.J/ \S7 .S7 Copy 1 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL SUPPORT IN THE UNITED STATES BY HOLLAND MACLAREN STEWART A thesis submitted to the Department of Education of the Graduate College in the State University of Iowa, in partial ful- fillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Iowa City, 1914 ^'^^.^ CHESNUTT PRINTING CO. IOWA CITY, IOWA PREFATORY STATEMENT. The extension and enrichment of our educational institutions have demanded a more thoughtful consideration of the business and administrative features of school systems. A full appreciation of the necessity of preventing waste and promoting efficiency in school systems has inspired in recent years a series of studies on problems of school finance. Before any evaluation of means and methods could be attempted, preliminary studies had to be made in order to present a reasonably satisfactory background. It is the purpose of this study to illustrate the growth and de- velopment of education sufficiently to show how the agencies of educational progress have co-operated to accomplish certain pur- poses for which they thought education stood. It is not undertaken to present a chronological history of education in the United States ; nor has it been the purpose to emphasize the importance of facts themselves. Rather, it is intended that the study should show the progressive change in methods of educational support, which ac- companies the wholesome expression of spontaneous initiative. The study has fallen into five general sections in such a way that the spirit of progressive change promoted by co-operative endeavor in supporting education might furnish the central correlating and coordinating problem of the investigation. It was thought essential to examine this problem in the various aspects suggested by the epochs of national educational progress : a study of methods among the colonists ; the attitude and efforts of the United States Govern- ment ; the principles underlying state systems and their effect upon this change ; a statistical study to show the scope, groAvth, and analy- sis of funds in the various typical educational institutions of the country ; and finally, some tendencies in the modern period, indica- tive of a co-operation in educational support of a still higher order. This study has resulted therefore from an attempt to discover the sources of educational support and their relations to one an- other. This purpose has involved an attitude of interpretation though not in the sense of a final evaluation. An attempt has been made to understand the critical situations which the multiplicity of methods oftentimes presented, but no attempt has been made to formulate a comprehensive plan for financing educational agencies. The problem of evaluating the methods of these co-operating agencies with special investigators for whom, it is the hope this study may have some significance. This investigation took form and direction first under the leader- ship of Professor Frederick E. Bolton, now director of the School of Education, at the State University of Washington, to whom are due the appreciation and thanks of the writer for his inspiration and guidance. The materials used were made available by a host of obliging school officers throughout the country whose co-operation has made the study possible. For corrections and criticisms in the manuscript forms, the writer is obligated to many others. EOLLAND MaCLAREN StEWART The State University of Iowa Iowa City, October, 1914. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I Educational Support in the Colonies Page Introduction 3 IMethods of support 5 Grants of land 5 Appropriations and endowments ...... 9 By the colonies 9 By the towns 14 By individuals 17 Lottery 21 Taxation and tuition 22 In private schools 25 CHAPTER II The Federal Government and Educational Support Introduction 31 Support by land grants 33 For common schools 33 For seminaries and universities 36 For colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts ... 37 For private enterprises 39 Support by appropriation 41 Government attitude 41 Distribution of surplus revenue 42 Grants on sales of land 43 For colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts ... 46 For experiment stations . .48 For other Government educational interests ... 51 Alaska . 51 Howard University ........ 52 Hampton Institute . 53 Smithsonian Institution .53 Bureau of Education 55 CHAPTER III Early School Support Among the States Introduction 59 Permanent school funds 63 Purposes 63 Sources 63 Growth 64 Function and distribution 67 Illustrations of present status ...... 71 Taxation 75 Purposes 76 Methods and means 82 The rate system 82 Participation in income of permanent funds . . 85 Appropriations 87 Local Taxes 89 Summary 93 CHAPTER IV A Statistical Study for Specific Periods in the Growth and Anlysis of Income Funds Introduction 97 Common school support funds 98 Table showing growth and analysis 98 Public and private high schools and academies ... 99 A comparison of schools 99 Chart 101 Table, opposite . . 102 Public school support in type cities 104 List of cities 105 Charts 106,107,109 Public and private normal schools Ill A comparison of schools Ill Chart 112 Table, opposite 112 Universities, colleges, and technoligical schools . . . 114 Relation of funds 115 Chart 116 Table Colleges of agriculture and meelianic arts .... 118 Chart 119 Table 120 Other schools 120 Some supplementary factors 122 CHAPTER V Some Recent Tendencies In Educational Support Introduction 127 Extension of high school funds , 132 General 132 Special 134 Normal training 134 Manual arts 135 Tables 136, 137 Special high schools 137 Agriculture and domestic science .... 137, 138 Evening 139 Grovv'th of support funds . . . . . . 139 Table 139 History 140 City normals and their support 141 Introduction 141 Support funds 143 County training schools 144 Fellowship funds 144 Introduction 144 Purpose 145 Types of fellowships . ' 148 Teaching 148 University 149 Industrial 149 Honorary 150 Special 150 Sources of support 151 Growth of the funds 152 Tables 152 Summary 153 CHAPTER VI Concluding Statement Summary suggestions 159 References 163 INDEX TO CHARTS AND TABLES Charts Page Comparison of public and private liigli schools as to partici- pation in support funds 101 Total receipts in type cities 106, 107, 109 Comparison of public and private normal schools as to par- 112 ticipation in support funds 112 Income of universities, colleges, and technological schools , 116 Income of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts . . 118 Tables Grants for education on sales of land 44 Appropriations to colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts under the "Morrill" acts 46 Government support of experiment stations .... 49 Growth and analysis of common school support funds . . 98 Comparison, and analysis of income funds for public and private secondary schools, opposite Type cities and their population, for three census years . 105 Comparison and analysis of income funds for public and private normal schools, opposite Income funds of universities, colleges and technological schools Income funds for colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts . 118 Receipts for support of manual arts in the country . . 136 Receipts for the support of manual arts in certain states . 137 Receipts for the support of evening schools .... 139 Fellowship funds in typical universities 152 EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT IN THE COLONIES ''But the indigence of the greater number disabling them from educating, at their own expense, those of their children whom nature hath fitly formed and disposed to become useful instruments of the public, it is better that such should be sought for and educated at the common expense of all, than that the happiness of all should be confided to the weak or wicked." — Thomas Jefferson, Extract from Section I of A Bill for the general diffusion of knowledge, the Colony of Virginia, 1779. INTRODUCTION Education in the United States is unique. The expression of colonial life, made in the direction of school maintenance and sup- port, springs from a spontaneous impulse, — an impulse fed by the notions of freedom and individuality. This peculiar expression of individuality characterizes all early progress in the aff ail's of the colonies. The colonists were Christians of an ardent type. They sought perfection of character through the understanding and practice of Christian doctrines. They were looking for the opportu- nity of service to God and to their fellowmen. This was the two- fold motivating force of the early colonial policy which made the colonies enthusiastic for education. To accomplish their purpose, a close dependence upon co-operation was fundamental, and their growth and development are largely in terms of such co-operation. The school was recognized as the most potent auxiliary in the prosecution of those ideals. Learning was sacred to them and there- fore it was a religious obligation to provide for the education of their youth. Since the family assumed the responsibility of making of their children good citizens, believers in God and willing ser- vants of the commonwealth^ education was a matter of domestic concern. The methods of supporting education in the colonies were simple and direct, because the principles underlying their education held a fundamental relation to the one thing, the salvation of the soul, whether demonstrated in a well grounded faith in God, or in the social activity of self-government. Each man recognized himself as his brother's keeper and assumed the responsibility of educating the children of others as well as his own. The differentiation of educational procedure in this country came about through the specialization of church functions. In this chapter, an attempt will be made to present some situations out of which the various types of methods of school support have arisen. The attempts of the colonies to realize their ideals demanded a gradual perfection of means and methods, — and of course, a grow- ing appreciation of the necessity and value of division of labor in 4 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS prosecuting those ideals. More and more dependence was to be placed upon the school and church, since parents and guardians were coming to have less and less time for the education of the children under their care. The life of the colonies was characterized by a spirit of co-opera- tion, and this same spirit was carried into the work of establishing schools. The welfare of the colony demanded the ''encourage- ment" of teachers. This was done through the spontaneity of in- dividuals, or groups of individuals, who were prompted to the ser- vice by closely allied and effective motives. None of the methods were essentially new, rather, they were recapitulatory of the struggles of their mother countries. This spontaneity of expression and the peculiar nascency of the elements of their ideals, constitute the uniqueness of American education. Though the colonies practi- cally without exception encouraged schools from the earliest time, yet it required the co-operative efforts of the colonies in this enter- prise to keep learning from being buried in the graves of their forefathers.* Since the dominating idea of colonial education was benevolence, the Government took the position of creating schools, leaving to private or church endeavor the task of supporting them.t After all, however, the Government supported the schools, since the in- dividuals who made up the Government were at the same time mem- bers of congregations. It is with the differentiations of colonial life that the dangers of such loose organizations appear. The Gov- ernment served to promote education through the organization of the church and private enterprises first, and later, of necessity, as- sumed direct responsibility. She purposed rather to be protector, guide, and only incidently assistant. This has remained a charac- teristic of the National Government in educational matters. In this "chance medley" of voluntary endeavor every kind of school found a place and each expressed a wholesome fiuiction, though all needed correlation and co-ordination. This need gave rise to systems which were later reconstructed. ^See Mass. Colonial Eecords, 1647, Vol. II, p. 203. tBlackmar : Federal and State Aid To Higher Education in the United States. U. S. Bureau of Education., Cire. of Inf., 1890, p. 21. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT METHODS OF SUPPORT Grant of Lands Among the methods employed in securing school establishmeiit and maintenance, the grant of land has always had an important place; however, grants of this kind must be supported by other gifts usually before the returns from land can be secured and made effective. The granting of land for the support of schools was not a new notion, with the colonists. It has always beeii the most ac- cessible means of encouraging education. The famous monasteries that for so long a time influenced European countries sprang from grants of land and the fruits of its cultivation. Fulda, the parent of many monasteries, began on the banks of the Fulda Avith a grant of a site and four miles of surrounding demesne obtained from Carloman.* Fritislar and Utrecht had already been established in a similar manner through the benevolence of St. Boniface. In the same spirit grants of land were made by the colonies or by com- panies representing mother countries, by towns or sub-colonies, by associations representing organized church or philanthropic effort, and by individuals. When Philemon Purmont Avas asked by the General Court of Massachusetts, April 13, 1635, to become schoolmaster, certain islands at ''Muddy River" in the Boston Harbor were set aside for the purpose of school support, t In 1641, after the school had been in operation for almost five years, Deer Island, one of these, Avas set apart by the toAvn for a free school, the income of Avliieh, in 16^4, was seven pounds. By 1647 the rental had increased to fourteen pounds. Tavo years later, five hundred acres of land at Braintree belonging to the tOAvn AA'ere leased for an annual rental of forty shillings. During the same year. Long and Spectacle Island were set aside for school purposes. J The policy of the General Court to grant land for the "encourage- ^ "Drane, Christian Schools and. Scholars, Eeprint of the Second Edition, p. 105; see also Fulda in Encyclopaedia Brittanica. tEducation: 1:499. 1:BroAvn, The Making of Our Middle Schools, p. 36. 6 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS ment" of learning became general throughout the Colony. The Court in session on November 12, 1659, granted two hundred acres to each of two school masters as an expression of appreciation of their services, and one thousand acres to each of the towns of Dor- chester, Charleston, and Cambridge for grammar schools. Dor- chester had formerly received the rent of Thompson's Island for the schoolmaster. Thirteen years later a grant of six hundred acres was made to each county town. In 1651 Ipswich received a grant of land for a grammar school which was very much needed, since previous attempts to maintain a school had not succeeded.* From this time it flourished, partly because of increased support; largely perhaps because Ezekiel Cheever was the schoolmaster. In Connecticut, the grants of land played a less important part in the maintenance of schools, however even here it was an important 'element in school support. The General Court in 1672 granted six hundred acres of land to each of four county towns for the bene- fit of schools, t and in, 1733 certain lands in Litchfield county were set aside for the support of schools. Connecticut believed in grant- ing land for school purposes but took the attitude that it was the business of towns and families to provide for the expenses. This accords with the notion presented above that the colonies purposed to guide rather than support. The stringent orders of the Court in 1642, 1650, 1655, and other years, support this position, t ' ' In 1619 Sir Edwin Sandys, president of the Virginia Com- pany in Old England, moved the grant of ten thousand acres of land for the establishment of a university at Henrico. ' '§ The grant which included one thousand acres of land for an Indian college was made. The other nine thousand was to be used for the training of the English. Old England sent tenants and equipment for the occupancy of the university lands, but all efforts were discontin- ued at the time of the trouble with the Indians in 1622.11 About the only use made of appropriated lands was that of one thousand acres for the preparatory school at Charles City. In 1624, an is- *Small, Walter H. in the School Eeview, Vol. 10 : p. 517. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1893, No. 2, p. 27. JIbid, pp. 17, 30, 31. §Ibid, 1887, No. 1, p. 11. Illbid. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 7 land in the Susquehanna, secluded from the free view of ravaging Indians, was granted for the founding of a university, but this came to naught like the project of 1619 in Henrico. The Colonial Assembly undertook the project of founding educational institu- tions for the purpose of fitting youth for "ye university" as early as 1660, by voting that "there be land taken upon purchases for a college and free schools* and that other provisions be made; however, not until 1619, when, conditions were more promising for a college, did Rev. James Blair with others succeed in interesting King William and Queen Mary in the education of the children of the colony. They granted to the colony for educational purposes twenty thousand acres of land for a college besides making certain other specific appropriations. These lands were settled up through the Collegiate Land Office, which gave lasting influence to matters of education, t Rhode Island, whose educational and religious history is so fascin- ating, made slow growth in her schools. The religious freedom granted there was not advantageous to education as it might appear from a modern viewpoint. In Massachusetts where the Puritan maintained close union of Church and State, the school was the handmaiden of religion. A heterogeneous group of settlers mi- grated to Rhode Island on account of the freedom of religious thought permitted there. In Massachusetts, the State in, a sense trained the preachers; in Rhode Island, because of the separation of Church and State, the preachers were left without training.* Even though Rhode Island was backward in her educational de- velopment and in the establishment of a system of education, yet as early as 1640 the Colony voted one hundred acres of land for a school in Newport, "for the encouragement of the poorer sort, to train up their youth in learning". A similar provision was made for Providence in 1663, when the assembly of proprietors agreed to set aside one hundred acres of upland and other small lands for the maintenance of school. § "The College of William and Mary, U. S, Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1887, No. 1, p. 12. tibid. tV. S. Bureau of Education, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 1, p. 23. §Ibid,p. 25. 8 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS Vermont, though presenting no strikingly new features, provided, in all charters of towns, for the reservation of a quantity of land solely for the support of the schools. Her assistance to the college established by act of 1791 was initiated largely, it seems, through the generosity of General Ira Allen who granted lands upon, spe- cific conditions/"' This small list of grants is not inclusive of all colonial efforts made for education. Lands were granted to towns for development which indirectly found a place in the support of schools. Since most of the responsibility for education rested with individuals and the towns, the development of schools rests largely with them. Simi- lar portions of land were set aside by individuals for the support of schools among the colonies. As early as 1634 or 1635, Benjamin Syms, by will, left two hun- dred acres of land, together with a herd of milch cows, for the founding of a free school in Elizabeth County, Virginia, and, in 1646, or before, Thomas Eaton gave two hundred fifty acres of land in the same region, which later was consolidated with the Syms endowment and devoted to the Hampton High School. In 1668, Henry King gave one hundred acres of land for a free school in the Isle of Wight County, Virginia, and, in 1675, Henry Peasley gave six hundred acres for a free school in Gloucester County, Virginia, t In Connecticut, "William Gibbins gave thirty acres of meadow and upland for a Latin school in Hartford in 1655 :t and in 1754 there was recorded the grant of a house and two acres of land by Joshua Moor for the school in Lebanon, Connecticut. In New Hamp- shire, Sam Sewall, original purchaser of the Pettaquanscott, had given 500 acres in what is now Exter to maintain a grammar school for children of inhabitants living upon that purchase, although pro- visions for carrying out the project were not made until 1766. *Extraets from Eev. W. Winterbotham 's View of the United States of America. Am. J. Educ. 24, p. 137. tBrown, The Making of our Middle Schools, p. 49. JLetter to Mr. Barnard. Am. J. Educ, Vol. 22, p. 370 j also, U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ of Inf., 1893, No. 2, p. 27. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 9 Appropriations and Endowments By the colonies : — Schools in the colonies were supported in many and varied ways, due to the conditions of life of these early times. Their efforts were co-operative in a striking way, — an example of which is presented in the action of the Connecticut Colony, as early as 1644, when it was voted to assess the families of the colony one peck of wheat, or its equivalent in value, for the support of poor students in Harvard College.* The sums were necessarily small and, when we read of the record of the Massachusetts Assembly directed by Sir Henry Vane, Governor of the Colony, concerning the grant of four hundred pounds for Harvard College in 1642, we are struck with the munificence of the gift.t The activity in the Massachusetts jurisdiction toward the sup- port of schools commands our admiration, and most of the colonies are no less worthy. In Virginia, two thousand pounds were provid- ed by Royal Endowment in 1691 from the quit-rents for schools sup- port, and in 1693, the House of Burgesses made a permanent levy, or tax, upon skins, furs, and so forth, sent out of Virginia. In 1781 an appropriation of one thousand pounds for the education of in- genious scholars who were natives of the Colony was made. These, with other provisions by tax, show the attitude of the Virginia Col- ony and the Mother Country toward education. To these may be added the scholarships founded by the House of Burgesses which yielded pecuniary assistance to worthy students at "William and Mary.t In Connecticut, strenuous attempts were made to promote educa- tion. This was done through the orders of the General Court. Fines were imposed for not maintaining schools for a minimum period. County courts were urged to increase their revenues in order to establish schools, on the one hand, and to raise the standard, on the other. They provided further for an annual tax of forty shillings "for every thousand pounds in their respective county lists, and proportionally for lesser sums, toward the maintenance of the *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1891, No. 6, p. 48 ; Keport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1892-1893, Vol. II, p. 1243. tU. 8. Bureau of Educ, Circ of Inf., 1891, No. 6, p. 22. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ of Inf., 1887, No. 1, pp. 15, 16. 10 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS schoolmaster in the town where the same is levied,"* In the Connecticut Code of 1650, a fine of twenty shillings was pro- vided for those who neglected the education of their children to the extent that the children failed to learn the English tongue and to have knowledge of the capital laws.t "The first move toward es- tablishing anything higher than the free school in New Haven was in 1659, when forty pounds a year was voted for a colony grammar school, and eight pounds more for procuring books. - - "t About a year later, their appropriation was raised to one hundred forty pounds. In 1687 the surplus in the county treasuries was divided among the grammar schools. In 1693 the Colony appropri- ated twenty pounds each to Fairfield and New London, — Hartford and New Haven having already received appropriations of thirty pounds each.§ For nine years, houses and lands used for school purposes had been free from taxes by colonial act. The close alli- ance with the religious societies in the promotion of education is illustrated in the order of 1741 to distribute the bonds and moneys received from the sale of the town in western Connecticut to the several ecclesiastical societies in trust, for the use of their schools. II The interest of the Colony is expressed from time to time through the action of the Assembly as indicated in the town records. For example, a committee is appointed "to take charge of lands given for a school at Middletown.", and lands "escheated to the State" are given to "Wintonbury for a school; and schoolmasters are ex- empted from military service. In 1766 the proceeds collected from arrearage taxes on liquors, teas, and so forth, were given to the schools, tt Though Rhode Island had not committed herself to public-suppor- ted education, yet she had encouraged education in many ways. It seems, however, from what evidence we have that Rhode Island was interested in assisting families in their struggles to educate their "Keport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1892-3, Vol. II, p. 1247, complete copy of the act. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1893, No. 2, p. 17. tibid, p. 28. §Ibid, p. 28. Illbid, p. 31. ttlbid. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 11 cliildren rather than in providing public schools for them. In other words, Rhode Island believed in family responsibility for elementary education and assisted such pupils as were eager for advanced edu- cation. "In 1696 a tract of land in the town of Kingston was conveyed to Harvard College for - - - the support and education at the said college of those youths whose parents were not of suffi- cient ability to maintain them. ' '* During the year 1768, an attempt was made to establish in Provi- dence a system of free public schools for which teachers were to be supplied, evidently, by some sort of tax or assessment, but the propo- sition was defeated. According to a note from Moses Bro\^ai ac- companing the report of the committee, the proposition was lost by the vote of the poorer people who failed to see their own interests, t Seventeen years later, Rhode Island provided for free schools out of the town treasury, but the system was opposed by wealthy men who maintained that education at public expense was unjust, and the act repealed in 1803 in a storm of opposition.? Nothing was accomplished by legislation for a system of schools un- til 1823, when a bill for a system of public schools passed almost unanimously. In 1861 William Penn received a magnificent grant of land from Charles II out of which was to come the support and encourage- ment of public schools. In 1683, the legislature passed an act forc- ing parents and guardians to have their children educated. § This act which put this government upon advanced grounds in the mat- ter of promoting public education accorded with the scheme of Wil- liam Penn. It was at this time that New Hampshire and Massachu- setts were being separated after twenty-eight years of blending. Though the order of the General Court of Massachusetts applied to the territory of New Hampshire, yet we cannot help noting that New Hampshire did not hold tenaciously to the Puritanic idea of Massa- chusetts. By the order of the Court of 1647, New Hampshire pro- vided for schoolmasters largely by wa}^ of supplying their needs. *TJ. S. Bureau of Educ, Cire. of Inf., 1894, No. 1, p. 20. tibid, p. 26. JIbid, p. 27. §Clews, Elsie W., Educatioual Legislation and Administration ; Colunial Governments, p. 278. 12 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS As early as 1640, the Queen of Sweden gave Henry Hockhaumer and company a grant and privilege for the establishment of a new colony in New Sweden (Delaware), with provision for a school- master and minister, and by 1699 Swen Colsberg was located at Christiana as master. This attitude toward education in the new colony may be due to the notion of the state education already de- veloped in Sweden. Even before the grant of 1640 by Sweden, the Dutch, through the West India Company, had done considerable for schools. Section twenty-eight of the Charter, 1630-35, says that "the Patroons shall also particularly exert themselves to find speedy means to maintain the Clergyman and Schoolmaster - - ;" and, in 1638, provision was made for tax. Five years before in Manhattan, the Dutch provided a school at public expense. The West India Company sent over schoolmasters and often paid the salary. Dr. Alexander Carolus Curtius being one such schoolmaster who received for his services in 1659 as Latin master five hundred guilders. * The activity of the Dutch in behalf of education ap- peared from time to time in the colonies, even after they had lost their possessions, for schools seen to have been general in the vil- lages and towns under Dutch control, due to the generosity of the Mother Country which sent out such teachers as Evert Pietersen and Arent Everson Malenaer, who are reported to have been paid liber- ally for their services, t Maine presents the same general story of colonial interest in education, since prior to 1820 she was a part of Massachusetts. Becoming settled at a later time, owing to the condition of the coun- try, she did not follow out the orders of the General Court of Massa- chusetts. What was done in Maine was done through the initiative of towns and villages for the most part; however, in 1789 provi- sion was made for school districts through which, by act of 1800, taxes might be levied for schoolhouses and other school purposes.* In New York, the notion of taxation also gained a place in their thought, for by act of 1702 they voted an annual tax of fifty pounds for a period of seven years for a grammar schoolmaster in the city of New York, though the tax was likely an assessment similar to the ^•A Dutch silver coin worth about forty cents. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1893, No. 3. tlhid, 1903, No. 3. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 13 assessment made for the support of the minister. Thirty years later, the proAnncial legislature imposed a license tax upon ped- dlers, hawkers, and so forth, this tax to the amount of forty pounds to be set aside for a schoolmaster ; and it renewed the tax of 1702 upon condition that twenty youths be taught gratis. This shows that a free school in the modern sense was not yet in operation.* In the South Atlantic colonies, we have noted the disposition of parents and guardians to send their children to England for their education. This delayed colonial movements in behalf of education. South Carolina provided for a school at Charleston, supported from the public treasury, Avhicli was free to twelve scholars, to others at a cost of four pounds per year. Other schools were sub- sidized, but on the whole conditions were unfavorable for education. The churches made definite and hard struggles for the education of the people, the Colony giving assistance where it could, the greater part of which being verbal encouragement. In Georgia, the progress of education rested with the churches rather than with the Colony, t One other colony demands our attention, since social and econom- ic conditions there give a peculiar development to education. The struggles between Catholics and Protestants in Maryland prevent- ed most of the constructive work proposed from coming to fruition. The message of Governor Nicholson in 1694, sparkling with enthusi- asm for schools, was reinforced by his private subscription of fifty pounds for a building and twenty-five for maintenance, by the further subscription of five thousand pounds of tobacco for the building, and two thousand for maintenance by Sir Thomas Ijaurence, and by varying amounts contributed by the council. The Assembly received tlie message with appreciation and raised by subscription forty-five thousand pounds of tobacco. Further, the assembly imposed taxes upon liquors, furs, beef, bacon, and so forth, for educational purposes, and made appeal to mother coun- tries through the royal house and the church for the erection of schools. The legislature during the years that followed sought to tax whatever industry existed that was at aU a product of com- *Brown, The Making of our Middle tates, pp. 93, 94. tibid, pp. 96, 97. 14 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS merce. An act passed in 1717 imposing a tax of twenty shillings per poll upon negroes imported, another in 1720 imposing taxes upon tobacco, still other acts imposing taxes upon pork and other commodities, were passed with the hope of securing funds for a school in each county. In, 1723 governing bodies were appointed for each county which were to provide one hundred acres of land for the schoolmasters' use and, in order to secure good masters, were to allow him twenty pounds per year in addition to the land provided. * In the propo- sal for a college at Annapolis, the expenses of which were estimated at eight hundred sixty pounds, the list of items for meeting the sup- port comprised moneys from licenses, bachelors, tributes, donations, and profits from boys. This scheme was lost in the trouble between the upper and loAver houses. This was unfortunate, for Maryland needed a college in which to train, schoolmasters, as is evidenced in the caution given in the act of 1723. t "The year 1785 saw the establishment of St. John's College at Annapolis and its union with "Washington College under the name of the University of Maryland. A donation of 1750 pounds to the former and 1250 pounds to the latter was pledged to be annually and forever thereafter given and granted. These sums were derived from the fees on marriage licenses (a reversal of the proposal of 1764 to tax bachelors), ordi- nary licenses, hawkers' licenses, and fines and forfeitures. "t With 1798 came the act of state aid by donations to the several academies, which is sufficiently suggestive in the light of modern school sup- port to warrant mentioning. § By the toivns : — A close dependence characterized the towns and the colonies, especially during the earliest times. It was most often the case that colonial legislation applied to a single town. Even in certain colonies, the development of a single town was a difficult undertaking. § Thus it happens that the appropriations made by *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 2. tMr. Sellers reports that in Talbott County the master of the school, an Irishman, evidently having but the crudest education, ran away taking a negro man and two geldings with him. A reward of five pounds was mad^ for their apprehension. U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 2, p. 33. «bid, p. 43, §Note conditions in Maryland. Ibid, p. 14. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 15 a colony, of lands, moneys, or taxes go directly to some specified town. The records show that colonial acts provided for specificed towns generally. In the establishment of the Boston Latin School over which Mr. Purmont was to preside it is difficult to distinguish between colonial and town authority. * This is easily explained in the light of social and economic conditions on the one hand and re- ligious conditions on the other. Deer Island, though granted by the Colony for school purposes, was set aside by the toM^n of Boston, as were Long and Spectacle islands, and the garden plat for Daniel Maud. As income from Deer Island, the town received seven pounds annually for three yeai^, then fourteen pounds, which went to the support of the school. These arrangements for school support in Massachusetts were made by the Selectmen for the most part, they being the represen- tatives of the people. In Connecticut as early as 1639 there was a grammar school in Hartford and, in 1642, the voters of Hartford are reported as having appropriated thirty pounds a year to the town school, and, six years later, as having ordered a schoolhouse built. It is probable that the thirty pounds were to be raised by rate as was customary, since we find that in 1843, Hartford agreed to support such pupils as could not pay twenty shillings per year or six pence per week, t The fifty pounds granted Boston in 1650 for the support of the schoolmaster was to be secured by rate,$ so that the responsibility continued to rest upon parents and guar- dians. It was during this same time that the General Court of Connecticut ordered vigilance over the brethren and required towns to keep a teacher of reading and writing whose support was pro- vided for by the parents. In 1652 Mr. Janes was encouraged to begin school at New Haven, with the grant of ten pounds from the town treasury, the rest of his salary to be taken of the parents of the children so that he might have a comfortable maintenance. § The attempt on the part of New Haven to found a college illus- trates very well the early methods of the town. In 1655 the Gov- ernor reported to the General Court that New Haven had raised *Education, 1: 499ff. tAm. J. Educ, Vol. 28, p. 185. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Cire. of Inf., 1893, No. 2, p. 16. §Eeport of U. S. Com. of Educ, 1892-93, Vol. II, p. 1243. 16 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS tliree hundred pounds and inquired what the other towns would do. It is evident that the sum was raised wholly by subscription, though the matter was disposed of finally by a grant of sixty pounds out of the town treasury,* The proposal for the college came to naught at this time, but, in 1663, a new school was founded at NeAv Haven. The master re- ceived twenty pounds out of the to^vn treasury, the rest of his salary being met on agreement by the parents, t During the years from 1635 to 1670, the schools of Boston had made consistent pro- gress in education and were firmly established. On the latter date we find Boston supporting two masters and providing definitely and well for their support. Mr. Ezekiel Cheever, whose efforts for education are universally appreciated, received sixty pounds a year for his services out of the town rates and rents, besides the use of the schoolhouse. At this time, his assistant was Hezekiah Usher. $ It is of course likely that Mr. Cheever here as elsewhere was under necessity of collecting rates from parents for himself. The fines which were imposed in the colonies of Massachusetts and Connecti- cut became an indirect means of promoting schools. With the closing of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eightenth, Ave have a livelier interest in education and more of a town, spirit in its behalf. New towns had arisen with more or less loyalty to educational interests. New London, Connecticut, voted to build a schoolhouse out of the allowance of the Bartlet estate, parents assisting in meeting any deficiency. Hartford in 1674 was granting sixty pounds for a master, though she paid only thirty at a little earlier time. New Haven in 1728 settled the oyster shell field on the school to aid scholars of Congregational parentage. The tardy development of towns in many of the colonies explains the slowness in educational development. Social and economic conditions, as pointed out above, made public education a secondary matter in these instances however much the colonists themselves might have desired public schools. In Maryland, there was a lack of homogeneity among the settlers and, further, both gentlemen of *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1893, No. 2, p. 26. tAm. J. Educ, Vol. 27, p. 290. tlhid, Vol. 12, p. 538. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 17 wealth and well-to-do-planters had become accustomed to send their children abroad for education. Those of moderate means owing to distance and dependence could not provide schools. "The idea that the more wealthy should contribute to the education of the poor except by voluntary charity did not belong to the eighteenth century here or elsewhere ; nor was the duty of such charity to the poor based upon any other considerations in general than enabling them to read the gospel, rescuing them from vice and immorality, and saving their souls. ' '* In 1782 we read of a free school in Kent county, Washington College, to the funds of which were added the proceeds of lands of the Talbot Free School. Even school funds, as in Dorchester county, were devoted to the relief of the poor. Though we have a goodly number of records of the activity of to"RTis, yet it is clear that the efforts of towns and colonies are large- ly the efforts of individuals. These we have yet to consider. By individuals : — Before considering the methods of donation and gift, we must give consideration to the efforts made by religious organizations for the support of schools. Since subscriptions un- der the auspices of a religious organization are individual, we need only to call attention to some of the methods used by these organiza- tions in securing funds. Nearly all of the academies of Rhode Island seem to be controlled or influenced by denominations. In the early history of Connecticut we read how the new society for the Propagation of the Gospel was setting up schools. The early gram- mar school in Philadelphia, 1689, was established by the Friends under the direction of William Penn. The ideals of college and academy w^ere those of public service. The provision of schools and the obligation to establish and maintain them rested upon a religious purpose. Besides the private subscription, the public collection was a common means of supporting schools. In 1733 and 1763, we have records of such collections in Connecticut and it is likely that there were many of these owing to the pressing needs. Both of these collections were for Indian education. For the sup- port of the minister and the master, provision was made through obligatory subscription. Palfreyt in writing concerning Connecticut says, ''No church could be founded without permission from the *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 2, p. 43. tPalfrey, New England, Vol. IV, p. 231. 18 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS General Court, and every citizen was obliged to pay in proportion to his means toward the support of the minister of the geographical parish of his residence." Mr. Sollers says* that in Maryland, during the last of the seven- teenth century, great efforts were made to secure contribu- tions for the free schools, and further that an agent was appointed to solicit subscriptions in England among merchantmen and officers. Often the appeal to the mother country for aid was made directly through the church in America, t Benevolent societies were always engaged in providing for the education of the poor. In Virginia, the alliance of church and colo- ny was so close that the identity of each in educational affairs is not always clear. In 1619, the year of the proposed grant of the Vir- ginia Company in Old England of ten thousand acres of land, "the bishops of England, at the suggestion of the King, raised the sum of fifteen hundred pounds for the encouragement of Indian educa- tion :"$ and when the Colony took upon itself in 1660 the responsi- bility of founding educational institutions, orders were sent to the vesti*ymen of all the parishes to raise funds for such purpose. § Funds for a college in Rhode Island to the amount of four thousand dollars were raised at home and abroad by Rev. Morgan Edwards, upon condition that they be put at interest. The Friends' school in Portsmouth which closed in. 1788 for lack of funds was revived in 1814 by the munificence of wealthy members. Mr. Powell II gives a brief account of the efforts of religious sects in prosecuting educational plans in his Education in Delaware. But with all the organization thus far effected, the voluntary gift of the parents, guardians, and friends of the children, and youth furnish the main portion of school funds. It will be our purpose to present a few cases to shoAV the interest which individuals took in education, together with the apparent sacrifice incident to the con- tributions. We have already mention.ed how the Selectmen of Boston raised money by subscription to prosecute the school work there. The spirit of the giving was such as characterized the Puri- *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 2, p. i tibid. JIbid, 1887, No. 1, p. 11. Illbid, p. 12. ttlbid, 1893, No. 3, p. 84 ff. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 19 tan fathers before them. "When we read of gifts of pieces of cloth, plates, or treasured heirlooms, their earnestness for education can hardly be overlooked. At Ipswich, where attempts were being made in 1657 to establish a school, Robert Payne is said to have purchased two acres of land for a school and the following year to have built an edifice thereon, at his own cost. Then William Hubbard gave an acre next the schoolmaster's house. Teachers were supported in a sense by barter. The revenue for the Ipswich school during this first period consisted of fourteen pounds from Chebacco, the school farm, granted by the town; seven pounds from a little island at the mouth of the Chebacco river, granted by William Payne ; and twenty-eight pounds from three acres of orchard given, by Robert Payne and William Hubbard. In 1648 Robert Paj^ne was one of a hundred fifty-five subscribers to a fund for the school. This in- dicated the method used at IpsMdch, which was no doubt general. * Reference to school farm, orchard, and so forth, suggests the no- tion that schools in their origin were industrial. In, most early records, appropriations of moneys or grants of land were made for the ''encouragement" of learning. School education involved a sort of apprenticeship, in many cases it consisted in that alone, even in learning to teach school or to serve in a parish. To the de- velopment of the school farms and their equipment we have made repeated reference. The free school in Newport parish in the Isle of Wight County, Virginia, was the recipient of four cows by the will of Captain. John Moon, 1655 ; and twenty years before, Benja- min Syms, in addition to land, had left by will eight milch cows for support of a free school in Elizabeth County, Virginia; in 1675 Henry Peasley gave ten cows and a mare for Gloucester school. These gifts of equipment were supplemented by many others of similar kind, so that land, stock, machinery, and even slaves were at the disposal of masters or managers. Not only were the youth and masters encouraged by this equipment, but as in Virginia, scholarships were founded by colonies and private parties for the support of worthy students, t *Am. J. Educ, Vol. 28, pp. 135, 136. tNote the scholarships founded in Virginia. U. S. Bureau of Educ, Cire. of Inf., 1887, No. 1, p. 16; also the provision of raising a peek of wheat per family in Connecticut for poor students in Harvard. 20 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS It has been previously hinted that lands and equipment alone are not sufficient to insure educational progress. Though ten thousand acres of land were granted for the establishment of a college at Henrico by the Virginia Company in Old England, yet the only fruitage secured at the time was the promotion of a preparatory school at Charleston and this was begun in 1621 through the gifts of money to the amount of one hundred fifty pounds.* Multi- plied examples appear where colonial and legislative acts provide for grants, privileges, and immunities but these became, as sugges- ted, "encouragement" merely unless reinforced by liberal gifts of what is essentially working capital. The interim often appearing between the time of legislative acts and their actual operation is essential usually to the development of a sentiment of personal obligation in private benefaction. The growth and development of schools in pioneer lands are essentially of this type. Therefore when the wealthy gentlemen of Virginia and their merchant friends in England in 1688 and 1689 raised twenty-five hundred pounds to- ward higher education, a real beginning was made which resulted in the promulgation of a Avholesome sentiment throughout the Colo- ny and the Mother Country. This subscription, added to the actual available funds, resulted in the founding of William and Mary Col- lege, chartered in 1693. The importance of these voluntary gifts can hardly be over emphasized in the light of colonial school pro- gress. In Maryland little if any progress was made until Governor Nicholson, 1694, in addition to urging in his message legislation in behalf of school support, obligated himself to the amount of fifty pounds toward the building of a school and twenty-five toward its maintenance. The appreciation of these two kinds of funds was as essential then as now. This gift supplemented by other private gifts of tobacco and money called out favorable Assembly action and further contributions to the amount of forty-five thousand pounds of tobacco. These funds again supplemented by further contributions throughout the Colony and Europe through the agency of religious societies, private initiative, and the imposition of taxes, became very fruitful. Like experiences of sacrifice and effort are ^U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1887, No. 1, p. 11. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 21 recorded in other colonies, and with the rise of academies, private munificence is illustrated everywhere. Lottery. The popularity of the lottery in the United States by the middle of the eighteenth century, justifies our giving it special mention here. The notion came to this country as did most of our ideas. The sanction of the lottery by Queen Elizabeth no doubt was a partial explanation of its beginning in the United States. In 1612, we read of a lottery for the benefit of the Colony of Virginia. By the middle of the eighteenth century, schools and even churches were built by lotteries. In 1750 a lottery w^as organized to raise an edifice at Yale, and in 1772, and again in 1806, Harvard raised funds in this manner. This method seemed to be the method most easily used to secure results, the French people claiming as an argu- ment for its operation there that it keeps money at home that would go for gambling in other countries because of the inborn spirit of gambling among the people. From 1816 to 1828 the French govern- ment is reported * to have derived $2,400,000 of annual income from lotteries. With the colonists it seemed more as an expedient measure, though the spirit of gambling no doubt made this method popular. In 1760 Rhode Island raised $1,200 for a library, in the process of which the lottery was a favorite method. The following instance is citedt which illustrates the use of the method in this colony. In Maryland, the rise of the lottery was wide-spread and gained a fair reputation. Literature was encouraged by lotteries "See under Lottery in the Americana. tScheme of a lottery granted by the general assembly of the colony of Rhode Island, &c, for raising of £130 lawful money, to be applied toward fur- nishing the parsonage house belonging to the Baptist church in Warren and rendering it commodious for the reception of the pupils who are or who shall be placed there for a liberal education. It is hoped that tlie extraordinary expense of that infant society in building a new meetinghouse and parsonage house, as far as the building is advanced, together with the immediate necessity of room for the pupils under the care of the Eev. Mr. Manning, and the great encouragement for the adventurers, there being but little better than two blanks to a prize, will induce those who wish well to the design speedily to purchase the tickets. U. S. Bureau of Educ, Cire. of Inf., 1894, No. 1, pp. 20, 21. 22 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS of great proportions.* According to Randall t New York passed an act in 1801 by which $100,000 was directed to be raised by lot- tery, part of which went to the support of academies, but the bulk, to common schools. These lotteries, he says, were not discontinued until 1821, when all lotteries were prohibited. It is somewhat surprising to us that many of the original col- leges of America, leading churches of the colonies, and benevolent societies, and even the Government, resorted to this means of rais- ing money. Columbia, Harvard, and others received funds in this way.* TAXATION AND TUITION. In a discussion of the beginnings of taxation in the colonies an insurmountable difficulty presents itself. It is often impossible to distinguish between the taxation of wealth and the assessment of rate. The latter method of course takes precedence over the for- mer chronologically. Since education Avas a matter of domestic concern those responsible for the care of children assumed the responsibility of their education. Voluntary rates provided the funds for many schools and with town or colonial regulation the rates were assessed by the town or provision was made for their adjustment with the master. § Exceptions to the obligation were often made where parents or guardians were not able to pay. Definite tuitions were fixed with the better administration of schools. In. 1643 Mr. Andrews in Hartford was promised sixteen pounds for his 'paynes' in teaching the children, of which parents were to pay twenty shillings per *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 2, p. 56. In the the same year (1816) an act for the encouragement of literature provides that $50,000 a year for five successive years shall be raised by lottery for the increase of the school fund. tEandall, History of the Common School System of the State of New York, quoted in U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 2, p. 56. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 2, p. 53, and report of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1894-1895, Vol. II, pp. 1506-1509, for further accounts of the use of the lottery. §Educ., Vol. 1, p. 499. Town provides that grant to masters be raised by rate. Am. J. Educ, Vol. XII, p. 533 ff. Note Mr. Cheever's desire to get money from the estate of Mr. Trobridge, which he claimed due on rate, p. 535. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 23 year, or under certain conditions six pence per week, provided how- ever that those not able to pay be taught gratis.* The Connecticut Code of 1650 provided that townships having fifty householders must provide a teacher of reading and writing supported by the parents ; and in 1657, in order to assist in the setting up of schools, presumably where there is less than fifty householders, the town was to pay one-third from the treasury and the parents two-thirds by tuition fees.t In Bristol, Rhode Island, rates and tuition furnished the wages of the schoolmaster to the amount of twenty-four pounds per year, paid to the master. Additional funds were secured by licenses for entertainment and wood money, both kinds of which furnish an appreciable portion of school funds at this time. J At Bristol, Mas- sachusetts, scholars in 1699 paid four pence per week for Latin; at Plymouth, three for Latin; and a few years later, Plymouth asked four for Latin of pupils within a mile, beyond two miles, nothing. Tuition remained a substantial part of school support even after town rates were made, and they have continued in all systems of schools to the present, especially in higher institutions and for pupils in elementary or secondary public schools, coming fro& outside the school units. The levy of toMTi rates grew out of the notion of English town rates, as far as method was concerned, its necessity resulting from the inequalities of ability among parents and guardians in paying the tutors or in subscribing to the local fund. In this latter motive we find some explanation of the fact that the earliest schools sup- ported by tax on wealth were recognized as "charity" schools. Essentially, there was truth in the statement in practice. Since the tovvTi rate was assessed for the most part in town meetings it is a sort of self -assessment. Why the poor people of Providence, Rhode Island, as late as 1767, rejected the proposition for free schools is hard to understand since all were to have equal school privileges and funds were to be raised by the towns. It has been shown that the towns assumed the responsibility of providing directly for schools as necessity arose. The inequalities *Am. J. Educ, Vol. 28, p. 185. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1893, No. 2, p. 18. $Ibid, 1894, No. 1, p. 21. 24 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS whicli arose as the result of voluntary initiative could be met only by a larger unit of authority. Here the town and colony became obligated, and taxation was the most available method, either direct or indirect. With few exceptions, schools were not supported by tax prior to the eighteenth century. The most notable exceptions were the schools of emigrants to New Netherlands where provision for schools was made by tax upon householder and inhabitant to the amount thought sufficient.* In Virginia and Maryland in 1691, a tax of one penny per pound was imposed upon tobacco sent out by royal authority; in 1734, a tax on liquor was ordered by the House of Burgesses of Virginia ; and, in 1759, a tax Avas imposed upon peddlers. At the time of the founding of William and Mary College, specific laws were made by Maryland for the support of schools, A tax of four pence per gallon on imported liquors was used for schools and other objects of public concern. In 1704, to assist further the cause of education in the Province, and export duty of from nine pence to three farthings per skin was placed upon bears, beavers, and such (like) animals, also other additional export duties; further, a tax of twenty shillings upon negroes imported; and then an export duty of three pence per hogshead in 1720 on tobacco, three half pence of this tax to be used for public schools. These laws indicate a tendency in the direction of securing support funds through the activity of capital or its income. It was a definite step toward taxing wealth for the support of schools for the poor, provided in, the act of 1813. t In New Hampshire, by act of 1693, the Selectmen in their respective towns were required to assess inhabitants for building and repairing school houses, the support of schoolmaster being pro- vided by subscription and tuition. Not until 1789 do we read of any legislative attempt to establish the amount of money to be raised for school purposes. At this time the statute was made to read four pounds for every one pound of the proportion of public taxes to the individual town. In 1817, a law was passed by which, ''The assessment for schools was increased to ninety dollars for every dollar of apportionment of public taxes, for the sole purpose *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1893, No. 3, p. 24. tibid, 1894, No. 2, pp. 19ff; also see p. 55 for mention of the first direct tax for education in Maryland. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 25 of supporting English schools within the towns for teaching 'read- ing, writing, grammar, arithmetic, geography, and other necessary branches of education', and the purchase of 'wood and fuel'."* In Connecticut as early as 1700, the inhabitants of the Colony were to pay annually forty shillings on every thousand pounds in their respective county lists toward the maintenance of schoolmasters, this amount to be distributed to the accredited schools, t Not until 1789 was there a really tangible unit of school adminis- tration in Maine, and not till 1800 was there provision made for taxation for school purposes. At this time, school districts were permitted to tax themselves for school houses, clerks, and commit- tees, the wages of schoolmasters still being provided for after the plan of Massachusetts of which she was still a part. With the eighteenth century and the organization of a state system the evolution of the method by taxation assumes a more important role. IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS. What has been written concerning the support of education, pub- lic, quasi-public, or semi-public, applies generally to education through private initiative. We have continued to emphasize the fact that education was a domestic duty. The so-called public school and the private school of colonial days were often identical in content and method, and frequently in scheme of support. Prior to the founding of schools by colonies or towns, the school of the private venturer was common. Occasionally we find mention of the presence of a venturer in towns where schools have been provided. A Mr. Jones seems to have had such a school in Boston, even though public education had been pretty well provided for. The magis- trates of the town secured his promise to leave at the close of the winter term, 1656.$ In Rhode Island, because of the general atti- tude toward public education, private venture schools flourished. § *Ain. J. Educ, Vol. 28, p. 354. tReport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1892-1893, Vol. 2, p. 1247; U. S. Bureau of Educ, Cir. of Inf., 1893, No. 2, p. 30, and above, p. 9. tEducation, Vol. 1, pp. 499, 500. §From Newport Mercury, April 14, 1766, — Thomas Greene in Barristers' row, hereby informs the public that he proposes to open a school the first 26 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS Newport had a private charity school established by Nathaniel Kay, where ten boys were taught grammar and mathematics gratis. The conditions among private schools, owing to competition and the attitude of the Colony toward public education, finally became the object of suspicion, and a committee appointed to investigate and to recommend a method of regulating these private schools reported in 1785- that the only method of correcting the evils of the private schools was the establishment of public schools. In 1795, this was done,* however, the provision, for a sj'^stem was withdrawn as noted before in 1803. In Maryland, as has been seen, the use of private tutors was common, some of whom were owned as servants for advance of passage money, or other favor, t The academies of Maryland, which became the successors of the free schools, were established by private contributions. At Hagartown, stock to the amount of $6,000 at five dollars per share was raised for the academy. Among the academies, Phillips Academy, the first in Massachusetts, is typical. Here the four benefactors of promotion were: Samuel Philips, with a subscription of $6,000; John Philips, an uncle, $31,000; William Phillips, an uncle, $6,000; William Phillips, a cousin, $28,000; with $14,000 additional for a seminary; — in all $85,000. Such institutions, as this latter typifies, have prepared the way for the stream of voluntary offerings to education which we shall consider in other connections. It is clear that school support in the colonies grew out of the needs of the times, and further, that the methods used were the most expedient. Grants of land and money were made by the colonies, mother countries, counties, towns, organized societies, and private individuals, in order that the ideals of their life, to serve Monday in May, to teaeh reading, writing, arithmetic, and merchants' ac- counts — the Italian method — and as he don't incline to undertake for more than twenty (besides a very few small readers), they that favor him scholars may depend on their being taught with the greatest alacrity. He has, as usual, an assortment of English goods, etc., at a reasonable rate. — U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1894, No. 1, p. 20. See same page for other advertisements. *Ibid, No. 6, p. 27. tibid. No. 1, p. 27. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 27 God and man best, might be realized. The expression of benefaction in appropriations, gifts, donations, bequests, characterizes the underlying purpose of true education. The scheme of lottery, self-assessment, levy, tuitions and fees, are characteristic of the growing complex of organized social life. All the methods operated at once as they cumulated from the experi- ences of this pioneer life. The essential elements persist in the growth of federal and state efforts in behalf of popular education. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT ''Religion, Morality and Knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." — Ordinance of 1787. INTRODUCTION. The Federal Governmeut has never been indifferent to education. The failure of the Government to make itself explicit in the con- stitution has not operated against the development of education in the nation. To say that the Government has no control over the system of education operating in the states, is to disregard the spirit of the constitution which says, ' ' The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of gov- ernment''.* It is quite true that the Government has exercised no direct control over education except in the District of Columbia; however, the sympathy and aid realized in the direction of spread- ing intelligence, though indirect for the most part, has been none the less effective. This attitude of the Government has been demon- strated clearly in colonial daj^s, and it remains universally expressed in that attitude, since popular governments without popular educa- tion "have no right to existence and cannot be maintained when established ".t The Government with a purpose born of democracy has committed to the states, respectively, the free assumption of the responsibility of educating their youth. However, the spirit of the constitution permits the Federal Government to exercise not only power of preventing ignorance, the most alarming impediment to popular government, but the power of directing and constructing education. The former power would seek to hold fast the standards of the people already obtained; the latter would tend to correlate, coordinate, guide, protect, and even support the multiple agencies of education. Both of these functions the Government has exer- cised ; and with the increasing complexity and differentiation of life among the states, the latter function is assuming wider propor- tions and greater significance, — and this all without encroaching upon the spontaneity of state expression. The purpose in this chapter is to review the aid given to education for the purpose of discovering how the several methods which operated among the colonies found a similar expression in the attitude of the Government with the close of the War of Independ- *Article III, Section 4. tEducation, Vol. I, p. 420. 32 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS ence and the rise and development of the states. In general we shall find that the aid given by the Federal Government has been, as in the days of Purmont and Cheever, an "encouragement" for education, — or in other words, an inducement for individual and state spontaneity and development. The spirit has been that of emphasizing the importance of voluntary effort in a democracy. In this respect the attitude of the Government has remained unchanged, though this fact is not so simple at the present time. Thomas Jefferson illustrated rather clearly the idea of the Govern- ment that direct control, even in educational affairs, reverts to the Government when individuals and states, through their neglect, invite ignorance and disruption. At a time when education was considered a matter of domestic concern, he asked for a public school for Virginia where learning could be had gratis. Though Thomas Jefferson himself believed that parents should educate their children, yet when indigent parents did not educate them he contended that the responsibility reverted to the state.* This attitude of protector, guide, and assistant, displayed in that period of our history when a national spirit was becoming marked with greater virility, was fixed in the acts of 1802 and 1803. t The various and numerous acts of Congress relating to Government interest in education and to the general development of the states, though peculiar to our situation as a nation, have tended to define our educational policy and the methods of financial support in a manner similar to the growth and development in other nations. It is clear therefore that the crystallization of the sentiment pre- vailing in the United States in behalf of general education has been a gradual process. Hardly a session of Congress has convened in which some demand for a congressional act in behalf of education has not been made. Rather consistent criticism has attended Con- gress for its seemingly ultraconservative policy toward educational *"But the indigence of the greater number disabling them from educating at their own expense, those of their children whom nature hath fitly formed and disposed to become useful instruments of the public, it is better that such should be sought for and educated at the common expense of all, than that the happiness of all should be confided to the weak or wicked. ' ' — Extract from Section 1, of a bill for the more general diffusion of knowledge. Am. J. of Educ, Vol. 17, p. 95. tE«port of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1880, p. XXX. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 33 procedure and development ; however, a review of the past history of the difficulties encountered in adjusting the variety of demands abates our hasty criticism. Progress is slow if continuous and per- manent, steady if directed intelligently and effectively. Congress could do no better than to follow the zigzag path made by the colo- nies and to utilize the suggestions which this experience called out. The efforts made in the colonies through grants of land, through the benevolence of private endeavor and religious propagation, became for the most part the methods of the Government when a real national spirit issued as a result of the co-operation in the struggle against England for freedom and independence. Federal aid therefore began in the granting of land for educational pur- poses. SUPPORT BY LAND GRANTS. Common Schools : — The English land policy influenced our national spirit in a peculiar way, with the issue of the war. Doctor Samuel Johnson, President of King's College (now Columbia University), is reported to have written to Archbishop Seeker, April 10, 1762,* in behalf of a policy of granting land for religion and schools. Such efforts from private and philanthropic sources prepared the way for the policy of the Gevernment. In. 1784 one year before the first act of Congress granting land for the common schools, Georgia enacted a measure providing for the setting apart of twenty thousand acres of land for a collegiate seminary of learn- ing, t These activities can be explained largely by the fact that the presence of a schoolmaster with "every immigrant ship" had brought the notion of popular education to a practical realization. Fierce opposition sems to have arisen when the ordinance of 1785 was proposed and passed. The people of the colonies, though needing no further education in the principle that a democracy can *''I beg leave, my Lord, to observe that it is a great pity when patents are granted, as they often are, for large tracts of land, no provision is made for religion and schools. I wish, therefore, instructions were given to our governors never to grant patents for townships or villages or large manors without requiring the patentees to sequester a competent portion for the sup- port of religion and schools." Am. J. of Educ, Vol. 17, p. 65. tibid, Vol. 17, pp. 65, 66. 34 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS exist only through the intelligence of its constituents, still consid- ered education a private or state matter. The passage of the act of May 20, 1785, its preliminary forms, and its subsequent operations are full of interest; first, because there was in those movements an evident lack of even a crude policy as to the disposition of western lands though Congress was forced by the responsibilities impending to manifest a constructive inter- est; second, because of a lack of definition in the minds of the mem- bers of Congress as to the field of religion, on the one hand, and the field of education, on the other, since through the process of social differentiation, the distinctness of each was becoming apparent; and third, with others of more or less importance, because of the lack of a definite policy toward educational support, since there was a wide difference of opinion as to the need of support beyond that which was secured through voluntary effort. The history of the legislation which took the form finally of the ordinance known in education as the "Sixteenth Section Grant", illustrates the first two lacks. Jefferson, chairman of the commit- tee on the disposition of western lands, presented an ordinance to Congress in May, 1784, in which no mention was made of schools. The activity of Jefferson in the promotion of schools in Virginia is evidence that this failure on his part was not due to indifference toward education. About a year later, April, 1785, a similar ordi- nance was presented in which provision was made for schools, for religion, and for charitable purposes. Two amendments resulted in the striking out of the words providing for the support of reli- gion and charitable purposes. On May 20, 1785, the ordinance was passed which provided for the granting of the sixteenth section in every township for school maintenance*, but no land was granted for religion and charitable purposes. The lack of definiteness in this ordinance concerning its operation illustrates the third lack. Not until the ordinance of 1802, known as the Enabling Act for Ohio, and again in the act of 1803, relative to the disposition of lands in Michigan, was Congress explicit in this matter. The attitude of Congress was made clearer in the act of 1787, known as the ordinance for the disposition of lands in the ^Report of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1892-1893, Vol. II, p. 1269: Journals of Congress, 1774-1778, Vol. IV, pp. 520-522, appendix, 17, 18. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 35 Northwest Territory, when section number twenty-nine was given for religion, though onh^ two instances appear showing that this part of the provision was carried out.* However, the granting of the sixteenth section was made perpetual by this ordinance, and the provision has been carried out in all Avestern states. These two acts conveyed a clearer attitude of the Government's relation to public education, that of "positive support of schools by the public lands; the necessity of school asociations in order to obtain the benefit of that grant ; and the inseparable connection of land titles with the idea of education, "t Twelve states received the allowance of the sixteenth lot between March 3, 1803, and August 14, 1846.* According to the act of August 14, 1848, the thirty-sixth section, in addition to the sixteenth, was provided for schools in all public- land states to be admitted thereafter. Senator Stephen A. Doviglas was instrumental in securing this grant. It arose out of a need for additional support. The availability of the land made the measure an acceptable one. Seven states and eight territories received this allowance § which with what the above states receive according to the "Sixteenth Section Grant," makes an aggregate of 67,893,- 919 acres, given for common schools. In addition to these, certain other public lands were granted the several states by the Government for special purposes. It seems that the primary object of the Government in these grants was that of providing for the development of the states, and in a certain sense for the conservation of the states' resources. This is the attitude of the Government in providing for the internal develop- ment of the states. The states interpreting the spirit of these grants rather than the letter turned the funds, through consent of Congress and by action of respective legislatures, to the support of *Ohio Company Tract and what is known as the Symmes Purchase. See Am. J. Educ, Vol. 17, p. 68. tAm. J. Educ, Vol. 28, p. 932. tOhio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Michigan, Arkansas, Florida, Iowa, and Wisconsin. Report of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1880, p. XXXI; also 1892-1893, Vol II, p. 1283. iStates: California, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, and Colorado; Territories: Washington, New Mexico, Utah, Dakota, Montana, Arizona, Idaho, and Wyoming. See Report of the U. S. Com. Educ, 1880, p. XXXI. 36 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS schools. The "Five Hundred Thousand Acre Grant'', perhaps the most iniportant of these for education, was made by act of Con- gress, September 4, 1841. Wisconsin, Iowa, Oregon, Kansas, California, and Nevada provided in, their state constitutions for the diversion of this fund to educational purposes. In Iowa alone 535,473.54 acres were put at the disposal of the schools, the excess of acreage being adjusted by the State 's paying the General Govern- ment one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre for it.* All the states admitted into the Union since the passage of this act par- ticipated in this grant except West Virginia and Texas, t the total acreage granted in this way reaching 9,000,000.$ In addition to this grant, certain portions of the public domain contiguous to salt springs were granted to the states with the pro- vision that they be used as the legislatures directed. These lands came to be at the disposal of the schools. "In Ohio the amount realized from the sale of the saline grants and added to the com- mon school fund was reported in 1850 at $41,024; in Indiana the state school fund realize from the same source, $85,000. "§ Loui- siana, Mississippi, and Indiana by constitutional provision places the revenues from the sales of swamp lands, granted by act of Con- gress, 1850.11 to the benefit of public education. Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin, and other states, made similar disposition of these lands by general laws. Not all of these funds went to the common schools. Iowa, for example, finally placed the returns to the State University though the proceeds for a time had been used by the public schools, tt Riparian lands in some states found a place in the school funds. J $ Seminaries and Universities: — The granting of land and other kinds of support to higher education originated with the colonies. Rhode Island, though in general opposed to a public school system, took early and definite steps toward assisting boys to a higher edu- cation. It was a means of producing leadership, heartily appre- *Bufifum, Federal and State Aid to Education in Iowa, pp. 26-36. tThese states had no public lands within their borders. tSee U. S. Bureau of Educ, Cire. of Inf., No. 2, 1879, p. 10 (Reprint). §Ibid, p. 11. IIU. S. Statutes at Large, Vol. IX, pp. 519-520. ttBuffum, Federal and State Aid to Education in Iowa; pp. 47-54. ttMurray, Hist. Ed. N. J., p. 23. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 37 ciated by the Colony.* The ordinance of 1787 which provided for federal aid to higher education was an expression of the growing ideas embodied in the constitution of Massachusetts, — a constitution borrowed in part by twenty-five or more states, as well as by the Government itself when the ordinance of 1787 was drafted. This continental ordinance of 1787 relating to the disposal of lands in the Northwest Territory which by relinquishment had become public domain, came to contain a provision for a "semin- ary of learning", a university, in the territory north of Ohio. Two complete townships of land in each state made out of this ter- ritory^ could be given perpetually by the respective legislatures for the support of state universities, t Though Congress was no doubt in favor of education, the provision in the second proposed bill for a grant for religious and charitable purposes complicated the prob- lem, so that a great deal of effort and parliamentary ingenuity seemed to be necessary to secure favorable action. The provisions of this ordinance came to be applied in the case of all states admitted to the Union. It is difficult to ascertain with any degree of accuracy the value of lands granted for higher institutions, but the acreage granted is reasonably well calculated. From the figures given in the Report of the Commissioner of Education, t it is found that an aggregate of almost two and one-half millions of acres of land valued at five dollars per acre§ has been given for higher education. Colleges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts : — In July, 1862, 10,450,000 acres II were provided by act of Congress for the estab- lishment of Colleges of Agriculture and Llechanic Arts. This grant in particular, as were all grants in general, is significant for the stimulation it gave to the states. It served to call out an aggressive attitude on the part of the states to the assumption of responsibility in providing educational opportunities for their citi- zens. This type of school has received ready support from the *Murray, Hist. Ed., N. J., p. 10. tU. S. Statutes at Large, Vol. VI, p. 810. iEeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1896-1897, Vol. II, pp. 1137-1164. §$4.73. IIEeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1892-1893, Vol. II, p. 1284; also U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1890, No. 1, p. 338. 38 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS states, as well as from the Government, — a fact partially explained at least by local interest and need. In this act we have had illus- trated for us the result of persistent state and local co-operation in demanding of Congress liberal grants from the public domain for this type of institution. By the act of 1862, — a similar act having been vetoed by President Buchanan in 1858, — thirty thousand acres of land were granted to each state for each senator and represen- tative in Congress, according to the census of 1860. The attitude of the Government is shown in the provisions drafted for receiving the grant. The states to receive the benefits of the grant had to accept the terms of the ordinance within two years and to provide for a college within five.* This was amended slightly in 1866t making it easier for the states. The student of educational history must be cautious, however, in assuming that Congress was anxious to promote education. It seems that she had in mind rather the development and conserva- tion of the resources of the states and to this end this type of school seemed expedient. Time has shown that Congress did better than she knew in this respect. She was about equally divided on the question of these grants, and in 1858 could not pass the ordi- nance over the veto of the president. It seems evident that the act of 1862, like those of 1785 and 1787, was secured only by polit- ical and business ingenuity rather than by educational statesman- ship, for it was passed and approved only after repeated petitions from the states, farmers' institutes, and associations, and because of the general persistency of public opinion. We must remember however that Abraham Lincoln was president in 1862 and that he arose as high in educational statesmanship in encouraging and signing the bill as James Buchanan had arisen in political crafti- ness in vetoing the bill of 1858 thereby espousing the constitutional objections of scheming politicians of the South who opposed agri- cultural and technical education. $ Opponents of the act asserted *U. S. statutes at large. Vol. XII, pp. 503-505. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1890, No. 1, p. 340, for amount derived from the sale of the United States land or script in accordance with the act of 1862. tKnight, G. W., History and Management of Land Grants. — In American Historical Association Papers, Vol. I. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 39 that it was as unconstitutional to grant donations to the states as to offer force or violence, — force and violence being vital topics of debate at this time. Therefore, to say that the land grant acts rep- resented the highest degree of educational statesmanship is hardly true to the facts. The educational statesmanship which was mani- fested at the time was quite as much outside of Congress as it was in. Private Enterprises. — Congress was deluged during the early part of the ninetheenth century with petitions for donations of land. Schools for the deaf and dumb, insane asylums, orphanages, special interests, colleges, and other enterprises presented petitions for donation. Congress has been conservative in these matters and for the most part has refused to grant lands for such purposes; even the general and almost unanimous appeal for the land grant to agricultural and mechanical colleges was rejected effectively by one president. It was easier evidently for the Grovernment to see the importance of granting aid through land grants and otherwise to agencies concerned with material prosperity than to agencies of education. Private enterprises seldom secured the attention of Congress. The grant of a township of land in the State of Ohio, February the twenty-seventh, 1801, to Arnold Henry Dohrman known as the "Dorhman Grant" though not educational is mentioned here to present an instance of how the policy of the Government has come to be defined. Though consistently refusing grants to private enterprises, even aid to institutions for the deaf and dumb, or the unfortunate insane, on the grounds that these are state matters, yet she offers no hesitation in reimbursing by grant a man who as agent of the United States, out of his own generous impulse, fed, clothed and nursed unfortunate sailors who had been captured by British cruisers.* The same attitude is expresed in grants to private individuals for special service to the eountryt, for exploration^, and other works. Comparatively little was granted for education. ^Donaldson, The Public Domain, p. 209. tMarch 3, 1803, "Cong-ress directed the Secretary of War to issue land warrants to Major-General LaFayette for 11,520 acres" and later gave him a sum of money. See Donaldson, The Public Domain, p. 211. $Louis and Clark Expedition by act of March 3, 1807. See Donaldson, p. 211. 40 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS Among the grants, the following are given by Mr. Eaton :* Alabama Lafayette Academy . . . 4,801 acres Connecticut Asylum for Education of Deaf and Dumb 23,040 acres Dakota Holy Cross Mission .... 160 acres Kentucky Asylum for Education of Deaf and Dumb 22,400 acres Louisiana Pine Grove Academy (Quit Claim) . 4,040 acres Mississippi Jefferson. College .... 30 acres Missouri Town Lots (In aggregate) . . . 1,400 acres The asylum in Kentucky became on March 3, 1843, a function in Centre College of Kentucky. This grant was made April 5, 1826, t Though only thirty acres are reported in the above list for Jeffer- son College, yet by act of Congress, March 3, 1803, thirty-six sec- tion of Mississippi public lands were granted for the use of this college. The readiness of Congress to respond to the petition of the newly organized board of Jefferson College seems to have been due to several reasons : first, ossibly an appreciation, of the impedi- ments peculiar to a community "but lately emerged from the lethargic influence of an arbitrary government, 't and of the effort of the trustees to meet this situation ; second, and no less effective, though possibly not as fundamental, the opportunity for Congress to memoralize Thomas Jefferson in the name of the college; and third, probably an assumed obligation in the adjustment of land claims in the South. Congress as said above did little for private or specific institu- tions, yet she assumed some direct responsibility of educational aid in the District of Columbia. In 1833 Congress made an appropria- tion of lands to Georgetown College (now Georgetown University), an institution under the control of the Roman Catholic Church. These lands, according to Blackmar,t were valued at twenty-five thousand dollars. This was the only help given this institution. Columbian College, changed to Columbian University in 1873, and to George Washington University in 1904, was established in the dis- *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Cire. of Inf., 1879, No. 2, p. 9 (reprint). tUnited States Statutes, Vol. VI, p. 339. *U. S. Bureau of Educ., Circ. of Inf., 1899, No. 2, p. 26. §Ibid, 1890, No. 1, p. 55. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 41 trict of Columbia by Congress in 1821. The original Columbian College founded by the Baptists in Philadelphia and removed to Washington was made the theological section of Columbian College now under national direction. Columbian College in Washington received the proceeds of sales of land to the amount of twenty-five thousand dollars, — a fund set aside for the endowment of profes- sors' salaries.* SUPPORT BY APPROPRIATION. The Federal Government, in no way emphasizing appropriation of moneys for education, has granted in many instances what is essentially money. Wherever a per cent of the sales of lands is granted for educational purposes, it is essentially the appropria- tion of moneys. Land moneys constitute the larger portion of the funds given by the Federal Government ; however, the attitude of Congress has been expressed occasionally by favorable or unfavor- able action on appropriation bills. Many statesmen, foremost among whom being George Washing- ton, advocated the appropriations of money for a national univer- sity as a safeguard for the nation. This appropriation was never made, but the statesmanship displayed at the time perhaps compen- sated for any advantage the establishment of a university might have afforded. The first main argument of George Washington in favor of appropriating money for a national university was the lead- ers of an unestablished, though independent government, must be trained in the struggles of the country itself, and therefore to depend upon other countries for the training of the youth was unsafe. Washington was opposed by those who felt that the obli- gation for educating yovith rested with the states or if appropria- tions were to be made that they should go to such institutions as were already established. Another reason, and perhaps more inclusive for Washington's espousal of the idea of a national uni- versity in preference to aiding seminaries already established, was the need of an American institution sufficiently endowed by national aid that the best professors available could be secured, an impos- *U. S. Statutes, IV, p. 603. 42 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS sibility in narrow and meagerly endowed seminaries. In spite of repeated attempts to get action in Congress favorable to a national university, nothing could be done and in 1873, the last attempt was made when a bill was reported providing for a university endowed by the Federal Government with twenty millions of dol- lars upon which five per cent interest Avas to be secured.* The rise of such institutions as Johns Hopkins, Clark, Leland Stanford Junior, Chicago, and ten or a dozen others weakened the demand for a national university. Our purpose in speaking at length of this struggle is to show that the arguments have been without doubt beneficial in two directions; first, it has called out large effort, for promoting the best of higher institutions by private benevolence, and second, it has thrown upon the states again the obligation of promoting higher education. It is evident that a national univer- sity to meet present day needs must be of higher order than insti- tutions supported by private philanthropy or by state appropria- tions, t A new activity favorable to the establishment of a national university is gathering strength rapidly. Distribution of Surplus Revenues : — The first appropriation, — which in fact was not an appropriation but a deposit, — was voted* by Congress in 1836 when all but five millions of dollars of the sur- plus accumulated in the sales of lands and from the revenues of the Government were deposited with the several states as loans for an indefinite period of time. This distribution of the funds was not made for the purpose of promoting schools, but for the more gen- eral purpose of assisting states in developing their resources in which educational interests participated. The immediate motive perhaps was of a political nature. § That this distribution came directly to the promotion of education throughout the country is evidenced in the fact that eight states appropriated the entire income to education ; seven others appropriated part to education, some as high as one-half; only one limited the income to internal improve- ment; and the rest granted the fund to general purposes in which *House Eeport No. 89, 42nd Congress, third session, I, 90. tSee TJ. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1890, No. 1, pp. 29-41, for a discussion of the arguments for a National University. tU. S. Statutes at Large, V, p. 55. §Bourne, The History of the Surplus Eevenue Fund. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 43 educational interests would participate.* This has been a source of great aid to education where so used. New York is reportedt to have received eleven millions of dollars in forty-three j^ears from this fund. Congress has never called for the deposit, nor any part of it, though there have been times when the Government could have been relieved in critical situations by such recall. The fact that no call has ever been issued and no expression made as to the future policy of the Government in the matter, it is understood that the money will never be demanded. J Grants on Sale of Lands: — A large sum of money went to the education fund in many states from the sale of lands located within the states. These are known as the two, three, and five per cent grants from the net proceeds of the sales of public lands. The fol- lowing table, compiled for the most part from the Annual Reports of the Commissioner of the General Land Office and in part from information received directly from the Office of the Commissioner show^s accrued amounts paid to the states for educational pui'poses. The first of these acts were passed in Ohio in 1802 and 1803, as indicated in the table. The represent the attitude of the Fed- eral Government toward the internal development of the states. In this respect it is similar to the Surplus Revenue Fund, the Surplus Revenue Fund coming also, for the most part, from the enormous sales of public lands. In the Ohio act of 1802, the State was granted two per cent of the net proceeds from the sales of lands, and in 1803 three per cent additional, § for certain internal improvements *Mr. Murray, secretary of the board of Eegents, of New York, gives a table in Historical Eecords, 91, showing amounts given to each state and the purpose to which it was devoted, which Blackmar reproduces in U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1890, No. 1, p. 47. tibid, p. 46, note 6. tThe writer is supported in his statements by a letter from Chief Clerk, L. A. Kalbach, of the United States Bureau of Education, dated October 9, 1911. His concluding statements are, ' ' The country has passed through three wars and several financial panics since 1836, and if there has been any dis- position to ask repayment, abundant justification for such action has already repeatedly arisen. I do not think that any State need hesitate in any antici- pated educational expansion because of the possibility of losing her share of that money." §Acts of Congress,. April 30, 1802, and March 3, 1903, (2 U. S. Statutes, 173 and 225). 44 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS 02 oo~5S OhS rHM r-l '^ '^-" P.. .00 on t rf\ ^^ tH ^^^. 'T^ ws z'*' f^ C\I . V^ zi (^ '-^ ir^ OO rt\ r^ _u r*^/^^ GO O 'co^fo 5 i-i S "^ =^ N - rH O in ■^ CO ■* 05 OO -* CO o" -*~ oT co" r-T oT to O lO CO CCl CO o -tH »n th lo oj i-H o 00 m 00 r-H C^ t^ CO t-^ CD 00 -rlH O rH r-l to C5 CO r-1^0^0^t0_^a5_ <3rt>roo''fH"to" lO i-H O 00 <3i t^ CO CO (>l CO ^2. 05 CQ CO "* lO to T— I 05 »C >-l kO ira t^ -^ lo tq_o_co_^co_^T-i^in^ CO r-l ■* rH CO C5 in Oi TjJ r-j ■5ii CO m O 00 to 00 to CO 1^ TjH'~^'~tO r-Tr-T to 00 t^ 00 O t^ I— I >— t OS •* tO^t-^tO^O TiH i-TirTo r-Tco^ iH CO i-l in in rt< to i-H CO 00 "* 1— I CO CO CO ■^ in 00 tjh o o\ to to t-^ 05 CO CJ CO CO o in Oi ■*! C-] Oi CO CO CO in t^ to to l>; !>; b- o 05 CO in 00 t~ 05 Oi tH^tH CO Oi_ to" tJ" t^ 00 CO t~ r-l to 00 00 CO t^ CO CO oi go' to o t-I TJ^■ to Ol O o GO to to in o_to in_t^ t-Too cvTo'co" CO rH CO rH in "-t 05 to rH CO' CO »-; Oi !>; rH O to' CO CO CO GO Oi CO »; CO 00 O -* CO ^in c^oi^ '^''tcTco^irrr-r CO CO oi t^ >>• in 00 c] •"dH !>. o in "*_ t~. CO GO 00 O CO 00 o in CO CO o> ■* 00 in '^to co,"^ rH^'rH"'* Oo'^CO^oT CO CO CO '^ O rH GO CI -rtl to to CO 00 CO CO i-{ co^in^co o co"in~-^in~to' 00 in t~ "* Tt< C-] 00 t^ CO oo 00 t~ 0> CO rH CO 05 CO to CO CO O t-; O ^_ T^^ co" oJ o 00 00 CO CO rH rH r-TcO in t^ 00 rH rH CO rH rH in C5 ^ in - to to ^_ "*. r-i S> t-^ '^ ■>*' o co' co' cd co' in O K=H C3 T-i t~ in 05 t- Ci 00 to ■* to "^ o CT> 05 CO^t-;^ in^Th^ OtTr-T CO Ttl t-^rH rH co"^ CO CS «0 GO to o •^_ o »: GO o th in rH co' t>^ CO t-^ in t^ to CO ca to ■rtH__ O^ t^ -^^ in^ rH^ r-Tin"-* cfTurTirT CO OQ in - & ^H • p-t O Qj (X) <3? O bXi cfi o3 o d -d d ^ H =* 5f-S -5 "^ 3 £ -g .^ =« g d -g OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 45 specifically stated.* Similarly, as indicated in the table, other grants of two, three, or five per cent were made to the states admitted to the Union since Ohio, except Maine, Texas, and West Virginia, which had no public lands within their borders. It seems clear from the statutes that these acts were made primar- ily as an "encouragement" to the sales of public lands within the states. The distribution among the states was for internal improve- ments. The laying out of roads for instance, already quoted from the Act of Ohio, was a pioneer and significant expression of state development. These grants express only incidentally a favorable attitude toward education. They represented first of all the atti- tude of Congress toward expansion and settlement for purposes considered in the act of 1787, namely, to meet the debts of the Gov- ernment, and to encourage the development of the states in a co-oper- ative endeavor to meet these debts. That Congress acquiesced in the request of the states to divert the fund to education was evi- dence of her appreciation of the function of education in its effect upon expansion and settlement quite as much at it was an expres- sion of educational statesmanship. Justification for this discus- sion in this connection rests with the significance of this diversion of funds ; some specifically set aside for purpose of internal improve- ment, others for the promotion of education through the inititative of the state and the ingenuity of the Government. Each grant to the states involved a special contract as indicated in the special acts of Congress, t The fundamental significance of these grants arises therefore from the interpretation made by the states as to the under- lying principles of expansion, — an interpretation in which Con- gress acquiesced. The whole amount granted in this way from 1803 to 1876 according to Mr. EatonJ was $6,508,819.11, of which, he reports, $2,997,234.35 as an estimate of the amount devoted to edu- cation. § The acts of Congress relative to states II admitted into the Union later specified that five per cent of the sales of public *" Laying out, opening, and making roads within said state, and to no other purposes whatsoever ' '. tSee table above, p. 44, for number of states and the dates of special acts. JU. S. Bureau of Education, Cire. of Inf., 1879, pp. 10,11 (Eepriut). SSee table above, p. 44, for report of these funds to June 30, 1910. IIFor example, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Washington, and others. 46 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS lands should be devoted to the permanent common school fund of the respective states. Thus a fund originally set aside, as in the first act for Ohio, for ' ' laying out ' ' and ' ' making roads ' ', and ' ' to no other purpose whatsoever" came to be given to the permanent school funds of the states. Collegs of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts : — The act of 1862 known as "The First Morrill Act", has done much for the estab- lishment of this type of institution. Special acts of state legisla- tures called many institutions into being, in order that they might claim the benefits of the provisions of the act. After twenty-eight years of experience in promoting this type of institution, the inade- quacy of the support fund became a serious problem in the proper development of the institutions. A bill providing for a continuing appropriation was approved by Congress, August 30, 1890. It consisted of an appropriation of $15,000 for the year ending June 30, 1890, with an annual increase thereafter of $1,000 over the amount of the preceding year until the annual appropriation to each state and territory should amount to $25,000, a sum which was to be appropriated annually thereafter out of funds from the sales of public lands. * Under this act the following appropriations have been made : t 1890 $ 660,000 1899 1,152,000 1908 1,500,000 1891 704,000 1900 1,200,000 1909 1,750,000 1892 782,000 1901 1,200,000 1910 2,000,000 1893 864,000 1902 1,200,000 1911 2,225,000 1894 912,000 1903 1,200,000 1912 2,500,000 1895 960,000 1904 1,200,000 1913 2,500,000 1896 1,008,000 1905 1,200,000 1914 2,500,000 1897 1,056,000 1906 $1,200,000 1898 $1,104,000 1907 1,200,000 This table illustrates the friendly attitude of the Government to- ward this type of school, although but fifty-four years have passed since James Buchanan attached his signature vetoing the bill for the original grant of lands. It has come about through the efficiency of these institutions in promoting the material progress of the *Eeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1906, Vol. II, p. 1237. tTaken from the Eeports of the U. S. Com. of Educ, supplemented by special reports from the office of the Bureau of Education. See also Annual Eeport of the office of experiment stations for the dear ended June 30, 1907. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 47 country. * A glance at the revenues of the land grant colleges for the year 1904 t will show a high percentage of Government support in the maintenance of these institutions. Statistics taken from Miss Spethmann 's report t shows that the Government paid more than twenty-two per cent of all expenditures in these colleges. She reports t the following analysis of the total revenues, amounting in 1904 to $12,194,341.02 : Federal Source. — Interest on grant of 1863 $ 730,001.58 Interest on other grants 85,134,65 Appropriation, act of 1890 . . . . .1,200,000.00 Experiment stations . . . . . . 695,999.67 Total 2,711,135.90 State Source. — Interest on fund, or regular appropriation . . 1,074,605.22 Appropriation for current expenses . . . 2,332,485.56 Appropriation for building, etc 2,210,811.39 Total 5,617,902.17 Other Sources. — Other endowment 680,123.23 Tuition 1,041,692.48 Incidental fees 395,424.27 Miscellaneous 1,748,062.97 Grand total $ 12,194,341.02 Further evidence of the Government's friendly attitude toward this type of institution is illustrated in the appropriating act of March, 1907, amendatory to the ' ' Second Morrill Act ' ', known as the "Nelson Amendment". By this amendment, a more complete and adequate endowment was provided for these colleges, and for such as might be established. The first appropriation was five thousand dol- *See Eeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1895-1896, Vol. II, pp. 1243-1298, for special report of Mr. Wellford Addis, specialist in the Bureau on Colleges endowed by Congress for the benefit of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. tStatistics of Land Grant Colleges and Agricultural Experiment Stations, compiled by Miss M. T. Spethmann. (Reprint from Annual Report of the Office of Experiment Stations for the year ended June 30, 1904.) ^According to the same report for 1904, the total of permanent funds and equipment of land grant colleges for that year was $72,540,588.11, 48 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS lars for the year ending June 30, 1908, in addition to the former pro- vision, and an annual increase of five thousand dollars for four years, and thereafter the annual sum to be paid to each state and territory shall be $50,000 to be applied according to the provision of the former grants. ' ' The Bureau of Education acts as the medium for communication between the Department of the Interior and the institutions concerned and collects and examines the reports that are to be made by these institutions to the Secretary of the Interior. ' ' * The total amount appropriated for the year ending June 30,1908, was $1,500,000, an increase of $300,000 over the appropriation of the year before ; for the A^ear ending June 30, 1909, $1,750,000, or $35,000 for each institution ; June 30, 1910, $2,000,000, or $40,000 for each institution. For the year 1911, the amount was $2,250,000 ;t 1912, 1913, and 1914, respectively, $2,500,000. Experiment Stations : — According to the act of March 2, 1887, J known as the "Hatch Experiment Station Act", the sum of $15,- 000 was appropriated to each state and each territory entitled under the provisions of the act, out of moneys accruing from sales of pub- lic lands. This act was in a large sense an "encouragement to systematic and scientific work, carefully reported ; ' ' for the making of the report was a condition of receiving the appropriation. Con- necticut had had the honor of conducting the first experiment sta- tion ;§ other states had followed. "In 1886, about twelve such stations were in operation. ' ' li During the following year this type of work was accelerated by the passage of the "Hatch Experi- ment Station Act'' which provided for the support of these sta- tions. ' ' In the early years when new states were being formed and new stations organized, the disbursements did not always coincide with the years in which the appropriations were made.'' Accord- ing to the provisions, certain supervising powers are vested in the Government through the Department of Agriculture and the Treas- ury, Though the first payment was to have been made on the first "Keport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1906, Vol. 2, 1238. tAceording to the provisions of the Act. tU. S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 24, 440-442. §Established, 1875, by Mr. Orange Judd, of Middletown, Conn. See report of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1890-1891, Vol. I. p. 635. IIEeport of the U. S. Cora, of Educ, 1890-1891, Vol. 1, p. 635. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 49 day of October, 1887, no payments were actually made till 1888. The appropriations and disbursements under this act are as fol- lows :* Appropriations Disbursements by Congress by the Treasury For the fiscal year ending June 30 : 1888 $585,000 $427,500.00 1889 585,000 713,792.63 1890 585,000 624,523.56 1890 47,500t 1891 660,000 662,499.74 1892 708,000 718,333.30 1893 708,000 702,408.67 1894 720,000 723,561.83 1895 720,000 719,701.00 1895 720,000 719,802.89 1897 720,000 716,199.86 1898 720,000 723,321.14 1899 720,000 719,986.56 1900 720,000 719,998.70 1901 720,000 719,998.90 1902 720,000 719,469.72 1903 720,000 719,999.50 1904 720,000 719,999.67 1905 720,000 718,163.45 1906 960,000 956,617.70 1907 1,056,000 1,007,732.30 1908 1,152,000 1,150,585.55 1909 1,248,000 1,246,231.90 1910 1,344,000 1,342,574.58 1911 1,440,000 t The disbursements by the treasury for 1912 was $718,850.80. The appropriations for 1913 and 1914 remain the same as for 1912. *Report from the office of Experiment Stations, November 10, 1911. tDeficiency appropriations of $30,000 for Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, $15,000 for Rhode Island, and $2,500 for North Dakota. JNot available at the time of the report. 50 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS The appropriations for the Alaska Experiment station were $30,000 for 1913 and $35,000 for 1914, according to the report of Mr. True, Director, "In Alabama, Connecticut, Hawaii, Louisiana, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina and Virginia separate stations are maintained wholly or in part by state funds. A number of sub-stations are also maintained in different states. Excluding the sub-stations, the total number of stations in the 48 states is 59, and in the United States, including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and Guam, 65. Of these, 50 receive appropriations provided for by the acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887, and March 16, 1906, and 4 by other Federal enactments. "The total income of the stations maintained under the acts of 1887 and 1906 during 1912 was $4,068,240.09, of which $1,440,000 (Hatch fund, $720,000; Adams fund, $720,000) was received from the National Government, the remainder $2,628,240.09 coming from the following sources : state governments, $1,492,798 ; individu- als and communities, $54,878.51 ; fees for analyses of fertilizers, $129,884.61 ; sales of farm products, $230,271.81 ; miscellaneous in- cluding all balances, $720,407.04. In addition to this, the office of experiment stations had an appropriation of $424,000 for the past fiscal year, including $30,000 each for the Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico experiment stations, $15,000 for the Guam experiment station, $15,000 for nutrition investigations, $100,000 for irrigation investi- gations, $100,000 for drainage investigations, and $10,000 for farmers' institutes and agricultural schools. The value of the addi- tions to the equipment of the stations in 1912 is estimated as fol- lows : buildings, $1,003,516.47 ; libraries, $45,462.83 ; apparatus, $71,492.73; farm implements, $70,659.64; live stock, $99,774.49; miscellaneous, $215,221.79; total, $1,506,127.95."* Agricultural experiment stations, provided for the act of March 2, 1887, and March 16, 1906 are operating in all states and terri- tories. Further, by special appropriations, the work has been car- ried to Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and Guam. Fifty-five stations in the United States are provided for by acts of Congress and five by state funds wholly or in part. The justification for this expendi- "■'Statistics of Land Grant Colleges and Agricultural Experiment Stations, 1912, by Butler B. Hare, Assistant in Agricultural Education, pp. 235-236. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 51 ture has been demonstrated and the development of scientific agri- culture is recognized as fundamental to our national life. OTHER GOVERNMENT INTERESTS. It has been pointed oitt constantly that responsibility, not assumed by the states, or not compatible with the powers of the states re- verted to the Government. The second half of the nineteenth cen- tury presented to the Government many such situations. Therefore, in addition to the aid rendered to the states through grants of land or appropriations of money, the Government had to assume the responsibility, — logically hers, — of providing for certain types of agencies of educational progress. It has been through this pro- cess of directing and supporting these agencies, more or less dis- connected and isolated in function from the regular agencies and systems of education, that the Government has come to recognize more fully her responsibility of correlating, co-ordinating, and as- sisting the general agencies of education, as a distinct function. Alaska : — The Government has assumed the responsibility of pro- viding for the education of the youth of Alaska. What had been done there crudely though generously by private endeavor was in 1884 supplemented by an act of Congress. An appropriation of $25,000 in that year was the beginning of the Government's effort to this end. The following table * shows exactly what has been done. 1884 $25,000 1897 $30,000 1887 15,000 1898 30,000 1888 25,000 1899 30,000 1889 40,000 1900 30,000 1890 50,000 1901 30,000 1891 50,000 1902-1906 334,438.46t 1892 50,000 1906 50,000 1893 40,000 1907 100,000 1894 30,000 1908 215,000 1895 30,000 1909 212,000 1896 30,000 1910 212,000 "Compiled from the statistics in the Reports of the U. S. Com. of Edue. See 1907, Vol. I, p. 382. tOne-half of license fees. 52 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS No appropriations seem to have been made directly during the years 1902 to 1905 inclusive. For the period 1902 to 1906 inclusive, one- half of the license fees were turned to the support of education, which amounted to $334,438.46. In addition for 1906, an appro- priation of $50,000 was made. This was doubled in 1907 and since that time the educational interests there have had more adequate support.* Howard University. — With the freeing of the slaves, a tremen- dous responsibility rested with the Government in providing ade- quate facilities for making teachers and leaders for the colored peo- ple. The Freedman.'s Bureau, t which was established in 1866, un- dertook the establishment of schools. The Bureau approached by benevolent societies assisted the freedmen in providing schools and further encouraged them to support the schools for themselves. "During the five years of its work, the Bureau spent $6,513,955.55, of which a considerable portion went to educational purposes, "t It was during this period of extension that Howard University was established. The original buildings for Howard University were built out of the Freedmen 's Bureau Fund, equal in all to about one- half million of dollars. "The first appropriation appears to have been made on March 3, 1879, the amount being $10,000, for 'maintenance'. From that time forward the records seem to show that an annual appropria- tion has been made, the entire sum aggregating $1,217,700 up to June 30, 1810. "§ Since 1910, appropriations have been made as follows: 1911, $104,700 which includes $2,300 for an engineering building; 1912, $92,900; 1913, $92,000; and 1914, $101,000; and 1915, $101,000.11 Congress with her more liberal appropriations to the institution has opened up more adequate facilities for the edu- cation of the colored race. President Thirkield says further in his letter that, "the appropriation of $90,000 for the building and *See statistics page 55, for appropriations to Alaskan Education for the last three years. tSee Cyclopedia of Education, edited by Paul Monroe, Vol. II, p. 669-700; see also Eeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1894-1895, Vol. II, pp. 1374-1377. JCyelopedia of Education. See above. §Thirkield, Wilbur P., President of Howard University, in a personal letter dated October 26, 1911. IIEeport of President S. M. Newman, 1914. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 53 equipment of the Science Hall has for the first time opened ade- quate laboratory facilities in the exact sciences to the members of the colored race." Hampton Institute : — This institution founded also as a result of the Avork of the Freedmen's Bureau and the co-operation of the negroes has shared in the Land-Grant Fund of the State of Vir- ginia. According to the report of the principal, Hampton Insti- tute has, "received one-third of the state appropriation annually, that is, $10,329.36, beginning 1872. Li 1890 this was increased $5,000 through the "Morrill Act", and the increases according to this act were shared by Hampton Institute, the maximum of $15,000 being reached in 1911. The only other help from the Government consisted in the payment of $167 each for the schooling, board, and clothing of Indian children. In connection with these institutions, it must be remembered that the negroes facilitated much of their progress. According to the report of 1870,* $61,513.03 were paid in tuition by the freedmen, who also paid a large part of the salaries of the teachers. The negroes are reported to have raised more than one-ninth of all the money spent by the Bureau, t Though the Government felt the responsibility of assisting the negro, this responsibility was en- hanced by the initiative of the negro himself. Smithsonian Institution : — Congress by act approved August 10, 1846, founded this institution. It was provided in, this act and in the later act of ]\Iarch 12, 1894, that the United States should guard the fund which came to the institution through the bequest of Smithson in 1846 and should guarantee interest on the same at six per cent per annum. To show the amount of this fund in the Treas- ury of the United States and the analysis of the same, the following table is given.* The total amount of the Smithsonian fund on June 30, 1914, ac- cording to the report of H. "W. Dorsey, Chief Clerk, was $1,002.- 500.00, of which $960,500 is deposited in. the United States Treasury. $42,000 additional is invested in registered and guaranteed *Ninth Semi-Annual Report on Schools for Freedmen. •f$750,000. iReport of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30, 1913, pp. 5, 6. 54 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS bonds of the West Shore Railroad Company. Deposited in the Treasury of the United States : Bequest of Smithson, 1846 $515,169.00 Residuary legacy of Smithson, 1867 26,210.63 Deposit from savings of income, 1867 108,620.37 Bequest of James Hamilton, 1875 1,000.00 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895 1,000.00 Bequests of Simeon Habol, 1880 500.00 Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881 51,500.00 Gift of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891 200,000.00 Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894 8,000.00 Deposit from savings of income, 1903 25,000.00 Residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins 7,918.69 Deposits from savings of income, 1913 636.94 Bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1913 251.95 Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stanton Avery), 1913 9,692.42 Total amount of fund in the United States Treasury $ 955,500.00 In addition to this co-operation of the Government with the In- stitution, Congress has entrusted certain specific functions to the Institution for which definite appropriations have been made from time to time. For the year ending June 30, 1914, Congress appro- priated amounts as follows for disbursement through the In- stitution for the objects specified, information being taken from the Sundry act approved June 23, 1913 : * International Exchange Service $32,000.00 Bureau of American Ethnology .... 42,000.00 Astrophysical Observatory 13,000.00 United States National Museum Furniture and Fixtures 50,000.00 Heating and lighting 50,000.00 Preservation of Collections 300,000.00 Books 2,000.00 *Eeport of the Chief Clerk, H. W. Dorsey. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 55 Postage 500.00 Building Repairs . 10,000.00 Bookstaeks for Government Bureau Libraries . 15,000.00 National Zoological Park 100,000.00 Readjustment of Boundaries of National Zoological Park 107,200.00 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature . 7,500.00 Bureau of Education : — The United States Bureau of Education was established by act of Congress, March 2, 1867, as a Department of Education. The purpose of the Bureau was to show the condi- tion and progress of education in the states by statistics and other- wise, and to diffuse "such information respecting the organization and management of schools and school systems, and methods of teaching, as shall aid the people of the United States in the estab- lishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise to promote the cause of education throughout the country. ' ' * The act provided for an expenditure of $9,400 for salaries, and proper offices for the use of the Department. According to the report of the Commissioner of Education, t no appropriations ex- cept for salaries, were made until 1871, when the sum of one thous- and dollars was appropriated for a library and $3,000 for the pur- pose of collecting statistics. In 1878 an appropriation of $1,500 was made for distributing documents. Up to 1878 an aggregate total of $218,807 had been expended for the w^ork of the Bureau. From 1878 to June 30, 1910, $1,930,620 additional was appropria- ted specifically for the maintenance of the Bureau, making an ag- gregate total of $2,149,427. Since 1910 appropriations have been 1911 1912 1913 1914 Salaries $65,200 $66,800 $66,800 $66,800 Collecting Statistics 4,000 4,000 4,000 3,600 Distributing Documents 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 Alaska, Education 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 Alaska, Reindeer 12,000 12,000 5,000 5,000 Rural and Industrial Education 6,000 15,000 15,000 Traveling expenses 1,500 *From Act to Establish : See Eeport of the U. S. Com. of Bduc, 1907, Vol.1, p. 35. tl907. Vol. I, p. 35. enlarged and new work undertaken as the foregoing analysis of funds shows.* In addition to the work of the Bureau, the Government under- takes certain other functions which are more or less identified with the educational progress of the Nation. The military and naval schools, the education of the youth of Porto Rico and Philippine Islands, participation in the support of the schools in the District of Columbia, represent other activities of the Federal Govern- ment toward promoting the integrity of the Union through the encouragement of education. The next chapter will deal with the expression of the initiative of states in promoting schools and the means of education, and the relation of their efforts to those of the Federal Government, on the one hand, and to private philanthropy and endeavor, on the other. Early school support among the states *Special report of L. A. Kalbach, Chief Clerk. EARLY SCHOOL SUPPORT AMONG THE STATES "I cannot forbear repeating the opinion I expressed to the Gen- eral Assembly three years ago, that the public schools should be sup- ported by taxation of property, and that the present rate system, or per capita tax upon scholai"s, should be abolished. The per capita system is based upon the idea that education is a personal benefit for which those who receive it should pay, while the true theory of popular education is that it is a public benefit for which the public should pay." — Governor James W. Grimes.. Extract from message to the Seventh General Assembly of Iowa, January 12, 1856. INTRODUCTION The principles underlying the aggressive activities of the states were expressed in terms of character and the perpetuity of demo- cracy. The notion that the safety of the state must rest with the intelligence of its citizens was no new notion at the beginning of the nineteenth century. However there was no system of schools, speaking broadly, which would promote the type of intelligence con- cerning which they had talked so ardently. They glowed over the dignity and truth of the oft-quoted sentiment: "Religion, Moral- ity and Knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged ' ' ; but the methods of procedure for estab- lishing and maintaining schools were but dimly appreciated even by the most ardent promoters of education. The first half of the cen.tury presented many and difficult prob- lems incident to the establishment of systems of schools throughout the several states ; and with few exceptions, little had been accom- plished toward establishing systems supported by the public prior to the middle of the century. It is important to note that forces were operating, bringing to recognition the need of state participa- tion in promoting schools. This was a process of progressive change. The rise of the system has come therefore from certain spurts of co-operative spontaneity which has dignified the state with the re- sponsibility of providing schools. In spite of prevalent indiffer- ence, contempt, and even open hostility, no other course but to es- pouse the notion of tax-supported schools was open to the states. Colonial experience had demonstrated the desirability and inev- itableness of the state's assuming the function of correlating and co-ordinating private and philanthropic effort; and this need was persistent during these formative times. The cAals of private schools could be corrected* only by means of public schools, open, free, and equal to all the children of the state ; and further economic progress ■*See above, page 26, how the coirunittee appointed in Ehode Island to in- vestigate and recommend a method of regulating private schools reported in 1785 that the only method of correcting the evils of the private schools lay in the establishment of public schools. 60 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS was possible only by the order and the discipline of a correlating and co-ordinating unit of control. The conditions produced in the unwholesome competition between private schools demanded a supervising and directing power of a more inclusive kind. Logically, this rested with the state ; first, be- cause in civil and political matters the state was being recognized as a competent and responsible directing agency; and second, be- cause what is demanded by all the citizens of the state can be sup- plied only by the state — certainly not by competing factions, by ven- turers, or even by well meaning philanthropists. The responsibility of providing an efficient system of state-supported schools evolved gradually therefore out of the more or less chaotic, disintegrating, and decentralizing tendencies expressed in the "chance-medley" of private endeavor. It is reported that Massachusetts, for example, in 1834, felt a cer- tain lack of state integrity in school matters owing to the seeming over-emphasis of local initiative in school support, or rather to a seeming lack of correlation and co-ordination of the activities ini- tiated by local communities. To level the system upward in addition to making tax laws obligatory, Massachusetts provided for the es- tablishment of a permanent school fund — not for the purpose of supporting the system but to afford a means of securing a proper and valuable interaction between constituent units by means of a central agency of control. It typifies a general tendency toward in- teracting and co-operative endeavor. The new problems of the early half of the nineteenth century in government, in industry, in national and state expansion, demanded a type of educated men not always available from the private schools where teachers and leaders tended to be narrow or biased. The real motivating force in the states, though supplemented and accentuated by the friendly attitude of the Government, and by the action of older sister states, seems to have sprung from an impulse to conserve the state itself in the midst of the di- versifying and decentralizing forces of local democracy, in- dividual opinion, and so-called individual right. Unanimity of thought and action was demanded in the stirring times following the Avar for independence and freedom, not only in promoting the religious life, but in the solution of the political, OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 61 industrial, and social problems. This imperative position of estab- lishing and developing schools was the means of providing this more liberal type of education. It is to be noted that the lack of a wholesome sentiment res- pecting free schools handicapped the efforts of the leaders. Among many who believed strongly in education there was a cold indifference to its promotion hy means of state supported schools; first, because of the wide-spread popularity of privately-support- ed schools, second, because of contempt and open hostility ex- pressed in their attitude toward public taxation for education. It is surprising to find that, as late as the year, 1901-02, a state could be found where over $14,000 Avas raised by subscription for the support of schools.* The importance of the attitude of the Government is far- reaching. This attitude was expressed in the arguments relative to the disposition of lands in the Northwest Territory and in the acts subsequent thereto. It is clear, especially after the acts of 1802 and 1803 1, that the states were to be obligated with the responsibil- ity of the education of their citizens. What the states were to do and how they were to do it, were almost baffling problems ; however, the cumulative methods of earlier efforts afforded a starting point in the progressive solution of these problems. It needs no argu- ment to show that the educational development secured in the col- onies by means of gift, benefaction, legacy, assessment, tuition, tax, appropriation, and grant of land, produced a rather wholesome educational sentiment. These early methods were the materials out of which Avas to be wrought a more comprehensive and scien- tific method. The diversity thus produced has worked a disad- s^antage in educational procedure only Avhen the broad purpose of schools was lost sight of temporarily amidst the exaggerated notions of petty factionalism. A study of the steps in the evolution of schools has been fascin- ating. First, education was supported through private efforts by means of fees and private funds. Parents were enjoined to as- sume the responsibility of educating their children. Second, edu- *Eeport of the Supt. of Pub. Instruction of Kentucky, 1901-1903, pp. 360- 361. tFor the Enabling Act of Ohio, see page 44. 62 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS cation was supported, in addition to fees and private funds, by means of philanthropic agencies. Education was distinctively a private enterprise, but it became institutionalized. Third, the school was quasi-public, that is, restriction on attendance was re- moved to some extent and the institution partook of the nature of a public school, though support was the same as in the above types, being supplied by benefactions and fees. Fourth, the school was semi-public in that fees were remitted to those not able to pay, and these fees were subscribed for, assessed upon the community, or even raised by local taxation.. Here was a suggestion of co-opera- tion between state and private endeavor though control remained with private individuals. Fifth, schools were supported by local taxation and oftentimes further assisted by the state. This step is illustrated in such states as had made provision for free schools particularly for the poor. The efforts of the states to provide for the children of the indigent gave rise to what were usually spoken of as ''Charity'' or "Pauper" schools. Sixth, the school became a state institution supported b}^ taxation and further by state appropriation. At this level the state undertook the task of directing the ener- gies within her borders by establishing a uniform and efficient system made stable and effective by adequate direction and sup- port. The purpose of the state was not to supplant private en- deavor, nor to discourage the wholesome diversity of ideals and methods resulting from the expression of individual initiative, but rather to afford a more rational method of directing these en- deavors in order to promote learning and to prevent the evils and extravagance of misguided and uneconomical efforts, typified so often in the enterprises of the venturer or of the philanthropist. It is the purpose of this chapter to show how the various policies of the state systems came to be a reconstruction, of these same exper- iences into a more scientific procedure ; how the various methods of modern support, namely, the establishment of permanent funds, the levying of local taxes, the voting of state taxes, and the volun- tary system, have co-operated; and how the effectiveness of all these methods lies in a full appreciation of the ideals underlying our national life. The rise and development of permanent school funds will be our first consideration. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 63 PERMANENT SCHOOL FUNDS. Purpose of the Funds. The development of permanent school funds has had an important influence upon state initiative in educational matters. Just what the purposes were in the establishment of these funds is not always clear.* Whether it was to provide a scheme for abolishing school taxation, as seems to be illustrated in much of the attitude of Connecticut, or simply to relieve taxation, illustrated in New York and Massachusetts, or to encourage education by fixing a source of control and direction by which the stability of the system might be secured, cannot be answered in general terms. However, it seems doubtful that very many states had the notion at the begin- ning that these funds would substitute taxation.'*' There are suffi- cient evidences that some states soon lapsed to such a level of attitude. It was not difficult for such a notion to arise in the midst of active opposition. Since the main source of the per- manent funds was the income from the sale of public lands, the hope of freedom from taxation vrould be quite natural, especially in the light of the discussions concerning the distribution of the Surplus Revenue Fund. The effectiveness of such a thought is appreciated when we recognize that most states had taken only pre- liminary steps in taxation and some not even those. When the states were expecting the funds to be adequate for their schools, when supplemented by rates, the term of school was limited so that the available funds were actually made adequate. Sources of the Funds The Government system of landgrants affords a most important item in the consideration of the sources of these funds.* It was not until the states accepted the conditions of the Acts of 1785, and *Swift, Public Peiinanent Common School Funds in the United States, 1795-1905, pp. 160-203. tSome states had permanent funds before taxation; some developed them long after; and still others never have had any. tSee Swift, Public Permanent Common School Funds in the United States, 1795-1905; also Cubberlj^, School Funds and their Apportionment, pp. 55-66; and also Sylvester, The history of Permanent School Funds in the United States, in typewritten form, Library of the State University of Iowa. 64 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS 1787, that the permanent school funds came to have integrity. The states took the initiative of attempting to secure their own develop- ment and expansion by means of schools as well as by ' ' laying out public roads. ' ' To this end, lands other than those provided for in the Acts of 1785, and 1787, went to swell the large amounts of money that eventually found its way into the school funds in many states.* There was a general consistency in the states in the atti- tude expressed toward lands and moneys coming to them by con- gressional authority. In addition to these there may be given an almost innumerable list of sources of lesser importance and of more or less stability. To the Surplus Revenue Deposit, were added moneys arising from sales of timber, mineral permits and leases, forfeitures, roy- alty on iron ore, profits on sale of bonds, — the last four illustrated in the case of Minnesota, — shares of railroad stock, as in Massa- chusetts, bank taxes, as in New Hampshire, parts of earnings of railroads, as in Georgia, income from state bank stock, as in Ken- tucky, fines for penal offenses, as in North Carolina, or marriage and tavern licenses, as in Delaware, county funds, as in Illinois, arrearage taxes, escheats, salvages, as in Florida, and private bene- factions, illustrated in the Huntington t fund of Vermont. From these and other varied sources large sums of money have been accumulated for school purposes, which are evidences of the political and social significance of the problem. This medley of effort through the interaction of ideas suggested has tended to present a possible clue for the construction of a scientific method of pro- cedure in school finance. Growth of the Funds. Among the states developing large school funds at an early day we have some striking examples of the growth and operation of the funds. Connecticut by 1833 had a common school fund valued at $1,000,000, due to the "Connecticut Reserve" provided for in the Ordinance of 1787, New York set apart lands in 1786 for "Saline lands, swamp lands, Five Thousand Acre Grant, percentage of the proceeds of sales of lands. Surplus Revenue Fund, riparian lands, and so forth. See above pp. 35, 36. tVermont State School Eeport, 1906, p. 12. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 65 schools and in 1801 ordered 500,000 acres of vacant and unappro- priated lands sold and the receipts turned to the school funds. By 1821, the fund had increased to $1,155,827.40, and almost a million of acres remained unsold.* The fund at the present time amounts to $9,097,486. New Hampshiret, in 1821, provided for a half per cent tax on all bank capital in the State as fund for the support of a college. This fund, amounting to $64,000 in 1828, was dis- tributed to the towns for the common schools, and for other edu- cational purposes. Later other additions were made. New Hamp- shire now reports no permanent school fund. Maine, in 1821, ap- propriated the proceeds of tv^^enty townships of public land for education. In 1820 New Jersey provided for a fund from bank stock and from the funded debt of the State. Other states, such as Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Vermont, made no attempt to develop a school fund during this early period, depending upon legislative appropriation for support. Pennsyl- vania has never had any permanent school fund. Forty-four states are now reported* as having perman,ent school funds. Accurate knowledge of the sources of these funds perhaps would require us to eliminate some from the list.§ Omitting New Hampshire from the list, the amounts of state and local permanent school funds range from $83,902,16711 in Texas to $112,154 in New Mexico, The former, having the largest fund in aggregate and the second largest in proportion to population, tt spends but a very small amount per capita for educational purposes. Instances have been given where more school money was available from these funds for certain counties than was necessary for the support of the schools. In the light of the results incident to such experiences, and such as Connecticut in particular had with large permanent funds, real *Eeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1894-95, Vol. II. p. 1538 ; also 1892-93, Vol. II, p. 1330. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1898, No. 3, p. 15. JEeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1912, Vol. II, p. 35, Table 17. SiSTew Hampshire is reported as having a fund of $59,470, and an income of $40,404, though the Department of Public Instruction at Concord reports that the State has no permanent funds. The discrepancy is due to a lack of uni- form technique of expression concerning these funds. IIKeport for the year ending June, 1912. See p. 73 for 1914 report. ttNevada stands first in proportion to population. 6Q CO-OPERATIVE METHODS statesmanship was involved in the activity against the Federal bill of 1872 which provided for the distribution of all proceeds from sales of land to the several states for educational purposes. Louisiana has been a victim of circumstances'* more or less consist- ent with the history of the Southern States. It is in no sense implied that Louisiana lacked interest in her schools. She has compen- sated to a large degree for the diversion of the funds in 1872t by voting taxes to re-establish them. The evidence of her interest in this fund prior to the War is shown in the large amount accumu- lated, t The State had to contend with conditions incident to this period of reconstruction which was going on particularly in the South. There was general lawlessness on account of race troubles, which made difficult and oftentimes hazardous the protection of school; moneys, lying in the treasury, from robbery or misappropri- ation. Then, school lands vvere thrown upon the market and sold at public auction for a mere fraction, of their value; officers, not ahvays school officers, were paid too generous salaries; spoilationt in the diversion of the fund to pay the source mileage and per diem of the legislators was so flagrantly inconsistent with the spirit of good government that the Supreme Court denounced the act. Other states suffered similar spoilation.§ The total permanent school fund in the United States is re- ported II at $285,545,534, distributed among forty-four states, if Nev/ Hampshire is counted. Massachusetts, a state always in the forefront of educational progress, was one of the states to assume a conservative attitude toward the development of such a fund, pei'haps because 'of the flagrant evils incident to its establishment in Connecticut and elsewhere. She has not opposed the mainten- ance of such a fund but has attempted to keep it subordinate to efforts made through local taxation. In this she has expressed the "-•In 1872 the Free School Fuucl, amounting to more than $1,000,000 in bonds, was sold at public auction to pay mileage and per diem of legislators. See Report of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1894-1895, Vol. II, pp. 1303-1304. tibid. fU. S. Bureau of Educ, Crc. of Inf., 1898, No, 3, pp. 103, 104, ajid notes. §For a valuable discussion of the loss of funds in the various states, see Swift, Public Permanent Common School Funds in the United States, 1795- 1905, pp. 129-159. IIReport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1918, Vol. II, p. 35, Table 17. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 67 wisdom of experience. The permanent school fund in Massachusetts was not provided for until 1834. As early as 1647 taxation for the support of schools was permissive in that colony, and from 1827 has been compulsory. The establishment of the fund in Massachusetts therefore seems to have been due to a need of a greater centralization of control to correct evils peculiar to purely localized efforts and a demand for state initiative in correlating and co-ordinating educational agencies. The establishment of the permanent fund there was an advanced step and in no sense considered a scheme of relief from taxation.* Function and Distribution of the Funds. The function and distribution of the income of the permanent school funds are no clearer than are the purposes underlying them. The policies for the distribution of this income were not defined at first and in many cases the funds were not needed. An aggressive state like Massachusetts made taxation a condition, of participation in the income of these funds. In this there was progressive cliange as is evidenced in the several legislative acts. In 1865 any town or city, to share in this distribution, had to raise by local school tax at least three dollars for each inhabitant from five to fifteen years of age. In other states the lack of tax-supported schools made it a prob- lem to distribute the moneys accrued from these productive funds. Often the pupils in private schools far out-numbered the pupils in common schools. As late as 1860, Florida with a population of 140,000 had only ninety-seven public schools and an enrollment of 2,032 pupils though she had one hundred thirty academies and other schools with an attendance of 4,486. t That a portion of the $22,386, income from the school fund went to these private schools is not therefore surprising. Schools lands, during these early days, were largely under the control of wealthy men, and the income was distributed often in much the same way as were private benefactions. It was only as injustice became very flagrant that the legislatures did anything to conserve the fund. It is further reported concerning the funds *For a discussion of early school funds in Massachusetts, see Chapter I; also Jackson, The development of school support in Colonial Massachusetts. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Crc. of Inf., 1888, No. 7, pp. 19, 20. 68 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS in Florida that since "these officials (that is, County Commission- ers) were not required to account to anyone for their disposition of the fund, it generally happened that it was distributed among the teachers of private schools according as their necessities demand- ed.*" There was no common school system. It was hard under the circumstances associated with the operation of the funds to convince the people that such a system was needed, — a situation not at all peculiar to this state. In Indianat the income of permanent school funds was distribu- ted to denominational schools and to private associations which were conducting quasi-public schools. Owing in part to the intense loyalty to the private school and to denominational colleges, these came to be recognized as district schools, and therefore received their share of the public fund. Even Caleb Mills $ who as ' ' One of the People" literally accomplished the founding of an aggressive system of public schools was careful to give in his report § of Feb- ruary 11, 1856, a rather glowing tribute II to these colleges. How- ever, he was clear in his thought that many academies and semin- aries would be absorbed and assimilated into the system of public schools when it became sufficiently graded. Repeated instances could be given to show that no very intelligent thought was put into the establishment and distribution of perman- ent funds. Indiana is reportedtt to have had three counties, which *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1888, No. 7, p. 15. tEawles, Centralizing Tendencies in the Administration of Indiana, p. 33. $At the time professor in Wabash College. §Fourth Annual Eeport of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Indiana. See Am. J. Educ, Vol. 2, pp. 480-487. II" These faculties (in institutions, products of private associated enterprises) cherish a much more cordial interest in the advancement of popular education and have been a much more direct and effective agency in its real progress than the superficial observer supposes, or is disposed to acknowledge. Its history in Indiana vrould put such sapient souls to the blush, were the curtain withdrawn, that hides from public gaze the labors of these instructors in the recitation room and in the study, through the pulpit and the newspaper columns. The baccalaureate addresses of their five presidents for the last twenty years, delivered before popular assemblies, have accomplished more to rouse the public mind and give right direction in reference to its educational interests than the combined efforts of all the ignorant, prejudiced, self-con- ceited college croakers since the 'flood'." ttBoone, History of Education in Indiana, p. 196. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 69 never claimed their share of the Surplus Revenue Fund which was distributed to the organized counties for the support of the schools. The futility of efforts in Tennessee in behalf of public education is repeatedly illustrated in their seemingly careless atti- tude toward the disposition and utilization of school lands which amounted to hundreds of thousands of acres, — the "munificent benefaction'' from the Federal Government. Possibly the defeat of the proper utilization of these lands for a common school system was due wholly, — certainly for the most part, — to the "indeter- minable legislative wrangles brought on by the attempt of the common school public to utilize the national bounty for the child- ren. "* These wrangles "reveal the hostile elements in the eccles- iastical, social, and political centers of society that for eighty years postponed an effective organization of popular institutions for even the white children of the State. ' '* It seems therefore that the degree of efficiency in the operation of the fund in any state varied with the factors which could be only relatively constant. These factors would not appear in North Carolina as they would in Massachusetts or Minnesota. Some of these factors which are only relatively constant are expressed in the general progress and sentiment of the state, in the attitude of the state toward taxation, in the attitude of the state toward volun- tary systems of school support, in the size of the fund accumulated and in the attitude of the state toward its increase, in the relative stability of the population, in the resources of the state, in the political and social situations, and in many other ways more or less variable. Though it is true that many variable factors have been influen- tial in determining the distribution of these funds, yet there is evolving out of the uncertain methods of the past a consciousness of the presence of more or less constant factors. Gradually the permanent fund, together with the state tax, has come to be recog- nized fundamentally as a means of levelling educational opportun- ities upward and of equalizingt the burdens of support. This is *Eeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1895-1896, Vol. I, p. 313. tSee Cubberley, School Fimds and Their Apportionment, for an excellent review and discussion of the various methods of apportioning burdens and of distributing school funds. 70 'CO-OPERATIVE METHODS accompanied by a distribution on the basis of local need and effort. In this situation the fund is vital to educational progress by virtue of the interaction it initiates between the state and the constituent local units. The permanent school funds have been an excellent basis for the first establishment of the common school systems and a universal encouragement to local efforts, even though they have not always been administered most economically. Since the importance of establishing and conserving the per- manent funds depended upon the growth of the public school idea, and further since the public, tax-supported school though recog- nized as superior was competing with a popular scheme of private education, it is not difficult to see why the organization, the en- largement, the distribution, and the conservation of these funds were not given reasonable consideration. Even the most ardent promoters of the public school system had no clear notion of the value of these funds for correlating and co-ordinating educational means and methods. It has been sho'vvn how the sources of the funds varied and how almost every kind of source contributed to the funds. The size of the fund is not essentially a criterion of its effect- iveness, though under normal conditions states with large produc- tive funds would have an advantage over those with small funds in their efforts to promote a better system of common schools. How- ever, it must be remembered that the establishment and mainte- nance of a permanent school fund is not a sine qua non* of school support unless it has proved itself to be in the practical solution of the school support problem in certain states. The significance of the establishment and development of per- manent funds lies largely, therefore, in the effectiveness of the fund in securing co-operation of local units as a condition of partici- pation in the income from the fund. What is secured by state tax is substantially the same ; however, the state tax can hardly be said to have the same degree of permanency as a fund held in trust, the proceeds of which may be used for schools, and which is invested in bonds, as in Minnesota, or in other safe securities. On 'Pennsylvania accomplishes adequately the same purpose as the permanent fund by state tax and appropriation. For the year, 1908-1909, the sum of $7,262,500 was appropriated. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 71 the other hand unless the permanent fund stimulates local effort producing effectiveness in its operation its purpose would seem to be not only partially defeated, but even detrimental to wholesome progress. And further, unless the state became more than a mere agency for the distribution of the income on the basis of recognized standards of efficiency and administration, the fund would not be a potent factor in conserving the best for the present generation nor in adding some increment for future generations. Illustrations of Present Funds. Among the states which furnish typical illustrations of the estab- lishment, growth, sources, and distribution of permanent funds, a few may be cited. From a report* from the state of Minnesota from which the following is taken : ' ' The proceeds from the sale of pine and other timber, minerals and agricultural lands, in the past year have added the following amounts to our Permanent Trust Funds : ' ' Permanent School Fund .... $686,322.64 Permanent University Fund .... $29,009.17 Internal Improvement Land Fund . . 5,410.67 Swamp Land Fund ..... 372,091.88 Total $1,092,834.36 From the same report the condition of the Permanent School Fund was found to be as follows on July 31, 1911 : Accumulations Sales of lands $13,003,120.95 Amounts paid on forfeitures, Right of Way, etc 195,135.83 Sales of timber 6,170,835.23 Mineral permit and leases . . . 287,900.77 Royalty on iron ore . . . . . 1,670,331.29 Profits on sales of bonds .... 361,569.94 Total . . . .- . . . $21,688,894.01 ^Communication from the Auditor's office, 1911. 72 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS Investments Cash in State Treasury .... $ 347,885.30 Land Contracts (including $1,833,920.44 transferred internal improvement land contracts) 5,802,794.42 Bonds as follows : Alabama ($143,000), five per cent 140,755.00 Delaware, three per cent . . . 4,000.00 Louisiana, four per cent . . . 150,000.00 Massachusetts, three per cent . . 2,595,000.00 Massachusetts, three and one-half per cent 300,000.00 Minnesota Capitols, three and three and one-half per cent 800,000.00 Minnesota, cities, counties, townships, and school districts 9,727,029.29 Tennessee, four and one-half per cent 270,000.00 Utah, three and one-fourth per cent 100,000.00 Virginia ($1,635,000.00), three per cent 1,451,430.00 Total . . . . . . $21,688,894.01 It may be added that for years, 1912, 1913, and 1914, according to the State Auditor's report, the fund has increased by $2,977,354.- 58, since 1911, making a total fund on Aug. 1, 1914, of $24,668,- 248.59. The State of Missouri presents an interesting and valuable il- lustration of the administration of this fund. Sales of saline lands and accrued interest on the Surplus Revenue Deposit were the principal sources of increase for the funds for several years. In 1842 they amounted to $575,667.90. In 1859, $86,300 were appro- priated, out of State funds, to the ' ' Permanent School Fund. ' ' In 1861 the State School Funds were as follows according to the re- port indicated : Missouri Bank Stock $661,967.90 Missouri Bonds (Pacific R. R.) . . . 20,000.00 Total , . $681,967.90 OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 73 In 1901 the funds had accumulated to the amount of $12,890,- 758.40,* According to the reportt of the present superintendent, the school funds remain about the same as in 1901 with the ex- ception of the Township Fund which has been increased by $1,665,- 490.09, and the Special District Fund which had been increased by $53,036.32. The amount on hand, 1914, is $13,758,608.14, not including Seminary or University funds. In Texas the permanent school funds were reported in 1913 to be $83,902,167. The income from the permanent funds for the year ending August 31, 1909, was $2,555,257, more than forty-one per cent of the total school support for the year. Since 1913 there has been a reduction in the amount of permanent funds which the following report from that state for August 31, 1914, reveals: Bonds $18,204,363.78 Land Notes 46,067,427.58 Unsold Lands . . . . - . . 2,771,173.55 Cash on hand . 35,028.18 Total $68,077,993.09 The figures above do not include $1,172,817 worth of railroad bonds which are invalid and which were taken into account in the figures for 1913. The figures of 1913 take into account also the county permanent school fund amounting to twelve or thirteen millions of dollars. Then, a re-valuation of land has decreased the estimate of the value of unsold land. This state is mentioned because here we find a large school fund which is just now coming to be effective in promoting a more efficient system. The State Superintendent t appreciated this problem, especially as related to the problem of providing the right kind of education, the best quality of education, and of extending equal opportunity for all the children of the State. The only source of the school fund in South Dakota is the sale *See Report of the State Superintendent, 1901, pp. 33-39. tPersonal letter, 1911. +The State Superintendent's Report, 1911, for the period ending Aug. 31, 1910, pp. 7, 8. 74 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS of public lands granted to the State by Congress. This fund is invested in first mortgages on real estate and in municipal and school district bonds. The growth of this common school fund is typical of the newer states which have been able to profit by the unwise administration of funds in the earlier states. The growth has been rather uniform and constant :* 1893 1895 1897 1899 1,986,097.61 2,024,361.55 2,637,975.21 1901 3,905,931.82 1903 4,060,265.82 1905 4,638,171.72 1907 4,781,552.72 1909 6,037,212.32 1911 8,357,435.71 With the sale of the 2,456,965 acres remaining unsold, this state has a most excellent opportunity to perfect her school system through the operation of this fund; however South Dakota still distributes the income of the fund according to school population, "t Other states could be cited as expressing peculiarities of the origin, growth, and administration of these funds, such as INIichi- gan and Tennessee where in reality- the fund is a charge against the State, $ or Delaware where the fund is increased annually by Legislative appropriation, § or Virginia where the Literary Fund is increased by donations, and by all fines and escheats collected in the State, II or Arkansas where the fund will likely not increase at least for some time,tt or California where apportionment is made on the basis of number of teachers and average daily attendance. iJ However for our purpose the most vital function of permanent *Eeport of State Superintendent. tSchool Laws, 1911. tThe State Superintendent of Tennessee says that in reality there is no such fund, rather a certificate of indebtedness. §Report of the State Auditor. IIReport of the State Superintendent, ttlbid. ttSchool Laws, 1909, pp. 133-136. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 75 funds appears to be the effect of the funds upon the development of the state system incident to the various methods of school sup- port already in operation, and especially in their interaction upon school support by taxation. Taxation The problem of securing an accurate and adequate notion of the early beginnings of taxation for schools though fascinating and valuable is often baffling and uncertain. In its beginning taxation for public schools was involved intimately and intricately with other means, and therefore the history of taxation presents a tangled web. It is unsafe to conclude that because taxation vf as permitted in the seventeenth century among the colonies or was made obligatory during the early half of the nineteenth century among several states, the notion of taxation was general during these early years. An adequate account of the growth of this notion would involve a discussion of the interacting influences of school support. The purpose here is rather to present certain typical and suggestive situations out of which comes a better un- derstanding of the importance of taxation as a means of supporting schools. Taxation was recognized clearly in the colonies, but largely as supplementary to other sources, or as a scheme of providing for the children of the poor. To overcome these notions it has required patience and time. Public sentiment had to be trained to an ap- preciation of the obligations resting upon all for the welfare of each. Since great spontaneity had been expressed for so long a time in private and philanthropic endeavor, it v/as a gradual, though inevitable, change that came to substitute the tax for the miscellaneous methods of voluntary systems. Thus the notion of taxation for schools grew out of the methods of voluntary systems when social demands showed the necessity of a reconstruction and of a dependence upon more reliable and constant sources. With the rise of state systems the income of permanent school funds figured as an important item in the funds of school support. In this respect it seems as if taxation were an expression of effort harmonizing the two aspects of responsibility for the education of youth; the activity of the state, expressed in. the growth and de- 76 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS velopment of the permanent funds, and the interest of local com- munities expressed in benefactions, gifts, tuition, appropriations, and so forth. Taxation has had a vital meaning in relation, to both aspects of support. Each state made its own evaluations of the various available sources of support but taxation finally came to be appreciated as the backbone of such support. The objection to taxation, — and considered a fundamental one, — that education, was a private benefit and as such should be supported by those receiving the benefits, was formidable and effective for a long time and has not been fully met by popular sentiment even yet. That wealth should be taxed for the education of the children of the citizens was a principle felt to be incompatible with democ- racy. There is some objection to the principle in. certain states and in most states there is an ultra-conservative attitude toward increasing taxation to meet the new educational demands in the modern school. The open hostility of a century ago does not sur- prise us when, it is noted that in 1910 practically ten per cent of the revenue derived from state common school systems came from miscellaneous sources of which tuitions and private subscriptions were a large part,* and still amounts to practically seven per cent.t Purposes of Taxation The perpetuation of democracy in the spirit of which the spon- taneity of American life was born was a fundamental purpose in the evolution of taxation. Though the notion was not appreciated by the masses the leaders were fully aware that the evils of democ- racy could be prevented only by a democracy of a higher order wherein the good of all became an obligation upon the states. Legislation permitting taxation for schools accords with the early notion of democracy and was sufficient until the diversity of life demanded the direction and co-ordination of the agencies of edu- cation. The general acceptance of this type of democracy* ex- plains largely how certain local communities could justify the dis- tribution of permanent funds to private teachers or why certain *Eeport of the U. S. Com. of Educ, 1910, Vol. II, p. 699. tlbid, 1913, Vol. II, p. 31. JA main argument advanced in many places yet for maintaining the district system of administration is that it is the most democratic. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 77 communities failed to desire to participate in these funds* or why the income from permanent funds was distributed to denomina- tional colleges and to private institutions, as district schools. Permissive taxation by legislative act was a necessary step in the progress of tax-supported schools. The order of the General Court of Massachusetts in 1647 permitting taxation was effective largely because of the democracy which the Massachusetts Town Meeting expressed. In 1827, when ]\Iassachusetts realized the need of a more adequate correlation and uniformity within the state, a lawt was passed requiring the employment of teachers in towns of fifty families, and authorizing the towns to raise by tax any amount of money they might think necessary to support the schools properly. This compulsion was a step removed from the kind of democracy exhibited in the first instance. However, compulsory taxation was a step toward a democracy of a higher order. A second purpose illustrated in the beginnings of taxation for public education was that of increasing the support fund. It was common to found schools with considerable generosity, but to pro- vide no adeqate support for their continued maintenance. Such neglect or indifference is still manifest. The increase of the support fund* which is asked for universally by school men is demanded from two directions ; the adding of new departments to the system, and the extension of the term of school so that pupils may be fur- nished an enriched course of study. The leaders among the first settlers of Kentucky were men of more than average intelligence, and yet the public school system did not become firmly established until after 1850. This is accounted for in the fact that as early as 1800 more than thirty seminaries and academies were incor- porated and in the further fact that the State established a system of county academies to each of which 6,000 acres of public lands were granted and to which after 1820 all fines and forfeitures in the several counties were appropriated. During the period of 1830 to 1850, all demoninations sought to plant colleges within the State *See above, pp. 67, 68. tSee Am. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 269. ?See report of an address by Supt. Francis G. Blair, given at San Fran- cisco, July 1911, on Progress in Public Education. Addresses and Proceed- ings, N. E A., 1911, pp. 146-155. 78 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS with the result that almost all of them, unprovided with endowment funds, sought to rely mainly upon tuition fees for their support. This is the most important explanation of the checkered career of many of these colleges.* The first effort, in 1821, to establish a system of schools in Kentucky failed but in 1825 a system of private schools was provided for by an act incorporating any group of persons not less than five, who might "choose to associate together to establish a school in their neighborhood for the sake of having their children educated - - - "t The system of academies failed, from the point of view of well-discerning men ; some were taken over as high schools; some remained academies; others be- came colleges. The idea of a public school system was opposed by a sentiment inherited from the Mother State.$ They were "relying on colleges, academies, and private tutors for families who could pay, and making no general provision for common schools until 1821, when a Literary Fund v/as established out of one-half of the clear profits of the Bank of the Commonwealth. " § By the law of 1838 a tax of two cents, which was later increased to three cents, was levied on every one hundred dollars of taxable property in the state. This was designed to "encourage'' the citizens to maintain schools. The continued dependence upon rate bills prevented a rapid growth of the notion of support by taxation. On the other hand, states with less extensive provision for edu- cation from private or philanthropic sources came to be more sym- pathetic with the notion of taxation. In these states pupils of poor parents were less fortunate since they were not provided for so largely by ecclesiastical or philanthropic societies. The first schools furnishing educational privileges to the children of the indigent came to be regarded as "Pauper" schools. This is due largely to the fact that the money appropriated was not adequate to make it either possible or desirable for the wealthy classes to use these schools. For example, in the State of South Carolina the earliest efforts to establish "free" schools were left to private initiative *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1891, No. 3, Chapter I, pp. 11-20. tAm. J. Educ, Vol. 24, pp. 253-256. ^Virginia. §Am. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 253. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 79 and it was the definite policy of the State to leave elementary education to the concern of private and parochial effort. Public education in spite of the handicap of public sentiment gained some recognition there. However, the act which stigmatized public education in South Carolina was passed in 1811 when a school fund was established concerning the distribution of v/hich it was provided that in. case the fund was inadequate for all classes preference was to be given to the poor.* The act established free schools in each district and parish. The sum of three hundred dollars per annum was voted to each school and no school was to be established until the neighbor- hood had built the schoolhouse. In spite of the unfortunate refer- ence to "preference being given to poor orphans and children of indigent parents" one hundred and twenty-three schools were es- tablished the first year.t The fund appropriated "was entirely absorbed by the preferred class. The rich were excluded and the schools, as far as they were independent institutions, degenerated into pauper schools."? An increase of appropriation failed to remedy the matter. In 1854 a demonstration of a real public school, — according with the notions of Mr. Barnard whose influence had been felt in so many states, — was made in Charleston under the direction of Hon. C. C. Memminger. As a result of this demon- stration, the State provided in 1868 for a system of free public schools throughout the State for a term of at least six months in each district, t Caleb Mills, in his report of 1856, appeals for additional taxes that the school term might be free six months instead of three. He points out the fact that the slight increase of taxes would be practically unnoticed. He says, "We have shown from data that cannot be questioned, that more than one-half of the tax payers of this commonwealth pa}^ on, $500 and less, and more than two- thirds pay on $1000 and less. Thus it appears that an additional three months' free school -would cost the aforesaid one-half of our citizens from one cent to one dollar, and that none of the above two-thirds would have to pay more than two dollars. This would *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1888, No. 3, pp. 111-112. tAm. J. Edue., A^ol. 24, p. 317. «bid, p. 318. 80 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS be the expense of the supplementary three months' free school to the above named jjortion, of tax payers - - - .* A majority of the above-described two-thirds Avould be subjected to the expense of from five to fifteen dollars to maintain, in a three months' sub- scription school, the same children that had attended the free school a like period. Either the parents' pockets or the children's' intellectual culture must suffer by the failure to provide means for a six months' free school in the rural portions of the common- wealth, "t This illustrates the struggle necessary to secure an in- crease of tax in order to maintain a free public school for a longer period. It is another step toward equalizing the bu,rdens of school support by taxing wealth. A third purpose is seen in the voting of the tax in order to secure participation in the income of the permanent school funds. It is evident that some states looked to the permanent school fund for a large measure of support, other states accepted the funds as an "encouragement''. In either case the sentiment was reflected in terms of local history and policy. The grants of land made by Congress stimulated some states to local taxation, others only to the extent of making them use the income of the funds. Arkansas provided for the use of the school funds as early as 1836, a trustee for them having been appointed by the legislature in 1829; but as late as 1854 only forty public schools were to be found. The establishment of the tax came in the Common School Law of 1866- 1867 when the inadequacy of the old methods was fully recognized. The act of 1843 provided for the support of schools from the in- terest on the school fund derived from the sales of land supplement- ed by subscriptions. An appropriation of one thousand dollars was made for the purchase of books for the use of the common schools, t In Iowa the school fund was alAvays considered an ''encourage- ment ' ' for schools. A per capita tax was for a long time recognized as the main source of income. The evils in the loAva system w^ere *The assessment was one mill on a dollar of property, and fifty cents on the poll. Am J. Educ, Vol. 2., p. 486. tFourth Annual Eeport of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Indiana, February 11, 1856. See Am. J. Educ, Vol. 2, pp. 480-488. iV. S. Bureau of Educ, Crc. of Inf., 1900, No. 1, pp. 11-22. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 81 not due to any erroneous notion held concerning the use of the permanent funds but rather to an overworking of the per capita tax against which several governors lodged vehement complaint. The attitude in Iowa was to use the fund and supplement it by subscription. The arguments against the rata system were argu- ments in favor of taxation ; and these were similar to those of other states. To lessen the burdens of subscribers and thereby to relieve the poor was a fundamental argument against the rate system and in favor of the taxation, of wealth for the support of schools. Participation in the income of the permanent school fund upon condition that local communities make a specified and definite effort in behalf of schools was a late development. Taxation was promoted when the conditions of participation in the income of permanent funds came to be imposed. In these examples another purpose is clear, namely, that the integrity of the state demanded a lessening of the burdens of per capita taxation and the assumption of state obligation for the education of rich and poor alike. It was clear that in many in- stances the evils incident to the promotion of private schools were tending to disrupt the spontaneous co-operation characteristic of earlier history. Mr. Paul K. Hubbs in the Fifth Annual Report* of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for Californiat says: "The Superintendent has no adequate power under the existing law to check, as should be done, any sectarian bias or control exercised upon the public schools. A sectarian war is in embryo, which if not quieted at once, will, combined with other causes, produce a lingering death, slowly but surely, to popular education in this State. The rejection of well qualified teachers at one time, because of their religious faith, produces a reacting opposite ex- treme at another time, and the whole catalogue of sects become excited to have their own churches as school houses. This is all wrong and the result will be disastrous." It is to be noted, how- ever, that in the same report a recommendation was made for a liberal appropriation of state money to three denominational col- leges which had been established. This shows the appreciation ^January 17, 1856. tAm. J. Educ, Vol. 2, p. 468. 82 CO-OPEEATIVE METHODS usually held for the ' ' good men of our land ' ' who were disposed to rear these colleges. Repeated instances of this kind support our for- mer contentions; first, that taxation was delayed by such private efforts ; and second, that taxation of all wealth was essential to pre- vent just such evils of aggresive factional interests. It is unecessary to show that support by taxation at this time was not thought of as a possible substitute for private support but rather a supplement of private endeavor. Methods and Means op Taxation. The Rate System : — The acceptance of fees for the services of instruction is an old custom which, to the Egyptians, to the Greeks, to the early Christians, and to others, was extremely odious. Plato held that to teach for money was simony. It is evident that gifts constituted practically all of the sources of support of the first schools of Athens. The gift was an expression of good will. Grad- ually it came to be displaced by the fee. This change may be attri- buted to the growing complexity of social life which came to deter- mine what constituted a proper gift. A proper gift in the light of any social group was essentially a fee. In our country the gift and benefaction supplied the wants of the teacher who was at the same time the minister of the Gospel or an apprentice who was waiting for a call to some church. The strength and persistency of this notion of supporting schools by gift, then by fee or tuition, are due largely to the attitude of the people toward the teaching function. It was a religious function and in that sense was definitely an expresion of love and regard for youth. It was an expression of obligation. To ask even a fee meant the establishment of an objective standard of value upon what, they thought, could not be evaluated objectively. * It Avas from such a point of view that support was given as ' ' encouragement ' ', and not as a measured equivalent of service rendered. The ideas of gift, of fee or tuition, of self assessment, of bene- *Cf. Plato's view with the sentiment among the colonists; also note the position of Isocrates who thought that exacting fees was an expression of a lack of confidence in the recipient 's character, though the recipient was compelled to trust the teacher. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 83 faction, are but varied expressions of the same tendency. The func- tion of these sources of support is not always fully appreciated but ample evidence is found throughout this study of the persistency of voluntary support in education even j^et. To eliminate the rate- system which was a system of pei' capita tax meant the modifica- tion of this voluntary system, and further it became the first step preliminary to the acceptance of the notion that the education of a people must be supported by the income from the taxation of wealth. The idea of benevolence in education was born Avith the nation itself. In Connecticut* as early as 1795, "school districts were authorized to lay a tax to build a school house and procure a site ' ', but the ex- pense above the income of school funds Avere to be met by rate. This was provided in the law of 1810. Parents paid according to the total number of days' attendance of their children. This method had been used from the organization of the Colony, but at this time it was recognized as a s.Ystem. Such a scheme was quite in accord with the notion of promoting education through ecclesias- tical societies, also provided for by law in 1799 and not abolished until 1856. The abolition of the system of Ecclesiastical Societies was a part of the growing tendency to shift the obligation of pro- viding schools to the towns. Though attempts were made to regu- late the rates of tuition according to the grades of schools, nothing was definitely accomplished until 1868 when the town tax was raised to such an amount that it would be unnecesary to require rates any longer.* An analysis of the school support fund in the report of Superin- tendent John D. Philbrick for May, 1856, shows that by the rate system $31,839 were collected for the support of schools that yeai", and $13,603 were contributed by the Ecclesiastical Societies, making a total of $45,442. When it is noted that several laws had been passed prior to this time providing for taxation of wealth this seems to be a large sum. Over $70,000 were raised by the one per cent tax, and over $11,000 from local funds. The rate system in New York was effected in the law of 1814 for the purpose of providing for the deficiency in means to pay the *Ain. J. Educ, Vol. 24, pp. 233 ff. 84 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS wages of the teachers. It was not abolished till 1849 when such de- ficiency was to be provided for by district tax. In Michigan rates were charged till 1869 and, as late as 1853, the amount raised in this manner approximated $38,000. At this time, provision was made for three methods of taxation, the two-mill township tax, the district tax, and the rate tax. The rate tax realized over forty- seven per cent of the income derived from these three sources * In North Carolina it is reported' that in 1840 there were 632 subscription schools. Provision was made in the State constitution for schools whose masters were to be paid by the public so that they could teach at low prices.* This was compulsory provision and "paid by the public'' was a significant expression. The voluntary system in Ohio, the free schools for the poor established by constitutional act in Missouri, the payment of the tuition of the poor by the county commissioners in Pennsylvania, the proposal of the voluntary system in Virginia and in other states, illustrate the importance of voluntary schemes among the earlier settlers of the states and indicate its vital relation to taxa- tion. In New York the progressive injustice of the rate system brought about its abolition and the substitution of local taxation. In Connecticut the attempts to graduate the tuition resulted finally in the abolition of the system. In all cases to give up the rate system meant to take up the tax system. This is the struggle which went on everywhere. Though we read of early provisions for taxation for the support of schools in Iowa yet progress was slow. In 1856 Governor James W. Grimes made an appeal for the improvement of the public school system. § In his message to the seventh General Assembly, two days before Hon. Ralph P. Lowe was installed into office, January 12, 1856, he made his last official appeal for public taxation and for the abolition of the rate system.il In March following, the report of a commis- *See Review of Shearman's report in Am. J. Educ, Vol. 2, p. 510. tSee Am J. Educ, Vol. 2, pp. 527-530 for the report of Mr. C. E. Wiley, General Superintendent. JSee Am. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 300. §U. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1893, No. 6, p. 27 fP. II" I cannot forbear repeating the opinion expressed to the General Assembly three years ago, that 'the public schools should be supported by taxation of OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 85 sion in the form of a bill became a law, among the provisions of which were the abandonment of the rate system and the substitu- tion of a public tax for it.* Iowa had depended too long upon the rate system probably due to the abundance of private and denomi- national schools in the state which were supported voluntarily. These illustrations are ample to show that there has taken place a gradual shifting from the private and philanthropic to the public and scientific schemes of support. Even yet it cannot be said that the transition has been fully made. Kentucky has already been mentionedt in this connection. Georgia, for the year, 1908-1909 had on an average 132 days of school but only 105 days were maintained from public funds, the remaining twenty-seven being provided for by subscription. J Many of the Southern States, back- ward in state systems, still co-operate in this way. The "absence of local taxation in certain states of the South outside of the cities must not be taken for evidence that the community makes no effort in its own behalf. "§ Though voluntary contributions are too unstable for permanency, yet it must be recognized that they have been an effective source of revenue for the schools during these early formative days. Participation in Income of Permanent Funds: — In the gradual shifting toward taxation, the question of the distribution of the income became a vital one. The free use of productive funds and the rate system created a tendency in many instances toward self- satisfaction, and indifference to public taxation. Connecticut pre- sents such a situation. It is remembered that according to the act of 1810 the expenses of keeping school in the district "above the property, and that the present rate system, or per capita tax upon scholars, should be abolished.' I have seen no reason to change my opinion on this subject, but on the contrary, I have been every day more and more strength- ened in the conviction that it is the only wise and politic method of educating the people. The per capita system is based ujDon the idea that education is a personal benefit for which those who receive it should pay. While the true theory of popular education is that it is a public benefit for which the public should pay." William Salter in the Life of James W. Grimes, p. 104. *U. S. Bureau of Educ, Cire. of Inf., 1893, No. 6, p. 27 ff. tSee above, p. 61. tV. S. Com. of Educ, Vol. II, 1910, p. 674. §Ibid, p. 666. 86 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS amount of public money was apportioned according to the number of days' attendance of each person at school,"* and further that in 1820 an act was passed which called for an "appropriation of $2 upon every $1,000 of the tax list of every school society (the regular State tax for schools)", until such time as the income from the school fund amounted to $62,000. It did this the follow- ing year and began at once to work harm to the towns by relieving them of effort in behalf of their schools, t In no other state was this danger quite so imminent since in other states there was evidence of rational schemes of safeguarding the use of this income. In Massachusetts provision was made in the school revision of 1836 that "No apportionment of the income of the school fund could be paid to any town which had not made the return required by law, or raised by taxation, for the wages of teachers only, a sum equal to one dollar for each person belonging to such town betwen the ages of 4 and 16." Seven years before, New Jersey provided by act for the first distribution of her school funds. "By this act towns were authorized to raise money to sup- port schools by tax. "J and were to raise a "sufficient" sum to entitle it to a share in the funds. Ten years later the towns were re- quired "to raise a specified sum every year", though schools were not till 1871. § It was the recommendation of a commission appointed in the State of New York in 1811 "that the interest of the school fund be divided among the different counties and towns, according to their respec- tive population, ; that the proportions received by the re- spective towns be subdivided among the districts into which such shall de divided, according to the number of children in each, - - ; that each town raise by tax, annually, as much money as it shall have received from the school fund . " II This plan was adopted in the act of 1812 and the levy was made through the assessment of a county tax. Any deficiency over and above these funds was met by the rate system up to its abolition in 1849. *Am. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 234. tibid. JIbid, p. 290. §Act providing for a state tax of two mills on the valuation. IIAm. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 293. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 87 Mr. Breekenridge, Superintendent of Public Instruction for Kentucky from 1847 to 1852, is reported* as saying in substance that the granting of aid to schools should be made a condition by which the patrons could be induced to continue the improvement of their schools. He favored providing only as much money as would enable the people by their own efforts to keep up the public school. This sounds like modern educational doctrine on school support. The mode of distributing the money in 1852 did not make taxation obligatory. The funds were to be raised in any manner local communities might desire. Subscription schools were popular and, as late as 1902-1903, the sum of $14,094.13 was raised by subscriptions and $16,904.47 additional by tuition and other sour- ces, t and even in 1908-1909, $28,568.35 were raised in subscrip- tions and donations with $26,888.06 additional from tuition.* The evolution of the tax as a substitute for subscription and tuition in whole or in part has been extremely slow in Kentucky, Illinois, according to the law of 1855, restricted the distribution of the state or local moneys to such schools as were kept for a period of at least six months and which were opened for the ' ' equal and free instruction of all persons". In Missouri provision was made in the constitution of 1865 that no township could receive a portion of the school funds unless a three months ' free school had been kept in the township. Appropriations: — When the democracy of a people has reached its highest level the state participates both in the regulation and in the support of schools. The interaction of the factors of regula- tion and of support constitutes an essential condition of the state's integrity amidst the growing complexities of modem life. It has been shown that the state in assuming the obligation of direction and support seeks to prevent two main evils: first, the inefficiency and waste due to undirected or misdirected local initiative; and second, the niggardliness of certain local communities toward the *Anmial Eeport of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, submitted by Rev. J. D. Mathews, 1856. See Am. J. Educ, Vol. 2, pp. 488-489. tReport of the Superintendent of PubKc Instruction of Kentucky, 1901-1903, pp. 360-361. tReport of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of Kentucky, 1908-1909, pp. 153-170. 88 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS question of adequate school support. The notion of tax-supported schools illustrated in most of the colonies gradually enriched itself with the coming of differentiation and diversity in life, which freedom and independence brought. In the Annual Report for 1855 of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of New York Mr. Victor M. Rice reported $800,000 received from the State as appropriation. This amount was provided for the support of schools by the law of 1851. Two points were involved: first, "That the money should be raised by the contributions of every citizen in proportion to his property and irrespective of his location ' ' ; and, second ' ' That it should be distributed and expended in the various districts of the State, in proportion to the result to be accomplished therein, that is, to the number of children of the age deemed suitable for primary in- struction." Recent appeals for an equal apportionment of the tax burden on the basis of wealth and a more equitable distribution on the basis of need and effort echo the spirit of the New York law of 1851. Mr. Rice* in commenting upon the law says, "It surely could not be deemed advisable to return to each county the amount raised by its own taxation to be devoted exclusively to its own schools." For this "would tend to exaggerate the disparity already suffi- ciently striking between the highly civilized and the comparatively rude districts." He further says in the same connection that, "The tax, being founded upon a recognized necessity, should vary with the needs it is intended to supply. These are directly appre- ciable by an enumeration of the children to be instructed and the ability to pay by the assessed valuation of the property. Any fixed sum is adapted to the circumstances only of a stationary State." Twenty years later, it is reported, t that the sum of $2,- 610,784 was raised by miU tax for the support of the common school system. In New Jersey the income of the school fund created in 1816 was distributed under the act of 1829 on the basis of local support by tax. Though the local tax was not obligatory, it was fairly effective and was made compulsory about ten years later. How- *Am. J. Educ, Vol. 2, p. 519. tAm. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 297. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 89 ever, in 1871, the schools were made free by a state school tax of 2 mills on the valuation.* In the report of Superintendent Philips, 1856, $80,000 were raised in New Jersey by public appro- priation in addition to other taxes. Though the North Central States have done little through the state tax, yet Michigan has come to raise a large portion of her school money in this way. In 1908-1909, an aggregate of $4,848,- 130 was raised in this manner, making about forty per cent of the entire revenue. Michigan had for her first settlers a class of peo- ple known for their espousal of the principle of public education. Many of the framers of the first constitution were students and graduates of New England academies and colleges. "Young pro- fessional men of good education, allured by tales of healthy breezes or attracted by the stir and excitement of western settlement, some- times found their way to a cabin in Michigan. . At one time, we are told that it seemed as if all New England were on the point of moving westward, "t From 1827 onward vigorous efforts were made in behalf of popular education. Taxation was provided for by. the state. The tax was levied and collected through the ma- chinery of the township. In 1853 this tax was two mills on each dol- lar of valuation. It must be remembered that at this time there was a district tax and that the rate system was still in operation. These illustrations suffice to show that at a very early date definite efforts were made to disseminate learning through the agency of the state. Local taxes had received general authorization. During the past fifty years state taxes have been given a more generous reception in the sentiment of the states. Extension and enrich- ment of courses have called out more and more of state appropria- tion and tax. Only four states have no state tax at the present time, according to the 1913 report of the United States Commis- sioner of education. t Local taxes :§ — Under local taxes may be included all taxation not provided for through the state directly. Sometimes the tax has *Am. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 297. tU. S. Bureau of Educ, Circ. of Inf., 1891, No. 4, p. 12. tSouth Dakota, Idaho, Oklahoma, and Oregon. §The various reports of the American Journal of Education have been drawn upon liberally for much of the material in this section. 90 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS been levied by the county, sometimes by the township, and some- times by the districts. Not seldom, even in this early period, was a combination of these methods used. The district tax was the first step removed from the private or philanthropic nlethod of support. The need for a more equal distribution of the tax burden has re- sulted in extending the boundaries of the taxing unit, so that the wealthy may assist the less fortunate.* The next step was the township tax. It meant that the people of the township began to pool their efforts in behalf of schools. As long as the sentiment of the community permitted the assessment of the tax upon the resi- dents of a district according to the individual advantages secured the inequalities from the standpoint of wealth were not noticed ; but when the burden of school support shifted from the shoulders of the parents to the school community the inequality became objectiona- ble, t The first knowledge of this inequality resulted from a compari- son of towns in the state with reference to state welfare, particularly concerning political and civil organization. When the inequalities appeared in these connections, they sooner or later appeared in connection with the inequalities of taxation for schools. To remedy these conditions larger taxing units were formed. The movement toward larger units of organization has been gradual and inevitable. The group of select families yielded to the district, the district to the town, the town to the county ; and recent tendencies show a striking greater dependence upon the state as a taxing unit. The order given has not been followed chronologically in the states, but in general it characterizes the tendency toward large units. The close relation of private support to public support has been pointed out. However, it may be added that donations, bequests, and endowments have found their way with the local tax into lo- cal support funds. The early attitude was to solicit donations as well as to be recipient of them. One, Henry Todd, in the State of Massachusetts gave $10,000 for a normal school to promote the training of teachers. For the instruction of juvenile offenders in the same state, Theodore Lyman provided in, part by gratuity. "See above, p. 88. tS«e Cubberley, School Funds and Their Apportionment, pp. 42-43, for illustrations of inequalities in Connecticut. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 91 Ninety academies, or more, in the State of New York established by private enterprise were assimilated into the general system of pub- lic schools by the Union Free School Act of 1853. These illustra- tions are evidence of co-operation among the agencies of school sup- port. It is our purpose to mention a few beginnings in the establish- ment of tax funds in the several states, to show the early apprecia- tion of the necessity of taxing wealth for the support of education for all citizens of the state, and further to point out the expediency of providing funds by tax to supplement the efforts of the several agencies co-operating in behalf of universal education. It has been mentioned repeatedly how the states recapitulated the methods of the colonies. Constant reference to colonial history is necessary in order to appreciate the efforts in the states. New York, in 1812, required local communities to raise by tax as much money as they had received from the school funds of the state. At first the tax was optional, but it soon became obligatory. In the abolition of the rate system in 1849, the district tax was provided to take its place. By 1854-1855, the aggregate of $691,687.94 was raised by tax for teachers' wages in the cities, villages, and union free schools. In 1872 it was reported that a sum approximating $7,000,000 was raised by local tax in the state. The first provisions in Pennsylvania for taxation in behalf of education were made for the education of the poor. In a law passed in 1819, it was provided that the poor be assisted in support- ing schools b}^ public tax. Maine provided in her constitution, 1820, for the support of her schools at the expense of the towns, and en- acted a law the following year requiring the raising of forty cents for each inhabitant. The tax was raised to fifty cents in 1853. The method of collecting the taxes was left to the local communities. The town of Newport, Rhode Island, was authorized by the special act of 1825 to raise money by tax for the support of free schools, and three years later all towns were authorized by state act to raise a maximum tax "not exceeding in any one year twice the amount received from the State."* Other special acts supplemented these so that by 1872 the sum of $309,578 was reported to have been raised by the towns and $59,722 by the districts. The amounts raised by *Not more than $10,000 in any one year. 92 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS the towns were voted in each case by the people. Massachusetts, from whose history we have drawn so freely, au- thorized all towns in 1827 to raise by tax such sums as were con- sidered necessary for the support of schools, and in 1836, she re- quired the people to raise a sum for teachers equal to one dollar for each person of the town between the ages of four and sixteen. This requirement was raised, in 1872, to one dollar and fifty cents for each person between five and fifteen. In 1865 no towns could receive any portion of the annual income of the state school fund unless it had raised by taxation a sum equal to three dollars for each person in the town between five and fifteen years. New Jersey, in 1829, required the raising of a sum for school sup- port as a condition of receiving the income from the school fund. The sum of $258,158.30 was reported to have been raised by tax as early as 1856. In Connecticut, at the same time, the organization, of the school system centered in School Societies. By the act of 1854 "the tovms were required to raise by taxation a sum equal to one cent on. the dollar on their grand lists - - for the support of schools and to dis- tribute the amount to the several school societies within the towns. ' '* Two years later, these societies were abolished and the obligation of supporting schools was transferred to the towns. According to the constitution of the State of Georgia, 1777, schools were to be provided in each county at the general expense of the State. One thousand acres of land were given to each county for the support of free schools and one thousand pounds for the endowment of an academy in each county. These provisions initi- ated what is known as the "Poor School System" which took its rise in the act of July 31, 1783. t Not until 1870 was there a sys- tem of free schools. It w^as incorporated in the constitution that the expenses of the system should be met by taxation or otherwise. North Carolina, in 1838, passed an act laying off the State into school districts, giving counties the privilege of deciding whether or not they cared to establish schools. ' ' The act embraced the plan of requiring each county to raise one dollar for every two doUars distributed by the literary board." By 1841 this act was in full *Am. J. Educ, Vol. 24, p. 236. tU. S. Bureai^ of Educ, Cire. of Inf., 1888, No. 4, p. 24 OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 93 operation. In West Virginia tlie support of schools Avas provided by a capi- tation tax of one dollar on each male inhabitant over twenty-one years, and b}^ a property tax of ten cents on every one hundred dollars of taxable property. Louisiana was one of the most aggressive of the Southern States. She accumulated a large school fund which was sold at auction in the troublous times of war. The annual state appropriation of $800 to each parish, or county, was supplemented as early as 1821 by a voluntary local tax upon the property of the parish. The local tax was especially effective in New Orleans. Other South Central States followed the method of Louisiana by assuming a voluntary tax. Among these Kentucky and Tennessee may be men- tioned particularly though in both of these states voluntary sys- tems prevented the recognition of public supported education. Among the North Central States, local taxes developed earliest; however, Michigan and Indiana have emphasized the importance of the state tax and have reported proportionally large amounts from this source. At the present time less than ten per cent of the entire revenues for school maintenance in this section of states comes from state taxes, and more that seventy-five per cent comes from local taxes. Ohio, in 1837-1838, had a county tax of two mills for the support of schools, and had provided for the erection of school buildings by district taxation. Though Indiana espoused the principle of local taxation early, yet Caleb Mills* was compelled to react strenuously against prevalent opposition to local taxation in 1856. At this time the assessment was one mill on a dollar of property and fifty cents on a poll.t Illinois enacted a local tax in 1855, Mr. Edwards* reporting in 1854, for ninety-seven counties, the receipt of $42,705 from this tax. Minnesota had a township tax by constitutional act in 1850. Michigan established a system of local taxation which was operating in 1853. SUMMARY. The history of the beginnings of state systems, and the evolution of methods of school support reveal a progressive reconstraction '■'Superintendent of Public Instruction. tSee Am. J. Educ, Vol. 2, p. 486. of the old colonial methods. This reconstruction was determined by the appreciation of the growing disparity between public and private schools, on the one hand, and by the demand for unanimity of action on the new problems of government, of industry, of society, and of religion, on the other. Certain well defined steps have been pointed out to show how gradually the transition has been made from the earliest types of private support to the highest forms of tax-supported schools, now found in our democratic society. During this transition, permanent school funds were developed, the purposes, sources, and factors of which, we have shown to have been connected in a vital way with the Federal Government in the promotion of state expansion. This consciousness of a need of progressive change in methods of school support was turned to an evaluation of the medley of methods already operating in a more or less hap-hazard manner. In this process of evaluation, the semblance of a scientific procedure was constructed in which the income of permanent funds, state taxes, local taxes, and private benefactions and fees, were recog- nized as essential elements. The history of school progress has made it clear that among these elements the method of taxation is the only dependable and fairly constant element. It is the back- bone of school support, since it is the only method that can be de- pended upon to promote democracy. The only source of constant and consistent increase of school support, and the only way of realizing our national ideals is to tax the wealth of the country for the support of schools for the children of all the citizens of the country. A STATISTICAL STUDY FOR SPECIFIC PERIODS IN THE GROWTH AND ANALYSIS OF INCOME FUNDS "The increased cost of living and the steady increasing number and scope of educational activities have rendered it necesary that larger expenditures be made for schools than in the past ; it there- fore becomes imperative that aU communities in the nation recog- nize, as many have already done, that more money must be contrib- uted and expended for schools, both locally and by the State, if our young people are to have that kind and quality of education demanded by the times." — Declaration of the National Education Association, San Francisco July, 1911. Intkoduction. The slow process of collecting statistics concerning the opera- tions of state school systems is somewhat tedious and uncertain. Since each state has a public school system of its own and is not in any way controlled by Federal authority, such reports as are re- ceived through the Bureau of Education are wholly voluntary. In spite of this evident handicap, the Government has been able to do excellent service in the compilation of statistics from these volun- tary sources. Though there is sufficient uniformity in the states to justify comparison, yet the student must be aware of the strong points wherein they differ in order to prevent unwarranted conclu- sions. In this study the writer is fully conscious of the inadequacy of the statistics to reveal exact conditions and facts, since the statis- tics are never quite complete and often not entirely correct. How- ever, certain definite tendencies in the growth, in the differentia- tioUj and in the sources of the support funds can be pointed out with reasonable certainty. For the most part the reports of the United States Commissioner of Education have been drawn upon for the data. These have been supplemented by other reports re- ceived directly from state or city superintendents, or from other state officers. From the information received directly from states and cities it has been possible to check possible errors in the re- ports from the Bureau,* thus preventing inaccurate conclusions. It is purposed to show from statistics concerning periods as long as twenty-two years, the growth and analysis of support funds, particularly to show the variety of sources and the relation of these sources in producing income, as shown in the receipts for school purposes. Various types of funds are considered: those for com- mon schools, for secondary schools, for city systems, for normal schools, for colleges or universities, and for law, medical or theologi- cal schools. *No blame attaches to the Commissioner for any discrepancies which may appear, since, in addition to possible clerical errors in the office, many reports made to the office are hasty and sometimes but crude estimates. 98 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS Common School Support Funds. Prior to 1889 statistics were hardly adequate for the purpose of this study. With that year there was the beginning of relative completeness in the report of common school funds. State systems were fairly under way throughout the country and a real education- COMMON SCHOOL SUPPORT FUNDS Their Growth and Analysis, 1889-1899 Table 1 Year Permanent State Local Miscel. Total Funds Funds Funds Funds 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1889 9.8 7.4 25.2 19.1 88.3 66.8 8.8 6.6 132.1 1890 7.8 5.4 26.2 18.2 97.1 67.8 12.0 8.3 143.1 1891 8.3 5.6 27.6 18.6 100.4 67.8 11.6 7.8 147.9 1892 8.1 5.1 29.7 18.9 105.6 67.3 13.4 8.5 156.8 1893 8.7 5.2 33.7 20.4 108.4 65.6 14.2 8.6 165.0 1894 8.5 5.0 33.1 19.8 111.3 66.6 14.2 8.5 167.0 1895 8.3 4.6 33.3 18.7 119.0 67.0 17.0 9.5 177.6 1896 7.6 4.1 35.3 19.4 123.2 67.9 15.2 8.3 181.4 1897 7.8 4.1 35.1 18.6 128.0 67.8 17.8 9.0 188.6 1898 9.2 4.6 35.6 17.8 134.1 67.2 20.4 10.2 199.3 1899 9.0 4.4 36.2 17.7 143.4 70.2 15.4 7.5 204.0 1900 9.1 4.1 37.9 17.2 149.5 68.0 23.2 10.5 219.8 1901 9.8 4.1 36.3 15.4 163.9 69.6 25.4 10.7 235.3 1902 10.0 4.0 39.2 15.9 173.2 70.5 23.1 9.4 245.5 1903 12.1 4.8 40.5 16.0 173.7 69.0 25.3 10.0 251.6 1904 10.2 3.6 42.6 15.2 193.2 69.2 33.2 11.8 279.1 1905 13.2 4.3 44.3 14.6 210.2 69.6 34.1 11.2 301.8 1906 11.6 3.6 47.7 14.0 223.5 69.3 39.0 12.4 322.1 1907 25.5 7.0 44.7 12.5 231.7 65.2 53.0 14.1 355.0 1908 22.4 5.8 58.1 15.2 259.3 67.8 42.1 11.0 381.9 1909 13.4 3.3 63.6 15.7 288.6 71.5 38.0 9.4 403.6 1910 14.1 3.2 64.6 14.9 312.2 72.1 42.1 9.8 433.0 1911 15.0 3.3 69.1 15.3 333.8 74.0 33.1 7.5 451.1 1912 15.2 3.2 75.8 16.2 346.9 73.9 31.1 6.6 469.1 1. In Millions of dollars. 2, Per cent of total. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 99 al era was dawning. The uncertainty of the formative period in state systems had yielded to an educational propogandum which has gained force with the passing of the two decades. The period from 1889 to the present time affords a rich field for statistical study. Many new movements have arisen during the period, even- ing high schools and manual training schools being among the more significant. If one were to glance at the table on page 98, he would first be struck with the relative consistency of each fund for the entire period. Further facts concerning these funds are seen in the table. Column 1 in each case shows the amounts of money received from each source, given in millions of dollars; colunui 2 shows the per cent of total receipts each source produced for that year. Owing to the rise of the tax sj^stem and the growth of permanent school funds among the states, the consistent growth and the relative im- portance of the miscellaneous fund is somewhat surprising. It is safe to say that since this fund is made up largely from tuition fees, since interest on moneys in the bank, receipts from the sales of property, or from other sources would never be considerable, as the reports seem to bear out. That these four sources increase in amount at an approximately even rate, is somewhat suggestive. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES Statistics showing receipts for the support of secondary schools is still more difficult to secure than for common schools. In many cases, the accounts of public high schools are not kept separate from the general accounts of public schools, and the accounts of private academies are not always available for public report. Not until 1893, were reliable statistics on the support of secondary schools available in such form that comparisons could be made.* In Chart I, a comparison is made between public and private secondary schools as to the five types of funds, which each receives, and also as to proportions of the grand total each receives for sup- port. The figures at the bottom show the years covered in the com- parison, those at the left side the per cent of the total fund for the •■Care should be taken in drawing conclusions from data given, partieularlj because the number of schools giving satisfactory reports varies from year to year. Only broad generalizations should be made. 100 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS years covered. The curve is made for the public secondary school, the reciprocal being, therefore, for the private secondary school. For example, the percentile amount of public appropriation re- ceived by public secondary schools is represented by the percentile distance of Curve A from 0, and the amount received by private secondary schools through the same medium is represented by the distance of Curve A from 100. The statistics shown in Table 2 reveal a decided tendency toward the growth and development of high schools under public control and support. The percentile number of public high schools has in- creased during twenty-three years from sixty-one to eighty-four per cent. The actual number of private schools has increased during the period from 1,632 in 1890 to 2,168 in 1913, and the number of pub- lic high schools from 2,526 to 11,277 during the same period. The private school has been encouraged generously by public appropria- tion, and even by a share in the permanent school fund. However, the amount of public appropriation for the private high schools or academies has increased from $201,000 in 1893 to $212,000 in 1913, while the amount of appropriation for public high schools has in- creased from $5,924,000 to $20,070,000 during the same period. With the income of productive funds there is considerable un- certainty. The fund never seems to be constant. The public high schools received in 1895 $711,000 from productive funds, though in 1906 a sum of only $72,000 was reported. The private high schools and academies received $1,864,000 from this source in 1895, and $2,- 055,000 in 1908, though it fell to $706,000 in 1909, when the income from productive funds furnished less than four per cent of total receipts for secondary schools. In 1913 it came back to an aggre- gate of $1,831,000. Tuitions and fees have always presented a large aggregate in the total receipts for the support of schools. The rate system which was in vogue for so long a time yielded slowly to the growing democratic sentiment of public supported schools. Though the last half of the nineteenth century has been characterized by a generous disposition to tax wealth for schools, reference in this connection relates to the elementary schools. The rise of the high school, though rapid dur- ing the last twenty-five years, has been generously supported by pri- vate endeavor, expressed in benefaction and gift or in tuition and OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 101 COMPARISON OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS AS TO PARTICIPATION IN SUPPORT FUNDS n % 7JL % 4 93 H ^i" X ^7 n V '^0 'a '62 '62 'Oj- '^k '67 bl b5 '10 CHART I. A — Public appropriations, B — Grand totals, not including benefactions. C — Tuitions and fees. D — Other sources. E — Income from productive funds, P — Benefactions . 102 CO-OPERATIYE METHODS fees, A glance at the table will show that even at the present time the American public high school is not fully free. In 1893 public high schools reported receiving $616,000 from tui- tions and fees. In spite of the rapidly growing sentiment in favor of publicly supported schools, the amount received from such rates amounted to $1,034,000 in 1910 and $1,147,855 in 1913. There was an increase of thirty-four schools reporting and a probable increase in attendance, which must be considered. It is clear from these fig- ures that parents are heavy contributors to pviblic high school sup- port through fees and tuitions. This spirit of co-operative endeavor, it is our purpose to point out.. It is significant for consideration that for the last five or six years the receipts from tuitions and fees for public high schools have increased relatively. Private high schools and academies have depended considerably upon tuition for their support. It has been sho^vn in other connec- tions that the principle of supporting schools by rate was an effective handicap to the establishment of public schools, and especially to their support by taxation. For the period from 1893 to 1910 inclusive the amount of almost $100,000,000 has been collected for these schools in tuitions and fees alone, the maximum amount for any year of the period being reached in 1903 when it was $7,512,000, and the minimum amount in 1909 at $3,000,800. This minimum does not indicate necessarily a decline in this aspect of support, for the amount reached $5,249,000 the following year and was $7,050,561 in 1913. It is clear, however, that the fund is not constant. Dependence upon tuitions makes it impossible to administer the affairs of a school scientifically. Per- manency in plan and support is recognized as essential to economy and efficiency. Tuitions and fees as the principal means of support do not guarantee this. Miscellaneous sources are furnishing a decreasing amount rela- tively to the support of schools. It is not easy to analyze these funds since they are in many cases placed under this head to relieve clerks of detailed analysis. It often happens that items are counted here which should be classified under other heads. On the whole, we may say that funds coming to the treasurer from any source other than from the classified sources would be considered miscellaneous when such receipts could be used for support. Fines, licenses, special lo- C'OMPARISOX AND ANALYSIS OK IWOIIE FUNDS Pi'BLic AND Private High Schools and Academies* Table 2 Actual Percentile Number of Number of Publ lie Appropr iations Productive '. Pun.ls Tui tion nil ,1 \\v Othe r Sour. .■es BiMtefactioii ist Totals Year Schools Schools _^ i'ub- Pri- 'Pub- Pri- ' ' Pub- Per Pri- Per Total Per Pub^ Per Pri- Per Total Per Pub- Per Pri- Per Total I'.-r'" Pub- Per Pri- Per Total Per Pub- Per Pri- Per Total Public Per Private Per Orauil lic vate lic vate lic Cent vate Cen* Cent lie Cent vate Cent Cent lic Cent vate Cent Cent lic Com t vnte Cent Cent lic Cent vate Cent Cent Cent Totalt istin 2,526 1,632 60.75 39.25 ISill 2,771 1,714 61.78 38.22 ISilL' :i,o:i5 1,550 60.19 33.81 IHIi:; :!,2]8 1,575 66.23 33.77 5,924 96.7 201 3.3 6,125 1..14(i i;iii 11.9 4,587 8S.1 5,203 6,334 1894 3,984 1,982 60.67 33.33 8,488 98.0 172 2.0 8,660 ' ■ 42.2 829 13.1 5,501 86.9 6,330 .30.3 2.957 53.8 2,531 46.2 5,488 26.3 12,27-1 59.9 S,204 40.1 20.478 imr, 4,712 2,180 68.37 31.63 7,720 98.0 157 2.0 7,877 34.6 711 27.7 1,864 72.3 2,575 11.3 1,019 14.6 6,002 85.4 7,021 31.2 4,060 82.6 854 17.4 4,914 21.6 496 196 13,509 60.3 8,878 39.7 22,387 ]ft96 4,974 2,106 70.25 29.75 5,313 95.7 223 4.3 5,536 31.0 306 14.2 1,864 85.8 2,170 12.2 808 12.6 5,624 87.4 6,432 36.0 2,647 74.7 894 25.3 3,541 19.8 39 3.3 1,122 96.7 1,161 9,074 61.3 8,604 •18.7 17,078 1S97 5,109 2,100 70.87 29.13 4,162 95.8 181 4.2 4,343 28.1 209 10.1 1,866 89.9 2,075 13.7 500 8.4 5,495 91.6 5,995 39.6 1,479 57.0 1,112 43.0 2,591 17.1 48 8.0 628 91.4 676 0,350 42.3 8,070 67.7 16,026 189S 5,315 1,990 72.71 27.24 4,816 96.7 162 3.3 4,978 31.8 210 20.1 839 79.9 1,049 6.9 553 8.1 6,.350 91.9 6,903 44.2 1,631 62.5 977 37.5 2,608 16.7 51 3.S 1.299 96,2 1,350 7,210 •16.4 8,330 63.0 16,640 3899 5,495 1,957 73.74 26.26 4,701 96.9 146 3.1 4,847 31.8 191 10.6 1,654 89.4 1,845 11.9 514 9.0 5,595 91.0 6,109 39.7 1,363 56.8 1,033 43.2 2,396 15.6 23 7.5 1,017 92.B 1,640 0,709 44.6 8,429 66.4 16,198 1900 6,005 1,978 75.22 24.78 5,545 97.2 150 2.8 5,701 34.2 141 7.9 1,661 92.1 1,802 10.8 538 8.2 6,061 91.8 6,599 39.6 1,337 52.1 1,228 47.9 2,565 15.4 39 4.1 914 0S.9 953 7,1501 46.6 9,080 64.6 16,041 1901 6,318 1,892 76.95 23.05 5,943 97.7 137 2.3 6,080 37.0 168 10.1 1,509 89.9 1,677 10.2 508 7.8 6,009 92.2 6,517 39.7 915 43.0 1,213 57.0 2,128 12.9 37 2.2 1,207 97.8 1,244 7,634 40.0 8,808 64.0 16,403 1902 6,292 1,835 77.42 22.58 5,989 97.7 135 2.3 6,124 35.5 243 13.2 1,600 86.8 1,843 10.7 465 6.7 6,554 93.3 7,019 40.7 886 40.7 1,294 59.3 2,180 12.0 143 12.9 981 87,1 1,124 7,684 44.3 0,684 56.,S 17,168 1903 0,800 1,690 80.04 19.96 6,568 98.3 108 1.7 6,076 37.9 113 13.4 653 86.0 766 4.3 479 6.0 7,512 94.0 7,991 45.3 131 0.1 2,023 93.9 2,153 12.0 183 13.8 1,153 80.2 1,336 7,291 42.6 10,396 67.4 17,680 1904 7,230 1,606 81.82 18.18 8,187 97.3 225 2.7 8,412 42.9 94 5.5 1,645 94.5 1,739 9.1 485 6.7 6,731 93.3 7,216 37.7 121 7.2 1,559 93.8 1,680 8.8 51 2.8 1,807 97.2 1,858 8,887 40.7 10,100 63.3 19,047 1905 7,576 1,627 82.32 17.68 9,128 97.1 271 2.9 9,400 44.5 81 4.3 1,847 95.7 1,928 9.1 489 6.3 7,330 93.7 7,819 37.0 115 6.0 1,810 94.0 1,925 9.1 75 3.8 1,907 96.2 1,982 9,814 40.0 11,368 6a..i 21,073 190G 8,031 1,529 84.01 15.99 9,752 97.2 168 2.8 9,920 55.2 72 5.0 1,397 95.0 1,469 8.2 606 11.1 4,862 88.9 5,468 .30.4 125 11.7 944 88.3 1,069 6.9 79 4.7 1,628 95,3 1,707 10,650 68.8 7,370 41,2 17,930 1907 8,804 1,434 85.99 14.01 8,647 98.4 140 1.6 8,787 50.1 81 4.0 1,954 96.0 2,035 11.6 537 9.5 5,168 90.5 5,705 32.5 128 13.4 834 86.0 962 5.5 723 21.2 2,703 78.S 3,426 9,391 53.0 8,097 ••0.4 17,488 1908 8,900 1,320 87.16 12.84 10,855 99.1 96 0.9 10,951 60.8 146 0.7 2,055 93.3 2,201 12.2 689 16.9 3,391 83.1 4,080 22.7 129 17.7 601 82.3 730 4.0 1,697 1,697 11,819 66.8 0,143 3.I.2 17,901 1900 9,317 1,301 87.75 12.25 18.105 99.3 110 0.7 18,215 75.0 147 17.3 706 82.7 853 3.5 1,024 25.4 3,008 74.6 4,032 16.1 244 20.8 830 79.2 1,171 4.8 915 945 19,519 80.4 4,733 19.0 24,262 1910 10,213 1,781 85.15 14.85 15,879 99.3 104 0.7 15,983 64.6 120 13.3 789 86.7 909 3.7 1,034 16.5 5,24!i 83.5 6,283 25.4 241 15.5 1,319 84.5 1,500 0.3 1,178 1,178 17,276 09.8 7,461 30.3 24,737 1911 10,334 1,979 83.80 16.20 18,332 99.3 134 0.7 18,466 64.0 93 8.2 1,038 91.8 1,131 3.9 1,105 15.6 5,976 84.4 7,081 24.5 211 9.8 1,952 90.2 2,103 7.5 910 916 19,741 08.4 9,100 31.6 38,841 1912 11,224 2,044 84.59 15.41 19,857 99.3 141 0.7 19,998 63 1 94 7.5 1,163 92.5 1,257 4.0 1,157 14.6 6,777 85.4 7,934 25.0 164 6.0 2,335 93.4 2,499 7.8 1,262 1,262 21,272 67.1 10,410 33.9 31,088 19];t 11,277 2,168 83.87 16.13 20,070 98.9 213 1.1 20,282 61.6 96 .5.0 1,831 95.0 1,927 5.8 1,148 14.0 7,050 86.0 8,198 24.,S 139 5.9 2,390 94.1 2,529 8,0 6.17 657 21,463 06.1 11,483 34,9 33,930 • Amounts of money given in thousands of dollars, t None reported for public high schools after 1907. t Exclusive of lienofactinns. OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 103 cal taxes, as the dog tax, have furnished a considerable sum which has been devoted to school support in many states. Rents on school property, or interest on moneys in the bank, sales of property, the amounts of which w^ere turned to support funds, profits on sales of books or laboratory supplies, and so forth, have often been classified as miscellaneous. The accuracy of modern business methods has been the most effective means, perhaps, of reducing this amount to the minimum of four per cent of total receipts in 1908. Another fact to be noted as a result of our changed thought of school sup- port is the tendency to eliminate fines, licenses, special taxes, such as the dog tax, and other unclassified items from support funds. In this connection^ the table shows that public high schools illustrate the spasmodic and temporary character of this type of support, "With private high schools is seems a little more consistent. Concerning the function of benefactions, little need be said. The benefaction has been and is the source for the development of pro- ductive funds which are the basis of a scientific method of support in private schools. The rise of public free high schools makes tui- tions unpopular, so that the income of productive funds and of scholarship funds becomes the principal portion of support funds of private schools. The increase of these funds must come by benefac- tion as history has pointed out. Benefactions serve two purposes in support, expediency and permanency. Productive funds are con- sidered temporary and permanent according to the type of benefac- tion received. If a deficiency occurs in the support fund of the school benefactions are solicited to assist the school to complete the year's work. This deficit may be anticipated and thus provided for by annual or temporary endowment. Sometimes, from a decreased enrollment or a failure in productive funds* an emergency sub- scription is taken. This procedure is illustrated in many public high schools, in addition to being a usual procedure in private schools. In the states of the South, benefaction or subscription has oftentimes been the only means of securing a standard length of school term. On the other hand, the benefaction adds an increment to the pro- ductive funds, only the income of which is used for support. This *The income from productive funds has never constant. Sometimes funds have been mismanaged or lost. 104 CO-OPERATIVE METHODS is considered a permanent benefaction. Historically the importance of the benefaction of this type is fully appreciated, even though it is often spoken of as " foolish philanthropy. " It is true that a strictly scientific procedure in financing public school systems will depend little if any upon the benefactions ; but with the private school much dependence must be placed upon such funds if the private school is to continue. That the public high school is assuming a large part of the functions formerly performed by private academies no one ques- tions ; but that the private academy has fully served its day many do question. However, as long as the private school has a function to perform voluntary endeavor in some form or other is the only source of support. PUBLIC SCHOOL SUPPORT IN TYPE CITIES In order to illustrate the growth of school support in certain cities located throughout the country twenty-six cities were studied. The reports of the United States Commissioner of Education were con- sulted for each city covering a period of twenty-two years. These statistics were supplemented by reports of city superintendents or school clerks. It was the purpose to get statistics as complete as pos- ible, for all the cities from 1889 to 1910 inclusive. Of the twenty-six cities studied, twenty are presented in Charts II, III and IV. The figures at the bottom show the years ; those at the left, the amounts of money in thousands of dollars received for public school support. The purpose has not been to make a comparison of cities but rath- er to present these cities as types for various sections of the country, for various sized cities, and for various rates of growth. Statistics for the following twenty cities are sufficiently reliable and complete to warrant some comparisons. It is clear that the funds for the support of schools in these cities have increased exceedingly, particularly during the last ten years. The rapid rise during the past ten years is in part offset by the rapid increase in population. However, this will not account for the rapid rise of the curves for this decade. Milwaukee, for example, in- creased her population by 52,000 from 1900 to 1910, and her support funds by $1,142,000 for the same period, thereby raising the per capita support funds for total population from $2.42 in 1900 to $4.90 in 1910. This shows that there has been a definite enrichment OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 105 Table 3 Name of City See Chart Population Number 1890 1900 1910 Baltimore, Md. III. 434,439 508,957 558,485 Birmingham, Ala. IV. 26,188 38,415 132,685 Charleston, S. C. IV. 54,955 55,807 58,833 Columbus, 0. IV. 88,150 125,560 181,511 Detroit, Mich. III. 205,876 285,704 465,766 Duluth, Minn. II. 33,115 52,969 78,466 Freeport, 111. IV. 10,189 13,258 17,374 Indianapolis, Ind. II. 105,436 169,164 233,650 Kansas City, Mo. 11. 132,716 163,752 248,381 Knoxville, Tenn. II. 22,535 32,637 36,346 Louisville, Ky. III. 161,129 204,731 223,928 Milwaukee, Wis. II. 204,468 285,315 373,857 New Orleans, La. IV. 242,039 287,104 339,075 Oakland, Cal. IV. 48,682 66,960 150,174 Pittsburg, Pa. III. 238,617 321,616 533,905 Rochester, N. Y. III. 133,896 162,608 218,149 Sioux City, la. II. 37,806 33,111 47,828 Tacoma, Wash. IV. 36,006 37,714 83,411 Wichita, Kan. IV. 23,853 24,671 52,450 Wilmington, Del. IV. 61,431 76,508 87,411 of the school courses and likewise an extension of the system. Birmingham presents an enormous increase in population. In 1900, the population was 38,415 ; in 1910, 132,685, a gain of prac- tically 200 per cent. For the same period, there was a gain of $250,- 000 in support funds, practically 500 per cent. The per capita amount of receipts, in 1900, was approximately $1.38; in 1910, it was $1.90. Considering the adjustment the city had to make to ac- commodate the vast increase in population, the case presents strik- ing evidence of growth in amount of support funds. Similar results would be found in the case of the other cities named . Charts II, III and IV sho\^ the enormous annual increase of sup- port funds for twenty cities, particularly is this increase noted for the last ten years represented in the curves. In checking over the receipts for school purposes in these cities for the last three years TYPE CITIES |1)l«ft*.kec Ktwvkt CiV| Xn4iftn«^«l!( B«l«it(» Si"«ii.». c«t^ Kn» 77 ^8 f? 'OD '6/ 'C2 '03 '^f 'a5 OC '67 *Ci ^? '/» 5 % ?/ n n H Jf K 97 ?s 9^ 'c^ 'Of 'oj '03 Vf '