S K Got l^Vv-*-~ ^CkXjLSOr ~Y^> X &^L~JL 1 dcJU) &S^S%s^U43L Glass. Book. ± J I^Zl IaJI »m. ; *lAifc #1? ? :v? ifc Si 6 k £.». jf"'' itMA: it- DIRECTORY OF FOREST SERVICE.— DISTRICT 5 (CALIFORNIA AND WESTERN NEVADA). Paxil G. Redington, District Forester. District office, Ferry Building, San Francisco, Cal. National Forest. Forest supervisor. Headquarters. Shirley W. Allen J. D.Coffman 625 Federal Building, Los Angeles, Cal. Willow (winter), Alder Springs (summer), Cal. San Diego, Cal. Placerville, Eldorado County, Cal. S. A. Boulden TC. F. Smith Bishop, Inyo County, Cal. Yreka, Siskiyou County, Cal. •-' W. A. Huestis C. E. Dunston Red Bluff (winter), Mineral (sum- W. G. Durbin mer), Tehama County, Cal. Alturas, Modoc County, Cal. W. M. Maule.. Minden, Douglas County, Nev. Quincy, Plumas County, Cal. Federal Building, Santa Barbara, Cal. Porterville, Tulare County, Cal. Sisson, Siskiyou County, Cal. Northfork, Madera County, Cal. Sonora, Tuolumne County, Cal. Nevada City, Nevada County, Cal. Weaverville, Trinity County, Cal. D. N. Rogers i Thos. W. Sloan F. P. Cunningham J. R.Hall M. A. Benedict * J. V. Wulfl Stanislaus Tahoe R. L. P. Bigelowi E. V. Jotter Trinity 1 District forest inspector. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE. WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester. HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS IN THE NATIONAL FORESTS IN CALIFORNIA. DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR 185 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1921. CONTENTS. -0-^0 cA » W ^^ £ 4? § Q 5 * % * & * ^ i _ iliriitiiii '**£ 26 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 27 For temporary camps the fire should be built as follows : Dig a hole about a foot deep and about 3 or 4 feet in diameter. Shovel away the side toward the wind. Lay green poles across the hole to support the pots and pans, and build the fire under- neath. (Fig. 1.) Fire irons are often a great convenience. A piece of three- eighths-inch round iron 4 feet long is bent at right angles a foot from each end and the ends are sharpened. Two of these irons are placed side by side, the ends are driven into the ground and the fire kindled beneath them. Instead of being made in one piece, the pegs and crossbars may be connected by rings in the ends. (Fig. 3.) They will then fold and be easier to pack. Camp fires should never be larger than necessary, and the utmost care should be taken to prevent sparks from being car- ried into the neighboring forest. Clear away the litter for a considerable space about the fire. And be sure to put the fire out before you leave it. A shovel is nearly as important a tool as an ax in camping. Do not count on finding one along the way, but put one in your outfit. During wet weather look for kindling in burned sugar-pine or yellow-pine butts or in pine knots. The under side of a lean- ing tree will usually contain dry material. Dead branches — of manzanita, etc. — that have not yet fallen are drier than those on the ground. Bark from fir snags is excellent fuel. Where matches are scarce or when the weather is stormy light a candle and kindle your fire from that. CAMP COOKERY. It is difficult to pack into camp very many different kinds of foods, and the camper is recommended to secure variety in his menu by learning to cook staple articles in different ways rather than by stocking up with a varied assortment. Direc- 28 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. tions for preparing the ordinary articles of camp fare are given below : Coffee. — Fill the pot with fresh water. When it comes to a boil stir in coffee previously moistened with warm (not hot) water. Cover closely. Let it boil up for two minutes, stirring from the sides and top as it boils up. To clear it, remove from the fire and dash over the surface a " cup of cold, fresh water. Or, put the coffee, dry, in the pot ; stir it while heating ; then pour over it 1 quart boiling water to each ounce of coffee, and set the pot where it will keep hot and not boil. After standing 10 minutes it is ready to drink. Tea. — Bring fresh water to a hard boil. Fill the teapot with boiling water. When the pot is thoroughly heated, pour off the water and put into the pot 1 teaspoonful of tea for every cup that is to be drawn and 1 for the pot. Then pour on the boil- ing water and set the covered pot near the fire to draw but not to boil. Green tea generally requires 5 minutes ; Oolong tea, 8 minutes ; English greakfast tea, 15 minutes. The faults commonly committed in making tea are as fol- lows : The water is flat from having boiled too long ; the water is only hot and not boiling ; the teapot is not heated before put- ting in the tea; the tea is boiled instead of drawn (no tea should be boiled) ; the tea is made too long before it is to be drunk. Baking-powder bread. — Mix 1 quart flour, 1 teaspoon salt, 4 teaspoons baking powder. 1 Stir in enough cold water to make a thick batter. Mix rapidly and pour into Dutch oven. Bake until no dough adheres to a sliver stuck into the loaf. Frying-pan bread. — Mix 1 cup flour, 1 tablespoon sugar, 1 teaspoon salt, 3 teaspoons baking powder, and stir in water enough to make a thick dough. Pour into hot, greased frying pan and place near fire. As soon as it sets prop the pan nearly erect before the blaze. W T hen brown on one side turn it over. Flapjacks. — Two cups flour, half teaspoon salt, and 4 tea- spoons baking powder. Water to make a thin batter. Grease frying pan with lard or bacon rind and fry cakes when pan is smoking hot. Prepared pancake flours are often satisfactory and have directions printed on the package. 1 In using baking powders, follow the directions on the package, since different brands vary in strength. HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 29 Corn bread (unleavened) . — Corn meal 1 quart, salt 1 teaspoon- ful ; mix rapidly with boiling water and stir till it drops lightly from the spoon. Bake in Dutch oven or in thin cakes in a fry- ing pan. In using Dutch ovens care should be taken that the oven and lid are quite hot before dough is placed in them for baking. During the preparations for baking the oven and lid should be heated over the fire. When a good mass of coals has been obtained, the dough should be placed in the heated oven (the bottom having been greased) and the lid put on. The oven should then be embedded in the coals and the lid covered with coals and hot ashes. Instead of a Dutch oven two pans may be used, one being large enough to fit snugly over the other as a cover. Plenty of ashes and Sarth should be piled on top or the bread will burn. Fried fish. — Clean and wipe the fish dry, rub it over with dry, sifted flour; put into a frying pan enough dripping to well cover the fish ; when this is hot, put in the fish and fry both sides a clear golden brown. Just as the fish is turning brown sprinkle it lightly with pepper and salt. Fried steak. — Cleanse the steak but do not put it into water. Have the frying pan very hot and dry and lightly powdered with salt ; put in the steak, cover it with a tin plate, and turn it often. When cooked put it on a hot dish and season with pepper and salt. The juices will then escape and furnish the gravy ; or, have ready in a hot dish a half teaspoonful of salt, a quarter of a teaspoonful of pepper, a piece of butter or beef dripping not quite the size of an egg, add two tablespoonfuls of boiling water, mix well together, put the steak into it and turn it over once, so that both sides will be moistened with the gravy, and serve. Prepare and broil mutton chops, venison, and pork steaks as above. Meat prepared in this way is quite equal to that broiled in a gridiron, and this method does not waste the juices. For broiling on a gridiron, prepare the steak as directed for cooking in a frying pan. Have ready a bed of live coals, and as soon as the gridiron (wiped clean) is heated put the steak on it, turning often. If the fire smokes or blazes from the dripping fat, withdraw the gridiron for a moment. It should cook in 15 minutes. 30 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. Salt pork and bacon should be soaked in cold water for an hour or two before broiling or frying. Ham may be covered with boiling water and soaked for half an hour before broiling. Game. — The entrails should be taken out as soon as game is killed. If the meat is not to be cooked at once, hang it up in a cool, dry place, birds should be kept in their feathers and animals in their skins. Canned goods. — Before using canned goods" see that the ends of the cans are sunk in. If the ends are swelled or bulgy, it usually means fermented contents and spoiled goods. After a can has been opened pour contents immediately into enamel ware dish. Never leave food in the original cans. In the process of canning all canned goods receive a cooking varying in length of time from five minutes to seven hours, according to the character of the goods, and but little further cooking is necessary. Boiling.— At high altitudes water boils at temperatures too low to cook with, the decrease in atmospheric pressure lowering the boiling point. This decrease amounts roughly to 1 degree for every 555 feet of ascent. Thus, at 10,000 feet elevation the temperature of boiling water is only 194 degrees. Other methods of cooking are not affected by altitude. Beans — Wash and soak over night in cold water. Soft water is preferable; a little baking soda may be used to soften hard water. Drain and put the beans into a pot with enough cold water to cover them plentifully. To 2 quarts of beans add 1 teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda ; cover and boil for 15 min- utes. Remove the scum as it rises. Pour off the water ; replace with boiling water. Cover and boil steadily for 2 or 3 hours, or until tender. Drain and season with butter, pepper, and salt. Rice. — The rice should be thoroughly washed and then placed in a pot with plenty of water (latter at boiling point). Boil, without stirring the rice, for 20 minutes ; throw into a colander, covering same, and let stand several minutes — thus serving a double purpose, allowing rice to drain as well as steam. The three cardinal points essential to a satisfactory result are: First, water boiling from start to finish; second, rice un- disturbed while cooking ; third, thorough draining. In order to see whether or not rice is done, take out one of the grains and press it between the fingers ; if well done, it will mash easily and feel perfectly soft. One pint of rice will swell to 3 pints when cooked and in- crease in weight from 14 ounces to 2 pounds. One pound of rice contains about three and one-half times as much food as 1 pound of potatoes. HANDBOOK FOE CAMPERS. 31 Stewed prunes. — Wash and pick over the prunes ; put them to soak overnight in the water (cold) they are to be cooked in, using only enough water to cover them. Put the prunes on the fire where they can just simmer during three hours. Do not use an iron vessel and do not let them boil hard. Keep closely covered. Steived, dried, and evaporated apples, apricots, and peaches. — These are prepared like prunes except that they require less cooking. Also, when these fruits are cooked put in plenty of sugar and cook five minutes longer. During hot weather fruit is likely to sour when put to soak overnight. Stew. — Into a kettle put a layer of meat (fresh, salt, game, etc.) and season, dredge with flour, then add a layer of pota- toes, onions, etc., repeating this until the kettle is nearly full, as desired. Over all pour sufficient water to cover, and stew slowly from one to three hours, according to quantity. During the last hour stir in a quart of batter to thicken ; season to taste, and serve hot. Stew with canned meats. — Peel and slice the potatoes and onions ; put them in the camp kettle, season with pepper and salt, pour in sufficient water to cover them, and stew gently, keeping the lid of the kettle closely shut until the potatoes are nearly cooked ; then open the tins of meat, cut up the contents, and put into the kettle; let the whole simmer for 10 minutes and serve. DISPOSAL OF REFUSE. Burn all kitchen refuse in the camp fire; it will not affect the cooking. Burn everything — coffee grounds, parings, bones, meat, even old tin cans — for if thrown out anywhere, even buried, they may attract flies. Refuse once burned will not attract flies. If burning is impracticable, dig a hole for the refuse, leaving the earth piled up on the edge, and cover every addition with a layer of dirt. PACKING. (See illustrations on pp. 34 and 35.) In packing on animals a packsaddle is firmly cinched, the portions of the outfit are suspended on it, and the whole is 32 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. secured by a rope with a cinch attached which is so tied as to bind the load to the animal. The usual packsaddle is of the sawbuck type — consisting of two back plates, to which low crosstrees are bolted in the place of horn and cantle. Packsaddles should be double rig, with breast pad and crupper or breeching. - It is quite necessary that the packsaddle should fit the animal that is to carry it, other- wise galls are almost certain to occur. Unless kyacks are used the various articles, except bedding and the bulkier pieces, must be tied in sacks, which are sus- pended from the saddle by means of the sling rope. ( See fig. 5. ) SLINGING. Two half-hitches are taken in the middle of the sling rope and dropped over the front crosstree. The ends are then looped over the rear crosstree to form the slings (0, C) in which the sacks are hung. The slings are adjusted to the proper position and kept there by taking a turn with the ends (D, E) around the sling loop. When both side packs have been slung, the ends of the sling rope are tied together across the center of the saddle. The other sacks, if there are any, are then piled on. The bedding may be rolled up, forming a bundle, or it may be folded once and spread across the pack. Long, slender articles, like fishing rods, shovels, or rakes, should go on top of the load. Kyacks are sacks furnished with a pair of loops to hook over the crosstrees. They are the size and shape of the case in which two 5-gallon coal-oil cans are packed, and are made of rawhide, leather, or canvas. Kyacks (also called " alforjas," or, in Cali- fornia, " alf orkases " ) are especially convenient for packing numerous loose articles. It is of particular importance that the two sides of the pack should be evenly balanced. The weights on the two sides should be as nearly the same as possible, but where the weight can HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 33 not be evenly divided the heavier side must be slung higher. The balance may be tested by bearing down on one of the packs ; if the load comes to rest immediately, the pack should be altered; but if it oscillates a time or two, it will do. THE HITCH. The load is made fast by means of the cinch rope or lash rope. The principle of practically all hitches is that any slack that may be left in the rope is at all times equally distributed. For commercial or army pack trains the Government diamond hitch probably has no equal. But it is difficult to explain, hard to remember, and awkward to throw without a helper. There are various one-man, squaw, or Basco hitches, which for ordi- nary purposes are preferable. One of the simplest, which is in common use by the rangers, is illustrated on page 34. It may be thrown single handed. Until some practive is obtained the packer should first set the hitch and tighten it afterwards, always pulling toward head or tail on a line parallel with the animal's backbone. At the end of the first mile or so the pack should be examined, and, if necessary, the hitch should be tightened. This is par- ticularly necessary if the lash rope is damp when the hitch is thrown, since the rope stretches on drying. When stops are made for lunch or other purposes, the pack horses should be unloaded. BANGER HITCH. The cinch is thrown over the center of the pack from the near side. The packer reaches under the animal with his left hand, seizes the hook, pulls the cinch into position, and catches the rope in the hook. The loop A is then tucked under, and another loop is made by pulling out the portion of the rope at C. The cinch is now tightened by pulling up on the rope at D. The packer then goes to the off side, leads the rope B to the 34 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. Method of Setting Sling Rope, HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 35 Hg. 2. Vn&ee Side of Pack. 36 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. rear corner of the pack, and thence forward beneath the load. Standing at the horse's head he tightens it, pulling in line with the animal's backbone, and bracing knee or foot against the pack to get a purchase. Still keeping a strain on the rope with his left hand, with his right he reaches under the horse's neck, seizes the loop C, and takes up the slack. When this is done, he tightens from this side in the same manner. Then, still keeping a strain on the rope, he leads it to the rear corner on the near side, tightens there, keeps a strain at E with left hand, seizes "F with right hand, tightens again, leads the rope down to corner 4, thence under the pack, and makes fast to the center ropes just above the cinch hook. BEDDING HITCH. For packing bedding together with a few cooking utensils or other articles, neither packsaddle nor cinch rope is required. The bedding is folded and laid full length across the riding saddle, the loose articles being placed on top beneath outer layers of bedding, and the hitch thrown as per diagram. If the hitch is thrown by two packers, they can tighten as they proceed. A single-handed packer will have to set his hitch first and tighten afterwards. This hitch forms a triangle on top of the pack and a diamond on the under side of it. If carefully thrown, it may be drawn very tight without any danger of injury to the animal. The bedding hitch is most conveniently thrown by two pack- ers, one on each side. The loop A, about 8 inches in length, is tied in the middle of the rope and placed in front of the horn. The ends are led down on each side and tied in a simple knot, B, just behind the forelegs. Another knot, C, is then tied behind the first, but the two are not drawn together. The rope ends are then led one to each rear corner of the pack, and each is securely tucked into the loop. Thence each end is led di- rectly down across its side of the pack, tucksd under the strand D D and up again in the same line. Then a loop is made HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 37 in the end of the rope on the offside, the near end is put through it, pulled tight and made fast. PASTURE FOR SADDLE AND PACK ANIMALS. On portions of the National Forests where feed is scarce or where stock grazed under Government permit is likely to con- sume the forage needed for travelers' stock, pastures are in- closed in which saddle and pack animals may be certain to find feed. The location of these pastures may be ascertained from the rangers if they are not shown on the Forest maps. In general, however, the feed on the Forest ranges is sufficient to keep saddle and pack stock in good condition if they are per- mitted to get all they can at night. To keep them within bounds, picket ropes are sometimes used. These, however, are liable to cause accidents, rope burns, etc., and where the feed is at all scattered they do not enable the animal to cover a sufficiently wide area unless the picket pin is frequently moved. 1 Hobbles are more satisfactory and more generally used. Leather straps, which buckle about each forefoot just below the fetlock and are connected by a short chain, may be purchased. Satis- factory hobbles, however, may be made as follows : Cut off about 5 feet of half -inch rope and unwind one strand. Double this strand and tie the ends together in an overhand knot. Put the doubled rope around one forefoot just above the hoof and twist it loosely three or four times. Then place the other forefoot between the ends of the rope and secure by tuck- ing the knot in one end through the loop in the other. If the hobbles have a tendency to chafe, place them above the fetlocks one night and below them the next time. ACCIDENTS— FIRST AID. First-aid packets should be included with the camp outfit; also a First Aid Manual, which should be studied before start- ing out. In case of any serious accident get to a telephone at 1 In staking horses tie them by the foreleg, never by the neck. 38 HANDBOOK TOR CAMPERS. once and send for a physician. Directions for preliminary treat- ment of some of the commoner accidents are given below: Wounds. — To stop bleeding, apply pressure directly over the wound, either by the fingers or by means of a compress. The latter is preferable. If the bleeding can not be controlled by this method, apply pressure to the blood vessel which supplies the bleeding part, the pressure being applied always between the wound and the heart. To make a tourniquet, tie a strong bandage, handkerchief, necktie, etc., about the wounded part. Place a smooth pebble or similar hard substance directly over the blood vessel. Insert a stick within the bandage and twist it tight. Burns. — Exclude air and keep parts absolutely clean. Treat with vaseline or olive oil. Lacking these, use a solution of baking soda. Vfhere large blisters are formed, remove the fluid before dressing. Prick near the edge with a needle that has been passed several times through a flame and gently press out the water. Where the clothing sticks to the flesh, do not remove it forcibly. Cut it away as close to the burn as possible and soften with oil before removing it. Fractures. — Send for a surgeon. It is not necessary that a broken bone should be set immediately. If it is impossible to obtain a surgeon at once, or if it is necessary to move the in- jured person, the parts should be bandaged with splints to keep them from moving. For splints use thin pieces of board a little longer than the bone and as wide as the injured part. They should be thoroughly padded with cotton, cloth, or moss. Sprains. — The part should have absolute rest. Apply water as- hot as can be borne. After the first day or two apply splints and bandages if necessary. Sunstroke. — The skin is dry and hot, the breathing quick, and the heart action violent. Place patient on his back, with head slightly raised, in a cool, shady spot. Loosen clothing. HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 39 Apply cold water, first to the head and then to body, until tem- perature has been reduced and consciousness returns. Snake Mte. — Use a tourniquet between the wound and the heart, loosening it from time to time. Cut the wound to allow it to bleed freely. If whisky is administered, give it in small doses as needed to prevent collapse, not in a large quantity all at once. The best treatment is hypodermic injections of potassium permanganate near the puncture, with strychnine given hypo- dermically or in tablets to keep up the heart action. Poison oak. — Bathe with a saturated solution of baking soda. A decoction of manzanita leaves and bark will sometimes give relief. Resuscitation of the apparently droivned. — Send for physician at once. Loosen clothing. The water must be removed from mouth, lungs, and stomach. Water and mucus may be removed from the mouth with the finger. To remove the water from throat and lungs, grasp the patient around the waist from behind and raise the body so that the head and feet hang down. To induce artificial respiration. — Place the patient on his back. Draw the tongue forward and if necessary tie with a handkerchief. Kneel at the patient's head and grasp the arms below the elbows. Draw the arms upward and backward until patient's hands touch the ground behind his head and keep in this position while " one," " two," " three " are slowly counted. Then carry elbows downward slowly, doubling the forearm on the arm, pressing firmly against the chest. Rest a few seconds, and repeat about sixteen times to the minute. Do not give up for at least one hour and a half. When signs of life appear, friction and rubbing should be applied, and tea, coffee, or whisky and hot water may be given. FIRES AND FIRE FIGHTING. The forest-fire risk in California is excessive. The long dry season, the inflammable nature of the cover, and the habit natural to Californians of camping out during the summer tend 40 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. to produce severe fire conditions. Even after storms the atmos- phere soon becomes dry, and the summer showers therefore do little toward making the forests less inflammable. The matter of camping is mentioned because most fires are of human origin. The seasoned camper is by no means a source of fire danger ; he is, rather, a safety factor, since he knows that precautions must be taken and helps to instruct those who are less experienced. But until a camper has had at least a season's experience in the Forests, he is apt to take unwarranted chances with camp fires, matches, burning tobacco, etc. The fire organization on the National Forests includes meas- ures designed to prevent, detect, and suppress fires. Absolute prevention is, of course, impossible; lightning causes a certain percentage of fires each year, and a few fires start in other ways that may be fairly called unpreventable. Among these are the breaking of transmission lines, the accidental burning of houses in the Forests, etc. There is also a theory very popular in California that broken bottles, by focusing the sun's rays upon inflammable material, are a frequent source of fires ; but the theory has never been verified. During ten years in which accurate fire records have been kept in California not a single case of this sort has come to light. Preventable fires can be prevented only by educating the public. This the Forest Service attempts to accomplish by vari- ous devices, but especially by giving currency to the Woodsman's Six Rules : (1) Matches. — Be sure your match is out. Pinch it before you throw it away. (2) Tobacco. — Throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stumps in the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire before leaving them. Don't throw them into brush, leaves, or needles. (3) Making camp. — Build a small campfire. Build it in the open, not against a tree or log or near brush. Scrape away the trash from all around it. HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 41 (4) Leaving camp. — Never leave a cainpfire, even for a short time, without quenching it with water and then covering it with earth. (5) Bonfires. — Never build bonfires in windy weather or where there is the slightest danger of their escaping from con- trol. Don't make them larger than you need. (6) Fighting fires. — If you find a fire, try to put it out. If you can't, get word of it to the nearest United States forest ranger or State fire warden at once. Keep in touch with the rangers. These rules have been compiled for the guidance of the public, by observing the general practice of foresters and other woods- men in their use of fire in the mountains. Most of them have been enacted into law, and the penalties for their violation are severe. Campers should observe them scrupulously. The work of detecting and suppressing forest fires has been greatly systematized in recent years. Nowadays fires are re- ported mainly by lookouts, whose function is not to fight fires but merely to discover and report them, and by the flying look- outs of the airplane fire patrol, who cover the Forests at least once each day. The lookouts are located on commanding peaks, and remain on duty continuously. They are equipped with the necessary instruments and housed in cabins, from the interior of which the entire area under protection can be kept in view. Each Forest has several lookouts. Where the same area is under observation from two or more, the location of a fire can be determined very accurately, even at a distance of many miles from either. The lookout is in communication with the district ranger either by telephone or heliograph. Telephone service is the most certain and satisfactory, but heliographs are used in situ- ations where other facilities are lacking or are too costly. On receiving a report from a lookout, the ranger in whose district the fire is located takes immediate steps to put it out, and in fighting a forest fire it is as necessary to be prompt as it is in 42 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. saving a burning house. The ranger immediately calls up one or more of his assistants by telephone, and they are dispatched to the fire without delay. This system has proved to be very economical, and the majority of fires are kept to an area under one-quarter of an acre and are handled by one or two men. Where large fires occur, owing to" exceptional circumstances, large bodies of fire fighters may be required. These are, as far as possible, organized in advance, so that no time may be lost. They are recrujted from near-by ranchers, stockmen, lumbermen, and even from settlements outside. Transportation facilities both for the men and for their subordinates are also arranged beforehand, and tools and nonperishable food supplies are cached in places where a demand for them is likely to arise. In the more thickly settled portions of some Forests, especially where there are numerous occasional visitors from near-by towns, moving patrolmen are employed. These, by calling the attention of campers to the necessity for taking proper pre- cautions, and even by their very presence, keep a great many fires from starting. They also attend to the extinguishing of such fires as occur, and in the case of large fires take charge of the fire fighting until relieved. A few years ago the opinion was very prevalent in California that the entire forest area should be burned over periodically in order to effect a general clean-up. This theory — the so-called " light-burning " theory — is now very largely discarded, and properly so ; there are certain arguments in favor of it, but it is chiefly based upon conceptions that are fundamentally wrong. In the first place, although it appears to cost nothing, it is in reality an extremely expensive measure when performed effec- tively. Some irresponsible advocates of this theory assume that it is only necessary to touch off a piece of forest at the proper season and that the fire will do its work without further atten- tion. This is by no means the case. It is obvious that there are many areas from which the fire should be kept at all hazards; or, if they are to be burned at all, it should be with HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 43 extreme care. This means, then, that the fire must be kept under control, which would entail prohibitive expense as com- pared with the cost of keeping fires out entirely. One large tract of private timber in the northern Sierras was cleaned up in this fashion at a cost of 50 cents per acre. The owner be- lieved firmly that light burning was the proper way to protect his stand ; but as a practical lumberman he recognized also the necessity of expensive control. At the same rate the expense of " light burning " the whole of the yellow-pine belt in California would amount to at least $5,000,000. But besides the prohibitive cost there are two other objections to this practice. One is that the young growth is inevitably destroyed ; in fact, since thickets of young growth are specially inflammable, it is one of the objects of light burning to con- sume them. But the forests of the future can not be created all at once when they are needed. They require a develop- ment period of at least 100 years before they produce material fit to cut into lumber. Any system which protects the mature timber at the expense of the young growth which is to replace it violates the principles of forestry and, unless the sacrifice is absolutely unavoidable, of common sense as well. It was for- merly argued that the sacrifice was necessary ; that, unless the debris which collected on the floor of the forest year after year was burned, unless the thickets of young growth were kept down, the final result would be a conflagration that nothing could control. This argument upon examination is found not to hold. The record of the Forest Service in California during recent years proves that very severe fire conditions can be handled without any considerable loss of timber. But what is still more important, it is found by experiment that burning decreases the amount of litter not for a period of years but at most for an interval of only a few months. The litter upon the ground at the time of the burning is consumed, but is replaced with more than normal rapidity by the debris shed from the trees scorched by the fire. 44 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. In short, light burning, in order to make the forest safe against future fires, must not be " light," but must be a fire of exactly the sort that it is the object of the practice to prevent. Fortunately, the light-burning method is no longer advocated to any great extent. HINTS ON FIRE PROTECTION. The first thing is prevention. Bear in mind the Six Rules. Be particularly careful with camp fire, matches, and tobacco, since carelessness with these is punishable by law. Scrape all inflammable material from around the fire before lighting it. Make a fire place either by digging a hole- or by piling up rocks. The fire will then not only be safer but will draw better. Before leaving camp see that the last spark is extinguished. Pour water on the embers and then cover them with earth. Don't make your fire too large. Large fires are not as con- venient to cook by as small ones and are more trouble to put out. If you discover a fire, go to it at once and put it out of you can. A small fire can be put out easily by throwing handfuls of earth, sand, or dust at the base of the flame. The flames may also be beaten down with sacks or with branches, but care must be taken not to scatter the fire. If the fire is spreading too rapidly to be attacked directly, cut and scrape a trail some distance ahead of it. Do not back- fire ; this is work for an experienced man. If a fire is serious enough to require this treatment, the work should be left to a ranger. The best tools for fire fighting are the shovel, ax, and hoe or rake. In open pine forest very little ax work will be re- quired. Shovel or rake a trail through the needles down to mineral soil, and guard the trail. To stop a fire burning in brush the trail must first be cut with the ax and then scraped. The brush should be thrown to HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 45 the side away from the fire. The litter may be scraped toward the fire. Pick a route for the fire trail that will avoid brush patches, if possible. The crest of a ridge is an excellent location, since the fire naturally checks at the top. Do not give up because the fire is gaining headway or because you lack tools. The fire has already been reported by lookouts, and rangers are hurrying to it properly equipped. Stay and help them ; and in the meantime do what you can to keep it in check. See that a fire is cold before you leave it. Report all fires to the nearest Forest officer. Do not suppose that because a fire is merely burning in ap- parently worthless brush it is therefore doing no damage. Such fires are often the most serious. GAME AND FISH. The National Forests contain the principal habitats of all the important game animals of the West. No charge is made for hunting, fishing, or ordinary camping upon Government land within the National Forests, and their use as recreation grounds is encouraged. No permits are issued for game preserves or any use of land which would result in preventing or restricting lawful hunting or fishing. Since game in general is regarded as under State control, the Federal Forest officers derive most of their authority in game protection from the State. They are not game wardens ex officio, but only after appointment as such by the proper State authorities. National Forest officers are, however, active in game protection; and in cooperation with the State Fish and Game Commission the Forest officers on 25,000,000 acres of National Forest lands are fulfilling the duties of game wardens in California. Licenses are required by the State for angling as well as for hunting. They may be obtained from Forest officers who are game wardens. 46 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. Cards containing the California fish and game laws may also be secured, and the laws thereon should be strictly complied with. The rangers know the best hunting country and the best fish- ing streams, and will be glad to furnish information to those who request it. The principal big-game animal on the National Forests in California is the blacktail deer. The State Fish and Game Commission estimates that 30,000 deer are killed each deer, more than half of this number by mountain lions and the remainder by hunters. Deer winter in the foothills, ranging up to higher levels as the snow melts. During the early summer the bucks are often found in the open glades and meadows feeding on grass and tender shoots. Later they head for brushy areas and live off the browse furnished by oak, hazel, blue brush, and various other species. In the fall, in an oak country, they feed on acorns. Since the best deer hunting is apt to occur during the height of the dry season, it is particularly necessary that hunters be careful not to set fires. The bucks shed their horns during the winter, the new horns beginning to grow in early spring. During the summer these are in the velvet — tender, full of blood vessels, and unfit for mounting. Later the horns harden, the velvet is rubbed off, the hide changes color from " red " to " blue," and the buck reaches his prime condition. This season varies in different portions of the State from mid-August to October, being earlier the lower the elevation. As a general rule the bucks are in the best con- dition toward the close of the open season. To transport a deer on a saddle horse throw a rope across the saddle, pulling a loop of it forward through each cinch ring. Place the buck across the saddle and put the head through one loop and the haunches through the other. Draw the ends of the rope tight, make a loop in one, reeve the other through it, and make fast. HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. 47 To skin a deer head for mounting, cut the skin around the neck well down on the shoulder and breast. Then cut along the upper side of the neck to the top of the head. Thence make diagonal cuts, one to each horn. Cut off the ears close to the skull, turn them inside out, and cut away the meat, leaving the cartilage. Skin carefully around the eyes. Cut the lips close to the skull, leaving them attached to the skin. Split them from the inside and till the cut with salt. Rub plenty of salt into the flesh side of all parts of the skin, and let it dry slowly in the shade or roll it up hair side in and ship at once to a taxidermist. To butcher a deer hang it up by the hind legs, slit the skin along the middle of the breast and belly and to the end of the tail ; then along the inside of each leg. Cut off the feet at the joints and peel off the skin. Cut through the wall of the abdomen without piercing the intestines ; loosen the diaphragm at the back and sides; cut away the lower intestine close to the bone and empty out the entire contents of the carcass. Split the breastbone with a hatchet. The best cuts of vension are the saddle and haunch. To make jerked venison or " jerky " use lean meat cut into strips about one-half inch wide. Lay these side by side on a frame made of slats or poles supported about 4 feet from the ground and keep a small smoky fire going underneath until the meat is thoroughly dry. Fresh meat should be hung up and protected from flies by cheesecloth. MISCELLANEOUS. Photographs. — Photographs taken in the shade of the forest require from 5 to 15 times longer exposure than those taken in the open. Compass. — One end of the needle always has a distinguish- ing mark, but manufacturers do not always mark the same end. Make sure which end of the needle points north and remember it. 48 HANDBOOK FOR CAMPERS. Candle lanterns. — With the point of a hatchet blade cut slits about 2 inches long in the form of an X in the side of a lard pail. A candle pushed into this aperture will be held steady, and the can will shade it from the wind and serve as a reflector. To dry matches. — Carefully blot off as much water as possible with a soft cloth and then pass them through the hair a dozen times or so. A shoulder pack can be improvised as follows : Take a grain sack and place a pebble an inch or more in diameter in each of the lower corners. Tie one leg of a pair of overalls to each of these corners. (The pebble prevents the knot from slipping off.) To close the sack tie the mouth of it and the waist of the overalls tightly with a cord. The legs make comfortable shoulder straps. Chafed heels can be alleviated by rubbing soap into the socks. Also, by sticking adhesive tape on the bare heels. Getting lost. — There is little danger of a person being lost in the California mountains during the summer. Usually the worst that can happen is the possibility of an uncomfortable night in the open. The realization that one is lost is, however, often accompanied by a panicky feeling that may hurry one into diffi- culties or even into accidents. Fight against this, and keep your head. Thirty minutes' calm thought will be worth more than hours spent in aimless rushing. Don't try to travel after dark. Camp as comfortably as you can. as soon as night comes on, no matter how near to camp you think you are. You can always reach the settlements by traveling down- stream. Some of the Sierra canyons are difficult going, and it may often be better to stick to the ridges. But make sure which way the stream is flowing and travel in the same direction. Snoio blindness.' — Snow blindness may occur in mountain climbing on snow unless the eyes are protected with dark glasses. If these are unobtainable, daub a mixture of grease and charcoal on the cheeks just beneath the eyes. o HELP KEEP THE MOUNTAINS CLEAN. HELP PREVENT FIRES.