skill or necessitating little organization in the factory. 
 
 There is a more direct connection of these industries 
 with the professions in many individual instances than is 
 generally suspected. One year may see a clothing or cloak 
 worker in a shop; in a few years there will be a sign at 
 
 ^" By 1890 the Jews had virtually gained control of the clothing industry in 
 New York, a control that they have succeeded in maintaining to the present 
 time." Willett, The Employment of Women in the Clothing Trade, p. 34. 
 
 Sec, also. Report of Industrial Commission, Vol. XV, p. 334. 
 
 406 
 
CONCLUSIONS 407 
 
 the residence of this same man, '' M. D/' The desire 
 
 to go into the professions is intense. 
 
 Between the shop workers and the professional men there 
 are a variety of occupations into which the population has 
 entered. Among the younger generation who have had the 
 benefit of schooling there is getting to be less and less dis- 
 tinction as to the sort of occupation which they enter. 
 But there is, as has been shown, too great a tendency to 
 enter a few professions and to go into occupations requir- 
 ing comparatively little use of the hands. 
 
 With full recognition of the difficulty of overcoming 
 this tendency and of the value of giving the best possible 
 intellectual training to those who have the necessary apti- 
 tude, it seems to me that there ought to be a strong move- 
 ment in the direction of manual training and industrial 
 education. Manual training will aid in the normal devel- 
 opment of the individuals, in a broadening of their powers, 
 in a rounding out to counter-balance what has heretofore 
 been a one-sided grov/th. Industrial education should be 
 emphasized so that the trades and the professions requiring 
 mechanical training will be taken up. With ability as 
 skilled workers, many young men will have a better oppor- 
 tunity than in their attempts to crowd the stores and 
 offices. It seems desirable that educational institutions 
 intended for the Jewish immigrant population, especially in 
 the larger cities, should have as important features, manual 
 instruction, and the teaching of mechanical trades and 
 professions. 
 
 The movement of the immigrants away from the densely 
 populated quarters of the large cities is now receiving 
 attention. The Jersey settlements and the New England 
 and western farms are all evidences of a rural life. They 
 are admittedly small beginnings which in many instances 
 have required and still require subsidizing of one kind or 
 another, and which, like most small farming operations 
 nowadays, are difficult of maintenance alongside the com- 
 petition of farming on a large scale. Nevertheless, they 
 are helpful in the movement by which the crowding in the 
 large cities is sought to be modified. This work is also 
 given an impetus by the Industrial Removal Office, as a 
 result of which a number of immigrants have been directed 
 to smaller places. Such an undertaking, if steadily pur- 
 sued, should control to some extent the settlement of immi- 
 grants in the larger centres and be the means of drawing 
 
408 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 others besides those directly sent to the less crowded com- 
 munities. 
 
 ^Tiatever the enemies of Jews may say against them, 
 they recognize an intense intellectual keenness and a desire 
 to learn. Some antagonists sometimes turn to this very 
 ability as a factor which makes it difficult for the rest of 
 the population to compete with them. But such argument 
 fares ill with the Yankee, the American, the Anglo-Saxon ; 
 he possesses too much of that same alertness and cleverness, 
 has proceeded too far in the school of tolerance, is too broad- 
 minded and fair minded, to permit such a claim to be made 
 against intellectual superiority, however acquired or mani- 
 fested. 
 
 On all sides it is admitted that the Jewish immigrant 
 population places its children at school. This is a matter 
 of the most common observation. It is as true in Great 
 Britain^ as in the United States. 
 
 Not only is the appreciation of intellectual work shown 
 in formal schooling, it is marked in the sharpness of intel- 
 lect beyond the school, as is indicated in the following 
 observation, '' I have met keener speculative ardor and 
 more force in argument among the young Hebrews of the 
 East Side in New York than among the young athletes 
 of our universities. ' '^ If Miss Seudder 's words were taken 
 literally I can add that the ' ' young Hebrews ' ' would resent 
 being compared with the *' young athletes," for some of 
 these same " young Hebrews " are students of the univer- 
 sities, excelling in scholarship the " young athletes." It 
 is, however, true that some of the young men who are 
 unschooled in the conventional sense show strong intellec- 
 tual traits and subtle dialectic qualities, — sometimes to an 
 excessive degree, regarding argument too much as an end 
 instead of a means to the attainment of correct thought 
 and action. This, of course, does not affect the main con- 
 tention, that the Russian Jew, young and old, shows a 
 superior intellectual and educational standard. One rea- 
 son for the strong intellectual capacity and the high intel- 
 lectual ideal of the Jew is attributable to the study of the 
 Bible and the Talmud proceeding from generation to gen- 
 
 ^ " Jewish children, encouraged in every way at home, often progress with 
 astonishing rapidity, and seldom fail to reward the ambition of their parents 
 by a substantial advance on their original condition." Mary C. Tabor, in 
 Booth, Life and Labor of the People, Vol. Ill, p. 223. 
 
 2 Vida D. Seudder, " A Hidden Weakness in Our Democracy," Atlantic 
 Monthly, May, 1902. 
 
CONCLUSIONS 409 
 
 eration, and to the necessity which has been forced upon 
 him to live by his wit.^ 
 
 The older Jew, weak in body, fails in appreciation of the 
 physical development which makes the well-rounded nor- 
 mal man. The young Jew, by his contact at school, at 
 college, in the world at large, is beginning to realize its 
 value. With the great interest in sports at our educational 
 institutions, he becomes affected by the enthusiasm. This 
 is rapidly growing, and it will help to save him from the 
 deterioration which might have set in amid the rapid work- 
 ings of the life here. Wherever Jews are in institutions, 
 or wherever influences can be brought to bear, the oppor- 
 tunity for physical education should be utilized. This will 
 not only help the merely physical development, but bring 
 about more normal growth, away from concentration on 
 the purely mental. 
 
 We have seen the social development of the immigrant 
 Jew. The Jew of the older generation has his synagogue 
 as a centre of social attraction. Connected with this are 
 the auxiliary societies of the congregation ; even the burial 
 society affords means of social intercourse. As we pro- 
 ceed through the layers of society according to the length 
 of years in which the inhabitants have been in this coun- 
 try, we find that the means of social enjoyment approach 
 more and more the methods that prevail among the people 
 generally. Thus we have the lodge and the beneficial 
 society, the social, the party, and the ball, as well as the 
 concert and the theatre. We have noted among the older 
 element and that not thoroughly Americanized that the 
 Yiddish theatre is an attraction and that it presents some 
 admirable features. We have observed, too, unfortunate 
 tendencies to Americanize the theatre and the amusements, 
 according to New York Bowery standards. 
 
 Among all immigrant populations the misunderstanding 
 between the parents and the children is one of the saddest 
 consequences of settlement in a strange land. The children 
 of necessity become rapidly adapted to the ways of the 
 native population, but the parents remain foreigners. This 
 is true of the Jewish people. The children are often bread 
 winners of the family to a considerable extent and the inter- 
 preters for their parents to the outside world, so that they 
 acquire an importance which saps parental authority at a 
 
 tn 
 
 1 " The average Jew could always read and write." Abrahams, Jewish Life 
 th0 Middle Ages, p. 340. 
 
410 • CONCLUSIONS 
 
 time when that should be the strongest force to control the 
 children and keep them out of the ways that tempt. The 
 parents are frequently employed during the day and are 
 prevented from looking after their children, even when 
 they have the necessary force and power. The home sur- 
 roundings are frequently poor, and the children naturally 
 seek an outlet elsewhere. This will explain why some Jew- 
 ish children of this immigrant population are becoming 
 . street children, children with the roughness and brutality 
 . of the people of the street, copying their vicious language 
 and habits, and why they sometimes enter into lives of 
 t crime. 
 
 \ Juvenile delinquency is a serious matter among all the 
 
 ' nationalities whose children are being reared in the United 
 
 States. Unquestionably one of the causes in the congested 
 
 quarters, aside from that of parental lack of supervision, 
 
 is the failure to provide a healthy outlet for the children. 
 
 V Forced from the contracted habitations of one, two, or three 
 
 I rooms into the streets, they get into various sorts of mis- 
 
 * chief. The boys would gladly play baseball, basketball or 
 
 • football in a park or playground nearby, but these are not 
 nearby for most of them ; they cannot even play in their 
 
 I own back yard, as their better-to-do brothers, and so they 
 f use the street for their games, and must be on the lookout 
 ; for the '^ cop " who watches for the petty violation of 
 -street ordinances. If they break a window, their fathers 
 do not settle, they have no influence, and the boys are haled 
 , before a mxagistrate or a court and dubbed juvenile crim- 
 jinals. From being in the street, and kept from healthy 
 ' play, they are ' ' up to " all kinds of pranks, even the 
 'serious one of stealing. If left unchecked the boys really 
 become criminals. Any one who knows the conditions 
 among the foreign nationalities, in a congested quarter of 
 one of the great cities, realizes that it is the surroundings 
 which are largely responsible for the misdeeds of boys and 
 not in most cases the home surroundings so much as the 
 . city environment in general. We know that among the 
 Jewish population the parents of the delinquent are ordi- 
 narily not criminals, but they are sometimes too weak to 
 control the clfildren because of lack of clear understand- 
 ing of their relations to our institutions. 
 
 The juvenile court, which is becoming more and more 
 recognized, has an important preventive influence, with its 
 invaluable and indispensable co-operator, the system of pro- 
 
CONCLUSIONS 411 
 
 bation officers, provides for siicli contingencies. The ju- 
 venile delinquent is kept watch over by the probation officer 
 and the parents at the same time become educated in the 
 proper training of their children through the visits of this 
 officer. If the surroundings of the child are bad in the 
 judgment of the probation officer, the court will usually en- 
 deavor to have it placed away from its home influences 
 either by having it sent to be taken care of by another fam- 
 ily, preferably in the country, or by committing it to an 
 institution, either public or private. We lack in private 
 institutions for delinquent children, and so they are fre- 
 quently committed to a public one. 
 
 It is to counteract low standards and degrading tend- 
 encies, to conserve the Jewish moral and ethical ideals, and 
 to help in the advance toward the highest types of citizen- 
 ship that the educational, social and religious institutions 
 and influences must come in. The implanting of principles 
 of conduct and order according to the most elevated stand- 
 ards of the land must be kept in mind. The supplying of 
 means of play and recreation as an outlet to the activities of 
 the young must always be considered. The population 
 must be surrounded with healthful, attractive places of 
 social gathering in the absence of such places in the home, 
 and to counteract dangerous resorts to which young people, 
 of any class, may easily be lured when not kept watch over. 
 The necessity of providing preventive influences must be 
 emphasized. A number of such have been established, but 
 they are inadequate to cope with the conditions. Play 
 grounds, vacation schools, the public schools, the settle- 
 ments, educational societies, libraries, all help along this 
 line, but the community of each city must be brought to 
 realize the importance of greater effort. Such influences 
 as have been adverted to take up groups and individuals, 
 but their scope is necessarily limited, — very often the 
 greater their limitations as to numbers, the better their in- 
 fluence on the few with whom they come in contact. The 
 Jewish population are susceptible of high development. 
 The fact that they are massed together in large numbers in 
 strange surroundings has caused them to lead an abnormal 
 life. There must be a realization of the necessity of helping 
 them to help themselves. Everything possible to improve 
 their surroundings should be done, but whatever is done 
 should be on the principle, not that the individuals are 
 
412 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 being helped, but that the community life generally is being 
 improved. 
 
 * ' Of all men, ' ' says Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu,^ ' ' the Rus- 
 sian, once rid of his traditional ideas, of his national 
 prejudice, is the most completely freed. In this respect, no 
 other can be compared to him, but the Jew, the modern 
 Israelite. He, too, at contact with aliens, passes from the 
 extreme of the spirit of veneration to the extreme of free 
 thinking, from the oriental traditionalism, to which the bulk 
 of his brethren stubbornly cling, to the most daring feats of 
 the spirit of innovation." When, therefore, we have the 
 combination of the Russian, the intellectual Russian, and 
 the Jew, the advanced Jew, we may not unexpectedly have 
 a most radical resultant, and it ought not surprise us to 
 find it in the United States, where the Jew can give full 
 swing to his philosophical speculations. It is this extreme 
 tendency which makes religious stability difficult and which 
 forces upon us one of the most serious religious problems. 
 The older generation fail to provide for the religion of their 
 children. True, they maintain the forms, observe the cere- 
 monies, celebrate the holy days and the holidays, attend the 
 synagogue, but their children do not follow in their foot- 
 steps. The opposition of two divergent influences, two dif- 
 ferent environments, separates the two generations, and one 
 cannot understand the other and will not yield to the de- 
 mands of the other. The older generation who observe the 
 religious laws and principles insist that the strict letter 
 must be maintained. They have been brought up in a 
 Ghetto secluded from the rest of the community, mingling 
 with it for the purpose of making a livelihood whenever 
 necessary, but returning to the community fold to follow 
 the religious customs. The younger generation have been 
 thrown into a world in which they are part of the larger 
 community, with the same opportunities as all the rest, with 
 no isolating laws, no restrictions. They have become part 
 of the English-speaking Americans; their aspirations are 
 those of the young people of the country. The shock of 
 freedom has thrown many of them into a state of indiffer- 
 ence, of nothingness, of intense reaction against the prac- 
 tices of their fathers. To them the Hebrew chantings in 
 the synagogue have no meaning ; the symbolism of the forms 
 
 1 The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians, Vol. I, p. 123. 
 
CONCLUSIONS 413 
 
 and ceremonies is lost; their intellects refuse to accept as 
 religions that which seems fantastic. 
 
 There are some who are endeavoring to find a point of 
 worship which will be more in accord with the modern 
 spirit, which will adopt an orderly service with the vernacu- 
 lar as part of the language of prayer. The reform move- 
 ment among the Jews of other classes who came here before 
 the Russian immigration was the outcome of some such 
 clash of ideas, but the Russian and Eastern European Jew- 
 ish element has thus far shown but little evidence of fol- 
 lowing along the lines of the German Jewish reform move- 
 ment. 
 
 In his description of the career of the late Chief Rabbi 
 Joseph of New York, Abraham Cahan^ points out the quick 
 changes and vicissitudes which have taken place among the 
 religious activities of the Russian Jewish population, even 
 among those of the older generation. He says: " Rabbi 
 Joseph remained the man of the third century he had been 
 brought up to be while his fellow country people, whom he 
 came here to lead, were in hourly contact with the culture 
 of the nineteenth century. A gap was yawning between 
 the chief rabbi and his people, one which symbolized a 
 most interesting chapter in the history of Israel, but which 
 foreshadowed the tragedy of the newcomer's life in this 
 country. ' ' 
 
 This has reference to a growing change of attitude. So 
 far as religious observances are concerned, the change is 
 very much less formal among the older than among the 
 younger generation ; it is of slower growth and more subtle ; 
 but it indicates an evolution of Russian and Polish 
 Israel in America which will be sanctioned; it presages 
 a Judaism away from the strict ritualism of the Ghetto, re- 
 fined by modern life and conditions. 
 
 There are thus, from the religious standpoint, several 
 strata of immigrant Jews in this country: Those of the 
 type of Rabbi Joseph, who cannot adjust themselves ; those 
 of the older generation who are gradually diverging from 
 the ritualistic injunctions, though generally maintaining 
 outward form and ceremony; the younger generation who 
 are dissatisfied with the synagogal conditions of their elders, 
 and who want a service and observance with the English 
 language as a medium and the exposition of Jewish ideals 
 
 ' American Monthly Review of Reviews, September, 1902. 
 
414 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 in the light of modern conditions; and finally, the class 
 who are radicals and iconoclasts of various types standing 
 at present aloof from the synagogal fold. 
 
 For those who occupy more or less of a middle ground 
 there is the possibility of what, for want of a better designa- 
 tion, may be called a young people's modern synagogue. 
 The attempts to graft this on the religious life and action 
 are in their incipiency, and any judgment as to their per- 
 manent possibility is mere guess work. With young, gifted, 
 enthusiastic leaders, sprung from the class for which spir- 
 itual provision is to be made, it would seem that there is 
 sufficient fertile religious soil from which a sound growth 
 can be produced. But, unfortunately, there has thus far 
 been a lack of such leaders, and hence the would-be fol- 
 lowers have found it difficult to gather on common ground. 
 Those who have the religious welfare of the immigrant 
 population at heart must concentrate on plans to plant con- 
 gregations of the young people, with an English and He- 
 brew service and an English-speaking rabbi — not a re- 
 form service of the advanced type necessarily, but one that 
 would make the break between the old and the new not 
 sharp and sudden. These are vague terms, but the condi- 
 tions in the communities are such that it is impossible to 
 give in express, tangible terms a general remedy for the 
 religious ills. 
 
 A people with restless energy, shrewd insight, breadth 
 of view, intense intellectual initiative, moral strength, spir- 
 itual power, — some of these qualities latent because of 
 lack of opportunity — are thrown into an atmosphere in 
 America for which they are well fitted and in which they 
 would make great advance if they had not to struggle at 
 first with severe economic necessity. The struggle is fierce 
 in certain quarters and during the struggle some untoward 
 results follow. Coming here hampered and trying to ad- 
 just themselves, they must strive in a way which those long 
 settled here cannot appreciate. It is our business to im- 
 prove the conditions surrounding them, and to whatever 
 extent we help them they will profit. They are bound to 
 rise no matter how great the difficulties. All who know 
 the stuff of which they are made have no fear that from the 
 grinding process there wdll rise men and women of the 
 highest types of citizenship, business and professional men 
 of high grade, poets, scholars, scientific workers in many 
 fields. I am glad to have confirmation of my observations 
 
CONCLUSIONS 415 
 
 in the following by Dr. Emil G. Hirsch :^ ' * We have no 
 doubt that the new day about to break will show the Russian 
 American Jew as a man of power, with mind well stocked 
 and judgment well trained, with sympathies well refined 
 for all that is good, true, and noble, with loyalty most in- 
 tense for the best that America calls its own ; a citizen well 
 worthy of the prerogative, of the sovereignty which Ameri- 
 can citizenship confers; a Jew deeply conscious of the 
 beauty, the reasonableness of his faith, the historic beauty 
 that birth from Jewish parents imposes." 
 
 * Singer, Russia at the Bar of the American People, p. XXIX. 
 
 A 
 
 -> 
 
 ) 
 
EEADING LIST 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 Adler, Cyrus, Ed. American Jewish Year Book. 1899- 
 
 1905. 6 vols. Philadelphia, 1899-1904. 
 The Voice of America on Kishineff. Philadelphia, 
 
 1904. 
 Antin, Mary. From Plotzk to Boston. Boston, 1899. 
 Besant, Sir Walter. East London. New York, 1901. 
 Booth, Charles. Life and Labor of the People. 9 vols. 
 
 London, 1891-97. 
 Bradshaw, F., and Emanuel Charles. Alien Immigration. 
 
 London, 1904. 
 Brandenburg", Broughton. Imported Americans. New 
 
 York, 1904. 
 Burnet, John, and Schloss, David F. Reports to the Board 
 
 of Trade on Alien Immigration to America. London, 
 
 1893. 
 Bushee, Frederick A. Ethnic Factors in the Population 
 
 of Boston. New York and London, 1903. (Publications 
 
 of the American Economic Association). 
 Davitt, Michael. Within the Pale: The True Story of 
 
 Anti-Semitic Persecution in Russia. New York, 1903. 
 Errara, Leo. The Russian Jews. Translated from the 
 
 French. London, 1894. 
 de Forest, Robert W., and Veiller, Lawrence, Ed. The 
 
 Tenement House Problem. 2 vols. New York and Lon- 
 don, 1903. 
 Frederic, Harold. The New Exodus: A Study of Israel 
 
 in Russia. New York and London, 1892. 
 Ganz, Hugo. The Land of Riddles ( Russia of To-day). 
 
 New York, 1904. 
 Gordon, Wm. E. Evans-. The Alien Immigrant. London, 
 
 1903. Jewish immigration to Great Britain referred to. 
 Gould, E. R. L. The Housing of the Working People. 
 
 Washington, 1895. (U. S. Commissioner of Labor. 
 
 Eighth Special Report). 
 
 416 
 
BEADING LIST 417 
 
 Orer:t Britain Royal Commission on Alien Immigration. 
 Minutes of Evidence and Report. 4 vols. London, 1904, 
 
 Hapgood, Hutehins. The Spirit of the Ghetto. New York, 
 1903. 
 
 Henderson, Charles R., Ed. Modern Methods of Charity. 
 New York and London, 1904. 
 
 Hull House Maps and Papers. A Presentation of Nation- 
 alities and Wages in a Congested District of Chicago. 
 By Residents of Hull House. New York and Boston. 
 1895. ' 
 
 Hunter, Robert, Ed. Tenement Conditions in Chicago. 
 Report by the Investigating Committee of the City 
 Homes Association. Chicago, 1901. 
 
 Jewish Encyclopedia, The. Agricultural Colonies in Rus- 
 sia—Agricultural Colonies in the United States— Alli- 
 ance, N. J. — America — Anti-Semitism — Austria— Bes- 
 sarabia— Bohemia — Charity— Chicago — Cossacks ' Upris- 
 ing— Drama, Yiddish— Galicia—Hirsch (Baron de) Fund 
 — Hassidism — Hungary— Jewish Colonization Associa- 
 tion — Jud^o-German — Judaeo-German Literature— Lith- 
 uania— May Laws— Migration— New York City— Pale of 
 Settlement — Philadelphia — Roumania — Russia— United 
 States. 12 vols. New York and London, 1901-1905. 
 
 Jones, Thomas J. The Sociology of a New York City Block. 
 New York, 1904. (Columbia University Studies in Po- 
 litical Science). 
 
 Lazare, B. Anti-Semitism : its History and Causes. Trans- 
 lated from the French. New York, 1903. 
 
 Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole. The Empire of the Tsars and 
 the Russians. Translated from the French. 3 vols. New 
 York and London, 1893. 
 
 Morals, Henry S. The Jews of Philadelphia. Philadelphia, 
 
 Mew Jersey Bureau of Statistics. Jewish Colonies of New 
 
 Jersey. Camden, 1901. 
 New York City Tenement House Department. First Report. 
 
 1902-1903. 2 vols. New York, 1904. 
 Riis, Jacob A. The Battle with the Slum. New York, 
 
 1902. 
 Ripley, William Z. The Races of Europe. New York, 
 
 1899. 
 Russell, C, and Lewis, H. S. The Jew in London: A 
 
 Study of Racial Character and Present-Day Conditions. 
 
 New York and London, 1900. 
 
418 BEADING LIST 
 
 Eusso-Jewish Committee of London. The Persecution of 
 the Jews in Russia. Philadelphia, 1890. 
 
 San-Donato, Prince Demidoff. The Jewish Question in 
 Russia. Translated from the Russian. London, 1894. 
 
 Singer, Isidore, Ed. Russia at the Bar of the American 
 People. New York and London, 1904. 
 
 Smith, Richmond Mayo. Emigration and Immigration. 
 New York, 1890. 
 
 United States Industrial Commission. Immigration and 
 Education. Report, Vol. XV. Washington, 1901. 
 
 White, Arnold. The Modern Jew. London, 1899. 
 
 Wiener, Leo. The History of Yiddish Literature in the 
 Nineteenth Century. New York, 1899. 
 
 Willett, Mabel Hurd. The Employment of Women in the 
 Clothing Trade. New York, 1902. (Columbia Univer- 
 sity Studies in Political Science). 
 
 Woods, Robert A., Ed. The City Wilderness: A Settle- 
 ment Study by Residents and Associates of the South 
 End House. South End, Boston. Boston, 1898. 
 
 Americans in Process : A Settlement Study by Res- 
 idents and Associates of the South End House. North 
 and West Ends, Boston. Boston, 1902. 
 
 Wright, Carroll D. The Slums of Baltimore, Chicago, New 
 York and Philadelphia. Washington, 1894. (U. S. 
 Commissioner of Labor. Seventh Special Report). 
 
 FICTION 
 
 Bernstein, Herman. In the Gates of Israel. New York, 
 
 1902. Stories of the Inmiigrant Jew in the United 
 
 States. 
 Brudno, Ezra S. The Fugitive: Being Memoirs of a 
 
 Wanderer in Search of a Home. New York, 1904. 
 Cahan, Abraham. Yekl : A Tale of the New York Ghetto. 
 
 New York, 1896. 
 The Imported Bridegroom and Other Stories of the 
 
 New York Ghetto. Boston, 1898. 
 Kelly, Myra. Little Citizens : The Humors of School Life. 
 
 New York, 1903. 
 Richards, Bernard G. Discourses of Keidansky. New 
 
 York, 1903. 
 Rosenfeld, Morris. Songs from the Ghetto. With Prose 
 
 Translation, Glossary and Introduction by Leo Wiener. 
 
 Boston, 1898. 
 
READING LIST 419 
 
 Zangwill, Israel. The Children of the Ghetto: A Study 
 of a Peculiar People. Philadelphia, 1892. New York, 
 1895. 
 
 REPORTS OF SOCIETIES 
 
 Association for the Protection of Jewish Immigrants. 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 College Settlements Association. New York, Philadelphia, 
 
 and Boston. 
 Educational Alliance. New York. 
 
 Jewish Agriculturists' Aid Society of America. Chicago. 
 Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society. New York. 
 National Conference of Jewish Charities. New York. 
 United Hebrew Charities. New York. 
 University Settlement. New York. 
 
 PERIODICALS 
 
 Austin, 0. P. Is the New Immigration Dangerous to the 
 Country? North American Review, April, 1904. 178: 
 558. 
 
 Brudno, Ezra S. The Emigrant Jew at Ilome. World's 
 Work, February, 1904. 7 : 4471. 
 
 The Russian Jew Americanized, World's Work, 
 
 March, 1904. 7 : 4555. 
 
 Baker, Ray Stannard. The Rise of the Tailors. McClure's 
 
 Magazine, December, 1904. 24: 126. 
 Cahan, Abraham. Jewish Massacres and the Revolutionary 
 
 Movement in Russia. North American Review, July, 
 
 1903. 177: 49. 
 
 Claghorn, Kate H. Our Immigrants and Ourselves. Atlan- 
 tic Monthly, October, 1900. 36 : 535. 
 
 Immigration in its Relation to Pauperism. Annals 
 
 of the Academy of Political and Social Science, July, 
 
 1904. 24:187. 
 
 Dyche, J. A. The Jewish Immigrant in England. Con- 
 temporary Review, March, 1899. 75 : 379. 
 
 Jewish Workmen in England. Contemporary Re- 
 view, January, 1898. 73: 35. 
 
 Falkner, Roland P. Some Aspects of the Immigration 
 Problem. Political Science Quarterly, March, 1904. 
 19 : 32. 
 
420 BEADING LIST 
 
 Fishberg, M. Russian Jews in America. American Monthly 
 Review of Reviews, September, 1902. 26: 315. 
 
 Ford, Alexander Hume. The Eusso-American Jew. Pear- 
 son's Magazine, Octofo, 1903. 10: 233. 
 
 Friedenberg, Albert M. The Problem of Jewish Immi- 
 gration. Jewish Comment, February 6, 1903. 
 
 Gaster, M. The Jews in Roumania. North American 
 Review, November, 1902. 175 : 664. 
 
 Giddings, Franklin H. Sociological Questions. Forum, 
 October-December, 1903. 35 : 245. 
 
 Hourwich, Isaac A. The Persecution of the Jews. Forum, 
 August, 1891. 11 : 611. 
 
 Mathews, B. C. A Study in Nativities. Forum, January, 
 1899. 26: 621. 
 
 Michaud, Gustav. What Shall We Be? Century, March, 
 1903. 65 : 683. Comment on Above. F. H. Giddings, 
 Century, March, 1903. 
 
 Ripley, William Z. Race Factors in Labor Unions. Atlan- 
 tic Monthly, March, 1904. 93 : 299. 
 
 Sargent, Frank P. Problems of Immigration. Annals of 
 the Academy of Political and Social Science. July, 1904. 
 24: 153. 
 
 Steiner, Edw. A. The Russian and Polish Jew in New 
 York. Outlook. November, 1902. 72: 528. 
 
 Van Etten, Ida M. Russian Jews as Desirable Immigrants. 
 Foriim. April, 1893. 15 : 172. 
 
 White, Arnold. ** A Typical Alien Immigrant,*' Contem- 
 porary Review. February, 1898. 73: 241. 
 
 Charities. Weekly. New York. 
 
 Charity Work. February, 1902, to July-August, 1903. 
 
 New York. 
 Jewish Charity. From October, 1903. Monthly. New 
 
 York. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Actors, Yiddish, 229, 250 
 
 Agricultural settlements, in New 
 Jersey, 37, 376-88, 407; in New 
 England States, 388-91, 407; in 
 Western States, 392-402, 407 
 
 Agriculture, in Poland, 27; in Rus- 
 sia, 37 
 
 Alfred Corning Clark House, New 
 York, 47 
 
 Alliance, N. J., 377-88 
 
 Amusements. See Social life 
 
 Anarchists, 266, 272 
 
 Anshe Kenesseth Israel Congrega- 
 tion, Chicago, 58 
 
 Anshe Maariv Congregation, Chicago, 
 57-58 
 
 Arbitration, 354, 360 
 
 Artists, East Side New York, Exhi- 
 bition of, 193 
 
 Assimilation with American life, 33- 
 34, 67, 73, 75, 107, 219, 234, 254, 
 256. 283, 302, 414 
 
 Associated Jewish Charities, Chicago, 
 88 
 
 Association for the Protection of 
 Jewish Immigrants, Philadelphia, 
 55, 79-80, 84 
 
 Bamberger, Prof. G., cited, 211 
 
 Baron de Hirsch Agricultural School, 
 Woodbine, N. J., 382 
 
 Baron de Hirsch Fund, 55, 65, 72, 
 81, 377 
 
 Baron de Hirsch Trade School, New 
 York, 194, 195 
 
 Baths, 287, 306-08, 322, 324. See 
 
 , also Housing 
 
 Beth Israel Hospital, New York, 71— 
 72 
 
 Billings, J. S., cited, 293, 299 
 
 Blaustein, David, cited, 155n 
 
 B'nai B'rith, distribution of immi- 
 grants by, 368 
 
 B'nai B'rith Manual Training School, 
 Philadelphia. 206 
 
 Bohemians, death rate of, in New 
 York, 293; diseases among, in New 
 York, 299 
 
 B'rith milah. See Circumcision 
 
 Brownsville, N, Y., 43, 67 
 
 Bureau of Personal Service, Chi- 
 cago, 88, 92, 93, 99 
 
 Burial, 331 
 
 Burial societies. 72, 85, 95, 174 
 
 Byalistock, Russia, 26 
 
 Cafes, East Side New York, 222-24 
 
 Candle tax in Russia, 23 
 
 Carmel, N. J., 377-88 
 
 Central Russian Refugee Committee, 
 65 
 
 Ceremonies, Jewish, 40, 157, 160, 157, 
 160, 222, 287. See also Religious 
 influences 
 
 Charity. See Philanthropy 
 
 Chasdai ibn Shaprut, Jewish diplo- 
 mat, 18 
 
 Chassidism, influence of, 15 
 
 Chedarim. See Schools 
 
 Chevras. See Congregations; Relief 
 societies. 
 
 Chicago, map of West Side of, 66; 
 Jews in, 58 
 
 Chicago Hebrew Institute, 181 
 
 Chicago Woman's Aid, 90 
 
 Child labor, 120 
 
 Child labor law of Illinois, 141 
 
 Children. See Young people 
 
 Chmielnicki, Bogdan, 20 
 
 Christian missions to the Jews, 155 
 
 Circumcision, 48, 331 
 
 Citizenship, 35, 39, 40, 67, 256, 268, 
 276, 277, 279 
 
 Coffee, use of, 291 
 
 Clara de Hirsch Home for Work- 
 ing Girls, New York, 195 
 
 Clothing industry, 109-10, 119-20, 
 128-30, 189, 141, 406 
 
 Clubs, Young people's, 197, 198, 217, 
 232, 360 
 
 421 
 
422 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Cohen, Dr. ^. Solis-, cited, 316-17 
 
 College Settlement, New York, 193 
 
 College Settlement, Philadelphia, 206, 
 208 
 
 Congregations, number of, Philadel- 
 phia, 54, 84; New York, 155; Chi- 
 cago, 174 
 
 Contagious diseases, immunity from, 
 298, 311 
 
 Cossack massacre, 19, 20 
 
 Council of Jewish Women, Chicago 
 Section, 180 
 
 Council of Jewish Women, Philadel- 
 phia Section, 169 
 
 Courland, Jews in, 26 
 
 Crime. 39, 55, 73, 337-41, 344-47, 
 356-58, 362 
 
 Darrow, Clarence S., election of, 278 
 Davidson, Thomas, influence of, 193 
 Davies, Anna F., cited, 208 
 Death rate, 35, 59. 292-93, 299 
 Degeneracy, absence of, 67 
 Delinquency, juvenile, 73, 92-93, 348, 
 
 358-59, 410 
 Density of population, 44, 283-84 
 
 292, 304 
 Dinwiddie. Emily W., cited, 308 
 Diseases, 73, 294-99, 311-17, 328- 
 
 31 
 Distribution of Jewish immigrants, 74 
 
 118-21, 366-73, 407 
 Double-decker tenement. See Hous 
 
 ing 
 "Dumb-bell" tenement. See Hous 
 
 ing 
 Drama, Yiddish, 227-28, 230, 235 
 
 250-52 
 Drug habits, absence of, 291 
 Drunkenness, absence of, 67, 222 
 
 223, 240, 289, 290, 303, 310, 312 
 
 319. 320. 386 
 
 Eastern Penitentiary, Philadelphia 
 
 358 
 Economic condition of Jews, in Rus 
 
 sia, 21, 25-27, 30; in United 
 
 States, 102-46 
 Economic influences, 102-46 
 Economic progress of Jews In United 
 
 States, 55, 60, 66, 114, 135, 406 
 Educational Alliance, New York, 47, 
 
 192 
 Educational Alliance, Philadelphia, 209 
 Education, 15, 88, 60, 184-219, 408-09 
 
 Education, Board of. New York, 
 
 public lectures, 193 
 Education of Jews in Russia, 80-24, 
 
 33; of rabbis, 22; of Lithuanian 
 
 Jews, 27 
 Emerson, influence of, 155, 156 
 Ethical Culture, Society for. East 
 
 Side Branch, 153-54 
 
 Factories in the New Jersey set- 
 tlements. 379, 381, 382, 384 
 
 Factory system as a substitute for 
 sweatshops, 117, 127, 134, 145 
 
 Fairbanks, Hon. Charles W., cited, 
 38. 
 
 Family, size of, 286, 305. 
 
 Famines, in Russia, 80 
 
 Federation of Jewish Charities, Phil- 
 adelphia, 81-82 
 
 Food, 59, 288, 289, 391 
 
 Foreign-born, comparison of, 285, 
 287-88, 293 
 
 Foreign influence in Russia, 28, 29 
 
 Frankel, L. K., cited, 118, 300 
 
 Free burial societies. See Burial so- 
 cieties 
 
 Free loan societies. See Loan socie- 
 ties 
 
 Gemilus Chasodim. See Loan socie- 
 ties 
 
 Germans, in Philadelphia, 52 
 
 Ghettos, European, insanitary con- 
 dition of, 282 
 
 Ghetto, New York, 49; Philadelphia, 
 56; Chicago, 60 
 
 Gordin, Jacob, 228, 230 
 
 Hachnosas Orchim. See Sheltering 
 
 Home 
 Hebrew Charity Ball Association, 
 
 Philadelphia, 81 
 Hebrew Education Society, Philadel- 
 phia, 123, 206 
 Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society, 64, 
 
 877, 378 
 Hebrew Free School, Chicago, 174, 
 
 214 
 Hebrew Free School, Philadelphia, 
 
 167 
 Hebrew High School, Philadelphia, 
 
 167 
 Hebrew Relief Association, Chicago, 
 
 87 
 Hebrew Technical Institute, New 
 
 York, 194 
 
INDEX 
 
 423 
 
 Hebrew Technical School for Girls, 
 
 New York, 196 
 Hebrew Literature Society, Phila- 
 delphia, 168, 209 
 Hebrew Literary Association, Chicago, 
 
 177, 181, 218, S53 
 Hebrew Sunday School Society, Phil- 
 adelphia, 207 
 Heilprin, Michael, 377 
 Henry Booth House, Chicago, 214, 
 
 217 
 Holidays, 40, 204, 206 
 Home for Aged, New York, 72 
 Home for Aged, Philadelphia, 85 
 Home for Hebrew Orphans, Phila- 
 delphia, 86 
 Home for Jewish Friendless and 
 
 Working Girls, Chicago, 88, 91 
 Home for Jewish Orphans, Chicago, 
 
 88, 91 
 Home of Delight, Philadelphia, 206-07 
 Homes for Aged, Chicago, 88, 91, 
 
 174-75 
 Homes for Working Girls, 91, 195 
 Hospitals, 72, 78, 85, 89 
 House of Refuge, New York, 73 
 House of Refuge, Philadelphia, 359 
 Housing, New York, 44-46, 72, 73, 
 284-88; Philadelphia, 45-47, 55, 59, 
 75, 304-10; Chicago, 172, 319-32 
 Hull House, Chicago, 60, 214, 217 
 Hungarians, in Philadelphia, 52, 53 
 Hurwitz (Horowitz), M. H., 227 
 
 Immigrants, distribution of, 74, 118^ 
 121, 366-73 
 
 Immigration, 159, 367-71 
 
 Immigration, Jewish, Austrian, 66; 
 Galician, 66; German, 12; Rou- 
 manian, 57, 66, 367; Russian, 57, 
 64-66, 76, 77, 80, 83, 84, 87; to 
 United States, 10-14 
 
 Individualism, 11-12, 15-16, 137, 
 149-150 
 
 Industrial Removal Office, 368-72 
 
 Insanity, 295, 329-30 
 
 Insurance, 133, 252 
 
 Intellectual life, 13, 54, 60, 232, 408. 
 See also Education 
 
 Intemperance. Sae Drunkenness 
 
 Irish, death rate of, in New York, 
 293; diseases among in New York, 
 299, 301; in Philadelphia, 53 
 
 Italians, death rate of, in New York, 
 
 293; diseases among, in New York, 
 299, 301; in Philadelphia, 52, 53 
 
 Jacobs, Joseph, cited, 102, 282 
 
 James Forten Elementary Manual 
 Training School, Philadelphia, 205, 
 206 
 
 Jewish Agricultural and Aid Society, 
 New York, 399 
 
 Jewish Agriculturists' Aid Society, 
 Chicago, 393, 396, 401, 403 
 
 Jewish Endeavor Society, New York, 
 153 
 
 Jewish Endeavor Society, Philadel- 
 phia, 168 
 
 Jewish Foster Home, Philadelphia, 
 76, 78 
 
 Jewish Hospital, Philadelphia, 76, 78 
 
 Jewish law, 352 
 
 Jewish Maternity Association, Phila- 
 delphia, 76, 78 
 
 Jewish Protectory and Aid Society, 
 New York, 349 
 
 Jewish Seaside Home, Atlantic City, 
 N. J., 79 
 
 Jewish Training School, Chicago, 60, 
 180, 213 
 
 Jews, expulsion of, 19, 77, 83; ho- 
 mogeneity of, 15-17, 20 
 
 Jews in Lithuania, 19, 26 
 
 Jews in Poland, 19, 27 
 
 Jews in Russia, 18-31 
 
 Jews in United States, German, 11- 
 14; Hungarian, 13; Polish, 13; 
 Russian, 14; Spanish-Portuguese, 
 10-11; type of, 15; future of, 16 
 
 Jews, number of, in Chicago, 58; in 
 New York, 102; in Philadelphia, 
 52n 
 
 Joseph, Jewish King of the Khozars, 
 18 
 
 Judaism. See Religious influences 
 
 Judelson, Jacob, 79 
 
 Juvenile delinquency, 73, 92-93, 348, 
 358-59, 410 
 
 Kant, followers of, 155, 156 
 
 Khozars, 18-19 
 
 Kindergartens, 205, 214 
 
 King, Edward, influence of, 193 
 
 Kosher. See Food 
 
 Kossuth's revolution, consequences 
 
 of, 12 
 Krauskopf, Rev. Dr. Joseph, 169 
 
424 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ladies* Hebfew Emergency Society, 
 
 Philadelphia, 86 
 Ladino, 19 
 
 Lassalle Club, Chicago, 218 
 Lateiner, Joseph, 328 
 Ledger, Philadelphia, cited, 276 
 Legal Aid Society, New York, 343 
 Leroy-BeauUeu, Anatole, cited, 283, 
 
 296, 412 
 Lessing Club, Chicago, 60, 253 
 Lessing Self Educational Club, Chi- 
 cago, 254 
 Libraries, 198, 210 
 Lilienthal, Dr., agent of Russian 
 
 government for education of Jews, 
 
 22 
 Lithuania, Jews in, 19 
 Lithuanian Jews as educators, 26 
 Lithuanians, in Philadelphia, 52, 53 
 Litigation, 341-44, 349, 352-56, 360 
 Liverpool plan of charity federation, 
 
 82 
 Loan societies, 71, 85, 151, 174; 
 
 working of* 96-99 
 Lodgers, 286, 320, 321 
 Lodges, 84, 171, 181, 252 
 Lodz, Russia, enterprise of, 27 
 Longevity, 35, 59, 286, 293 
 
 Manual training, 189, 206, 207, 214 
 Marriage and divorce, 357, 361 
 Marriages, consanguineous, as causes 
 
 of disease, 297; early, 319 
 Maskilim, educators, 22-23 
 Maxwell Street Settlement, Chicago, 
 
 88, 214, 217 
 May regulations, 56, 77 
 Meat tax, 289 
 
 Medicine, study of, 106, 107, 133 
 Mendelssohn, influence of, 22 
 Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago, 88, 
 
 89 
 Middle class, place of Jews in, 25, 30 
 Millionaires, 103 
 Moguelesco, Sigmund, 228 
 Montefiore, Sir Moses, in Russia, 22 
 Morality, Jewish, 73, 242, 253, 332, 
 
 346-47, 357 
 Moscow, Russia, expulsion from, 27, 
 
 77, 83 
 Moses Montefiore Hebrew Free 
 
 School, Chicago, 177 
 Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, 72 
 Mount Sinai Hospital, Philadelphia, 
 
 Music, and drama, 251; interest in, 
 
 196 
 Mutual aid societies, 84 
 
 National Farm School, Doylestown, 
 Pa., 387 
 
 Native born, in Philadelphia, 53; dis- 
 eases among, in New York, 219 
 
 Negroes, in Philadelphia, 52 
 
 New Jersey, Jews in, 43; agricul- 
 tural settlements in, 376-88 
 
 New York, East Side, map of, 42; 
 Jewish population of, 62, 102; 
 wages in, 119-20 
 
 Nurses' Settlement, New York, 193 
 
 Octavia Hill Association, Philadel- 
 phia, 304, 308 
 Odessa, Russia, Jews in, 26 
 Orphan asylums, 72, 78, 86, 91 
 Orphans* Guardians, Philadelphia, 76, 
 
 78 
 Ouvaroflf, Count, efforts of, in be- 
 half of education, 22 
 
 Pale of Jewish Settlement, 25, 77, 157 
 
 Patriotism, 39, 187 
 
 Persecution of Russian Jews, cause 
 of, 21, 29 
 
 Personal Interest Society, Philadel- 
 phia, 81 
 
 Philadelphia, map of southeastern 
 section of, 50; area of, 51; Jewish 
 population of, 51-52n, 76, 353; na- 
 tionalities in, 52—53 
 
 Philadelphia County Prison, 358 
 
 Philanthropy, 55, 62-99 
 
 People's Singing Classes, 196 
 
 Playgrounds, 47, 73, 190 
 
 Playwrights, Yiddish, 227, 228 
 
 Pobiedonostseff, policy of, 21 
 
 Podolia, Russia, Jews in, 26 
 
 Poles, in Philadelphia, 52, 53 
 
 Politics, 38-39, 256-79 
 
 Poor, Jewish, American born, 63 
 
 Poverty, causes of among Jews, 67; 
 in small towns of Russia, 27 
 
 Press, influence of, 33-34, 60, 262, 
 385 
 
 Prisons, New York, 345-46 
 
 Professions, 106-07, 124, 183, 143, 
 407 
 
 Public opinion in Russia, 2S 
 
 Population. See Density of popula- 
 tion 
 
INDEX 
 
 425 
 
 Rabbinical seminaries in Russia, 22- 
 24 
 
 Rabbis, in Russia, 22, 163; in United 
 States, 150, 164, 179 
 
 Real estate, 46, 104, 133, 172, 354, 
 361 
 
 Relief, adequate, 68; material, by con- 
 gregations, 175 
 
 Relief societies, 63-71, 76, 84-86, 87, 
 88, 90, 174. See also United He- 
 brew Charities 
 
 Religious customs, 40, 157, 222 
 
 Religious influences, 148-82, 412-415 
 
 Removal to various parts of New 
 York, 43, 74, 105 
 
 Rents, 286, 305, 306, 309 
 
 Revenue, farmers of, 18 
 
 Riesman, Dr. David, cited, 311-16 
 
 Riots, anti-Jewish, 77 
 
 Ripley, W. Z., cited, 293 
 
 Rosenhayn, N. J., 377-88 
 
 Roumanian Educational Society, Phil- 
 adelphia, 86 
 
 Roumanian Jewish immigration, 66 
 
 Russia, Jews in, 18-31 
 
 Russia, reform in, 25; influence of 
 foreign thought in, 28-29; charac- 
 ter of people in, 20-21, 28-29; 
 economic progress of, 30-31 
 
 Russian Transportation Fund, 65 
 
 Sabbath, 160, 179, 222, 386 
 Sanitation, 136, 172, 282-333 
 Sargent, Hon. Frank P., cited, 369- 
 
 70 
 School houses, public, in New York, 
 
 44 
 Schools, Hebrew, 150, 165-67. 173- 
 
 74, 177-78, 205, 384 
 Schools, public, attendance at, 54, 
 
 90-92, 16G, 185, 200-02, 205, 211- 
 
 12, 384, 408; scholarship in, 186, 
 
 188, 202, 203, 213 
 Self Educational Club, Chicago, 177, 
 
 181, 218 . 
 Seligman, Jesse, Banquet, 65 
 Settlements, social, 47, 193-194, 208, 
 
 217, 232 
 Sheltering Home, Chicago, 174 
 Sheltering Home, Philadelphia, 55, 
 
 84-85 
 Sigismund August, King of Poland, 
 
 19 
 Sinai Congregation, Chicago, 58, 180 
 Sisterhoods. 69 
 
 Socialists, 28, 138, 197, 224, 261, 266, 
 
 267, 279 
 Social life, 47, 48, 55, 60, 67, 222- 
 
 54, 385, 409, 411 
 Stature, 282 
 
 Street influence, 48, 55, 73 
 Strikes, 34 
 Stuyvesant, Governor, Jewish poor in 
 
 time of, 62 
 Suicide, 298 
 Sweatshops, 36, 116-17, 124-26, 136, 
 
 138; factory system as a substitute 
 
 for, 117, 127, 134, 140, 145 
 Synagogue, a centre of social life, 
 
 40, 150, 249 
 
 Talmud Torah. See Schools, He- 
 brew 
 Teadrinking, prevalence of, 291, 310 
 Technical education, 123, 146, 194, 
 
 215-16, 407 
 Temperance. See Drunkenness 
 Tenement house commissions, cited, 
 
 284, 285, 291, 292 
 Theatre benefits, 229-30, 252 
 Theatre, Yiddish, 226, 227, 235, 250- 
 
 53 
 Tobacco, use of, 290, 310 
 Town dwellers, Jews as, 283, 296, 366 
 Trades, 60, 108-15, 122-33, 143-45, 
 
 305, 309, 407 
 Trade unions, 34, 115, 116, 134, 137- 
 
 41 
 Tuberculosis, treatment of, 70, 300, 
 
 302, 316 
 
 United Garment Workers of Amer- 
 ica, 134 
 
 United Hebrew Charities, Chicago, 
 88-89 
 
 United Hebrew Charities, New York, 
 63-66, 68-70 
 
 United Hebrew Charities, Philadel- 
 phia, 55, 76-78, 80 
 
 University Settlement, New York, 
 47, 93 
 
 University towns of Europe, Russian 
 Jews in, 38 
 
 Volosin, rabbinical seminary in, 23, 
 
 166 
 Voting, independence in, 251, 261, 
 
 262, 265, 276 
 Volhynia, Russia, Jews in, 26 
 
426 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Wages, 113, 119-21, 128-33, 138-45 
 Warsaw, Russia, rabbinical seminary 
 
 in, 23 
 Weddings, 222, 243-44, 249, 254 
 Wilna, Russia, rabbinical seminary 
 
 in, 22 
 Women's labor, 120 
 Woodbine, N. J., 377-88 
 Working girls. Homes for, 91, 195 
 Work rooms for poor women, 69, 
 
 90, 93 
 
 Yeshibahs. See Rabbinical seminaries 
 Young Men's Charity Association, 
 Chicago, 95 
 
 Young Men's Hebrew Union, Phila- 
 delphia, 168, 209 
 
 Young people, attitude and needs of, 
 48, 49, 153, 155-56, 170-71, 176, 
 179, 181-82, 251, 359, 385, 409-14 
 See also Religious influences; So- 
 cial life 
 
 Young Women's Union, Philadelphia, 
 205, 207 
 
 Zionism, 16, 29, 37, 155, 168, 232, 
 
 253 
 Zion, Order Knights of, 177, 180, 
 
 181, 253 
 Zitomir, rabbinical seminary in, 22 
 Zueblin, Prof. Charles, cited, 57, 59 
 
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