w mm aSSo mm W3& II hBoogwmu 8 WSm WW/ wBSBtil am INK Bffinufcft ISHBSrafi naBBBSmS BBQHD|l|g3G qUhRHHK W"*QCJI aaub Class U 3 &Z5 EDUCATION. WORKS OF THE SAME AUTHOR REPUBLISHED IN BOSTON BY MARSH, CAPEN AND LYON. I. Phrenology, or the doctrine of the mental phe- nomena. Vol. I. Physiological part. Vol. II. Philo- sophical part. II. Outlines of Phrenology. III. Philosophical Catechism of the Natural Laws of Man. OTHER WORKS PUBLISHED BY THE SAME AUTHOR IN ENGLISH: TO BE REPUBLISHED AS SOON AS PRACTICABLE. I. Anatomy of the brain, with eleven plates, 8vo. 14s. II. Appendix to the Anatomy of the brain, with seven lithographic plates, 3s. III. Observations on Insanity. 10s. IV. Phrenology in connection with the study of physiognomy. Part I. Characters with 34 litho- graphic plates, Royal 8vo. 22s. V. Art. of the For. Quart. Review on phrenology, with notes. Is. 6d. A VIEW OF THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION, FOUNDED ON THE STUDY OF THE NATURE OF MAN. .To K& ■ EY G. SPURZHEIM, M. D. OF THE UNIVERSITIES OF VIENNA AND PARIS, AND LICENTIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON. FIRST AMERICAN EDITION, Revised and Improved by the Author, from the third London ed. BOSTON: MARSH CAPEN AND LYON MDCCCXXXII. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by Maksh, Capis & LT05, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. PREFACE. The most important point in Anthropology, or the study of Man, is to acquire a knowledge of his Na- ture; and the next, to discover the mode in which his physical and mental constitution may be most ad- vantageously improved. Men of eminent talents have considered the principles of education worthy of their attention ; and many works have been al- ready published on this subject. It may therefore be asked, Why should another be presented: Be- cause education is still conducted in a manner very different from that in which it ought to be. Man- kind has improved less than we could wish. " There are many books, 1 ' says Helvetius, u many schools, 1* VI PREFACE. but few persons of understanding; there are many maxims, but they are seldom applied; man is old, but still a child." New elucidations of this subject, therefore, are still wanting; and I hope I shall be able to suggest some new ideas upon it. As, howev- er, many ancient and modern philosophers have examined this subject, several of my ideas may be found in other writings; but nowhere are they reduced to the principles which I have adopted, and arranged in the same order. I hope also to succeed in pointing out some new objects, interesting in themselves, and leading to important results. This, no doubt, will produce opposition. I am also aware of the active influence of prejudice, — of old habits and selfish passions ; but nothing shall de- ter me from communicating what appears to me to be founded on the immutable laws of the Creator. His authority is the only one I acknowledge in nat- ural history. Truth is independent of time; it must prevail, though it excite the hatred of the ignorant, the weak, and the jealous. The reader is requested to bear in mind, that the language in which this treatise is composed, is to the Author a foreign one. A person so situated is not PREFACE vii always a competent judge of the nicer shades of meaning attaching to the expressions which he em- ploys; and from this circumstance, together with the difficulty of commanding words to convey his ideas properly, he is liable to be betrayed into a tone of abrupt and apparently authoritative writing, quite foreign to his wish and intention. To these causes the reader is requested to impute any thing in the manner of the following pages, which may appear not suited to the circumstances or the subject. CONTENTS. Page General View 1 Definition of Education - ib. Perfectibility of Man 2 Improvement of mankind in arts and sciences 4 In religion and morality 6 Causes of the want of success in education - 11 Singleness of the human species - - 18 Utility of instruction 31 Division of education - - - 34 SECTION I. CONDITIONS OF EXCITEMENT 36 Chap. I. On the laws of hereditary descent 37 Chap. II. On the laws of the vegetative FUNCTIONS 54 Duration of life - - - - - 56 Period I. From birth to two years, or infancy 63 Temperature ... - 63 Food 65 X CONTENTS. Page Air 69 Light -..--- 70 Cleanliness ----- 71 Sleep, watching, rest, and bodily exercise - 72 Period II. From two to seven years, or childhood 74 Dentition Dietetic rules - ib- Chap. III. On the laws of exercise 84 Habit 84 Meaning of the word exercise 88 Exercise of intellectual faculties - - 91 of feelings - - - - 92 Signs, Greek and Latin - - - - 96 The means of exercising the faculties are different 114 Order of exercising the faculties - 116 Different success of exercise - - 121 Mutual instruction ----- 124 Exercise increases the organs - - - 130 Chap. IV. Mutual influence of the faculties AS MEANS OF EXCITEMENT - 133 Mnemonics ------ 135 SECTION II. ON THE DIRECTION OF THE FACULTIES - - 140 Chap. I. Importance of morality - - 141 Happiness founded more on morality than on intellect ----- 144 Chap. II. Each faculty tends to action - 148 Regulation of the mode in which gratification should bo sought - 151 CONTENTS. XI Page Proper employment of the faculties - - 153 Little effect of precepts - 154 Faculties which assist each other - - 155 Direction of amativeness and of religious feelings - 163 Objects of education - 167 Chap. III. Motives to action - 171 Superior faculties furnish the aim of our actions 173 Different motives may produce the same action 174 Selfishness and approbativeness - - 178 Chap. IV. Differences of natural endowment 185 Class I. Where the superior faculties predominate ib. Class II. Where one or several inferior, and one or several superior are very active - - 186 Class III. Where certain of the inferior faculties are strong, and all the superior weak - - ib t Class IV. Where all the faculties are middling ib. Education. to be varied with ditFerei.t individuals 188 Individuals should be placed in situations for which they are naturally fitted - 190 Chap. V. Education of the sexes - - 205 Condition of women - ib. There is a natural difference in the mental powers of the sexes ----- 207 Certain feelings stronger in women than in men 210 Certain intellectual powers stronger in men than in women ------ 215 Chap. VI. Education of nations - - 220 Chap. VII. On public and on private education 264 Conclusion ----- 266 Xll CONTENTS. APPENDIX. Page On THE CORRECTION AND REFORM OF MALEFACTORS 268 Definition of legislation - 269 Aim of legislation - 272 Means of preventing crime •.-.„_ {j^ Means of correcting malefactors - - 280 Treatment of incorrigible offenders - - 289 On illegal actions without guilt - - 294 I. Illegal actions of idiots - 295 II. Illegal actions of madmen - - 299 On illegal actions which admit of extenuating MOTIVES ------ 300 Strong mental affections - 302 Child-murder - - - - - 308 Conclusion ----- 318 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION GENERAL *VIEW. The preliminary points to be considered in this general view are, 1. The definition of the word Education ; 2. The perfectibility of mankind ; 3. The little success which has hitherto attended Education ; 4. The singleness of the human species ; — and, 5. The usefulness of Educaitf on. As to the definition of Education, I think it necessary to state, that I intend to introduce in this volume several topics which are not gene- rally considered as falling under Education in the common acceptation of the word, merely de- noting instruction in literature and accomplish- ments ; I use this term as embracing every means which can be made to act upon the vegetative, affective, and intellectual constitution of man, 2 2 EDUCATION OP MAN. for the purpose of improving this his threefold nature. Being asked what I mean by human nature ? I reply, that it is not body alone, nor mind alone, nor animal propensities, affections, or passions; nor moral feelings, nor intellect ; neither is it or- ganization in general, nor any system of the body, nor any particularity whatever ; — but human na- ture, in the proper sense of the words, compre- hends all the observable phenomena of life, from the moment of conception to that of death, both in the healthy and diseased state ; or, in short, all the manifestations both of the body and mind. The next introductory point to be elucidated is, whether human nature is susceptible of perfec- tion or degradation. In speaking of the susceptibility of being per- fected, it is not to be understood that man may lose one faculty and acquire another ;i for the fun- damental nature of man being unchangeable in body as well as in the faculties of the mind, such an event is impossible on earth.; The meaning of the proposition, therefore, can only be, whether certain powers are capable of attaining greater or less activity ; — whether some of them may pre- vail over others ; and, whether the mutual influ- ence of the faculties and their actions may be reg- ulated and well conducted. GENERAL VIEW. 3 In this latter signification alone, the answer is affirmative. (Such a perfectibility exists in all living beings. Certain qualities of plants, for in- stance, may be strengthened, increased, weakened, or diminished. Fruit trees may be modified as to their growth or fruit, their produce. Each part of the bodies of animals is subject to great variations. Animals, also, are not confined to actions which their preservation requires. They modify their conduct according to the situation in which they may be placed ; hence they are sus- ceptible of a kind of education beyond their wants. Monkeys, dogs, horses, bears, &c. can be instruct- ed to play various tricks. They have also a recollection of what has happened to them, and modify their conduct accordingly. An old fox which has escaped several snares, and knows that he is watched, takes greater precautions, and proceeds with more slyness, when he approaches the habitations of man, with a view of stealing poultry. A bird whose nest has been destroyed in a frequented place, conceives the necessity of placing it in future in a more retired situation ; and the construction of the second nest is also more solid and more perfect than that of the first. A dog resists its instinct to run after a hare, be- cause it recollects the beating it has previously received on that account. The horse avoids the stone at which it once has stumbled. There are even facts on record of learned pigs and learned canary birds. Similar examples are within the 4 EDUCATION OF MAN. knowledge of every one, and it is therefore unne- cessary to multiply them. Yet this power of modifying their actions is not unbounded in animals, but limited according to their nature. Pigeons and hares, for instance, can never be taught to hunt like falcons and dogs. Man offers similar appearances. The various modifications to which his body is liable, are known. The manifestations of the mind also vary in different persons, even in whole nations. Yet, as far as history informs us, mankind has always been essentially the same J The only dif- ference, observed at different times, has been, that the manifestations of the special powers have been more or less active, modified, and variously em- ployed. The next question is, Whether man, with re- spect to his feelings and intellect, has improved or degenerated. By some authors mankind is said to have arrived at a greater state of perfec- tion than it originally enjoyed ; while others la- ment its progressive degeneracy. The improve- ment or degeneracy of the human race, in regard to a knowledge of the external world, the prac- tice of the fine arts, and moral conduct, are par- ticularly to be examined. A detailed elucidation of these points would require a whole volume : it is my intention only to take a general view of them. GENERAL VIEW. It is superfluous to mention, that the moderns enjoy a great superiority over the ancients with respect to every branch of natural history and natural philosophy. The Baconian and true meth- od of studying Nature, founded on observation and induction, has been recently discovered and introduced. It has forwarded every kind of posi- tive knowledge in an astonishing degree. It has, however, been unfortunately neglected in the study of man, and hence his nature is but little known, (it is true, whatever it was in the power of man's reasoning faculties, unaided by observa- tion, to discover, was discovered by the ancient philosophers.^ But the knowledge of man remain- ed extremely vague and uncertain, and Phrenology alone will supply this defect, and reduce An- thropology to invariable principles. In the fine arts of imitation modern artists find it difficult to surpass the ancient masters, yet they seem to be wrong in confining themselves to mere imitation of ancient productions ; nature always remains the best model, inexhaustible in her mod- ifications, whilst by the former proceeding the arts degenerate, or their improvement, at least, is impeded. The arts of industry have undoubtedly im- proved, and political economy may be considered as a science of modern days. The state of man- kind at large is evidently better than in ancient 2* 6 EDUCATION OF MAN. times and during the ages of darkness,(and it will still improve in proportion as ignorance and im- morality are removed, and the laws of the Creator attended to. The improvement or degeneracy of man, as regards his moral and religious opinions, presents a particular interest, even with respect to his worldly happiness. Both these sorts of notions vary according to the different states of civiliza- tion, and they are, by no means, stationary, any more than the functions of every other faculty. Savages commonly believe in polytheism, and generally consider all Superior Beings as malevo- lent, and worship them through fear. People in a more cultivated state admit Superior Beings of a mixed nature, like men. The gods of the Greeks, for instance, were supposed to be endow- ed with all human feelings ; they required food and sleep. Jupiter himself was not free from the human frailties : he was jealous, often cruel and implacable. He had overturned every thing in heaven, and reduced the other gods to be his slaves. The gods of the Romans were not more noble. They were mercenary, and could be bribed by fine temples, games, and more accepta- ble sacrifices. People of little instruction divided the invisible beings into benevolent and malevo- lent. Others admitted two principles ; one benev- olent, the other malevolent ; and they acknow- GENERAL VIEW. 7 ledged also many inferior deities, as emanations from the primitive ones. Persons of more culti- vated minds believed in one supreme benevolent deity j and in inferior spirits, some benevolent, others malevolent. ( The most enlightened ac- knowledged only one Supreme Being, boundless in perfection, and the maker of every creature. The mode of worship deserves equally a pecu- liar consideration in the historv of mankind. It is always conformable to the notions entertained of the nature of the Deity, (in order to avert the wrath of the malevolent powers, and to please them, men have made themselves as miserable as possi- ble, by mortifications, flagellations, painful la- bors, sacred victims, human sacrifices, and sui- cides.' To gain the favor of manlike gods, sweet- smelling herbs, burning incense, oblations, gifts, agreeable impressions on the senses, ceremonies which illustrate a prince at his court, and various sorts of formalities, have been employed. If we compare the absurdities of Paganism, or even the imperfect doctrines of Judaism, with the purity and sublime principles of true Christianity, we shall perceive that the latter are greatly supe- rior. The Old and New Testament attribute very different qualities to the Supreme Being, and their moral precepts are very different. The old dis- pensation may be viewed as accommodated to the Jews, who were a hardhearted, stiffnecked, stub- born race. 8 EDUCATION OF MAN. The God of Israel was jealous, revengeful, ter- rible, and a God of war. He was fond of perfume, ornaments, ceremonies, burning incense, even of bloody sacrifices. He commanded his people to destroy those who forsook him, or who did not obey his commandments ; even those who kindled fire on the sabbath day. Neither brother, sister, son, daughter, husband, wife nor friend, was to be spared, if he served another god. He who knew an infidel , was forbidden to pity, conceal or save him ; on the contrary, it was his duty to stone him. (Exod. xxxv. Deuteronomy xiii.) \The God of Christians, on the contrary, is love, benevolence and charity. He is the Father of the whole of mankind, and wishes for universal hap- piness. He freely pardons, provided the sinner repent. He gives the same laws to all, makes no exception, and pays no attention to the appear- ance of persons ; he judges, punishes, or rewards every one after his actions. He is a Spirit that cannot be confined to temples, and is to be adored in spirit and in truths (John iv. Rom. ii. 1 John iv. Matt. vi. &c.) The Jews were obliged to be faithful only to those of their own race ; they were permitted to take usury from foreigners, and to hate them. David praised God in saying, " Do I not hate those who hate thee ? I hate them with perfect hatred." (Ps. exxxviii.) They were ordered to GENERAL VIEW. 9 form a separate nation, and prohibited from inter- marrying with other people. Their food was pre- scribed ; many things were inderdicted and de- clared impure. Polygamy was lawful. Solomon had seven hundred wives and three hundred con- cubines. The husband was allowed to put away his wife ; it was sufficient to write her a bill of divorcement, &c. &c. ) (How superior and more noble are the principles of Christianity : they prohibit anger, hatred and revenge, and order us not to return evil for evil ; they command forgiveness of every offence seven times in a day, and seventy times seven, if asked for ; to love our enemies ; to bless them that curse us, and to do good to them that hate us. They interdict all selfish passions, and declare our neighbor every one who does the will of God. Christ asked to drink of a woman of Samaria, whilst the Jews had no dealings with that nation. He associated with Jews and Gentiles, ate with publicans and sinners, and declared those only who do the will of his heavenly Father, to be his mother, sister or brother^ No food is an abomination to Christians. Christ said, u Not that which enters into the mouth defiles a man ;" and St. Paul declares to the Romans, cc I know and am persuaded by the Lord Jesus, that there is nothing unclean in itself," Christ permitted only one wife, and 10 EDUCATION OF MAN. in this respect re-established the law as it was from the beginning of the creation. (Mark x. 6.) Before the Christian dispensation, empires were founded by the sword, and by the most cruel and frightful destruction of the vanquished. ^Christ declared, that he came, not to destroy men's lives, but to save them ; that he who exalts himself shall be abased. He made no distinction among persons, and considered love and peace as the aim of all commandments.) He only pro- posed the doctrine of his heavenly Father for the acceptance of mankind, and did not enforce it by the sword. He directed his disciples only to shake off the dust of their feet in departing out of that house or city where they had not been courteously received, or where their words had not been attended to."\ The superiority of the Christian principles above the Jewish law is evident. St. Paul said to the Hebrews (iii.), that " Christ is more wor- thy than Moses ;" and (vii. 20.) "by so much was Christ made a surety of a better Testa- ment;" and, (viii. 7.) "if the first Covenant had been faultless, then should noplace have been found for the second." True Christianity really improves the moral and religious character of a Jew. GENERAL VIEW. 11 In regard to morality, it is indeed impossible to establish better principles than have been pointed out in the new Testament. But since these rules, unexampled in ancient legislation, have been established, the followers of Christiani- ty have often fallen back to many of the contempt- ible doctrines of the heathen. Many points of im- portance have been neglected, and trifles adhered to. Pretended Christians, for instance, have dis- puted, whether it be permitted or not, to eat meat on certain days, in the same manner as Mahome- dans dispute, whether coffee be or be not prohib- ited in the Koran. Notwithstanding these abuses, however, it is certain, that the precepts of moral and religious conduct have improved by degrees ; and that many selfish and absurd opinions will be rectified, as soon as human nature shall be better understood. True Christianity will gain, by every step which is made in the knowledge of man. Let us now see whether Education is advanced as much as may be desirable. Unfortunately we find, that notwithstanding the sublime principles of Christian morality, and the numerous master- pieces of arts and sciences, it is a lamentable truth, that hitherto education has succeeded less than the friends of humanity wish for. Indeed, if we ex- amine its influence on the improvement of man- kind, a thousand years is like a day that is past. (Who has not seen children of the most pious and 12 EDUCATION OF MAN. exemplary parents indulge in scepticism, and plunge themselves into profanity and vice ? And who has not observed that licentiousness often pre- vails in the most enlightened and refined classes of society ? Who has not observed very limited talents appear in the offspring of men of the greatest genius ? / Now the inferences to be drawn from such facts are, that either the education has not been adapted to the natural dispositions of those individuals, or that every one is not capable of receiving the full effect of a good education ; and as man in general hitherto has little improved by education, we must conclude that either he is less perfectible than we may wish for, or that the true means of improvement have not been employ- ed. The latter cause seems to me the most prob- able, and it may be principally accounted for by our ignorance of the nature of man. Plants and animals succeed only if treated according to their natural qualities, and the education of man will not and cannot succeed without adapting it to his nature. J Some philosophers have endeavored to degrade man to a level with the brute ; while others have fancied that he has nothing whatever in common with the animal kingdom. By some the faculties of man are considered as the result of external im- pressions and accidental circumstances ; while others believe that the existence of each person, and all the phenomena of that existence, are the effects of predestination. GENERAL VIEW. 13 (I shall mention a few particulars concerning the great error, according to which the champions of education consider new-born children as blank paper, on which they can mark every impression. But, under such a supposition, why are children of the same family so different ? Why can teachers not communicate their own talents to every pupil ? Why cannot every one, who understands the mas- terpieces of genius, produce similar effects ? Why is not every poet a Homer, — every musician a Handel, a Mozart, a Haydn, — every historian a Tacitus, — every speaker a Demosthenes, — every painter a Raphael ? ) The rules which lead to perfection being pointed out, it would be easy for every one to put them into practice, if no innate powers were necessary. ( Experience, then, forces us to decide entirely against such speculative as- sertions ; those who have been engaged in con- ducting education are convinced that they are in- capable of producing those talents and feelings in children which they could wish ; and those who assert the contrary, maintain only dreams, and in- stead of observing nature, indulge in their fancy. Many defenders of education wish to persuade us, that the first impressions in early age deter- mine the direction of the mind. I do not deny their influence, but it is less than it is generally supposed to be. Children, in their early years, are almost exclusively intrusted to the care of fe- males, yet boys and girls show from the earliest 3 14 EDUCATION OP MAN. infancy their distinctive characters ; and this di£ ference between the sexes continues through life. (k marked variety of tempers and capacities may be observed in children, as soon as they are sus- ceptible of any impression} Children, like adult persons, are differently affected by the same ex- ternal circumstances. Impressions, also, it is to be observed, are more or less permanent. How often, in the maturity of age, when the activity of the mind is the greatest, does it happen, that we are at one time perfectly acquainted with a sub- ject, but afterwards forget it, as if we had never known it ? How, then, is it possible to believe, that individual impressions, received at a period when the mind is almost inactive, determine the character or the mental capacities of a child for his whole life ? K)n the other hand, it is well known, that many individuals turn out very dif- ferent from what they appeared at an earlier period of life. It must therefore be allowed, that the above mentioned opinion is destitute of all support from experience. \ 1 do not hesitate to maintain, that education must fail, as long as we continue to think that children are born alike, and may receive, with equal advantage, every kind of education. If J. J. Rousseau had taken care of his children instead of sending them to the public hospital, he would have detected his erroneous conceptions : he would have observed, that Nature implants certain kinds GENERAL VIEW. 15 of feeling ; that education only weakens, or invig- orates and refines them ; that children react on ex- ternal circumstances, according to their natural dispositions ; and that it is necessary to adapt ed- ucation to the nature of individuals.^ Hence, the first thing to be done, is to trace back the facul- ties of children to their origin. Such a know- ledge will contribute to the advancement of arts and sciences, and to the improvement of moral conduct, by suggesting suitable means for direct- ing the energies of children to the objects which they are most fitted by nature to attain. '(There are few subjects," says Dugald Stewart, "more hackneyed than that of education, and yet there is none upon which the opinions of the world are still more divided. Nor is this surprising ; for most of those who have speculated concerning it, have confined their attention chiefly to incidental questions about the comparative advantage of pub- lic or private instruction, the utility of peculiar language or sciences, without attempting a pre- vious examination of those faculties and principles of the mind, which it is the great object of edu- cation to improve,!' — (Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, p. 62.) Another great error in education, also founded on our ignorance of the human nature, is, that every teacher takes himself as a model for his pupils. \ What he likes and learns with facility, he supposes ought to be equally liked and learned 16 EDUCATION OF MAN. by every other person ; while in every child, the feelings and intellectual faculties, though essen- tially the same, are modified in quantity and qual- ity. ) Hitherto, on account of none of the systems of education being founded on a correct analysis of the faculties of man, education has been con- ducted altogether in a general way ; and hence almost every individual who thinks for himself when arrived at the age of maturity, has found it necessary to begin a new course of education, according to his individual character and talents. Still another point, hitherto not sufficiently un- derstood in education, concerns the organic con- ditions on which the manifestations of the mind depend. This is the object of a new doctrine, and is detailed in my work on Phrenology, Vol. I. Education, though it does not create any power whatever, may produce great effect ; but to that purpose its whole system must be changed, and this will be done in proportion as the nature of man becomes known, and as it will be acknow- ledged that man must be perfected like other created beings. He is the disciple of nature, and must submit to the determined sway which pre- vails in her government. He errs the moment he ceases to observe, and begins to excogitate. The construction of a system of education cannot be a creative but an imitative process, which must be founded only on the lessons of experience. Here, as GENERAL VIEW. 17 in the cultivation of every other science, it is not by the exercise of a sublime and speculative in- genuity, that man arrives at truth, but it is by let- ting himself down to simple observation, — by re- jecting equally the authority of antiquity, and of eminent contemporaries, when in opposition to nature ;— by sacrificing every consideration that opposes the evidence of observation, and its legit- imate and well established conclusions ; — by being able to renounce all the favorite opinions of in- fancy, the moment that truth demands the sacrifice ; — in short, by following only the lights of obser- vation and induction?; u Does not our happiness depend," says a contemporary writer, " on the knowledge of the various relations which man bears to his fellow man and to his God, and the practice of the duties which they impose ; and how are we to discover these relations, except by the assistance of reason, operating on experience ? Can false view r s of human nature, and its attributes, increase the happiness of the human race individ- ually ; or can political society, framed on such erroneous principles, attain the end for which alone society was framed ? c Deception and men- dacity are always regarded in the common and every day intercourse of life as base and odious, — Is it then only upon subjects of the highest im- portance to man, that he may be deceived without danger or detestation ? " (Retrospective Review, No. I. p. 71.) I concur entirely in these senti- ments. 18 EDUCATION OF MAN. My ideas on the nature of man, on his funda- mental powers ; on their innateness ; on the con- ditions of their manifestations in this life ; on the moral liberty, and several other points, are ex- posed, with details, in works entitled, Physiologi- cal and Philosophical Principles of Phrenology. I suppose these points to be known to those who take up this volume, composed merely with phre- nological views, and founded on mere phrenologi- cal principles. In treating of Education and Legislation, it seems important to examine, Whether there is only one species of the human race, or whether there are several ? The great variety of bodily and mental appearances ; — of features, complexion, size and configuration ; — of feelings and intellec- tual powers, — must strike the most superficial observer. The causes of these differences have been examined, and various hypotheses have been invented to account for them. Some authors have had recourse to dine rent original species; others have accounted for these modifications, by the common laws of nature. It is indeed natural to ask, Whether a Negro and a White Man, a Dwarf and a Giant, a Hottentot and Lord Bacon, are of the same species ? Whether the Cannibal, whose earthly and expected heavenly pleasures are gratifications of the low animal passions, and the true Christian, full of kindness and benignity ; GENERAL VIEW. 19 whether he whose ingenuity is exercised merely in destruction and devastation, and he who be- holds all creatures as objects of Divine providence and beneficence, were originally formed after the same image ? If there be several species of Man, there can be no universal principles of human conduct ; — hu- man nature cannot be included in any one system ; and the rules which are suitable for one nation will not be fit for another. If, on the contrary, there be only one species ; — general principles of education, general rules of conduct, and national laws, may be established. Moreover, if there were several species, and one superior to the others, the White to the Negro, for example, slavery might be contended for as an institution of Nature ; but if the species be only one, neither the primitive moral character, nor Christianity, can excuse this most selfish of all barbarities. I will not consider the arguments of those who, from inferior motives without any respect for hu- man dignity, and without any religious or moral principles, or reproaches of conscience, force other people to become the mere instruments of their selfish gratification. I shall examine only the reasons which natural history offers in support of the one or other opinion : that the human race consists of one species or of several. These rea- sons may be drawn from the external qualities of gO EDUCATION OP MAN. the body, such as size, configuration and com- plexion ; its internal structure ; the laws of pro- pagation ; and the manifestations of the mind. In the elucidation of this important object, it is not sufficient to examine the external qualities alone. Such a proceeding is like that of Lin- naeus, who classed the animals according to their external appearances, and not according to their nature : or like that of a librarian who should class books according to their shape, size or bind- ing, without regard to their contents. Man is found in all climates ; and hence some philosophers have inferred that there are several species of man. These philosophers reasoned by analogy, stating, that each climate has its own species of men in the same way as plants and animals are adapted to hot, temperate and frigid regions. Plants which grow in the torrid zone, perish in a cold climate, and those which flourish upon mountains decay on being removed to a plain. The rein-deer, say they, is confined to the frozen region, and the white bear cannot live in a southern climate ; while the elephant, rhinoceros, and many other animals, do not prosper in the frigid zone. Hence Nature has destined and fitted different beings for different climates, and she has guarded them against the natural vicissi- tudes of the seasons. To this end, in cold coun. tries, animals are protected with more fat, and GENERAL VIEW. 21 thicker hair. The same rule explains why plants and animals lose their qualities when removed from their native climate ; and why, in several countries, the stock requires to be continually re- newed. In northern countries, for instance, flax degenerates, and a quantity of seed is annually imported from southern regions. In the same way, to preserve, in some degree of perfection, the breed of Arabian and Barbary horses, fre- quent supplies from their original climates are requisite. Lord Kames, (Sketches of the History of Man, vol. I.) one of the principal champions of the opinion that there are different species of man, in- sists much on observations of this kind, and thinks them conclusive. He supports his assertions, by observing, that men, in changing climate, usually fall sick, and often run the risk of losing their lives. This argument, however, is not decisive. The plants and animals adapted to different cli- mates, are evidently of different species. This is not the case with the varieties of men. Moreover, as plants and animals can by no means alter or regulate the effect of external influences upon themselves, it is conceivable that peculiar species, fitted for every climate, should be created. Man, on the contrary, is able to remove obstacles, to overcome difficulties, and to modify, in a high degree, the effect of external circumstances upon his nature. On the other hand, the argument of 22 EDUCATION OF MAN. analogy is not even general ; for several animals, such as pigs, dogs, and others, follow man, and, sheltered by him, live in all climates. It is certain that great changes of climate pro- duce diseases. We must observe, however, that it is not a great difference of climate alone that produces this effect, but that all sudden changes of season, weather, situation, and mode of living, also expose us to the loss of health. In America, says the Reverend Dr. Smith, (" On the Varieties of Men," p. 119.) "we are liable to disorders by removing incautiously from a northern to a south- ern State ; but it would be absurd to conclude, that the top of every hill, and the bank of every river, is therefore inhabited by a different species, because in the one we enjoy less health than in the other. The constitution becomes attempered in a degree even to an unhealthy region, and then it feels augmented symptoms of disorder on re- turning to the most salubrious air and water ; but does this prove that Nature never intended such men to drink clear water, or to breathe in a pure atmosphere?" It may be added, that there are diseases of professions as well as of climates. Shall we maintain, therefore, that there is a spe- cies of man for every profession ? Captain Cook, Captain Krusenstern, and other navigators, have proved, that, with sufficient care, man can bear great changes of air, temperature, season and weather. They have preserved the health of their GENERAL VIEW. 23 erews in long voyages, and in the most dissimilar climates. The human constitution is known, from positive observation, to become in time assimilated to every climate ; and the offspring of foreigners, at length endure, like the aborigines, the external influence without injury. Thus, the argument that sudden changes of climate have a tendency to produce diseases, or even death, does not prove that there are several species of man. The Reverend Dr. Smith has clearly shown, from another argument, quoted from Lord Kames, that the latter was too credulous ; that he was de- ceived by erroneous reports of superficial observ- ers ; and that he did not sufficiently understand the pliancy of the human constitution, which ena- bles it to adapt itself to every climate, and to all external circumstances. The last remark that Lord Kames makes, is a striking example against his own assertion. He says, that " the Portuguese colony on the coast of Congo, has in course of time degenerated so much, that they scarcely re- tain the appearance of men." Another assertion of his, is a complete specimen of his credulity. He is of opinion that the Giagas, a nation in Afri- ca, could not have descended from the same original with the rest of mankind, because, unlike to others, they are void of natural affection ; kill all their own children as soon as they are born, and supply their places with youths stolen from neighboring tribes. Common sense, however, 24 EDUCATION OF MAN. would answer, that if such a species were created, it could not continue longer than the primitive stock endured. The stolen youth would resemble their parents, not those who adopted them, and would soon be the sole constituents of the nation. Yet Lord Kames thought that the Giagas formed a peculiar species, who continued from generation to generation to kill their children ! All organized beings are modified by external influences, though their primitive nature is never changed. There is certainly no reason to believe that every kind of apple, pear, or other fruit-tree which we see in our gardens, has been the subject of a distinct creation, these varieties being pro- duced by degrees. The specific character, how- ever, is constantly the same ; and one tree can never be changed into another, — an apple-tree, for instance, into a pear-tree. The same law of modification prevails among animals. Their size, color, and other qualities, are very different in different climates. There are varieties of horses eight times smaller than other races. Some goats have no horns ; others have several. The pigs, also, of Scotland, Ire- land, and Hungary, are very different, but it would be irrational to admit as many primitive species of these animals as there are varieties. Their specific character is always the same, and a pig can never be changed into a sheep. GENERAL VIEW. 25 As the body of man is subjected to the general laws of organization, why should it also not un- dergo considerable changes, and present great dif- ferences of appearance ? This matter, on account of its importance, deserves to be examined more at large. One of the most striking differences perceptible in the human race, as well as in animals, is to be found in the skin and hair, which are in the most intimate relation with each other, and indeed re- ceive their nourishment from the same blood-ves- sels. They vary in thickness and color, and evi- dently depend on climate. The ermine and weasel change the color of their hair in summer and win- ter. The fur of wild animals grows thicker in cold weather, while under the heat of the torrid zone, the hair is coarse. Among horses, oxen, rabbits, and other animals, some individuals of the same species are brown, black, or white, and why should it be thought absurd that there should be also variously colored men ? The only difference in this respect betwixt man and animals, seems to be, that man resists longer the influence of external circumstances, and that his skin requires a greater difference of cli- mate to change its color. It is a fact, however, that heat and extreme cold thicken the skin of man and darken his color. We might naturally expect, what is indeed the case, that changes of 4 26 EDUCATION OF MAN. the skin produced by climate, should take effect in a longer or a shorter time, according to the different degrees of civilization ; for example, sav- ages being exposed to the influence of climate, suf- fer its full force : while civilized nations obviate, or even greatly prevent its influence. Among the physical qualities of man, com- plexion is the most easily changed. The Portu- guese in Africa are become black, but thev have preserved their original configuration. The Jews in northern countries are fair ; they become brown and tawney towards the south, but their con- figuration does not undergo proportionate changes. It seems difficult to say whether the original color of man was white or black ; but it is certain that white people grow black sooner than negroes become white. On the other hand, difference of size and form does not prove the existence of several species of man, more than that of several animals which va- ry greatly in this respect. The swine carried from Europe to Cuba acquires double its original magnitude. It is the same with the oxen in Para- guay. Climate, diet, and the manner of living, may produce such differences. Young animals of the same litter, treated with care, or neglected, well fed or reduced to starvation, will be quite different in shape and size. Children, when neg- GENERAL VIEW. 27 lected, are emaciated, sallow, and their feature* coarse and meagre. The poor, exposed to exces- sive hardships, are apt to become deformed, and diminutive in their persons : whilst luxury and excess also tend to debilitate and disfigure the hu- man constitution. Determinate feelings, too. when permanent and habitual, change the countenance and external ap- pearance. The most effectual means of producing differ ences. and of preserving those which exist, is pro- pagation : and on this subject I shall hereafter en ter more into detail. Thus, the external differences of mankind may be explained by known natural causes, and are no proofs that there are several original species. A sound philosophy never assigns without necessity. ■different causes for similar effects. Small influ- ences, acting constantly, will necessarily produce. jn time, conspicuous changes in mankind : just as a succession oi drops of water falling on the hard- est rock makes a cavity. The first alteration in the external appearance of man is observed in the countenance, the next in the complexion, and the last in the size and configuration. It may be added, that man may live every where, the flexibility of his body supporting dif- 28 EDUCATION OF MAN. ferent impressions ; — moreover, no obstacle, nei- ther river nor sea, prevents him from continuing his excursions ; — he transports with him animals and vegetables, and prepares by art what he can- not use in the natural state ; and he knows how to shelter himself and other useful beings against noxious influences from without. The internal structure of the body of man, also indicates that there is only one species. To prove that there are several, it would be necessary to show that the number of the essential parts is not the same in all ; that Europeans, for instance, possess certain parts which Negroes have not. Whoever could demonstrate, that one part of the brain in Europeans is wanting in Negroes, would Drove that there is a natural difference between them ; I hope during my stay jn the Uniieu States, to be able to examine the brains of Negroes and to ascertain that the same essential parts exist in them, subject, merely, to modifications, as it is the case in different individuals of the white race. Another argument to prove that there is only one species of Man, may be founded on the mani- festations of the mind. Every where, and at all times, the same primitive faculties, however modi- fied the actions flowing from them may be, are to be observed. Negroes, in general, are inferior to Europeans ; yet some of the former excel in mu- sic, mathematics, and philosophy. Blumenbach (GENERAL VIEW. 29 (Goetting. Magazine, t. iv. p. 421.) and Bishop Gregory have collected the names of Negroes fa- mous for their talents. Herder and Raynal, in various passages of their works, quote instances of extraordinary virtue and morality observed among savages and barbarous nations. It has been reported, that there are nations with- out religious feelings ; but more exact inves- tigation has shown, that religious ceremonies existed, but had been mistaken for mere social amusements, such as dancing, singing, and fight- ing. It has frequently happened, that descrip- tions of savage nations have been given by trav- ellers, who neither knew their language, nor the signification of their manners and customs. Almost all reports of this kind are founded on sin- gle observations. How erroneous, therefore, must they be, and how little to be relied on, particularly when they describe the customs of nations hostile to strangers. It is known, that savages frequently steal from foreigners, while they continue faithful to each other, like several criminals in Europe, who show great attachment and justice towards each other, and rather suffer the greatest torments than betray their companions and friends, but who do not spare either the goods or the lives of other individuals. If a traveller, accustomed to the most brilliant ceremonies of religion, w r ere to meet with a sect of the followers of Confucius, who have neither temple nor priests, nor any form of 4* 30 EDUCATION OF MAN. external worship ; who adore the Supreme Being in mere inward contemplation, and in the practice of moral virtue, and he had no direct means of communication with them, might he not easily be led to think, that they professed no religion what- ever ? Hence, it is important to distinguish be- twixt, the faculties themselves and their applica- tion. Attachment, for instance, may act with re- spect to our native country, — to our friends, — to animals, — or to other objects, — yet the primitive impulse is the same in all these instances, although the external applications are very different. Cour- age may be shown in self-defence, or in defending others. He who is fond of approbation, may adorn himself with ear-rings, with girdles, with chains, or embroidery. Religious people, in like manner, may pay divine honors to a bull, to a serpent, to the sun, to saints, or to the God of Christians ; — they may howl to the glory of invisible beings, or worship one Deity, by singing psalms, or by the practice of moral virtue, and all of these acts may flow from the same primitive tendency to venera- tion. Finally, propagation is considered as a means of determining whether animals belong to the same or to different species, according as they can or cannot engender together, or as their issue can or cannot procreate. Tried by this test, also, we must conclude that mankind form but one spe- cies. GENERAL VIEW. 31 However, it ought to be observed, that natural history can show only the possibility of mankind being derived from one original species, which, by degrees, has undergone various changes ; but it cannot prove the reality of this fact, any more than it can ascertain whether the original color of man was white or black, or whether one or two pairs of each species of animals were created at the beginning. Thus, in the following considerations, I shall take it for granted, that mankind is only one spe- cies, comprehending various races, endowed with the same primitive powers of body and mind. Yet, as the sense of smell, attachment, or courage, &c, is stronger in one dog, or in one race of dogs, than in another ; so such or such a faculty may be more active in one man, or in one tribe, than in another, though both races are essentially of the same species. There remains an important introductory point to be considered, viz., whether education, princi- pally instruction, is useful ; or, in other words, whether it is better to leave the common people in ignorance, or to instruct all classes of society ? To answer this query in a satisfactory manner, let us remember that the human mind embraces feelings and intellectual faculties ; that intellect does not produce feelings, but that the latter are 3£ EDUCATION OF MAN. the main causes of our actions. Hence it is a great mistake to, confine education to intellectual in- struction. /Education, then, if well conducted, em- braces both feelings and intellect, and improves both the body and mind. A few observations however, will prove that intellectual education is preferable to ignorance. There is a great difference in the actions of all nations, through the different states of civilization. The history of each at the beginning is stigmatized with assassination, parricides, incest, and violation of the most sacred oaths. The selfish passions, then, appear to have enjoyed an overwhelming power ; and all enjoyments sprung from the grati- fication of the lower propensities. In periods of ignorance, too, all nations confined moral virtue to themselves, and supposed the rest of nature destined to be their prey. Legislation corres- ponding with the national character at the begin- ning, is sanguinary ; and capital punishment is common. Nay, it falls not on the criminals alone, but also on their relations, and on whole districts. Their religion is founded on terror, their gods are endowed with all the lower feelings and affec- tions such as selfishness, jealousy, wrath, and fond- ness for dreadful actions and expiatory sacrifices. If thev hope for immortality, the scenes which they expect are conformable to their actual feel- ings ; triumph over enemies, gratification of lower passions, and sensual pleasures. The whole ten- GENERAL VIEW. 33 dency of the mind is atrocity ; and their actions might almost be denominated a series of horrid crimes. I doubt whether those who consider the savage state so worthy of commendation, would be disposed to give up the comforts of civilization, and be satisfied with the food, clothing, habita- tions and accommodations of Barbarians ; whether they would prefer roots, acorns, nuts, insects and other animals, at the sight of which we shudder, as their food, to the preparation of a skilful cook ; whether they would be better pleased with clothes made of the skins of animals, of leaves or of grass, than with woollen, cotton, linen, or silk habili- ments ? Whether they would like to exchange our comfortable rooms for a hollow tree, for the cavity of a rock, a den under ground, a hut of reeds, or of turf and branches of trees ? Finally, Whether they would seriously think the rough at- tempts of savages at painting and sculpture, equal to the statues of Phidias, and the paintings of Raphael ? In following the history of mankind, we observe, that, in proportion as nations cultivate their moral and intellectual powers, atrocious actions diminish in number ; the manners and pleasures become more refined, the legislation milder, the religion purified from superstition, and the arts address themselves to the finer emotions of the mind. ( By observing also the different classes of society, and the inhabitants of different provinces, we 34 EDUCATION OF MAN. learn, that ignorance is the greatest enemy of mo rality.") Wherever education is neglected, de- pravity, and every kind of actions which degrade mankind, are the most frequent. Among ignorant persons, cceteris paribus, rapacity, cheating, and thieving, drunkenness, and sensual pleasures, are prominent features in the character. ) Those then who object to the instruction of the lower orders, can merely act from selfish mo- tives. Being aware of their superiority, they may wish the inferior classes to be obedient to their arbitrary regulations ; for unquestionably, it is much easier to lead the ignorant and uncultivated than the instructed and reasoning people. Know- ledge too, and the habit of reflection, detect abuses and errors, which selfishness and pride may wish to keep concealed. (But whoever thinks it right to cultivate his own mind, cannot with justice desire others to remain in ignorance. He, there- fore, who is versed in history, or understands the law of Christian charity, will join those who con- tend for the benefit of an instruction adapted to every class of society. This then will not be con- fined to reading and writing, but particularly ex- tended over the moral conduct and all duties and rights in practical life. The education of the body is called Physical, that of the mind, Moral. It is impossible to de- cide by observation, whether education modifies the mind itself. We can only show, that we may GENERAL VIEW. 35 exercise an influence on the instruments by which the powers of the mind manifest themselves. Hence, the study of the organization is necessary, even with respect to the moral education of man ; and for that reason, I avoid the common division of education into physical and moral, though I find it proper to divide the following considera- tions on education into two Sections. In the first, I shall speak of the conditions which contribute to the greater or less activity of the powers of the body and of the mind ; and in the second, of their aim and direction. 36 SECTION I. ON THE CONDITIONS OF EXCITEMENT J OR THOSE WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE ACTIVITY OF THE INNATE POWERS OF THE BODY AS WELL AS OF THE MIND. These important inquiries are not sufficiently understood, and are therefore too generally alto- gether overlooked. They, however, deserve the most serious attention of every natural philoso- pher. Our reflections on them may be divided into four Chapters, corresponding to the natural divisions of the conditions of excitement them- selves. The first condition is founded on the Laws of hereditary descent ; the second on those of the Vegetative Functions ; the third on Exer- cise ; and the fourth on the Mutual Influence of the Powers. 37 CHAPTER I. ON THE LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. The developement of the human body is fa- vored, retarded, or disordered, according to the general laws of organization, in the same way as that of other living beings. Consequently chil- dren participate in the bodily configuration and constitution of their parents, and also in their ten- dencies to particular manifestations of the mind, these being dependent on the individual parts of the brain. The elucidation of these subjects is indispensable to a sound system of education. Nay, I am convinced, that this condition exerts a greater and more permanent influence than any other which can be introduced with the view of perfecting mankind. Let us first consider how other organized beings are improved. Florists, pomologists, and horticulturists, are aware that Nature produces the varieties of plants, and they observe the circumstances which are fa- vourable to the improvement of certain qualities. 38 EDUCATION OF MAN. They know that the first and most important point is ripe and well-conditioned seed ; — the second a fertile and convenient soil. In short, it is a fact, that, in order to improve the vegetable kingdom, propagation is attended to. In perfecting animals, or in promoting their peculiar qualities, such as the color or figure of horses, the wool of sheep, the smell of dogs, #c. country people have recourse to the laws of pro- pagation. By these means, farmers have suc- ceeded in diminishing or increasing various parts of animals, such as their bones, muscles, &c. We might naturally suppose, that it would be sufficient to mention the fact, that the organiza- tion of man is submitted to the same general laws as that of animals, to induce reasonable beings to take at least the same care of their own offspring as of their sheep, pigs, dogs and horses. But man wishes to make himself an exception from the immutable laws of the Creator, and the result of his ignorance and self-conceit is lamentable.) As this subject is of the utmost importance, I shall enter into a few details upon it. For the sake of bodily health, many natural philosophers, a long time ago, insisted on the necessity of a better regulation of marriage. \ Their benevolent desire was supported by the constant observation, that health depends on or- LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 39 ganization, and that the latter is propagated by- birth. " Sir John Sebright," says Dr. Adams, (On the Pretended Hereditary Diseases, p. 33.) " informs us, that if a flock of sheep, in which there is any defect, are permitted to breed in and in, the defect will gradually increase among them ; and Colonel Humphries, by selecting for breeding a marked variety, has succeeded in pro- curing a flock with deformed bones." / Dr. Adams adds, that if the same causes operate in man, we may impute to it many endemic peculiarities found in certain districts, which have hitherto been imputed to the water, and other localities. (Those who have more confidence in facts than in speculative reasoning, cannot doubt that the qualities of the body are hereditary?) There are family-faces, family-likenesses ; and also single parts, such as bones, muscles, hair and skin, which resemble in parents and in children.* The disposition to various disorders, as to gout, scro- fula, dropsy, hydrocephalus, consumption, deaf- ness, epilepsy, apoplexy, idiotism, insanity, &c. is frequently the inheritance of birth. There are few families where there is not one part of the body weaker than the rest, — the lungs, for in- stance, the eyes, the stomach, liver, intestines, some other viscus, the brain, &c. (Children born of healthy parents, and belong- ing to a strong stock, always bring into the world 20 EDUCATION OF MAN. a system formed by nature to resist the causes of disease ; while the children of delicate, sickly parents, are overpowered by the least unfavorable circumstance. Medical men know very well, that in curing diseases, nature is oftentimes more powerful than art, and that the latter is ineffectual, if not assisted by the former. Longevity also de- pends more on innate constitution than on the skill of physicians. ) Is it not then astonishing, that this knowledge, as a practical piece of infor- mation, is not taught to and disseminated among young people ? ) Indeed, it ought to be familiarly and generally known ; not because it is expected that every one would be reasonable enough to re- gulate his conduct by it, but in order to induce as many as possible to do so.- A great number are too selfish to be guided in their own enjoyments by a regard to the condition of their offspring ; but many, on the other hand, who reflect on the future, may be induced to avoid, even from a selfish motive, a union with a person who will be likely to embitter their future days.' Even the unthinking must perceive, that the enjoyments of life are rendered impossible, when diseases make their ravages in a family ; and that love for the most part ceases, when poverty takes up its abode in the house. ^ Others, who wish to live in their posterity, will, when acquainted with the immu- table laws of the Creator, submit to them, in order to lay a foundation for the prosperity of their de- scendants. The physical education, then, of both LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 41 sexes deserves the greatest attention and it is impardonable to neglect that of girls. ' The laws of hereditary 'descent should be at- tended to, not only with respect to organic life, but also to the manifestations of the mind, since these depend on the nervous system, there are many examples on record, of certain feelings, or intellectual powers, being inherent in whole fami- lies. Now, if it be ascertained that the hereditary condition of the brain is the cause, there is a great additional motive to be careful in the choice of a partner in marriage. No person of sense can be indifferent about having selfish or benevo- lent, stupid or intelligent children. An objection may be made against the doctrine of hereditary effects resulting from the laws of propagation, viz. That men of great talents often have children of little understanding, and that in large families there are individuals of very dif- ferent capacities. This observation shows at least that the chil- dren are born with different dispositions, and it proves nothing against the laws of propagation. The young ones' of animals that propagate indis- criminately, are very different ; but when the races are pure, and all conditions attended to, the nature of the young can be determined before- 5* 42 EDUCATION OF MAN. hand. As long as the races of mankind are mixed, their progeny must vary extremely. But let persons of determinate dispositions breed in and in, and the races will become distinct. (More- over, the condition of the mother is commonly less valued than it ought to be. (It is, however, ob- served, that boys commonly resemble their mother and girls their father, and that men of great talents generally descend from intelligent mothers^ But as long as eminent men are married to partners of inferior capacities, the' qualities of the offspring must be uncertain.^ The Arabs seem to understand the great importance of females, since they do not allow to sell a female horse to foreigners and note the nobility of their horses after the females.\ The age of propagation too is not indifferent. Animals are not permitted to propagate at all ages, neither too young nor to old, but in the period of their strength, v. Men of talents and science often marry when their body, particularly the nervous system, is exhausted by protracted studies and debilitating causes. They are seldom rich from birth, and their condition rarely allows them to choose during the period of their greatest energy ; yet they might often accomplish more than they do to the benefit of their offspring, were they better acquainted with the laws of the here- ditary descent, and the dependence of the mind on the organization of the body, and would they LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 43 submit to appreciate such laws more than fashion- able manners and customs^ The age of the parents is to be considered both in regard to their own health, and to the constitu- tion of their children. Young trees which bring forth fruit are weak ; animals that propagate their species too early in life, generally do not grow strong. Many women who marry when very young, and bear a very numerous family, become early victims to an exhausted constitution. Farther, the fruit of young plants is imperfect. The eggs of young birds are very small ; the pro- geny of young quadrupeds is feeble and diminu- tive ; and, in like manner, the offspring of living beings, when old, is weak. Such a progeny, therefore, is never destined, by country people, to the preservation of the species. Moses forbade the Jews to bring up the firstling males of animals. (Deut. xv. 19 — 23.) When both parents marry early in life, and have a numerous family, the eldest children commonly possess less talent than those who are born during the period of vigor of their parents.) The laws of degeneration belong to those of he- reditary descent and deserve a peculiar attention. They again are general throughout all nature. (Plants cultivated on the same spot degenerate. Wheat must alternate with barley, flax, potatoes, 44 EDUCATION OF MAN. or other plants. Where firs will no longer grow, beeches will succeed, i The seed of plants that de- generate, ought not to Be taken for propagation, for they at length perish entirely : nor ought the sickly organization of one tree to be engrafted on another. In this way, we see an explanation why the same sort of fruit-trees dies in whole districts, the external circumstances of which are unfavora- ble^ The sickly condition of the tree is constant- ly propagated, and it dies at last by the continual and noxious influence from without. All trees, or parts of the same tree, perish a little sooner, or resist a little longer than others, on account of the influence of the branch on which they are en- grafted. The same law of degeneration prevails in ani- mals. Various circumstances weaken their con- stitution, and, among various conditions, to pre- vent degeneration, it is necessary to cross the breed, and to renew the blood. The degeneration of man, too, is certain, in fam- ilies who intermarry among themselves* Uncles and nieces, or first cousins, or cousins who commit this error for several generations, have no chil- dren, or their progeny is commonly feeble.) The smaller the number of choice, the quicker the de- generation takes place, and no class of society can be made an exception from this law.) Any bodily or mental affliction which may happen to originate LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 45 in one individual soon affects such families. This frequently happens among the rich and high ranks ; and, as their manner of living is not con- ducive to bodily strength, it is quite natural that there should be so many living proofs of the truth of this proposition, which invites the friends of humanity to admire the law of compensation. The great influence of propagation is ascertained also by the fact, that it is infinitely more easy by it to keep up natural changes, and even deformi- ties, than to produce them by art. (Deaf people often have children with the same defect ; while circumcision among the Jews and Mahomedans has not yet become superfluous. It is more probable that a man born without an arm should have chil- dren like himself than that he should do so whose arm has been taken off by the knife of the sur- geon. |The laws of hereditary descent are still visible, since the greater number of first-born children are girls ; since in one year more girls, in another more boys are born ; since, when old and weak men marry young and vigorous females, the great- er number of their children are girls, &c. These effects must have adequate causes, and by more patient attention to the phenomena than has hith- erto been paid, some valuable conclusions might be arrived at. May not the particular and tran- sient state of the same parents, at different periods, 46 EDUCATION OF MAN. account, in some degree, for the differences in their children ? At all events, the bodily constitution of both parents, in every respect, ought to be at- tended to. Moses (Leviticus xii. 2d & 5th) or- dered a longer period for the purification of a girl than for that of a boy. Is there a natural reason for his having done so ? Can any inference be drawn from the observation, that the greatest number of monsters are amongst the female sex ? It is indeed a pity that the laws of hereditary descent are so much neglected, whilst, by atten- tion to them, not only the condition of single families, but of whole nations, might be improved beyond imagination, in figure, stature, complexion, health, talents, and moral feelings. I consider with Aristotle, that the natural and innate dif- ferences of man are the basis of all political econo- my.^ He who can convince the world of the im- portance of the laws of hereditary descent, and in- duce mankind to conduct themselves accordingly, will do more good to them, and contribute more to their improvement, than all institutions, and all systems of education. Yet they embrace more than a choice, according to the beauty of con- figuration and to the vigor of body and mind.j The state of health of both parents, their age, their previous manner of living, contribute to the developement of the embryon ; and the state of health of the mother and her vital functions, as digestion, respiration, circulation, fyc. during preg- nancy as likewise of great weight. LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 47 " It is probable," says Dr. Rush, a that the qualities of body and mind in parents, which pro- duce genius in children, may be fixed and regula- ted ; and it is possible the time may come, when we shall be able to predict with certainty the in- tellectual character of children, by knowing the specific nature of the different intellectual faculties of their parents. The marriages of Danish men with the East Indian women produced children that had the countenances and vigorous minds of Europeans ; but no such results appeared in the children of the East Indian women who intermar- ried^with the males of any other European nation." (" On the Influence of Physical Causes on the In- tellectual Faculties," p. 119.) Three successive generations appear to be neces- sary to produce an effectual change be it for health or disease. " Si le goitre," says Dr. Fodere, " n'est qu' accidental, et qu'il n'y ait qu'un des parens affecte, les enfans ne naissent pas goitreux. Si de pere en fils un goitreux a epouse une goi- treuse pendant deux generations, et dans un pays ou le goitre est endemique, a la troisieme genera- tion l'enfant qui nait, n'est pas seulement goitreux, mais il est encore cretin." (" Traite du Goitre, et du Cretinisme," Paris, 1800, p. 69.) According to the laws of the creation, therefore, it is said, that " the Lord visits those who hate him (in my opinion who do not submit to his laws,) to the third and fourth generation ; " viz. by their he- reditary dispositions. 48 EDUCATION OF MAN. Such causes as produce what is called the old age of nations deserve to be remarked. Luxury belongs to them, and its influence, if continued during several generations, weakens body and mind, not only of families, but of whole nations. The degeneration of the organic condition of man, in general, is not sufficiently understood, and is of greater effect than the political economists of modern days are aware of. This neglect is un- doubtedly the most influential cause why families and nations disappear. The Reverend Dr. Smith, who ascribes par- ticularly the variations of man to external circum- stances, says, " that Germans, Swedes, and Frenchmen in different parts of the United States, who live chiefly among themselves, and cultivate the habits and ideas of the conntries from which they emigrated, retain, even in our climate, a strong resemblance to their primitive stock. Those, on the contrary, who have not confined themselves to the contracted circle of their countrymen, but have mingled freely with the Anglo-Americans, entered into their manners, and adopted their ideas, have assumed such a likeness to them, that it is not easy now to distinguish, from one another, people who have sprung from such different ori- gins. On a closer examination, it will be found, that one stock may adopt the manners of another, a LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 49 Saxon, for instance, the fashions of the French, but that the original features of the tribes will be preserved, as long as they do not intermarry. \The genuine races of Highlanders and Lowland- ers of Scotland will not lose their originality by exchanging their countries, but by intermarrying with each other. The Jews are a striking example, that climate and external influences are less powerful in chang- ing man than propagation. They are dispersed in every country of the globe, and though, owing to the climate they have inhabited, their com- plexion may have changed, yet, being prohibited by sacred institutions from intermarrying with other nations, they are still distinguishable from other people. The ancient legislators were very attentive to the laws of propagation. Moses complains (Gen. vi.) that the sons of God saw the daughters of men, that they were fair, that they took them wives of all which they chose : he divided his people into tribes, but prohibited, on pain of death, the intermarriage of the near relations. (Levit. xviii.) The Greeks, as appears from their customs, philosophy and legislation, had particularly in view the beauty and vigor of the human constitu- tion. "As we," says Plutarch, ("De Nobili- 6 50 EDUCATION OP MAN. tate," ) a are anxious to have dogs and horses from a good breed, why should we marry the daugh- ters of bad parents ?)' Plato spoke against mar- riages betwixt relations.^ He, as well as Solon and Aristotle, considered also the age at which it was best to marry. The ancient philosophers commonly fixed it between eighteen and twenty- four for a woman, and between thirty and thirty- six for a man. ) It may be replied, that these considerations can never become practical rules of conduct for society at large. In the actual situation of things I will not maintain the contrary. But we must also admit, that the laws of the Creator will not change to gratify our fancy. ( If we will not sub- mit to his dictates, we have no right to complain of being punished by unavoidable though dis- agreeable results. ) Christian principles are not sufficiently exercised in society, yet it is not, on this account, considered superfluous to teach them ; and he who loves mankind will wish for their promulgation. Now, the laws of hereditary descent are in the same situation. Nay, if ob- served, they would even tend to prepare mankind to receive and keep the precepts of Christianity, which, in the actual and common way of Provi- dence, seems impossible. I find it also necessary to obviate another objection which may be made by religious per- LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 51 sons, who are not aware that the letter kills, while the spirit vivifies. Some, who are entirely unacquainted with natural causes, and who expect all from supernatural influence, may be offended by so much being ascribed to the laws of organi- zation, vjf they reflect, and will be consistent with themselves, they cannot reject any thing that is in nature , and the work of the Creator. The organization is constituted by the same Al- mighty Being whom they implore to be propi- tious. (If they will submit to Him, they must ac- knowledge every law of creation^; The primary arrangements of Nature as certainly proceed from Him, as any subsequent revelation. Shall we, then, have no recourse to natural means to cure diseases, because St. James has admonished us, if any one is sick, to call for the elders of the church, to let them pray over him, anointing him with oil ? We read in the Old Testament, that Eli as prayed that it might not rain, and it rained not on the earth for the space of three years and six months ; and he prayed again, and the heavens gave rain, and the earth brought forth her fruit. Shall we therefore not study the laws of vegeta- tion, and cultivate the vegetable kingdom ? Shall we neglect to sow, and expect that by means of prayers we shall be permitted to rear ? In the same way, if, while we say prayers, we do not at the same time submit to the laws of hereditary descent and of organization, supernatural influence alone will not give talents nor bodily health. The 52 EDUCATION OF MAN. laws of the Creator have been the first dictated, and must be the first obeyed. \(l parent who per- ceives that his child is affected with disease and a weak constitution, and who, while he prays to God for restoration of his health, leaves him in confined air, and under the charge of careless or ignorant servants, has no right to expect that su- pernatural influence will be exerted in his favor, while he continues to neglect his own duty in con- temning the first laws of creation.] The Supreme Being gave us understanding that we might per- ceive these laws ; and having perceived them, it is our first duty to obey them as His dictates ; and having done so, we may then, but not till then, expect His blessing to attend us^; The special obe- dience to the natural laws of hereditary descent is an indispensable condition to the improvement of mankind ; and nothing but ignorance, superstition and prejudice can oppose itj The influence of these laws may be shown to young persons, first in plants, then in' animals, and at the end in mankind. \Many parents are cautious and fearful of speaking of such notions to their children, and do not think of the anxiety with which children look for information of that kind, and of the benefit they may derive from it.) Such information, when given by the parents, will be received with confidence and respect. Some young persons will possess reflection enough to at- tend to their bodily health, from the consideration LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 53 that their constitution will be communicated to their offspring. I know positively, that such a proceeding has been more effectual and beneficial than endeavoring to prevent children from acquir- ing any knowledge of that kind, or to conceal the effects of the disorderly satisfaction of physical love.^ This propensity deserves the same attention which we pay to hunger and thirst.) Both are ac- tive without our will ; and their activity must be directed. Why should we not have recourse to the understanding as far as possible, to regulate the actions, and employ natural means of correc- tion against natural faults ? : How can we expect that children should suppress a strong internal feeling, without being acquainted with the bad consequences of its abuses, and with its destina- tion ? ) It seems therefore advisable to show the dreadful effects of Onanism to those who are in- clined to this aberration ; at first with respect to their own health, and afterwards in relation to their offspring. It has been my object in this Chapter to bring under consideration a mo*t important point, which must precede, and >vhich will influence whatever remains to be done in education. Yet I do not deny the efficacy of various other conditions which 1 shall examine in the following pages. 6* 54 EDUCATION OF MAN. CHAPTER II. ON THE LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. It is reasonable, when we desire the improve- ment of any living being, to employ all the means which may contribute towards its perfection. We have seen in the preceding Chapter, that man is born sickly or healthy, deformed or well shaped, an idiot or a genius, — in short, that the human be- ing enters life with the greatest modifications of bodily and mental endowments. The innate con- stitution, then, which depends on both parents, and the state of the mother during pregnancy^ is the basis of all future developement. Being placed in the world, man is subjected in every respect to the laws of organization. Organ- ization is influenced by light, air, climate, nour- ishment, bodily evercise, rest, sleep, cleanliness, and excretions. The body f man, like other or- ganized beings, undergoes various changes : it be- gins, increases, arrives at its full growth, decreases, and dies. There is a certain regularity in the suc- cession of these natural changes ; and accordingly, the duration of life is divided into diilereni pe- riods, commonly called ages. LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 55 These changes cannot be entirely prevented, but they may be accelerated or retarded by external influences. The regulation of all the conditions which contribute to the developement of the body and of its parts, and to the duration of life, consti- tutes what is termed Physical Education. I shall not endeavor to explain Life. I am sat- isfied to say, that it embraces all the vital functions from conception to death. It certainly depends on various conditions, several of which are not yet sufficiently understood. The chemical ex- planation is not more satisfactory than that founded on mere mechanical laws. Life is more than the ef- fect of a machine, more than a crystalization. The life of man is also more than the organization of a jplant, and even more than that of an animal. Some fluids belong to its necessary conditions, such as caloric and the electric fluid ; but it remains undecided how far some ancient and modern physiologists are right or wrong in speaking of a peculiar Vital Principle, Avhich in ancient times often was called the Soul of the World ; and which sometimes has been confounded with the immortal soul of mari.\ The modern physiologists consider rather the functions of man than the principles of which he is composed. They place together the functions without consciousness, and call them Automatic Life ; while the functions with consciousness are known under the name of Animal or Phrenic Life. 56 EDUCATION OP MAN. It is not yet generally admitted, that the phrenic, like the automatic functions depend on the or- ganization. Physical education, however, evi- dently rises in importance, if the manifestations of the mind are modified in energy and quality by the influence of the body. In this respect various opinions have prevailed, and still prevail. There is an ancient belief in oriental countries, that the body prevents the soul from communicating with superior beings, and from exercising freely its powers, i Pythagoras, Plato, and almost all metaphysicians, fancied, that in this life thoughts might be manifested without the medium of organization.; The body was con- sidered as a prison of the soul. Hence the great tendency to deliver the immortal soul from the mortal body; hence the spontaneous vexations and torments of the body ; and hence many non- sensical ideas of castigation. This opinion, however ancient it may be, is yet erroneous. Experience, which must constantly guide our reasoning, proves the dependence of the mental operations on the body during this life. Phrenology teaches the particulars of this doc- trine. The duration of life is commonly divided into Infancy, Adolescence, Adult and Old Age. With respect to physical education, the time from birth to that of full growth, is the most important. It LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 57 is preparatory for the rest of our days, and has also a great influence on our offspring. It may be subdivided into several periods, the first of which is that from birth to two years, or to that of the first dentition, — I call it Infancy : The second from two to seven years, or to the second dentition, viz. Childhood : The third from seven years to pu- berty, viz. Adolescence : The fourth from pu- berty to full growth, or to the Period of Mar- riage. Before I enter into details on these periods, I shall notice some general considerations, and be- gin with Longevity. It is not probable that the life of man has dimin- ished with the duration of the world ; Qt is more reasonable to suppose, that the years mentioned in the Old Testament were shorter than ours. It is a common observation, that the same term has quite different-meanings among different nations, and even -■in: the same nation at different periods of itkUfei&tory. The English and Germans, for in- stanSj measure the distances of localities by miles ; bubifa is; known that about six English miles make only one mile in Germany. ' In the same way, it ihay be that the expression year, did not always denote the same lapse of time. It is also possible that the duration of a family, that is, of all male descendants, was considered as the continuation of the same life, as it is still a common saying, that parents continue to live in their children. Men, like quadrupeds, commonly live in the state of 58 EDUCATION OF MAN. nature five or six times longer than they grow ; and many individuals of the human race arrive still at an age corresponding to these proportions. I But there is no reason to suppose that the Jews made an exception from the physical laws in gen- eral, whilst on the other hand, it is more proba- ble that life, generally speaking, is shortened by artificial means, rather than by the lapse of time since the creation. Among the causes which contribute to longevity, the most important is the innate bodily constitu- tion. In this respect, savages have an advantage over civilized nations. The health of the former is more durable, and they do not experience a number of bodily and mental disorders with which the latter are molested, A moderate temperature is more conducive to old age than great heat. The latter accelerates the natural changes of organized beings, and brings them sooner to death. { Pure, dry and cold air, moderate exercise of all the bodily and mental faculties, a good physical education in general, and quietude of the mind, are all very favorable to longevity. On the contrary, hereditary dispositions to dis- eases, a weakly constitution, great and sudden changes of temperature, intemperance, want of bodi- ly exercise, noxious occupations, too great applica- LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 59 tion of the mental powers, misery, unwholesome food, a want of sufficient rest, every kind of de- bilitating influences, disagreeable affections of the mind, such as jealousy, envy, fear, grief, &c, are hurtful to health. The influence of nature in preserving the spe- cies, and also the individuals, is great, and has been spoken of at all times, under the name of vis plastica or vis medicatrix natures. It is visible in the healthy and diseased state. Yet, however effectual nature, and however favorable all cir- cumstances may be, the succession of the different ages cannot be prevented, and death is at last un- avoidable. Physical education can produce only modifications, but can never annihilate the immu- table laws of the Creator. The modifications produced in the body by ex- ternal circumstances, deserve a special attention. Plants and animals which can live in various cli- mates, are extremely modified by the influence of outward conditions. Fruit-trees which have been transplanted from the south to the north, bring forth the same kind of fruit, but of modified qualities. The grapes of France excel those of England. Leibnitz has already remarked, that plants and animals show the same type of configuration, are long and slender, or short and stout, in different 60 EDUCATION OF MAN. countries. We may add, that it is the same with man. In Angora, the beard of the men is modi- fied like the hair of animals. In countries where the grass of the meadows is long, the cattle are tall, and animals in general have long extremities. Mankind shows a similar make. The influence of physical education may be ex- amined with respect to the body as a whole, or to the individual systems, such as the muscles, blood- vessels, bones, nerves, digestive organs, &c. (it is certain and generally known, that climate and the manner of living modify the whole organization of man. Climate, in its general acceptation, des- ignates not only temperature, but all external in- fluences, particularly air, light, dryness and moisture, and food. A particular effect produced by a high temperature on living beings is, that they undergo their natural changes witli greater celerity than in colder regions. Annual plants of the south, the aloes, for instance, when carried into northern countries, last many years. It is quite superfluous to insist on the modifica- tions produced in organized beings, by food, and other external circumstances. Who does not know that the constituent parts of milk, such as butter, cheese, and whey, of the same cow, vary according to the food with which she is nourish- ed ; that the flesh of roes, hares, rabbits, fowls, &c, though each sort preserves its specific taste, is LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 61 greatly modified by the food on which the animal lives ? This principle, however, is not sufficiently at- tended to in the physical education of children ; they are commonly treated according to a general plan, while external circumstances ought to be regulated according to the individual tempera- ment. In this respect, a very important question may be examined, viz. How far may external circum- stances contribute to the developement of indivi- dual parts of the body ? It is known that differ- ent systems of the body, such as the muscles, the nerves, the digestive organs, &c. do not possess precisely equal activity in the same individual. It would be extremely interesting to ascertain, that such or such a climate, such or such food, fyc. is more or less favorable to the improvement of particular systems of the body. (The same degree of excitement, whether of temperature or of food, may stimulate one sys- tem, and weaken another., Great heat accele- rates the circulation of the blood, and debilitates the digestive organs. As the manifestations of the mind depend on organization, it w conceivable why even talents and moral feelings depend on the influence of climate and nourishment. All obser- vations of this kind have been made merely with 7 62 EDUCATION OP MAN. respect to health and the intellect in general. But as medical men admit that some drugs act more on the nerves, others on the blood-vessels, others on the skin, others on the abdominal or urinary secretions, why should aliments, and other external influences, not be more or less favorable to individual parts of the body ? In this way, nutrition, and the regulation of exter- nal circumstances, will increase in importance as they are discovered to contribute, not only to the developement and organic constitution of the body in general, but also to the improvement of single parts. In this respect, our knowledge is by no means satisfactory ; yet every one will feel the import- ance of these considerations, and wish for possi- tive observations. This interesting subject, in- deed, deserves the attention, not only of medical men, but of all those who have the charge of ed- ucation. I shall now add some ideas concerning the reg- ulation of the vegetative functions, during the different periods from birth to the full growth, or to the time of marriage. LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 63 PERIOD I. FROM BIRTH TO THE AGE OF TWO YEARS, OR INFANCY. In this age, the mortality of children is the greatest ; and hence the care bestowed on their treatment must be proportionate to the dangers to which they are exposed. Let us then see what is to be done, with a view to regulating external in- fluences upon them ; admitting however as I have already stated, that the most important requisite to health and prosperity is a good innate constitu- tion. Among the external circumstances after birth, the most essential are Temperature and Food ; then follow air, light, cleanliness, sleep, rest and bodily exercise. Temperature. | It is known that without a sufficient degree of caloric, no act of vegetation or animalization can take place ; and that before birth, the child is constantly exposed to the temperature of a luke- warm bath ; was it then reasonable to think, that immediately after birth a low temperature should be most suited to its health ? In new-born chil- 64 EDUCATION OF MAN dren it frequently happens, that circulation in the external vessels of the skin is impeded by the influence of cold air, and that from this circum- stance a kind of jaundice arises. In more ad- vanced years, great changes of temperature are hurtful to health. In hot climates, tetanus is often the result of sudden refrigeration. We also see the natural instinct of birds leads them to cov- er their young with their wings. How, then, was it possible to fancy with J. J. Rousseau, that new- born babes may receive benefit when exposed to cold, or when bathed in ice-cold water, or in snow ? Such a treatment, it is true, has been de- fended by an appeal to the example of northern nations. But it has been overlooked, that in those cold countries the whole animal economy of the parents is different, and that the children parti- cipate in their bodily constitutions^ The mo- thers in northern regions digest tilings which the delicate women of the south could not take with- out injury. It would, however, be as reasonable to feed a southern mother on fish-oil, as to bathe her tender offspring in ice-cold water.^ The bad effect of cold-bathing upon new-born children is now ascertained, and this nonsense has been given up. It is not, however, my opinion that young children ought to be brought up as in a hot-house. I grant that they are often kept too warm and too much wrapped up. Man being obliged to bear various temperatures, children should be accus- tomed to them by degrees. But the weaker and LAWS OP THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 65 the more delicate children are, the more care is requisite. In general, however, cold is better borne by young than by adult persons. Food* It is scarcely imaginable how the simple pro- ceedings of Nature should be neglected, and fan- tastical dreams substituted in their place ; how any one, for instance, could doubt, whether, dur- ing the first days, the milk of the mother were wholesome to the suckling, whilst calves, puppies, and the young of all quadrupeds, suck immediate- ly after birth. Why will man alone disdain the laws of Nature, who takes so much care for the preservation of the species ? How was it possible to think, that honey, syrup of rhubarb, or even wine, was more wholesome to young babes than their mother's milk, which, at the beginning is thin, watery, and fit to evacuate the meconium collected in the child's intestines, and which, after a few days, becomes thicker and more nutritious ? Nothing but ignorance would endeavor to gov- ern Nature. Thus, the mother, after having taken rest from her labors, and some restoring nourish- ment, should, as soon as she has got milk, give suck to her child. In cases only where she has got no milk, light artificial nourishment ought to be given, till Nature supplies a better food. ?• 66 EDUCATION OF MAN. Much has been said upon the question, whether the child is better nourished by its mother's milk or by that of another nurse, or by heterogeneous substances. I think nature must decide. Expe- rience shows, that, cmteris paribus, a plant succeeds better if it be not transplanted from one spot to another ; and, that young trees transplanted from a fertile soil into a barren one, languish or perish ; while, on the other hand, if left as they were, they grow luxuriantly. Young birds may be nourished with eggs, viz. with substances on which they lived in the embryo state. Young mammalia also may be well fed upon milk and eggs ; and why should it not be the same with young children ? If the mother be healthy, and her milk nourish- ing, it will agree the best with the digestive pow- ers of the child ; and by giving suck, the mother will be freed from various complaints, noticed by many medical writers as the result of neglect- ing the first duty of a mother. In many cases, however, it will be better for the mother, for the child, or for both, to feed the child on the milk of a nurse ; or, if this be impossible, by other ali- mentary substances. Many mothers of a delicate constitution are weakened and fall into consump- tion in consequence of giving suck. Many chil- dren also perish in such cases from want of suffi- cient nourishment. A mother is certainly blame- able, if, from a love of dissipation and perpetual amusement, she persuades herself that she is sent LAWS OP THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 67 into the world merely to pass through it in the most easy manner. , But in the above-mentioned examples, it is most advisable to have recourse to the milk of a healthy nurse, who, as far as possi- ble, should resemble the mother in age, tempera- ment, and in the period of her delivery. If new- born children are given to nurses who have been delivered some time before, artificial means, such as syrup of rhubarb, or chiccory, generally be- come necessary, to evacuate the meconium ; or we may act on the babe by the medium of the nurse, in giving her alimentary substances that make her milk thin and clear, or even that are slightly purgative. The milk of a wet-nurse varies according to her age, her bodily constitution, to the food she takes, and according to her manner of living in general. She must avoid every thing which disturbs di- gestion, particularly strong spices, spirituous li- quors, and disagreeable affections of the mind. The suckling participates in her bodily disorders. It is liable through her to vomiting, to hiccough, to pain of the belly, diarrhoea, uneasiness, to con- vulsive motions, and various other complaints. Bad digestion, and all symptoms which result from it, are frequently caused by feeding the in- fant immediately after birth with artificial ali- ments, such as panada, pap, &c. It will be found that •new-born children succeed best, if they live €8 EDUCATION OF MAN. for the first three months only on the milk of the mother, or of a sound nurse. By degrees, they may be accustomed to some other food, according to their temperament and digestive powers, begin- ning with liquids, such as milk and sugar, broth, boiled biscuit, rice-cream, &c. and so go on to solids. The younger the child is, the less nour- ishment should be given at once, and the oftener repeated : older children may take more food, and at greater intervals. The nurse's milk certainly has great influence on the developement of the suckling. Those, however, who think that it imbibes the moral character of its nurse with her milk, are mistaken. If it were true, that a child brought up upon goat's milk was fond of jumping, that another fed with swine's milk was dirty, it would follow that adult people ought also to adopt the character of the animals on whose fle<=h they live. Men and women who live in the same manner, would be endowed with the same affective and intellectual faculties. Nor could it happen, that different children, nourished by the same mother, should show quite different characters, even before they had taken any heterogeneous food. Thus, the nurse's milk will contribute to the nourishment and developement of the instruments of the mind; but it will not give rise to determinate qualities. Her moral character may change her milk with respect to its healthy condition, but it cannot LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 69 produce talents or feelings} Finally, the mental powers of children though innate are more or less exercised and directed hy the nurse's temper and mental capacity, and the nurse is the first moral and intellectual instructor. Mr. Atmospheric air is another indispensable con- dition of human life, and its physical properties and constituent parts, have an influence on all the vital functions. Its transparency is necessary to vision, or to the passage of light : its fluidity permits the free motion of tl«? body in it. In vir- tue nf this quality it admits also of being changed or renewed. Its elasticity in propagating its vi- brations assists the sen^e of hearing. Its weight compresses the fluid and solid parts of our or- ganization. Moreover, as the temperature of the atmosphere is commonly below that of our body, the air receives the superfluity of caloric. Gen- erally, however, we are obliged to guard against the disagreeable sensations of cold caused by the too great privation of caloric. The constituent parts of the atmosphere are ex- tremely important to the body. Its oxygen and caloric are essential to the sustenance of life. Its azote, hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, water, elec- tric fluid, and the various exhalations of plants 70 EDUCATION OP MAN. and animals, have a great influence on the func- tions of organized bodies. Certain conditions of the atmosphere cause plants of different kinds to perish. Some winds and conditions of weather produce epidemic diseases among animals and mankind. In some persons, the digestive powers are disturbed at the approach of a storm. Per- sons whose limbs have been injured by wounds, can foretell the changes of the weather by the pains they feel. Nervous and delicate constitu- tions perceive the slightest difference in the state of the atmosphere. Many of them know by their bodily sensations whether the wind blows from the north, east, or west. New-born children, according io tk©Ir innate temperaments, are more or less benefited or dis- turbed by the condition of the atmosphere. Some constitutions require a dry and others a moist air, It is, however, a general rule, that it should be pure, and not impregnated with noxious exhala- tions. Light. The influence of light is also necessary to the developement and health of organized bodies in general. It changes the color of plants and ani- mals, and the complexion of man. Plants kept in darkness grow pale and yellow. Worms and, LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 71 insects confined to dark places remain white. Those who spend their lives in their closets, have a pale and yellowish complexion. The whole organization, being deprived of light, grows weak and fat. It is affected with scurvy or putrid com- plaints, and the liver enlarges. Hence dark habi- tations, narrow streets, high houses, little win- dows, and whatever shuts out light from dwelling- places, is unwholesome. Light awakes us from sleep ; it excites all functions of the body, particularly those of the skin. Its sudden impression excites sternutation. Too much light produces headach, inflammation of the eyes, of the skin, of the throat, and of the brain ; hence, its regulation is of great import- ance. The eyes of new-born children should not be exposed to a strong light at once, and when they begin to see, they ought to be placed so that the light is before them, since they always direct their eyes towards it, and may acquire an irregu- lar look, the eyeballs being turned too much up- wards or sidewards. Cleanliness. The skin having a great influence on the pre- servation of health, by its absorption and excre- n r MAN. ores must be kept open by washing the body, and by changing the swaddling-clothes and linen whenever they are unclean. According to the condition of the skin, it may be washed with lukewarm water only, or with water and wine, to strengthen it. or rubbed over with some oily substance if it be dry and rough. Some parts, such as the folds of the neck, be- hind the ears, the interior of the legs, k which are liable to be inflamed, deserve particular atten- tion. They may be washed with a solution alum, or powdered with pubis /ycoporfn. or be- smeared with cacao-butter, oil. or any other pure greasy substance. I have already mentioned, that children should be accustomed by degrees to a lower temperature : hence the water or the bath employed as the means of cleanliness, must grad- ually be used colder and colder. The body, like the might be exposed by degrees to the at- mosphere. Sfeep. Hate*!**, Red, amd Bodily Extrci 'ore birth, children seem to sleep almost con- tini. - the infant, the I requi \ s i tlien ivl never necl, and be It i-. however, wrc _ .Tows means t< LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTI ■'. 73 sleep. On the other hand, they may be soon accustomed to awake and to fall asleep at a c tain hour, and this habit is useful in various re- spects. The free exercise of their limbs is very advan- tageous to them. No part of the body ought to be pressed. It was an absurd custom to tie the tender creatures, and to impede all their motions. It is particularly necessary to attend to the head, and not to let it fall backward, since the nerves of the spinal cord may suffer from pressure, on ac- count of the cartilaginous state of the vertebral pre We ought not to be uneasy when children cry a little. By crying, the lungs are distended and strengthened, tl and nostrils are cleaned, and the circulation of the blood is promoted. It is imprudent to lift up children by one part only, such as by one hand or one arm, luxations being easily the result of this practice. It is also wrong to place delicate and fat children too early on their legs, since curvations of the spine and hip bones may be thereby produced. Moreover, the thorax and shoulders are often injured by leading- strings, which, in consequence, ought to be abol- ished. It is true, that many children are strong enough to resist, but delicate ones must frequently suffer by them. Too violent shaking may injure the stomach and biain, and produce vomiting, 8 74 EDUCATION OF MAN. principally at the moment when the stomach is full. Bodily exercise is of great influence, but it is to be directed with caution. PERIOD II. FROM THE AGE OF TWO YEARS TO THAT OF SEVEN, OR CHILDHOOD. Before I consider the particularities of this pe- riod, it will be interesting to advert to a few cir- cumstances with respect to dentition. At first, the natural food of children is liquid ; but about the seventh month, instruments which are fit to assist the digestion of solid aliments, viz. the teeth, ap- pear. The developement of these organs is often the cause of various complaints. The saliva is generally secreted copiously, frequent sneezing oc- curs, the gums grow red and hot, sometimes they are swollen, one or both cheeks are red ; the child carries his hands, and every thing he holds, into his mouth, and presses the gums against it. At the end, white spots are seen where the teeth ap- pear. Commonly the two middle incisors of the lower jaw first cut through the substance of the gums. A little while after, the corresponding in- cisory teeth of the upper jaw show themselves, then the lateral incisors, the eye-teeth, and the LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 75 lateral grinders. When the small molar teeth have come through at the age of about two years, the first dentition is complete, and the life of the child, which before was precarious, is then more secure ; for it is ascertained that a third part of children dies beforejthe age of twenty-four months. The growth of teeth, though a natural operation, causes various disorders in the vital functions of children. Diarrhoeas and convulsions are the most fatal accidents attending difficult dentition. The state of the jaws alone, or, by sympathy of several other parts, sometimes of the whole body, is inflammatory. Hence the treatment of such children must be conformable. As their constitu- tions, however, are extremely modified, a physi- cian ought to be intrusted with the particular care of them. The general rule is, that every kind of stimulus ought to be avoided. Tepid bathing is an excellent antiphlogistic. It may be observed in general, that in infancy the vital motions tend particularly toward the head, and that, therefore, this part is the principal seat of the afflictions peculiar to this age. In order to fav*>r the cutting through of the teeth, the gums may be rubbed with sugar or bits of althea-root, moistened with honey or syrup, and kept between the jaws. The nurse may also introduce her little finger, moistened with honey, 76 EDUCATION OF MAN. between the gums of the child, to soften them, and to relieve the pains of the young creature. Sometimes little incisions are made into the gums with evident advantage. The excretions of the skin and bowels must be kept free. To the twenty teeth of the first dentition two new grinders in each jaw are added at about the end of the fourth year. They differ from those that preceded them in this, that they are destined to remain throughout life, whilst the primitive or milk-teeth are lost at seven years of age, in the same order in which they appeared, and are re- placed by new teeth, better formed, and provided with longer and more perfect roots. Towards the ninth year two new large grinders come forth beyond the others. There are then twenty- eight teeth. Between eighteen and thirty, or sometimes still later, the denies sapientix, two in each jaw, complete the second dentition. Dentition, like all other acts of the living econ- omy, is subject to endless variations. There are instances of children that have come into the world with one or two incisors, and there are often su- pernumerary teeth. It is difficult to say why the primitive teeth are detached and. replaced by others, which have remained so long buried within the alveolar processes. Teeth of a third set have been known to be cut in very old people. LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 77 ( Generally speaking, teeth are not taken all the care of which their importance demands. They ought at least to be kept clean. Those who neg- lect this duty, offend against the first requisition of nature ; and if they are punished by tooth-ache, they receive only their desert. The condition of the teeth certainly depends on the whole constitu- tion of the body ; and in many cases, the advice of a good dentist, who understands not only the operative part of his art, but also the animal economy, is to be recommended. The teeth are in close relation with nourish- ment, and this deserves particular attention. The necessity of taking nutritive substances is general- ly known and indicated by hunger and thirst. The nourishment must be modified in quantity and quality according to age, to the bodily con- stitution, to climate, to season, and to the manner of living. The influence of different kinds of food on the whole constitution is evident, from the modified flesh of animals of the same species, fed on various aliments. It is useful to vary the food, and nature who has assigned to different animals their different aliments, has in this respect allowed to man the greatest variety. He is almost omni- vorous, and he alone understands the art of cook- ery, by which he facilitates digestion. In children, the functions of nutrition are quick- er ; they die sooner of inanition than adult per- 8* 78 EDUCATION OF MAN. sons ; they require more frequent feeding, and a larger quantity of food, as they not only change the matter of their body, but increase also. As children grow stronger, they will digest sub- stances of a heterogeneous and more solid nature. In general, the more simple and plain, the better are the aliments ; and every food which digests is wholesome. It is, however, known, that lym- phatic constitutions require nutritive and invig- orating substances ; that nervous temperaments suffer from stimuli, and stand in need of light and simple aliments ; and that weak bowels do not bear vegetables, fruit, and paste, these aliments giving rise to worms and scrofulous diseases. Such intestines then must be strengthened by an- imal food, steel-water, some wine and bitters. In cold climates animal food is necessary to man ; he grows pale and languishing on vegetables. In hot countries, on the contrary, fruit and vegeta- bles nourish sufficiently, their nature being quite different from that of plants in northern regions. This is evident, since the spices we take to assist digestion, belong to the vegetables which grow in southern climates. A cold dry air excites the ap- petite, while a hot and moist atmosphere weakens the digestive organs. The alvine and cutaneous excretions are in in- timate connection with nutrition. Noxious par- LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 79 tides, when they remain in the intestines, are absorbed and brought into the circulation. The abdomen being constipated, the bloodvessels are compressed, the circulation is impeded, and piles are produced. The blood is carried to the brain, and causes head-ache. Thus, the excretions must be taken into consideration and regulated. They vary in quantity and quality according to age, temperament, nutrition, weather and season. Per- spiration is more considerable in youth than in old age, more in hot than in cold weather, more in irritable than in inert temperaments. Children suffer from being kept too warm. Yet too sudden and too great changes of temperature produce in them, as well as in adult persons, catarrhal affec- tions, coughing, inflammation, diarrhoeas, &c. The skin ought to be kept clean, exposed to light and the air, and thus rendered less sensible to external impressions. ( Health is preferable to a pale white skin and a sickly constitution. With respect to clothing, the general rule is, that no part of the body ought to be pressed! Weak or- gans may be supported, and the whole body de- fended against cold, but all the movements of the body ought to be free and easy. It is a false taste to hurt the health, or to injure the vital functions of females with a view to increase their beauty. A sedentary life is adverse to health in general, particularly to that of children. It is the cause of incalculable mischief. Children require more bodily exercise, and more sleep than adults. 80 EDUCATION OF MAN \ During childhood, as well as in infancy, the regulation of the vegetative functions ought to be the most important point of education. A good and healthy organization is the basis of all employ- ment and of all enjoyment. Many parents, how- ever, are anxious to cultivate the mind at the expense of the body. v They think they cannot in- struct their offspring early enough to read and to write, whilst their bodily constitution and health are overlooked.' Children are shut up, forced to sit quiet, and to breathe a confined air. This er- ror is the greater, the more delicate the children, and the more premature their mental powers are. The bodily powers of such children are sooner ex- hausted, they suffer from dispepsia, headache, and a host of nervous complaints ; their brain is liable to inflammation and serious effusion ; and a premature death is frequently the consequence of such a violation of nature. > It is indeed to be la- mented, that the influence of the physical on the moral part of man is not sufficiently understood. There are parents who will pay masters ^ery dearly, in hope of giving excellency to their chil- dren, but who will hesitate to spend the tenth part to procure them bodily health. Some by an absurd infatuation, take their own constitutions as a measure of those of their children, and because they themselves in advanced life can support con- finement and intense application with little injury to health, they conclude that their young and deli- cate children can do the same. Such notions are LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 81 altogether erroneous, — bodily deformities, curved spines and unfitness for various occupations, and the fulfilment of future duties, frequently result from such misunderstood management of children. The advantages of a sound body are incalculable for the individuals themselves, their friends, and their posterity. Body and mind ought to be cul- tivated in harmony, and neither of them at the expense of the other. Health should be the basis, and instruction the ornament of early education. The developement of the body will assist the man- ifestations of the mind, and a good mental educa- tion will contribute to bodily health. ' The organs of the mental operations, w r hen they are too soon and too much exercised, suffer and become unfit for their functions. This explains the reason why young geniuses often descend at a later age into the class of common men. Indeed, experience shows, that among children of almost equal dispositions, those who are brought up without particular care, and begin to read and to write, when their bodily constitution has acquired some solidity, soon over- take those who are dragged early to their spelling- books at the detriment of their bodily frame. No school education, strictly speaking, ought to be- gin before seven years of age. We shall, how- ever, see in the following chapter, on the laws of exercise, that many ideas and notions may be com- municated to children by other means than books, or by keeping them quiet on benches. When education shall become practical and applicable to 82 EDUCATION OF MAN. the future destination of individuals, children will be less plagued with nothings, but they will be made answerable not only for their natural gifts of intellect, but also for the just employment of their moral powers and the preservation and cultivation of their bodily constitution, since vigor in it is in- dispensable to enjoyment and usefulness. They will be made acquainted with the natural laws of nutrition and all vital functions, and with their in- fluence on health. The import of the laws of the vegetative func- tions is so great, that those who direct mankind, ought to be permitted to regulate them in many respects. The Mosaic law may serve as a fine specimen. All ancient legislators paid great atten- tion to these laws, as well as to those of hereditary descent. This knowledge will be of greater \izc than to forbid eating meat on certain days. Teach- ers ought to know, that nothing is unclean or an abomination in itself, but becomes so by being ill used. Man must eat and drink to live, but he ought to avoid all unwholesome food, and what- ever disturbs his health. The submission of man to the laws of the veg- etative functions is necessary during his whole life, but particularly from birth to the age of com- plete developement, since the time of growth is preparatory for the rest of life. LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 83 An additional observation concerning the vege- tative functions is, that they, like all others, admit of great modifications, nay, even of idiosyncrasies. Some persons on account of their innate vigor and strong constitution succeed under all circumstances : they resist all noxious influences they digest what- ever they eat, whilst others suffer from particular aliments, such as mutton, pigeon, veal, cauliflower, Sac. These latter and all other particularities can only be observed, but can never be explained. In regard to them, every one must be his own physi- cian. Demosthenes and Haller were kept in a state of regular excitement bv drinking nothing but water. Coffee was the favorite stimulus of Voltaire, and tea that of Dr. Johnson. Sir Isaac Newton lived upon vegetables when he was employed in composing his famos treatise on Optics. Hobbes sat in his study, enveloped in the smoke of tobacco, ^-c. In general, however, a strict attention to physical education cannot be insisted upon too much among civilized nations. During the periods of life, from birth to the state of full growth, a third kind of laws is to be kept in view, and these shall be considered in the fol- lowing pages. 84 EDUCATION OF MAN. CHAPTER III. ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. These laws embrace what is called Education in a more limited sense, but in this respect many- errors are caused by the true meaning of the word Exercise not being sufficiently understood. I em- ploy this expression as synonymous with putting into action, and distinguish Exercise from Habit ; the latter being the result of the former. Habit. Habit has two significations : it sometimes indi- cates the result of diminished activity, and at other times a greater facility of acting. A power being too active, becomes fatigued, diminishes, and is finally exhausted. Moreover, all natural powers become accustomed to external impres- sions, and the former become the less affected the longer the latter are applied. The mimosa sensi- tiva, when shaken for a certain time, ceases to fold its leaves. In the same way, each sort of impres- sion on the organization loses its effect by frequent LAWS OP EXERCISE. 85 repetition. Even noxious impressions, when re- peated, are less felt than they were at first. In this sense Mithridates accustomed his stomach and bowels to poisonous substances. The attendants and nurses of patients become in a certain degree insensible to contagious diseases in hospitals. The mind itself shows less energy at each repetition of the same functions. It becomes accustomed even to misfortune and painful situations. Time is a great remedy of many evils. Organized beings adapt themselves in a surpris- ing degree to external impressions, and a change of place and various circumstances is frequently less advantageous than might have been expected. Prisoners, who have been confined for many years to dungeons, or unwholesome habitations, fall sick when they obtain their liberty. Many morbid, but accumstomed affections, such as old sores and exudations, &c. are to be removed with the great- est precaution, and sometimes to be left untouched. Body and mind successively take a turn which can be changed solely by degrees. All changes which nature produces are succes- sive, and art ought to imitate her proceedings. It is the same in dietetic rules, and in every manner of feeling and thinking. Drunkards cannot leave off their bad habits suddenly without injuring their health. Those who are near starving from inani- tion, will perish if too much nourishment be 86 EDUCATION OF MAN. given ; and too much light dazzles those who have lived long in darkness. The bad effects of great and sudden changes of temperature on in- animate bodies, such as glass, or on plants, an- imals, and man, are generally known. Those who are accustomed to certain mental occupa- tions, feel great reluctance to give them up. In the same way, great and sudden changes of politi- cal, moral, and religious opinions, are not borne with indifference. Habit is a second nature, physically and morally speaking. The living generation, if not prepared for it, generally rejects every reform. It is only in process of time that the adherents to any new doc- trine become numerous ; and any doctrine, though false, when once admitted, will be replaced by another and a better only by degrees. Yet it is natural that the more agreeable a doctrine is, the sooner it will gain ground, and that a precept which commands resignation will be submitted to, in proportion to the reward it promises. Chris- tianity assigns eternal happiness as the reward for temporal conflicts ; and it was adopted by fisher- men and the poor sooner than by the rich. The law of modifying mankind, or of produc- ing changes is seldom understood by reformers. They are commonly too hasty ; though, at all times, experience has shown the danger and harm of such a proceeding. When changes are to be LAWS OF EXERCISE. 87 made, let them be gradual ; the greater the alter- ations you wish for are, the slower must be your method of proceeding ; keeping, however, con- stantly the aim in view. The precipitancy of common reformers can be excused only by their ignorance of human nature, and by their errone- ous opinion, that it is sufficient to point out errors, and to propose principles, in order to per- fect man without considering that he must by de- grees be prepared for, and accustomed to them. The facility of accommodating man to new im- pressions greatly depends on age ; it succeeds best during the period of growth, whilst in latter years we are less susceptible of changes. It is therefore not astonishing, that all new doctrines have been received and propagated by youth and new gen- erations. The law of accommodation, however great, never annihilates the general laws of life. It is even subordinate to them, and cannot prevent the successive changes of age. Again, every individ- ual being born with a different constitution, and with different dispositions, is not equally capable of accommodating himself to circumstances, and hence each will present some modification, though the external influences are the same. This is the case in the automatic and animal functions. Not- withstanding these restrictions, the law of accom- modation is incalculably great in the education both of individuals and of nations. 88 EDUCATION OF MAN. The second meaning of Habit is an increased facility of acting in a certain manner. In this ac- ceptation of the word, it is still more interesting to education than in the former, and deserves a detailed elucidation. Exercise. I have already mentioned that I employ the word exercise as synonymous with putting into action. Now the first law of this kind is, that ex- ercise strengthens powers. This principle is quite general throughout nature, and extends even to in- animate bodies. Musical instruments being play- ed on by masters in the art, improve. The pow- er of a magnet to support weight may be increas- ed, by gradually appending to it more. Every power, both in automatic and animal life, may be exercised, and thereby gains in activity. There is something analogous even in the diseased state. Each organic part, having once been affected by any disorder, is liable to relapses ; in the same way as, according to the first meaning of habit, by repeti- tion and continuation many diseases are exhausted. The digestive organs may not only be accus- tomed to various aliments, but they become also more active by being satisfied. In persons who spit out the saliva, the glands secrete more abund- antly. All muscles which are exercised increase LAWS OF EXERCISE. 89 in strength.' Smiths, and those who use their arms, acquire more power than those who sel- dom employ them. Bodily exercise in general strengthens ; and a sedentary life weakens the con- stitution. The influence of exercise on the functions of the five senses, is generally known and admitted. The sense of feeling often acquires a very high degree of perfection in persons who are blind. In the first vol. of Phrenology, speaking of the Generalities of the external senses, I have quoted many examples which prove, that they become more active by practice. It is the same with the internal faculties mani- fested by means of the different parts of the brain. Each mental power, if it be sufficiently cultivated, grows more energetic, whilst, if neglected, it shows less activity. In this chapter on the Laws of Exercise, I take for granted, that all dispositions are innate and dis- covered. I refer for the details of this impor- tant proposition to the first vol. of Phrenology. Hi- therto philosophers have admitted a few general powers, and have derived from them all particu- lar manifestations. The greater number of them consider the intellect as the cause of the feelings. Accordingly, they confine education to the Un- derstanding, and do not think of cultivating the 9* 90 EDUCATION OF MAN. Feelings themselves. This, however, is a great error, and the first thing to be done is to specify the primitive powers of the Mind ; and then, as they exist independently of each other, every one must be exercised for itself. The legs or arms will not be strengthened by reading treatises on muscular motion. ■ The digestive organs will not act with more energy in those who know all the theories which have prevailed on digestion, and who are even able to explain the causes of hun- ger and thirst. Let such persons have but little to eat and to drink, and give to others who have never heardlof any theory of alimentation, whole- some food in abundant quantity, and every intel- ligent reader will perceive whose appetite and digestive functions will be exercised to the best advantage. Let any one study the principles of optics mere- ly in books and in descriptions ; let him learn by heart all the theories of colors, but let him never see any color, nor feel their harmony. He may, like a blind man, recollect all the expressions used in painting, but without practical instruction his faculty of coloring will not improve. Who will pretend to cultivate the musical talent only by reading discourses about the principles of melody and harmony ? Is it not necessary for this purpose to perform tunes, or to hear them performed by others, either in singing or in play- ing on a musical instrument ? LAWS OF EXERCISE. 91 It is the same with all intellectual faculties. Each must be exercised or put into action for it- self. Thus, to cultivate the power of Numeration, the numbers must be shown in real objects. To exercise the power of Locality, it is not enough .to know the names of each town, river, sea, &c. but their respective situations must be acquired. Some children easily recollect names and geogra- phical descriptions by heart, but feel great diffi- culty in learning local situations ; while others present to themselves, in their own minds, an ex- act image of localities the names of which they have forgotten. When children are obliged to trace maps, it is not always those who know the localities best that have the greatest power of trac- ing them on paper. The fundamental faculties must be separated in every study. In geography, for instance, a perfect knowledge requires the ex- ercise of Individuality, of Form, Size, Locality, and Language. In order to draw maps, Con- st ructiveness is required in addition. The latter power will be assisted by Order and Numeration. The intellectual faculties of man have improved less by education than they might have done, in consequence of two reasons, first, of the primitive powers of the understanding not being known ; and second, of the difference between sensations and perceptions on the one hand, and the artificial signs, either sounds or figures, which express them, on the other, not being attended to. 92 EDUCATION OF MAN. To proceed as if artificial signs could produce sensations and perceptions, while they can only call those ideas into recollection which have pre- existed in the mind, does incalculable harm. The old system of education however, is conducted in this faulty manner. Children learn and repeat words without meaning, like parrots.- But it ought to be admitted as a general principle, in communicating every kind of positive knowledge of the external world, that, first, sensations and perceptions must be excited, and these then de- noted by particular signs. In that way only we shall avoid the great mistake to which we are ac- customed from infancy, viz. of pronouncing words without knowing their signification. The vocal or written signs are to be used only as means of communication, of recollection and tradition ; but they cannot be considered as the cause of any idea or sensation. On the other hand, each intellectual faculty must be exercised by practical application, in the same way as the sense of hearing is exercised by hearing, that of smelling by smelling, that of sight by seeing. With respect to the Feelings, education is still more defective. It is commonly believed that it is more difficult to cultivate the propensities and sentiments than the intellectual powers. It is even said that the feelings cannot be taught. This proposition, however, is not clearly stated. The LAWS OF EXERCISE. 93 feelings cannot be taught, if by this proposition we mean, that they may be given by education ; in this sense also understanding cannot be communi- cated. Both intellect and feelings are innate or giv- en by the Creator, but the latter may be exercised in the same manner as the intellect, not by the action of the faculty of language, or by learning signs, or by exercising the verbal memory, but by putting the feelings themselves into action. I even think that it is much easier to exercise the feelings than the intellectual powers. Vlt cannot be too frequently repeated, that the Feelings do not result from intellect, any more than intellect is the result of the feelings. No one is benevolent, just, timid, courageous, haughty, or affectionate, in proportion to his understanding, nor has he penetration on account of his feelings. Moreover, each affective, as well as each intel- lectual faculty, must, and may be exercised for itself. - Man learns to be courageous, circumspect, ambitious, just, or benevolent, as he learns to sing, to calculate, to measure, to speak, and to re- flect. When often exposed to danger, he learns to meet death without fear> By habit he becomes indifferent to destruction. The heart, as the Chi- nese proverb states, goes farther than understand- ing, Thus, bring men into favorable situations, cal- culated to call forth their feelings, and these will 94 EDUCATION OF MAN. be strengthened. In order to cultivate benevo- lence, one should not frequent only the society of rich and opulent persons, and learn by heart de- scriptions of charity ; he must experience misery himself and contemplate the painful situations of others. K There are more poor willing to give charity from their necessity, than rich from their superfluity. If all our whims and fancies have generally been satisfied, the feelings of conscien- tiousness and benevolence towards others are less excited, than if our wishes have been contradicted and reformed.} For the same reason moral feel- ings will not improve by frequenting places of debauchery, N The principle in question explains the ancient proverb ; verba movent, exempla trahunt, and also the great influence of bad or good company. So- ciety, however, cannot be, as it is often consider- ed, the cause of any faculty; it presents only an opportunity to the innate powers, to act, or excites them to do so. The knowledge of the means of exciting the powers is very important, but not better under- stood than the fundamental powers themselves. It is time to abandon the immense error, that words and precepts are sufficient to call internal feelings and intellectual faculties into active exer- cise. Gospel-preaching is infinite, but many of those who deliver exquisite sermons are too often LAWS OF EXERCISE. 95 obliged to add : Do what I sav, and not what I do.) Now, if they themselves show no faith by their works, how can they expect others to do so ?r Kuropc, than in the language <>i Greece and Rome. Formerly^ wlicn icicntiftc booki of all nation* were |»ui»l ish- <- Longer be attached i<» it. Not every <»■,< is obliged • <> learn Hebrew though !•<• is exhorted to read the Bible, that ii in iti translation. Further) if men Of iclence be! ruiilrnlrd with cxharts and tramlatiom of modern work*, why ihould ii not he tlio Mimic) with reiped i<> the ancient? More over, the greater number <»i profeiiional nun, who are much occupied in practical iife, nave icarce)y time to read what ii written in their own language j theii knowledge of Latin and Greek) llii-M-Curc, i: <|uilr unless to thcin .ind to the art. Once I heard it itated that the claiiici contri Imtr to t Ik refinement of <"ii feeling!, bill '• ihould be lingular, if we could n<»i feel withoul knowing Lilt ill lllld (Jrcek. Tin: n ioiii mi ik <»| :ii<1i ;iii ;i < Minn i rvidrnl :iiie pr I the innate dispositions, too r too much does harm, but applied in a per degree, it makes the organs increase in size. modif. " internal constitution, and produces r activity and facility. The effect of the same exer .:. on account of the innate di- f different individuals. It has been particularly in reference to the moral fef but it will be greater, when the innate dispositions of the mind and the laws of ( are understood and attended to. The re- quired reform of education mi . in with form- n then Their influence; being of the fir- they mittf rank high in Society and their reward ought to be honorable. This might done by the a* e of the monitorial system, MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 133 and without increasingthe general expense. There is so much zeal for education in the United States, particularly in New England, that this condition of improvement I hope will occupy the minds of American philanthropists. They will consult the American annals of education, and instruction and learn what has been done in Europe : and in some parts cf the United States, and what different teach- ers themselves propose in reference to Seminaries of this kind. CHAPTER IV. OH THE MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES, ASA HEARTS OF EXCITEMENT. The fourth condition which contributes to in- crease the activity of the faculties, is their Mutual Influence. To employ this means it is necessary to understand, that each power may be active by its internal energy, or by its being excited by one or several other faculties : and that on the other hand, each power may be inactive either by its want of energy, or by the influence of other facul- ties. This consideration deserves every attention in practical education. It supposes in the teacher 13 134 EDUCATION OF MAN. who wishes to reap from it all the advantages pos- sible, a knowledge of the primitive faculties of the mind, of the natural connection of their organs, and of the individual dispositions of him who is to be educated. It is a general law, that organic parts which contribute to the same function excite one another. The organs of smell and taste, the nerves of hun- ger and thirst, and the digestive power, are in in- timate connection. Smell and taste often whet appetite, and the appetite excites the sense of taste ; it is therefore justly said, that hunger is the best cook. The internal feelings are equally sub- ject to mutual influence. Amativeness, and philo- progenitiveness, frequently excite combativeness, viz. male animals fight more when under the in- fluence of amativeness than at other periods. Fe- males defend their young ones with more courage than any other object. Acquisitiveness and cau- tiousness, excite secretiveness to act. Attachment may put cautiousness into action, or we may fear for the sake of friends more than for others. Firmness may assist hope and justice, reverence and self-esteem ; and it may be assisted by the other feelings. In short, each feeling may be stimulated by one or several others. Mutual influence exists, also, with respect to the intellectual faculties, and is called Association of Ideas. Those persons, however, who consider a MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 135 sociation as a primitive power, are mistaken, for the activity of at least two powers, whose functions are associated, is necessarily implied in its very existence. Now, this mutual influence takes - place among the feelings as well as among the faculties of the understanding, and among feelings and in- tellectual faculties promiscuously ; that is, one or several feelings may excite intellectual opera- tions, and vice versa. The mutual influence of the faculties is the ba- sis of what is called Mnemonics, or of the art of strengthening memory. This art is very ancient, but in consequence of its principles not being sufficiently understood, it has been rejected [by some, and extolled to excess by others. The great errors committed in mnemonics, resemble those committed in all branches of education, and in all sorts of institutions. Teachers of every sort look upon themselves as the standard for the whole of mankind, and commonly have recourse to that faculty which is the most active in them, repro- duces the most easily its anterior perceptions, and excites other powers with the greatest facility. They err in overlooking the differences of the innate dispositions and talents of different indi- viduals. The most common kind of mnemonics is found- ed on language ; that is, words recall individual notions. Written signs do the same, in bringing 136 EDUCATION OP MAN. to our recollection sounds and ideas ; they depend on the faculty of configuration. If we resolve up- on doing a thing in a distant place, and after set- ting out to go there, forget our design, and recol- lect it only on returning to the place where the resolution was first made, the power of locality is the means of mnemonics, and many teachers of mnemonics have recourse to this faculty ; they combine ideas with places, and in thinking of the latter they remember the former. It seems that the ancient orators employed these means, in or- der to learn their discourses with greater facility. Their proceeding appears to be indicated by the expressions denoting the divisions of the subject, such as in the first, second, and third place, &c. This power may indeed, if it be strong, assist the other faculties. Persons endowed with it, may divide and subdivide, in their minds, a given place, and put into each compartment a particular notion, and the idea will be called to recollection, in thinking of the corner where it has been lodged. Locality, however, will be of little use to those who possess it only in a small degree ; whilst if they be endowed with the power of Form in a high degree, they will combine a notion with a figure with great facility. We may also, with other mnemonists, have recourse to several faculties at the same time, to fix the recollection of an ob- ject. MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 137 This proceeding then may be applied with great advantage in education ; but it is to be remember- ed, that the most active powers furnish the best means of mnemonics, and that any particular mode of association useful to one may be useless to another, on account of the differences in the innate faculties. The general rule is to exercise, at the same time, as many faculties as possible in combi- nation with each other, and even with the senses. The activity of one or several faculties, may ex- cite the peculiar action of mind we wish for. The smell of a flower may recall the place where we perceived it first, or many particular circumstan- ces connected with it. The powers of Compari- son and of Causality, are often usefully exercised to this purpose, particularly in persons who can- not learn by heart what they do not understand. Others who have Imitation and Ideality large, re- collect easily things expressed with ideality. Every one remembers best those phenomena, or those points in history, which are in the most in- timate relation with his strongest feelings and in- tellectual faculties. These faculties enter into ac- tion with the greatest facility, reproduce their sen- sations, that is, appear as memory, and excite the other faculties. The strongest illustration of the effects of mu- tual influence among the faculties, is to be seen in the effect of emulation in children, and the desire of distinction among men. Many students learn 13* 138 EDUCATION OP MAN. more, in consequence of excitement produced by emulation, than by the innate activity of their un- derstandings. The love of approbation, indeed, may excite every other power. Soldiers do not always behave bravely, from the desire to fight alone ; but sometimes they do so from love of glory. Some men of talents ruin their health by continued study, as frequently from a desire of distinction as from a strong passion for the study itself. Acquisitiveness, or the desire of gain, is another great cause of excitement of other faculties. Its influence, and that of the Love of Approbation, are of such power, that many philosophers have considered these two motives as sufficient to ex- plain all particular manifestations of the mind. But however strong their energy may be, they never produce powers, they only excite the in- nate faculties to act. This fact ought to be specially attended to in education. It is under- stood by phrenology. If two boys possess the same natural endowment of the faculty of Language, but the one double the Love of Approbation of the other, he, by the influence of the latter faculty, may be rendered the more excellent scholar of the two. But if the Love of Approbation is equal in both, he who possesses Language naturally more powerful, will undoubtedly excel. MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 139 The mutual influence of the faculties being also a means by which we may direct their employ- ment, I shall enter more into detail on this subject in the next Section, where I speak of the Motives of our Actions. From the considerations unfolded in the preced- ing Chapters, I draw the conclusions that Educa- tion ought to be founded on the knowledge of Man ; that the true principles of education ought not to be confounded with school-learning ; that great improvements remain to be made even with respect to instruction in arts and sciences, and that the education of the Feelings, which I consider as the most important, and place far above that of the Understanding, will require to be quite newly modelled. It is admitted and stated in the Preface, that several views developed in this work are not new, but there is a difference betwixt knowing a fact, and knowing the principle of it, and Phrenology alone can reduce to a science and system the iso- lated observations which had formerly been made. This assertion will be farther confirmed in the following pages. 140 SECTION II. ON THE DIRECTION OF THE FACULTIES. After having examined the conditions which contribute to the greater or less activity of the mental faculties, I shall consider the direction which ought to be given to their actions. In the same way as, in the first Section, I held it estab- lished by Phrenology, that all dispositions are in- nate, and that their manifestations depend on ce- rebral parts, called organs ; so I suppose here, that my ideas on the moral nature of Man, as de- tailed in the second or philosophical part of Phre- nology, are known. Phrenology shows that there is a natural arrangement among the faculties, and this circumstance is the foundation of the moral character of Man. To understand fully the ideas unfolded in this Section, it is also necessary to be acquainted with the sphere of activity of each special faculty of the Mind, and with the modifications of their manifestations. This infor- mation likewise is communicated in the volumes on Phrenology. IMPOKTAJNC'K OF M0KAL.1TY. 141 In employing and directing the faculties of Mankind, we ought to proceed according to fixed and ascertained principles ; the first and most important of which is, That human actions are objects of moral regulation : The second is, That each faculty has a tendency to act : The third concerns the knowledge of the inducements or sources of our actions ; and the fourth the differ- ence of natural gifts. I shall, therefore, divide this Section into four Chapters. CHAPTER I. ON THE IMPORTANCE OE MORALITY* According to my ideas of the moral character of Man, his actions ought to be subordinate, or conformable to the whole of the faculties proper to mankind, and all actions which are in con- tradiction to the whole of these properly hu- man faculties are bad. The point which I wish now to impress on the minds of my readers is, that human nature is so constituted by the Creator, that morality is as necessary to the prosperity of Mankind, as oxygen to combustion, caloric to vegetation, and respiration to human life, and that not the animal but the human powers are end of human existence. 142 KDUCAT10JN UF MAJN. The primary virtues, essential to the existence of society, are withdrawn from our election and choice, nor are they left to be directed only by so weak a principle as reason ; they are identified with human nature by the dictates of creation. Submission alone to the indispensable laws of morality is left to our choice. In doing so only can we contribute to the improvement of Man- kind. Christianity promises future rewards for every sort of righteousness, such being the will of the Creator. But, I maintain also, that morality is necessary in this life, not because I believe, as many do, that wicked persons are tormented by their consciences, a notion which I have endea- voured to explode in treating of the faculty and organ of Conscientiousness in the first vol. or in the physiological part of Phrenology ; but be- cause I really think, that the world is so constitu- ted, that morality is indispensable to the general happiness of Mankind. It is objected, that the just often perishes in his righteousness, while the wicked often thrives in his iniquity ; but shall we infer from this, that morality is less necessary to prosperity than I maintain ? The condition of individuals is subordinate to that of the community. On the other hand, one power may triumph over another for a certain IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 143 time, and the animal over man in single individuals; but such a state cannot become general, nor ever- lasting, because the animal powers, from their ten- dency to the gratification of Selfishness, would, if predominant, overset society ; while the powers proper to Mankind, are eminently conservative, and calculated to promote general happiness. I grant also, that individuals and whole nations will perish, if they make use only of the faculties proper to Man. As long as Mankind remains as at present constituted, these faculties will stand in need of the assistance of the animal powers, to avoid being destroyed. Society must still be pre- pared for war in order to maintain peace. But history furnishes numerous examples, that wherev- er mere animal faculties have governed, the sover- eignty did not last ; morality and understanding being the two first principles of politics, and neces- sary to direct the actions of every faculty. I am sorry to observe, that generally the culti- vation of the understanding constitutes the princi- pal object of education ; and that in different countries, the pupils of public establishments smile with pity at praise given for good behaviour. I know very well, that children of excellent conduct do not always excel in intellect ; but we find also, that many young and old individuals of great un- derstanding do not always behave as they ought :o do. These persons often convert their intellect 144 EDUCATION OF MAN into scourges of society, and are the greatest ene- mies to the happiness of the race. Let the public beware of this in reference to authors, reviewers, pamphleteers, gazetteers, and writers of any kind. It is a too common tendency among them to say : I and my friends alone have understanding, we alone are in the right. — Let these oracles be re- spected if they write only with conscientiousness. Both moral and intellectual endowments are important, and therefore ought to be cultivated in harmony. By neglecting one or both, so- cieties and even nations will come to an end. In examining Mankind at large, we shall find that general happiness is founded more on morali- ty than on intellect. Public establishments for relieving distress, improving morality and cor- recting manners, are more beneficial to society than colleges for the study of mathematics under the government of conquerors. Morality ought to be the aim, and understanding but a means of attaining it. Those, however, who know my ideas on the primitive powers of Man, and on their moral arrangement, will know that I distin- guish morality from religious creeds ; that my God is a God of union, who wishes to save and not to destroy ; and that, in my opinion, charity, or general love, is the greatest of virtues. They will perceive that I do not agree with teachers who place the love of their country, and that of glory, above the love of Mankind ; and that I IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 145 maintain the authority and the advantage of the Christian principle, which commands us to love every one as our neighbor. Jesus called him his brother who did the will of his Father. I allow, that we owe obligations to our parents, and to our country ; indeed I admit that there is a primitive feeling of attachment to all beings around us. But this propensity is given also to the lower animals, and is far inferior to general love. He who con- siders the wants of the poor, and the causes of those wants ; the deserts of the poor, the possi- bility and necessary means of improving their sit- uation ; who will never encourage idleness and disorder ; who considers attachment as a quality of secondary weight ; who relieves him first that deserves it best ; and who prefers his countrymen, only in so far as they are equally meritorious is far nobler than those who are influenced by the love of their country or by a religious creed alone, to the neglect of this universal Benevolence. It is a touchstone of superiority among the faculties that their influence is more universal. The animal feelings contribute to the preservation of individuals, of societies, and in a certain de- gree of the species. Human feelings alone place society above individuals, and species above so- cieties. They coincide with the proceedings of nature. Individuals perish, while nations con- tinue ; and these disappear while Mankind is pre- 14 146 EDUCATION OF MAN. served. The faculties which produce such effects, must be important in proportion. When I state that the sphere of the faculties proper to Man is more extensive than that of the animal powers, this must not be confounded with the other proposition ; that a faculty is more or less generally bestowed by nature. The meaning of the latter is, that a faculty exists in a greater or smaller number of species, while the former de- notes that the influence of a faculty extends over more beings. Amativeness is very general, while Christian charity is confined to Mankind ; but the effect of this latter feeling embraces all beings, while that of the former is infinitely more limited. Thus, in all actions, Morality is to be kept in view as the aim and end. Man, by superior powers, is the lord of the terrestrial creation ; but the same feelings which constitute his superiority command him not to abuse other beings. A lower propensity excites Man to kill animals, in order to live on them ; but the superior feelings forbid us to torment them. All sects of "religion must agree that morality is necessary to the welfare of the human race, how- ever different their opinions may be about the mode of attaining it. But I have no hesitation in declaring against any creed that undermines chari- ty, and which teaches children that those who do IMPORTANCE OP MORALITY. 147 not believe as they themselves do, and that those who wish to adopt different means in order to please their Maker, are damned. As Christianity evi- dently tends to unite all men in the presence of God, it appears to me that we are entitled to re- ject every interpretation of any passage of the Gospel which does not agree with general peace. The superiority of the Christian principles of mo- rality, is proved and recommended by their good effects ; and, in this way, belief is converted into conviction. Modified ideas about the means of pleasing God are natural, and present a large field for teaching tolerance and mutual forbearance. Various for- malities are considered as agreeable to God ; but history informs us, that many of those, used by different sects, are borrowed from paganism. Every one ought to be permitted to do as he thinks right, unless the general happiness of Mankind be disturbed by it. I think that he is too proud who believes that he can add to, or exalt the hap- piness of his Creator, to whose dictates all that man can do is to submit. In submitting to his dictates, we practise the true and undefiled reli- gion, viz. in this way we show that Ave are tied to God, and obey his will. Thus, it is an important point, in teaching religion, never to confound the aim with the means. The former is universal hap- piness, and loving our neighbor as one's self. The means which lead to it are various, and differen- 148 EDUCATION OF MAN. ces of opinion in regard to them are to be expected. Jt seems, however, a great error to look for hap- piness from Divine influence, while the natural means of producing it, appointed by the Creator to be observed, in the ordinary way of Providence, are neglected- CHAPTER II. EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTIOSV The faculties are innate and active in different degrees ; but each desires to be satisfied, and all- are necessary ; hence it would be wrong to en- deavor to annihilate or to neglect any one in the institutions of society ; whilst the acts of every individual power may be morally good or bad, that is, conformable or contrary to the whole of the faculties proper to Man. In order to elucidate this subject, I shall make first a few general re- marks, and then subjoin some details concerning the primitive powers. In the greater number of persons, the lower faculties are the most active, and several of them more so than others. This explains the great ac-* tivity of the animal nature of man. Again, single individuals, each of the sexes, the inhabitants of certain provinces, and whole nations> possess in^ EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 149 dividual faculties more active than others. These primitive dispositions, then, must first be studied, and each power cultivated in harmony with the dictates of general morality, and with the particu- lar situation of the nation, sex, or individual in question. Any feeling that is naturally too active, should never be exerted. Hence, in those children and nations, whose character is strongly marked by the love of approbation, this feeling should never be nourished by education. For, if pre- dominant, it becomes the cause of great mischief, and it is evidently a great fault to encourage it continually, and to hold out approbation and glory as the principal reward of every action. If, among other nations, Self-esteem be the strongest feeling, it should not be encouraged. Such children are to be accustomed to attend to what others say of them, and to be spoken to freely of their faults. On the other hand, no strong feeling can be overcome at once ; its activity will appear in one way or another, and the object of the teacher or governor ought to be to make the best use of it. The love of approbation, for instance, may lead to war or peace, to idleness or industry, to vice or virtue, according to the object approved of by the directors. It is the same with every fundamental power. Has not every crime been committed, and every virtue exercised, under pretence of glorifying God, or of obeying God rather than men ? 14* 150 EDUCATION OF MAN. The improvement of mankind has been greatly retarded by the erroneous notion of our being born alike in feelings and understanding, and of our being capable of becoming whatever teachers please. On account of the differences in the in- nate faculties, on the contrary, education must be modified in many respects even for nations, as well as for individuals and sexes. As the inhabitants of cities cannot digest the food on which savages will thrive, so civilized nations stand in need of princi- ples which cannot enter into the brains of igno- rant and uncivilized persons. There are many examples in history, where nations have been un- grateful to their governors, who have endeavour- ed to improve their condition. Missionaries, who preach to ignorant and barbarous tribes in the same way as to enlightened people, cannot produce the desired effect. New-born children cannot bear too much light at once ; and the mind, like the eyes, must be accustomed by degrees to new im- pressions. On the other hand, governments are wrong if they retard the attainment of the degree of civili- zation which their nations require. They are mistaken in thinking, that the special tendency of primitive faculties can be prohibited by mere com- mandment. As no institution, having for its ob- ject the annihilation of amativeness, acquisitiveness, the love of approbation, or any other feelings, given by the Creator, can be permanent ; as its EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 15l duration will be shortened, in proportion as such feelings are more active, in the same way, as soon as our understanding is arrived at a higher degree of cultivation, such institutions as are adapted to dark ages will no longer suffice. The faculties proper to Man being given to govern every where, are to be cultivated inces- santly, and in every one, whilst the powers com- mon to man and animals, should be encouraged only in so far as they contribute to the great end of the satisfaction of the properly human nature, or to general happiness. The animal faculties may be employed as means, but not any one should become the aim of our existence. They may do good, when subordinate, but they produce much evil, as soon as their gratification becomes the aim of life. It is remarkable that all institu- tions, true Christianity excepted, are founded on selfish principles, and that by far the greater num- ber of the motives, which they propose to man- kind, originate in the animal feelings. The regulation of the mode in which gratifica- tions are sought, is an important point in educa- tion. Each faculty when active, wishes to be sat- isfied, and will excite those powers which may become the means of its gratification. Suppose, for example, that we have a desire to be distin- guished, we may fight, destroy, calculate, culti- rate arts, &c. according as distinction is likely to 152 EDUCATION OF MAN* follow the performance of such and such actions. To gain eternal happiness, we may do and we may omit various things, according as we are taught that it is to result from the one or the other. Selfishness, in general, is a great stimulus. The gratification of individual faculties may even be- come a means of obviating their abuses. Acquisi- tiveness, for instance, may be prevented from stealing and cheating, &c. by placing before the mind the consequences of illegal actions, and by showing, that the best calculated selfishness is that which is combined with honesty. Though it is a pity, that, in common education, the satisfaction of the inferior faculties is generally represented as the aim of our existence, and of the whole of our actions ; their gratifications, how- ever, may be of great use, being a source of pleasure, and the contrary a punishment. The idle being pleased by vacancy ; the dainty- mouthed by cakes and sweatmeats ; the vain by decorations, fine clothes, titles, and every kind of showy appearance ; the mechanician by ingenious- ly contrived instruments ; the painter by colours. There are as many sorts of reward or punishment as natural gifts, but the gratification of those pow- ers which are not requisite to our profession, should be only an object of reward and recreation, the difference between aim and means being con- stantly attended to. EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 153 A question which has been often repeated by philosophers, may be brought in here, viz. Whether it is better to have many or few wants ? Want is here synonymous with Desire, or the ten- dency of individual faculties to seek gratification ; and there are as many sorts of wants or desires as there are primitive powers. To answer this question, we must bear in mind, that the satisfaction of each desire gives pleasure ; that there are as many sorts of pleasure as there are faculties, and that desires and pleasures are proportionate to the activity of the powers ; more- over, that the pains, displeasures, or states of dis- satisfaction, are also as numerous as, and propor- tion to the activity of, the faculties. Thus, wants- or active faculties may render us happy or un** happy. In order to prepare happiness for ourselves, let us exercise those faculties which we have the pow- er of gratifying, and check the activity of those which we cannot satisfy ; taking constantly for granted, that morality is the aim of our life, and that no animal power shall be permitted to become predominant ; that Ostentation, for instance, must remain subordinate to Justice, and that spending our superfluities on purposes useful to society, is preferable to employing them in the gratification of any animal propensity. 154 EDUCATION OF MAN. The proper employment of the faculties being' so important, this knowledge is not only neces- sary to teachers and governors, but it should be- come an object of instruction for every person, and be taught and learned by heart. We must eat and drink, because we must change the substance of our body, and we are excited to do so by hunger and thirst. Rut the laws of digestion and nutrition might be explain- ed, the respective organs shown, and the necessity of submitting to the dictates of creation taught. The knowledge of the general rules of Hygeia is useful to every one. Let then children know, that they must eat to live, but that they do not .live io eat and to drink ; let them feel the advan- tages of sobriety, and the consequences of indi- gestion ; let them see the vice of gluttony and drunkenness in nature, and be accustomed to tem- perance, and to the moderate use of every sort of food. It will be easy to render them attentive to the quantity and quality of aliments necessary to be taken, and to those which do not agree with their digestive organs. It is important that they should be able to resist the desire to eat of every dish that is placed on the table. But it is a great fault of parents and teachers to preach sobriety, and themselves to give a contrary example. The example is more effectual than the precept. I think it also wrong to give dainties and liquors to children as rewards for it is in this manner that they EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 155 are taught to value them. They may enjoy the sense of taste, but they ought not to be governed by it. In speaking of hunger and thirst, food, beverage and nutrition, a great deal of knowledge may be given to children at table, with respect to the natural history of the three kingdoms, and with respect to chemistry and physiology. Parents might direct the conversation towards convenient subjects, and enter into farther explanations after dinner. Certainly this supposes the parents them- selves to be well informed, which, however, is too frequently not the case. The duty of in- struction devolves particularly on the mother ; but to be able to do her duty, she must have acquired notions herself. If there be several children, the elder may assist the mother in informing the younger. Is not the great curiosity of children a hint of Nature, that they ought to be made acquainted with many subjects ? Why then do we not rather cherish than suppress it ? We should always answer, even when questions are put to which delicacy does not allow us to reply. In such cases, we may find an excuse by observing, that they are not yet able to understand the thing. This will be believed, if we show them the reality of such an excuse in other examples. But they must never be told they ought not to know such 156 EDUCATION OF MAN. things. A formal denial will excite their curi- osity. The objects which concern cookery, eating and drinking, and play-things, furnish sufficient mat- ter to different conversations. We may put ques- tions about the origin, usefulness, and preparations of aliments. Each object will offer a large field of information. I suppose, for example's sake, that potatoes are placed on the table, the mother may ask, To what kingdom of natural history do they belong ? According to the age of the chil- dren, various questions may be added. After the first notions are communicated, the mother may continue to inquire about the parts of the plant which we eat under the name Potatoes. The dis- cussion again will require to be more or less de- tailed, according to the capacities of the children. Whatever cannot be shown at home, could be noticed on taking walks into the fields or else- where. In what country are potatoes indigenous ? Geography will come in. How are they culti- vated, &c. Then notions of agriculture may be communicated. Another time, the mother may begin a conver- sation concerning bread. Children may learn the difference between rye, wheat, oats, &c. ; the man- ner of grinding corn, of baking bread, &c. In this way, every article may be made an object of instruction and amusement. Children will learn EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 157 ideas and combine them ; they will know every thing around them, and will feel a desire to know it. They will at the same time learn to think when they speak, and to express no ideas without reflecting on them. Bodily exercise is another important point in education. Muscular activity is greater in child- hood than in any later age. It is neceesary to the development of the body and to health. To keep children quiet is acting against nature. The body, the intellectual and moral faculties, may be exercised at the same time. Playing is to be con- sidered as a mere change of occupation, and many things may be taught by means of it ; to dance, for instance, to climb, to leap, to swim, to go on horseback, to fence, &c. belong to a true plan of education. The muscles of the arms, or legs, or trunk may be exercised according to the utility of such exercise in any future situation, or according to their local weakness. All gymnastic amuse- ments serve to these purposes. It is to be under- stood, that bodily exercise ought to be proportion- ate to the innate strength and progressive growth of the individuals and not beyond the innate ca- pacity, since in that case the misapplication of a principle will do harm. It is said, that Milo carried on his shoulders a calf day by day, till it was full grown. 15 158 EDUCATION OF MAN. On the play-ground, children may be made ac- quainted with a great number of objects, their physical qualities, such as form, dimensions, weight, color, distances, phenomena of hydrau- lics, mechanics, and chemistry. Nothing, for in- stance, is more easy than to teach what is called gravity, affinity, attraction. Let children collect stones of different specific weight, let them make figures iu the sand, such as circles, triangles, squares. They will learn such notions with Us? pleasure when they are confined to the benches. It is known, that girls, in amusing themselves with dolls, exercise many faculties necessary to their future condition in life. The external senses deserve particular attention. Though they are not sufficient to make us ac* quainted with the external world, they are, never- theless, indispensable means to acquire distinct per- ceptions. Blind and deaf persons show, how in the former the sense of touch, and in the hitler that of sight, can be improved. For those who feel an aversion to touch innoxious insects, for instance, a lizard, a frog, a crawfish, or even velvet and other tactile objects, an early habit of doing so is advi- sable. It is the same with regard to a dislike to certain smells, tastes, colors or sounds. The cars ought to be exercised to bear the noise of a gun, of thunder, &c. BACH FACULTY TKNDS TO ACTION. 159 Children ought to be accustomed to speak loud, and to pronounce ;ill possible sounds and articula- tions, even (hose of such foreign languages as they will be obliged to learn ; for almost every lan- guage has its particular sounds which we pro- nounce with difficulty, if we have not been early accustomed to them. Accordingly, nations who have the greatest number of sounds in their speech, learn the most easily to pronounce foreign lan- guages, since they know their articulations, by having met with similar sounds in their own lan- guage. The French and English having no gut- tural sounds in their language, find it difficult to imitate them in the German. The Gei mans, on the contrary, who have; not sounds of / and col* tin French, or of //» in the English, acquirethem with difficulty. The inhabitants of Otaheite, when trying to pronounce the name of Cook, always said 'ronton. As to the interna] powers, it is a great fault in education, to think exclusively of the intellectual fatuities, and to try to conduct mankind by pre- cepts. It never should be forgotten, thai children, as well as adult persons, always ad by feelings, and that charity and justice are no sciences and that knowledge is not virtue. Precepts alone have no more effect on feelings than on under- standing. To say, be just, patient, and benevo- lent, will neither produce nor exercise justice', pa- tience, nor benevolence, any more than we should 160 EDUCATION OF MAN. understand mathematics, chemistry or philosophy, if we were only exhorted to study them. Pre- cepts must be put into execution, and this alone is of practical use. Two ideas, then, must be well understood ; first, that the faculties which give feelings, and those which constitute intellect, ex- ist independently of each other ; and, secondly, that they act in different degrees of force in chil- dren as well as adults. In this sense, we may say with De la Motte, that the child is already a man, and the man still a child. It is the same idea which De la Brutere on characters (T. II. chap, xi.) has detailed, in stating, that chil- dren, like adults, are affectionate or selfish, coura- geous or timid, candid or disingenuous, lazy or industrious, benevolent or envious, peaceable or quarrelsome, unsteady or persevering, humble or proud, just or unjust. The powers are, indeed, the same in children and adults ; they are only a} plied to different objects. The same person, when a child, may be jealous or envious about sweetmeats, and when adult, about places of honor. The same faculty renders a child self- willed, a boy disobedient, and a man muti- nous. Mr. Combe has well expressed the same idea; " The child," says he, "who trembles at the threat of being shut up in a dark closet ; who exhibits to us with delight his new suit of clothes ; who fights about a marble ; or who covets his neighbour's top, is under the influence of the same faculties which, in future years, may EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 161 make him tremble under the anticipation of a fall of stocks ; make him desire to be invested with a star and garter ; contend for an island or a king- dom, or lead him to covet his neighbour's proper- ty." (Essays on Phrenology, p. 315.) Hence the individual tendencies must be observed, im- peded, or encouraged and directed. A young girl, whom I know, was prohibited from being imperious to servants and common people ; she continued to amuse herself with giving orders to such of her playthings as represented servants, and with scolding them. When she was told that she committed a fault, she excused herself by say- ing, that it was merely a play. But the parents were intelligent enough not to confound the feel- ing of self-esteem with any object of its satisfac- tion, and this amusement was equally interdicted. In the cultivation of the feelings the natural lan- guage is of the greatest importance. Have the feeling which you wish to inspire, speak its natural language, and you will impress the juve- nile minds. Avoid particularly the natural ex- pressions of the inferior affections, as of anger, jealousy, envy, impatience, &c. In showing anger to children, you give a practical lesson. Follow the example of the philosopher who said : I should punish you if I were not angry. If any inferior feeling be too energetic, it is proper to avoid every circumstance that may put 15* 162 EDUCATION OP MAN. it into action. Accordingly, never vex quarrel- some or obstinate children, particularly do not at length yield to them and let them have their own way ; never desire such children to do what is unjust ; make every demand on them quietly, but never yield. It is essential to know which faculties assist each other, and which act in opposition, in order to direct the actions and omissions of man. At- tachment will generally rest on objects, men, ani- mals or things, whereby the other feelings may be satisfied at the same time, or, at least, not pre- vented from being so. It is assisted by mildness and cautiousness. Children endowed with these feelings, and with ideality and love of approbation in a high degree, in order that they may not be de ceived in their dealings with man, should be made acquainted with the difference of men, and with the various motives of their actions. Courage is not given to indulge quarrelsome- ness and anger, nor to effect gratification of ven- geance. Its aim is to defend what is absolutely just. If not active enough, it ought to be en- couraged, not only by words, but by exposing the individual to situations which may appear annoy- ing. Timid children will become less fearful by being accustomed to society. If courage be too strong, its bad consequences may be shown ; and, according to circumstances, attachment, selfish- EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 163 ness, the love of approbation, or the moral feel- ings, may be opposed as motives to restrain it. The faculty of Firmness greatly assists the ac- tivity of every other power, but it also produces many disorders, particularly if it be naturally strong in combination with large self-esteem, and if parents, in order to form the character of their children, as they say, allow them the gratification of every fancy. Such beings are exasperated by the least resistance in future life, and become fre- quently unhappy. Firmness alone will never pro- duce great actions. It only causes the active fac- ulties to persevere. Hence the same person may persevere much in one respect, and very little in another. It has particular influence on self-esteem, the love of approbation, conscientiousness and rev- erence. Ideality and the want of order and time, are in opposition to perseverance. The direction of amativeness and of the reli- gious sentiments is of prime influence. These feelings appear commonly later, sometimes, how- ever, earlier in life. The longer the difference of the sexes can be concealed from children, the better. But as soon as children are inclined to abuse their persons, let them know the dreadful consequences of such a vice on the whole body, and on the manifestations of the mind. Incalculable mischief is done to in- 164 EDUCATION OF MAN. dividuals and to mankind at large by the abuses of amativeness. Many become insane and, in nu- merous cases, mind and body are ruined and all happiness undermined, by its disorderly gratifica- tions. Parents and teachers commonly are not watchful enough in this respect. The picture may be varied, according to the knowledge of the child, and to the bad effects which are already visible in him, Every thing which excites ner- vous irritability, and accelerates the circulation of the blood, must be avoided. Bodily exercise, however, cannot be dispensed with, as it is neces- sary to produce sleep. If the functions of propa- gation be known, the influence of the vice, not only on him, but on generations to come, may be detailed. Many ideas of this kind are mentioned in books on physical education. I refer to them, mentioning again, that a too anxious taciturnity of parents concerning these points, will rather do harm than good, because the propensity is innate, and acts without restraint, if its destination, and the consequences of its abuses, be not clearly shown to children. Being informed of its importance, they will more readily resist, and submit to those means which seem necessary to restrain it. The regulation of the religious feelings also de- serves great attention. It is known how very dif- ferent the ways of worshipping have been, from human sacrifices to adoration in spirit and in truth. It is remarkable tt*°* at all times continency has EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 165 been considered as agreeable to God. The priests of the ancient Egyptians avoided wine and wives. The Levites were forbidden to have intercourse with females during the time of their sacerdotal service. In Ceylon and Siam the priests are pro- hibited from marrying. The Roman Church re- quires an observance of a similar law. Religious precepts of various kinds, and the most opposite opinions, when proposed as the will of God, have been listened to. The majority of mankind is credulous. Say that it is necessary to sacrifice animals, to burn perfume, to ring bells, to fast, to sing, to make prostrations, to dance, to whip the body, or to do various other things in honor of God, and man will comply.. Even those who reflect for themselves, and admit the revela- tion of Christian principles, will differ in their explication of them. The question, then, is often put, Who can decide which is the true religion ? As the tree is known by its fruit, so is the man by his actions, and a doctrine by its effects. I think that the touchstone of every principle, religious and moral, is the same, viz. its tendency to pro- mote the glory of God and the common happi- ness of mankind. It is absurd, and even blasphe- mous, to hold out any doctrine as coming from God, the manifest tendency of which is to in- flict evil. I adopt, therefore, only that explana- tion of every passage of Christianity which fa- vors general love, 166 EDUCATION OF MAN. There are religious people who agree with re- spect to principles, but vary as to the particular applications of them. They insist much on some, and are indifferent about other points ; and some- times follow the absurdities of their own imagina- tions ; they explain one passage of the Gospel ac- cording to its spirit, and take another literally. Others admit the principles, and say that they believe in them, but care very little for their prac- tice ; whereas the least portion of intelligence and honesty might enable them to perceive, that the practice is better than the mere assertion of be- lief. In religious education, as well as in every other sort of instruction, three things are particularly to be kept in view ; first, The objects taught must be suitable to the station of those instructed ; secondly, the knowledge communicated must be applicable ; and, thirdly, The necessary means for attaining the end must be pointed out and attend- ed to. With respect to the first point, the choice of objects to be taught, there can be little difficul- ty in deciding between the advantages of commu- nicating a knowledge of fabulous tales or exam- ples of moral conduct ; of teaching habitual char- ity or vice. Children ought to be taught that moral conduct is the aim and end of their exist- ence, and that morality is indispensable to the welfare of individuals and of society. And mor- alists, who wish for the improvement of mankind, EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 167 ought not to reject any means of attaining that end, except those which have been tried and found in- effectual ; but these should be given up, of what- ever date and authority they may be, and only those that prove useful be employed. Thus, all powers should be directed with a view to practical life, the intellectual faculties to the acquisition of positive knowledge, and the feelings to the promotion of the general welfare. There is another great error committed in many schools of England, viz. the third part of the year is given up to idleness. This may be necessary, because the objects to be taught are few, and be- cause the faculties employed are fatigued, and re- quire rest or vacation-days ; but these might be filled up by the useful employment of other facul- ties, which could be exercised one after another. In that way more knowledge would be acquired, and sufficient time allowed for relaxation to the individual faculties. Natural history, mechanical and chemical ex- periments, are well suited to the capacities of youth, and would delight many ; architecture, painting, music, geography, theatrical perform- ances, &c. would please others. No better recre- ation would be wished for. The great error is, that all children are obliged to learn the same things ; the boys Latin and Greek, and the girls 168 EDUCATION OF MAN. music and drawing. Yet out of the prodigious number of girls who learn these arts, how few are there, who, after they become mistresses of their own time, and after they have the choice of their own amusements, continue to practise them for the pure pleasure they afford. Even those who take pleasure in good music, are better pleased with hearing others than in performing themselves. How often are the labors of years, and the expen- diture of large sums of money, lost in this way ? What a pity, that we are obliged to learn so many things for no end but to forget them ! Accomplishments in general are not sufficiently distinguished from necessary and useful instruc- tion. The latter is often neglected, and things are taught for which children have no taste, such as drawing and music, while they never would take a pencil in their hand nor play a tune from choice. How glad are they, therefore, when the time for lessons and masters is over, when they are of age, and their education is finished. Many women, possessed of such accomplishments, never touch the heart of a man. They have learnt many things except those they ought to know. They find a partner only for their money, but the result of such a union is daily seen. Leisure time alone should be filled up by accomplishments, and whoever does not cultivate them from his own impulse, should not cultivate them at all. EACH FACULTT TENDS TO ACTION. 169 Order is of great importance in our affairs. Children ought to be accustomed to take care of whatever belongs to them, and young females should be exercised in keeping the family-accounts. Order does not depend only on the understand- ing, but it requires also experience. This cannot be infused into the mind by precept, but must be acquired by practice. Every one should learn to employ his own powers, and to regulate his own conduct, and for that purpose he should be placed into various situations, and left to his own re- sources. This is particularly necessary to boys. Girls are more dependent, and, in many respects, they may be accustomed to trust to the experience of others, and to conform to the customs of society. They must be more reserved in manners and in their moral conduct, because their faults are of greater consequence than those of boys to their station in society ; for repentance and tears will not wash out the errors and immoral conduct of girls. On the other hand however, prudery should be avoided with the same carefulness, and not be confounded with delicacy and modesty. Delicacy of sentiment and refined manners are a great ornament, and ought always to be cultiva- ted. All odd motions or attitudes, and awkward gestures, should be watched and prevented from becoming habitual. 16 170 EDUCATION OF MAN. The reflecting faculties deserve particular care. Let children be taught, if possible, to understand what they say and do, and to express their own ideas with precision. I have already mentioned, that those persons are mistaken, who think that reasoning can be improved only by one sort of study, such as of language or mathematics. The fact is, that studying any branch accurately, ap- plying judgment to it, and reflecting on the rela- tions of Cause and Effect which it exhibits, will cultivate the reasoning powers with equal effect. Comparison and Causality are necessary in impor- tant and in trifling things. If children have great difficulty in reasoning, the first attempt here, as in every other branch, is the most difficult part of the work. We should therefore allow them time to reflect, and wish that they should rather ac- quire one distinct idea, than many confused no- tions of different things. The erroneous method of instruction generally pursued, is the cause why many, when at the end of their school-education, must become their own teachers. Those who have not talent or courage enough to do so, remain within the circle of me- diocrity, and are mere followers in the paths of others. Yet copying, or merely -imitating others, is the death of arts and sciences. I conclude this Chapter with repeating, that each faculty tends to act ; that each faculty may be MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 171 used and abused ; that all faculties ought to be employed in augmenting the common happiness ; and that moral conduct and reflection are the prin- cipal means of producing it ; but that precepts alone will not change and improve mankind. Their influence is little in comparison to that of social intercourse. The manners of the world, the spirit of families and of parties, customs and received opinions, are often opposite to those which we are taught at school. We hear sobriety praised, and in our families we find luxury ; disin- terested conduct is highly spoken of in our books, but we live in the midst of a crowd of busy creatures, whose most anxious thoughts are direct- ed towards gain and vanity ; and we observe, that respect and consideration are paid to others in proportion to their wealth, idleness, privileges, and fanciful, nay selfish distinctions. School- education is then soon forgotten. Whoever, therefore, has an influence on society, let him con- tribute all in his power to cause the same spirit to prevail in education, in legislation, in social inter- course, in writings, in arts, and in sciences. CHAPTER III. THERE IS NO ACTION WITHOUT A MOTIVE. The principle that no action takes place with- out a motive, is the same as that there is no effect 172 EDUCATION OF MAN. without a cause and the law of causation exists in the moral as well as the physical world. Yet the nature of the motives of our actions, and their ori- gin, are not sufficiently understood. As long as it is believed that education can cre- ate faculties, the whole of mankind will be treated in the same manner, and the same motives will be proposed to all men. But when we know the in- fluence of innate dispositions, we perceive the ne- cessity of having recourse in each person to his natural powers, and of fortifying or guiding them by cultivation. I here repeat, that our feelings, inferior and su- perior, furnish the principal motives of our actions, that, in consequence, the motives are different like the faculties themselves ; but that the proper aim or object of our actions is only one. I take it also for granted, that the cultivation of the faculties proper to man is the aim of his existence ; since they alone constitute moral rectitude, and general happiness, and submission to the laws of creation. The superior faculties, when they act by them- selves from their internal energy, do so with pleasure, and constitute the kingdom of love. But, whenever they must be excited in any way, or when the energy of the inferior faculties requires to be moderated or restrained, then government and obedience, or the rule of the law, begins. As MOTIVES OP ACTIONS. 173 the inferior faculties, however, exist in human na- ture, and stand in need of constant regulation, it is evident, that Jesus, in His own person fulfilled the law and could not abolish it. Its existence was the will of His heavenly Father, and the constitu- tion of human nature evidently requires it. The motives arising from the superior faculties of man, are also termed Religious and Moral ; re- ligious, as far as we stand in relation to God as governor and ruler ; and moral, in so far as it is our duty to act in such or such a manner with re- spect to mankind. There can be no doubt that our Maker has bound us by laws which must be obeyed. These laws are established by the Creator, and have been confirmed by revelation. Man is a moral being, and the law of his natural morality has been con- firmed by Jesus. This matter, exercising the greatest influence on the happiness of Man, is con- sidered, with details, in my work on the Philo- sophical Principles of Phrenology. Children may soon be made to comprehend that they cannot change the laws of nature, and to see the necessity of submitting to them. When they understand the tendency of these laws, they will feel respect and veneration for that Almighty Being who instituted them, and for His all-wise appointments. But it will be a matter of greater 16* 174 EDUCATION OF MAN. difficulty to make every one comprehend and ho- nestly love the general good as the aim of our ex- istence, though it is conformable equally to the law, natural and revealed. The desire for the common welfare of mankind, is not strong enough in man, to allow us to depend on it as a sufficient motive of self-direction, and, accordingly, various means have been, and still must be employed, in order t direct our actions towards this point. A knowledge of the different motives of our actions, then, is indispensable. If the moral law be writ- ten in the heart of a man, that is, if the faculties of conscientiousness, Benevolence, and Reverence be naturally most powerful in any person, let us appeal to them. If another be more disposed to obey, because it is commanded by the revealed law, that is, if his Hope and Marvellousness be naturally the most powerful faculties, let us not reject these motives. The same aim is to be at- tained, but the means may vary. If the superior motives of man ; — his natural charity, his religious faith, and his reasoning powers are not sufficient to direct his actions, in- ferior motives must be employed, such as love of approbation, acquisitiveness, reward and punish- ment, fear, &c. Many persons are prevented from stealing, through the criminal code, or the fear of hell, or of being dishonored. MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 175 The kingdom of fear and selfishness is infinitely more extensive than that of love. The former has existed, exists, and will long continue to exist, but the latter cannot come, as long as selfishness and the love of approbation are presented as the aim of our conduct. While these are considered as the objects of human existence, conquerors will prevail over their satellites, like Brennus, who sent wine from Italy to his countrymen, saying, If you like this wine, come and help me to con- quer the country where it grows. It is essential for a teacher, or any one who di- rects others, to know that different motives may produce the same action in different persons. One child may behave well through attachment to his parents ; another through fear, or the love of approbation ; a third through selfish views, or a feeling of duty. Moreover, it ought to be kept in view as a principle in moral and intellectual education, that children do many things by mere imitation. Thev often adopt the manner of thinking and acting of those with whom they live. They consider as good that which they hear praised and see done by their parents. For this reason we know by the children whether we are liked or disliked in a family. This propensity to imitate will produce most effect in children whose natural character is not very determinate, an d in them it may be ap- 176 EDUCATION OF MAN. plied with advantage as a means of instruction. Parents therefore become the best moral teachers ; but let their moral conduct agree with their pre- cepts, if they expect to produce any effect by their teaching. If they show in words an abhorrence of vice, let not their actions be stained by impuri- ty. When they teach their children to avoid bad company, and to esteem virtue and excellence above the distinctions of wealth and rank, let them not be encircled themselves in fashion and vanity. If they exhort them to order, truth, can- dor, and charity, let them prove their sincerity by their own actions. Many children, at an early age, are capable of feeling arguments, but several cannot. Parents and teachers should be always just and reasonable in what they require of them, and then never yield to any resistance or remonstrance whatever on the part of the child. A habit of submission is of the utmost consequence to the moral improvement of children. Children, however, as well as adults, like what is conformable to their natural dispositions. If their intellectual powers are very active, they may be allowed to follow their dictates, and to deter- mine even their own future situation in life. But, if parents wish to bring them up to professions which they themselves prefer, and not according to the natural gifts of the children, or if children MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 177 are not distinguished by their talents, they must be encouraged, by various means, and sometimes even forced, to exertion, and to make a choice of employment. Without this, many children would become careless and idle. It becomes necessary to impose tasks whenever the natural dispositions do not induce children to attain the knowledge re- quisite for their profession. It is always an error to allow idleness and free hours as a reward, be- cause such a proceeding implies that learning is a punishment. It is not very judicious, neither, to conduct education, so that kings' birth-days and holydays are liked, because they exempt children from attending school. This is nearly as bad in principle, as compelling them to learn verses or write versions by way of punishment. Certain- ly a better mode of chastisement, if necessary, might be found. This kind of punishment is similar to that inflicted by some priests who as a penance command a repetition of certain prayers. The question concerning emulation and its use- ful or dangerous influence is discussed among in- stitutors. Some prove its good, others blame its bad consequences. It is founded on a strong fun- damental feeling on the love of distinction or ap- probativeness which may be used or abused. Those who have certain powers very strong are pleased with their gratification, they do not want any other motive. But emulation may become an excitement, of any feeling as well as intellectual 178 EDUCATION OF MAN. power. It is a great stimulus for children to learn their lessons, but as its influence is so great in so- ciety and the cause of numberless disorders, and as it is so much cultivated in social relations, I find it advisable to omit it entirely in school edu- cation. At all events no praise should be be- stowed except on talent and virtue. It certainly should be better if we could think that in doing all that which is to be done we do merely our duty. Selfishness and approbativeness act with the most different appearances according to their com- binations with other faculties and to external cir- cumstances. It is known, and I have already men- tioned that their activity has been considered, by some philosophers as sufficient to explain all the actions of men, and even as the source of superior talents. Indeed, whenever we omit any thing, in order to gain any earthly or heavenly enjoyment, selfishness is active ; and whenever we wish to be approved of, the love of approbation comes into play. The tendencies of these two powers are easily distinguished in children ; but I repeat, that their preponderance produces great mischief in society ; that they are too much cultivated in com- mon education, and that it is an error, the evil consequences of which are incalculable, to repre- sent them as the chief aim of our existence, while they ought to be only secondary motives. I have seen children endowed with a great deal of pride MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 179 and love of approbation, who became quite in- toxicated by being praised, and, certainly from this excitement, committed new faults, and some- times became intolerable for several days. Let us examine with some more details whether selfishness and the love of approbation produce talents ; and whether the satisfaction of these two feelings should be the aim of all our actions ? Is it true, that arts and sciences originate and im- prove in proportion as they are patronized by pecuniary rewards and honor ? In Greece, the masterpieces of poetry, eloquence, history, and philosophy, were not the result of patronage. The successors of Alexander the Great encou- raged the learned, yet sciences lost their grandeur and originality. Only commentaries, compila- tions, and imitations became numerous. In reading history, we meet with many great men who found their reward in the cultivation of the sciences and the arts themselves, and who were even persecuted on their account. Many others have persevered in contributing to the improvement of arts and sciences, only until they met with rewards and honors ; and it was fortunate if this did not hap- pen too soon, as it appeared they worked only for them, and became idle when their aim was at- tained. If individuals, because they possess some talents, are to receive the privilege of deciding on the 180 EDUCATION OF MAN. value of every scientific production, their eleva- tion to distinction becomes a great obstacle to the progress of arts and sciences, because the learned themselves are not free from selfish passions, and, like the vulgar, are ready to hinder others from attaining similar enjoyments and honors. Few are disposed to acknowledge the superiority of others. As the great maxim of a liberal government is, Let them act, so the true patronage consists in not preventing talents from exercising themselves, as long as absolute justice towards mankind is not in- jured ; in rewarding productions according to their influence on the general welfare, and in re- warding only services actually performed. Among the abuses concerning rewards and distinctions, I mention only the fault to give to regular profes- sors the exclusive right of teaching, and what is still worse, to permit them to delegate their du- ties to any substitute .they may choose. Monop- oly impedes improvement in every thing. If the services of a professor be useful to society in other avocations, and he cannot attend to his scientific pursuits, his professorship ought to be transferred to the person who, next to him, cultivates that branch with pleasure and success. It is certain that reward and distinction do not produce talents, though they are of great weight in exciting and directing the actions of all the EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 181 faculties. I even infer from history, that man- kind will suffer, and that all institutions will re- main imperfect, as long as selfishness and glory are the aim of our actions ; or, in other words, as long as places are looked for with a zeal in pro- portion to the profit they hring, and to the dis- tinction they bestow on the possessor, whilst all our actions ought to tend to the common benefit and honor of mankind. Nothing but the place we occupy in society, and fitness for its duties, should give distinction. It should be considered as every man's duty, to do all that he is capable of doing for the general happiness of those among whom he lives. Private interest, when exclusive- ly pursued, is the greatest enemy of morality. Whoever contends for it as the chief aim of our existence, acts after the impulse of his animal na- ture ; — he is not a man. Selfishness, it is true, has greatly contributed to abolish various kinds of injustice, for every one is ready to resist his oppressor. In religious and civil legislation, privileges are more and more limited, and the rights of man become more equal than they were in ancient times. We no longer believe that all mankind is made for the sake of a few. Indeed, as long as there is any thing to gain, there will be many who will contend for in- dependence, out of mere selfishness ; but the princi- ple from which they act, though hitherto auxiliary to the common good, cannot be applauded ; for it 17 182 EDUCATION OF MAN. would lead them to tyrannize in their turn, if they had the power. Mankind cannot become happy, if selfishness be not replaced, or at least mitigated, by a supe- rior motive of action. He who pursues his own advantage only, so far as he can do so without in- juring another, is just ; he who gives up his su- perfluity rather than to do harm to another, is noble ; he who works only for the common wel- fare is the most noble, and no one, but him, de- serves that name. A great step towards perfection, would be the full and practical admission of the principle that every one has the right to employ his talents to the utmost for his own benefit, as far as he can do it without injuring others. This system of gov- ernment is certainly far superior to that of exclu- sive privileges of any kind : — Many battles, how- ever, will be fought betwixt selfishness and bigotry on the one hand, and reason and sound morality on the other, before it is generally admitted and followed. It must be added, however, that the adoption even of this principle cannot be expected to obviate misery, nor luxury, with all its fatal consequences, for this simple reason, that the natural endow- ments of individuals are very different, and that those who have more talents will govern the othen EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 183 in one way or another. While selfishness con- tinues to be the motive of their actions, the highly gifted will employ the weak to advance their own ends. The poor will be constantly dependent on the rich, and will serve them as the only thing they can do to live. Supremacy will, of neces- sity, fall on single individuals. Nations also, through selfishness, interfere with each other, and war becomes unavoidable. The fortunate com- mander finds satellites whose advantage it is to serve him, as workmen serve the manufacturer ; he avails himself of their talents, and tells his countrymen that peace, and obedience to his will, are essential to their happiness. Is not this the state of Man as far as history informs us ? And this must continue to be his state, wherever per- sonal welfare is the only rule of conduct. Tyran- ny causes revolutions ; revolutions, again, are pro- ductive of tyranny ; and all this has its origin in selfishness. There is no possibility of changing this permanent circle of events in mankind, ex- cept by subordinating private interest to common advantage. This doctrine is not new, it is the basis of Chris- tianity ; but it has been dreadfully abused at dif- ferent times, even by pretended teachers of mo- rality. It is no where practised in its full vigor and happy is the nation whose governors follow i even in a limited degree. But it ought at least t< be generally propagated and its good effects showr to every one who is capable of appreciating them 184 EDUCATION OF MAN. The difference of motives does not only exist in children, but also in adults and whoever wishes to determine different individuals to the same con- duct must appeal to different faculties of the mind. He must follow the example of the great apostle who became all things to all men, in order to save them. Whoever has only one motive of salvation to propose, will never keep all mankind together, and whoever wishes to move strongly must appeal to the feelings. Experience however shows that few persons can be guided by the superior feelings alone, and that reasoning is seldom of any great weight as a motive of conduct ; it is also obvious, on the other hand, that the greater number of per- sons are actuated by inferior motives, and even by commandment and by fear. Yet I would recom- mend, that the propriety of making use of all pos- sible inducements to produce virtuous conduct should be kept constantly in view, and that every motive should be employed, beginning with the most noble and elevated with morality and reason, and ending with the lowest, with fear and impres- sions on the sense of feeling, and the sensations of hunger and thirst. We may reason with those who understand the laws of the Creator, and feel their importance, whilst others, who cannot com- prehend these laws or perceive their utility, should be restrained by inferior and selfish motives, even by disagreeable impressions on their senses, or by feeling the pains of hunger, or solitary confine- ment. The latter means will be rarely necessary, DIFFERENCE OP NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 185 but if so, should not be neglected. The flogging system however, will be abandoned in proportion as human nature becomes understood, and educa- tion conducted according y . CHAPTER IV. EVERY ONE HAS HIS NATURAL GIFTS. The reader, somewhat versed in Phrenology, will easily perceive, that the different considera- tions of this work are in the most intimate connec- tion with, and even founded on, ideas developed in other publications to which I have frequently referred. In this Chapter I take it for granted, that all mental dispositions or powers, are innate, and I speak of them in so far only as regards the direction of their actions. In respect to feelings as well as intellect, man- kind may be ranged in different classes. There are persons who may be called fortunate, if not elect, namely, those who, from the felicity of their natural constitution, desire only what is good, who act from love, and show pure morality in all their actions. In these happy beings, the superior feelings predominate much over those common to man and animals. 17* 186 EDUCATION OF MAN. The rest of mankind, by far the greater num- ber, are obliged to combat against the activity of the inferior feelings, and stand in need of the law to direct and restrain them. Three subdivisions of this latter class may be considered. The first embraces those who have one or several of the inferior as well as one or several of the superior feelings very active. These persons may be great in vice or virtue, according as they follow the dictates of their inferior or superior faculties. In the second order, may be reckoned those in whom certain inferior faculties are very active, and all the superior very weak. Such individ- uals are exposed to the danger of being over- whelmed by vice, in proportion to the weakness of the superior motives. This disproportion is common in great criminals* In the third class are placed by far the greater number of mankind, namely, those individuals in whom all the faculties are middling ; those who act according to education and external circum- stances, and follow, without examination, the moral and religious principles which they are taught. Some philosophers, founding on them as instances, have been led to maintain, that man does every thing by imitation. Though that opinion be erroneous, the influence of imitation, remains very great, and we may say with Mr. Combe, (Essays on Phrenology, p. 322.) " As a DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 187 general rule, whatever you wish your child to be or do, be that or do that to him. If you wish him to be outrageous, to be cruel, to be quarrel- some, be outrageous, cruel, and quarrelsome to him. If you wish him to be humane and polite, be humane and polite to him. If you wish him to be just and pious, be just and devout before him." The great mass of mankind, indeed, cannot be left to their own guidance ; common people, when tempted, easily yield ; education, therefore, in all its details, legislation, and all public institutions, ought to contribute to accustom them to regulari- ty and order. But, at the same time, the rulers of mankind must not expect the lower minds to be obedient whilst they forget their own duty. Power is given, not for the selfish gratification of those who are invested with authority, but to promote the general happiness of the commu- nity. With respect to understanding, it is also ccr- that few are endowed with a mind so "compre- hensive, as to enable them to learn whatever they please, and to embrace the principles of universal knowledge. Some are given rather to deep re- flection than to great learning ; others have less reflection, but much talent for acquiring erudi- tion ; and, in the last place, the greater number do not excel in any department of knowledge, of art, or of science whatever ; but may learn any 188 EDUCATION OF MAN. thing that is necessary to qualify them to become useful members of society. The preceding facts being ascertained by ob- servation, we may examine the question, Whether the same kind of education will equally suit every individual. The aim in educating all must be the same, namely, to render them virtuous and intelligent ; but as the natural endowment of individuals is different, all persons are not capable of the same improvement, and every one cannot be induced by the same motives to pursue the same end. The faculties proper to man, being the aim of all our actions, should be cultivated in every per- son as much as possible, but the natural differ- ence will be observed with respect to the energy of these, as well as of the other faculties in differ- ent individuals. Nature, by her endowment, con- stitutes some characters moral, and others religious. The latter will act more from faith, the former from duty. Yet, the law, " Love thy neighbor as thyself," must be constantly held up to both, as the object of their exertions, and obedience to it required, even of those who do not feel inclined to do so. If the superior motives be not sufficiently strong to produce this obedience, the lower faculties DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 189 must be employed. The influence of the latter powers, then, is double ; they constitute motives themselves, and they also assist the superior feel- ings to arrive at their gratification. Among the lower motives, selfishness and fear are the most generally energetic, and no legislation can exclude the use of them. Thus, a true system of education cannot be founded on single views, or established accord- ing to single individuals ; it must be adapted to human nature. I have already mentioned that whoever will direct man, ought not to hold out only one motive of action. He who endeavors to change every person into a philosopher, and he who will never reason with any one is equally mis- taken. A preacher who invites others to become morally good, will err when he trusts entirely to the motives which govern his own actions, not being aware that sometimes such motives make no impression on others. He ought to bring for- ward all possible reasons to touch all his auditors, and make them feel those motives which they are susceptible of. He ought to be particularly care- ful to be understood, and to speak by examples. Moreover, his precepts must be confirmed by his own actions. He who teaches order and cleanli- ness, must be orderly and cleanly himself ; he who preaches peace and charity, must not deny these principles by his moral conduct. Those who gay, Follow my words, but not my actions, are 190 EDUCATION OF MAN. unfit for their situation, and ought to be replaced by more worthy subjects. It follows, that the feelings, as well as and even still more than the intellectual faculties, ought to be considered before children are destined to cer- tain professions, or adults to certain places. To bring up a child endowed with great animal pro- pensities, such as.Amativeness, Combat iveness, Ac- quisitiveness, Self-esteem, &c. to the church, whatever his intellect may be, is the height of error and absurdity. Nothing has done greater harm to society, than placing individuals in pro- fessions and situations for which they were unfit, not only through the want of some necessary facul- ties, but also through the inordinate activity of some of the opposite ones. Strong amativeness or cruelty produces mischief in a Roman Catholic priest, as does the love of domination in the repre- sentative of a free nation, corruptibility in a judge, fear in a general, &c. The feelings, also, ought to be exercised with a view to the future destination of children. Combativeness is to the soldier what reverence is to the clergyman ; but, in both, benev- olence and conscientiousness should be active. It is also impossible to insist too much on the importance of considering the effect of the natural feelings, in the choice of persons to rule or to lead society. This highly interesting point can be per- ceived, in all its magnitude, by those only who DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 191 are convinced, that the faculties which produce feelings, are natural gifts differing in every indi- vidual ; that they are independent of intellect, and are the principal cause of our actions. In this way, fishermen, who are eminently gifted in natural sentiments, may be better moralists than high priests, mathematicians, orators, or philoso- phers, who excel only in intellect, and whose moral sentiments are weak compared with their inferior propensities. An opposite error, but not less hurtful to society than the preceding, is committed by those who despise and neglect the cultivation of the intel- lectual faculties. Some religious persons of this kind, have endeavoured to put aside all temporal concerns, and have become hermits. Others avoid all pleasure, or even torture their body, in order to be agreeable to their Creator. Others repre- sent a knowledge of the Bible, as a substitute for all other information, in the same way as the Ma- hometan confines his knowledge to the Koran. Our ignorance of human nature is the cause of such mistakes. The faculties which produce feel- ings, constitute only one part of our nature ; the other part is intellectual, and the feelings work in darkness if not enlightened by the understanding. Intellectual education too, is frequently miscon- ducted from ignorance of human nature. The basis, however, of the direction of intellect is the 192 EDUCATION OF MAN. same as that of feelings. A plurality of intel- lectual powers exists, and they are possessed in different degrees of strength by different indi- viduals. The reflective faculties are essential to our moral conduct in every situation ; and are necessary to form clear conceptions in all intel- lectual operations, while the perceptive faculties are applicable only to certain kinds of employ- ment. The reflective powers then should be ex- ercised in every individual. I have already repeated, that all our learning ought to be useful, and that we should obtain'pos- itive notions instead of mere signs, which convey no meaning. Indeed no one has excelled, nor will excel, as a deep thinker, as a great minister, general, lawyer, physician, or moralist, merely because he is a good classical scholar. Great men are no doubt frequently skilled in the classics ; and it would certainly be astonishing, if their natural capacities, which enabled them to become great, should prevent them from becoming good Latin scholars, since we see that they are obliged to spend more time and labor in learning Latin than in any other pursuit. But it should never be forgotten, that the talent for learning artificial signs is a primitive one, and that it may or may not be combined in any individual with a great endowment of other intellectual powers, and hence that it is wrong to consider it as the standard of understanding in general. It is high time, says DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 193 Dr. Rush, (Essays Literary, Moral, and Philo- sophical. Phil. 1806,) to distinguish between a philosopher and a scholar, between things and words. We may be good scholars, and know nothing of man and things. A mere scholar can call a horse or a cow by different names, but he frequently knows nothing of the qualities and uses of these valuable anin.als. " A boy of eight years old, with the Latin grammar in his hand, asked his father who made the Latin language, and for what it was made ? Another boy, of eleven years of age, wished he had not been born, because of the trouble which he found in learning Latin." It is certain, as Dr. Rush also says, that many sprightly boys, of excellent capacities for useful knowledge, have been so disgusted with the dead languages, as to retreat from the drudg- ery of schools to low company, whereby they have become bad members of society. The exclusive study of the ancient languages has retarded the progress of the arts and sciences. Whoever takes an interest in their improvement must declare against it. Philology ought to be considered as a particular branch of instruction, in the same way as Chemistry, Botany, &c. Useful and practical knowledge ought to be the principal object of intellectual education. During the time we spend in learning the words in which Virgil delivers the erroneous opinion, that bees originate from putrefaction, we might learn, with greater 18 194 EDUCATION OF MAN. advantage, the natural history, treatment, and use- fulness of this insect itself. In countries where vines are planted, it is more useful to teach chil- dren how to cultivate them, and how to make wine, than the expression which HoRACEempl oys to inform us, that he liked a good glass of wine. Instead of learning Mythology in Latin and Greek, we had better make ourselves acquainted with the history of the different religious creeds, and of true Christianity by reading in our mother-tongue. Of what use is it to us to know what words the Greeks used when they spoke, since we never con- verse in Greek ? Intellectual education may be divided into Gen- eral and Professional ; and in both respects the pupils may be subdivided into several classes, not according to age and time, but according to the objects to be taught, and those to be learnt ; for, in point of fact, some children learn double what others do in a given time, and succeed better in one branch than in another. They should remain in each class as long as, and no longer than, is necessary to acquire sufficient knowledge of the branch there taught. There should be one pro- fessor for each branch > and each class should be conducted according to the plan of mutual in- struction. I have already laid it down as a fundamental rule, that no sign should be employed without its DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 195 meaning is explained, and that children should be constantly admonished, that they use artificial signs as means of communication or recollection, and that sensations, feelings, notions and reflec- tions, precede, and can be acquired only by, the activity of the faculties themselves. I reckon the knowledge of as many objects and beings as possible, viz. of the three kingdoms of natural history, of their physical and chemical qualities, of the vital phenomena, of history, geo- graphy, geology, and cosmography, of anthropo- logy, the mother tongue, printed and written signs, calculation, and, finally, moral and religious principles, to be essential to a general intellectual education. Elementary ideas, or outlines of these objects, are sufficient for children ; but during the college ed- ucation, these branches are to be extended and de- tailed, but always taught by the way of mutual instruction. It is a common complaint that arts and sciences do not improve as much as might be wished for. This proves at least that education does not pro- duce talents ; but I think, on the other hand, that Nature has given many capacities which education suppresses. If, for instance, a boy who has little talent for learning Latin, but great inclination to draw, will, whenever the master turns his eyes 196 EDUCATION OF MAN. away, exercise his natural bias, he will, when per- ceived, at least be scolded. The consequence will be, that at the end he will know but very little Latin, while his innate talent of drawing has been prevented from being exercised. In this way many children are punished for cultivating their natural gifts, and their intellectual education is impeded. How different would every one be, were he brought up according to his natural en- dowments. It is really the greatest misfortune for mankind to educate children and youth in an indiscriminate manner ; and we may say, that in consequence of absurd views in the selection of the objects taught, and in the manner of teaching, learning has hitherto been tiresome, unprofitable, and even disgusting in no ordinary degree. The mistakes committed are particularly great in professional education. It is a lamentable truth, that few persons stand in the situations for which nature particularly fitted them. This soldier ought to have been a clergyman ; that clergyman a soldier ; and here we see a shoemaker who was intended for a poet ; and there an advocate who was designed for a shoemaker. The first indica- tion of improvement in this respect will appear, when human nature shall be better understood ; it will be known that there are natural gifts, that these gifts are different ; that precepts and rules neither bring forth talents nor moral conduct ; that none should be promoted to the degree of a lead- DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 197 ing man, who is not fit for the station, and that he who is fit for one place is not on that account necessarily fit for all others. It is a great evil if education be very expensive, so that merely rich persons can receive it. Their children are not al- ways the most talented, whilst the geniuses among the poorer classes are excluded. In this respect the Roman hierarchy serves as a model. It was conceived in a true republican spirit, and no civil government has hitherto shown a succession of tal- ents at the head of affairs, to be compared with the church of Rome. There is another example on record, which proves the importance of choosing the talents among all classes and employing every one ac- cording to his talents. The society of the Jesuits rose in a short time to an extraordinary height and influence. Several causes contributed to this result ; but the principal one certainly was; that they were employed in conducting education, dis- tinguished the genius of their pupils, chose for their order only those who excelled in talents, and employed each individual according to his natural dispositions. No society will acquire an equal in- fluence that expects to do so from teaching alone. Moreover, their regulations were calculated to contribute to their excellence. They were under a leading general, who nominated without con- trol all functionaries of the order, and could re- 18* 198 EDUCATION OF MAN. move them at pleasure. To him the reports of the subordinate societies were submitted. These reports were minute and circumstantial in the highest degree, containing exact information of the characters of the novices, and professed mem- bers, their talents, dispositions, and prevailing tendencies, and, above all, their knowledge of hu- man nature, and experience in affairs. Thus, the general could appoint to each man his station and his reward, could elevate and degrade, exclude and retain, and allot the chief duties to the highest abilities. 1 am far from defending the church of Rome and the society of Jesuits in all their tendencies. I argue only in favor of their sagacity, in furnish- ing means of education to the better heads of all classes and in employing every member according to his abilities. If every' one were employed according to his natural gifts, a double advantage would re- sult : arts and sciences would be cultivated with more success, and many persons would be better pleased with their station in life. It is certain, that it is not always the profession to which we are forced by circumstances, that makes us happy. Many would be satisfied with a smaller income, if they were allowed to follow their natural bias. Even people of independent fortune are still de- pendent on the general arrangement of education. DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 199 They know perfectly well that one or another of their sons will never excel as classical scholars, but they must submit to custom, and prejudice : the boys must be drilled for years, though they will soon forget that which they learned by com- pulsion. This is school-wisdom ! The second error of professional education is, that we are plagued with a great deal of useless knowledge, while the most important objects are overlooked. Of what use is mathematics to a clergyman, while his attention is scarcely called to human nature, and to the organic conditions on which the manifestations of the mind depend ? None of the unprofitable studies ought to be com- pulsory. Yet as every kind of knowledge is use- ful, no branch of it should be neglected, and therefore Latin and Greek might with pro- priety, continue to be taught, if we make it requi- site for those onlv to learn them who have the inclination to do so, or whose professions require such knowledge. No one can learn every thing, and it is wrong to oblige pupils to learn that which is useless in their practical situation in life. The third error of professional as well as of general education, consists in the method of teach- ing. It has been examined in the preceding pages, and I mention it once more for the sake of connec- tion. Children learn languages without ideas, 200 EDUCATION OF MAN. and natural history by mere descriptions ; and those who teach them in this manner, if they think at all about the matter, must proceed on the belief that every word communicated necessarily excites, in the mind of the pupil, the idea which they mean it to convey. This, however, is an extrava- gant error ; for words can excite only ideas already acquired, and if no previous ideas have been form- ed, they are mere unmeaning sounds. The same error is committed in professional education. In the study of medicine, for instance, we are fre- quently told a great deal about various diseases ; of external appearances ; of different conditions of the pulse or skin, &c. before we observe such things in nature. The result is, that the time and labor we spend in acquiring such theoretical know- ledge are, in a great measure, lost. Let us first see Nature, and then hear descriptions. A medical student, who has never seen a patient, but studied the theory of diseases, will be as little acquainted with them as with minerals of which he has only read the descriptions, though he might excel in his theoretical examinations. Thus, in the study of medicine, it is not only wrong to compel the students, as is the case|at cer- tain universities, to learn the auxiliary sciences in detail, such as mineralogy, botany, zoology and chemistry, since a perfect and practical know- ledge of each of these branches would require sev- eral years ; but it is also a great error to begin with theoretical lectures. DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 201 Moreover, the individual brandies of medical education are too much separated. The instruc- tion begins commonly with anatomy, without the pupil being taught to think of the use of any par- ticular part. At certain universities, they spend the greater part of the time in studying osteology and myology, (the knowledge of the bones and muscles ;) they must learn the name of each bony ridge and edge ; but may hurry over, with very superficial notions of the viscera and nerves, which certainly are more important to medical practi- tioners in general than those of the bones ; whilst operative surgeons alone stand in need of a very exact knowledge of the bones and blood-vessels. Physiology and anatomy ought never to be separated from each other : the structure will be learned with more ease and pleasure when at the same time its uses are taught. On the other hand, students ought to begin with the more necessary functions, and go on to those of less importance. When well acquainted with anatomy and physiol- ogy, they ought to see patients, and the different morbid symptoms ; they should learn to distin- guish diseases, to become attentive to modifica- tions according to age, temperament, climate, season, and manner of living, and to learn the mode of treatment. Being instructed in this prac- tical way, they will feel an interest in studying the Materia Medica, or the substances used out of the three kingdoms of nature, and also the chem- 202 EDUCATION OF MAN. ical preparations and doses. This study will hot require great extension, if we attend more to the art of healing than to the display of knowledge. The most skillful practitioners use a small num- ber of drugs in curing their patients, and they use still less for themselves, being indisposed. When human nature shall be better understood, and the primitive faculties of the mind, and the conditions of their manifestations more perfectly known, professional education will be better regulated, and we shall then no longer be obliged to learn merely for the school, or, as we com- monly say, for the examinations. We shall then acquire only practical knowledge, and no one will find it necessary to begin his own plan of useful learning when he has finished his studies at the university. Indeed, nothing can be more tedious for students, than to attend ex officio lectures of mere theoretical schoolmen. Here the qualifications of teachers might be con- sidered with propriety ; they are certainly of great importance, but it is not my intention to speak of them. Pupils are well aware, that great abuses are committed in this respect ; that it is not always the most worthy who fills the chair. 1 merely notice, that there is a difference between the possessing of knowledge and the capacity of communicating it to others, and that some persons of more knowledge are sometimes less skilful in DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 203 teaching, than others of less information, in the same way as the best students of theoretical know- ledge have not always the most practical skill. • The common method of teaching arts is not bet- ter than that of cultivating sciences. Let us sup- pose, for the sake of example, that those only who have natural talents apply themselves to drawing, painting, and the arts of imitation, — but we may ask, how are they generally taught ? They are too frequently confined to copying the antiques as the only models of beauty and perfection, instead of representing and imitating nature. In this way ar- tists will be only copyists, and never can acquire any claim to originality. On the other hand, the ancients had no exclusive privilege of genius, nor did they necessarily exhaust all the sources of excel- lence, so as to leave to posterity no resource but to copy them. On the contrary, there are many antiques that have no merit but their age. The only criterion, then, of greater or less perfection in works of art, is their resemblance to nature. Now, if the ancients have brought forth master- pieces in imitating nature, why should not modern artists do the same, since nature, though infinite in her modifications, is constant in her laws ? Let us imitate the method of the ancient artists, but not copy their productions. They represented nature, and imitated her varieties ; they gave to each strong hero, strong muscles, yet different in proportion and size, just as we find in nature ; JC04 EDUCATION OF MAN. why should our artists copy only the statue of Hercules, in order to indicate bodily strength ? Why should they in general confine themselves only to one and the same configuration and atti- tude for particular personages ? All musicians might be equally, and, with the same right, re- quested to follow only the productions of one or several great composers ; and all music which is not like that of Handel, Mozart or Haydn, be declared to be good for nothing. Even on the supposition that education, in all its details, is well understood, and its principles practised, still there will be but a few individuals, who will unite all the faculties necessary to such or such a situation. The individual painters will be rare, who possess in a high degree the faculties of Constructiveness, Configuration, Size, Color- ing, Imitation, Individuality, Comparison, and Causality. The same difficulty of uniting the necessary fundamental faculties together prevails in all arts, sciences and professions. In every one there are and will be individuals endowed with one or several of the necessary gifts ; but it sel- dom happens that all the faculties are united in an eminent degree in one person. The combinations of the primitive powers are innumerable, and form the proper subject of a particular treatise on talents and characters. EDUCATION OP THE SEXES. 205 The reader will keep in mind, that in this vol- ume, I intend merely to expose the fundamental principles according to which education is to be regulated, and the human race perfected. The peculiar applications are without end. The two following chapters, however, one on the education of both sexes, and the other on that of nations, seem to me particularly interesting. Yet there too the general principles remain the same, but their application is to be modified, and adapted to the peculiarities of sexes and nations. CHAPTER V. EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. The question, whether both sexes are to be ed- ucated differently, or in the sane manner, and placed in different or in the same situations in practical life, has been, and is still differently an- swered. Women call men usurpers and tyrants ; and they, on the contrary, boast of natural and positive rights of superiority. I shall consider, in the first place, in a general way, the condition of women as it was, and as it is, and then exa- mine what natural claims they have to equality. Their education is to be regulate! according to the determination of the latter poi; t. 19 206 EDUCATION OP MAN. The condition of women is very miserable among barbarous nations ; they are slaves. Wher- ever bodily strength and animal feelings predom- inate, they are sadly off. They are purchased, and divorce is permitted. The Jews were privi- leged to divorce their wives. (Deut. xxiv.) Among civilized nations, as long as the code of morality is dictated by the lower feelings, females are looked on as means of gratifying the selfish passions of men. The ancient Greeks and the European nations, during the dark ages, treated them with every indignity. Polygamy is inti- mately connected with the custom of purchasing wives. It prevailed originally every where, and exists still in many countries. In China, the wives are sold at marriages, and not permitted to make any choice of their own. By polygamy, however, some men usurp the right of others, a custom which is contrary to nature, since more boys are born than girls ; or are we authorized to admit that the contrary happens in Asia ? The pure spirit of Christianity abolished this odious practice, and re-established the primitive law of the Creator. The female sex has risen by a slow progress to higher and higher degrees of estimation in Europe. Females are respected wherever moral feelings are esteemed. Where this is the case, they are valued as friends ; but still they are either con- EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 207 sidered as weak and delicate creatures, and as- sisted, since it is thought a duty to compassionate and to succor the feeble, or they are treated as simple and useful housewives. Where a taste for beautiful forms and elegance of manners prevails, the females are considered as agreeable companions, and often become mis- tresses. Women are best treated, when polite manners and moral feelings are cultivated. Then they live with men under the decent form of matrimo- ny. Their gentle and insinuating manners are highly appreciated, and they are considered as intimate and faithful friends. Yet there is no society where the two sexes stand altogether in an equal situation. Is this dif- ference founded on nature, or the result of the selfishness of men ? Women speak of vindicating their natural rights ; they call it tyranny to deny them a share in civil and political affairs, to force them to remain immured in their families, &c. Mary Wolstoncroft has taken great pains to show, that both sexes are by nature equal. She was obliged to admit the actual inferiority of her sex ; but still she endeavored to prove, that women are degraded only by want of education, and by external circumstances ; and that men, through jealousy, purposely neglect the cultivation 208 EDUCATION OF MAN. of girls. Male writers, on the contrary, maintain, that nature has made the two sexes different, though concordant, so as to produce together a delicious harmony ; that she has prepared them for their future destinations, by a particular mod- ification of feelings and intellectual faculties given to each, and avoided rivalship between them, by giving them different dispositions. It is to be understood, that I do not speak of single individuals. There are women who re- semble men, and vice versa. Mary Wolston- croft speaks of her own manner of feeling and thinking, which resembled that of a man. She contends particularly for the power of generaliz- ing ideas, of drawing comprehensive conclusions from individual observations, a power which seems to her the only requisite of an immortal being ; a power which is commonly denied to women, and often considered as inconsistent with the female character. I allow that this power exists in some women stronger than in many men ; but Mary Wolstoncroft would accuse herself, and speak against her sex, if she would draw gen- eral inferences from her own individual feelings. As I am of the decided opinion, that the two sexes, in the actual state of things, are naturally differ- ent in their dispositions, I shall contrast them in a summary view. They possess essentially the same powers of mind, the whole difference con- sists in the degrees in which they have them. EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 209 The form of the female body is rounded, and indicates rather delicacy and beauty than strength and solidity. " Let us be allowed," says Mary Wolstoncroft, " to take the same exercise as boys, not only during infancy, but also during youth, and we shall arrive at the same perfection of body." I admit, that in girls, confined to close rooms, and prohibited from taking sufficient exercise, the muscles are relaxed, and the diges- tive powers destroyed. It would certainly be ad- visable to take the greatest care of the bodily constitution, and to adopt a manner of living which would secure females against bodily defor- mities and the immense train of nervous com- plaints that afflict them under the present system. I pity the female sex for their physical education being so utterly neglected, and for their mental improvement being thoroughly mismanaged ; yet I am also fully convinced, that although the same physical education were given to the muscular system of both sexes, each would preserve its pe- culiarities, because the functions, those at least which characterize the sex, are different in each. Country people of Europe furnish a certain proof of the truth of this assertion, boys and girls are brought up in the same way, but it is superfluous to say which sex is the strongest, and which has recourse to the other when muscular strength is required. Women are exposed to many little dis- orders unknown to the male sex. Farther in ful- filling their duty as mothers, they are exposed to 19* 210 EDUCATION OF MAN. great sufferings, and causes of weakness. Man- kind is treated in this, as in many other respects, like all viviparous animals. Though the manner of living be the same in both sexes, the females are smaller and weaker than the males. Some of the feelings necessary to the preserva- tion of the species are stronger in men, and others of them stronger in women. In animals, the male pursues, the female yields, and so it is in mankind. Among all nations men court, and women are courted. As to the love of offspring, the two sexes show a decided difference. Female children delight to dress and undress a baby, to take every possible care of a doll, to get an infant in their arms, to carry it, to sing and to walk about, stag- gering under the weight. Boys seldom think of such a pastime. They have more inclination to noisy amusements, to run about, to ride upon a stick by way of a horse ; they delight in a top, a ball, a drum, <^c. Since the suckling mother must stay with the child, and provide for its wants, nature has taken care that she should be pleased with doing so. Indeed many mothers have this feeling too strong, they cannot manage their children properly ; they spoil them, become unjust towards other persons on their account, and sacrifice truth and every thing for their sake. This is seldom the case with fathers ; they are commonly obliged to inflict the deserved punish- ments, and to be the judges in all disputes. EDUCATION OP THE SEXES. 2\\ Mary Wolstoncroft denies that women from birth, independently of education, have a fond- ness for dolls. She quotes her own feelings, and ventures to affirm, that the doll will never excite the attention of a girl, unless confinement allows her no alternative. "Girls and hoys," says she "would play harmlessly together, if the distinc- tion of sex were not inculcated long before nature makes any difference." Mary Wolstoncroft is very wrong to take herself as the standard of her sex, while general ohservations show, that through- out nature the love of offspring is stronger in fe- males than in males. Another feeling more energetic in women than in men, is Attachment. This feeling is not the result of their weak state, hut is given hy nature. Many women have sacrificed to it their happiness and welfare. Females commonly wish to possess, exclusively, the friendship of others, and often complain of the want of friendship in men, since they are not so exclusively governed hy it. The circumstance of this feeling being so energetic and prevailing in women, is an additional motive why seduction should he more severely punished. I fear that many legislators wink at this crime, from the circumstance of their not being themselves so prone to strong attachments as women. There are still some other feelings more active in women than in men, which essentially enter 212 EDUCATION OP MAN. into the formation of the female character. It is, however, difficult to say whether they contribute to their happiness, since it often happens, that, if they be not satisfied, they become sources of unhappiness to them. I allude to Ideality and Approbativeness. One of the most prevailing sentiments of females is the Love of Approbation. They show it from their earliest infancy in dressing, walking, speak- ing, &c. &c. They are constantly desirous of knowing what others say of them ; they are fond of distinctions of every kind, of decorations and external show. Young girls, who are scarcely capable of understanding what is said of them, may be governed by talking to them of what other people think of their behaviour. This motive has not the same effect with boys. Many females are intoxicated by the love of ap- probation, they cannot distinguish true merit from false flattery, nay, they would be pleased with adoration. They try to make impressions on others by various means. Some would suffer pain in order to be pitied, rather than remain unno- ticed. No man will object indiscriminately against the feeling which causes a desire of pleasing ; it is the source of many pleasures in society ; but its too great activity, combined with some other senti- ments, and not directed by reflection, makes many EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 213 women weak and fastidious, or mere objects of amusement, by their pretty nothings and infantine airs. It is still worse, if such fine ladies be full of capricious fancies. Females who are governed only by this feeling, will remain alluring objects for a moment, but they will not obtain a durable interest in the affections of a sensible man. It fol- lows, that the sentiment of the love of approba- tion being in general too strong in women, does not stand in need of being exercised ; it is, indeed, their greatest enemy. Farther they delight fre- quently in a world of fiction and eccentricity. The softer feelings and the religious sentiments are commonly stronger in women than in men. Fe- males therefore become easily the favorite tools of priesthood. Females naturally have less courage and destruc- tiveness than men, and more Cautiousness. Fear, therefore, ought not to be cherished in them ; but it ought to be treated as cowardice. To fear a cat, a mouse, an insect, a little noise, &c. is irra- tional, looks infantine, and indicates altogether a false susceptibility of mind, or a too great nervous irritability. The ardor with which some females amuse themselves in hunting, shooting, and gaming, appears, on the other hand, equally ob- jectionable. In short, while coarseness in females is to be avoided ; delicacy and refinement of taste must not be confounded with weakness. 214 EDUCATION OF MAN. The conduct of females in general is unstable ; their opinions are often wavering ; they think too much of incidental occurrences ; of actual events ; they wish to enjoy immediately ; are moved by momentary impressions ; do not like to work for a future period ; while men have more frequently the end in view. Females undertake many things ; they are warm by fits and starts, but their warmth is soon exhausted. Indeed, hitherto the greatest enemies of the fe- male sex reside in their own feelings. Many civ- ilized women please, rather than inspire with re- spect. They prefer alluring manners to perma- nent friendship. Many are charming, romantic, vain, or fine sentimental ladies. They are occu- pied with trifling things, mere beings of sensibility and pleasure, refined by novels, poetry, and gal- lantry ; but they should never forget, that they will always be considered as insignificant when they wish only to be fine ladies, and not to fulfil the duties which nature has assigned to them. Thus, the feelings and their combinations in women, tend much to make them dependent. To be independent, it is not sufficient to be endowed with the feeling of duty and justice as the principal motive ; these must also be combined with indif- ference about the opinion of others when unjust, with courage and perseverance, in order to resist EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 2 15 difficulties and obstacles, and to attend only to the aim, and to think of the necessary means. In order to understand perfectly the &bmk as veil at caraw- ite Jjtrnteczl priestL&wL their maHama**, ihar --■■■ - ■'-. ■:■.'.' v ".;- E-DCCATIOW ©F \ we read :Iijl: Moses when he innt anted the Sabbath, gave at the same time rar ious other statutes, commandmeitts, and moral laws which ought : either kept or abolished togeth- er, tied a number of the Jewish moral laws. He. for instance, forbid polygamy, which : he abolished capital puni h . lany other alteratic :mthe on the i^;;:::: sIkki >ilent about it* whilst he ooa- • - _ - Jesus hi:: > - l>bath several at variance with the Jewish lav, for instance, with his . umd p l u cke d ears, — he .-v.rtv. . : ..sv\-._s:> . .". c'-c:-. said that * ibbath was made tor man and not man lor the Sabbath, and that therefore the Lord of man is Lord also of the Sabbath. (Mar V He even admoakhevi I V'.e .v.vl :-■ >.::.; :.' .':e r '..:-> ;:' lu\: . :':/•• v. e-e :o be knnu ieir good works ami mufunl lc I: klrt V:v>:'e> and r C istians k ■ a different man- 248 EDUCATION OF MAN. ner in which the Jews kept their Sabbath. St. Paul called a holyday, on the New moon or the Sabbath days a shadow of things to come, (Col. ii. 14—17.) He positively stated that " he who loves one another has fulfilled the law." It was, however, a practise among the first christians to assemble on the Lord's day, to sing, to break bread, to gather stores and to be instruct- ed ; in short they had religious assemblies upon the first day of the week as on the day on which Jesus arose from the dead ; — as a festival of the Creation ; — as a day of rejoicing and of holy wor- ship. But a cessation upon that day from labor beyond the time of attendance upon their meet- ings is not insinuated in any passage of the New Testament, nor did Jesus or his apostles deliver any command to their disciples for the discon- tinuance upon that day, of the common offices of their respective professions. If it was their inten- tion, they ought to have stated it, since they preached not only to Jews but also to Gentiles, but they never enforced the law of rest as in the Mo- saic laws. It is farther to be remarked that Pliny the younger in his letter to Trajan, where he made a report concerning the Christians, wrote that " he discovered nothing but that they were accustomed to meet together on a stated day before it was light, and sing among themselves a hymn to Christ, as a EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 249 God, and to bind themselves by an oath not to commit any wickedness, nor to be guilty of theft, robbery, or adultery, never to falsify their words nor to deny a pledge." Finally, history tells us that Constantine first, A. D. 321, made a law for the observation of the Sunday throughout the Roman empire. The Sunday was declared a day of rest in cities and towns, but the country people were still allowed to follow their work. But in 330 the Council of Or- leans prohibited, also, country labor, and declared it unlawful to travel with horses, cattle, and car- riages ; — to prepare food ; — and to do any thing necessary to the cleanliness and decency of houses and persons. The only thing I contend for is that the Sunday of Christians cannot be the Jewish Sabbath, nei- ther as to the day nor as to the manner of Sancti- fication. Yet this institution is of great impor- tance, but enlightened minds will take greater views of it than mystical persons are wont to do. It is childish to think that we can do any thing to increase the beatitude of the Supreme Being. The name of divine service should be done away. Let it be a day of rest, and of physical, intellectual, and moral instruction and improvement, and of reli- gious adoration. It is also reasonable to commu- nicate instructive lessons in the form of songs, and the music may excite the nobler feelings, but it is CATION OF MAN. pitiful to 5?irj£. in disharmonious tones, any torical narrative of the Jews, or incomprehensible metaphors of imaginary minds. In short, this ution might be turned to the greatest benefit and i nt of body and mind, among the r, as well as the higher orders, whilst in the ordii if invites the former to lly and mentally speaking. — I the reader with to my ideas on the of Man- to the -'. Vol. of | ral may prove that the prin- ea of t: isfv my mind, but not Christianity disfigured by popery or by any sac their inclinations for the will -.:' 0, . and declare them nfid- d r - Creator eace and \ 1 happiness. On ;-.-;l gof crnn i eems to . and | and even en- s as far as tl. condu- end ; but they tify- treat _ion a* ' should not •J ermine the happiness EDUCATION OF NATIONS. these being positively interdicted by Christianitv. The public wants to be enlightened. In giving freely my opinion, I follow the prin- ciple of Protestantism, which grants the use of reason, and I agree with them who think that no one has the right to ii ..is religious opinions . others : that true religion consists in the fulfilment of all our moral duties : that the be- lief of this truth having been revealed, is a g erf id motive to practise morality, and that this :he will of the great and all-wise Intelligence) who arranged the universe, who gave man his moral nature and the laws of reason. the other hand, I pity Mankind for not being able to bear the moral code of Christian and for not being ripe to religious and civil Liberty, It is lamentable to see. the some countries there are only masters and servants : and pc .ire esh ed to keep the people in subordination, and to mtii selfish views of their civil * § us leade - d that even among civilized na- xiiown principles of g ment are in I ^reat bulk cannot to themselves, but must I. :' v from Co be Re :er i ' .. I hate a person : B bid ! I love vou all when you are good for any thing ; and as to the rest, I would mend them if I 252 EDUCATION OF MAN. could, and that is the worst of my intentions towards them." And, from the Hints of a Barrister to the public, " Whoever sets the best example of indus- try, uprightness, charity, justice, benevolence, mildness, integrity, and all those practical vir- tues which are the basis, immoveable and eternal, of Christianity ; such a man is the best teacher of religion which the community can possibly re- ceive." On the other hand, I reject, as destruc- tive, every doctrine which sows a spirit of secta- rian bigotry ; generates superstition ; introduces discord into the circles of domestic life, depre- ciates the bonds of charity and peace, or even reprobates all practical virtues and righteousness as filthy rags, and which places peculiar doctrines above the authority of the Gospel, whose great tendency is, and ever will be, to excite the sinner to repentance and reformation ; — to cultivate be- nevolence and justice, and to link together man- kind in the bonds of peace and charity. A favorable change is wanted, but it may be asked, who shall produce it ? the governments, or the nations, severally or together? Hitherto nations are too much accustomed to be guided ; and gov- ernors too fond of commanding and imposing their good pleasure as law. Both parties seem to be wrong. Governments, it is true, may succeed better and sooner, since they can follow a regular plan, and have greater means of execution. But as rulers are too much disposed to do what flat- EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 253 ters their selfishness, nations ought to think of their own welfare, and know that vox popull is vox Dei. Instead of expecting every improvement from their governors, they ought to work at their de- liverance from tutorage. There will be masters as long as there are servants, and children depend on their parents as long as they cannot gain their own livelihood. It is conceivable that govern- ments like to rule their subjects, but these are blameable for not using all reasonable means to gain and deserve their independency. They should be aware that a liberal government lets the people act for themselves, provided the com- mon welfare does not suffer, and that, on the other hand, governments are despotic in propor- tion as they interfere with personal liberty, and prevent the public good. In fact, in many situa- tions, when the things do not go on as they are wished for, nations may accuse themselves rather than their governors. By perseverance they will always obtain what they deserve. Remarks of this kind are also applicable to the improvement of religious creeds. It is an histori- cal fact, that the priesthood always wishes to keep religious ideas stationary, and that every religious reform began with individuals, cr with the civil power. This will be the case as long as religious governors do not keep pace in knowledge and moral improvement with the community at large. Any church whose tenets were composed in dark 23 254 EDUCATION OF MAN. ages, and adapted to the capacities of ignorant people, will be divided against itself, whenever the public become enlightened, and it must end in its overthrow, if the leaders remain in ignorance, and confound the aim of religion with the means that lead to it. The former certainly remains the same at all times, and amongst all classes, but the latter must vary in different periods of civil- zation. It is as lamentable as repugnant, to hear ignorant teachers speak of the heavenly Father as endowed with qualities for which every reasona- ble person would disdain his neighbor. The evil is great, and deserves the serious attention of the civil and religious governors. What, then, is to be done to establish civil and religious liberty ? Is it sufficient to proclaim a re- form ? By no means. The French tried one constitution after another, and it is scarcely deci- ded which suits them best. Civil and religious liberty may be the law of a country while slavery and religious tyranny continue. It happens that there is sometimes more religious freedom under absolute governments than in republics. Man does not like to obey and to revere, but he is fond of governing others. He contends for free- dom for himself, but thinks to have the right to enslave others. When will stupidity and im- morality, severally or jointly, cease to govern human affairs ! EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 255 It is certain that the natural dispositions and their activity determine the progress of civiliza- tion in nations as well as in individuals. Ignorant people are fond of darkness, while enlightened na- tions cannot bear measures of obscuration. The French revolution abolished all external decora- tions and signs of distinction, but it was easy for Buonaparte to introduce them asrain, since the love of approbation is an essential feature in the French character. Any reform succeeds easily, if it be in harmony with the most active powers ; but it will never take root, if it be contrary to the predominant powers, or if the necessary powers do not act. The doctrine of the innate dispositions cannot be taken too much to heart by those who wish to exercise an influence on the community. They may direct the given powers to different applications, but they can neither create nor anni- hilate. Many historical facts will be explained, and many erroneous opinions of governments will be rectified, when the innate dispositions are understood. Then, also, not only the different progress in the various branches of literature, arts, and sciences, but also their modifications, in dif- ferent nations, will be easily conceived. Amongst many instances which might be quoted, I shall mention the following. The Reformation, undertaken by Luther, and continued by Calvin and others, gained more ground in Germany than in France, and it is more advanced in Scotland 256 EDUCATION OF MAN. than in England, and it turned out very different- ly in different countries. There is a [great deal of marvellousness and of the reflective powers in the Germans and in the English, but many of the former will begin with examining how far it is reasonable to believe, and give up rather belief than reason ; whilst the latter take belief as indis- pensable, and reason merely on interpretations. Self-esteem and love of notoriety are great in the English and French ; but Self-esteem is propor- tionately greater in the former, and love of appro- bation, combined with form, in the latter. The English, in their display of show, betray their predominant feeling, and wish to possess or do what others cannot ; for instance, to appear very rich in keeping horses, carriages, and many ser- vants, dressed in shoes and white silk stockings ; whilst the French wish to be approved of, and to attract the attention of others by a fine taste in their show-things. Thus, it is certain, that les- sons will make impression, and institutions suc- ceed, in proportion as they are adapted to the character of nations to whom they are given. De- fective heads can neither excel in arts and sciences, nor in the refined principles of morality or Chris- tianity. The influence of institutions on nations does not only depend on their being adapted to the innate dispositions, but also on their duration. Their effect is insignificant, if they be transitory and can- EDUCATTON OF NATIONS. 257 not form habit. Any new institution, like any new doctrine, in order to be of permanent useful- ness, must become, so to say, incarnate, or be in- fused in the minds of the people ; but then their influence is certain, since the innate powers being exercised during generations, increase, and act Avith facility. I copy a suitable passage from the introduction to the History of France, by Cha- teaubriand, read by himself to the Academic Francaise, in the sitting of the 9th of Feb. 1826. " It has been said, that from the time of Vespa- sian to Marcus Aurelius, was the period during which mankind enjoyed the greatest felicity. This is true, if the dignity and the independence of nations are to go for nothing. " Every imaginable kind of merit appeared at the head of the empire. Those who possessed those qualities were free to undertake any thing they pleased ; they were shackled by no restraints ; they inherited Nero's absolute power ; they could employ for good the arbitrary authority which had hitherto been used only as an instrument of evil. What, however, did this despotism of virtue produce ? Did it reform manners ? Did it re-establish liberty ? Did it preserve the empire from its approaching fall ? No ; the hu- man race was neither altered, nor improved. Firmness reigned with Vespasian, mildness with Titus, generosity with Nerva, grandeur with 23* 258 EDUCATION OF MAN. Trajan, the arts with Adrian, the piety of poly- theism with Antonine, and lastly, with Marcus Aurelius, philosophy ascended the throne ; — yet the fulfilment of this dream of sages, was produc- tive of no solid results to the world. No amelior- ations are durable, none indeed are possible, when any act of government proceeds from the will of individuals, and not from laws and institutions ; and the pagan religion, no longer supported or corrected by austerity of manners, transformed men into old children, destitute alike of reason and of innocence. " There were, at this period, some Christians in the empire, they were obscure and persecuted, yet, with their despised religion, they accomplish- ed what philosophy upon the throne could not achieve. They instituted laws, corrected man- ners, and founded a society which exists to this day." What a great lesson for legislators ! It is easy to regulate, but to give the feeling for the law, requires time and more than to give orders. In the examination of this subject, it is found that religious and civil regulations are degraded and improved in the same degree, and by the same reasons. Stupid and ignorant people are superstitious, and believe in the good pleasure of their absolute rulers. Whoever is not able, or does not dare to think, or does not feel contradic- tions and absurdities, is unfit for a refined religion EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 259 and civil liberty. Understanding, indeed, is the first condition of civil and religious, as well as of personal and moral liberty, and ignorance a fer- tile cause of superstition and slavery. Under- standing improves plants and animals, and it is necessary to the improvement of nations and of the nature of man. The Germans, expressing civilization by the word aufklaerung (enlighten- ing,) indicate that they consider intellect as the basis of improvement. The great point in this discussion is to deter- mine, first, the origin and cause of liberty, and then the means of establishing and maintaining it. None of the faculties, common to man and ani- mals, conceives the idea of civil liberty any more than that of religion. These conceptions result only from the human powers, and are retarded in their progress in proportion as they are influenced by the animal powers. The animal feelings are selfish, wish for personal advantage, like to take the first place in society, and dispose to religious intolerance and civil despotism. Hence, a nation is unfit for liberty in proportion as the animal powers are predominant over those proper to man. Courage, bravery, and stubbornness to death, are by no means sufficient to establish this happy state of society. Even the higher animal feelings, as attachment, love of approbation, cautiousness, acquisitiveness, and the perceptive faculties, are incapable of securing it. The animal nature, it 260 EDUCATION OF MAN. is true, is powerful to oppose despotism, and so far conducive to liberty. Whilst timid, poor, and ignorant people remain slaves, the courageous, intelligent, and industrious seek for independency. In consequence, instruction and industry are the great means of establishing liberty, whilst igno- rance and poverty are its greatest enemies. In- dustry procures riches, and these enable the pos- sessor to cultivate his understanding. It is, there- fore, not astonishing that all those who treat of political welfare speak of industry as necessary and favorable to liberty. But those who think that industry and riches are sufficient to secure liberty, are mistaken ; they evidently confound the means of establishing this great blessing with its primitive source, and with the means of main- taining it. Riches alone being a great cause of de- generation in body and mind, are incompatible with permanent liberty. The same uncertainty of things continues, even if riches be assisted by understanding, since the motives of all actions still remain selfish and of the animal nature. With the faculties proper to man morality be- gins, and by their influence the animal nature is directed, every kind of privilege abolished, the number of public officers who require emoluments diminished, every individual permitted to use his talents as he likes, provided he does not injure others ; every community allowed to regulate its special concerns, personal merit alone rewarded, EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 261 the general welfare thought of, in short, civil lib- erty acknowledged. And if such a liberty be granted in worldly affairs, it is still more necessa- ry in things and opinions relative to the life to come and religion. The effect of feelings proper to man can become reasonable only by its union with the reflective powers, and natural morality is a corner stone of the preservation of any so- ciety. On the other hand, though the human nature is the source of civil and religious liberty, yet the faculties proper to man are not capable either of establishing or of warranting liberty. To that effect they need the assistance of instruction and of the animal powers, particularly of industry, or acquisitiveness, self-esteem, courage, and perse- verance. In order then to establish and maintain civil and religious liberty, the whole man, his vegetative, affective, and intellectual faculties must be exercised, but the animal faculties constantly subordinate to those proper to man, that is, natur- al morality must prevail. In this way we have a criterion to decide whether, and how far, a nation is fit for civil and religious liberty ; whether, and how far, liberty which is granted or gained can last ; and whether, and how far, governments earnestly prepare the nations for that happy state. In the same way, those who wish to forward liberty, may conceive 262 EDUCATION OF MAN. what is to be done to secure general and perma- nent felicity, and why hitherto all partial means could not succeed. Union and morality alone can save the future happiness of the United States of America. Being divided or without morality they will have the fate of the ancient and modern na- tions of the old world. Intellectual education alone cannot produce the desired effect, whilst the animal feelings predominate and physical educa- tion is neglected. Let the legislators be aware of the detrimental consequences of selfishness, luxury, ambition, vanity, of the animal feelings in general, of all causes which contribute to the degeneration of body and mind : let them be particularly care- ful about pauperism on one side, and great riches on the other, about idleness, degeneracy of the race and immorality. Praying alone, and reli- gious ceremonies will not remedy natural evils and the neglect of the natural laws, A delicate question too, viz', whether any nation of those we know of, can bear the Christian reli- gion in its greatest purity, and a republican gov- ernment in its strictest sense, may be answered in the negative, on account of the animal nature be- ing still disproportionate to that proper to man. In speaking of a republican government in the strictest sense, I mean a state of mind, where every one sacrifices his private interest to the common welfare. EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 263 In supposing then that any ruler may have the best intention to fulfil his duty, I conclude this chapter with repeating the points indispensable to his success. Let him become acquainted with human nature being threefold, with the innate- ness of the affective and intellectual faculties, with their dependence on the cerebral organiza- tion, and with their modifications in the nation he governs. Besides, let him understand that every innate power tends to action, but that the motives of the same action may be very different ; that regulations founded only on truth and moral- ity can last, and that the physical, intellectual, and moral nature of man must be cultivated in harmo- ny. Farther, an important point for him is to know to employ every one according to his natur- al gifts and talents, be it as servant, soldier, ar- tisan, merchant, artist, teacher of any kind, leg- islator, superintendent or president. He also must be aware, that various talents are given to all classes of society, to poor and rich, to coun- try people as well as citizens ; and that natural nobility and personal merit of talent and virtue alone deserve distinction. In republican governments on the other hand* the electors must keep in mind that intellect is not morality, that individuals must be judged of by their actions and not by their speeches, in the same way as the tree is known by its fruit, and that no one who strives for private interest and for- 264 EDUCATION OF MAN. gets the common welfare, should be at the head of public affairs. CHAPTER VII. A FEW IDEAS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. Various opinions are entertained upon the question, whether public or private education be preferable. The term education is here taken in a limited sense, and the answer would be easy, if education were what it ought to be. In the ac- tual state of things, the greater number of parents cannot adopt the private mode of education for want of pecuniary means. They must have re- course to public schools, if they wish to give to their children any education at all. The question, then, concerns chiefly the richer classes of society. There are advantages and disadvantages on both sides. Generally speaking, in private education, moral conduct and religious principles may be more carefully taught, and the natural disposi- tions better exercised. But here we must suppose the governors to be of superior ability. Such persons, however, are not so easily found. On the other hand, private teachers and servants ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. 265 kindle very often inferior propensities, which would remain inactive were the children sent to public schools. Again, as the education of boys and girls must be conducted in a different manner, particularly in large towns, several day or boarding-schools become necessary. And if in these the moral conduct be particularly attended to, they will combine the advantages of a public and private education. In them, physical educa- tion can be better attended to than at home ; common play grounds and bodily exercise can be more easily procured. Such abodes are commonly in healthy situations, and better teach- ers may also be provided. It is of advantage to children to afford them opportunities of comparing their talents with those of others. When alone, they easily think themselves above all other children, but when together, they often feel their inferiority. The less intercourse we have with others, the sooner we are satisfied with our- selves. This happens with children as well as with adults. Those who have travelled with re- flection and without prejudice, lose in many re- spects their national pride. They find that every where there are good and bad, ignorant and well- informed persons. Whoever remains confined to his own small circle, thinks all other society infe- rior, partly through a natural attachment to his accustomed manners, and partly through his not knowing what others are, or what advantages they possess. 24 266 EDUCATION OF MAN. Knowledge of the world, of different characters, of manners and social intercourse, is an important point in education. It is easily acquired in public institutions. Children soon learn to distinguish between the different manners of feeling and think- ing of their companions. Greater uniformity in manners, more mutual attachment and general benevolence, more order and greater readiness to obey and to depend on their superiors, may result from public education. There the feelings, in general, may be more easily exercised and directed, because society is indis- pensable to that purpose, and private education can never afford the same opportunity. Finally, the great effect of emulation is entirely lost in private instruction ; and emulation may be neces- sary to some children in order to push them on. Thus, even in the actual state of things, public institutions are preferable, and they will be far superior, if once regulated according to sound principles and adapted to human nature. Conclusion. The great object of education is, not to create, but to prepare, to develope, or to impede, and to direct the natural dispositions : vegetative, affec- tive and intellectual. The nature of the funda- mental powers, and the conditions on which their ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. 267 manifestations depend, must be known, to enable us to cultivate and direct them. The difference between the feelings and intellectual faculties, is particularly to be attended to. Then, if the means of excitement and those of direction be em- ployed, as I have detailed them, arts and sciences will improve, moral evil will diminish, and man- kind will become more happy. I do not flatter myself, however, that in the present state of man- kind, the most perfect education can abolish all disorders. Hence, institutions of another kind are necessary, which I shall speak of in the follow- ing pages. APPENDIX. ON THE CORRECTION OR REFORM OF MALEFACTORS. y As individuals differ exceedingly from each other in the innate strength of their faculties, there can be no doubt that adults, as well as children, if entirely left to themselves, and to the motives which spring up in their own minds, would not all be influenced either by the same number, or by the same kind of motives, nor would each mo- tive act with equal force in all. Besides, the faculties which produce the lower propensities, do not of themselves produce good actions, and as they are stronger than the faculties proper to man, legislation is necessary to direct mankind. In regard to many particular acts, the government must command what is to be done, and forbid what is not to be done ; seeing few individuals possess so favorable an endowment of dispositions as to be naturally prone to virtue, or to have the DEFINITION OF LEGISLATION. 269 law written in their hearts. Now, the general aim of all legislation ought to be the happiness of mankind, combined, as far as possible, with that of each individual ; or, in the language of Phre- nology, it ought to be to establish the natural mo- rality of man, confirmed by true Christianity. The lower animals have no conceptions of moral- ity, because they do not possess the faculties which produce the moral sentiments and reason. Hence, those faculties which are proper to man alone, conceive the necessity of legislation, and without them there would be none in mankind any more than in the animals. Definition of Legislation. I take this expression in its most extensive sig- nification, and conceive it to comprehend the reg- ulation of the manner in which all our faculties ought to be employed. Positive legislation has been, and still is, very different in different coun- tries. The same actions have been and still are considered now as crimes, and then as virtues. The first great object is to distinguish natural from positive laws. It appears to me that both ought to be the same, and that the natural laws, in as far as they are known and admitted, ought to be declared positive, and to guide the actions of man. No one, therefore, should endeavor to make laws, but only to discover those made by the Creator, to submit to them, when discovered, 24* 270 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. as to his will, and to dispose others to follow this example. Positive laws are divided into Divine and Civil. The former are given by God, the latter by hu- man legislators. The question which naturally occurs is, whether there ought to be differences between the natural, Divine, and civil codes. Hitherto thinking peo- ple have not agreed, and the one makes war against the other ; but I am of the decided opinion that mankind cannot become happy till the laws of the Creator are put into practice. To say that the revealed law is not the same as the natur- al, is to suppose that God is not the Creator of mankind, or that he has been in contradiction with himself at different times. Such notions seem to me absurd, and I cannot admit any interpre- tation of the revealed law, which is evidently in contradiction with the real nature of man. More- over, since man cannot create, he ought not to set himself up as an inventor of laws ; nor attempt to control the course of Providence, or counteract the nature of things. As already said, he should try to discover, and having discovered, to submit to the arrangements of the Creator with respect to his vegetative, affective, moral, and intellectual nature. DEFINITION OF LEGISLATION. 271 Civil legislation is necessarily divided into dif- ferent branches, but they ought all to have con- stantly only one and the same aim, and to be the result of one and the same spirit. Hitherto sel- fishness has been the principal object of all civil legislation, and of every branch of it. Soldiers wish for war, and an opportunity of spoliation ; lawyers also have too constantly in view their own special advantages ; and the members of the ordi- nary professions do not think it necessary to con- ceal, that the end and aim of all their exertions is selfishness. The same anti-social principle is vis- ible in all worldly affairs ; and even the clergy, whose employment is to prepare man for eternity, too frequently show that selfish motives are in fact the mainsprings of their conduct. This over- whelming flood of selfishness must abate, or the general happiness of mankind remain an impossi- bility. There is only one permanent legislator, viz : the Creator, and whatever erects itself against his institutions, or deviates from them, is usurpation and folly. It is certainly a difficult task to discover clearly the law established by Nature, and to bring all branches of legislation into harmony with the Cre- ator's will. Happily, however, Nature has few laws ; but it is of great importance to know that she never admits of an exception, and punishes se- verely every neglect. This subject being of the highest importance, any attempt to elucidate it 272 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. cannot be considered as an idle occupation, and is the true object of a philosophical catechism, which I have published separately. In this summary view of criminal legislation, we may consider legislation in three points, viz : its aim ; the means necessary to attain it ; and the persons subject to the law. Aim of Legislation. Legislation begins with the sentiment of duty. In my opinion, the duty of man, according to the will of the Creator, consists in general Benevo- lence and Reverence. Hence the natural law re- quires more than the civil. Justice, according to the latter, is merely passive, viz : not to take from others that which belongs to them ; while, accord- ing to the former, we are obliged to do to others what we wish they should do to us. Thus Chris- tianity coincides with the natural law. Love thy neighbor as thyself, is the touchstone of all legis- lation as to its aim. Means to attain the Aim of Legislation. The second part of legislation concerns the means necessary to attain the proposed aim ; but this point is not yet accomplished. Either, there- fore, those who have it in their power do not ear- nestly wish for it, or they have not intellect enough MEANS OF PREVENTION. 273 to choose the necessary means, or the general aim of legislation is not kept constantly in view. This field is extremely extensive, but without the reach of my study. I shall confine myself to a few re- marks, with respect to criminal and penal legisla- tion, which certainly has improved in modern times ; first, with respect to the means of prevent- ing crime ; and, secondly, with respect to those of correcting criminals. There were ages when criminal legislators thought it their only duty to punish or to revenge themselves on those who were disobedient ; the animal powers dictated the penal laws, and the feelings proper to man had no share in them. Now-a-days, it is admitted that the penal code ought to have for its objects the prevention of offences against the welfare of society, the correc- tion of those who have failed in their duty, and securing the community against incorrigible mem- bers. This aim is laudable ; but as it is not at- tained, we are led to conclude that the means em- ployed to effectuate that purpose are not the best that might be chosen. Various kinds of punishments have been, and are inflicted, in order to deter men from commit- ting criminal actions. Malefactors are deprived of their personal liberty, and are confined to pri- son, for a shorter or longer period ; some even for life. They are treated with more or less severity; 274 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. some remain idle ; others are condemned to hard work. Some are exiled or transported ; others put to death. Experience, however, shows, that punishments alone do not produce the desired effect. Even at an execution for stealing, pickpockets are sometimes busy committing their depredations. I do not say that punishments are useless ; I only say, that they by themselves are not sufficient to prevent faults and crimes. Hence governments must have recourse still to other means. To choose these means correctly, it is necessary to discover the causes of criminal actions, for crimes will cease to be committed as soon as their causes are removed. The most important way of preventing crime, is that of improving mankind by every possible means, and especially by those spoken of in the preceding pages on education in general, and on that of nations in particular. Let the inferior races, whose actions are stigmatized by crimes or disorderly living, be prevented, as much as possi- ble, from propagation ; for it is a fact well known to those who have attended to the subject, that the organs of the animal passions, like those of the other faculties of the mind, are hereditary. More- over, let ignorance, idleness, intemperance, and poverty, which are the principal causes of crimes, be prevented, and there will be little occasion for prisons. MEANS OF PREVENTION. 275 In the General View to this work, I have con- sidered the great influence of ignorance on the moral conduct of man. Instruction, indeed, will greatly improve the human character, aid the fa- cility of acquiring it in our days is a great bless- ing to mankind. It is therefore the duty and in- terest of wise and paternal governments to diffuse instruction as widely as possible, according to the capacities of the people, and according to local and particular situations ; and whoever wishes to promote the moral conduct of mankind, and in- sure their happiness, will favor public institutions for useful information. But knowledge is not virtue, and more attention than hitherto has been given, must be paid to the moral improvement of mankind. It is both more effectual towards promoting the welfare of society and more agreeable, to correct morals, than to punish crimes. To that end it ought to be a serious aim with governments, to adopt means to exclude idleness and intemperance from society. Children should be accustomed to sobriety, and the practice of intemperance despised, and represented as degrading a sensible being. Every person found intoxicated in the streets should be taken up and confined for twen- ty-four hours, and fed on bread and water. Persons when drunk are deprived of the use of their reason, and often inclined to abuse their ani- 276 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. mal propensities ; and hence the welfare of so- ciety requires them to he placed in a situation where they can do no harm, and which may con- tribute to their correction. The criminal records of every country bear evidence of flagitious crimes committed, and much misery inflicted, of which drunkenness was the proximate cause. Governments are therefore wrong in licensing numberless ale-houses and gin-shops, and in afford- ing great facility of pawning. In the Chapter on National Education, I have already said, that in a well regulated state, no poverty ought to be seen, and no mendicity toler- ated ; that each citizen ought to exercise a pro- fession, and each beggar to be shut up, and to be forced to work in public employments ; that char- ity is misapplied, and idleness rewarded, if in- dustrious people be obliged to support the poor. This subject, being of the utmost importance, de- serves a particular examination, and the repetition of some ideas does not seem to be out of place. The law obliging the rich to nourish the poor, is an indirect infringement of personal liberty, and in opposition to the basis of a free government, which admits private property, and encourages every one to use his talents, in as far as is con- sistent with the general happiness of the nation. The poor laws encroach on this right, and do harm to society. They in fact hold out to the profligate, the idle, and the imbecile, an invitation MEANS OF PREVENTION. 277 to act without regard to the consequences of their actions, and promise them, that if they are over- taken by the calamities which nature has attached to heedless conduct, the virtuous and considerate shall be made to bear the burden for them. If the poor, an account of their right to per- sonal liberty, cannot be prevented from marrying, the rich, for the same reason, cannot be forced to nourish them. It is an infringement of the per- sonal liberty of an industrious citizen, to be com- pelled to support a lazy drone. If the poor must be permitted to marry, after the consequences are pointed out to them, then, at least, let every one be equally free ; let him who gets children pro- vide for their subsistence ; and let him who labors reap the whole fruits of his own industry. But, it may still be said, that whoever lives has a right to the prolongation of his days, and that, hence, the necessitous must not be allowed to perish. Strictly speaking, there is no doubt that those who exist have a right to partake in what- ever nature produces. But civil laws are destined to keep order, and to regulate property. Now, 1 am willing to admit, that humanity calls upon us to preserve those who actually exist ; but it ap- pears to me to be impossible permanently to ame- liorate the condition of the poor, except by pre- venting them, by some means or other, from excessive propagation. In the first place, It is a 25 278 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. general law in nature, and it holds good in the case of mankind, as well as in every other species of animals, that every germ produced is not per- mitted to prosper and to multiply. As things are now managed, however, the best and most con- siderate of the race, are those who are most restrained from multiplying ; because they see the evils, and endeavor to avoid them, while the worthless and unreflecting indulge their propen- sities without fear, and fill the world with misery. This is exactly the reverse of what it ought to be. Moreover, for the sake of general order, sailors and soldiers are prohibited from living in matri- mony, and why should not the same liberty be taken with the poor ? If they can show that they have the means of supporting a family, they are no longer poor, and the interdict would not apply to them. Many things are forced upon, as well as interdicted to individuals, for the sake of gen- eral happiness ; and this being the principal aim of society, I cannot conceive a reason why the ab- ject poor may not be hindered from marrying, for the general good, just as they are excluded, for the same reason, from directing the govern- ment. The law should harmonize with the manners and morals of the day, the punishment propor- tioned to the crime, and no hope left to the crim- inal to be pardoned. MEANS OF PREVENTION. 279 Finally, the surest and most universal means of preventing crimes, would be, if selfishness could be made subservient to general benevo- lence, and if morality could become the leading aim among all nations ; — then the kingdom of Heaven would in fact arrive. The influence of this principle cannot yet be felt by mankind at large, and many may therefore say, Why, then, do you speak of it ? I answer, Because it appears to me that the arrangements of nature admit of such a state, and that men require only to under- stand and practice her laws, to bring it about ; and as the tendency of the mind is to approxi- mate towards truth, and to appreciate it when discovered, I am not without hope, that the time may come, when the higher sentiments shall pre- vail over the lower propensities, and benevolence over selfishness. Truth, whether admitted or re- jected, is and remains always truth. At all events no encouragement should be given to the abuse of the lower feelings, nor any facility offered to commit crimes. Bigamy, for instance, and seduc- tion are facilitated by the permission of marrying without a certificate of any kind. I am convinced, that in proportion as the pre- ceding means are neglected or attended to, offences and crimes will be committed or prevented ; and that by applying them in practice, mankind will improve their condition more than by punishing malefactors, and praying the Heavenly Father 280 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. for his assistance, while they neglect the natural means of preventing crimes, and producing good. The blessing of God will follow as soon as we sub- mit to his laws ; but prayers for it, while we con- temn them, are impious and absurd. Prisons are not become useless by building churches and by the influence of Bible and tract societies. How- ever, I do not mean to say, that Christianity is in- effectual in preventing crimes ; I only maintain that all means, natural and supernatural, should be employed. Natural means of correcting Malefactors. Let us now examine how far the second point of criminal legislation, viz. the correction of mal- efactors, has been attained. Experience shows, that punishments alone do not correct delinquents, any more than they prevent disorders, and that the common way of treating criminals depraves rather than improves them. This truth is more and more perceived, and some practical results have already taken place, which have proved highly beneficial ; and I hope that the good effect they produce will encourage their adoption in all countries. One great subject of regret, however, remains, that the nature of man is not sufficiently understood, and that in consequence, many modi- fications of treatment, which individual malefac- tors require, are entirely overlooked. MEANS OF CORRECTION. 281 Formerly, malefactors of all kinds, young and old, persons seduced by strong temptation into crimes, even those who were only accused and detained on suspicion, and inveterate villains, were shut up together. In many prisons they were idle, or if they ' had some occupation they were generally unprofitable, sometimes too easy, at other times too hard, often dirty and unwhole- some ; and because punishment, and not reform, was the principal motive of confining prisoners, they were treated with neglect. Their food was not sufficient, and sometimes noxious. Prisons were sometimes erected in damp and unwhole- some situations. The prisoners were, on account of ill treatment, affected with various cutaneous and scrophulous diseases, with blindness, dysen- tary, consumption, typhus, &c. Such aggrava- tions of punishment were too severe, and against the intention of the law. This error has been felt, but in our days mea are falling into an opposite extreme. In many prisons there is too much comfort, and not pun- ishment enough. Here and there they become houses of reward. They perhaps appear still uncomfortable to the rich adminstrators, but they afford more comfort than the greater number of criminals are accustomed to. The prisoners are clothed, secured against the inclemency of the weather, have a good bed to rest on, and are bet- ter nourished than at home. Some persons, in- 25* 282 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. deed, commit faults in order to be taken into them. Such prisons fail to effect their purpose. To be confined in a prison, ought always to be a disa- greeable situation in one way or another. A proper arrangement would be, to have in each prison a variety of apartments, affording different degrees of comfort and accommodation, and to put every atrocious criminal into the lowest first, and let him rise to the higher as his moral im- provement proceeded. This would be a practical illustration of the great natural truth, That a state of vice is one of misery, and a state of morality one of comfort and enjoyment. Prisons construct- ed on such principles would no doubt require to be extensive ; and they would, in their first erec- tion, be expensive. But whether would a nation derive greater ultimate advantage from a sufficient number of such establishments, to correct and re- strain the vicious part of her population, or from a victory in a war about a sugar island ? And the sums consumed by the nations of Europe in prosecuting quarrels which have no natural foun- dation, and in inflicting misery on each other, would have placed a penitentiary in every depart- ment of every kingdom ! Such are the results of the dominion of the animal over the man in hu- man affairs. There are still other causes which prevent the correction of prisoners. Prisoners are taken in ignorant, idle, poor, and disorderly, and are dis- MEANS OF CORRECTION. 283 missed in the same state, or perhaps more instruct- ed in vice. Being together, they are induced to converse ; and even where this is prohibited when at work, they take advantage of every moment, when the overseer is absent, to do so, or they find in the yard an opportunity of becoming acquainted with their companions. They tell each other their crimes and tricks ; and every new comer, especially if his natural dispositions harmonize with that kind of instruction, profits by such lessons, and his corruption is soon complete. In a short time the novice is accustomed to live intimately with the outcasts of mankind, becomes one of them- selves, and then all shame and bashfulness disap- pear. In this manner, according to the saying of the criminals themselves, prisons are schools where all sorts of vices are taught. The malefactors be- come friends, and form projects, to be executed when they are liberated ; they organize bands, and prepare to pursue with greater audacity their for- mer criminal life. The greater number of malefactors who are lib- erated, are incapable of gaining their livelihood. Their immoral habits, their idleness, and even sometimes their intemperance, have been increased during their confinement, and nothing can be more natural, than that they should yield again to their animal dispositions. Nay, some are forced to con- tinue their depraved^ manner of living, to escape dying of hunger. This, for instance, is the case 284 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. with those who are branded, and publicly dishon- ered. Who will give employment to such indi- viduals ? Who will work with them in the same shop ? If it seem necessary to brand, in order to know whether a criminal has already committed a crime, let it be done where the mark may easily be concealed. Another manner of treating prisoners, without correcting them, and which is very illiberal to- wards neighbouring countries, is that of sending all malefactors over the boundaries. Such a course of proceeding should be only permitted in cases of political errors. In other cases, it is say- ing to a malefactor, Do not steal in my house, but go to my neighbour's, and do what you please. The common way of treating criminals gives rise to another injustice against society. Accord- ing to the common mode of conducting jails, those who, by their criminal actions, disturb the general peace, live at the expense of the quiet and honest citizens. It is indeed shameful, that male- factors, who are commonly stout fellows, and in the best years of their lives, should not gain the necessary means of subsistence, while manufac- turers get immensely rich by the employment of other people. MEANS OF CORRECTION. 285 Thus, it is high time to rectify such abuses. The aim of all prisons for malefactors, who are to be sent back into society, ought to be only one and the same, viz. correction. But, then, in order to change the houses of Perversion, which all com- mon prisons are, into houses of Correction, other regulations must be put into execution, and the prisoners should be kept till, in all probability, they are corrected, I repeat that these ideas are not new, but they must be repeated till they are practised every where. First, then, let the causes which produce offences and crimes be removed. Ignorant people who are taken up, should receive instruction, and their attention should particularly be directed to their duty in society. They must be treated as grown up children whose education has been neglected. It will be more difficult to change their habits than those of children, but they are more capable of feeling the difference of motives, and their will may exercise a greater influence on their actions. Solitary confinement is one of the most effectual means of improvement. Let it not be said that the punishment is too hard and may derange the mental dispositions of .some criminals. This will be exceedingly rare but it will correct the greater number of them. Let the directors of prisons be competent judges of human perversity, and let 286 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. them be allowed to modify the severity of pun- ishment according to the individual characters of criminals. Let even the committee of overseers at- tend to this regulation, and give relief, if necessary. Idleness ought not on any account to be toler- ated in prisons. Those who know a trade, may continue to exercise it ; and those who do not know, may learn one. The better heads may su- perintend the inferior, and become their masters and teachers. Every prisoner should be compelled to work to pay his expenses. If they gain more than is necessary to supply their wants, and if they have placed their fellow creatures in misery > those, for instance, who have stolen or destroyed the whole property of a family, ought to be obli- ged to indemnify them as far as possible. Moses ordered the thieves to be slaves for a certain period of indemnity. Others, who gain above their per- sonal wants, may be allowed to turn it to the profit of their family, or may put it aside to receive it at their exit. Prisons should be open to the gratui- tous inspection and superintendance of intelligent and benevolent individuals of the community, or if such cannot be found, the prisoners might work to pay inspectors. The confinement should las till the occasional causes which gave rise to the offence are removed, and till amendment is proba- ble ; and on being released, the prisoners are, for a certain time, to be observed by the inspectors or the police. If each large town were divided into MEANS OF CORRECTION. 287 districts, and several of the respectable inhabitants of each district would act as inspectors, and visit the released prisoners who come to settle in it, they might save many from relapsing into crime. The system of confining prisoners indefinitely till corrected, certainly supposes perfect justice in the management of the jails ; otherwise persons might be detained in prison from improper mo- tives, and much longer than necessary for amend- ment. Such an abuse ought to be most carefully guarded against ; and, perhaps, the best of all checks to its existence, might be found in the system of open and gratuitous inspection by benev- olent individuals above recommended. The pub- lic could never conspire to do injustice to an in- dividual ; and while his confinement was contin- ued under their eye, there would be very little chance of its being unjustly and unnecessarily pro- longed. Or, the period of confinement might be mentioned in the sentence, leaving power to the inspectors, or some properly constituted authori- ties, to shorten it on proofs of amendment. The efficacy of prisons established according to sound principles, is no longer speculative. Penn first showed it in a practical way at Philadelphia. Several States in America, and several govern- ments in Europe have followed his example, and the result has perfectly answered their expecta- tions. Relapses of malefactors dismissed from 288 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. prisons and common houses of correction are usual, while in the houses of correction, conducted ac- cording to the new plan, a small number are con- fined a second time, particularly when they are kept for some time. The new method of treating criminals is advan- tageous also in other respects to society. The prisoners gain more than they consume, and being corrected, they no longer injure orderly, nor se- duce innocent persons. I cannot help mentioning a singular idea which prevails in different places, where means of public education are provided for, but where masters shall be required, subject to a committee, to expel from school any pupil who shall manifest an habit- ual and determined neglect of his duties. This advise does not seem to be conformable to Christianity. Jesus did not come to call the righteous, but the sinners to repentance. The par- able of the prodigal son, too, is given in a quite opposite spirit. I think that such individuals should be particularly taken care of and not let loose upon society and exposed to all sorts of criminal temptations. Might they not be confined to a house of reform and accustomed to regular habits ? The house of reform of Juvenile delinquents at Boston, in the hands of the Rev. Mr. Wells fur- nishes a convincing proof, what may be done with MEANS OF CORRECTION. 289 such young offenders. Blessed be those who save their fellow creatures from the precipice of per- dition, and turn them to the path of righteousness. It is important to understand human nature, and the modified characters of the malefactors, in order to treat them properly, because every measure which the natural constitution of each individual renders available to produce amend- ment may require to be employed. A knowledge of this kind will confirm and render still more useful the practical views of several intelligent benefactors of mankind. The reader may con- sult John Howard on Prisons and Houses of Cor- rection ; the work on the Prisons of Philadelphia, by a European (Duke of Liancourt ;) Theorie des Paines et des Recompenses, par Jeremie Ben- tham ; An inquiry, whether Crime and Misery are produced or prevented by our present system of Prison-discipline, by Thom. Buxton ; the An- nual Reports of the Board of Managers of the Prison-discipline Society in America, &c. ; and he will find in Phrenology, a most satisfactory theory to explain and to direct the farther appli- cation of the practical maxims of these and other authors. Treatment of Incorrigible Offenders. I come to the third point of penal legislation, viz. that which has for its aim to secure society 26 290 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. against incorrigible individuals. I shall not enter into the vain discussions on the right of society to inflict capital punishment. I take it for granted, that society is entitled to cut off one of its limbs for the sake of the happiness of the rest, if there be no better means of securing that end ; but death, as the last evil, ought not to be inflicted till all other means have proved ineffectual. Some crimes are punished with death, in order to prevent their repetition. All judicious writers, however, speak with regret of the frequency of capital punishment, and deny that it has this par- ticular effect. Death is not equally frightful to every one. Criminal legislators judge of others according to their own feelings ; they fear death, hence they think that all men do the same. Ex- perience, however, shows that to many persons death, when contemplated at a distance and as a contingency, is not appalling. Nay, by some, even the immediate infliction of it appears to be regarded as a small evil. The unfortunate wish for it, in order to be delivered from their pains. Those in despair destroy themselves, and many become the martyrs of ambition and religion. The laws, themselves, suppose that the loss of life is little in the eyes of many criminals, for means are taken to prevent them from putting an end to their days, which they would do rather than be confined for life. It is certain, that many criminals are not at all moved by the sen- INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS. 291 tence of death, and that they go to the gallows with perfect calmness and resignation. Inveter- ate criminals commonly say, Dying is nothing, we must finish in that way. It appears to me, that there is no harm in de- livering society from villains, particularly from those who are dangerous to the existence of others. A tree that brings forth no fruit, is cut down and burnt ; a furious animal is killed ; and a danger- ous fellow may, on the same principle, be extir- pated. Yet I am also of opinion, that capital pun- ishment might be abolished, and replaced by other means which would be more effectual to protect society. There is an inconsistency in the present practice of inflicting death as a punishment for a great variety of offences ; for certainly crimes dif- fering greatly in atrocity do not merit exactly the same retribution. If it be true that crimes must be judged of according to the perversity of the malefactor, and according to the mischief which results from the offence ; and if it be established as an axiom, that a crime consists in the intention and not in the action ; all crimes which are at present capitally punished, cannot be considered as equal in guilt. A man who intentionally kills his benefactor, or another who kills one who has excited his jealousy and disturbed the peace of his family ; an inexperienced girl who, in a moment of despair, destroys her offspring, ihe cause of her misery for life ; the horrid monster who strangles 292 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. an old father to enjoy his inheritance the sooner ; the prostitute who assassinates the companions of her debauchery ; and the highwayman whose whole life is only a succession of robberies and murders, who spreads desolation and devastation in whole districts, cannot be considered as equally guilty. Either, therefore, the minor offences should be visited with a less punishment than death, or, to preserve consistency, the greater offences should be followed by death aggravated by increased horrors ; a proposition at which even the sanguinary spirit of legislation would revolt. But as it is said, that death is the ultimate extent of judicial authority over malefactors, and that every punishment beyond it is cruelty, it ought not to be inflicted on individuals who might be pre- vented from doing evil by other means, such as confinement and education ; nor on those equally, who are guilty in very different degrees, particu-. larly since it does not prevent others from com- mitting similar offences. If the proper means of education and correction were employed according to the law of nature, the injustice in criminal legislation, now mentioned, might be avoided ; and, indeed, there would soon be no occasion for capital punishment at all. There ought to be a particular establishment for those who are confined for life, regulated by sound principles. It may be found necessary to treat INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS. 293 some with severity, yet by far the greater number will be kept in order by less severity. The idea of punishment is closely connected with that of the different degrees of guilt. If the reformation of malefactors were the principal ob- ject of the penal code, the possibility and means of correction would be the first object to be con- sidered, and the extent of the guilt only the second. Punishment would then be viewed as one of the means of correction, but all the others would likewise be examined and employed. The greater the villain, the more care would be taken to correct him. At the same time, it is natural to consider the different degrees of guilt. On this point, many ideas may be communicated which are not adequately understood by legislators, be- cause they are not sufficiently acquainted with hu- man nature. It is scarcely possible for human intelligence to decide with perfect justice, in regard to the pre- cise extent of guilt and innocence in every par- ticular case. All the motives and causes which have determined a malefactor to commit a crime, cannot be known by man, and without such a knowledge, it is impossible to form a perfectly just estimate of the exact degree of guilt. Such a judgment must be remitted to Him alone, who is all-wise. Although, however, human wisdom has limits, it must extend itself as far as possible. 26* 2 94 CORRECTION OP MALEFACTORS. In penal legislation, extenuating and aggravating motives are admitted ; and indeed some indi- viduals, the fatuous and insane, are not held as answerable at all for their actions. In other cases, actions may be clearly illegal, which nevertheless admit of extenuating motives. I shall speak of several grounds of extenuation which appear to me to be founded in nature, but which nevertheless are not considered as such in different countries. ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WITHOUT GUILT. The first condition upon which a man is an- swerable for his actions, is that he is free. Here I take it for granted, that my ideas on moral lib- erty, such as they are developed in The Philo- sophical Principles, Part. II. of Phrenology, are known to the reader. Whenever moral liberty is wanting, there is no guilt. This is the case at those periods of life when the human faculties have not acquired strength enough to exercise will, viz. in infancy, or when the influence of will is suppressed by the state of disease. In all coun- tries, a certain age is fixed when punishment may be inflicted. It is also admitted, that the dis- eased state of the manifestations of the mind ex- cludes culpability ; but the extent and appear- ances of this state are not sufficiently under- stood ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF IDIOTS 295 I. — Illegal actions of Idiots. Idiocy is Complete or Partial : Instances of the former kind are rare ; of the latter numerous. Complete idiotism is easily distinguished, and does not require a detailed elucidation ; but the com- mon manner of judging of incomplete idiotism is frequently very erroneous. Legislators and judges are not yet convinced that there are various faculties of the mind, and that the manifestations of each power depend on a particular part of the brain ; that one or several organs may be very active, while others are in a state of idiotism. These facts, however, which, although not gen- erally admitted, are true, explain why, in some individuals, the perceptive faculties and the infe- rior propensities may be very active, while the powers of the moral will are silent. Such indi- viduals are like animals, and cannot be moved by moral motives. They act only according to the feelings which they possess, without being able to choose between motives. Pinel speaks of an idiot who had the most determinate inclination to imitate the voice and gesture of all persons around her. It is observed, says Fodere, " That by an inexplicable particularity several cretins, endowed with so little intelligence, are born with a particu- lar talent for drawing, musical composition, rhyming, &c. I have seen," continues he, " sev- eral of them, who learned, by themselves, to play 296 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. pretty well on the organ or harpsichord ; others, without having had any master, knew how to mend watches and to make various mechanical in- struments. This phenomenon probably results from the more perfect organization of the organ on which such or such an art depends, and not at all from the understanding. For, these individuals do not know how to read books which treat of the principles of the respective arts ; they are even disturbed at being desired to learn the principles.'' (Trate du Goitre et du Cretinisme. Paris, 1S00> p. 133.) I have mentioned many cases in my work on Insanity (p. 120 — 133. ;) and in that on Phrenol- ogy, where 1 speak of destructiveness and acqui- sitiveness. Idiots, although mischievous, are not objects of punishment, yet it is rash to say, that all means of correction are useless. They ought, at all events, to be prevented from doing harm to others ; and as they cannot be left to themselves, there ought to be houses of security for such un- fortunate individuals. There are cases, in which it is extremely diffi- cult to decide whether there is or is not will. " Persons," says Dr. Rush, (Diseases of the Mind, p. 268.) a who are inordinately devoted to the use of ardent spirits, are irreclaimable by all the con- siderations which domestic obligations, friendship, reputation, property, and sometimes even by those ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF IDIOTS. 297 which religion and the love of life can suggest to them. An habitual drunkard, when strongly urged by one of his friends to leave off drinking, said, Were a keg of rum in one corner of a room, and were a cannon constantly discharging balls between me and it, I would not refrain from pass- ing before that cannon, in order to get at the rum. " There are many instances," continues Dr. Rush, " of persons of sound understanding, and some of uncommon talents who are affected with the lying disease. Persons thus diseased, can neither speak the truth upon any subject, nor tell the same story twice in the same way, nor de- scribe any thing as it has appeared to other people. Their falsehoods are seldom calculated to injure any body but themselves, being, for the most part, of an hyperbolical or boasting nature, and not injurious to the characters and property of others. That it is a corporeal disease I infer from its sometimes appearing in mad people, who are remarkable for veracity in the healthy state of their minds, several instances of which I have known in the Pennsylvanian hospital. Persons affected with this disease, are often amiable in their tempers and manners, and sometimes benev- olent and charitable in their dispositions. Lying, as a vice, is said to be incurable. The same thing may be said of it as a disease when it appears in adult life/' 298 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. The time will come when several malefactors will be declared insane, who are now punished. The only difference, however, will perhaps be in the aim of their confinement, viz. they will be shut up, in order to be prevented from doing mis- chief, instead of being shut up with the view of making atonement to justice. The laws of Nature are severe, but they are just. General order must never be allowed to suffer for the sake of one or several individuals. Even these persons, how- ever, must, as much as possible, be allowed to en- joy their natural rights. In a prison at Berlin (Stadtvogtey,) we found a boy of an unfortunate cerebral organization ; the forehead was low and narrow, depressed immediately above the eye- brows, much hollowed sidewards above the eyes, but large and prominent at the temples. His countenance indicated slyness and malice. Dr. Gall said, that such individuals should not be left at liberty, but ought to be kept in an establish- ment for security. The registers, when referred to, proved that the boy, from infancy, had shown the most obstinate propensity to steal. Such in- dividuals, indeed, become more incurable upon every relapse. In such cases, all means of cor» rection should be tried first, and if these are found fruitless, it should then be declared lawful to de- tain them for life, but to treat them with hu- manity. They ought to be considered as persons affected with a disease, pregnant with danger to society. In general, nothing but amendment of ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF MADMEN. 299 conduct should entitle malefactors to return to the society which they have disturbed. Intellectual idiotism is commonly understood, but there is also a moral idiotism. Some indi- viduals may possess intellect and strong animal feelings, but very weak moral sentiments which seldom, if ever, enter into activity, so that such persons constantly follow their animal propensi- ties. They are deprived of sufficient moral mo- tives and cannot be considered as accountable be- ings. Society has no other right but that of pre- venting them from disturbing others. II. — Illegal actions of Madmen. Madness is every where allowed to take away guilt, but its nature is not sufficiently understood. The most important points to be attended to are, that it may be general or partial ; that the feel- ings as well as the intellectual faculties may be deranged, and that general and partial insanity may be continual or intermittent. General and continual madness is easily distinguished, but partial and intermittent insanity is less known than it ought to be. My ideas on these points are detailed in my work on Insanity, and I refer to it for a fuller de- velopment of the subject. Individuals under the involuntary influence of these faculties through 300 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. disease, are to be treated as patients and cured, not as criminals to be punished. ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WHICH ADMIT OF EX- TENUATING MOTIVES. It is impossible to weigh exactly the motives which may produce illegal actions. In examining whether an action be just or unjust, we common- ly think only whether it is conformable to the law or against it. Yet, as long as legislation in- tends to punish, the degree of guilt attributable to the individual cannot be entirely overlooked ; for otherwise, an idiot who assassinates would be lia- ble to the punishment of a sane person ; in short, extenuating motives would not in any case be ad- mitted. Violent passions and affections, such as anger, fury, jealousy, rage, &c. are considered as a tran- sient madness, and are justly admitted as extenu- ating motives. But it ought to be known, that some persons may feel internally an excessive ex- citement of these affections, who restrain the out- ward expressions of them ; nay, that such per- sons sometimes suffer even more than those who manifest their anger externally, and who tear their hair or stamp with the feet, &c. Shame, despair, and many secret affections darken the spirit of man, as much as sudden and violent passions ;and EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 301 they derange equally the state of health and the judgment. Moreover, the same exciting cause will act violently on one person, and scarcely make an impression on another, according to their natural constitutions. Certain kinds of food, principally liquors, excite differently the individual disposi- tions of different persons. Wine or brandy ren- ders one courageous and quarrelsome, another eloquent, sincere, amorous, sorry, gay, &c. The highwayman, Peter Petri, a companion of Schinderhannes, seemed to he insensible in his common state ; but when he had taken several glasses of brandy, he behaved like a tiger, and attacked friends and enemies indiscriminately. We know the history of a woman who, after drinking some glasses of brandy, felt a strong in- voluntary desire to become an incendiary. Illegal actions done during drunkenness, at least the first time, should find in it an extenuating motive. The guilt is greater, if the effect of spirituous liquors be known, and if they be not avoided. The most intricate situation, with respect to ex- tenuating motives, is when one faculty in particular is extremely active in individuals. This may happen with regard to every power. If it be the case with a superior faculty, such as benevolence or reverence, the individual may be said to be for- tunate. Yet, in the same way, every other feeling, 27 302 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. for instance, an insatiable desire of glory, may govern the whole conduct of some persons ; and again, every animal propensity may become exces- sively active. This state is not insanity ; the in- dividuals are able to distinguish the influence which excites them, and have power to restrain it, and are therefore answerable for their actions ; but their situation is an unfortunate one ; for they are called upon to maintain a dreadful struggle with their ruling propensity. I know of a family in which the desire to drink liquors is hereditary ; the grandfather and the father have killed them- selves by hard drinking, the grandchild, when only five years of age, manifested the same incli- nation. There are similar examples with respect to acquisitiveness and destructiveness. The ques- tion, then, is, Whether and how far the innate dis- positions, when in this manner excessively strong, are to be considered as extenuating motives ? At all events, it is certain, that not only violent and sudden affections, but also various other excite- ments ought to be considered as extenuating ; and I have no doubt that they will be admitted by degrees, as they are understood. Let us examine a few examples, among the in- finite number which might be quoted. A first lieutenant was inspired with a passion for the wife of a private in his company. This virtuous woman steadily refused his propositions and im- portunities, without saying a word of it to her EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 303 husband. One day, at exercise, the lieutenant treated the husband very ill, and ordered him several times to be bastinadoed. As the husband complained, he was treated as stubborn and mu- tinous, and forced to be silent by fifteen other blows. His unfortunate wife told him the inten- tion of the lieutenant. From Thursday to Sun- day he meditated and projected the death of his wife and his children. He admonished his wife to confess, and to go to the communion table. He did the same. He was always mild, a good father, and an excellent husband, but during these days he excelled in these qualities. On Sunday, after dinner, he proposed to his wife to take a walk with him. He conducted her under the sallow- trees, planted along the glacis of the citadel at Breslaw, and, whilst caressing her most tenderly, he pierced her heart with a dagger. He went back in haste, that he might not be prevented from sending his two children into heaven. He hoped to find in them intercessors before God. He killed them with a little axe ; placed them on the bed, their arms crossed ; went then direct- ly to the guard, with a countenance of satisfaction, and told what he had done. "Now," added he, " may the Lieutenant of ### make love to my wife. She and her children are secured against seduc- tion and dishonor. They will be obliged to me for their happiness, and pray for me in heaven. " The court-martial, at Breslaw in Silesia, did not think of extenuating motives, but even aggravated 304 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. his punishment, by depriving him in prison, and at the moment of execution, of the presence of a clergyman who might encourage and prepare him for death. The work of Crichton on Insanity contains several examples of this kind. " Catharine Hanslerin, forty-five years old, was an inhabit- ant of Donauworth. She had been twelve years married to a man of a severe and unfeeling temper, and, excepting a fever, and some slight cau- ses of indisposition, was a tolerably healthy woman. About the end of the year 1785, she was detected in stealing milk in the village where she lived. She solicited, in the most ear- nest manner, that the circumstance might be con- cealed from her husband, whom she dreaded. It was promised, but not observed. At first, he was told of it in an obscure way, but he afterwards discovered the whole truth. " The detection of her fraud made a deep im- pression on her mind, not only on account of her good name, but also on account of the treatment she was likely to receive from her husband. In consequence of this, she became low in spirits, and melancholy. She had confessed, but it did not relieve her mind. She prayed often, without knowing what she said. She had been frequently seized with violent headaches, during which she was not conscious of what she did, EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 305 " Her husband, when he heard of her stealing, beat her severely. After this ill-treatment, she went to bed, trembling for fear, and dreading worse usage the next day. Her daughter, a little girl seven years old, came to her bedside, and prayed with her. She had formed the resolution of leaving her husband, and asked her daughter, if she would stay with her father ? This the girl refused to do, as she was afraid of him. After praying devoutly, early in the morning she left her husband's house, and took her daughter along with her, and also her infant, that was only two months and a half old. As she was about to de- part, she again asked her daughter if she would not rather live with her father ? The girl an- swered she would rather die. The thoughts which this answer occasioned in the mother's mind, the misery and distress which surrounded her, the fear of what might happen to her children in case she died, and, at the same time, her own ardent wish to finish her existence, all these thoughts caused her to form the barbarous resolution of drowning them. " The infant she took in her arms, and being arrived at the banks of the Danube, she caused her daughter to kneel down and pray to God to deserve a good death. She then tied the in- fant in the arms of the girl, blessed them by making the sign of the cross on them, and threw both into the river. She afterwards returned to 07* 306 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. the village, told what she had done, and was ex- ecuted." " A young woman, twenty-three years of age, was sent to the house of correction at Onolbach, 1755. She was received with blows and stripes. This treatment made so deep an impression on her mind, that she began to detest life, and in order to get rid of it, determined to commit murder. She thought that by so doing, she would have time allowed her for repentance, which she knew she could not have, were she to destroy herself. She premeditated her design in cold blood, and ac- complished it on another woman in the following manner. " One Sunday she complained of being ill, and requested to be excused from attending Divine service. A simple, and half fatuous girl was allowed to attend her. She convinced this girl that there was no hope of their being relieved from their present miserable situation, but by their both consenting to die, and she proposed to the girl to kill her first. The girl was soon recon- ciled to the proposition, and the only condition she made was, that her companion should not hurt her. She stretched herself out, and the murder- ess accomplished the horrid crime by cutting the girl's throat. EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 307 "Upon being asked, in the court of justice, what could have induced her to commit so horrid a deed, as the murder of her fellow-prisoner ? she answered, Fear of the sharp blows and pain she knew she had to sustain in the house of correction. She thought within herself, If I take away my own life, my soul is lost for ever ; but if I murder another, though in that case I also must forfeit my life, still I shall have time to repent, and God will pardon me. When she was asked, Whether she had no hatred against the deceased, or if she had ever received any ill-usage from her ? she an- swered, That the deceased had never done her any injury, and if any thing vexed the deceased, she always came to her to make her complaints. Upon being asked, if she slept well after having committed so horrid an act ? she answered, That she prayed to God before going to bed, and slept well, and when she awoke, she again prayed. She seemed perfectly calm and collected during her trial, until it was explained to her, that she had drawn down the eternal wrath of God upon her- self. Then she wept bitterly. The physician ascribed the crime to despair, and tcedium vitce ; but the law would not understand the hint." There is a similar fact mentioned in the journal which is published at Leipzig, under the title Zeitung fur die elegante Welt, (N. 92. 1st. Aug. 1805.) Amongst a great number of malefactors confined in the prison of Torgaw, and presented 308 CORRECTION Off MALEFACTORS. to Dr. Gall, there was a woman who had drown- ed her child, a boy of four years old. Dr. Gall examined her head, then took the hand of Profes- sor Loder, who was present, and put it upon the organ of Philoprogenitiveness, that he might ex- amine its size. When the prisoner had retired, Gall said that that organ was great in this woman, the organ of Murder (as it was then called) small, and that, in general, her head was well organized. He desired to be informed of her character and capacities, principally with respect to her crime. The magistrate said that this person was born of poor parents, whom she had lost early, and that she had received no education. When grown up, she became a servant in the village. Every one was satisfied with her conduct and behaviour. Un- fortunately she was seduced, and had a child. The being to whom she gave life was the cause of her misery. She was dismissed from service, and no one would receive her on account of her child. For a long time she did not know how to endure her situation. She loved her infant with the most tender affection, though she had reason to detest his existence. Finally, a poor peasant and his wife had pity on her ; they kept the child in their house, and took care of him for three years. The mother found a place, and her behaviour was very exemplary. The child increased, and gave great satisfaction to the adopting father, who loved him very much. EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 309 This was enough for bad tongues to say, that the peasant was his father. Satisfied, with his con- scious innocence, he despised the wicked imputa- tion, but this was not the case with his wife. To keep peace at home, he was obliged to give the boy back to the mother. She begged her master and mistress in vain to keep her ; in vain she represented to them, that she had served with ex- emplary assiduity and fidelity. She was dis- charged in the most severe season. All the wealthy peasants treated her with the same severity. She sold whatever she possessed to feed her child and herself. He decayed through cold and misery. In this situation she prayed to Heaven to let both herself and him die. Her maternal affection was overpowered by an internal voice, which said aloud, that the onj^ means of saving them was the destruction of her child. She preferred to see him die suddenly, and in a moment of despair, she carried him to the River Elbe, and precipita- ted him into the stream. Exhausted, she fainted away, and was found in this situation. As soon as she recovered her senses, she accused herself. During her detention before trial, namely, a whole year, she behaved very well ; she manifested dis- tinct and deep repentance of her deed, which, however, she did not consider as a crime. The clergyman, who visited her from time to time, said that she was ignorant, but that she was mild, and very docile. The superintendants gave ex- cellent testimonies of her good conduct. These 310 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. different motives determined the Court of Appeals to change the first judgment, according to which she ought to have been beheaded, and they con- demned her to confinement for life, without being severely treated. Here she learned to write and to read, and her whole conduct was orderly. From this narrative of facts, it is evident that her organization was not in contradiction with her manner of feeling and thinking, and that she de- served the benefit of the application of extenuating motives. There is no illegal action which has greater and j uster claims to be treated with equity than child-murder. In various countries penal legisla- tion is too severe in this respect. I am far from excusing a crime when it is voluntary, but 1 con- tend also for extenuating motives, whenever they can be admitted. Legislators and judges are commonly more or less severe, according to their own manner of feeling, rather than according to philosophical principles. Several say is it pos- sible to imagine a more barbarous and inhuman action, than that of a mother, deaf to the cries of nature, destroying her child, at the moment when he seeks for aliment from her breast ? Others reply, that because infanticide is a crime against nature, and because the hearts of all mothers re- volt at the idea of it, it is impossible that it can EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 311 be committed except in a moment of derangement, and in a state of delirium. Infanticide impresses us with the idea of bar- barity and atrocity with the greater force, be- cause it seems natural that the love of offspring should prevent such an action. It is true, nature has endowed the greater number of women with this benevolent propensity. But in women, as well as in females of animals, this propensity has different degrees of energy. Certain cows do not suffer their calves to suck ; some pigs, cats, rab- bits, &c. kill their young, while other females of the same kind of animals cry for several days, and refuse to eat, when they are bereft of their offspring. It is a lamentable truth, that this dif- ference of motherly love exists also in mankind. All women do not desire to become mothers ; some consider their pregnancy as the greatest mis- fortune. Several mothers seek variouspretexts, in order to remove their children out of the house. There are others, who being freed from shame, reproach, misery, and many inconveniences, by the loss of their illegitimate children, yet shed tears for a long time after, at the remembrance of them. Others, on the contrary, see their legiti- mate offspring buried without a pang. Thus it is beyond doubt, that natural love of offspring is very weak in some women. It is therefore wrong to believe that infanticide is a more unnatural act than any other murder. 312 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. I have examined thirty-seven child murderers, and in thirty the organ of Philoprogeny was very small. It does not follow that a mother, in whom the organ is small, must necessarily destroy her offspring. My object is only to observe, that this sentiment is not strong in every mother, and that, if females, in whom it is weak, are exposed to va- rious unfortunate circumstances, they are destitute of a great motive to combat the internal sensations which may impel them to this crime. Almost all laws against infanticide are framed on the supposition, that this crime, when not com- mitted in a fit of rage and hatred, is always pre- meditated. But is it true that these two are the only affections which exclude premeditation ? Different actions of our sex may be cited, in an- swer to this question. How often does not the sentiment of honor, which is even preposterous, dispose man to hazard his life. Several have de- stroyed themselves, for having lost a woman they loved. Others despair from disappointed ambi- tion, or from the loss of fortune. Our sex, how- ever, is the strongest ; we are seldom destitute of all resources, or deprived of all hope of finding a companion for life. How different is the situa- tion of an unfortunate woman ? The intellectual faculties of the female sex are commonly weaker ; hence they have less will to resist their stronger sensibility, and stronger affections and passions. Their sentiment of honor and shame is cultivated EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 313 from infancy, exercised and exalted ; and we re- quire of young, timorous, inexperienced and sen- sible creatures, when the most dreadful event overwhelms them, to be cool, calm, and reflect- ing. The complaints of pregnancy, and many terrible thoughts during it, weaken the bodily strength, increase irritability, and disturb the mind. When the critical moment arrives, they are most frequently alone, without consolation, overwhelmed with grief, and weakened; how, then, can we expect that their judgment should be sound ? and if such an unhappy mother destroy the feeble existence of her offspring, perhaps in a iU of delirium, how ic it possible to confound such an action with the most horrible of crimes ? Moreover, men and women are more irritable at certain periods. In my work on Insanity, I have treated of these periods of irritability in the article on Fits. It coincides with the period of the menses, and their delivery happens at the same time, viz. when the mother would have had the tenth periodical return. Thus it is natural, that at this period the unfortunate woman should feel her situation more strongly, and be more in- clined to take a fatal resolution. Our sex can never be exposed to- such a misfor- tune ; and if, as it is the case in certain countries, we, the legislators, think that it is not expedient to require satisfaction from the seducer, and if we 28 314 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. fear to be unjust against perfidy, why do we fear to be indulgent and humane, towards the frail and disappointed female ? It is even conceivable, that such an unfortunate mother may continually think of the ingratitude and perfidy of the father of her child ; that she may consider how he has deceiv- ed her in the most infamous manner ; how he is the cause of her ignominy and misery ; how he forgets his forfeit, whilst, in some countries, the laws do not afford her any protection against him ; and how his stratagems are styled merely love in- trigues. May not indignation trouble her under- standing, and excite derangement of her mind ? Indeed, if it were not so difficult for a mother to take such a desperate resolution, infanticide, the result of illegitimate pregnancies and of per- fidy on the side of seducers, would be much more frequent. Hence it is but just to take into consid- eration the internal conflict which may have de- ranged the senses of a child murderess, and to ap- preciate all extenuating motives. The ideas on infanticide, which Dr. Hunter has detailed in a letter to the Royal Society of London, deserve the attention of every criminal legislator. I agree that it must be punished as murder, when it is committed with premeditation, with mature re- flection, in the complete use of moral liberty, without an urgent provocation, and through mere depravity of morals.* In this case, the legislator deserves all thanks for protecting the child who EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 315 is without support and defence. But it is impor- tant to know how to distinguish the different cir- cumstances which accompany this action, and there can be no doubt that very often infanticide admits of many extenuating motives. Lying-in hospitals, where every woman with child is taken in and brought to bed, without being obliged to say who she is and whence she came, and foundling hospitals, often prevent in- fanticide. In countries where such establishments are wanting, child-murder is more frequent than in others where they exist. These institutions, however, tend so much to weaken the motive to moral restraint furnished by the obligation to support and to cherish offspring, that it may be fairly questioned whether the evils they produce in this point of view, are not greater than those they prevent in the other. In order to prevent child-murder, there is a law in certain countries, which obliges pregnant girls to discover their situation to some accouch- eur or midwife. If they do not fulfil this for- mality, they are supposed to have the intention of committing infanticide. In other countries, the proprietors of houses are answerable for pregnant girls who live in them. They are thus required to know the state of their locatories. 316 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. Unfortunately legislators are often in the same situation as physicians who attend incurable dis- eases. They try uncertain means, rather than do nothing. The law which obliges women to inti- mate their state of pregnancy, is in contradiction to nature. It is not necessary to mention, that there is no need of such a law with respect to girls of the town. These have lost their bashful- ness, and will go to the lying-in hospitals to be delivered. Such a regulation, therefore, must be intended for timorous, bashful, and decent women, who have been seduced. Now, the feeling of honor and bashfulness is considered as the best safeguard of female virtue, and is constantly cher- ished accordingly ; nevertheless, when such a girl falls, she is required, under pain of punish- ment, to make her shame known. There are men of mature age who, with the greatest reluctance, would confess certain diseases to their most inti- mate friends. How, then, can the law be so severe on females, for not confessing a circum- stance which they are taught to look upon as more disgraceful than any disease ? Besides, when we consider that such unfortunate girls are fre- quently actuated by a strong feeling of the igno- miny and misfortune they bring on their family by their misconduct, we ought to recollect, that their obstinacy in concealing their state, may, in truth, be allied more nearly to virtue than to crime. EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 317 Thus, if extenuating motives are in any circum- stances to be admitted, in no cases will they be more truly applicable than in those of infanti- cide. In my work on Insanity, I have shown, that suicide in many cases is the effect of a corporeal disease. It then admits extenuating motives. Criminal legislators, if better acquainted with it than they commonly are, certainly will modify the laws upon the subject. These very rarely are of much efficacy in deterring those who wish to end their days, and are no punishment for them after death ; but it is not a matter of indifference to whole families, to have the stigma of alliance with a malefactor forced upon them, when in fact they have only had the misfortune to be con- nected with a diseased individual. For details on this subject I refer to my work on Insanity. *28 313 CONCLUSION, CONCLUSION. The considerations, examined in the Appendix of this work, tend to show, that legislation in every branch ought to have only one aim, viz. the general happiness of mankind, and that of each individual, as far as it is compatible with the for- mer ; that penal legislation, in particular, ought to be corrective ; that in prisons, the inhabitants of which are to be sent back into society, all possi- ble means of correction should be employed ; that capital. punishment might be abolished, and the crimes for which it is inflicted prevented, by pro- per establishments. As punishment, however, is still the object of the penal code, I have treated of the different degrees of guilt which may be implied in criminal actions ; and of some illegal actions that admit of extenuating mo^ves, such as suicide and infanticide. From this Appendix, too, it may be inferred, how important and necessary, for legislators and judges, is the study of man. THE END. 019 808 545 5