TS 1105 .B44 1911 0*V '*" A w ^ ****** x^ ^ *°»* c° ■ ^ ^o 4 *2* «7 . • • , *\. *v •; A v ^ ^<36 "ol? V .4°° .<:^&-. % . S &*k. V.«° Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/papermakerspocke01beve -43 Uff ADVERTISEMENTS. NEW PATENT Refining Engine. EMBRACING MANY IMPROVEMENTS = OF GREAT UTILITY. = Each disc is adjusted independently by special gearing. The case is made in halves to facilitate easy access. Greatly increased cutting or beating power. Specially designed to deal with thick pulp. Ring oiling blocks and ball thrust bearings. BERTRAMS LIMITED Paper Mill Engineers SCIENNES, EDINBURGH. ADVERTISEMENTS. Printings (White) Envelope Cartridges (Angular or Square). IMITATION Printings (Coloured) Drawing Cartridges. PARCHMENTS. Mill No. 221. ESTABLISHED OVER 100 YEARS. OLIVE BROS. - LIMITED, - PAPER MANUFACTURERS. TINTED WRITINGS— Glazed Finish. CREAM-LAI DS. HOSIERY PAPERS, GLAZED AND UNGLAZED CASINGS, BODY PAPERS. White and Coloured Super Calendered Printings. Demy 15 17 19 21 24 26 28 SO D. Demy 30 36 40 48 60 D. Crown 21 24 27 30 36 D. Royal 40 48 60 Quad Crown 48 60 Self Blues and Friction-Glazed Blacks. FINE WHITE PRINTINGS Stocked at Mill In Woolfold Mills, 19, Cannon Street BURY, Lancashire. MANCHESTER. Telegram.— " OLIVE," Bury. — Telephone No. 80. Telephone No. 1898 City. WHOLES^ XE ONLY SAMPLES AND QUOTATIONS ON APPLICATION ADVERTISEMFNTS. COMPLETE CONTROL FROM THE KEYBOARD. Column Finder Paragrapher Practically every operation required in producing type^ writing on tne bmith Premier Typewriter is centred in the keyboard. This complete control, right under the operator's fingers, makes for speed and accuracy, and is an exclusive feature of the 1910 Model Smith Premier Other exclusive Smith Premier Features, such as complete straight-line keyboards, combination paragrapher and column finder, and removable and interchangeable platens are fully explained in our descriptive Catalogue, free on request. THE SMITH PREMIER TYPEWRITER CO., Smith Premier House, 6 & 7, Queen Street, Cheapside, ILC» ADVERTISEMENTS. The Kellner - Partington Paper Pulp Co., Limited. HEAD OFFICE: 1 1 , New Market Lane, Brown Street, Manchester. Finest qualities Bleached Sulphite Pulps. Easy Bleaching Sulphite. Extra Strong Soda Pulp. Mechanical Pulps. Super Calendered Fine Printing Papers. Glazed and Machine-finished Printings in various qualities. Glazed and Unglazed Wrapping and Bag Papers. Parchment Papers. M. G. Caps and Casings. Kraft Brown Glazed and Unglazed. SECOND AND ENLARGED EDITION. THE PAPERMAKERS' POCKET BOOK. SPECIALLY COMPILED FOR PAPER MILL OPERATIVES, ENGINEERS, CHEMISTS, AND OFFICE OFFICIALS. By JAMES BEVERIDGE. NEW YORK: D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 23 Murray and 27 warren Streets. LONDON : M c CORQUODALE & CO., LTD., 40, COLEMAN STREET, E.C 1911. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.] /9 d-f-3 HZ'Wl? ADVERTISEMENTS. i CHINA CLAY. r BEST BRANDS. \ Sulphate of Alumina. ALL GRADES. H.D.POCHIN & CO., Ltd., MANCHESTER. ALSING & Co., •» LIMITED. Sole Agents for I ' 1 0, Cannon Street, LONDON, E. CHEMICAL Sjjgjjfe^ AND X. B. mechanical Sweden. * Soda Pulp. Wood Pulp. i ADVERTISEMENTS. THE "DIAMOND" SELF-CLAMP CUTTING MACHINE. PAYNE yards feet 10 }J chains 640 icres = 1 square inch. 1 acre. foot. yard. rod or pole. rood. 1 square mils. Solid or CubIc Measure. 1,728 cubic inches = 1 eubic foot. 27 „ feet = 1 „ yard. 40 „ „ of rough or I _ -. ton or load 50 „ „ „ hewn timber} ~ L ton or load> 42 „ „ „ timber ... = 1 shipping ton. 108 „ „ = 1 stack of wood. 128 „ „ = 1 cord „ „ 216 „ „ = 1 cubic fathom of wood. 165 „ „ = 1 St. Petersburg Stand- ard of sawn timber. 1 cubic yard = 0*764513 cubic metre. 1 cubic metre = 35*31658 cubic feet. Coal. 112 lbs = 1 cwfc. 2 cwts. ... ... ... ... ... = 1 sack. 10 sacks = 1 ton. 21 tons 4 cwts. ... ... ... . . . = 1 barge or keel. 20 keels or 424 tons ... ... ... = 1 shipload. 140 cwts. or 7 tons ... ... ... = 1 room. Coke. 4 bushels = 1 sack. 12 sacks ... ... ... ... ... — 1 chaldron. 21 chaldrons = 1 score. MENSURATION OF SURFACES AND CAPACITIES. Area of a square = side 2 „ „ a rectangle, rhombus or rhomboid = side x per- pendicular height. ,, „ a triangle = half the side x perpendicular height. „ „ a circle = 3*141593 x radius 2 „ ,, an ellipse = 3*141593 x major semi-axis x minor semi-axis. Surface of a cube = 6 x edge 2 „ „ a sphere = 12*5f>6370 x radius 2 „ „ a cylinder = 6*283185 x radius of base x sum of height and radius of base. „ „ a spherical segment == 6*283185 x height x radius of circular base. Volume of a cube = edge 3 „ „ a sphere = |x 3*141593 x radius 3 „ „ a cylinder = 3*141593 x height x radius 2 „ „ a prism = base area x height. „ s , a cone or pyramid = i X base area x height. 4 WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. 1 . -iiomN 1 2L »OOOOOHr-iHHiMiMCIWM9:cO»^-*^<*«i5iOt'; CO l^ooooooooooooooooooooo-ooc; . -iK" con- ilo*- 1 !-* «r»~ioi-*'«*-* l «»n ■^oooooooocooo-oooooooocoooo T3 CN . -'N--of» H O ;COuOXOHM©XHH^^J>rHW^hOi 1 — 1 1 — ' 1 — 1 ' — ■ iOOOOOOHrtHHHNflNNNMOSCOWW'*^^'* "^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO H-*«-iK WOHHniONQOOOINMlOI>C!OOlN-*«<5t>»HOCq'* 13* i ^|«iOOOOOOOOr-iTHr-ii-ii-l^T-i(NscN H^Heww ~>N~w>icon , 0OOHNC0iC?0l>Q0O-O'-iC0r)*i0CCXOOriHNC0'f ^jS! ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO • — *1^:0N flOOHlN:C-tiO©l>XOOHCHO)CO^lO«OI>XOOri rl H i— 1 i— i tj CCOOCOOOOOOOOOOi— 1 i— 1 i— ll— 1 i— IHr li— Ir- 1 i— If— 1 i— 1 ^oooooooc ooooooooooooooooo in L. 3 o I ~*>wNi— 1 NCO-^iOSl^CC^OHIMCOTHiOCOOaJOJOHCqcO rHHH^HHH-r(HMNIMQ000GClC0OaC5©OOOOHHHHIN ■^oooooooooooooooooooooooop , . :<3Nr~i|ix-'|''5' rein— ikm-iIt wit-^I'N-'I'* miti— Nt-NOOX©Xl»QC5QEOOOOH CM rtHHHH ^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo -*>. ~<|« Hoi -Uin -H|(N HJiO(N^COQHHCOOQOOOCOiOt>00 CN oi-*^^ini(5l!5iCiOOOOtOtOCOI>l>(>NI>OOa)a)000031 ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ■OON-tHCC 3DOO?l<*O00OO0lT)'OaDOO0)'tffl00OO ?. L'<* tH ^ i"* -t O C LO if. O iO O » O C (O ® h N l> N N h 00 r-flooooooooooc-oooooooooooooo flo^aHniM^cocoffi-Hm^ocoOHHMio^ajoo ^ »!COCOCOMT)'TH-!hi^'*^'iHiCiOOiOOiOiOC0550COO«H> •^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo "O O Hffl -*' '•£ l> OS O O h CO ^ CD N © 6 O H CO t(«' ?D h o o o ^ osMMCOWCO:OCOM^^^^'TH^"*'*>QiOiO»OiauOOiO«C ^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo -"•l-r-iltNttl-T Hf- IPJXIT -iWHiM^IT "•taH&CCte -Qoc50H«coTHicic:ha) 6 WAGES TABLE.— Kate per Hour in Pence. dcO!CCJOM©CiOCOC0050M!OOOCO©CJOW50C50 d CO »C KSufrH'N-il'tf MI^HiM-h|^< KIttH'N-"!^' Ml 1 *— i|Oi-h|tJ« AiMiCCCHH^NOOWOOiHIMLOXiOH^hCJOCOffl l^oooooooooooooooooooooooo d CN . — i|rvj -H|f» -n|(M -H||>| -h|iN H(N -i|in -|tj — iiC'.rci-^- i»OJCiOO©OOOOOHi-IHHH(N(M«-i|(M -h|(N — ilrs t -h|OI -H|rN -H|(M -ifM -i|rN -i|im <— <|(M H — ^oooooooooooooooooooooooo fl H « CC "* lO «fi NOD CS O H O. H(MCO^iO«OI>C0350HO 2. jo^ ^ ^ -*■*-)<-)<-* ^ ^ ■# i; 12 o 10 o ic o « is ic 10 10 ?o eflOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO I/) t- 3 o I QOHMWrCiaOSCOCiOHNM-KlOOSWOOHN -ti i: io m m io m m in m n a c c © to c o o © « h t> n 7 WAGES TABLE. -Kate per Hour in Pence. r6 . HiNrol'tf-'I'f-'lw:!-* -<|-*-i]^imI-* -H|-*-i|iNM|'|-r»<— ilc^iroi-^- — i|-^f — i|MMiTf — '|^i— i|o«ifO|T! ■S M Olfi O CO O (M h O « H t« v. K » H C5 O o o « a N N O (o'O O O O H H N (M CO CC « t« tC O O O O l> l> N « » 5) © O ^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo T3(NfOaOCOOOHfflH^C.Nt>COOKaiHOH' 73 1X5 «5OOOOHH(M*l(MCCC0^^Ci0i0tDaNNl>CC»aO --+3COOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO iiOOOOHHHNINWOJCO^^iOiaiSia^NNNCOCOO ^©OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOO 73 • -'|'*- , l'*- | l'x -"I'M -"I'M H'N —I'M H icOOOOHHH(NNMf0C0^-*TH»0i0i»«050l>l>t>C0(B ^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo TJ -h|^ -«s»MW -iHontoKSW —In— iiimmitt -IM"— liMNI-* — hji— |ertW —|Tt«— KNcfcK ^ oiOOCOHHHINJiKNCOaj'W-^^TH'SiSSOOffiNSSQO «fioooooocoooooooooooooooooo t^M^QOO^WO^OOOTHOOO^OOO^XOTfiXOTH® 5 «COOOHHHN«(NKMS-*^tJ(CCOCOO!ONNN ««ooooooooooooooooooooooooo cb . MN'MlwsiT'HiCM-'l'* Ml-* ■*>■— |tji K|Tf-i|(M -i— mw— |im -itji rein- -kv-i-^ raw-or-ito •dH « M l> H ffl O O !M (D Q H i.O S O i" CO O S N H M O O fl iOOOOOHHHIMWINMCOCO^^^iOiOiOiOOCOCOIs ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 73 CO . ?!W— I'M— I'M -"I'M "I'M "I'M -(I'M —"I'M —I'M — |NOOQOC5aiOOH ^OOOO'OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOi-iT-irH flOiOOWQOHttH^flilN^OiOOMOOHaHTHOiNNO 1 — I T—l T— 1 l—l i»OOOHHNN!MCOl»^*iOiOiOffi«ONt>l>QOCCOOO ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrH MWHiN-W P5|1--(KN-i|t1< CC|-*h|(M-(|'* M|tJ-h|(N-.-<|'* tCOOCOOOHiOOCOOOOmOMt-OiOOMNO^fflWhO t— 1 rH rH r- 1 =rtooooooooooooooooooooooooo ' . ~i|(N -iKN H.0i0i0<0CCl> ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO , o'o^QOO'*ooO'*ooo-*a)OTHcoo-*a)0-*ooO'*QOO t3 t— li— 1 t— 1 i— It— It— It— It— Ii— IHr 1 r- (i—li— li— 1 t— 1 t-i rH t— 1 ^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo MT«lHl>)-«N> WWHOCHW C0|Tj~HC0OO^©CSHl0aO^C0O CO ail>NCOQOOOSC:ffiOOOOHHHJlNNMCOB , *i' T )iifi rHr- It— it— It— It— It-Hi— It-it— It-Ht-Ht— It— It— It-Ht— 1 ^oooooooooooooooooooooooo© •d -■w. H©» Hn Hin Hoi -hNI>l>CO«COOJCJCS05000HHHH(MN\T -C X|t — <|t*— i |(NMH> l3?OaOCi5l>OH-*'jOH«iOOOCO«OOH^NHNiOOOO rH rH rH rH CO ^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo (A L. 3 o ^i0CflNQ0CiCHWC0rHi0l>00a5O-lCq«THi0(»NQ0 WiMMC^iM(NMo:cOiMo;COCOWC5«-^t(Itj<^ t h^I'*'^'t(i 9 WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. oiHHCqNOOM-*^THiOlO©^l>NCOQOQOOOOO

OlOO«aOHOH-!)lO(MI>0 I— I T— I T— I T-H jiCSOOOHHNffKMCOCO^TrlTfliOOtOOtONhOOGO C^OOtHtHt-HtHtHtHt-HtHtHt-Ht-Ht-ItHt-Ht-Ht-HtHt-Ht-Ht-HtHt-H CD O CO b- O s50)CO^S!C300HHHC(|(MWMW'*tHt)H>0>OiOCOi»N ^OOOOOT-lT-lT-HTHT-lT-lT-HTHrHT-TT-lT-lT-HT— I T-H T-H T-H T-l rH ^ «ihNGOQOa)C5^COOOHHH(N(MCCCOCO-*^-*L'5L'5 ^OOOOOOOOi-HTHT-HTHTHTHT-lTHrHTHT-HTHrHTHTHTH ^^XO^XO^QOO-HOOO^XiO^ooO^COOTri®© x!S!0t>NS00Q000n©C5OOOHHHN««MMM^ *-t3©OOOOOOOOOOt-Ht^t-Ht-It-Ht-Ht-HtHt-Ht-Ht-Ht-Ht-H BiOiSiOtCCOBSSb-KOOQOOrOOOOO hJOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOt-HtHt-Ht-h CO ictJ- ■+ •* iC iC uC C O O CD N N t- CO X QO 00 35 O ft O O O ^©OOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOCt-Ht-Ht-h CO it'30C0C0- t 4 l ^-HiCiCmi0OOONl>NI>C0Q0C0C0C3O '^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ! fflOHWMHCietONoooiOHiNes^iooNaoaoHS) q I t(I lO lO lO >0 O i-1 UO iC C >Q CO (£i © O © CO «D © © O N l> N 10 WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. aJOOOHHWMCO^Oif.OONOOODOOOHHWMM'* =+20000000000000000000000000 aiooOHHTimco^^uocaohhccaoooHNNcom ^ooooooooooocooooooooooooo ■CcOiCt>M©^HCCHCOCOOiOONNO^H©HCCMOiO aiOOOHHNNM^^iOiCOhNCOOOffiQOHHMlMM •-rtocooooooooooooooooooooooo .-"N- «l'*-i|'N-'|'* rol-q-— <|0>— "I-* coW-iIojHtC ccw-iir-^iT «lTf-H|(M-H|Tf Wl^Hw- CM OOOJiOO ^ooooooooooooo c ooooooooooo co iiOCOHH(M!MMM'*<*L')L':CI>t-(»a)r.OOOHHN •-rtooooooooooooooooooooooooo mO ~ OHHMCqCOCO^^lClJCOOhNCOQOGlC.OOHH '-+2O0OOOOOOOOOO0O0OOOOOOOOOO ■o CO ^nOCOOOOOO^ 000000000000000 BJOOOHH(MCNiSM^Tj(iOiOe»hSXCCOIiOOHH ^0000000000000000000000000 iJOOOOHHWIMMCO^TlllOlQOOhNXCCCC.OOH ^poooooooooooooooocoo 00000 . I-JIT -I'M -»0< --IOJ -HlfN — ili-J H^l ^i(* H(N HOJ ^WN i-l|(N HK. T!(M-HiOH^-no^QOHNOOHiOOTHC5«(»(MI>HO lOOOOHHOUlc: CO -H -H >^ iO O O O b- t- CO CO CJ O O O ^00. 00 00 'OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 11 WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. •6 | ^ ^ ^njiOincOtDNOOOOCiOOHH^MCO^OiOOONOOCOJ'. o "rHr-lr-lr-lrHrHrHrH rH M^OOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH ^OOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH TiOIXNaS^HfflHQOWOlOO^NO^HCClHOOCCOlOO T 1 T— I 1 1 1 ( ^©OOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH si CO ^ -* lO lO O CO N QO 00 CS O O O H H 1M CC CO -* "* lO iO C N ^OOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH aoCOCO^^uliOOCNNCCCOr. OOHH(M!Mnr.TH^i.OC ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH^H t5 OO CO CJ C5 O O H H tl N M CO ^ C I^OOOOOOOOOO O'O O'O'O i-i iH rH rH rH rH 'rH rH rH rH TSoOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOOOOOCOOOO »'(N (M co co ^ tH >o n o o n t- oo co cs c. o O h h cq Ol CO CO ^ — -I rH rH rH r- It— I rH rH i— I r- li— Ir-lrHrHi— I rH ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrH^rHrHrHrH T3 TJOHIOHCO^'O^ Ci" CO ~. CO 00 CM CC'dhHhHOOOO t— 1 r-i rH rH i H H (M (M CO CO tH -+ 1C LO CO 'O N N CO CO O O: O O H H N N CO ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHri^rH^H to H"n Him -*m Him -w>i —I'm — i|c-» He* H»i -"» -*>■ Hoi t O iC h -(< O CO C5 CM CO h h O CO h LO O H C; CO X «N H O O 0iHHHI<10-lCCC0H-*l0u0C0C0Chh«CCOC:COHrt01 W^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrHrHrH — w j b i HlOCONOOCSOHClCOHiOCOhOOffiOHIMCO^lOCONX q CM CM CM CM CM CM CO CO 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO T H< -* -* H< tH -* ^H ^f X ! 12 WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. OS -* O aiOHHN«co^miflocosoo»c:ooHHNnco^io SJHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHNN(NN8I1N«NN itOOOHNNMW^iflffl'XtONCOOOSlffiOHHNflM ^rHrH^HT-(i-lrHi-li-lrHT-(l-lr-lrHrHT-(i-lTHrHS(»C0CiOOO'-lWNMCi;-*-fi3 50rt>S00(»OC;O ■coHNwodcoffl^oiOHOONHcoNr. coo^'hl'jo "f? oiOt-NOOQOaOOOHHSMCCK^TCOCCDONNXr: CD ^^ ^.^^ rHrH rH rH rH rH rH ^ rH ,H ,H rHrH rH .HrHrH r-l ,-( rH . ->|rf HSI>COCOCiJ100HHMN« 8ft r ^ lH ' T H r - l> HrHr-t'iHr-lTHrHr-'THr-lr-lrHrHTHrHTHrHrHr-lrH 13 WAGES TABLE.— Kate per Hour in Pence. »OOOHflM'*'*iOCOI>COOOCJOHO(COKT('U30t'-l>CO ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO a3OOOi-HWC0C0'*O^t^t^C0CtO'-ir-lt^C0 ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO © BOOOHN«MHHifi050NCt)QOOHN»W'*iO!OOI> ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOO 0) nOOOH(MSH^i.-,tfflNCCC^OH.niM»^lOuO«l> rHrHrHr-li-lr-li-lr-liHrH ^ooooooooooooooooooooooooo CO CO BOOOHNCqM^iOififflNOOiBfflOOHiNMM^iOtO© ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO C5 JO CQ0Q0C5OHHNC0CC'*lOiO rHr-l^-irHrHrHT-lrHrH ^ 3 © O oooooooooooooooooooooo CO TJQOO!OOHIMM^'*iO!Cl--QOe! 4?Ot-It-It-ItHt-It-It-it-It-ItHt-It-It-It-It-It-It-Ii-It-It-It-It-It--It-I 05 mCiOOH(M(NC0TH | a | !0!DN0t)CJOOH5qW^THiO«0N00 i—lr- 1 t— IHHr It— It— IHr IHHr I ^OOtHr-lr-lT-lT-lT-Hr-lr-lT-lTHr-I^HT-lT-lT-Hr-tr-lr-HT-lT-lrHr-lTH 05 kGOCJOOH«COCO^O^ONXOOOHNMM-*iOCDN ^OOr-lT-lrHr-lT--lr-lT-lT-lrHrMr--lr-lT-lr-lr-lT-Hr-lr-lr-lrHr-HrHr-l ^OT. «5C0OffiOC0OOOC0OffiC0C0OCiC0C0OC3OC0O iBCOOO©OHH(MCOTHTW5COt>b.COffiOOHNMa5-*iOC r- It-It— I t— It— It— It— It— It— It— It— It-4 ^ O O O t— I t—I t-I rH t— It— It— It— It— It— It— It— I r-H t-H t-I t— It— It— It-Ht— It— I t—I CO aiNQOQ0050HHNM^"*iO©50t'»OOaQOH«fflM'*iO t-Ht— It-Ht— I r- It— It— It— It— IHH '^OOOOt— It— It-It— It— It— It— It— It— It— It— It-It— It-It-It— It— It— It— IHH CO ■COCOIOHOOCO ooNNQOOlCiOHHlNCO^^LOffl^NQOClCsO T— I T— I T—l T— I T— I T-H ^OOOOOt-Ht-It-It-it-It-It-It-It-It-ItHt-It-Ht-Ht-1 CO 00 (OSNoOfflOOHWfMCO^^iOOOhWXOOOHNM t — I i — I i — I i — I i — It — I t— It— It— It— It— I ^OOOOOOt-It-It-Ht-It-It-It-It-It-It-It-It-It--It-It-It-It-It-It--I ■COCO-TrJOCO^OOO^OOOTtiOX^OCOilOCO^OOO^O »©"Ot-COCOfflOOri(MNMrfliliC«itl>OOXQOOHIN '--rtOOOOOOT-lT-lT-lT-lT-HrHrHT-lT-HT-HT-lT-lrHT-lT-I^HT-lT-l-H iilO(5fflh(»QOOiOOHH«COM'QOO!fl!OH •■rtOOOOOOOT-lT-lT-HT-lT-lTHT-lT-HT-HT-lT-lT-lrHrHT-HT-lT-HT-* 15 WAGES TABLE.— Rate per Hour in Pence. tc 3! O H (M CO CO tH iC O N h OO ffi O H (N N C5 tH >0 O O N CO rH i— Ir-lrHrHr-lr-lr-lr-lr-lr-lr-l . HiN Ho» -c|(M HOlO'OOQOOHNa5CO^iO©l> T-lrH r-lr-lr-lr-(»CSC5OH(M(MM'*»O»OC0S00C005OHH(XlCOOOHH(M l— I rH r-l r-l r-l tH ,_| _- 1 rH rH ^HHHHHH(M!NMNNN(MIN — '[fT>l —"I'M —AIM —AIM — <|CM ~-l|IM WI'M -HUM OOMHOO^HQONHS^OC.iOMOt- rH r-l rH r-l rtHO»tChOOOOC30HH01COCO^i0 050l>00»ffiiOH r-lr-lT-lr-lr-ir-lr-lr-( t- j t-' =i)HHHHHHHH(M(N«iN(M(MN(M(M(M(NCi)(NOi|NIM 00 aCO-fiOmtDNNQOOOOHHNCOil^iOOCO^XOOO tH r-l i— I r- Ir-lrHrH-Hr-lT—l ^HHHHHHHHHHC^W(NCOQOH«M'*i!5®l>QOfflOHN "-(JOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOtHi-ii-i T3 . rsi^-iKNH^ -*n —i^ -** He* He* -*>* He* He* He* — ie* -ho. flOCOHHOO^SCOOONNOOlOiO^i^COCOMNHHC i-H tH t-I tH ( iiOOOHlM»^i.0OSC0C5OHNC0'*i0Si>(X)SCHN ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0,0 OOOOOrHrHT-i ■Saa0HOGJS»N»OH'+KC0(NHOOHO5".Q«l>O <* aiOOOHMM^iOOhOOCiOHfMCO^KSiOOSQOOOH t— It— 1 t—I i— It— It— It— It— It— Ii— IH ■^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCt-It-i ■OiOQOHOSQOI>«DiOT(ICONHOHOOcON©iaTH:OWH "V i»OOOnNW^ifl«ShOOOJOHHNCO-ti8COSOOJ > .OH ^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOrHrH -d . — l|"*l mi-Wr-lN-llrtl rOl""*-— 1|0»— IJTJH m|Tfrt|ic*-«-<|TJ< o aiOOOHNC0^i0OI>00G005OH(MC0'i'i0«0Nt>00KO «+JOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOt-i T3 . -ii^eolTjH'N -re* He* He* —kx Hoi He* He* -*n -«i Him Hei o tiiOOOHNO:^iO«ONNaOC5 0HNCOrH-+iO©l>Q033C '^©OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC COt-^ T3 Hd-iHHiNfflW t-i|t)— iiMrjcf -w—!C4Miv -"Ith-iunmi^ -i|THc*MiTr ^p* i&sart T3if. OOOO'OiCMHHOOOiS^WHHOJCOCOTHNHHOSt- T— 1 T— 1 T— 1 T— 1 7—1 6 a;OOOHNC0->*iCiO«0N(»C5OHHiNC0'*i.0©l>l>0CC. 7— It— It— It— It— IHr It— It— It-It— It— 1 "4JOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO i SiONoa)0'*NOooos>*«ooocisi'*«oo»®^N "0 o ioOOOHNKili9if.OhCOOOOHN«T)iiOiO«:NCO© =+iooooooooooooooooooooooooo (A (_ 3 o I HwwItrH (NW^iOONQOOOHINMioOWt-OOfflOHlMM rlHHHHHHHHHIMIMJtN 17 WAGES TABLE.— Kate per Hour in Pence. -oooooooocooooooooooooooooo ^HHHHHHr-HHHHHHHHH«vlCCSOH(MC0^aC0N00OOn(MC0^l0O •-i|'tfHC'tfOI"q 1 -il^H'MMI'* Hf - «N«|tj< HtHWMI* -ilt-HlfM.-tJlTT -w-UOjCCItT fl ■; iO i< CO CO W H O C H O O T. CC h S O iO i< O? CO IM H O O »!N00^U5C0Ni»QOOHWC0^mOi>00COH(MC0TH>O T-lr-(r-lr-li— li-lT-Hr-liHrHi-H ■CCHOClQOhCOiiOTHCONWOHOQCONOiO^COINHO ««a)CJOH!MMM-?)iiOCfiM»fflOHlMM^ cci-^-— i|i> m-rH'M-tl'* WTn(M-i w Mm-Hl'M-'!-* :<:|T7"-i|or-'|'<}< "CCO^ COlM H r- 1 O ?. CO O iQ ■* CO r- 1 O i— lOQOhfflQCONr l O '/!H(NC0^lOlO?0l>COOOHINC0^-+lff«9NCOu5OHC-1C0 ^rHi^l^i^T^T^rHrHrHrHrHTH^THi^THi^i-HT-!r-(rH®^WHOCo;No^coH0003Nffl^coHO xHHWCO^iOOSCOOOSVOHINOOTTHOlOOhCOCOHW ^^^^j-H^Hj-Ht—lr-tr-HT-HT-lT-lT-lT— It— ii— It-Ht- 1 r- It— IHr I iocooioocot-LocoHO !60HMCOCOTf(iOOh»©QOH(MCO^iOiOONCOC30H t— It—It-It-Ht— It— It—It— It— It— It—I "4r!rHT-lT-lT-lT-li-irHT-lT-lT^T-lT-lT-iT^T-lT-lTHrHT-lT-lT-lrHTHC^CM tCOC0!0^iMOOai(0^CNOO(»OTlC0CBOOH«C0^iniOONiX!C5O ^t-It-It-^t-Ii-ItHt-It-It-It-It-It-Ht-It^t-It-It-It-It-It-It-It^t-It-IC^ 18 WAGES TABLE.— Kate tkr Hour in Pence. •^'oooooooooooocooooooooooo 05 a'QOHIMM^OOSOOOSOHPieO^lOO^XOOHN ^l>h«e'Jffl g BiNC0C5OHNM-*)0t0N00OOHN0:-*i0C0h00G5O I— I I— 1 1— It— I 1— 1 1— l i— i i— ( T— 1 1— 1 I— 1 =ftNiN00ffiOH(MW-*iCOI>(X)05OH(MWTHi0at>aji ^00C)OH(MM-4(>IONQ0SOOHNC.:^m"N tftyiNNNIMiMNniMNlNINOgNWCOMWeJMMMmW 1 8HO010)t»Oifti(W(NHOHO».Q0l>ai3^MO o !BCO-*>OCOt-(»0!OHH(M«Tfl>aCt>COOOOH«o:T)i 5()(NNM!NN(M(N(N(N(MiNN(M(N(MM(M(NeOMe:cO«M T3 . ~v.n. ~*|OJ -iOi -IICI -HO* HOI -1|04 -H|(N -H10. 'BOONCOTJ..fflHOOOI>®'*MHOOfflSffl^COHO o isiMMtH>SO1>00OQOHN«^i0©OS00SOHNC0 ^(MNCTNOiKMNffKNNNlMNtNNNlNMNNCOMWM t5 . -Hl^-WNMI-* -i|-*-h|(NM|-* H-fr-'lfN^T -i|tJ— 1IXMH- -i|T~3«OtOt»Qt)QOH}qHMT(HO?ONMQOClOH q2iC3<^<^<^<^<^(OfflOHlM«TFiO»SMaOHP| 19 SIZES OF PAPERS. Drawing Papkrs. Inches. Emperor Antiquarian . . . Double Elephant Atlas ... Colombier Imperial Elephant Super Royal ... Royal Medium Demy ... Foolscap Imperial Royal ... Medium Double Foolscap Loan Papers. Account Book and Writing Papers. Atlas ... Imperial Super Royal Royal ... Medium Demy ... Foolscap (hand made) ,, (machine made) Double Foolscap Sheet and half Foolscap Sheet and third Foolscap Extra Large Post Large Post . Copy ... Post ... Pinched Post Pott ... Sheet and half Pott Bank of England Note . 72 X 48 - 53 X 31 . 40 X 27 . 34 X 26 . 341 X 24 . -30 X 22 . 28 X 23 • m X 191 . 24 X 19 . 22 X 171 . 20 X 15£ 1«* X 13| • 29£ X 211 ■ 23i X 18| . 21 X 17 . 25| X 161 RS. . 331 X 26£ . 30 X 22 27 X 194 . 24 X 194 22 X I7£ . 20 X 15| • 16f X 131 • m X 134 X 16f X 131 ■ 261 ■ -H . 22" X 131 . 22^ X 17§ . 2L X 16} . 204 X 16 . 1!) X 154 . 181 X 14-f . 15 X 121 . 221 X 12$ X 51 •■ H Medium Royal Double Foolscap Medium Copying Royal CopyiDg 20 Copyings, &c Printing Papers. Double Royal ,, Medium ,, Demy Copy , , Large Post ,, Crown ,, Post ., Foolscap ,, Pott Sheet and half Demy, square ,, ,, ,, usual „ ,, PoM; Elephant Imperial Super Royal ... Royal Pasting Royal Medium Demy ... Plate Papers. Antiquarian ... Double Imperial „ Elephant Atlas ... Colombier Imperial Super Royal ... Royal Medium Demy Foolscap Double Elephant Atlas ... Imperial Royal ... Demy Chart Papers. Inches. 22^ X 171 23£ X 19* 27 X 17 l&L X 22| 24| X 20f 40 X 25 37 X 23^ 35± X 22* 38 X 20 33 X 21 30 X 20 311 X 19* 27 X 17 25 X 15k 26^ X 22l 33f X 172 x 19f 23^ 30 X 23 30 X 22 28 X 20 25 X 20 24 X 191 231 X 18 23~ X 18 22^ X 17f 22i x 17£ 53 X 31 44 X 30 40 X 27 34 X 27 35 X 24 30 X 22 28 X 20 25 X 20 231 X 181 X 17f 22* 17" X 13| 40± X 27 34 X 26 30 X 22 25 x 20 221 x i7| 21 Cartridge Papers. Inches. Elephant Imperial Cartridge size.. Royal Demy ... Copy Double Demy „ Crown Continuous .. 28 X 23 .. 30 X 22 .. 26 X 21 .. 25 X 20 .. 221 X 17* .. 20" X 16* .. -m 2 X 22^ .. 30 X 20 54 inches wide Sugar and Grocers' Papers. Double Lump Titlers Double Hambro Extra Large Lump Single Lump ... Large Single ... Small „ Elephant Purple. No. 4 ... „ No. 3... Powder Loaf ... Single Hambro Large Double Loaf Small „ „ Royal Hand ... Double, 2 lbs.... „ 6 „ ... „ Small Hand Lumber Hand Middle Hand ... 30 36 34 29 27 29 28 26 26 24 23 21 25 24 2Si x 19 31" x 21 23 x 18 £2 X 16 Brown Papers. Casing... Doable Imperial „ Bag Cap „ 4 lbs. ... Large Imperial Imperial Havon Cap ... Bag Cap Kent Cap 48 4^ 46 45 40 31 32 29 26 24 99 22 Brown Papers (Wrappers). Inches. Plutarch . 36 X 26 Saddle Back . 45 x 36 Nicanee . 45 X 28 Quad Royal ... . 50 x 40 Double Nicanee . 56 x 45 Elephant . 34 x 27 Small Hands. Double Crown Small Hand . 30 x 20 Double Small Hand... . 29 x 20 55 55 !i . 23 x 17 . . , , , , . . . . 28 x 18 • ) 5 > 5 5 . 21 x 13 Single Small Hand ... . 20 x 15 Bloti ing Papers. Royal or Treasury ... . 24 x 19 Demy ... . 22£ x 17| Post . 19 x 154 Double Foolscap . -26J X 16J MlSCKLLA neods Papers. Drying Royal . 24 x 191 Tissue, Double Crown . 30 x 20 „ Demy . 22£ x 17f Middles . 32 x 22 . 30 x 20 ,, ... . 24 x 19 55 . 224 x 17* Filtering Papers . 24 x 19 Scribbling Demy . 224 x 17* Copying, Medium . 22| x 18} „ Double Foolscap . 27 x 17 Cardboards a nd Bristol Board s. Cardboards. I Jristol Boards Foolscap 17 X 13$ . 224 x 17* • . 15i X 124 Demy ... . 184 x 144 . 21 x 16* Medium — Royal 25 x 20 . . 224 x 18' . 251 x 18 Super Royal ... 27| X 20i . Imperial 30 x 224 . . 28| X 21 Double Crown 30 x 20 . — „ Foolscap 27 x 17 . — Note. — These sizes vary according to the maker. 23 Gla Zee Pressing B oards. luchei?. Large size, for dyers 36 x 24 Lon| Demy „ „ .. 16$ x *$ Foolscap „ „ .. 15$ X 1 i Millboards. Marks. Pott 17± x 14£ P. Foolscap 18$ X 144 F.C. Crown... 20 x 16$ C. Small Half Royal 20^ x IB . . S.H.R. Large „ „ 21 x 14 ... L.H.R. Short 21 x 17 S. Half Imperial 23$ x 16$ H.I. Small Half Imperial 22* X 15 S.H.I. Middle or Small Demy 22$ x 18$ M. Large Middle or Large Demy 23f X 18$ L.M. Large or Medium ... 24: x 19 L. Small Whole Royal... 25^ x 19$ S.R, I*rge » '» 26f x 20| L.R, Extra Royal ... 28$ x 21$ Ex. R Whole Imperial 32 x 22$ I. Long Thin 30 x 21 L.T. Atlas ... 30 X 2G A. Extra Atlas ... 32^ x 26$ ... Ex. A Long Royal ... 34 x 21 L.R. Colombier 36 x 24 COL. Portfolio 34 X 27 P.K. Great Eagle or Double Elephant 4') x 28 G.E. Emperor 44 x 30 E. Double Royal 46 x 21 D.R Long Colombier 49 x 24 L.C. Long Double Elephant 50 x 27$ L.D.E. Antiquarian ... 54 x 30 ANT. Extra Antiquarian ... 54 x 34 ... Ex. ANT. Stra.wboa.kds. Usual Sizes. 19 x 24 22 x 32 20 x 30 25 X 30 Note. — From 3 ozs. to 5 lbs in weight 25 GERMAN CLASSIFICATION AND SIZES OF PAPERS. Briefpapiere (Letter Papers). Gross Median ... ... ... ... ... 46 x 59 cm. Klein „ 44 x 56 „ Register 42 x 53 „ Schreibpaptere (Writing Papers). Median ... ... ... ... ... ... 45 x 58 cm. Klein Median 44 x 56 „ Register 42 x 53 „ Klein Register 41 x 51 „ Gross Propatri.i ... 37 X 45 „ Propatria 34 x 43 „ Schulformat 3-t x 42 „ Buch and Zeichenpapiere (Book Papers). Atlas 83 x 118 cm. Gross Adler 70 x 107 „ Adler 62 x 90 ., Imperial 57 x 80 „ Super Regal 54 x 70 „ Regal 49 x 64 „' Klein Regal ... 47 x 60 „ Median ... 45 x 58 „ Gross Propatria ... ,.. ... ... 37 X 45 „ Kupferdruckpapiere (Copperplate Papers). Colombier ... ... ... ... ... 60 x 90 cm. Jesus 52 x 73 „ Regal 49 x H4 „ Median 45 x 58 „ Notendruckpapiere and Notenschreibpapiere. Super Regal Klein „ Druckpapiere (Printing Papers). Gross Lexikon... Lexikon Hochquart Quart ... Gross Duodez ... Gross Octav und Sedez Octav und Klein Duodez Klein Quart Klein Octav Leipsiger Seidenpapiere (Tissue Papers). Alt Super Regal Copir Alt Regal Cigaretten Alt Gr. Median ... Goldschlag Alt Kl. Regal 54 x 70 cm, 47 X 60 » )• 54 x 70 cm. 49 x 64 j? 47 x 65 J5 47 x 60 » 47 x 58 45 x 58 }) 43 x 52 42 x 52 41 x 51 ?J 37 x 49 » 50 x 76 cm. 50 x 60 J5 48 x 58 40 X 50 „ 26 Farbige Umschlagpapiere (Coloured Wrapping Papers). Regal 49 x 64 cm. Gro=s Median ... ... ... 46 x 59 „ Affichenpapiere (Thin roster Paper). Farbige 65 x 94 cm. Weisse ... ... ... ... 45 x 73 „ Skips 42 x 60 „ Papers to be used for Certificates, Documents, &c. , are as follows : — 37 x 46 cm. Weight 19 Kilos. p.l ,000 Sheets. 41 x51 „ Bienenkerb ., Klein Median Gross „ Roj'al ... Superroval . , Imperial Colombier 45 x58 49^x61 50 x70 55 x76 63.^ x 88 3o 42 50 64 90 120 Double Elephant 67 x 103 Extra Formate (Extra Sizes). Kupferdruck Colombier „ Jesus Druckpapiere Hochquart „ Gross Duodez „ Octav und Duodez „ Leipsiger Afficheii Gross ... „ Klein ... Blau, Rosa, Halbweiss, and Grau Papier 1 Pfund Beutil Doppeldiiten Extra Regal ^ Pfund Beutel Diiten Roth Losch Carton 60 x 52 x 47 x 47 X 43 x 37 x 65 x 45 x 50 x 90 cm. 73 „ 65 „ 58 „ 52 „ 49 ,. 94 ,. 73 ., 76 ,, 75 „ 66 „ 63 „ 45 „ 88 „ 63 „ 60 „ 59 „ 60 „ 58 ,, No. 1 2 3 4 Neue Papiernormalformate (New Normal Sizes). No. . 34 x 43 cm. 7 . 36 x 45 „ X . 38 x 48 „ 9 . 40 x 50 „ 10 . 42 x 53 „ 11 . 33 x 42 „ 12 44 x 46 X 48 x 50 x 56 cm. 59 „ 64 „ 65 „ 54 x 68 57 X 78 27 TABLE Showing the Equivalent Weights per ream of PRINTING PAPERS. Demy D.F 'cap Royal S. Koyal Dbl. Cr. Imperial D.De my 17£x22£ 17 > 27 20 X 25 20 X 28 20 > ,30 22 > 30 221 x 35 lbs. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. 11 12 13 14 4 15 10 16 12 18 7 22 12 14 15 8 17 1 18 4 20 1 24 13- 15 2 16 13 18 8 19 12 21 12 26 14 16 5 18 2 19 14 21 5 23 7 28 15 17 7 19 7 21 5 22 13 25 2 30 16 18 10 20 11 22 12 24 5 26 13 32 17 19 13 22 24 3 25 13 28 7 34 18 20 15 23 5 25 10 27 6 30 2 36 19 22 2 24 10 27 1 28 15 31 13 38 20 23 5 25 14 28 7 30 7 33 8 40 21 24 7 27 3 29 14 31 15 35 2 42 22 25 10 28 7 31 5 33 8 36 13 44 23 26 13 29 12 32 12 35 1 38 8 46 24 27 15 31 1 34 3 36 9 40 3 48 25 29 2 32 6 35 8 38 1 41 13 50 26 30 5 33 10 36 15 39 9 1 43 8 52 27 31 7 34 15 38 6 41 2 1 45 3 54 28 32 10 36 4 39 13 42 10 46 14 56 29 33 13 37 8 41 4 44 2 48 8 58 30 34 15 38 13 42 10 45 11 50 3 60 31 36 2 40 2 44 1 47 3 51 14 62 32 37 4 41 7 45 8 48 11 53 9 64 33 38 7 42 11 46 15 50 4 55 4 66 34 39 10 44 48 6 51 12 56 15 68 35 40 12 45 5 49 12 53 5 58 10 70 36 41 15 46 9 51 2 54 13 60 5 72 37 43 1 47 14 52 9 56 5 61 15 74 38 44 4 49 3 54 57 14 63 10 76 39 45 7 50 8 55 7 59 6 65 5 78 40 46 9 51 12 56 14 60 14 67 80 28 TABLE Showing the Equivalent Weights per Ream of WRITING PAPERS. L. Post Pott E'cap P. Post Post Demy Med'ir Royal m x 21 12^X15 I3jxl6-J- \Uxl8h 15i x 19 15* X 20 17^x22 19x24 lbs. lbs. oz. Ibs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. 11 5 15 6 15 8 8 9 3 9 13 12 8 14 7 12 6 7 7 9 9 4 10 10 11 13 10 15 12 13 7 8 3 10 1 10 14 11 10 14 12 17 2 14 7 9 8 13 10 13 11 11 12 8 15 14 IS 7 15 8 1 9 7 11 9 12 9 13 6 17 19 12 16 8 10 10 1 12 6 13 14 5 18 3 21 1 17 9 3 10 11 13 2 14 4 15 3 19 5 22 18 9 11 11 5 13 15 15 1 16 1 20 7 23 11 19 10 4 11 15 14 11 15 15 17 21 9 25 20 10 13 12 9 15 7 16 12 17 14 22 11 26 5 21 11 7 13 3 16 4 17 9 18 12 23 13 27 10 22 11 14 13 13 17 18 6 19 10 24 15 28 15 23 12 7 14 7 17 13 19 4 20 9 26 2 30 4 24 13 15 2 18 9 20 1 21 7 27 4 31 9 25 13 8 15 12 19 5 20 15 22 5 28 6 32 14 26 14 1 16 6 20 2 21 12 23 4 29 8 34 3 27 14 9 17 20 14 22 10 24 2 30 11 35 8 28 15 2 17 10 21 10 23 7 25 31 13 36 14 29 15 11 18 4 22 7 24 4 25 15 32 15 38 3 30 16 3 18 11 23 3 25 1 26 13 34 1 39 8 31 16 12 19 8 24 25 15 27 11 35 3 40 13 32 17 5 20 3 24 12 26 12 28 10 36 « 42 2 33 17 13 20 13 25 8 27 10 29 8 37 8 43 7 34 18 6 21 7 26 5 28 7 30 6 38 10 44 12 35 18 15 22 1 27 1 29 4 31 5 39 12 46 1 36 19 7 22 11 27 14 30 1 32 3 40 14 47 6 37 20 23 5 28 10 30 15 33 1 42 48 11 38 20 8 23 15 29 6 31 13 34 1 43 2 50 39 21 1 24 9 30 3 32 10 34 14 44 5 51 5 40 21 10 25 4 30 15 33 7 35 12 45 7 52 10 1 29 TABLE • Showing Equivalent Sizes and Weights of - WRAPPING PAPERS. Size. lbs. lbs. ll.s. lbs. lbs. >b. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 36x45 30 35 10-3 40 11-8 45 13-3 50 14-8 55 16-2 60 17-7 65 19-2 70 20-7 75 22*2 80 20x24 8-8 23-6 20x25 9-2 10-8 12-3 13-8 15-4 16-9 18-5 20 21-6 23-1 24-6 21x26 10-1 11-8 13-4 15-1 16-8 18-5 20-2 21-8 23-5 25-2 26-9 20x30 11-1 12-9 14-8 16-7 18-5 20-3 22-2 24 25-8 27-6 29 4 1 21x31 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2Q 28 30 32 20x28 10-3 12 13-8 15*5 17-2 18-9 20-7 22*4 24-1 25-9 27-6 224X2'.' 12 14 16-1 18-1 201 22-1 24-1 26-1 28-1 30-2 32-2 22 x 32 13 15-1 17-3 19-5 21-6 23-8 26 28-1 30-3 32-5 34-6 21x34 13-2 154 17-6 19-8 22 24-2 26-4 28-6 30-8 33 35-2 22 x 35 14-2 16-6 19 21-3 23-7 26 28-3 30-8 33-2 35-6 38 23x34 14-4 16-8 19-2 21-6 24-1 26-5 28-9 31-3 33-7 36-1 38-5 24x30 13-3 15-5 17-7 20 22 '2 24-4 26-6 28-9 31-1 33-3 35-5 24x32 14-2 16-5 18-9 21-2 23-6 26 28-3 30-7 33-1 35-5 37-9 24x36 15-9 18-5 21-2 23-9 26-6 29-2 32 34-6 37-3 40 42-6 24x40 17-7 20-7 23-7 26-6 29-6 32-6 35-5 38-5 41-5 44-4 47-4 26x36 17-3 20-2 23-1 26 28-8 31-7 34-6 37-5 40-4 43-3 46-2 27x34 17 19-8 22-6 25-4 28-3 31-1 34 36-8 39-6 42-5 45-3 28x45 23-3 27-2 31 -1 35 38-8 42-7 46-7 50-5 54-5 58 62 29x44 23-6 27-5 31-5 35-4 39-3 48 -3 47-2 51-1 55*1 59 63 29x45 24-1 28-1 32-2 36-2 40-2 44-3 48-3 52-3 56-3 60-4 644 30 X 38 21 24-5 28-1 31-6 35-1 38-7 42-2 45-7 49-2 52-7 56-3 30 x 46 25*5 29-7 34 38-2 42-5 46-7 51 55-2 59-5 63-7 68 31x46 26-4 30-8 35-2 39-6 44 48-4 52-8 57-2 61-6 66 70-4 34x36 22 -li 26-4 30-2 34 37-7 41-5 '5-3 49-1 52-9 56-7 60-4 36x36 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 36x46 30-6 35-7 40-8 46 51-1 56-2 HI -3 66-4 71-5 76-6 81-7 36x48 32 37-3 42-6 47-9 53-3 58-6 (J4 69-3 74-6 80 85-3 38x48 33-8 39-3 45 50-6 56-3 619 67-5 73-1 78-8 84-4 90 40x48 35-5 41-4 47-4 53-3 59-3 65-2 71-1 77 83 88-9 94-8 40x50 36-8 43-2 49-3 55-4 61-6 67-7 74 80 86-2 92-3 98-4 45x56 46-6 54-4 62-2 70 77-7 85-5 93-3 101 109 116 124 30 TABLE Showing Equivalent Sizes and Weighls of WRAPPING PAPERS-continued. Size. lbs. lbs. lb.=. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. |lbs. lbs. 36x45 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 20x24 25-1 26-6 28-1 29-6 31-1 32-5 34 35*5 37 38-540 41-4 20x25 26-2 27-7 29-3 30-8 32-3 33-9 35-4 37 38-5 40 41-6 43-2 21x20 28-5 30-2 32 33-6 35-3 37 38-7 40-4 42 43-6 45-3 47-1 20x30 31-3 33-3 35-2 37 38-8 40-7 42-5 44-3 46-2 48 49-8 51-6 21x31 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 20x28 29-3 31 32-7 34-5 36-1 37-8 39-5 41-4 431 44-8 46-5 48-2 22|X29 34-2 36-2 38-2 40-2 42-2 44-3 46-3 48-3 50 52 54 56-5 22x32 36-8 39 41-2 434 45-5 47-6 19-8 52 54-1 56-258-4 60-6 21x34 37-4 39-6 41-8 44 46-2 48-4 50-6 52-8 55 57-2 59-4 61-6 22x35 40-3 42-7 4 .VI 47-6 49-8 52-2 54-6 57 59-3 61-764-1 66-4 23x34 40-9 43-3 4.V7 48-2 50-6 53 55-4 57-8 60-2 62-6 65 67-4 24x30 37-7 39-9 42-2 44-4 46-6 48-8 51-1 53-3 55 - 5 '^7-760 62-2 24x32 40-2 42-6 45 47-4 49-7 52-1 54 "5 56-9 59-2 61-664 66-3 24 x 36 45-3 48 50-6 53-3 56 58-6 61-3 64 66-6 69-3 72 74-6 24x40 50 53 56 59 62 65 68 71 74 77 80 83 26x36 49-1 52 54-8 57-7 60-6 63-5 66-4 69/3 72-2 75-1 77-9 80-8 27x34 48-1 51 53-8 56-6 59-5 62-3 65-6 68 70-8 73-6 76-5 79-3 28x45 66 70 73-5 77-5 81-5 8 5 - 5 89-5 93 97 101 105 109 29x44 66-9 70-8 74-8 78-7 82-6 86-6 90-5 94-5 98-4 102 106 110 29x45 68-4 72-5 76-5 80-5 84-5 88-6 92-6 96-7 100 104 108 113 30x38 59-8 63-3 66-8 70-3 73-8 77-3 80-9 84-4 87-9 91-4 95 98-5 30x46 72-2 76-5 80-7 85-1 89-3 93-5 97-7 102 106 110 114 119 31x46 74-8 79-2 83-6 88 92-4 96-8 101 105 110 114 119 123 34x36 64-2 68 71-8 75-5 79-3 83-1 86-9 90-7 94-5 98-2 102 106 36x36 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 36x46 86-8 92 97-1 102 107 112 117 122 127 132 138 143 36x48 90-6 96 101 106 112 117 122 128 133 138 144 149 38x48 95-6 101 107 112 118 124 129 135 140 146 152 157 40x48 100 106 112 118 124 130 136 142 148 154 160 166 40 x 50 104 110 117 123 129 135 141 148 154 160 166 172 45x56 132 140 147 155 163 171 179 186 194 202 210 218 31 TABLE Showing Equivalent Sizes and Weights of WRAPPING PAPERS-continued. Size. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 36x45 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 20x24 42-9 44-4 45-9 47-3 48-8 50-3 51-8 53-3 54-8 56-3 57-8 59-3 20x25 44-7 46-2 47-8 49-3 50-9 524 53-9 55-5 57 58-6 60-1 61-6 21x26 48-7 50-4 52-1 53-8 55-3 57 58-6 60-4 62-2 64 65-6 67-3 20x30 53-3 55-2 57 58-8 60-7 62-6 64-6 66-6 68-5 70-3 72-2 74 21x31 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 20x28 50 51-7 534 55-2 56-9 58-6 60-3 62 63-7 65-4 67-2 69 22^X29 58-5 60-5 62-5 64-5 66-5 68-5 70-5 72-5 74-5 76-5 78-5 80-5 22x32 62-8 65 67-1 69-3 71-5 73-6 75-8 78 80-2 824 84-6 86-8 21x34 63-8 66 68-2 70-4 72-6 74-8 77 79-2 81-4 83-6 85-8 88 22x35 68-8 71-2 73-6 76 78-3 80-7 83-1 85-5 87-9 90-3 92-6 95 23x34 69-8 72-3 74-7 77-1 79-5 81-9 84-5 86-9 89-3 91-7 93-9 96-4 24x30 644 66-6 68-8 71 73-3 75-5 77-7 79-9 82-2 84-4 86-6 88-8 24x32 68-7 71-1 73-5 75-9 78-2 80-6 83 85-4 87-8 90-2 92-5 94-8 24x36 77.3 80 82-6 85-3 88 90-6 93-3 96 98-6 101 104 106 24x40 86 89 91-5 94-5 97-5 100 103 106 109 112 115 118 26x36 83-7 86-6 89-5 92-4 95-3 98-2 101 104 107 109 110 111 27 x 34 82-1 85 87-8 90-6 93-5 96-3 991 102 105 108 110 113i 155 28x45 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 143 147 151 29x44 114 118 122 126 130 134 138 141 145 149 153 157 29x45 117 121 125 129 133 137 141 145 149 153 157 161 30x38 102 105 109 112 116 119 123 126 130 133 137 140 30x46 123 127 131 136 140 144 148 153 157 161 165 170 31x46 127 132 136 141 145 149 154 158 163 167 171 176 34x36 109 113 117 121 124 128 132 136 140 143 147 151 36 x 36 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 152 156 160 36 x 46 148 153 158 163 168 173 178 184 189 194 199 204 36x48 154 160 165 170 176 181 186 192 197 202 207 213 38x48 163 169 174 180 185 191 197 202 208 214 219 225 40x48 172 178 183 189 195 201 207 213 219 224 230 236 40x50 179 185 191 197 203 209 215 222 228 234 240 246 45x56 225 233 241 249 256 264 272 280 287 295 303 311 32 COST TABLE Showing Prices per Ton from Id. to 3^d. per lb., less Discount. Id. lid. Ud. l|d. Hd. lfd. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Net 9 6 S 10 10 11 13 4 12 16 8 14 15 3 4 HZ 9 4 4 10 7 U 11 10 5 12 13 5* 13 16 6 14 19 61 2i% 9 2 10 4 9 11 7 6 12 10 3' 13 13 14 15 9 mx 8 19 8 10 2 1* 11 4 7 12 7 0* 13 9 6 14 11 11* 5 X 8 17 4 9 19 6" 11 1 8 1 i 3 10" 13 6 14 8 2" 6i% 8 15 9 16 10* 10 18 9 12 71 13 2 6 14 4 41 nx 8 12 8 9 14 3~ 10 15 10 U 17 5 12 19 14 7" 8|% 8 10 4 9 11 7* 10 12 11 11 14 2* 12 15 6 13 16 9* 10 x 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 0" 12 12 13 13 0" Ui% 8 5 8 9 6 41 10 7 1 11 7 9* 12 8 6 13 9 2* i2i% 8 3 4 9 3 9 10 4 2 114 7 12 5 13 5 5 13|% 8 10 9 1 Hi 10 1 3 11 1 41 12 1 6 13 1 7h 15 % 7 17 8 8 18 6 9 18 4 10 18 2 11 18 12 17 10" lfd. l|d. 2d. 2|d. 2|d. 2fd. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s d. Net 16 6 8 17 10 18 13 4 19 16 8 21 22 3 4 li% 16 2 7 17 5 7* 18 8 8 19 11 8i 20 14 9 21 17 91 2i% 15 18 6 17 1 3 18 4 19 6 9 20 9 6 21 12 3 3|% 15 14 5 16 16 10i 17 19 4 19 1 9| 20 4 3 n 6 81 5 % 15 10 4 16 12 6 17 14 8 18 16 10 19 19 21 1 2 6i% 15 6 3 16 8 U 17 10 18 11 10* 19 13 9 20 15 7* V| % 15 2 2 16 3 9 17 5 4 18 6 11" 19 8 6 20 10 l" 8|% 14 18 1 15 19 41 17 8 18 1 1H 19 3 3 20 4 6* 10 % 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 0" 18 18 19 19 0" "1% 14 9 11 15 10 7* 16 11 4 17 12 OJ 18 12 9 19 13 SI 12J% 14 5 10 15 6 3 16 6 8 17 7 1 18 7 6 19 7 11 mx 14 1 9 15 1 10i 16 2 17 2 u 18 2 3 19 2 U[ 15 % 13 17 8 14 17 6 15 17 4 16 17 2 17 17 18 16 10" 2^d. 2|d. 2|d. 2fd. 3d. aid. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Net 23 6 8 24 10 I) 25 13 4 •/6 16 8 28 29 3 4 H% 23 10 24 3 10* 25 6 n 26 9 m 27 13 28 16 Oh 2k X 22 15 23 17 9" 25 6 26 3 3 27 6 28 8 9" 3|% 22 9 2 23 11 7* 24 It 1 25 16 6i. 26 19 28 1 ?! 5 % 22 3 4 23 5 6 24 7 8 25 9 10 26 12 9 27 14 2" 61% 21 17 6 22 19 4£ 24 1 3 25 3 U 26 5 27 6 101 nx 21 11 8 22 13 3 23 14 10 24 16 5 25 18 26 19 7" 8f% 21 5 10 22 7 1* 23 8 5 24 9 8* 25 11 26 12 3+ 10 % 21 22 1 0" 23 2 24 3 25 4 26 5 0" 1H% 20 14 2 21 14 101 22 15 7 23 16 31 24 17 25 17 8! 12£% 20 8 4 21 8 9 22 9 2 23 9 7 24 10 25 10 5 13|% 20 2 6 21 2 7 A 22 2 9 23 2 101 24 3 25 3 1* 15 % 19 10 8 20 16 6 21 16 4 22 16 2 23 16 24 15 10 33 COST TABLE Sh owing Prices per Ton from 3^d. to 5d. per lb., less Discount. HA. 3|d. HA. 3fd. 3|d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Net 30 6 8 31 10 32 13 4 33 16 8 35 il% 29 19 1 31 2 H 32 5 2 33 8 21 34 11 3 2*% 29 11 6 30 14 3 31 17 32 19 9 34 2 6 3|% 29 3 11 30 6 4* 31 8 10 32 11 Zh 33 13 9 5 % 28 16 4 29 18 6" 31 8 32 2 10 33 5 6i% 28 8 9 29 10 7* 30 12 6 31 14 41 32 16 3 . 7*% 28 2 2 29 2 9* 30 4 4 31 5 11- 32 7 6 8|% 27 13 7 2S 14 101 29 16 2 SO 17 51 31 18 9 10 % 27 6 28 7 0" 29 8 30 9 31 10 111% 26 18 5 27 19 1*1 28 19 10 30 6A 31 1 3 12*% 26 10 10 27 11 3 28 11 8 29 12 r 39 12 6 13f % 26 3 3 27 3 41 28 3 6 29 3 71 30 3 9 15 % 25 15 8 26 15 6 27 15 4 28 15 2 29 15 HA. id. HA- HA. 4|d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Net 36 3 4 37 6 S . 38 10 39 13 4 40 16 8 11% 35 14 31 36 17 4 38 41 39 3 5 40 6 51 2*% 35 5 3 36 8 37 10 9" 38 13 6 39 16 3 3|% 34 16 2£ 35 18 * 8 37 1 11 38 3 7 39 6 0* 5 % 34 7 2 35 9 4 36 11 6 37 13 8 38 15 10 HX 33 18 1J 35 36 1 101 37 3 9 38 5 71 HX 33 9 1 34 10 8 35 12 3 36 13 10 37 15 5 8|% 33 01 34 1 4 35 2 71 36 3 11 37 5 21 10 % 32 11 33 12 31 13 35 14 36 15 111% 32 1 111 33 2 8 34 3 41 35 4 1 36 4 91 i2i% 31 12 ll" 32 13 4 33 13 9 34 14 2 35 14 7 13|% 31 3 101 32 4 33 4 11 34 4 3 35 4 41 15 % 30 14 l(f 31 14 S 32 14 6 33 14 4 34 14 2 4|d. 4£d. 4|d. HA. 5d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Net 42 43 3 4 44 6 8 45 10 46 13 4 H% 41 9 6 42 12 61 43 15 7 44 18 71 46 1 8 21% 40 19 42 1 9 43 4 6 44 7 3 45 10 3|% 40 8 6 41 10 m 42 13 5 43 15 101 44 18 4 5 % 39 IS 41 2' 42 2 4 43 4 6 44 6 8 61% 39 7 6 40 9 41 41 11 3 42 13 11 43 15 71% 3S 17 39 18 7 41 2 42 1 9 43 3 4 8|% 38 6 6 39 7 91 40 9 1 41 10 41 42 11 8 10 X 37 16 38 17 39 18 40 19 42 111% 37 5 6 38 6 21 39 6 11 40 7 71 41 8 4 12*% 36 15 37 15 5 38 15 10 39 16 3 40 16 8 13|% 36 4 6 37 4 71 38 4 9 39 4 101 40 5 15 % 35 14 36 13 10 37 13 8 38 13 6 39 13 4 34 +3 "g h rG CO u 8 ft CU pel lSCOI>C»0)OH(MM^iO©l>COftOH C0C0>C0C0C0-***<^'*<'*^<'*l~*l'*^O»0 o i—i eg O CO J3 cc u cu ft to c "eS hi HNWhCOQfpOHNNOipOcpcp ^t^^^cbr^ibcbcMcbcbcbcbo^t 1 --^-' THlONCOOJHIMCOiOCONOJOWCO^eO O (MCDO^CXXMOO^COiMCOO'+CCCNcfi lOCOCOOOWCOOCONffiOCMM-f CNCM?ICNCOCO:OCOCOCOCO-*-*'*-*-* T )< o 00 ^OcpcM^cpcpipTHcpoNcpip>^cpcqao 'r. 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COMPARATIVE DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE As indicated by the different thermometers, viz. : — Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur. (C. = Centigrade ; E. = Fahrenheit ; R. = Reaumur.) Fahrenheit to Centigrade f (F.°— 3->) = C.° Centigrade to Fahrenheit y + 32 = F. Reaumur to Fahrenheit -^ + 32 = F. Fahrenheit to Reaumur £ (F.°-32) = R.° Centigrade to Reaumur y = R. Reaumur to Centigrade — = 0. Degrees. Degrees. Fah. Centi. Re. Fah. Centi. Re. 212 211 210 209 208 207 206 205 204 203 ^02 201 200 199 198 197 196 195 194 193 192 191 190 189 188 100 99-44 98-89 98-33 97-78 97-22 96-67 96-11 95-55 95 94-44 93-89 93-33 92-78 92-22 91-67 91-11 90-55 90 89-44 88-89 88-33 87-78 87-22 86-67 80 79-56 79-11 78-67 78-22 77-78 77-33 76-89 76-44 76 75-56 75-11 74-67 74-22 73-78 73-33 72-89 72-44 72 71-56 71-11 70-67 70-22 69-78 69-33 187 186 185 184 183 182 181 180 179 178 177 176 175 174 173 172 171 170 169 168 167 166 165 164 163 86-11 85-55 85 84-44 83-89 83-33 82-78 82-22 81-67 81-11 80-55 80 79-44 78-89 78-33 77-78 77-22 76-67 76-11 75-55 75 74-44 73-89 73-33 72-78 68-89 68-44 68 67-56 67-11 66-67 66-22 65-78 65-33 64-89 64-44 64 63-56 63-11 62-67 62-22 61-78 61-33 60-89 60-44 60 59-56 59-11 58-67 58-22 5+ COMPARATIVE DEGREES OE TEMPERATURE— continued. Degrees. Degrees. Fah. Centi. Re. Fab. Centi. Re. 162 72-22 57-78 127 52-78 42-22 161 71-67 57-33 126 52-22 41-78 160 71-11 56-89 125 51-67 41-33 159 70-55 56-44 124 51-11 40-89 158 70 56 123 50-55 40-44 157 69-44 55-56 122 50 40 156 68-89 55-11 121 49-44 39-56 155 68-33 54-67 120 48-89 39-11 154 67-78 54-22 119 48-33 38-67 153 67-22 53-78 118 47-79 38-22 152 66-67 53-33 117 47-22 37-78 151 66-11 52-89 116 46-67 - 37-33 150 65-55 52-4 4 115 46-11 36-89 149 65 52 114 45-55 36-44 148 64-44 51 -56 113 45 36 147 63-89 51-11 112 44-44 35-56 146 63-33 50-67 111 43-89 35-11 145 62-78 50-22 110 43-33 34-67 144 62-22 49-78 109 42-78 34-22 143 61-67 49 33 108 42-22 33-78 142 61-11 48-89 107 41-67 33-33 141 60-55 48-44 106 41-11 32-89 140 60 48 105 40-55 32-44 139 59-44 47-56 104 40 32 138 58-89 47-11 103 39-44 31-56 137 58-33 46-67 102 38-89 31-11 136 57-78 46-22 101 38-33 30-67 135 57-22 45-78 100 37-78 30-22 134 56-67 45-33 99 37-22 29-78 133 56-11 44-89 98 36-67 29-33 132 55-55 44-44 97 36-11 28-89 131 55 44 96 35-55 28-44 130 54-44 43-56 95 35 28 129 53-89 43-11 94 34-44 27-56 128 53-33 42-67 93 33-89 27-11 58 COMPARATIVE DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE — conti wed. Degrees. Degrees. Fah. Centi. Re. Fah. Centi. Re. 92 33-33 26-67 61 16-11 12-89 91 32-78 26-22 CO 15-55 12-44 90 32-22 25-78 59 15 12 89 3167 25 33 58 14-44 11-56 88 31-11 24-89 57 13-89 11-11 87 30-55 24-44 56 13-33 10-67 86 30 24 55 12-78 10-22 85 29-44 23-56 54 12-22 9-78 84 28-89 23-11 53 11-67 9-33 83 28-33 22'67 52 11-11 8-89 82 27*78 22-22 51 10-55 8-44 81 27*22 21-78 10 10 8 80 26-67 21 -33 49 9 44 7-56 79 26-11 20-89 48 8-89 7-11 78 25-55 20-44 47 8-33 6-67 77 25 20 46 7-78 6-22 76 24-44 19-56 45 7-22 5-78 75 23-89 19-11 44 6-67 5-33 74 23-33 18-67 43 6-11 4-89 73 22-78 18-22 42 5-55 4-44 72 22-22 17-78 41 5 4 71 21-67 17-33 40 4-44 3-56 70 21-11 16-89 39 3-89 3-11 69 20-55 16-44 38 3-33 2-67 68 20 16 37 2-78 2-22 67 19-44 15-56 36 2-22 1-78 66 18-89 15-11 35 1-67 1-33 65 18-33 14-67 34 I'll 0-89 64 17-78 14-^2 33 0-55 0"44 63 17-22 13-78 32 62 16-67 13-33 HEATING WITH STEAM. A British thermal unit (B.T.U.) is that amount of heat required to raise 1 lb. of water at its maximum density (39-1° Fah.) through one degree Fahrenheit. The capacity of a bo ly for heat is measured by determining the number of units of heat required to raise that body one degree of temperature. The specific heat of a body is the ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise that body one degree to the quantity required to raise an equal weight of water one degree. The following table gives the specific heats of various bodies : — TABLE OF SPECIFIC HEATS. Specific Heat. Specific Heat. Metals. Cast Iron ... 0-1298 Liquids. Water Caustic Lye — 1-000 Wrought Iron ... 0-1138 1-07S0 Sp. Gr. ... 0-919 Zinc 0-0955 1-0480 „ „ .. 0-942 Copper 0-0951 1-0216 „ „ ... 1-0124 „ „ ... 0-^68 0983 Brass • 0-0939 Earths, &c. Tin 0-05(39 Brick (burntclayj 0-185 Lead 0-0314 Gases (under constant pressure). Woods, &c. Pine ... 0-650 Air Oxygen Nitrogen 0-2379 0-2182 0-2440 Oak 0-570 Carbonic Acid ... 0-2164 Birch 0-480 ,, Oxide . 0-2479 Esparto Straw, Sulphurous Acid (SO a ) 01543 &c. (about) .. 0-550 Water Vapour ... 0-4750 Latent heat is the quantity of heat which must be communi- cated to a body in a given state, in order to convert it into another state without changing its temperature. 57 PROPERTIES OE SATURATED STEAM. Absolute Pressure 1 Tempera- ture of Boiling Point in Degrees F. Total Heat in Thermal Units per lb. of Steam from 0° F. Weight of 1 Cubic Feet of Steam Pressure injfo. per Sq. In. above atmo- sphere. Cubic Foot of Steam in lb. from 1 Cubic Foot of Water at 62° F. 1 102-1 1144-5 •0030 20582 2 — 126-3 1151-7 •0058 10721 3 — 141-6 1156-6 •0085 7322 4 — 153-1 1160-1 •0112 5583 5 — 162-3 1162-9 •0138 4527 6 — 170-2 iu;5-3 •0163 3813 7 — 176-9 1167-3 •0189 3298 8 — 182 -9 1169-2 •0214 2909 9 — 188-3 1170-8 •0239 2604 10 — 193-3 1172-3 •0264 2358 11 — 197 8 1173-7 •0289 2157 12 -- 202-0 1175-0 •0314 1986 13 — 205-9 1176-2 •0338 1842 14 — 209-6 1177-3 •0362 1720 14-7 212-0 1178-1 •0380 1642 15 0-3 213-1 1178-4 •0387 1610 16 1-3 216-3 1179-4 •0411 1515 17 2-3 219-6 1180-3 •0435 1431 18 3-3 222-4 1181-2 •0459 1357 19 4-3 225-3 1182-1 •0483 1290 20 5-3 228-0 1182-9 •0507 1229 21 6-3 230-6 1183-7 •0531 1174 22 7-3 233-1 1184-5 •0555 1123 23 8-3 235-5 1185-2 •0580 1075 24 9-3 237-8 1185-9 •0601 1036 25 10-3 240-1 1186-6 •0625 996 26 113 242-3 1187-3 •0650 958 27 12 3 244-4 1187-8 0673 926 28 13-3 246-4 1188-4 •0896 895 29 14-3 24* -4 1189-L •0719 866 30 15-3 250-4 1189-8 •0743 838 31 16-3 252-2 1190-4 •0766 813 32 17-3 254-1 1190 9 •0789 789 33 183 255-9 1191-5 •0812 767 34 19-3 257-6 1192-0 •0835 746 35 20-3 259-3 1192-5 •0858 72fi 36 21-3 260-9 1193 •0881 707 58 Properties of Saturated Steam— continued. Absolute Pressure Pressure above Tempera- ture or Boiling Point in Degrees F. Total Heat w in Thermal p Units per ^ lb. of Steam OI from 0° F. ght of 1 Oic Foot Cubic Feet of Steam from 1 Cubic in lb. per Sq. In. atmo- sphere. Steam nib. Foot of Water at 62° F. 37 223 262-6 1193-5 0^05 688 38 23-3 264-2 1194 0929 671 39 24.3 265-8 1194-5 0952 655 40 25 3 267-3 1194-9 0974 640 41 26-3 268-7 1195-4 0996 625 42 27-3 270-2 1195-8 1020 611 43 28-3 271-6 1196-2 1042 598 44 29-3 273-0 1196-6 1065 585 45 30-3 274-4 1197-1 1089 572 46 31-3 275-8 1197-5 1111 561 47 32-3 277-1 1197-9 1133 550 48 33-3 278-4 1198-3 1156 539 49 34-3 279-7 1198-7 1179 529 50 35-3 281-0 1199-1 1202 518 51 36 3 282-3 1199-5 1224 509 52 37-3 283-5 1199-9 1246 500 53 38-3 284-7 1200-3 1269 49 L 54 39-3 285-9 1200-6 1291 482 55 40-3 • 287-1 1201-0 1314 474 56 41-3 288-2 1201-3 1336 466 57 42-3 289-3 1201-7 1364 458 58 43-3 290-4 1202-0 1380 451 59 44-3 291-6 1202-4 1403 444 60 45-3 292-7 1202-7 1425 437 61 46 -3 293-8 1203-1 1447 430 62 47 3 294-8 1203 4 1469 424 63 48-3 295-9 1203-7 1493 417 64 49-3 296-9 1204-0 1516 411 65 50-3 298-0 12043 1538 405 66 51-3 299-0 1204-6 1560 399 67 52-3 300-0 1204-9 !583 393 68 53-3 300-9 1205-2 16<>5 388 69 54-3 301-9 1205-5 1627 383 70 55-3 302-9 1205-8 1648 378 71 56-3 203-9 1206-1 .1670 373 72 57-3 301-8 1206*3 1692 368 73 58 3 305-7 1206-6 1714 363 59 Properties of Saturated Steam- \tinved. Absolute Pressure in lb. per Sq. In. Pressure above atmo. sphere. Tempera- ture or Boiling Point in Degrees F. Total Heat w in Thermal VZ Units per ' lb. of Steam OI from 0^ F. ight of 1 bic Foot Steam in lb. Cubic Feet of Steam from 1 Cubic Foot of Water at 62° F. 74 59-3 306-6 1206-9 1736 359 75 60-3 307-5 1207 o 1759 353 76 61-3 308-4 1207 4 1782 349 77 62-3 309-3 1207 7 1804 345 78 63-3 310-2 1208 1826 341 79 64 3 3111 1208 3 1.848 337 80 65-3 312-0 1208 5 1869 333 81 66-3 312-8 1208 8 1891 329 82 67-3 313-6 1209 1 1913 325 83 68 3 314-5 1209 4 1935 321 84 69-3 315-3 1209 6 1957 818 85 70-3 316-1 1209 9 1980 314 86 71-3 316 9 1210 1 2002 311 87 72-3 317-8 1210 4 2024 308 88 73 3 318-6 1210 6 2044 305 89 74-3 319-4 1210 9 2067 301 90 75-3 320-2 1211 1 2089 298 91 76-3 321-0 1211 3 2111 295 92 77-3 321-7 1211 5 2133 292 93 78-3 322-5 1211 8 2155 289 94 79 3 323-3 1212 2176 28H 95 80-3 324-1 1212 3 2198 283 96 81-3 324-8 1212 5 2219 281 97 82-3 325-6 1212 •8 2241 278 98 83-3 326-3 1213 2263 275 99 84-3 327-1 1213 •2 2285 272 10O 85-3 327-9 1213 •4 ■2307 270 101 86-3 328-5 1213 •6 2329 267 102 87-3 329-1 1113 •8 2351 265 103 88-3 329-9 1214 2373 262 104 89-3 330-6 1214 2 2393 2H0 105 90-3 331-3 1214 •4 2414 257 106 91-3 331-9 1214 6 2435 255 107 92-3 332-6 1214 8 •2456 253 108 93-3 333-3 1215 •o 2477 251 109 94-3 334-0 1215 •3 •2499 249 110 95-3 334-6 1215-5 2521 247 (10 Properties of Saturated Steam — continued. Absolute Pressure Tempera- ture or Total Heat Weight of 1 Cubic Feet of Steam Pressure in lb. per Sq. In. above atmo- sphere. Boiling Point in Degrees F. Units per- il}, of Steam from ' F. Cubic Foot of Steam in lb. from 1 Cubic Foot of Water at 62° F. 11] 96-3 335-3 1215-7 •2543 245 112 ^7-3 336-0 1215-9 •v5(!4 243 113 98-3 33b' -7 1216-1 ■2586 241 114 99-3 337-4 1216-3 •2607 239 115 100-3 338-0 1216-5 •2628 237 116 101 3 338-6 1216-7 •2649 235 117 102-3 339-3 1216-9 •2674 233 118 103-3 339-9 1217-1 •2696 231 119 104-3 340-5 1217-3 •2738 229 120 105-3 341-1 1217-4 •2759 227 121 106-3 341-8 1217-6 •2780 225 122 107-3 342-4 1217.8 ■2801 224 123 108-3 343-0 1218-0 ■ -2822 222 124 109-3 343-6 1218-2 •2845 221 125 110-3 344-2 1218-4 •2867 219 12G 111-3 344-8 1218-6 •2889 217 127 112-3 345-4 1 218-8 •2911 215 128 113-3 346-0 1218 9 •2933 214 129 114-3 • 346-6 1219-1 •2955 212 130 115-3 347-2 1219-3 •2977 211 131 116-3 347-8 1219-5 •2999 209 132 117-3 348-3 1219-6 •302O 208 133 llS-M 348-9 1*19 8 •3040 206 134 119-3 349-5 1220-0 •3060 205 135 120 3 350-1 1220-2 •3080 203 136 121-3 350-6 1220-3 •3101 k02 137 122-3 351-2 1220-5 •3121 200 138 123-3 351-8 1*20-7 3142 199 139 124-3 352-4 1220-9 •3163 198 MO 125-3 352-9 1221-0 •3184 197 141 1263 3535 1221-2 •3206 195 142 127-3 354-0 1221-4 •3228 194 143 128-3 354-5 1221-6 •3250 193 144 J 29-3 355-0 1*21-7 3273 192 145 130-3 355-6 1221-9 •3294 190 146 131-3 356-1 1222-0 •3315 189 147 132-3 356-7 1222-2 •3336 188 6 1 Properties oe Saturated Steam— continued. Absolute Pressure in lb. per Sq. In. Pressure above atmo- sphere. Tempera- ture or Boiling Point in Degrees F. Total Heat in Thermal Units per lb. of Steam from <.° F. Weight of 1 Cubic Foot of Steam in lb. Cubic Feet of Steam from 1 Cubic Foot of Water at 62 J F. 148 133'3 857-2 1222-3 •3357 187 149 134-3 357-8 1222-5 •3877 186 150 135-3 358-3 1222-7 •3397 184 155 140-3 361-0 1223-5 •3500 179 lttO 145-3 363-4 1224-2 •3607 174 165 150-3 366-0 1224-9 •3714 169 170 155-3 368-2 1225-7 •3821 164 175 160-3 870-8 1226-4 •3928 159 180 165-3 372 9 1227-1 •4035 155 185 170-3 3 7ft -3 1227-8 •4142 151 190 175-3 877-5 1228-5 •4250 148 195 1803 879-7 L229-2 •4357 144 200 185-3 381-7 1229-8 •4464 141 210 195 3 3S6-0 1231-1 •4668 135 220 205-3 389-9 1232-3 •4872 129 230 215-3 393-8 1233-5 •5072 123 Heat can best be conveyed from one point of a factory to another by means of steam. To do so economically the steam pipes should be "well arranged and protected by non-radiating felt, or other like substance, and be superheated. The various operations of heating, boiling, and drying are carried out in paper mills by means of steam, and the following modes of calculating the quantity of steam required in the different processes of manufacture are based upon well-known scientific methods and data. Heating liquids, <&c, with steam: — When steam con- denses to water of temperature t, the British thermal units which 1 lb. of it will give out is represented by the equation T — t = x; in which T represents the total units of heat reckoned from 0° Fab.., which 1 lb. of the steam contains (see table, page 40), and x the total thermal units made avail- able for heating. Thus, 1 lb. of steam at 70 lbs. pressure above atmosphere (= 85 lbs. pressure in col. 1 of the table, page 42) contains 1,209-9 British thermal units, and if it be condensed to water of 120° Fall, (t in the formula), the heat rendered available for heating is equal to 1,209-9 — 120 = 1,089 "9 units. 62 A liquid may be heated by injecting steam into it, or by passing steam through a coil immersed in it, or by means of a steam jacketed pan. The simplest case occurring in paper mills is heating water or other liquids, &c, in metal tanks or boilers, and the steam used to raise the temperature of the vessel and its contents may be ascertained from the following formula : — (w s + ws ' ) (t i — 1 1 ) 1- = S. in which S — lbs. of steam required. T = British thermal units contained in 1 lb. of steam at the prevailing pressure. tf = The final temperature in °Fah. to which the water or other definite liquid has to be heated. t • = The temperature in °Fah. or' the water or liquid before heating. to = The weight in lbs. of the water or liquid. s — The specific heat of water or other liquid. m — Weight in lbs. of the metal vessel. s 1 — The specific heat of the metal of which the vessel is composed. Example: — A wrought-iron vessel, weighing 10 cwts. (1,120 lbs.), contained 300 gallons of water (3,003 lbs.) at a temperature of 72° Fah. (t^ ), and it was desired to heat the same to 184° Fah. by injecting steam of 70 lbs. pressure above atmosphere into it." In this case w = 3.000 lbs. ; s = 1*00 ; in = 1,120; s 1 = 0-113; T = 1,209-9; t f = 184°, and t { = 72°. Substituting these values in the above formula, we have (3,000 X 1-00 + 1,120 X 0*113) (184 — 72) = 341-3. 1,209-9 — 184. Or, in other words, 341-3 lbs. of the steam were required to raise the vessel and water from 72° Fah. to 184° Fah., or through 112 degrees. Instances in which liquids together with solids, in different proportions, and possessing different specific heat values, are to be heated are frequently met with, as in the heating of a pocher of pulp while bleaching ; or in digesting esparto, straw or wood in caustic soda lyes ; or " bisulphite " of lime, soda, or magnesia. The weights of the various solids and liquids composing the charge, and that part of the apparatus which must be heated, may be represented by iv, w', w", w'" ', . . &c., 63 and their respective specific heat values by .ecific heat of wrought iron = 0'113:zs"' Weight of lead lining 6,496 lbs. = iv"" ; specific heat of lead = 0-0314 = s"" Initial temperature t- zz 70° Fah., final temperature t. zz 278° Fah. The average temperature of condensed water from the jacket, having due regard to quantity in equal intervals of time, was 209° Fah. = t a . T = 1,214-4 B.T. units, equivalent to 90 lbs. steam pressure above atmosphere. By substitution, we have :— (4,655 X 0-55 + 24,800 X 0"98 + 1,482 x TOO + 29,120x0-113+ 6,496x0*0314) . ( 278 - 7 °) =6,587 1,214-4—209 Or S equals 6,587 lbs., the amount of steam required to heat the digester and its contents to maximum temperature 278° Fah. Note. — As this digester yielded 23^ cwts. of air-dry cellulose per charge, the steam required per ton was ' 23*5 or 5,606 lbs. (nearly). As above indicated, careful observations of the temperature and volume of the condensed water from the jacket should be made at equal intervals of time throughout the cooking, but having regard to the difficulties of making these observations accurately, the simplest mode of ascertaining the steam used is to measure the condensed water. A series of observations made in this way with digesters of the jacketed type, protected with non-radiating cement, &c, and yielding 23^ cwt of air- dry pulp, gave an average of 8,556 lbs. of steam for heating per charge or 6,587 lbs. steam per ton of air-dry cellulose. This amount includes that condensed through loss of heat by 67 radiation from the sides of the digester, and also the amount of steam blown off from the mcerior of the digester during the cooking operation. The difference between that found by calculation and by measurement — viz., 8,556 — 6,587—1,960 — represents these two losses plus errors of observation, &c. This difference is equivalent to 23-0 per cent, of the total steam used. No allowance has been made in these formulas for loss of heat by radiation from the sides of the digester or boiler, and therefore this loss should be ascertained with a water calori- meter, and the amount added to the figure obtained by calculation. The moisture in the steam in those works, where superheating is absent, may also be allowed for. Although there is no definite evidence to show that heat is generated or absorbed in the chemical action going on inside the digester between the resolving fluid and the raw fibrous stock, yet it is perhaps reasonable to infer that some such absorption or generation of heat does take place in specific cases, but the amount is small compared with that required to raise the digester and contents to maximum temperature, and may therefore be neglected. Drying Pulp or Paper. The steam required to dry one ton of pulp on the machine may be ascertained by the following formula : — x{T-t i ) + ivs{t f -t i ) S = T 1 - t.- in which S = lbs. of steam required. x — Weight of water in lbs. which has to be evapo- rated for each ton of air-dry cellulose made. w = Weight of air-dry cellulose (= 2,240 lbs.), s = Specific heat of air-dry cellulose. t- = The initial temperature of pulp and water running on to the wire. t f = The final or maximum temperature tJ which the pulp is heated on the drying cylinders. T = The total heat units contained in 1 lb. of steam at 212° Fah. under atmospheric pressure. T 1 = The total heat units contained in 1 lb, of steam at the pressure prevailing within the drying cylinders x is ascertained by estimating the water in pulp after passing the press rolls, and again after having passed over the drying 68 cylinders. B}' a simple calculation the water to be evaporated by the drying cylinders can be obtained. For well-known reasons t f cannot very well exceed 212° Fan. Example:— x = 3,065 lbs. w = 2,240- s = 0-55. t i = 59° Fah. * * = 240° Fah. T = 1,178 and T 1 = 1,190. By substitution we have: — 3,065 (1,178 - 59) + 2,240 x 0-55 (240 - 59) 1,190-240. 3,845 = S. Or, the amount of steam required to dry one ton of cellulose. The foregoing is the actual work done on a pulp drying machine. The water condensed inside the drying cylinders of the machine gave by measurement 5,080 lbs. per ton of air-dry pulp, and deducting from this the 3,845 lbs. found by calcula- tion, leaves 1,235 lbs., representing loss of heat by radiation, moisture in steam, &c. The following (Wockenblatt No. 43, 1901) is an example from a Continental News Mill : — Paper was composed of 80 per cent, ground wood and 20 per cent, of wood cellulose. Speed of paper machine = 80 metres (262^ feet) per minute and an hourly production of 475 kilos. (1,045 lbs.) paper. The condensed water from the drying cylinders, which is a direct measure of the steam required per hour, was 593 kilos. (1,304-6 lbs.). (. •. 100 kilos, of paper required 125 kilos, of steam.) Note. — Many other tests gave only slight variations from the above. 69 CHAPTER III. RAW FIBROUS STOCK. COTTON AND LINEN RAGS. Cotton and linen rags are usually boiled in weak milk-of- lime to which a small quantity of soda is sometimes added. The volume of the milk-of-lime used is carefully regulated and should be such that the rags are always covered or immersed in the liquid during the boiling. If the volume of liquor taken is insufficient for this purpose, the rags are exposed to the action of dry steam, which, in presence of free alkali or lime, has a tendency to " rot ll or "tender" the fibres and also to discolour them. The steam pressure (or temperature) and the proportion of dry soda or lime, or both, together with the time required, all vary with the kind of rags operated upon. Old white cotton or linen rags do not require such a drastic treatment as new cotton or linen rags. The former having been washed and scoured many times before they reach the papermaker are partly free from foreign matter, and the fibres themselves are softened. New rags, on the other hand, are impregnated with " size " and loadings used in the preparation of the cloth and also retain the original impurities existing in the raw fibre (see page 128), the bulk of which must be removed prior to their conversion into paper. In the boiling and cleansing process to which new rags are subjected, the fibres are softened. Speaking broadly, rag stock suitable for papermaking may be roughly divided into two great classes, namely — cotton and linen. These, again, may be subdivided into old and new cotton and old and new linen, the exact line of demarca- tion between what is old and new in both cases not being well defined. The skill of the papermaker in this department of the manufacture consists largely in treating these various grades, both chemically and mechanically, in the process of making half-stock from them, and in blending them together so as to form a sheet of paper in accordance with his require- ments. This requires much exj)erience, and his success depends largely upon the adequate knowledge which he possesses of the various properties of the different grades of old and new cotton and old and new linen rags at his disposal, with particular reference to their strength, softness, and purity. These have to be graded by careful sorting, then cut, boiled with soda or lime or both under pressure to remove foreign matters, and finally washed and broken in in the breaker and bleached. The breaking in is carried out so that the whole texture of the rag is completely destroyed, and the fibres themselves partly beaten to that degree of fineness required for the beating engine. These operations involve considerable losses, which have been classified as follows : — 70 TREATMENT OF RAGS. Table showing Losses on Raw Material during the various operations. The percentage of moisture in rags varies from 3 to 6 %. (J. W. Wymt.) 6 b'a fab b'r, fee g. .Ji ! o 3 a o in .5 o '8 PQ £ «S rt M 5 Total Exclud Moistu % 0/ 0/ /0 0/ /o % % English New Pieces ... 3 0-5 1-0 3-0 12-5 15-15 French ,, ,, 3 0-5 1-2 7-3 13-2 19-60 German ,, ,, 3 0-5 1-2 11-8 11-6 22-03 No. 1 Cotton 3 0-9 2-0 3-0 12-4 15-04 2 55 ^ 55 4 1-2 2 ; 5 7-94 14-8 21-60 55 3 ,, 4 1-5 3-8 11-16 13-6 23-26 „ 4 „ 5 2-0 4-0 14-3 17-4 29-27 New Soft Tabs. 4 0-5 1-0 3-0 8-4 11-14 Best White „ 4 1-0 4-0 8-6 16-6 23-78 Grey Tabs. ... ... 4 0-8 2-5 15-1 9-8 23-46 Unbleached Cotton .. 4 0-8 2-0 12-28 13-4 24-05 White Moleskins 4 0-8 2-0 11-00 8-9 18-99 Drab „ 4 1-0 2-0 13-00 10-1 21-79 Jean Cuttings 4 1-0 2-0 17-40 6-1 22-48 Green Cords 5 1-0 2-5 21-30 8-0 27-64 Old Blue Cotton 5 1-5 3-8 14-40 9-2 22-32 Shirtings 4 0-5 2-6 11-60 12-4 22-59 S. P. F. F. F. Linen .. 4 0-8 2-0 8-50 11-8 19-38 S.P.F. F. 5 1-3 2-4 11-10 12-8 22-51 S.P.F. 6 1-8 2-7 17-36 19-6 33-62 No. 1 Linen 4 0-5 2-0 6-8 7-4 13-77 5, 2 „ ... 5 0-8 2-4 14-5 8-2 21-54 „ 3 „ 6 1-0 2-7 19-15 9-8 27-11 ,, 1 Russian Linen ... 6 1-5 2-4 18-7 10-0 26-90 55 4 „ „ ... 6 3-0 5-0 30-0 20-7 44-53 Linen Duck Clippings 4 0-5 2-0 15-4 9-6 23-58 ,, Threads 4 0-5 2-0 12-5 12-6 23-55 New Blue Linens 4 0-8 2-0 15-1 13-9 26-90 Unbleached Linen 4 0-5 2-4 19-2 16-0 32-14 71 Mr. Clayton Beadle has also determined the loss of weight in boiling and bleaching cotton rags, with the following results : — Percentage loss on Boiling. Bleaching. Best new cotton pieces 8 71 3-29 Low quality cotton pieces .. 12-20 7-70 Cotton rags, No. 1 5 80 6-20 „ No. 2 5-70 G-90 „ No. 3 .. 12-50 4 30 „ No. 4 .. 13 30 13-70 New unbleached cotton cuttings .. 23-50 13 00 JUTE. Tt is scarcely possible to prepare a pure white pulp from jute owing to the tannin-like bodies distributed throughout the mass of the fibre (see page 129). Generally the jute cut- tings are boiled in lime and soda according to the conditions named below, and it is said if the jute is treated first in this way, then partly bleached with hypochlorites and again given a second boiling in weak caustic soda lye alone, and after washing, finally bleached with additional hypochlorite, the resulting pulp appioaches a good white colour. Silicate of soda has been recommended as a substitute for the caustic soda in the second boiling. The following proportions of lime, &c, are recommended for the treatment of this fibre. Boiling. — 100 parts require — Lime Caustic Soda (as Na 2 O) Pressure per square inch Temperature ... Hours under pressure... New fine Coarse old quality quality Jute. Jute. 20 25 — 4 30 60 248° Fah. 290° Fah. 10 8 Losses in the treatment in mill, &c. Moisture °/ 10 °/ Dusting 2 % 2-5 °/ Cutting 2-5 °/ 2-5 °/ Dressing- 8-6 % 5-0 °/ Q Boiling and Washing 16-0 °/ 20-0 °/ Breaking 2-5°/, 3-0°/ o 1st Bleaching 10-0 °/ 8-0 °/ 2nd „ 5-0 °/ 4-0 % Totals ... 47-5 °/ 55-0 °/ — — — — — ESPARTO. The treatment of esparto by the soda method is typical of the preparation of paper pulp from nearly all fibre- yielding plants, such as bamboo, straw, wood, &c. The isolation of the cellulose is brought about by digesting the prepared plant in an alkaline solution, having for its base caustic soda, at variable temperatures, and under variable lengths of time. The chemical reaction which takes place during this digesting process is not known, that is to say, has not been isolated, because of the complicated character of the encrusting sub- stances surrounding the fibre in the plant. The caustic soda in aqueous solution forms soluble compounds with these encrusting bodies and dissolves any silica which forms a part of the plant's structure, so that by subsequent draining, washing and bleaching, the liberated cellulose is obtained in a comparatively pure state. Cellulose, from whatever source it is obtained, is, however, soluble in aqueous solutions of caustic soda. Moreover, the solvent action of the caustic is accelerated by heat and by the length of time (within limits) in which the two bodies are heated together. It is therefore apparent that if the maximum yield of cellulose is desired when using this method, due regard must be paid to the laws regulating the yield. These laws may be expressed thus : The yield of cellulose obtained from any plant by the caustic soda method depends upon (1st) the proportion of caustic soda (Na HO) used per unit weight of plant, (2nd) the tem- perature employed, and (3rd) the length of time the digesting operation is continued. If any one of these conditions be alte ed and the other two kept constant, the yield varies inversely as the altered condition. Thus in the case of esparto, the author performed a series of experiments in which the proportion of caustic to unit weight of esparto was varied, whilst the temperature and duration of the time of digesting were both kept constant, with the following results ; — o H tf >ce 00 * £fio bo <8 2i m" inwLO cl ti Sf m m m ft £~ ! a o to o fts ■*-*•* B o Ht? "3 d O S g eosoco HW | d 00 CO OS *B LOr-ICO r-i ooo &o hP^O ltJiOiO sO+i coo o 1 £ """^ Pi be £ S '3^ * ooo N (M Ol 4 . . 53 a c m"Hm A aft S O > £ T3 <1 u P3 < H m a. Pq 3 O O m J3 m w 02 O ^ & H o W b!) H C C &t c3 O O & o CO 1— < 3 H GO U o r? Oh T3 S < * O o O C5 X O b- • o» p p cb b- cb © CO CO ?D **H -jH p CO CO A-i ib cb ib HCONOD n 9 ip n cb cb ib ib p p gj cq cb cvi cb cb (M rH CO i-H - «b co r-l CO ^ ££ CONOH T-t CO tH to oo in cp l- O rp C<| il ,H At Co -* o OfflO r 1 " "5f co en t- CO i— I vO xO O C5 ~> d T3 CD u, -> =+H h o T3 d d CD fa o H 55 fa P5 fa fa fa 3 « fa 5 fa o ft fa Yield of Pulp on Dry Wood. Q lH Cp^COt^ioOiOOOi-^O^r-IOOOeO eOCOCCCOCOCOC-lCNlCOCOCOCMCOCOCOCO Weight of Clean Dry Wood per C. Metre. aJlOOSMOlHOO^OlCOlCCOCCOHtlO ,2 X^ 00 lO -* l^- LC X- t£> ®NNNOlO«"OOLO®(MMMS •^ H O ffl C ffl 1< W 1M ffl IO IN .. I— 00 OS 1-1 ^tOlOOl^OTtlCOtOiOfflNNiOiOlOO o ! o .a fa S s o fa PinusPicea ,, Abies ,, Sylvestris ,, Austriaca ,, Larix ,, Pumilio Fagus Silvatica BetulaAlba Populus Tremula Alba Sorbus Aucuparia ... ,, Tominalis ... Salix Capre ,, Fragilis Fraxinus Excelsior .. Alnus Glutinosa 1 C5 Fichte Tanne Weissfohre Schwarzfohre ... Larche Legfohre Rothbuche Weissbirke Aspe Pappel Vogelbeere Elsbeere Sahlweide Bruchweide Esche Erie 00 The yield of pulp from tbe different Coniferce varies considerably In Germany and elsewhere Pinus sylvestris and Pinus nines are commonly used, the yield in actual manufacturing practice being as follows : — ■ l r ield of unbleached Cellulose from Soda process. (Manufacturing practice).— Conifer ce by Caustic MtJLLBR. One Ton of air-dry unbleached Wood pulp required. Pinus syloestrisi. Cubic feet of piled logs ,, fathoms of piled pulp wood Cords of piled pulp wood ... Loads (one load = 50 cubic feet solid wood) 336 1-55 2-G2 544 Pinus abies. 369 1-71 2-88 5-69 One cubic fathom of piled pulp wood logs will yield of unbleached air dry pulp 1,445 lbs. 1,309 lbs. " Kraft " Pulp (Caustic Soda Process). — The pulp wood is barked by hand or machine, and chopped in the usual way. For every cubic metre (raummeter) of raw wcod there are used 750 litres of a caustic soda solution varying from 11 to 13° Be. The boiling is carried out by gradually heating with direct steam (injected into the contents of the digester) till the temperature of the charge reaches 169 \° Cent., equal to 7 atmospheres p essure, at which point it is maintained for ItI hours. The charge is then blown off, broken up, screened, washed, and pressed into bales, or otherwise transformed into " Kraft " paper. One hundred kilos, of " Kraft " pulp made by this process require 0-65 raummeter of raw pulp wood ; 13 kilos, of 58 per cent, ammonia soda ash ; 40 kilos, of lime ; and 250 kilos, of coal. SULPHATE PROCESS. The digesting fluid in this process consists of a mixture of caustic soda and sulphide of sodium. The sulphide of sodium is obtained by adding salt cake or sulphate of soda to the ash in the calcining or smelting furnace. During the ignition of the mixture, the sulphate of soda is reduced to sulphide by the carbonaceous matter derived from the wood, by the well-known reaction Na 2 S0 4 -f C 4 = Na 2 S + 4 CO. The reaction is similar to that which takes place in the Le Blanc method of making soda. The furnaces used are specially constructed to avoid an excess of air passing over or VI through the ignited mass, thereby preventing the oxidation of the sulphide of sodium formed. This substance forms at a dull red heat a fusible flux with the sulphate and carbonate of soda present, which runs from the furnace into a covered pit or into a tank containing water. This flux should possess a reddish colour if it is rich in sulphide of sodium, and nominally have the following composition : — Na CO 3 70-89% >. Na; S ' 1445% / Na„ S0 4 4-87% V Soluble in water Si0 2 2-35o/ \ Al 2 3 & Fe 2 3 trace. J Insoluble in water 6-18 % Muller. Sulphide of sodium by itself will act upon the incrusting materials of wood, but its action is not so vigorous as caustic soda. When the flux or recovered ash is dissolved in water, and the resulting liquor causticised in the usual way, a fluid is obtained of the following nominal composition, viz. : — Na„ C0 3 .' 11 to 12 grms. per litre. Na"OH 90 ,,100 ,, Na 2 S 25 „ 28 „ This process is used in the preparation of straw cellulose as well as wood cellulose (see page 115). The conditions for digesting are somewhat similar to those prevailing in the caustic soda method. The proportion of soda (caustic and sulphide) to wood is a little greater, and the pressure or temperature is highei- — 140 lbs. per square inch above atmosphere. The yield of pulp from spruce wood is also higher, and the pulp is stronger. The latter property, however, depends greatly upon the mode of manufacture. Yield of unbleached Cellulose from Coniferce by the " Sulphate" procesc. (Manufacturing practice). — Muller. One Ton of air-dry unbleached Wood pulp required. Pinus sylvestris. Pinus abies. Cubic feet of piled logs ,, fathoms of piled pulp wood... Cords of piled pulp wood Loads (one load = 50 cubic feet solid wood) 300 328 1-39 1-52 2-34 2-56 4-86 5-U9 One cubic fathom of piled pulp wood logs will yield of unbleached air dry pulp I 1,611 lbs. 1,473 lbs. 92 Further yields are as follows : — German Practice. — 100 kilos, of air-dry sulphate cellulose required 0-85 raummeter of spruce wood ; 15 to 16 kilos, salt cake or dry sulphate of soda, and 35 kilos, of burnt lime. {Pa-pier Zeitung, No. 94, 1897.) Scandinavian Practice. — 100 kilos, air-dry sulphate cellulose required 0-74 raummeter of Norway spruce ; 27 kilos, salt cake and 35-1 kilos, of lime and 0-19 raummeter of fuel wood for soda recovery. A comparison of soda and sulphite wood cellulose under the microscope shows that a not inconsiderable quantity of the cellulose in the soda process is dissolved during digesting, whilst in the sulphite process, bodies other than real cellulose are left behind. " Kraft " Pulp by the Sulphate Process. — 1,000 litres of 13° Be. sulphate-lye are used per 1 raummeter of raw pulp wood (35-31 cubic feet). The steam from a finished digester is blown into another freshly prepared at a pressure of 7 atmospheres, and then afterwards heated to 169|° Cent, with direct steam. This temperature is reached in from 4 to 5 hours (the corresponding pressure being 7 atmospheres), and maintained for 1 or 2 hours as neces ity requires. 100 kilos, of sulphate " kraft " pulp requires 0-63 raummeter of raw wood ; 21 kilos, of salt caka or crude sulphate of soda ; 35 kilos, of lime, and 225 kilos, of coal. SULPHITE PROCESS. This method yields the maximum amount of cellulose from fibrous plants. It is mainly applicable to the treatment of wood, and consists in heating it at high temperature in an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide (SO.,), in which a suitable normal sulphite is dissolved. The sulphite combines with the organic incrusting materials surrounding the cellulose forming soluble compounds, the separation of which is thus rendered possible by washing. The fluid used is technically known as " bisulphite liquor " and may contain either lime, magnesia, or soda as base, or a mixture of these. The proportion of S0 3 to bass varies considerably. A normal bisulphite or one containing two equivalents of S0. 2 to one of CaO, MgO oi' Na a O, as the case may be, is never used, the S0 2 being invariably in excess of the two equivalents (see page 96) Tilghman, the inventor of the process, in his original patent specification (1866) distinctly stated that the acid liquid he used to carry out his invention was an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid in which lime or other base was dissolved, which substantially corresponds to what is now universally 93 employed in sulphite pulp works. Although bisulphites from these bases are essentially alike in their chemical action an i properties, yet in manufacturing practice the more stable solutions, viz., soda and magnesia, yield a somewhat purer cellulose with less trouble. Under certain conditions Ca S0 3 separates during the "cooking" operation, owing to its greater insolubility, but where every precaution is taken to ensure proper proportion of CaO to S0. 2 in the liquor prepared for the digester, and care bestowed on the " cooking " operation, the product from bisulphite of lime very closely resembles that obtained from either bisulymite of soda or magnesia. Bearing this in mind, the question of choice of base is naturally regulated by the cost. A mixture of CaO and MgO occurs in nature, in the mineral " dolomite " (double carbonates of lime and magnesia) and offers the advantage of yielding a bisulphite liquor whose base consists largely of magnesia, the normal sulphite of which, Mg S0 3 is more soluble than the corresponding lime salt (see page 100) The operations in the process of preparing bisulphite liquor on the large scale consist of first producing S0 2 by burning sulphur (or brimstone) or pyrites (FeS 2 ) in the air, and secondly, forming bisulphites by absorbing this S0 2 in water in presence of the above bases or their corresponding car- bonates. S0 2 from Sulphur or Pyrites. — When sulphur burns in the air it unites with the oxygen to form S0 2 , and during the combustion a definite quantity of heat is generated. One pound of sulphur will, theoretically, yield 2 lbs. of S0 2 and generate 3,998 British thermal units. There is no increase in the volume of the gases due to the combination of the sulphur with the oxygen, and since air contains nearly 21 per cent. by volume of and 79 per cent, by volume of N, it follows that the maximum percentage of S0 2 in the kilns gases at atmospheric temperature and pressure cannot exceed 21 per cent, by volume. This is seldom or never obtained in manu- facture practice ; usually from 15 to 17 per cent, may be considered good work. The quantity of air measured under normal atmospheric pressure (760 mm.) and temperature (62° Fah.) containing the necessary oxygen for the complete combust'on of 1 lb. of sulphur into S0 2 is 56 cubic feet nearly. If the products of combustion from the sulphur kilns be analysed (see page 149), and the percentage volume of S0 2 thus ascertained, the following table will give the corresponding volume of air used. Volumes of air required to burn 1 lb. (avoirdupois) of sulphur, according to the percentage of S0 3 , in the exit gases from the kilns : — Percentage by volurhe SO„. Volume of air. '4 ..." ... 296-1. 3ubic feet. 5 236-8 6 197-4 7 169-2 8 148-0 »• 9 131-6 10 118-4 11 107-7 12 98-7 13 91-0 14 84-6 15 78-9 16 74-0 >» 11 17 69-7 ", 18 65-8 » 19 62-3 » 20 59-2 ,, Note. — The percentage by volume of S0 2 in kiln gases can be ascertained by method described on page 149. Note. — One cubic foot of air 62° Fah. weighs 0-0761 lb. Air contains 23 per cent, by weight of oxygen and 77 per cent, by weight of nitrogen. Sulphur kilns are constructed of either wrought or cast iron, the latter being more usual. They occur in different forms, stationary, with or without agitators, and rotary. The draught should be carefully regulated and the upper part of the kiln kept at a uniform temperature. For this purpose the upper part of stationary kilns are sometimes covered with a water- jacket. Too little air or too high a temperature causes sub- limation of the sulphur which fouls the pipes leading to the towers or other absorbing apparatus. S0 2 from Pyrites. — What takes place during the com- bustion of sulphur is essentially the same when pyrites is burnt, excepting that the volume of air required, the total heat generated, and the maximum temperature produced are all relatively greater per unit of sulphur converted into S0 2 . The kilns for burning pyrites, with the necessary dust chamber and scrubber, the latter for removing S0 2 , are of a more complicated character. The pyrites in lumps of about 2 to 3 in. cube may be burnt in the ordinary kilns designed for the purpose and largely adopted in sulphuric acid factories, or in the well-known Herreshoff kiln, in the form of dust, " fines." or "smalls." The ordinary kilns for lumps are worked in groups and fed with the mineral at equal intervals of time and with equal quantities per charge. Pyrites (FeS a ) of 95 the best quality contains about 50 per cent, of S ; of these about 47 per cent, are burnt off in good practice, the remaining 3 per cent, being left in the cinders or burnt ore. As the iron is oxidised to Fe 2 3 the burnt ore or cinders withdrawn from the kiln represents about 73 or 74 per cent, of the weight of the green or fresh ore used. A part of the S0 3 formed in burning sulphur and pyrites is always converted into S0 3 which escapes with the other gases and forms sulphates in the bisulphite liquor apparatus. If present in large quantities it forms a hard scale on the surface of the limestone (marble) in the towers. As a general rule when burning sulphur from 2 to 3 per cent, are converted by oxidation into S0 3 , whilst in the case of pyrites, as much as 13 per cent, may be con- verted into S0 3 . In the former case the presence of S0 3 may be neglected, but the gases from pyrites kilns should be purified by passing them through a small tower called a scrubber, containing wet coke or limestone (Kellner), before conducting them to the towers. Theoretically, the maximum quantity of S0 2 possible in gases from pyrites is 16-2 per cent, by volume. The total heat of combustion of pyrites varies with the composition of the ore. The kiln gases, whether from sulphur or pyrites, require to be cooled to about 25° Cent, before they enter the towers or absorbing apparatus. This is done by passing them first through cast-iron pipes until their temperature is reduced below the melting point of lead, and then through leaden ones immersed in cold water. Sometimes a brick chamber is used containing coils of strong antimonial lead pipes kept cool by a current of cold water passing through them. There are several methods in practical use for absorbing the SO 2 in the preparation of the bisulphite liquor. First. — Bisulphite of lime prepared by the Tower systems (Flodquist, Frank of Korndall, Mitcherlich, Kellner, Ekman, and others). These limestone towers are usually upright cylinders built of wood (oregon or pitch pine) braced together with iron rods, from 5 feet to 6 feet in diameter, and of varying heights, each being provided with hard wood top and bottom. In the bottom of each tower an open wood grid is fixed about 6 feet from the base, which slopes towards a door in front to allow the small pieces of limestone, &c, to be removed from time to time that accumulate at the lowest part of the column. Leaden pipes 12 inches to 18 inches diameter convey the gases from the sulphur kilns and cooler to the towers beneath this grid, and another pipe, 3 inches to 4 inches diameter, the prepared liquor from the towers to the storage tank. The water is distributed equally over the limestone afc the 96 top by means of a perforated wooden disc fixed inside. The draught is produced artificially with a fan and may be forced or induced. In the former case the fan is placed between the cooler and tower, whilst in the latter it is connected with the exit pipes from the top of the last tower. Sometimes a steam jet (Korting) composed of hard lead is employed instead of a fan. When the towers are of. moderate height, or about 20 feet high, as in Plodquist's system, they are worked in groups of six or eight, and in direct series, the cooled kiln gases being drawn through them in succession by pipes connecting the top of the first with the bottom of the second, and so on from second to third throughout the whole series. In this case the weak liquors produced in the back towers of the series are pumped on to the front towers, which receive the strong gas, the flow being so regulated as to yield a bisulphite liquor of the required density issuing from them. Mitcherlich's towers are usually 36 metres high (118 feet) by T6 metres diameter (5 feet 3 inches). Four towers of this size will yield bisulphite of lime liquor using soft limestone for 10,000 tons sulphite wood pulp a year. Usually a soft variety of white limestone is used, either marble or that found at Tofte, in Norway. Ekman, the base of whose bisulphite liquor was magnesia, used MgO obtained by calcined magnesite, the MgO being previously hydrated by sprinkling with water, in small towers of moderate size (6 feet diameter by 20 feet high). . Dolomite (double carbonates of lime and magnesia) can be used either alone or mixed with marble, but in the former case the results are unsatisfactory, owing to the hardness of the stone, unless the available tower capacity is very large. The descending stream of water in these towers absorbs the S0 2 as the cooled kiln gases ascend through the body of limestone, forming an aqueous solution of S0 2 which, acting on the Ca C0 3 forms Ca S0 3 . This salt, which is insoluble in water, is dissolved and held in solution by the excess of SO 2 in the liquid. The liquor flowing from the towers can be expressed by the formula Ca S0 3 x S0 2 Aqua, x being always greater than one equivalent. The temperature of the gases entering the tower is kept uniform or nearly so throughout the year, at about 25° Cent. The kiln gases should contain on an average from 15 to 16 per cent, by volume of S0 2 , and if this varies, so also must the flow of water entering the top of the towers in order that the bisulphite liquor flowing to the storage tanks register from 6 to 6|° Be at 30° Cent. Heat is generated by the action of the S0 2 on the Ca C0 3 . Under normal conditions the bisulphite of lime liquor should possess the following composition, viz. : — 97 Scandinavian Practice, using Flodqtjist's Towers and Soft Tofte Limestone. Composition of " Acid " from Sulphur. Pyrites. Free S0 2 2-422% 2-305% Combined S0 2 1-152% 1-386% Total SOo 3-574% 3-691% CaO (by calculation) 1-008% 1-213% Degrees Be 6-2 6-0 Degrees Centigrade ... ... ... 16-5 12-0 Free SO. on 100 pts., total S0 2 ... 67-7% 62-4% CombinedS0 2 on 100 pts., total S0 2 32-3% 37-6% COMPOSITION OF BISULPHITE OF LIME PRO- DUCED IN MITCHERLIC1TS TOWERS, AS ASCERTAINED BY Dr. HARFP. ComtoinGct Per 100 of Total SO„ Degrees Baume. Total S0 o % Free SO., % so., % ~ Free. Combined. 3 2-183 1-421 0-762 65 35 2-288 1-490 0-798 65 35 4 2-483 1-592 0-911 63 37 H 2-634 1-668 0-966 63-5 se-h H 2-807 1-734 1-073 62 38 4| 2-917 1-787 1-130 61 39 5 3-135 1-971 1-164 63 37 H 3-264 2-017 1-217 63 37 H 3-408 2-092 1-376 60 40 6f 3591 2-122 1-469 59 41 6 3-784 2-306 1-478 61 39 6? 3-959 2-368 1-591 60 40 6* 4-186 2-576 1-610 61-5 38-5 4 4-309 2-666 1-643 Q2 38 7 4-543 2-850 1-693 63 37 Note. — The "acid" flowing from the Towers loses free S0 2 on standing. The temperature of the water and inflowing gases passing to the towers should be kept as constant as possible and within certain limits, so that the outflowing " acid " from the 98 towers shall not exceed 30° Cent. When this temperature is exceeded, the proportion of S0 2 to CaO more nearly approaches two equivalents of the former to one of the latter. Before this point is reached, normal Ca S0 3 separates out as a Avhite precipitate and the " acid " becomes milky in appearance. Second. — Tub systems, using lime and magnesia (Frank, McDougall, Partington, Burgess, Stebbins and others). The principle involved in these systems is the absorption, at low temperatures, of the S0 2 gas, by forcing (Frank) or sucking (Partington, &c.) the kiln gases through weak milk of lime and magnesia prepared from calcined dolomite. For this purpose the milk of lime and magnesia is contained in a series of three or four tubs (about 12 ft. diameter by 5 ft. 6 in. deep inside), strongly built of hard pine to withstand a working pressure of about 11 lbs. per square inch. They are each provided with a mechanical agitator, driven overhead by bevel gears to keep their contents in continuous motion, and are placed at different levels so that the milk of lime and magnesia fed into the uppermost tub overflows by gravitation from one to the other in succession. Their overflow pipes are of lead, usually 4 in. diameter, and are so arranged that the liquid overflows from the surface of one tub to near the bottom of its lower neighbour throughout the whole series, until finally the overflow pipe from the lowest tub conveys .the " acid" to the storage tanks. The tubs are also connected together by strong leaden pipes, 6 in. to 8 in. diameter, to convey the gases from the top of one to the bottom of the other, the pipe to the lowest tub coming direct from the sulphur or pyrites kilns (the so-called " gas cooler " inter- vening), whilst that from the top of the highest tub is con- nected with a belt driven, geared double-acting vacuum or exhaust pump. This pump sucks the kiln gases through the liquid in the tubs from the lowest to the highest ; the direction in which the gases travel being obviously contrary to that of the milk of lime and magnesia. As the milk of lime and magnesia descends through the series of tubs it absorbs the S0 2 , and finally loses its milky appearance, becoming quite clear by the time it leaves the lowest tub. In this state, of 100 parts of total S0 2 which it contains, usually 66 parts exist in the uncombined or free state, whilst 34 parts are combined with CaO and MgO as Ca S0 3 and Mg S0 3 respectively. Both of these normal sulphites are held in solution by the free S0 2 present. A gauge glass, with sample tap at its lower end, is fitted to the side of the lowest tub to register the depth of the liquid within and to note its appearance. Samples of the liquid may be withdrawn through this tap. 99 The milk of lime and magnesia is prepared by mixing the calcined " dolomite " with hot water into a thick cream, in a wrought-iron vessel, from which it is emptied into a large wooden tub, provided with a vertical agitator, where it is diluted with cold water, until it registers a density of from 1| to 2° of Twaddell's hydrometer, according to requirements. It is then passed through a fine brass sieve (60 meshes to the linear inch) into a lower storage tank, also fitted with an agitator, and from thence is pumped to the highest of the absorbing tubs. The quantity allowed to enter the tub is carefully regulated. The following represents the composi- tion of a calcined "dolomite"- suitable for the preparation of bisulphite of lime and magnesia liquor, viz. : — Mg C0 3 = 44-18 %, Ca C0 3 = 55-25 %, Al„ (X and Fe 2 3 = 0-27 %. This calcined dolomite, when made into a weak milk for use in the absorbing tubs, gave, on actual analysis : — CaO ... ... ... 6-31 grammes per litre. MgO 4-19 10-50 Sp.gr 1-0075 = 1-50° Twaddell. The percentage of S0 2 in, and the temperature of, the kiln gases, as also the temperature of the milk of lime entering the tubs, play an important role in the efficiency of this apparatus, and the composition of the liquor produced. The following figures represent good manufacturing practice : — Average percentage S0 3 in kiln gases ... 16-1 Average temperature of kiln gases entering tubs 24° Cent. Composition of Acid— Free SC% 2-03 % Combined S0 2 ... 1-08 % Total S0 o ... 3-11% Sp. gr. at 17° Cent., 1-0315 = 6-3° Twaddell. Of 100 parts of total S0 2 in this liquor, 34-7 parts are com- bined with CaO and MgO forming normal sulphites, whilst 65-3 parts exist in the uncombined or free state. The actual amount of bases (CaO and MgO) may be obtained by calcula- tion from the amount of combined S0 2 and the relative quantities of CaO and MgO existing in the calcined " dolomite." Capacity of Bisulphite of Lime Apparatus. — Dr. Frank's apparatus, consisting of sulphur kiln, coolers, lime mixing tank, and three absorbing vessels of the aggregate capacity of about 1,200 cubic feet, and all auxiliary apparatus, 100 will yield 13,000 gallons of bisulphite of lime liquor from caustic lime or calcined dolomite per 24 hours. This is equal to a daily output of 8 to 9 tons (2,240 lbs.) of air-dry cellulose. Bisulphite of Magnesia is prepared by passing the cooled kiln gases obtained by burning sulphur through small towers filled with hydrated calcined " magnesite " (Mg C0 3 ) in lumps, the latter being kept moist with a downflow of water. The towers are of small size, about 20 feet high by 5 feet or 6 feet in diameter, and yield indifferent results, chiefly due to the calcined " magnesite "■ packing so closely as to seriously interfere with the draught. A more satisfactory method is to pass milk of magnesia (prepared by grinding the calcined magnesite in an edge runner mill to a fine cream with water, then diluting largely), down a tower built of sheet lead, and filled with large flint stones while the kiln gases pass upward by induced draught. The proportion of magnesia to water forming the milk are carefully regulated- The bisulphite flowing from the tower has the following composition : — Percentage of combined and free Sulphurous Acid (S0 2 ) in solutions of Bisulphite of Magnes ia for Sulphite Pulp Manufacture. Specific Gravity at 60° Fan, Degrees Twaddell 60° Fah. Total SO., % Free S0 o % Combined SO„ % 1-025 5 2-279 1-205 1-073 1-0275 H 2-464 1-305 1-159 1-030 6 2-724 1-442 1-282 1-0325 6* 2-934 1-553 1-381 1-035 7 3-155 1-670 1485 1-0375 n 3-382 1-797 1-587 1-040 8 3-605 1-913 1-692 1-0425 H 3-828 2-031 1-797 1-045 9 4-000 2-124 1-876 1-0475 9* 4-272 2-266 2-006 1-050 10 4-494 2-384 2-110 1-0525 10$ 4-667 2-477 2-190 1-055 11 4-939 2-619 2-320 The above values are not absolute. 101 Bisulphite of Soda may be prepared from a weak aqueous solution of soda ash in the tubs in lieu of lime and magnesia, or by adding a nearly saturated solution of sulphate of soda to one of bisulphite of lime, when the following reaction takes place, viz., CaS0 3 x S0 2 Aq + Na a S0 4 = Ca S0 4 2H 2 + Na 2 SO 2 x S0 3 Aq. The decomposition of the bisulphite of lime by adding a slight excess of sulphate of soda is fairly complete — i.e., from 90 to 95 per cent. The author has obtained good, cellulose for some years by using this method. It is also understood to be in successful operation in one Austrian works. Bisulphite of soda liquor prepared by this method, using a bisulphite of lime containing 3-66 per cent, total S0 2 , 2-181 per cent, free SO„, 1-53 per cent. S0 3 combined with CaO and a sulphate of soda solution obtained from salt cake or crude Na 2 S0 4 , from which the iron and alumina had been previously removed by precipitation with lime, and containing 189-2 grammes anhydrous Na„ S0 4 per litre, gave, on analysis : Free SO„ - . 1-597% Combined SO 2 1-303% Total SO, 2-900% This liquor "contained CaSO a , 0-472 per cent. ; Na„ S0 3 , 3-053 per cent. ; Ca S0 4 , 0-090 per cent. ; Na 2 SO 4 /0-488 per cent. The precipitation of the Ca S0 4 , + 2H 2 0, takes place very rapidly at 120° Fah., and in the above instance 5 per cent, excess of Na 2 S0 4 was added. The precipitated Ca S0 4 , + 2H 2 0, is pure white, and when filtered, washed, dried, ground and sieved, yields an excellent loading (" pearl hardening ") for paper manufacture. BOILING. There are various systems in general use for boiling the chips in the digester. The slow or long cook system was instituted by Mitcherlich, whose contributions to the science and technology of the industry have been of great importance. He employs horizontal, cylindrical digesters, with circular ends lined with glazed earthenware tiles, and heated by steam coils of hard lead. These digesters measure twelve (12) metres long by four (4) metres in diameter ; have a total cubic capacity of one hundred and thirty-four (134) cubic metres (4,706 cubic feet). They hold one hundred cubic metres of wood, sixty (60) cubic metres of bisulphite liquor, and yield about ten thousand (10,000) kilos, (ten tons) of cellulose per charge. The mode of boiling is as follows : — The digester is first filled with chips, and these are steamed gently with direct 102 steam to remove volatile oils, &c., the condensate being run away. During this operation the so-called turpentines and wood acids formed are removed and the air is expelled. After the steaming has been completed, all cocks are closed, excepting that directly connected with the acid storage tank, and in virtue of the partial vacuum formed within the digester by cooling, the acid is sucked into it until it is full. The acid valve is then shut, and the relief valve opened, and the heating or boiling of the charge begun. The temperature is raised very gradually by means of the coils, and is never allowed to exceed 120° Cent., the pressure is kept at forty-five (45) to fifty-two (52) lbs. above atmosphere. Frequent samples of the liquor are withdrawn from the digester and tested for sulphurous acid, more especially towards the end of the process, to ascertain how the chemical reaction is going on. When the percentage of S0 2 has sunk to that point in accord- ance with the prevailing practice consequent on the kind of pulp required, and the peculiarities of the particular apparatus in use, the steaming is stopped and the superincumbent pressure blown off. The pulp is then washed twice with water and finally removed. An analysis of the time occupied in the different operations is as follows : — Filling with wood ... 2 hours. Steaming... ... ... ... ... 4 Filling with liquor ... ... ... 2 Boiling ... ... 35 Blowing-off pressure, &c. ... ... 3 Washing twice ... ... 6 Emptying and getting ready for next charge ... ... ... ... 5 Total time for one boiling — 57 hours. Eleven to twelve boilings per month, yielding 110 to 120 tons of air-dry cellulose. Owing to the gentle nature of the chemical treatment which the wood receives under the low temperatures employed, the strength of the fibres is preserved, and by this process the strongest sulphite pulp is obtained. On the other hand, in the quicker method of cooking, the chips are not subjected to a preliminary steaming, but the acid is added immediately the digester is filled with them. Nor are the contents, as a rule, heated by steam coils, but with injected steam admitted at the lowest part of the digester. In some cases the charge is heated up to a certain point with injected steam, and thereafter, with steam coils, but in all cases whenever quick cooking is desired the maximum tempera- 103 ture is seldom less than 135° Cent., and frequently reaches 144° Centi. The chemical action between the resinous matters surrounding the fibres in the wood and the bisulphite is accelerated by increase of temperature. Owing to the tension of the S0 3 gas inside the digester the pressure bears no definite relation to the temperature as is the case with water, so that during the "cooking" the pressure, varying from seventy-five (75) to ninety (90) lbs. per square inch above atmosphere, is kept constant, or nearly so, by means of a release valve, the S0 3 thus escaping being recovered as described below. When the charge is finished, a point ascertained by examina- tion of a sample of the liquor by chemical test (iodine), as also by its appearance and smell, the steam is shut off, and if the contents are to be "dumped" into a drainer in contradistinction to being blown off under the full pressure prevailing at the finishing point, the pressure within is blown off, the valve at the bottom of the digester opened, and the whole charge run by gravitation into a draining pit. In some works the liquor is drained from the pulp whilst the latter is still in the digester, and while the pressure is being blown down, due allowance in such cases being made in the amount of S0 2 left in the liquor at the so-called finishing point, to compensate for the extra time the charge is -kept at a high temperature. In America, where the blow-off system of emptying the digesters is universally used, this point is carried as far as required. Immediately it is reached, a large valve at the bottom of the digester is opened, and the charge ejected into a large covered wooden tub, having a perforated false bottom to drain off the liquid contents, and a chimney to allow the steam to escape. In this tub the pulp is also washed. By the sudden release of the pressure and consequent generation of steam, as also the force of impact against the side of the tub, the bundles of fibres are thoroughly broken up in this act of blowing off, rendering unnecessary a special apparatus for this purpose. The pulp from these tubs is therefore passed direct to the screens without further disintegration. The precise mode of handling the cooking operation varies almost in every factory, depending upon the quality of fibre required. Usually from 12 to 15 hours are occupied in cooking one charge and emptying and refilling the digester with acid and chips. In Mitcherlich's system, on the other hand, the same operations occupy from 60 to 70 hours. RECLAIMING THE S0 2 . During the " cooking" operation, SO a is allowed to escape from the upper part of the digesters and is recovered for re-use, various forms of apparatus having been arranged for 104 this purpose. In all cases the object in view is to enrich the freshly-prepared bisulphite liquor obtained from the lime- stone towers or absorption tubs with uncombined S0 2 . The principle involved in this recovery process is simply one of cooling and absorption. The steam and S0 3 gas, with a little liquor from the digesters, are thoroughly cooled by being conducted through coils of hard lead immersed in cold water, the condensate and any cooled unabsorbed S0 2 gas being passed directly into the freshly-prepared bisulphite liquor. The latter readily absorbs the gassous S0 3 and blends with the condensate. The amount of S0 3 thus circulating between the digesters and storage tank varies according to the extent of escape employed in the process of " cooking," but its magnitude may be gathered from the following trials per- formed by the author in a large Scandinavian sulphite pulp factory using bisulphite of lime. In this particular factory the freshly-made bisulphite of lime from the limestone tower was pumped into a lead-lined tank placed on a higher level than the digesters, and its volume in cubic metres, tem- perature and density carefully recorded, and its composition ascertained by chemical analysis. The escape from the digesters, without being cooled, was blown into the body of the cold liquor until its temperature was raised to 40° Centi. (at 50° Centi. the Ca S0 3 is precipitated), by which time practically all the recoverable S0 2 had passed away from the digester. The volume of the warm " acid " in the tank was then measured, and its temperature, density and com- position ascertained with the following results : — Recovery op SO„ prom Sulphite Digesters. Bisulphite of Lime Liquor. Before After receiving receiving " Escape." " Escape." Cold bisulphite of lime liquor in cm. cm. tank 15-90 16-75 Density in degrees Be 6-20 6-25 Temperature in degrees Centi.... 17-0 40-0 Composition : Total S0 2 3-585 4-410 Free S0 2 2-480 3-330 Combined S0 2 1-090 1-080 Kilos of S0 2 in liquor 571-0 738-6 Volume of liquor used per charge in digester 12-5 12-5 Kilos S0 2 used per charge in digester 551-2 105 In this particular factory the digesters were of the revolving cylindrical type, had each an internal capacity of 1,072 cubic feet, contained per " charge " 910 cubic feet of prepared chips and 2,740 imperial gallons of bisulphite liquor, and yielded on an average per charge — 4,200 lbs. of air-dry sul- phite cellulose. From these figures one ton or 2,240 lbs. of air-dry pulp required 572 cubic feet digester space per charge. 485 cubic feet of chips, weighing from 12 to 14 lbs. per cubic foot (one cubic foot of prepared chips containing 22 per cent. H 3 — dried at 100° Centi. — weighed 12 J lbs.) ; 1,461 imperial gallons of prepared " acid" containing 4-41 per cent. S0 2 = 322 lbs. sulphur, of which 98 lbs. or 30-5 per cent, were re- covered or sent back to the storage tanks for re- use, according to the above trialr-. As above stated the most frequent practice is to pass the escaping gases, &c, from the digester after cooling in coils into the freshly-prepared liquor contained in the storage tank, the capacity of which, as a rule, is large. The following represents the average (of many months) composition of such liquors in a pulp factory using a mixture of bisulphite of lime and magnesia prepared in absorbing tubs from sulphur and calcined " dolomite," before and after receiving the recoverable S0 2 from the digesters : — Liquor before receiving Recovery. Liquor after receiving Recovery. Free SO. Combined S0 2 Per cent, 2-03 1-08 Per cent. 3-22 •93 Total S0. 2 311 4-15 Sp. gr. at 62° Fah 1-0315 1 -0350 Assuming that only a negligible quantity of liquor escaped from the digester with the steam and S0 3 , as was actually the case in this instance, since the total quantity of combined SO,, in the " acid " remains substantially constant, although the quantity expressed in per cents, by volume or in grammes per litre will diminish according to the extent of the dilution, it is obvious that the amount of dilution can be ascertained by calculation, thus:— 1-08: 0-93:: 100: 117; which means that 100 volumes of cold acid became 117 volumes after the addition of the products of recovery. Also that 100 x 3-11 : 117 x 4-15 : : 100 : 156 or the amount of SO. 1C6 (or sulphur) received from the digester was 56 parts of that actually put into it (156 parts) and therefore the percentage recovered was equal to 35-9 (i.e., 156 : 56 : : 100 : 35-9). This result nearly coincides with the author's foregoing figure obtained by actual measurement and was obtained from rotary digesters in which 1,458 imperial gallons of bisulphite liquor were used per ton (2,240 lbs.) of pulp produced. In the case of upright stationary digesters, the volume of bisulphite liquor used per ton (2,240 lbs) of pulp made varies considerably and, as a rule, a larger excess is added than in the case of rotary digesters. Thus in one works in which upright stationary digesters of moderate capacity (3 tons per charge) were in use, the volume of bisulphite liquor added was 2,135 imperial gallons to the ton (2,240 lbs.) pulp, air-dry weight ; whilst in another with digesters of three times this capacity, the volume was 2,200 gallons- Summarising a long series of observations, the author has concluded that : — 1. The quantity of sulphur sent back from the digester to the storage tanks varies from 30 to 40 per cent, of the total added to the digester. 2. The percentage dilution varies according to the mode of recovery and to whether or not the whole of the liquor passing from the digester is allowed to flow through the cooling coils into the storage tanks. The variation amounts to from 17 to 38 per cent, reckoned on the cold acid into which the recovery is discharged. 3. The volume of acid required per ton of pulp made in rotary digesters varies from 1,450 to 1,600 imperial gallons ; and in stationary digesters varies from 1,800 to 2,200 imperial gallons. SODA RECOVERY. The waste soda lyes from esparto, straw and wood boiling, by either the soda or sulphate processes, are evaporated to dryness, and the residue calcined in order to recover the soda for re-use. There are two types of evaporators used for this purpose, namely, open, or surface evaporators, of which there are a great many kinds, notably those introduced by Porion and Enderlein ; and evaporators in which the liquid is concentrated with steam in vacuo to a high density, such as Chapman's, and the well-known Yaryan multiple evapora- tors. In respect to economy of fuel, the multiple evaporator, in conjunction with a steam generating plant at the end of the roaster in which the concentrated lye is incinerated, is the best, although Enderlein's apparatus very closely approaches it. 107 The organic matter associated with the soda, derived from the wood or fibrous plant, has a certain calorific value, which, if properly utilised, reduces to a minimum the quantity of fuel required. This calorific value can be ascertained by the aid of a calorimeter. Both its amount and heating value naturally vary with the kind of fibrous plant treated. The former can be ascertained either by analysis or by calculation and so also can the water associated with it. (See page 74.) There is approximately one ton of combustible matter obtained for every ton of air-dry pulp made from spruce wood by the caustic soda process. The Porion Evaporator, into which the waste soda lye is fed from a tank overhead, consists of a spacious rectangular brick chamber, the bottom of which forms a shallow reservoir, containing two cross shafts driven from the outside and carrying a series of paddles which, revolving at a high speed, throws the lye in the form of a fine spray into the upper part of the chamber — that is, into the current of hot fuel gases passing through the chamber from the calcining hearth to the chimney. When the lye on the bottom of the chamber has reached a density of from 45 to 50° Twaddell it is drawn off and conveyed by a bucket elevator or pump to a storage tank placed over the roasting or calcining furnace. The final concentration and incineration of the residual soda is carried out on the hearth of this furnace by means of a coal fire placed at one end, the products of combustion passing as above indicated into the Porion chamber. It is claimed that by this mode of recovery, 5,600 gallons of 8° Twaddell lye containing one ton (2,240 lbs.) of recovered ash (45/46 per cent. Na„0) are evaporated, and the residue calcined, with an expenditure of 2,770 lbs. of ordinary slack coal. Enderlein's system of evaporation is similar in principle, but instead of a series of arms on the shaft revolving at a rapid rate to produce a spray of the liquid in the upper part of the chamber, he arranges a series of wrought-iron discs, about six inches apart, on the shafts, through the intervening' spaces of which the fuel gases from the roaster — which may be stationary or revolving — must pass on their way to the chimney. The discs are^ partly immersed in the lye, and as they revolve they offer a large heating or evaporating surface to the' passing hot fuel gases. The complete apparatus for this system, which is specially adapted to the " sulphate " process, consists of : — First, a " smelter," 1-2 metres square area by 2 metres in height ; second, a rotary roaster, 5 metres long by 2\ metres in diameter ; and third, the evarx)rator specially constructed by Enderlein himself. This evaporator may be built of wrought 108 ^on. When this is done, it consists of a vessel about 16 feet long by about 7 feet deep and 14 feet wide, and contains two cross shafts, upon which are arranged the wrought-iron discs. These shafts, carrying the plates or discs, rotate about 10 revolutions per minute. The black lye from the digester is concentrated in this evaporator to about 38° Be., and from thence is run into the rotary roaster, where the remaining water is driven off and where the organic matter is partly burned. Enderlein recommends, however, that the com- bustion in the roaster should be minimised, in order to prolong the life of the roaster itself, and to obtain the maximum temperature in the smelter. The heat from the smelter passes through the roaster and then through the evaporator. The black mass from the rotary roaster, as it falls on the floor, is mixed with a proportion of salt cake, or crude sulphate of soda, and then thrown into the smelter, where, by the aid of a blast of air, it is fused at a bright red heat and flows in liquid form from the furnace. Usually it flows direct to a vessel containing water, in which it rapidly dissolves. From thence the strong alkaline solution is pumped to the causticiser. The chemical reaction which takes place within the smelter is a very simple one. The sulphate of soda is reduced by the carbon derived from the wood, or other fibrous plant, at a red heat, thus :— iSTa 2 S0 4 + 40 = Na; S + 4CO. The carbonate of soda remains unchanged. In one such apparatus, containing two shafts, each with 32 discs, the latter having a total heating surface of 350 square metres and revolving nine times per minute, from 70 to 80 cubic metres of waste lye from the sulphate pulp process are con- centrated from 16° Be. to 35 or 38° Be. Of this total heating- surface one-sixth dips into the lye in the evaporator, leaving five-sixths available for active evaporation. This apparatus, in conjunction with a rotary roaster and smelter, is capable of producing 4,600 tons (1,000 kilos.) of smelt per year, equal to about 13,500 kilos, smelt per day of 24 hours. If 15 per cent, be deducted from the daily output of smelt due to the addition of sulphate of soda, there remains 11,475 kilos, of smelt from the black waste lye. This waste lye enters the evaporator proper at 16° Be. and leaves it at 38° B.e, which corresponds to 143 kilos, per cubic metre for the weak lye and 460 kilos, per cubic metre for the concentrated lye. We have, therefore, 11,475 ■+■ 143, or 80 cubic metres weak lye, and 11,475 -f- 460, or 25 cubic metres of strong lye, the difference of 55 cubic metres or 55,000 litres being the water evaporated in 24 hours for the 300 square metres available evaporating surface of the discs. The water evaporated per square metre of heating surface of the discs is 55,000 -f- (24 x 300), or 7-64 kilos, per hour. (KircJmer.) 109 As a general rule, when the lye is fed to this apparatus at 16° Be\, no fuel is required beyond the organic matter associated with the soda. Enderlein states, on the other hand, that if the lye averages 10° Be. the consumption of coal is 250 kilos per ton (1,000 kilos) of pulp produced. When the lye registers less than 10° Be., such as that from esparto or straw, a multiple evaporator in conjunction with the Enderlein system is more economical. To obtain a high percentage of soda recovery such a combination is necessary. (See page 116 for composition of smelt, &c.) Quadruple or triple -effect multiple evaporators are very frequently employed, to concentrate the weak soda lyes to a density of from 50° to 70° Twaddell, the final evaporation and calcining of the residual mass being carried out on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, or rotary roaster, heated by a coal fire. The heat from the reverberatory furnace or roaster arising mostly from the combustion of the organic matter associated with the soda, is utilised in a variety of ways, but most frequently by generating steam for use in the evaporating pans. The high efficiency of the Yaryan, Chapman, and such- like evaporators in point of water evaporated per pound of steam used, makes such a system economical in respect to consumption of fuel. The following results were obtained from esparto liquors at Esk Mills, with Triple effect Yaryan and Jardin's reversible roaster. Liquors from esparto boiling. Twaddell of feed liq ... 7°) . ff 35 o ,, concentrated liq. ... 42°) 70°/ o caustic used, 190 cwts. = 277 cwts. 48% ash. 48% soda ash recovered = 512 ,, Total 48% used 789 cwts. 48 / o Ash recovered 606 cwts = 76*8% Coal. — Tons. Cwts. per Ton of ash Consumed at Yaryan ... 33 ■ 35 = 2 1'j at Yaryan boiler. ,, roaster ... 7-55 = 4f at roaster. Total for Yaryan and roaster 26|- c tvts. Labour. — Cost of labour at Yaryan and roaster, 5s. per ton of ash recovered. — Paper Trade Review. With the Chapman apparatus at Henden Paper Works, which consisted of a quadruple effect evaporator of upright pans, in connection with a double-flued steam boiler into which the weak esparto liquors were pumped, and from which the necessary steam for the evaporators was generated with coal, the following results were obtained. The amount 110 of coal required to complete the calcination of the ash in the roaster is not given, and therefore the coal consumption represents the concentration of the lye to 46£° Twaddell only. 200,000 gallons of black liquor of 5£°T. at 160° Fah. are reduced to 20,370 gallons of thick liquor of 46£° T. at 125° Fah. ready for the roasters by an expenditure of 20 tons 11 cwt. 3 qrs. of small coal, equivalent to an evaporation of 37 lbs. of water per pound of coal used, and to 10J cwt. coal per ton of ash recovered, without counting the coal used at roaster. — Paper Trade Review, 1890. At Croxley Paper Mills a trial was made on esparto liquors? lasting four hours, with quadruple Yaryan apparatus, the measurements and tests being taken by the then manager of the mill, Mr. J. W. Wyatt, with the following results [Paper Trade Review) : — Steam Boilers — Boiler pressure ... ... 65 lbs. Coal used per hour ... ... 10 cwts. Water evaporated per hour ... 572 galls. (5^ lb. per Weak Ltqtjor — lb. coal). Amount of feed per hour ... 1,537^ galls. Density of liquor in store tank 4° Twad. at 90° Fah. Strong Liquor — Amount of concentrated liquor per hour ... ... ... 17 6h galls. Density of concentrated liquor . 36° Twad. at 138° Fah. Evaporation in Yaryan — Water evaporated from weak liquor per hour ... ... 1,361 galls. Percentage of original volume . 88J % Pressure — Steam pressure in shell of first effect 17 lbs. Steam pressure in first separat- ing chamber ... ... 2 lbs. Vacuum in second separating chamber ... ... ... 6 in. Vacuum in third separating chamber ... ... ... 14| in. Vacuum in fourth separating chamber ... ... ... 23 in. Distilled Water — Amount of drip water per hour 1,535 J galls, at 176° Fah. Amount of vacuum water per hour ... 372 galls, at 125° Fah. Total amount of hot distilled water produced per hour ... l,907£ galls. Ill Steam used in Evaporator — Amount of steam condensed in first effect (1,9071 galls., less 1,361 galls.) 5461 ga n s . Steam used for Pumps — Amount of steam used for working the pumps (572 galls., less 546 J galls.) ... 25 J galls. Coal used — For pumps 50 lbs. To raise liquid from 90° Fah. to boiling point 390 lbs. To evaporate 1,361 galls, from boiling point 680 lbs. 1,120 lbs. Actual Work performed by the Yaryan Apparatus. — l,537Jr galls, of liquor raised from 90° Fah. to boiling point, and 1,361 galls, of water evaporated out of it, at an expenditure of 1,070 lbs. of coal, or 12-72 lbs. of water actually evaporated per pound of coal used. Evaporative result op the Yaryan. — 1,361 galls, of water evaporated from boiling point at an expenditure of 680 lbs. of coal, or 20 lbs. of water evaporated from boiling point per pound of coal, with only 5-J^ lbs. evaporation in the steam boiler. Note. — In the above calculation the amount of steam required to drive the pumps is not included, as the exhaust is utilised for purposes in the works other than evaporation in the Yaryan. The boilers used gave the above low evaporation per pound of coal on account of the mechanical stokers not being at the time in order. If they had been arranged and fired so as to evaporate 8 lbs. of water per pound of coal (a low average for good steam boilers), the above " Evaporative Result " of the Yaryan would have been at the rate of 3H lbs. of water per pound of coal. Mr. Wyatt also published, in the Paper Makers' Monthly Journal of July, 1889, the results, among others, of the concentration of soda liquors in a poplar pulp manufactory in the United States of America, which is representative of American practice. The rotary roasters were heated by a coal fire, and the waste heat passing from the roasters was utilised for raising steam for driving the necessary pumps and feeding the Yaryans. This particular mill works three 11 -coil triple-effect Yaryans in connection with three Warren rotaries, and produces about 40,000 lbs. of ash, testing 49 per cent. Na 2 O, in 24 hours, from liquor at 6|° to 7° Be\ at 145° Fah., concentrated to 35° to 37° Be. at 125° Fah., in the Yarvans. 112 The concentrated liquor is pumped into store tanks, from which it runs to the rotaries in a continuous stream. The cost for the month of November, 1888, was as follows : — 101f tons of coal at $3.15 per ton $320.91 Labour 357.85 Repairs 98.02 Total $776.78 Ash recovered, 951,540 lbs. Cost per 100 lbs. of ash = 8.16 cents. The labour consists of : — 1 man per 12 hours for 3 Yaryans at $1.75 per day. 3 men „ „ 3 Rotaries 2 at $1.75 1 at $1.50 = 8 men per 24 hours, at a cost of $13.50. The coal used is a soft bituminous slack. The percentage of recovery is about 85 per cent. The above item for repairs does not include the renewing of the brick lining to the rotary furnaces, which it is calculated will have to be done every six months, and would add another cent per 100 lbs. of ash to the cost of recovery. The small amount of coal used in the recovery not only burns off the ash, but, with the fuel contained in the ash, raises steam for all the Yaryan purposes, drives the small steam engines that turn the furnaces, and gives back for use in the mill as surplus steam about 25 per cent, of the steam raised in the boilers behind the furnaces. The cost of recovery in this mill, before the introduction of the Yaryan evaporator and rotary furnace, was as high as 42 cents per 100 lbs. of ash by the old system of open pans and long furnaces. The following results, obtained by the author at Northfleet Paper Mills with a quadruple effect Yaryan evaporator, concentrating waste soda lyes from soda wood pulp manu- facture, after making reasonable allowances, resemble the results obtained by Wyatt, and established the well-known fact that a machine of this nature will evaporate on an average 3-25 lbs. of water from and at 212° Fah. per pound of steam used. Economy of fuel in the recovery process lies wholly in the utilisation of the heat evolved from the combustion of the organic matter in the waste lyes, and from the coal fire used to start this combustion. When this is efficiently done a ton of ash can bo recovered with an expenditure of from 250 to 600 lbs. of coal, assuming a quadruple evaporator to be employed and lyes of about 5° to 7° Twaddell. 113 PH 13 LH O 1— 1 O £ > as w o 05 EC c tf y o 0) « o Pn 1* n w o bD K c ^ f! CM o fc> * « h fi o <5 as c > w O (H Pd Fh pi o Ph ! £ lO-*COWNMW00H! ION HIM IC t- l ^i^OOOOMW •3 :::::::::::::: :+3 :: :*3 : o • ■ • C ■ 0) .rl St) :::::' i :::::::: :-*=» : : : 3 : ::::::::::::::.«:: : o : C5 r-f : = : a -4 '' ''£ ' -3 3^ =::::::: :?&-:£ : S " "a " " ■ ■ ■ • - -2S^ .S . | » :::::::: :J,gg :^ : a" * ~"~"3 C * S3 -2 _ „ : = j2 : : : : - rt a; £ to 3 c< : A - -a ~ ~ jZ"& - o ** o g-P- 1 P5 o5 V" £ brj 2 53 &rf &S >»■« ^2 : = = Sh ■■=> * ^ooc-Sc ««§& § "g g c |t 5 § . u^n&IU - "-§ ..Istt-f *S •| " ^""§ ^^ §£ %Z a «3 all 2^ 8£ a> o CfiC<»vi©a>fcipH - -43 « 43 ^ « • - i .H .S^JJHPrtod) " "»o "3 § 32 P, p_ w « § £ & ~5 -§ gS^£ 2 2 o-g - "°=sS 3 I g'- 'HB>HHH -J „■ J rf g, 02 Ph >r QjhH HJ CO 43 114 COMPOSITION OF THE RECOVERED SODA AND LIQUORS. In English manufacturing practice the sulphate process is practically unknown, but on the Continent and Scandinavia Doth straw and wood pulps are prepared by it on an extensive scale. The difficulty in realising the process successfully lies principally in the preparation of the smelt, which should contain a large proportion of sulphide of sodium (Na 2 S). Instead of carbonate or caustic soda being used to make up the loss of alkali occurring in the manufacture, salt cake or crude sulphate of soda is mixed with the recovered ash, before the latter is calcined, and smelted together in specially constructed furnaces, whereby a smelt or recovered ash is obtained containing a large proportion of Na 2 S. Schacht gives the following as the composition of the final product in the recovery process, viz. : — Na„ C0 8 , 44-53 per cent. ; Na 2 Si0 8 , 6-00 per cent. ; Na 2 existing as Na OH, 4-65 per cent. ; Na 2 S, 30-25 per cent. ; Na 2 S0 4 , 1-35 per cent, insoluble, 3-82 per cent. In this analysis, on 100 parts of total alkali (Na 2 O) obtained by direct titration with acid (which includes Na„ O as carbonate, silicate, caustic and sulphide), 50-7 parts are in combination as sulphide Na 2 S. It is obvious that this sulphate process is applicable equally to the preparation of paper pulp from esparto, bamboo, and other such like fibrous plants. Kir diner (Vol. Ill) gives a long series of analyses represent- ing the composition of the recovered ash and causticised liquor obtained in different works, of which the following are typical of Continental practice. Soda Process. — Dr. Goldberg. — Straw pulp factory in which commercial soda ash is used to replace the loss of alkali. In- Kind of Ash. Na, CO. NaOH Na., SO, SiO., soluble. 0/ /o % /o /o % 1. Once regenerated, with much carbon 58-20 5-50 3-37 11-10 10-96 2. More than once re- generated . . 69 67 11-92 3-71 1000 3-06 3. "White burnt ash . . 73-49 6-83 3-20 10-58 0-94 4. Many times regen- erated 75-32 1-79 5-21 10-08 352 More recently the same authority gives, for a recovered ash : Na„ CO.,, 55-67 per cent. ; Na OH, 3-74 per cent. ; Na 2 S, : 52 per cent. ; Si0 2 , 7-32 per cent. ; Na 2 S0 4 , 4-74 per cent. ; insoluble, 1-55 per cent. The 7-32 per cent. Si0 2 corresponds to 14-88 per cent. Na 2 Si0 3 . Fresh causticised lye made from this ash, of sp. gr. 1-079 = 1<)^° Be., contained by direct determination per litre, 115 59-000 grammes of total alkali (Na, 0), 48-800 grammes Na OH, 0-785 grammes Si0 2 , 3-173 "grammes S0 3 , and 3-893 grammes S0 3 , after oxidation of the sulphides present. From these figures he calculates that there are — NaOH 48-640 grammes per litre. Na, C0 3 .. 12-128 Na, S 0-156 Na, SiO, 1-832 Na, S0 4 5-632 Another authority, whose name is not revealed, gives the following composition of caustic soda lyes in a straw pulp factory in which the same conditions prevail as the foregoing: — ■ Causticised Liquor. Grammes per Litre. Total alkali Na., C0 3 . . Caustic alkali (reckoned as Na, CO.,).. 9698 87-45 9 53 98-16 80-88 94-92 85-15 92-75 85-33 86-07 81-62 84-80 75-26 Na„ CO 17-28 9-77 742 4-45 9-54 These caustic lyes contained besides from 4 to 5 grammes Na, S0 4 , from 0-05 to 0-20 grammes Na, S, and about 0'5 grammes Si O,, on an average, per litre. A large number of analyses of the recovered ash, by the same authority, gave 73-14 per cent, of total alkali, reckoned as Na, CO s (of which 6-89 per cent, existed as Na OH), 0-08 per cent, as Na, S, 4-29 per cent. Na, S0 4 , and 2-74 per cent, as SiO,. In connection with the foregoing the lime sludge from the causticisms, after washing on the vacuum filter, gave on analysis : — (a) 70-09 per cent, water ; 22-20 per cent. Ca CO 3 ; 3-20 per cent. Ca (0H) 2 ; total alkali reckoned as Na, C0 3 , 0-57 per cent. (6) 68-09 per cent, water; 22-19 per cent. Ca C0 3 ; 3-06 per cent. Ca (OH) 2 ; total alkali (Na, C0 3 ) 0-60 per cent; 0-52- per cent. Fe 2 3 and Al ,0 3 ; 3-00 per cent. SiO, and 0-08 per cent. P, 5 . (c) Dried Sludge. 80-20 per cent. Ca C0 3 ; 3-07 per cent. Na, CO, ; 1-75 per cent. Al 2 3 and Fe 3 3 ; 8-60 per cent, insoluble and 7-04 per cent, water and loss on gentle ignition. Sulphate Process. — According to W. Schacht and Dr. M. Muller both of whom have a wide experience with this process, the composition of the smelt or recovered soda obtained in both the straw and wood pulp manufacture, when sulphate of soda is used to make up the loss of alkali, is represented by the following analyses :— 116 co os *a o co go o o CO ^H I I I I I I I I I O O f-i i-h O CO O O o © Cl t- r- a ^ 03 w M< O co CO H O ^ O Ol 00 >o i> a) i> 10 cc c r3 C O h H S< S3 «j £ ft <1 © S3 fj o o & y-s O o o £ ft CO © o 1* £ © l-l &SP < &> < *^ ^ >7d © 9*3 ^ © ■*= !> 52 * Remarks. <*> t-co " H 1— 1 I— 1 o o o o O CO t- 2 cT lii t^ <£ -^ xo eo co 1 2 .3 ! £ ill 1 cb w i> oo c fl CO ° co t- t- o o o © o m !>• © CO © © c_P »p CO CO © co co go © co cc -^ © GO (M CO CO ^ >-H l-H l-l r-H e at 15° NaOH E. 61-40 62-60 64-00 24-00 63-00 45-00 80-60 77-80 87-8D | o ^ ' eT 1 fe; o — i © CO ^ oooow* 2 9*r^ o 909999 £ © co © t^ cc © 4* © ih © iJ ,— 1 CO 1— < £> co co co -* co M 1-5 o A. — Straw Ce W. Schacht . . B. — Wood Cel Dahl Dr. M. Miiller W. Schacht ... '.'. Lime. Kilcs. Ml co co co 1 1 i Sulphate. Kilcs. 1 1 1 SS2 1 1 1 Smelt, Kilos. 1 i 1 ££©■ 1 1 I 6 hc^m ** © i> 00 © 118 Taking an average of the first three analyses (1, 2, and 3) in the above table, which are fairly regular, the amount of Na 2 S on 100 alkali Na., obtained by direct titration with standard acid, is 35-12. The author obtains constantly liquors containing over 50 per cent of the total alkalinity in the form of sulphide of sodium, Na 2 S. The proportion of sulphide depends on the mode and apparatus used for reducing the Na 2 S0 4 to Na 2 S. Also, in the liquors 5 to 9 inclusive, there exists a large quantity of sulphite of sodium, Na Q S0 3 , which is due to the partial oxidation of the Na 2 S in the smelt, prior to causticising. In the soda wood pulp works using soda ash it is frequently necessary to ascertain the amount of ash contained in large volumes of black lyes, and the following table will be found useful for this purpose : — WASTE SODA LYES FROM WOOD PULP. TABLE showing grammes per litre of recovered ash from waste soda lyes from wood boiling at 15° Cent. {Practice of North German Wood Pulp Factory ) Grammes Degrees Specific (about) of !Sra 2 CO, in Ash. Baume. Gravity. Recovered Ash from 1 Litre. 6 1-045 40-5 7 1052 51-2 8 1-060 61-9 o 1067 71-5 10 1075 81-0 11 1083 89-1 12 1091 97-2 13 1-100 105-5 14 1-108 113-5 15 1-116 121-5 16 1-125 130-0 Many samples of 17 1-134 138-5 the recovered ash 18 1-142 148-2 established an 19 1-152 1591 average of 80 % 20 1-162 170-0 Na„ C0 3 = 21 1-171 180-0 44-8 % Na 2 O. 22 1-180 190-0 23 1-190 201-5 24 1-200 212 25 1-210 222-5 26 1-221 233-2 27 1-231 2440 28 1-241 254-0 29 1-252 264-2 30 1-263 275-4 (Kirchner, Vol. III.) 119 LOSS OF ALKALI. The losses of alkali (Na 2 -0) occurring in the manufacture of straw, esparto, and wood cellulose are chiefly the following :— (1) Chemical Losses. — Combination of the soda with silica and alumina contained in the plant and bricks of the furnaces to form silicate and aluminate of soda. These are subsequently decomposed in the causticiser. J. W. Kynaston has suggested the addition of bicarbonate of soda to the recovered ash liquor, whereby the silicate is decomposed thus :— 2 Na H C0 3 +Na 2 SiO s = 2 Na 2 C0 3 + SiO„ + H 2 0. (2) Mechanical Losses. — Leakages of every character; imperfect washing of the insoluble matter left after dissolving the recovered ash ; imperfect washing of the pulp and the lime sludge on vacuum filters. Volatilisation of the soda in the smelting furnaces. These losses amount in the aggregate to from 15 to 30 per cent, of the total soda put into the digester. In the wood pulp manufacture it should never be more than 15 to 20 per cent, with well-designed plant. PREPARATION OF CAUSTIC SODA LYES. These should be prepared from the purest form of com- mercial soda, such as ammonia soda ash containing 58 per cent. Na 2 0, excepting in the case of the so-called " sulphate process, when the presence of Na 2 S0 4 , NaCl, &c, cannot be avoided. The carbonate of soda is converted into caustic by boiling with caustic lime, the lime being either added direct in lumps to the vessel called the " causticiser," in which the ash is dissolved in water, or previously made into a thick cream with water in a separate vessel, strained through a sieve, and then pumped into the " causticiser." The causticiser consists of a wrought-iron vessel fitted with an upright mechanical agitator to keep the fluid in motion, a drop syphon to run off the clear liquor, and a plug valve in the bottom to run off the residual lime. When the lime is added direct, it is placed in a perforated wrought-iron box called a cage, slung in the upper part of the causticiser, but when added in the form of a milk, the cage may be omitted. Three batches of liquor, each varying in density, can be made in the causticiser before running off the residual lime sludge. The first batch should not exceed 28° Twaddell, the second, to which only a small quantity of fresh lime is added, should be 18° Twaddell ; whilst the third, to which no fresh addition of lime, as a general rule, is required, need not exceed 10° Twaddell, all taken at 62° Fah. The foregoing densities refer to the carborated alkali liquor derived from either fresh or recovered ash. Each individual batch in the 120 eausticiser is boiled with an open steam pipe, both during and after the addition of the lime, and tested for the presence of C0 2 by filtering a small quantity of the liquor into a test tube and adding thereto a small quantity of a 10 per cent, aqueous solution of bichromate of potash, and then acidifying with HCL. If the whole of the soda has been converted into caustic, no appearance of escaping C0 2 will be visible. It is necessary to use K 2 Cr 2 O r in this test, as it oxidises anv sulphides, &c, present winch the acid would decompose and render visible by escaping H„S, thus vitiating the test for C0 2 . Obviously this is more especially necessary when causticising liquors in the " sulphate " process. After boiling in the eausticiser and the conversion of the carbonate to caustic has been completed, the agitator is stopped, the lime allowed to settle, and the clear liquor syphoned off into a reservoir. Fresh carbonated liquor and water are then added to make up a second charge of 18° Twaddell, and thoroughly boiled. If, after testing with acid as above, the carbonate is not all converted into caustic, more lime is added in slight excess, the liquor again boiled, allowed to settle, and when clear syphoned off as before. A third batch of about 10° Twaddell is then made, which will usually be found to require no addition of lime. When this is syphoned off, the lime sludge remaining in the eausticiser is washed by decantation several times with hot water, the washings being either added to the freshly causticised lye or run into a storage tank for use instead of water in the causticising operation. The lime sludge may be run off into a pit whose bottom is covered with ashes, or into a filter, the bed of which is about 12 inches thick and composed of varying sizes of limestone and coal ashes or clinker, the finer material being uppermost. The filter bed rests on a perforated wrought-iron false bottom, and frequently suction by means of a pump is applied below the false bottom to accelerate the filtration. Theoretically 100 parts of Na 2 C0 3 require 52-83 parts CaO for complete causticisation. In practice under the best conditions from 60 to 65 parts are required. Recovered ash and liquors derived from it are contaminated with more or less silicate of soda, depending upon the amount of silica contained in the raw fibrous plant treated (see page 79). When the alkali Na„ C0 3 is prepared by the Le Blanc process, in which Na 2 S0 4 is roasted at a red heat with coal and limestone according to the reaction Na 2 S0 4 + Ca CO., + 4 C = Na 2 C0 3 +'CaS + 4 CO, and subsequent lixi- viation of the ball soda in Shanks' vats, the crude carbonate of soda liquor contains Na 2 S and undecomposed Na„S0 4 , together with small quantities of Na CI. Also, in the 121 so-called " sulphate " process (applied to straw and wood), the loss of alkali is made good by addition of salt cake or crude Na 2 S0 4 to the thickened mass from the rotary roaster before throwing it into the smelter, and during the subsequent ignition the sulphate is reduced to sulphide. The liquor prepared from this " flux " contains large quantities of Na 2 S and undecomposed Na 2 S0 4 (see page 117). In both of these cases the liquors are causticised in the same way as described above. Lunge has investigated the transformation of carbonate of soda into caustic in aqueous solution by boiling with lime under ordinary atmospheric pressure, with the following results :■ — Before Causticising. After Causticising. Carbonate of Soda converted into Caustic. % Na 2 CO,,. Specific Gravity. Expt. No. 1. Expt. No. 2. 2 5 10 12 14 16 20 1-022 at 15° Cent, 1-052 at 15° ., 1-107 at 15° „ 1-127 at 15° „ 1-150 at 15° „ 1-169 at 30° „ 1-215 at 30° „ 99-4% 99-0% 97-2% 96-8% 94-5% 93-7% 90-7% 99-3% 99-2% 97-4% 96-2% 95-4% 94-0% 91-0% Similar experiments, but conducted at a temperature of 148° to 153° Cent., gave :— Before Causticising. After Causticising. Carbonate of Soda converted into Caustic. % Na, CO.,. Specific Gravity. Expt. No. 1. Expt, No. 2. 10 12 14 16 20 1-107 at 15° Cent. 97-06% 1-127 at 15° „ 96-35% 1-150 at 15° „ 95-60% 1-169 at 30° „ 95-40% 1-215 at 30° „ 91-66% 1 97-5% 96-8% 96-6% 94-8% 91-61% 122 Obviously from the above (1) the percentage of carbonate of soda (Na 2 C0 3 ) transformed into caustic (Na OH) decreases as the Specific gravity of the solution increases ; and (2) increase of temperature during causticising (i.e., causticising the Na 3 C0 3 under pressure above that of the atmosphere) yields no advantage. For the preparation of five tons of caustic soda (77 per cent.) from ammonia ash per day, four causticisers are necessary, each of a capacity of 500 cubic feet. (See page 184 for Specific gravity of solutions of carbonate of soda.) The following table shows the influence of temperature from to 65° Cent, on the density (Be) of caustic soda lyes. TEMPERATURE IIST DEGREES CENTIGRADE. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 2-0 1-9 1-6 1-4 11 1-0 0-9 0-6 0-3 _ 3-8 3-2 2-9 2-8 2-5 2-4 23 2-0 1-7 1-4 11 0-9 04 — 4-6 4-5 43 4-1 3 9 3-7 3-5 3-3 30 2-8 2-5 2-2 1-9 14 5-9 5-8 5-5 5-4 5-1 5-0 49 46 4-4 4-1 3-9 3-6 3-1 2-8 7-3 71 6-9 6-7 6-4 6-3 62 5-9 5-6 5-4 5-1 49 4-5 41 86 8-4 8-2 8-0 7-8 7-6 7-5 73 7-0 6-7 64 6-2 5-8 5-4 9-9 9-8 9-5 9-4 91 90 8-9 8-6 8-3 .8-0 7-8 7-5 71 6'7 <"> 11-1 110 10-8 106 104 10-3 101 9-9 9-6 9-4 91 8-9 8-4 80 ti 12-3 122 12-0 11-9 11-6 11-5 11-4 11-1 10-9 10-6 104 100 9-8 9-5 ~ 13-6 13-4 13-3 13 12-8 12-6 12-4 12-2 121 11-9 11-5 11-1 10-9 10-5 »<14-9 14-6 14-5 143 140 138 13-5 13-2 13-0 12-9 12-7 12-3 120 11-8 8 16-1 15-9 15'7 15-4 15-2 15-0 14-8 14-5 143 14-0 13-8 13-4 13 12-7 in 173 17*0 16-8 16-5 16 3 16-1 15-9 15-7 155 15-2 150 14-6 143 13-9 18-4 18-2 18-0 17*8 17-5 17-3 17-0 16-8 165 16-2 16-0 15-7 15-4 15-1 19-4 19-2 19-0 18-8 18-6 18-4 18-2 18-0 17-8 17-4 17-1 16-8 165 16-2 204 20-2 200 19-8 195 19-3 19'1 18*9 18*6 18-4 18-2 18-0 17-6 173 21-6 213 21-2 20-9 20-5 203 201 19-9 19*6 19-4 19-2 19-0 18-7 18-4 227 22-5 22'2 22-0 21-7 21-4 21-2 20-9 20-7 20 4 20-2 20 19-7 19-4 23-7 235 23-2 23-0 22-7 22-5 223 22-0 2V8 2V6 21-3 21-1 20-8 20-4 24-7 24-5 24-2 24-0 23-7 23*5 23-3 23-0 22-8 22-6 22-4 22-2 220 21-7 25-7 25-5 25-2 25-0 24-7 24-4 243 24-0 23-8 23-5 23*2 23-1 22-9 22-6 Batjmk and Specific Gravity of Milk of Lime at 15° Cext. (Blattner.) Baume\ One Litre weighs One Litre contains Grammes. CaO Grammes. 1 1,007 7-5 2 1,014 16-5 3 1,022 26-0 4 1,029 360 5 1,037 460 1,045 56-0 7 1,052 65-0 8 1,060 75-0 123 Baume anc Specific Gravity of Milk of Lime— Continued. One Litre weighs One Litre contains Baume Grammes. CaO Grammes, 9 1,067 84-0 10 1,075 94-0 11 1,083 104-0 12 1,091 1150 13 1,100 126-0 14 1,108 137-0 15 1,116 148-0 16 1,125 159-0 17 1,134 1700 18 1,142 1810 19 1,152 193-0 20 1,162 206-0 21 • 1,171 218-0 22 1,180 229-0 23 1,190 242-0 24 1,200 255-0 25 1,210 268-0 26 1,220 281-0 MECHANICAL WOOD PULP MANUFACTURE. German Practice. (I. M. Voith, Papier Calender.) The pulp wood is peeled either by hand or b}^ machine, and cut into lengths suitable for the machines or grinders ; knots removed by boring if a particularly clean pulp is desired. The wood, if for white pulp, is conveyed direct to the grinders; if for " brown " pulp, it is taken to the boilers to be steamed. There are two systems of grinding distinguished by the terms " cross '*- grinding (querschliff), and "long" grinding (lang- schliff), according to the motion of the surface of the stone towards the wood fibres. Fine " cross " ground, short fibred pulp is suitable for nearly all purposes, whilst " long " ground pulp is more suitable for document, envelope and printing papers, and especially for cardboards. Cross grinders are built with horizontal and vertical shafts, the former being by far the more numerous. Vertical shaft grinders aie more suitable for powers of great height, so that the grinder alone can be fixed upon the turbine shaft. The stones vary in size from 1,200 to 1,500 mm. in diameter (48 to 60 inches), from 440 to 580 mm. in breadth (18 to 24 inches), and revolve at a speed of from 150 to 180 revolutions per minute, according 124 to size. Long grinders (patent Schmidt) are built with horizontal shatt having two presses, which are actuated by a chain and weights raised and lowered by a winch arrangement. The stones are 1,000 mm. (39i inches) in diameter. Speed, 220 to 240 revolutions per minute, and maximum power required = 30 H.P. per stone. The water required, including that for sorting (screening), &c, for — '' Cross" grinding = 500 litres (132 gallons) per minute per 100 H.P. ''Long" grinding = 600 litres (159 gallons) per minute per 100 H.P. The stuff direct from the stones flows first through a coarse sieve which retains the coarse chips, then upon the sorting machines or screens. Voith's patent sorting machine has three sieves, the uppermost one acts as a rough sorter, and separates those particles that are too coarse for the raffineur. Special sorters are considered superfluous. The stuff retained by the middle and bottom sorters or sieves is collected in a stuff chest with mechanical agitator, common to all the sorting machines, and is then pumped up and fed regularly to the raffineur. The stones of this machine are 1,200 mm. (48 inches) in diameter, and revolve 150 revolutions per minute. The pulp flowing from the raffineur is mixed with the freshly- ground wood and screened. The separation of the pulp from the water is now exclusively carried out with the pulp or " wet " machine. With one press roll, pulp containing 38 per cent, of air-dry weight can be obtained, and with a second press roll 50 per cent, air-dry weight. The pulp may be scraped off the roll if desired. According to the size and arrangement of the pulp installa- tion one worker will prepare from 100 to 170 kilos (220 to 374 lbs.) of air-dry pulp per 24 hours, including peeling the wood, attending the machines and packing. For the preparation of 100 kilos (220 lbs.) packed air-dry pulp per 24 hours, there are required about— 7 to 8 H.P. for '' cross " grinding, and 6 „ 7 H.P. „ "long" 100 kilos (220 lbs.) of air-dry pulp require 0-28 to 0-38 solid metre of wood (9-88 to 12-36 cubic feet). The necessary requirements for successful work are : — First : A driving power, usually water power, not under 60 to 80 H.P., effective. Second : Convenient supply of wood, preferably spruce (white or black), also aspen. Fir (Scotch), poplar, and beech are less often used. Young freshly-cut stem wood, of 120 to 150 mm. diameter (4|- inches to 6 inches). Third : Cheap freights, cheap wood, and facilities for delivering 125 same by water or rail to factory, play an important part in the commercial success of the manufacture. Fourth : Pure water. Spring water is not absolutely necessary, but by its use exceptionally clean pulp is obtained. Fifth : Cheap labour. Another German authority (" E.N.." Papier Zeituv.g, August, 1892) gives the following : — Three grinders. Stones, 1-25 metres diameter by 0-50 metres broad (49^ inches by 20 inches), can be used down to 1 metre in diameter. All three stones are fixed on main shaft, which revolves 180 per minute. The pressure in accumulator for presses and spray pipes amounts to four atmospheres (CO lbs. per square inch). One turbine of 300 E.H.P. drives the whole installation, of which 280 E.H.P. are consumed by the grinders and 20 E.H.P. by the other machines, pumps, &c. The daily production amounts to 4 tons of air-dry pulp, equivalent to 24 tons per week of six days. ( 100 kilos of 220 lbs. air-dry pulp made per 24 hours required 7 E.H.P.) Sixteen cubic metres (raummeters) of spruce pulp wood were used per day, or 4 cubic metres of peeled wood per ton of pulp, equivalent to 142 cubic feet, or 1 jLth cord of 128 cubic feet. American Practice differs but slightly from the foregoing, the manufacture being of a less refined nature and substantially confined to "cross" grinding. In a mill having 20 grinders, each with stones of 50 inches in diameter by 18 inches wide, three hydraulic press boxes and consuming 250 E.H.P., the output is 75 to 80 tons, of 2,000 lbs. each, per 24 hours. What is known as " hot " grinding is, as a general rule, followed, that is, the pulp flowing from the stones has a temperature of about 125 to 130° Fah., the heat being produced by the friction caused by the pressure of the wood against the revolv- ing stone. No rafnneur is used to work up the screenings. Twenty suction screens of the Packer type are used for screening. The fineness of the pulp depends on the fineness of the slits in the screen plates. These are graded so that for fine papers a slit of Y^yths of an inch is employed ; for common " news " a slit of T1 Vt o-ths of an inch. The stuff from the grinders, properly diluted with water, is first allowed to flow over the finer plates, then over the others, and finally over plates having slits T ^o-ths of an inch wide. The fibre passing the last set of screens is returned to the original mass coming from the grinders. Everything that has not passed through the screens is allowed to flow into the river, and is lost. The power consumed per ton of pulp produced is substantially the same in both German and American works. The foregoing gives 6-88 E.H.P. per 100 kilos (220 lbs.) of pulp made per 24 hours, 126 For "cross" grinding, the following figures may be given as representing average practice per ton (2,240 lbs.) of air-dry pulp per 24 hours.: — Power required = 72 E.H.P. Spruce pulp wood = 1^ to 1^ cords. Water = 100 to 200 thousand gallons. BROWN WOOD PULP. Brown paper made almost exclusively from wood con- stitutes an important branch of the paper trade in Germany and Scandinavia. Fry, it appears, was the first to attempt the manufacture of brown paper pulp from wood by simply subjecting it to the action of steam at a high temperature. For this purpose the wood chips were placed in large boilers, and heated with high pressure steam for several hours ; the temperature required being about 332° Fah., corresponding to a pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch above the atmosphere. The action of the steam upon the incrusting substances surrounding the fibre of the wood was not found to be very vigorous. Very little of these substances are, in fact, ren- dered soluble, but some of them are transformed into useful organic acids (acetic, &c. ), which, however, react on the shell of the boiler, causing inordinate wear and tear. In order to obviate this corrosive action of the acids, attempts have been made with greater or less success to steam the wood in the presence of an alkaline body such as lime, which com- bines with the organic acids forming compounds that exert no corrosive action on the boiler plate. When this system is carried out it is obvious that the acids or their compounds are lost. For many years past boilers constructed of wrought iron or steel plate, and covered inside with a coating of thin sheet copper, have been used for the purpose of preparing brown wood pulp. The inside coating of copper forms an acid- resisting lining, upon which the organic acids formed during the steaming process have practically no solvent action. These boilers are of considerable size, being, as a general rule, about 15 feet long by 6 feet in diameter, their total cubic capacity being about 425 cubic feet. As there is no necessity for them to revolve, they are of the horizontal stationary type. As the" wood is ground after being steamed in these boilers, it must, accordingly, be put into them in pieces to suit the grinding machines. This is done by two workmen, one of whom packs the pieces of wood in layers within the boiler, while the other passes them to him through one of the two man- holes placed at each end. Steam of about six; atmospheres. 127 (90 lbs.) is then admitted through a suitable valve, and the pressure, which is recorded by a steam gauge, maintained from 8 to 18 hours as the necessities of the case may be, or until the wood has been rendered soft and of a dark brown colour. The water condensed inside the boiler is allowed to flow away through a tap fixed at the bottom. The acid and oil products distilled from the wood are contained in this condensed water, and are usually collected together in a reservoir. The oil of turpentine, as it is commonly called, floats on the surface, and is separated from the water beneath by means of a ladle. It is very inflammable, and, because of its value, is sold. When the wood has been sufficiently steamed, the pressure is blown off, and the boiler filled and emptied three times with cold water, the object in view being twofold, viz. : — First, to cool the wood so that the workmen can easily remove it ; and, second, to wash it free from impurities, thus making it more suitable for the grinding machines. The boiler is then emptied by manual labour, the pieces being passed out through the manholes. 128 CHAPTER IV a COLOURED PAPERS. Chemical Properties op Paper-Making Fibres. Cotton. — Cotton is almost pure cellulose (C 6 H 10 O 5 ). In the raw state it contains about 5 per cent, of impurities, which are soluble to a certain extent in caustic or carbonate of soda. These impurities consist of pectic acid, brown colouring matter, cotton wax, fatty acids (margaric acids), and albuminous matter. Cellulose is closely allied in composition to starch glucose, starch, and dextrine (Sp. Gr. 1 50). It is insoluble in ordinary solvents— water, alcohol, &c. — but is soluble in ammoniacal solution of cupric hydrate. Cold dilute mineral acids have little or no action on it ; in the concentrated state they act injuriously upon the fibre, especially if heated. Concentrated sulphuric acid causes it to sw r ell up and form a gelatinous mass — the vegetable parchment of commerce — which is coloured blue with a solution of iodine. [Vegetable parchment has a greater affinity for the basic coal tar dyes than pure cotton.] If com- pletely disorganised by acids it is converted into what is known as hydro-cellulose. When steeped in a mixture of cold nitric and sulphuric acids it increases in weight, and is converted into gun-cotton of powerful explosive properties. When this is dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether, collodion is formed. Weak solutions of the alkalies, potash, and soda have little or no action upon cotton, but in the concentrated state they tender and otherwise destroy the fibre. Lime in water has little or no action upon the fibre, provided the cotton is immersed in the liquid. Any portion exposed to the air becomes much tendered by the oxidation of the fibre. Chlorine gas quickly tenders the fibre if exposed to sunlight. Hypochlorites (bleaching powder) tender cotton more or less rapidly, according to the strength and temperature of the solution, and the duration of their action. When these are used in the cold diluted state the action is inappreciable, and confined to the bleaching of the colouring matter. Cotton dipped in a solution of bleaching powder of 5° Twaddell, exposed to the air for an hour and then washed , exhibits an increased attraction for basic coal tar dyes, and possesses the property of decomposing normal salts of iron, alumina, &c. This remarkable change is due to the action of the hypochlorous acid liberated by the carbonic acid of the air. The cotton has become thereby changed to oxy-cellulose (Witz). With few exceptions colouring matters are not attracted by the cotton fT resorted to in dyeing it. 129 Linen. — The raw fibre is cleansed or purified by passing it through the various processes of retting, breaking, scutching, hackling, &c. It consists essentially of cellulose. In the raw state it contains from 15 to 30 per cent, of foreign substances, chiefly pectic acid. The action of various chemicals upon it is much the same as upon cotton, but generally speaking linen is more susceptible to disintegration under the influence of caustic alkalies, lime, and strong oxidising agents — e.g., chlorine, hypochlorites, &c. Great care must therefore be exercised in bleaching to preserve the strength of the fibre. Linen is more easily dyed than cotton. Jute. — Owing to its great strength is much admired as a paper-making fibre. The raw fibre is separated from the plant by processes similar to those employed in obtaining the flax fibre — viz., retting, beating, washing, &c. The jute fibre is not identical with, although closely allied to, cellulose, and hence it has been called " bastose" (Cross & Bevan). Acted upon by chiorine, and subsequently by a solution of sulphite of soda, a brilliant magenta colour is produced, a reaction similar to that obtained from tannin -mordanted cotton. Tannin-like bodies are distributed throughout the mass of the jute fibre, and hence it has a powerful attraction for basic coal tar dyes, and can be dyed direct by them. Alkalies dissolve the tannin bodies, leaving cellulose. When exposed in a damp state it is decom- posed into two groups of bodies — namely, acids of the pectic class and tannin-like substances. Acids, especially mineral acids, disintegrate jute at low temperatures. Chlorine and hypochlorites produce chlorinated compounds which are more or less partially removed by solutions of the alkalies. The Leykam-Josepthal process of bleaching jute is founded upon these reactions. Weak solutions of hypochlorites of lime bleach the fibre to a pale cream colour, at the same time oxidising it and forming compounds which decompose calcium salts. For this reason weak hypochlorite of soda yields better results than hypochlorite of lime. The loss of weight in bleaching varies from 2 to 8 per cent., according to the method used. The papermaker has to deal almost entirely with fibres of vegetable origin, very seldom wool being ixsed. In many cases these vegetable fibres are not in a physical condition to absorb dyes direct from aqueous solution. A chemical agent, called a "mordant," is therefore employed to fix the dye upon the fibre, or in some cases to develop the colour itself. Mordants are usually metallic salts, the oxides of which combine with the colouring principle of the dye to form insoluble coloured lakes. These lakes adhere to the surface of the fibres. The oxides or their basic salts may be fixed upon the surface of the fibre previous to dyeing it, or the coloured lake may be formed by itself, and then added to the pulp. The choice of a suitable mordant should be carefully made. 9 130 The colouring of paper pulp can therefore be carried out in two ways : — 1st — Dyeing the pulp by means of soluble dyes, or dye- stuff, with or without the use of mordants. 2nd — Colouring the pulp with pigments and other mineral colours. DYEING PAPER PULP. Combination of Colours. Primary. Secondary. Tertiary. ^ Orange. Purple. Green. ^ — -*^ Broken Green. The arrows point to the colour produced by mixing red and yellow, &c. Dyes may be divided into two great classes — namely (1), those which dye the pulp by themselves, called " substan- tive " dyes ; and (2) those that require the application of a chemical agent or mordant to produce the colour itself, called " adjective " dyes. The basic aniline dyes belong to the former class, whilst the vegetable dyes, logwood, fustic, quercitron, &c, and others of the aniline (acid) series of dyes belong to the latter. Substantive or Basic Dyes. — Of the aniline dyes of this series that will dye cotton fibre direct, i.e., without the intervention of a mordant, the following are the most important : — Water Blue. Safranine. Hochst Scarlet. Brilliant Green. Eosine. Malachite Green. Rose Bengal. Erythrosine. Magenta, Phloxine. Acid Brown. Methyl Violet. Adjective or Acid Dyes. — These are best used with a mordant. Mordants consist chiefly of metallic salts, and are added to the pulp in the engine before the addition of the dye. These salts are deposited with or without the aid of a precipi- tant or heat in a more or less modified state upon the surfaces of the fibres, rendering the latter capable of absorbing the colouring matter. Heat usually facilitates the deposition of the oxides, especially when the metallic mordants are pre- 131 viously rendered basic. The salts most commonly employed are those of aluminum, iron, copper, chromium, tin, and lead. The former of these, especially iron, require no precipitant to fix them upon the fibre, and most of them form different coloured lakes with the same dye. Thus in the case of the vegetable dye logwood there is formed — Grey and black precipitates with bichromate of potash and sulphate of iron. Violet precipitates with tin salts. Blue precipitates with sulphate of copper. Bluish-violet precipitates with alum or sulphate of alumina. Blue-black precipitates with alum or sulphate of alumina and bichromate of potash. The following are the most important and commonly used mordants : — Salts of alumina, potash alum, K 2 Al 2 4 S0 4 + 24 H 2 ; ammonia alum, (N H 4 ) 2 Al 2 4 SO 4+ 24 H 2 O ; sulphate of alumina, Al 2 3 (S0 4 ) + 50% Aq. These salts give an acid reaction with blue litmus paper, but can be rendered basic, or their acid character partly destroyed, by adding a weak solution of soda crystals to their hot solution till a slight permanent precipitate of hydrate of alumina is formed. Both potash and ammonia alum are met with in the market of great purity — i.e., freedom from iron ; sulphate of alumina occurs, on th,e other hand, in many degrees of purity. The chief impurity in all three is iron, and the presence of this may be ascertained by adding a drop of an aqueous solution of ferro-cyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate of potash) to one of the alum. If iron be present, the well-known blue colouration of Prussian blue will be formed. (For composition of the alums, &c, see page 183.) The alums are used most extensively for fixing vegetable dyes, more especially logwood, redwood, yellow- wood, quercitron, catechu. But these dyes are now seldom used, owing to the cheapness, great tintorial power, and great brilliancy of the aniline dyes. Kesinate of alumina — the body formed by precipitating resin soap (or size) with sulphate of alumina or alum — acts as an admirable mordant for both acid and basic coal tar dyes. The amount of resin soap should bear a definite ratio to the amount of dye-stuff — e.g., water blue and ponceau require 3 — 4 times, and crystal violet 2^ times, their weight of resin in the form of soap for complete precipitation. The same holds good with regard to many of the vegetable dyes — e.#., quercitron — provided the stuff be kept faintly acid to litmus, by using an excess of sulphate of alumina. The following coal tar dyes are completely precipitated by alumina resin soap, and the back-water from the machine 132 should be practically colourless if the proper proportion of mordant and dye is used : — Cotton Scarlet. Mandarin. Roccelline. Orange II. Croceiu Orange. Metanil Yellow. Azoflavin Victoria Blue. Diphenylamine Orange. Induline. Indazine. Phosphine. Nigrosin. Bismarck Brown. Brilliant Crocein M. Acetate of alumina is recommended as a mordant for paper containing much mechanical wood. This mordant is prepared by the decomposition of alum, with acetate (sugar; of lead in aqueous solution, the proportions being 25 parts alum to 10 parts of the lead salt. The clear solution is alone used, and if required it may be rendered basic by an addition of 5 per cent, of soda crystals dissolved in water. This is a good mordant for methyl violet, crocein scarlet, and crocein orange. Tin Salts. —Of these the so-called "tin crystals " (Stannous chloride) is the most universally used, both as a mordant and as a means of brightening the colours. Oxide of tin forms rich coloured lakes with logwood, cochineal, &c. ; it is, however, usually employed in conjunction with alum. Tin crystals with acetate of alumina is a good mordant for producing quercitron yellow. Iron Mordants. — Of these ferrous sulphate or green vitriol, and the so-called " nitrate " of iron, are the most common ; the former produces grey- blacks with catechu and logwood extract. Both are used for producing chamoise yellows, but the " nitrate " of iron is the most suitable for this purpose. Nitrate or acetate of iron yields better dark greys and blacks than the sulphate. Copper Mordants. — Sulphate of copper yields with log- wood extract blue coloured lakes which can only be applied for the production of unsized papers as the colour is changed to violet by alum. It may be used in combination with sul- phate of iron and bichromate of potash for the formation of brown, grey, and black colours. Tannin Mordants. — - Tannic acid (catechu) is used for greys and blacks, and yields these better than sulphate of iron. For fixing the mordant a high temperature must be employed. Tannic acid in combination with tartar emetic imparts a property to the fibre which causes the latter to absorb many of the coal tar dyes, the colours produced being brilliant in shade and fast towards light. Tannin and sodium acetate are applied to papers which have been only slightly sized, and are dyed with the basic coal tar dyes. For full deep shades tannin 133 is suitable for fuchsine, methyl violet, brilliant green, solid green, chrysodine, Manchester brown, Bismarck brown, and naphthol yellow. Lead Salts. — Acetate of lead is used for eosine, erythrosine, phosphine, phloxine, rose bengal, fluorescine, and orange ; also for water blue, ponceau, alkali blue, tropaoline, crocein, induline, nigrosine, metanil yellow. Nearly all the aniline dyes which are soluble in water can be used. In order to obtain good results the properties of the dye in respect to its affinity for the fibre should be observed, and the proper precipitant or mordant used. Heating the pulp facilitates the deposition of the dye, and is recommended for deep shades. Brilliant shades and pure colours, especially light tints, can only be obtained when the stuff in the beater has been primarily bleached to a pure white. The following dyes can be recommended : — Fuchsine or Magenta (3 per cent, solution) is dissolved in soft or condensed water— i.e., water free from lime salts — as the latter precipitates the dye. A little acetic or hydrochloric acid counteracts the act of the lime. This dye is extensively used for shading white papers, news, printings, &c. , and should be used very dilute. The solution should also be made daily and used cold. Paper-making fibres, especially mechanical wood, have a strong attraction for this colouring matter. Methyl violet, benzal, malachite, and brilliant greens (3 per cent, solution) should be treated like fuchsine (magenta). Metanil Yellow, Benzoflavine, Orange and Aura- mine, Kastainien Brown, &c. (10 per cent, solution) are added to the paper pulp as hot solutions, as the dve separates out on cooling. Water Blue and Cotton Blue (8-10 percent, solution) are dissolved in hot water, cooled, and then a little sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) or acid sulphate of soda added, so as to develop the colour. Dye either hot or cold, but in either case the stuff must show a decided acid reaction with litmus paper by the use of an excess of alum or sulphate of alumina. Eosine (10-12 per cent, solution) should be used in a nearly neutral pulp. Excess of sulphate of alumina turns the shade yellowish brown. Acetate, or sugar of lead, yields a pink shade, whilst tin crystals produce a fiery red. Rose Bengal and Erythrosine (10 per cent, solution) behave like eosine. The dyeing can be carried out either before or after sizing, and either in the hot or cold state. Safranine, Turkey Red, Crocein, Indulin, Solid Blue, ^Ethylene Blue, and Methylene Blue (8 per cent, solution) 134 require the paper stuff to be slightly acid in character. These dyes are best added to the engine before sizing. Safranine must be used in the cold, the others warm. Phosphine and Grenadine (5 per cent, solution) are treated like fuchsine or magenta. Alkali Blue (8 per cent, solution) is often used because of its greater fastness towards light. Dissolve the dye in hot water which has been rendered alkaline with soda, and then cool. The cold solution is very stable, but must be used dilute. Dye in the cold, and after sizing. The paper stuff must have an acid reaction. VEGETABLE DYE-STUFES.. Yellow. — Quercitron 'for light, shades is the colouring matter obtained from the bark of the North American black oak (Quercus nigra). The dye is extracted by digesting the bark, wrapped in a bag, in successive quantities of fresh water at 212° Eah. The liquors are then mixed and purified from tannin bodies by addition of a weak solution of glue, otherwise the shade is apt to be of a greenish tone due to the formation of black-coloured lakes by the tannin, with traces of iron salts contained in the alum, &c. Quercitron is best suited for deepening blacks, and for this purpose it is not necessary to remove the tannin. In combination with weld extract (1 pt. weld to 10 pts. quercitron) purer yellow tones are obtained. The shade in this case is brightened with tin crystals. Quercitron does not yield bright tones of yellow. Weld (reseda luteola) produces the most stable and brightest yellows of the vegetable dyes. The presence of iron salts imparts a greenish shade to the colour. Curcuma is not extensively used. Yellow or Brazil Wood yields yellows of a greenish shade, which also limits its application. Mordant with acetate and sulphate of alumina. Annatto. — This extract is prepared by digesting 10 lbs. of the dye-stuff in 30 gallons of boiling water, in which 10 lbs. of soda crystals have been previously dissolved. Filter through a linen bag. Excess of alkali intensifies the yellow colour, whilst a diminished quantity turns it red. Applicable in combination with weld and quercitron for golden yellow and orange tones. The pulp should be dyed first and alum added afterwards. Brighten with magenta, crocein scarlet, or orange. Red. — Red Wood, Ptrnambuco Wood, Sfc. These colouring matters are. not extensively used, owing to their fugitive character. They form red lakes with alumina, which are brightened with tin crystals. Cochineal. — This is really an animal dye, being the body of a female insect found in Central America. The large grey variety is the best. The 135 dye is extracted by boiling the cochineal repeatedly in water. Mordant with alum or sulphate of alumina. Al 3 3 produces beautiful carmine lakes with this colouring matter. Alkalies yield bluish shades, and therefore slight excess of alum should be used. Tin crystals yield pure tones, especially in combination with oxalic acid, the latter tending to produce yellowish shades. Another excellent preparation of cochineal is obtained by placing 20 parts of the ground dye in a large glass vessel, together with 60 parts of ammonia, and setting the whole aside for a few days in a warm room till the fluid thickens. Filter before use. This is used with greatest ad- vantage with alum and tartaric acid. Brighten with tin crystals. Blue. — Logwood is seldom or never used alone, but in conjunction with other colours, for the production of deep, dark blues. It is obtained in the form of extract. Mordant with sulphate of alumina. Browjs. — Catechu, in combination with sulphate of copper and bichromate of potash, is the most important vegetable dye for the production of browns — e.g., pure brown : 4 lbs. catechu, 6 ozs. sulphate of copper, 1^ ozs. sal-ammoniac, the "stuff" being then heated to about 130° Fah., and finally 12 ozs. bichromate of potash, all on 100 lbs. paper. It is advan- tageous to heat the "stuff" before the addition of the bichromate. All thess salts should be previously dissolved in water before being added to the beater. Blacks are usually produced from logwood and catechu by the action of certain mordants and oxidising agents. Thus, on 100 pts. paper, 4 pts. catechu, \ pt. sulphate of copper, heat to 130—140° Fah., 1£ pts. bichromate of potash, 8 pts. sulphate of iron or 16 pts. acetate of iron. After the " stuff " has circulated in the beater, wash for a short time, and then colour with 8 pts. logwood extract and 1| pts. quercitron. Note. — Owing to the greater tintorial power and brighter shades of the aniline dyes, these vegetable dye stuffs are now seldom used, excepting in special cases — e.g., in the production of blacks, deep blues, and browns. Colouring Pulp with Lakes and Mineral Pigments.— Mineral pigments, as a rule, yield the most stable colours towards light and atmospheric influences, although they are not the most brilliant. Compound colours — e.g., green, orange, drabs, &c. — can all be produced by the admixture of mineral pigments, and some of them are very beautiful, in accordance with the purity of the pigments employed and the whiteness of the pulp. 136 The most important of the mineral pigments or lakes are for yellow. Chrome Yellow, produced by admixture of bichromate of potash and acetate or nitrate of lead. The shade may be varied from pale canary-yellow to deep orange, in proportion to the amount of lead salt used. The colour is stable to light. [Note. — Ultramarine should not be used Avith chrome yellow.J Ochres. — These vary greatly in shade, and yield chamoise yellows. Nitrate of iron yields the same colours, and occurs as a thick brown liquid, having the following composition:— Sp. gr. = 1-210 (= 42° Twad.)Fe 2 O a as Fe = 13-61 grms. per litre. Fe 2 O 3 = 168-00 grms. per litre. Total, 181-61. The ferric oxide exists asFe 3 3 (S0 4 ), and is therefore a normal salt. Red. — Venetian red — an oxide of iron — yields somewhat fiery red colours when used by itself. Shade may be changed to bluish-red with Prussian blue or ultramarine. The finest qualities of Venetian red yield bright colours on a white ground. Blue. — Ultramarine, the most extensively used coloured pigment by papermakers, occurs in a variety of shades, from greenish blue to reddish blue. In conjunction with cochineal or magenta it is used to produce a white from bleached paper stock, possessing a slightly yellow tint. It has great distributing power, and is suitable for compound shading with nearly all colours except chrome yellow (chromate of lead). It has a tendency to blacken these yellows. It is decomposed by acids, giving off sulphuretted hydrogen. The more stable kinds resist the action of tolerably strong solutions of alum or sulphate of alumina. Those samples that are more or less bleached by sulphate of alumina solutions should be avoided. The mineral is remarkably stable towards light and other atmospheric influences. Prussian Blue (Paste Blue).— As the name implies, this colour occurs as a paste having a deep bronze-blue lustre. It contains 65 to 66 per cent, water and 34 to 35 per cent, dry colour (at 212° Fah.). The shades of blue which it produces are inclined to greenish; this is counteracted, however, by addition of red. Also used with chrome yellow for greens. Paper pulp can be dyed Prussian blue for "mottled" papers by first mordanting the pulp with iron (preferably " nitrate " of iron), and then adding yellow prussiate of potash with alum. The colour is brightened with addition of bleach liquor and a little oil of vitriol. The deposition of the iron on the pulp, and subsequent formation of the blue, is facilitated by heating to 120 or 140° Fah. The dyed pulp should be well washed before using it for " mottled " papers. 137 Browns. — Paste Umber yields dark brown shades. It has the following composition : — Moisture 24 - 88 per cent., ferric- oxide, &c. , 41*88 per cent., loss on ignition 5'04, insoluble (in HC1) 28*20 per cent. It is essentially a hydrated oxide of iron, mixed more or less with organic matter. It is used extensively for brown papers. Manganese brown can be prepared by the use of sulphate of manganese, and subsequent addition of bleach liquor, and final washing before sizing. The depth of shade produced is in proportion to the amount of sulphate of manganese used. The colour is fairly stable towards light. 138 CHAPTER V. GENERAL PAPER MILL ANALYSES. ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND SYMBOLS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. Element. Symbol. Atomic Weight. Element Symbol. Atomic Weight. Aluminium... Al 27-1 Molybdenum Mo 96 Antimony ... Sb 120 Nickel Ni 58-7 Arsenic As 75 Niobium Nb 94 Barium Ba 137-4 Nitrogen N 14 Bismuth Bi 208 Osmium Os 191 Boron B 11 Oxygen O 16 Bromine Br 80 Palladium ... Pd 106 Cadmium ... Cd 112 Phosphorus... P 31 Cassium Cs 133 Platinum . . . Pt 194-8 Calcium Ca 40 Potassium ... K 39 Carbon C 12 Rhodium ... Rh 103 Cerium Ce 140 Rubidium ... Rb 85-4 Chlorine CI 35-5 Ruthenium . . . Ru 101-7 Chromium ... Cr 52 Scandium ... Sc 44 Cobalt Co 59 Selenium ... Se 79 Copper Cu 63-G Silver Ag 108 Didymium ... D 144 Silicon Si 28 Erbium E 170-6 Sodium Na 23 Eluorine F 19 Strontium ... Sr 87-5 Gallium Ga 69-6 Sulphur S 32 Gold Au 197 Tellurium . . . Te 127 Hydrogen ... H 1 Thallium ... Tl 204 Indium In 113 Thorium Th 231-5 Iodine I 127 Tin Sn 118-5 Iridium Ir 193 Titanium ... Ti 48 Iron Fe 56 Tungsten ... W 183-4 Lanthanum... La 139 Uranium u 240 Lead Fb 207 Vanadium ... V 51 Lithium Li 7 Yttrium Y 89 Magnesium.. Mg 24 Zinc Zn 654 Manganese ... Mn 55 Zirconium ... 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Thus, in the case of determining the alkali or soda (Na 2 0) in alkaline soda products — e.g., soda ash, the following chemical reaction takes place:— Na 3 CO s + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + H 2 + C0 2 . That is to say, one equivalent, or 98 parts of sulphuric acid, combines with or exactly neutralizes one equivalent, or 62 parts of soda (Na 2 O). 'ihe method is applicable to alkaline soda products, such as carbonate, caustic, and silicate of soda. Preparation of a solution of sulphuric acid of known neu- tralizing power. According to the above equations, one gramme — equivalent of H 2 S0 4 (98) — will exactly neutralize one gramme — equivalent of soda Na 2 O (62). If, therefore, a solution of the acid be made up so that 1 litre of it will contain exactly 98 grammes of H 2 S0 4 , it follows that 1 c.c. of this solution will contain T §fhy II 2 S() 4 , and be capable of exactly neutralizing T Mo> or 0*062 gramme Na 2 O. Such a solution of sulphuric acid is known as "normal" sul- phuric acid. Many workers prefer, however, to use a solution containing one half of a gramme — equivalent, or 49 grammes of H 2 S0 4 to the litre, which is called "half- normal " sulphuric acid, each c.c. of which will exactly neu- tralize 0-031 gramme Na 2 0. This solution we recommend for general use. It is made as follows : — 56 grammes of pure concentrated sulphuric acid are diluted with 500 c.cs. of cold distilled water, care being taken to pour the acid into the water, and not vice versa. The mixture is set aside to cool to the normal temperature — viz., 62° Eah., and when cold it is made up to 1,100 c.cs. by volume with cold water and thoroughly mixed. One litre (1,000 c.cs.) of this fluid will contain more than 49 grammes H 9 S0 4 , and it is now necessary to determine its exact strength, in order that it may be diluted to exact " half normal strength." This is done by ascertaining how many c.cs. of the mixture are required to neutralize the Na 2 O contained in a known weight of pure Na 2 CO 3 , as follows: — A small quantity of guaranteed pure carbonate of soda is placed in a porcelain crucible and ignited, till perfectly dry, over the flame of a spirit lamp. It is then cooled in the desiccator, and 5'3 grammes of the cold dry soda salt, weighed off, transferred to a flat porcelain dish or glass flask, and dissolved in luke warm water. The alkaline fluid is now coloured with a few drops of neutral litmus solution, and the diluted acid cautiously added from a burette till the blue colour is changed to reddish violet. While the acid is being added an effervescence, more or less violent, will take place 145 due to the evolution of carbonic acid gas C0 2 , and as this is partly held in solution it is necessary to boil the mixture to expel it. After boiling, the blue colour will reappear, and additional portions of the acid must be run in with subsequent boiling after each addition, until finally one drop is found sufficient to turn the blue colour to a permanent red. The whole of the soda — viz., 3T grammes contained in the 5-3 grammes of the pure carbonate — is now converted into sul- phate of soda, Na„ S0 4 , and as the 5-3 grammes, Na„ C0 3 , will, according to the above equation, exactly neutralize 4'9 grammes of H 2 S0 4 , it follows that the number of c.cs. of the diluted acid used from the burette will contain 4*9 grammes H 2 S0 4 . We will assume the quantity of diluted acid used to be 98-2 c.cs., in order to show the method of adjusting its strength with water, so as to obtain "half normal acid." By ordinary proportion we have 93*2 : 4-9 : : 1,000 : 49-89. That is, one litre of the diluted acid contains 49'89 grammes H 2 S0 4 , or 0'89 gramme too much. The quantity of water required to dilute it to the precise strength is found thus: — 49 : 100 : : 49'89 : 1,018-1. That is to say, 18-1 c.cs. of cold water must be added to every litre of the diluted acid. The acid thus made is preserved in well stoppered bottles for future use. It should be labelled "half normal H 3 S0 4 ." One c.c. of this acid is equal to 0-031 grammes Na 2 O. Note. — Before finally adjusting the strength of the acid, it is always advisable to test it twice or thrice with pureNa 2 C0 3 , and to take the mean of the tests as representing its true value. Valuation of Soda Ash, Caustic Soda, &c, and in all products in which the soda exists as carbonate or caustic. The value of soda ash and caustic sodas depends upon the amount of available soda they contain. 3*1 grammes of the ash or caustic are weighed off, and transferred to a flask containing about 100 c.cs. of distilled water. After the contents of the flask have been heated and coloured blue by the addition of a few drops of neutral litmus solution, the half normal sulphuric acid is added from a burette, and the titration carried out as above described. The number of c.cs. of acid required to change the colour of the solution to permanent red repre- sents the percentage of available soda (Na 2 O) in the sample. In addition to available alkali (Na 2 O), alkaline liquors, recovered ash, as well as caustic sodas, contain other salts, the quantities of which it is frequently desirable to ascertain. Of these salt?, sulphate, chloride and silicate of soda are the most important. Silicate of soda occurs in all liquors made from recovered ash from esparto and straw boiling, but not to any great extent from wood pulp manufacture. Sulphide of 10 146 sodium not infrequently exists in large quantity in liquors made from recovered ash, and especially in the " smelt " from the so-called "sulphate " wood pulp process. These salts may be estimated in the following manner : — 10 grammes of the ash are dissolved in hot water and filtered through a tared (or weighed) filter into a 500 c,c. flask, the insoluble matter collected in the filter as also the filter itself and beaker glass in which the ash is dissolved, all being thoroughly washed with hot water. The washings are, of course, collected in the graduated flask. The clear filtrate is shaken, allowed to cool, and then diluted with cold distilled water to the graduated mark on the neck — i.e., the volume is made up to exactly 500 c.cs. When this fluid is mixed it is ready for use. For convenience we will call it "A." The filter and contents are dried at 212° Fah.in a water oven and weighed. Deduct the tare of the filter paper, multiply by 10 = % of insoluble matter. Sulphate of Soda. — Withdraw 50 c.cs. of the fluid equal to one gramme of the ash from the flask by means of a pipette and place in a beaker glass, add a few drops of a clear solution of bleaching powder, then acidify with 5 c.cs. of pure hydrochloric acid, and boil gently till all free chlorine has been expelled. The bleaching powder or hypochlorite solution oxidises any sulphide of sodium present. When all chlorine has been expelled, a clear concentrated solution of barium chloride is added in slight excess, and the whole mixture set aside in a warm place (on a sand plate kept hot by a lamp flame) for two or three hours. The precipitate of barium sulphate is then collected in a filter in the usual May, and washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. Multiply the weight of the precipitate by 0*6098 and then by 100 = % of sulphide and sulphate of soda in the ash, expressed in terms of sulphate. When the sulphide of sodium exists in large quantity, and it is desired to know the percentage, proceed as described in page 159. Chloride of Sodium (Na CI). — This is best estimated volumetrically by means of a T V tn normal solution of nitrate of silver, according to the reaction Ag. N0 3 -f- Na CI = AgCl + NaNO s . Preparation of ^ 5 th Normal Ag N0 3 Solution. — Seventeen grammes of pure crystallised nitrate of silver are dissolved in pure cold distilled water, and the solution made up to exactly one litre. One c.c. of this fluid is capable of pre- cipitating 0*00585 gramme Na CI. To estimate the Na CI, 50 c.cs. of the liquor "A" are transferred to a clean porcelain dish, acidified with pure nitric acid, and then evaporated to complete dryness in a water bath 147 The residue is lixiviated in water, the fluid filtered into a clean beaker glass, and the dish and filter washed as usual. Two or three drops of a concentrated solution of chrornate of potash are added to the filtrate, and then the T \yth normal nitrate of silver from a burette is cautiously poured in, constantly stirring the while till one drop changes the colour of the mixture from pale yellow to a reddish orange. The number of c.cs. of x^tb normal Ag N0 3 solution taken, multiplied by 0-00585 x 100= % of JS T a CI in the sample. Silica or Silicate of Soda. — 200 c.cs. of solution "A" are transferred to a porcelain basin and carefully acidified with pure hydrochloric acid. The solution is then evaporated to dryness in a water bath, and the residue left in the dish again drenched with H CI, and a second time evaporated. It is finally heated for an hour or so in an air bath at 260° or 270° Fah., and then lixiviated in dilute H CI (10 pei cent, solution) with the aid of heat. The Silica (Si 0„) will then be in an insoluble state. Filter off the precipitate, and thoroughly wash with hot distilled water till the washings from the filter are free from chlorides. Dry the filter and its contents, ignite and weigh the Si0 2 , The weight multiplied by 25 — % silica in the sample. Note. — For the purpose of daily comparison, the quantities of sodium sulphate, sulphide, chloride and silica are fre- quently expressed on 25 or 50 parts of alkali (Na 2 O). In this way any change in the composition of the liquors can be detected at once. ACIDIMETRY Is the reverse of alkalimetry — that is to say, acids are estimated by standard alkaline solution, caustic soda being most commonly used. Standard Caustic Soda Solution. — The strength of this solution should be such that 1 c.c. of it will exactly neutralize one c.c. of half normal sulphuric acid (see paae ), and therefore it is "half normal caustic soda" — i.e., one litre should contain half an equivalent or 31 grammes of soda, Na 2 O. It is made up as follows : — Dissolve 50 grammes of pure caustic soda in 500 c.cs. distilled water, cool, and then dilute to 1,100 c.cs. Draw off 50 c.cs. with a pipette, transfer to a porcelain dish, add a few drops of neutral litmus, and then titrate with half- normal sulphuric acid till one drop of the latter changes the litmus to red. If the caustic soda is free from carbonate the transition from blue to red should be decided. The number of 148 c.cs. of ^ H 2 S0 4 taken represents the extent to which every 50 c.cs. of the caustic soda solution must be diluted. Assuming, by way of example, that 60 c.cs. of half-normal acid were required to produce the change of colour, or neutralise the soda, then 50 c.cs. of the caustic soda will require to be diluted to 60 ccs. or 1,000 c.cs. to 1,200 c.cs. BISULPHITE OF LIME, SODA, OR MAGNESIA In the sulphite wood pulp manufacture, the " bisulphite liquors should be tested for percentage of " free " and " combined " S 2 . This is done by first estimating the total S 3 with yLth normal iodine, and deducting from this result the amount of " free " acid ascertained by titration with -J^th normal soda (1 c.c. = 0-0031 Na 2 0). Preparation of " t Vth Normal Iodine." — Weigh off 12-7 grammes of pure resublimed iodine and 25 grammes of pure iodide of potassium, and place both in a beaker glass. Dissolve in 250 c.cs. or so of cold water by continued agitation When the whole of the iodine is dissolved, transfer the solu- tion to a litre flask, and make up the volume to 1,000 c.cs. According to the reaction I a + S0 2 + 2 H 3 O = 2 H I + H„ S0 4 , two equivalents, or 254 parts iodine, are equal to one equivalent, or 64 parts of S 2 . Therefore, 12*7 parts iodine are equal to 3-2 parts S0 o . One c.c. of the ^th normal iodine is equal to 0-0032 SO,/ (a) Total S0 2 . — Dilute 10 c.cs. of the "bisulphite" liquor to 100 c.cs. with water, mix and withdraw 10 c.cs. {— 1 c.c of the original liquor) of the solution with a pipette, and transfer to a small flask containing about 100 c.cs. water. Now add a few drops of a solution of starch, and then the iodine from a burette, till a pale permanent blue colour of iodide of starch is formed. This solution is kept for the " free " acid test, as described below. The number of c.cs. of iodine consumed multiplied by 0-0032 x 100 =: % of total S0 3 by volume in the bisulphite liquor. (6) Free S0 2 . — The fluid in the flask from "a," after the above test is performed, is decolorised with a drop of the weak solution of the bisulphite liquor, then a drop of a 5 per cent, solution of phenolphthaline in alcohol added, and the amount of acid found by titration with -J^h normal caustic soda (100 c.cs. of half normal caustic soda made up to 1,000 c. cs. by volume with water). The fluid turns pink whenever an excess of alkali is present. By deducting the number of c.cs. of iodine found in " a " from the number of ccs. of soda found 149 in "6," and multiplying the remainder by 0'0032 x 100. the percentage of free S 2 is obtained. The base — i.e., lime soda or magnesia— is usually found by calculation from the percentage of combined S 0. 3 found above. Thus, by multiplying percentage of combined S 2 by 0*875, the amount of lime (Ca O) in combination with the S 2 will be obtained. (c) Lime as Base. — If it be desired to ascertain the amount of lime (Ca 0) by actual test in solutions of bistilphite of lime, 5 c.cs. of the strong liquor are transferred to a flask, diluted with a 100 c.cs. or so of water, and ammonium hydrate added in slight excess. The ammonia precipitates the Ca S O s . The mixture is then gently boiled till all smell of ammonia has disappeared, the precipitated Ca SO s filtered off, and washed with hot water, and finally transferred, together with tbe filter paper, to a beaker glass containing about 250 c.cs. of water, and after acidifying with 5 c.cs. of acetic acid, titrating with T \yth normal iodine. Number of c.cs. of iodine consumed multiplied by 0-0028 x 20 will give the percentage by volume of Ca O or " lime-base." (cl) Soda as Base. — The percentage of combined S0 2 found in pure solutions of bisulphite of soda multiplied by 0'969 will give the percentage of Na 2 O as " soda-base." (e) Magnesia as Base. — The percentage of combined S0 2 found in pure solutions of bisulphite of magnesia multiplied by OM325 will give the percentage of Mg O as " magnesia-base." DETERMINATION OF S0 o IN GASES FROM SULPHUR OR PYRITES KILNS. Reich's Method. The percentage by volume of S0 2 in these gases is best ascertained as follows, with the aid of tne apparatus shown in the accompanying sketch. Ten c.cs. of T \jth normal iodine is placed in /;, together with 100 c.cs. Avater, a few drops of starch solution, and a pinch of bicarbonate of soda. The bottle aspirator c is filled with water, and the syphon pipe a set '' by suckiog the water past the pinch cock d. The tube (a) is then inserted into the pipe conveying the gases from the sulphur or pyrites kilns, and by opening the pinch cock on the syphon arm the kiln gases are drawn through the iodine solution in b, where the S 2 is absorbed. Instantly the blue colour in b disappears the pinch cock is closed. Before beginning the operation the measuring glass should be empty, but the water caught in it during the test is a direct measure of the amount of air which has passed through the iodine solution 150 in b. We will call this volume of air x. The 10 c.cs. of iodine correspond to 11-14 c.cs. of gaseous S 2 , and by adding this to x we obtain the total volume of gases which passed into o. The percentage volume of S 0„ is therefore found thus— 11-14x100 -^T~, — TT~rp =% S o by volume in kiln gases. DETERMINATION OF FREE RESIN, ETC., IN RESIN SIZE. Dr. Soheupelen's Method. (a) Free Resin. — 100 c.cs. of the cold sizing liquor are taken and mixed with about 25 c.cs. of sulphuric ether in a separating funnel of vase-like shape, and well shaken for a minute. After standing for a little the liquor will separate into two sharply defined layers. The ether will have completely taken up the milky free resin and assumed a brownish colour, while underneath, the aqueous layerwill be perfectly clear. This contains the dissolved soda and resin soap, of which not a trace has passed into the ether solution. A separation of the two liquids can be easily made by the funnel. The aqueous solution is first run off into a small alembic, and set aside for treatment as at b, and then the ether into a previously Aveighed cup or small flask, according as the ether is to be evaporated or dbtilled. The ether part is then heated in a Avater bath till all the ether has been expelled. The residue is then melted, dried, and weighed. The weight represents the amount of free resin in the 100 c.cs. of size liquor taken. 151 (b) Combined or Saponified Resin. — The aqueous solution containing the resin soap and free soda is acidified with dilute H CI. or, better still, acetic acid. The acid which combines with the soda, causes a precipitation of free resin in the form of flakes. This, as in the previous case, is deter- mined by shaking up with ether, &c. , as in a. The weight thus obtained represents the resin existing in the size as resin soap. It is best to add the ether to the solution before acidifying. The sum of a and b represents the total resin, but, as a check, the total resin can be estimated by acidifying 100 c.cs. of the sizing liquor and proceeding as in a. Note. — If starch is present in the size, some precautionary measures must be taken. In analysing the resin liquor the ether liquor does not separate so readily from the watery part, but, by adding a few grains of table salt and shaking, the separation ensues at once. BLEACHING POWDER AND BLEACH LIQUORS. The value of a bleaching powder or bleach liquor depends upon the amount of available chlorine it contains. Penot's method of analysis is most frequently used, and is based upon the following reaction : — As 2 3 + Ca (CI 0) 2 = As 2 5 + Ca Cl 2 Alkaline arsenite is converted into arsenate by the bleaching powder. The end of the reaction is indicated with potassium iodide and starch. One equivalent of As 2 3 are equal to two of or four of CI. Preparation of Alkaline Arsenite. — 4*95 grammes of pure resublimed arsenious acid are dissolved by gently boiling in 200 c.cs. of water containing 25 grammes of crystallised carbonate of soda. When the As 3 3 is dissolved and the solution cooled, make up the volume to exactly one litre. One c.c. of this solution is equivalent to 0-00355 CI. Preparation op Iodo Starch. — Three grammes of wheat starch rubbed into a cream with a little water, and then poured into 200 c.cs. of warm water. Heat, with constant stirring, till the mixture boils. Add 1 gramme of potassium iodide, and dilute to ^ a litre. Iodide and Starch Test Papers are made by dipping strips of Swedish filter paper in the above mixture, and drying in a pure atmosphere. The Valuation op Bleach. — Weigh off 3 *55 grammes of the sample, place in a small porcelain mortar, and rub in water to a thin cream. Transfer to a litre flask, and make up the volume 152 to one litre. Mix, and while the solution is still cloudy draw off 100 c.cs. of the fluid (corresponding to 0355 grammes dry bleaching powder) and place in a beaker. Dilute with a further addition of 100 c.cs. water. Now pour in the standard solution of arsenite of soda, stirring meanwhile till one drop transferred with a glass rod to a piece of the iodide and starch test papers does not produce a blue colouration. The number of c.cs. of standard arsenic solution consumed is directly equivalent to the percentage of available chlorine in the sample — e.g., if 35*4: c.cs. are consumed, then the percentage of available chlorine in the sample is 35'4. Bleach liquors are tested for available chlorine ia the same way, but the final calculation is made in accordance with the volume of bleach liquor used, and the value of the arsenite solution, in terms of available chlorine. Thus, if 5 c.cs. of bleach liquor be diluted with 200 c.cs. of water, and the arsenite solution run in till the blue iodide of starch ceases to be formed on the test papers, the number of c.cs. run off multiplied by "00355 x 20 will give the percentage by volume of available chlorine in the liquor. To obtain grammes available chlorine per litre x 10. To obtain grammes 35 per cent, bleaching powder per litre x grammes available chlorine bv 10, then by 100, and divide by 35. EXAMINATION OF ULTRAMARINE. Samples of ultramarine should bs compared with a standard sample when examining them for shade. Small portions of the samples are placed side by side upon a sheet of white paper, and after folding the paper over and flattening them are compared for shade. Colouring Power. — This is usually ascertained by mixing the ultramarine with china clay or pearl hardening, and noting the depth of shade which it yields. The amount of ultramarine taken should be in proportion to its price. Thus, two samples, a and b, each costing, say, 50s. aud 40s. respectively per cwt., are examined against a standard sample costing 45s. per cwt., as follows: — - 40 grammes of a, 0-50 grammes ot b, and 045 grammes of the "standard" are each mixed separately with 25 grammes of china clay or pearl hardening, and the depth of shade compared. The sample yielding the deepest shade of blue is the best value. Their Power to Withstand Acids. — Ultramarines for paper manufacture should not be readily decomposed by weak acids. To ascertain this a weighed portion of the sample is 153 shaken up in a clear glass bottle with a solution of oxalic acid, containing 50 grammes of the crystallized acid per litre. This is compared with an equal weight of the standard sample treated in a precisely similar way. Its Power to Withstand Alum or Sulphate of Alumina. — The sample is submitted to the same treatment as the foregoing, but instead of a solution of oxalic acid a solution of alum or sulphate of alumina is used, containing 50 grammes of the salt to the litre. Both acids and alums have the property of decomposing and decolourizing ultramarines. ALUM AND SULPHATE OF ALUMINA, ALUMINOUS CAKES, AND ALUMINO -FERRIC CAKE. Aluminous Cake is prepared from finely ground calcined china clay and sulphuric ac^d. The china clay, as free from iron and undecomposed rock as possible, is calcined in a reverberatory or muffle furnace to expel the combined water, and after being withdrawn is cooled, ground to a fine powder and sieved. The sieved clay is then mixed with an equivalent quantity of oil of vitriol of Sp. gr. 1-615 in a mixing vessel, enough water being added to reduce the oil of vitriol to Sp. gr. 1-375. The mixture is heated slightly to induce chemical action, which becomes more or less violent. Three- fourths of the alumina and practically the whole of the iron of the clay combines with the sulphuric acid to form soluble sulphates. The mixed mass, after the chemical action has all but ceased, is dumped into a mould and allowed to remain in this till the greater part of the sulphuric acid has teen neutralised by alumina, or until it cools. The sides of the mould are then removed, and the cake cut by a guillotine into small pieces. The cake thus produced contains all the impurities of the clay and acid. The following represents the composition of commercial aluminous cake. Al, 3 11-54 per cent. =38-53 per cent. Al, 3 (SOJ. Fe„ 3 0-16' per cent., SO 3 28-00 per cent., CaO 0"-12, Free acid 0-50 per cent. Insoluble matter, 22-40 per cent. ; water, Mg O, &c, 37-28 per cent. Alumino-ferric Cake is prepared by the action of sul- phuric acid on bauxite, a hydrated alumina found in natural deposits in Ireland, France, &c. The bauxite is partly dried, ground to a fine powder, and mixed with oil of vitriol. The apparatus required for this purpose is a large wooden or cast- iron tank fitted with a mechanical agitator, which is driven overhead by gears. Both vessel and agitator are protected by a covering of lead. A lead plug and seat are provided in the bottom of the vessel, so that the charge when finished 154 may be run off. A plentiful supply of water must be near at hand, and also a small open steam pipe dips into the tub nearly to its bottom, so that the charge may be heated when necessary. Into this vessel there are run about 67 cubic feet of oil of vitriol of Sp. gr. 1-015 (123° Twad.) cold, and after heating slightly by the injection of steam, there are added about twenty hundredweights of "bauxite" or of "alum clay." After a short time a violent chemical action sets in with the evolution of much heat, causing the mass to swell and rise in the vessel. When this has nearly ceased more bauxite or alum clay is added, in portions of about two or three hundred- weights at a time. After each addition the chemical reaction is renewed, and in this way maintained until thirty hundred- weights or so of the aluminous material has been added. A quantity of water is added to prevent the mass from "settling,'' and steam is injected until all or nearly all the acid has been saturated with alumina. Finally it is diluted by the addition of cold water until it registers a density of about 40° Twad., and is run off into settlers, where the insoluble matter is allowed to deposit. The clear, cool sulphate of alumina liquor contains fully 90 per cent, of the alumina and iron originally contained in the bauxite or alum clay. It will show a density of about 37° Twad. when cold, and assuming first quality bauxite to have been used, will yield on analysis about 400 grammes of real Al 2 3(S0 4 ) + 18 H 2 0, with which are associated from 2-0 to 2-5 grammes of metallic iron. The iron exists partly as ferrous and partly as ferric salt. There is always present a quantity of free acid amounting to seldom more than three grammes per litre, which represents about 1-75 per cent, of the total acid used; as also all the arsenic con- tained in the acid, and any lime, magnesia, and (if any) alkalis of the aluminous material. The following is an actual analysis of one of these liquors made from first quality bauxite and ordinary arsenical oil of vitriol : — Sp. gr. =1181 = 36-2° Twaddell. Grammes per Litre. Al„ 3(S 4 ) = 193-42 = 57-92 grammes Al., 0,. Fe;3(S0 4 )= 1-80 } , __, Fp Fe S 4 = 3-52J ~ L 794 * e * Free Acid = 1-57 CaS0 4 = 2-69 Water =977-13 1180-13 155 Total solids by actual test, including free acid = 203-03 grammes. Alumino -ferric cake is obtained by evaporating the above crude sulphate of alumina liquor to a suitable density and solidifying in moulds. Nearly all these products are fairly constant in com- position, and seldom require to be analysed in full. The only impurity of importance to papermakers which they contain is iron, and if this be present in large quantity it can be estimated with T Vth normal permanganate solution, or by the colour test, using sulpho -cyanide of potassium, or ferro-cyanide of potassium as the reagent. Aluminous cakes prepared from china clay and sulphuric acid should be examined for dirt and grit. The latter is derived from theundecomposed rock frequently mixed with the china clay. Twenty grammes of the aluminous cake are dissolved in hot water, and after diluting largely, and allowing to stand live minutes, the milky fluid is decanted. The sediment is again washed in the same way four or five times, and finally examined on a fine wire gauze or filter. The following method of analysis is applicable to aluminous cakes, alumino -ferric and sulphate of alumina : — (1) Insoluble Matter. — Dissolve 10 grammes of the finely-ground sample in hot water, and filter the solution through Swedish filter paper (previously treated with car- bonate of ammonium solution) into a 250 c.c. flask. When the whole of the insoluble matter has been brought into the filter it is thoroughly washed with hot water till free from S 3 . The filter and its contents are then dried, ignited in a platinum dish and finally weighed. The Wt. x 10 = per cent, insoluble matter. The filtrate from above is cooled, made up to 250 c.cs. by volume with cold distilled water and thoroughly mixed. (2) Aluminic and Ferric Oxides. — 2"> c.cs. ( =1 gramme of the original salt) of the filtrate from (1) are transferred to a beaker glass, 5 c.cs. of pure H CI added, and after diluting somewhat largely with water, ammonium hydrate added till the liquid smells slightly of ammonia. The iron and aluminum are precipitated as hydrated oxides. The contents are then boiled till all smell of ammonia vapour has ceased, after which the precipitate is filtered through Swedish filter paper and thoroughly washed with hot water. As it is usually impossible to obtain the alumina precipitate sufficiently pure with one precipitation, it is advisable to redissolve it in H CI, and reprecipitate it with ammonium hydrate, taking the precaution to boil off all smell of ammonia before finally filtering off the A1 2 3 . The precipitate should be washed 156 on the filter with hot water till the filtrate coming away is free from chlorine. The precipitated oxides with the filter are then dried and ignited first over a Bunsen's lamp, and finally over the blow-pipe flame — the latter to expel the last traces of water from the alumina. The Wt. of precipitate x 100 = per cent. A1. 2 3 and Fe 2 3 . (3) Ferric Oxide. — This is best ascertained by the colour test. 10 c.cs. of the filtrate from (1) are oxidised with a few drops of a clear solution of calcium hypochlorite acidified with 5 c.cs. of pure H CI and boiled till all trace of free CI has been expelled. Dilute to one litre, add sulpho -cyanide of potassium till no alteration in the depth of tint is observed. To another beaker of the same size add 5 c.cs. of pure H CI the same quantity of water and sulpho -cyanide of potassium. From a burette add -^ iron solution {1 c.c. = 0*0004 Fe 2 3 ) till the tint is the same depth as that of the aluminous cake solution. Multiply the c.cs. of standard iron solution by 250 to get per cent, of Fe 3 3 in the sample. (4) Lime. — The filtrate from the first precipitate of alumina in (2) is again rendered alkaline with a few drops of ammonia and solution of ammonium oxalate added in slight excess to precipitate the lime as oxalate. The liquid is boiled and set aside in a warm place for a few hours, and if any precipitate appears this is filtered off, washed till free from soluble salts, dried, ignited and weighed. During the ignition the oxalate of lime is transformed into carbonate, and hence the precipitate is finally weighed as Ca C0 3 . As a general rule before finally weighing, the precipitate is cooled, moistened with a strong- solution of ammonium carbonate, and finally ignited until no trace of ammonium vapour is noticed escaping from the crucible. As the precipitate {x) is finally weighed as Ca C0 3 , the following proportion must be followed to ascertain the lime (y) thus : — 100 : 56 : : x : y. y x 100 = per cent. CaO Note. — If necessary the filtrate from the alumina test (2) may be evaporated to smaller bulk before precipitating the CaO. (5) Total S0 3 . — 25 c.cs. of the filtrate from (1) are trans- ferred to a beaker, diluted with about 200 c.cs. of water, acidified with 5 c.cs. of pure H CI and heated to boiling. Barium chloride solution is then added in slight excess whereby the S0 3 is precipitated as insoluble Ba S0 4 . The solution is boiled gently on the sand bath for 15 minutes or so, and then set aside to cool. When cold the clear liquid is decanted off through a Swedish filter paper and the residue (precipitate) washed by decantation several times with hot water acidified with a few drops of H CI, and then finally brought on to the 157 filter. Here it is further washed till the washings are free from Chlorine. After drying the filter and its contents in the water bath, they are ignited in a platinum crucible or dish at a bright red heat, till all trace of carbon has disappeared. To find the S0 3 {y) corresponding to the weight of precipitate (x) obtained, the following proportion must be followed, viz. :— 233 : 80 ..' : : x : y. y x 100 = per cent. S0 3 . The moisture, Mg 0, alkalies, &c, may be ascertained by difference. Not^. — Calculate the results as follows: — x being Wt. of precipitate in each case. (ft) S0 3 combined with Al„ 0., to form Al 2 3(S0 4 ) = 102-8 : 240 : : x : a. {b) S0 3 combined with Fe 2 3 to form Fe 3(S0 4 ) = 160 : 280 : : x : b, (c) S0 3 existing as free acid (H 3 SOJ. The sum a + b deducted from total S O, found in 5 gives C : and C is converted into H 2 S0 4 {d) thus :— 80 : 98 : : c : d. The CaO may be expressed as such or as Ca S0 4 in which case the corresponding S0 3 has to be deducted from c. ANALYSIS OF SALT CAKE OR CRUDE SULPHATE OF SODA. Salt cake is a granular white powder possessing a slightly- yellowish or greenish yellow tint. It is obtained by acting upon common salt with oil of vitriol in cast-iron pans heated by a fire, and subsequent roasting at a red heat in specially constructed furnaces. It is freely soluble in water, and evolves heat on solution. The impurities it contains are free sulphuric acid, common salt, sulphate of lime, and ferric and alumiuic sulphates, with a small quantity of insoluble matter. It is usually sold on the basis of 9ti per cent, sulphate of soda, but a much richer product can be obtained if desired. It is used in the paper trade for the production (1) of caustic soda lyes (Le Blanc process), (2) pearl hardening, and (3) sulphate wood pulp. 1. Insoluble matter. — Dissolve 50 grammes of the sample in hot water in a beaker, and filter the solution through a tared filter into a 500 c.c flask. Transfer the insoluble matter from the beaker to the filter and wash with hot water. Dry the filter and contents and weigh. The increase in weight X 2 — per cent, of insoluble matter. 2. Free sulphuric acid. — The solution in the flask is cooled and made up to 500 c.cs. with distilled water. After it is mixed draw off 100 c.cs., and titrate with y^th normal 158 caustic soda, using red litmus paper as indicator. The number of c.cs., of ^th normal caustic soda taken x 0-0049 x 10 — per cent, free acid. 3. Sodium chloride or common salt. — Ten c.cs. of the filtered liquor from 1 are transferred to a small beaker, a drop or two of chromatejof potash solution added, and the chlorine estimated with T \yth normal nitrate of silver, as set forth at page 146. The number of c.cs. of ^th normal Ag No 3 taken X 0-00585 x 100= per cent, of Na CI. 4. Ferric and aluminic oxides — These are usually esti- mated together by precipitation with ammonia. Take 100 c.cs. of the fluid from 1 place in a beaker, dilute with an equal volume of water, and then add ammonia in slight excess. Boil till the smell of ammonia has disappeared, and filter off the precipitated oxides, collecting the filtrate in a clean flask. Wash the precipitate thoroughly with hot water, adding the washings to the bulk in the flask. The filter and contents aie then dried, ignited, and weighed. Weight x 10 = per cent. Fe 2 3 and Al 2 3 . During ignition a bright yellow heat should be employed. 5. Calcium sulphate. — The filtrate from the iron and alumina test (4) is rendered again slightly alkaline with ammonia heated to boiling and excess of oxalate of ammonia added. Set aside in a warm place for two or three hours, and then filter off the precipitated oxalate of lime. After washing well with water, the filter and contents are dried, ignited, and weighed. During ignition the oxalate of lime is converted into carbonate. Multiply weight of precipitate by 1-360, and then by 10 = per cent, of sulphate of lime in the sample. 6. Moisture is estimated as usual by drying 10 grammes in the water bath at 212° Fah. till the weight is constant. Loss of weight X 10 = per cent, moisture. 7. The sulphate of soda is usuallv not determined, but is found "by difference" — i.e., the sum of the impurities deducted from 100 yields substantially the percentage of pure sulphate of soda in the sample. ANALYSIS OF SODA-SMELT. "SULPHATE PROCESS." Fifty grammes of the sample are dissolved in about one- half a litre of water at 45° Centi. (the water being previously boiled to expel C0 2 and O) in a large stoppered flask and repeatedly shaken for two hours. A. Insoluble. — The above solution is filtered off through a filter into a litre flask, the insoluble residue being washed with cold water (freed from C0 2 and O as above described), 159 dried and weighed with the filter. After this, the filter and its contents are ignited in a weighed crucible with free access of air till the residue is burnt free from carbonaceous matter The weight of the remaining ash is then ascertained. This weight, after deducting the weight of the filter, gives the insoluble matter ; whilst the difference between it and the second weighing represents the carbonaceous matter in 50 grammes of the sample. The filtrate in the latter flask is made up to 1,000 c.cs. with cold distilled water, thoroughly mixed and submitted to analysis as follows : — ■ B. Total Alkali expressed in teems of Na 2 0. — Twenty c.cs. of the solution (— 1 gramme of the smelt) are withdrawn with a pipette, placed in a white porcelain dish, diluted with cold water (preferably at 0° Centi.) and titrated with normal acid (1 c.c.= 0-031 Na 5 O), using methyl orange as the indicator. The c.cs. of acid consumed x 0-031 x 100 repre- sents the alkali (Na 2 O) existing in the solution as Na 2 CO s , NaOH, Na 2 Si0 3 and Na. 2 S. The last three constituents are determined separately as set forth below in C, D and E. C. Soda . as NaOH. — Forty c.cs. of the smelt solution are transferred to a stoppered 100 c.c. flask heated to boiling and 10 c.cs. of a solution of barium chloride (10 per cent. Ba CI 2 +2 Aqua) added, and the flask filled to the mark in the neck with boiling water. Replace the stopper and shake. After a few minutes, when the precipitate has settled, 50 c.cs. of the clear liquid are withdrawn and titrated with methvl orange and normal acid as in B. Each c.c. of the acid corresponds to 0-031 Na 2 or 0-040 NaOH. In this test the Na 2 S is determined as well, so that allowance must be made for this in E. One part by weight of NaOH corresponds to 1-325 parts by weight of Na 2 C0 3 . D. Silicate of Soda Na 2 Si0 3 . Twenty c.cs. of the solution are carefully acidified with pure HC1 in a porcelain dish and evaporated to dryness in a water bath, and the Si0. 2 determined, as set forth in page 147. One part of SiO„ corresponds to 2-033 parts Na n SiO. or 1-033 parts Na s O. E. Sulphide of Sodium Na 2 S. — In 10 c.cs. of the fluid (= -5 grammes of the smelt) the sulphide of sodium is deter- mined by titrate with ammoniacal silver solution prepared by dissolving 17-00 grammes of AgN0 3 in distilled water, rendered alkaline with 25 c.cs. of ammonium hydrate, and the whole made up exactly to 1 litre in volume. Each c.c. of this solution corresponds to 0-0039 Na 2 S. The standard ammo- niacal silver solution is added drop by drop to the test solution previously heated to boiling until no more black precipitate 160 of Ag. 2 S is formed. The end reaction can best be ascertained by filtering off a drop of the test solution on to a porcelain slab and adding thereto a drop of the standard silver. The c.cs. silver solution consumed x 0-0039 x 250 = % Na. 2 S in the original smelt. One part by weight of Na., S corresponds to 0-794 part of Na o 0, 1-026 parts NaOH and 1-359 parts of Na 2 C0 3 . F. Sulphite of Soda Na 2 S0 3 . — Acidify 20 c.cs. of the fluid with acetic acid, add starch solution and then titrate with ■£$ iodine solution (12-7 grammes iodine per litre) till permanent blue tint is produced. The iodine is a direct measure of the Na 2 S (E) and Na„ S0 3 . The c.cs. consumed x 0-0063 x 100"= % Na 2 S0 8 . From this has to be deducted the Na 2 S found in E. One part Na 2 S corresponds to 1-615 parts Na 2 S0 3 . G. Sulphate op Soda 2 Na 3 S0 4 . — The filtrate from D (=1 gramme of the sample) is acidified with HC1, raised to boiling point, barium chloride added in slight excess, and the mixture kept hot on a sand plate for a few hours. The precipitated Ba S0' 4 is then filtered ' off, washed, dried, ignited and weighed. The weight of the precipitated x 0-6094 x 100- %Na, S0 4 . The soda smelt rapidly absorbs moisture from the air, and in consequence, care must be taken to keep the sample in closely-stoppered bottles. Moreover, on exposure to the air, the sulphide of sodium is converted by oxidation into sulphite (Na.j S0 3 ). When the smelt is run in the molten state direct into water, this oxidation is avoided. The analysis of the liquors thus obtained may be carried out as above, but in ordinary manufacturing practice it is scarcely necessary to determine more than the total alkali (Na 3 - O, Na 2 C0 3 , NaOH and Na 2 S). This can best be done by first deter- mining the total alkalinity with normal acid and methyl orange ; second, the caustic soda NaOH with normal acid and phenol- phthalein ; and, third, the sulphide with T ^ iodine, using starch as the indicator. The phenol-phthalein test gives the caustic, and this deducted from the total alkali gives the soda existing as carbonate and sulphide, from which the sulphide is deducted to obtain the soda present as carbonate. The author has found it advantageous to reckon the Na, C0 3 and Na 3 S on 100 alkali (Na, 0) obtained by the methyl orange test, as by this mode of expressing the results any change from day to day in the composition of the liquors can be accurately observed. 161 CHINA CLAYS. Colour, fineness, and plasticity are the necessary features of china clays for papermaking. The examination of clays is carried out as follows : — Water. — Ignite 2 grammes of the clay in a porcelain crucible at a red heat. The loss in weight x 50 = per cent, of water (free and combined). Iron. — Digest one gramme of the clay about 212° Fah. in pure hydrochloric acid for a few hours, dilute with distilled water, filter, and add a few small crystals of yellow prussiate of potash to the filtrate. The depth of the colour (Prussian blue) formed is a measure of the amount of iron. Lime. — The presence of lime is deleterious to the sizing, due to the formation of lime soap. One gramme of the dry clay is fused in a platinum crucible with 5 grammes of a mixture of carbonates of soda and potash, at a red heat till the fused mass becomes quiescent. The flux is allowed to cool, dissolved in H CI, the fluid neutralized with ammonia, and then filtered. Add to the filtrate ammonium oxalate. If lime be present in any quantity a white precipitate will be formed. Fineness. — To ascertain whether sand, undecomposed rock, and other coarse bodies are present, 20 grammes of the clay are rubbed up with water in a mortar, and then sieved through wire gauze, 100 meshes to the inch. The residue remaining on the sieve may be weighed. Plasticity. — The measure of the plasticity of a clay for papermaking is best carried out in the following way ; — Make up a thin starch paste by boiling 1 gramme of starch in a litre of water. Place 100 c.cs. of this paste together with 5 grammes of the sample of clay in a graduated glass, and shake well. Allow to stand at rest for 24 hours. The finer and more plastic the clay, the greater its miscibility with the starch paste — i.e., the less it settles to the bottom of the vessel. Various samples may be compared in this way. Colour. — The comparison of different clays for colour or whiteness is carried out by separately mixing the different samples with water to a thick paste, and placing them on a porcelain slab side by side for examination. STARCH. Starch is sometimes adulterated with gypsum, clay, or chalk, and in order to examine it for these bodies ignite 5 grammes or so of the sample in a platinum crucible, with free admission of air ill the carbon is burnt off. The residue is weighed, and 11 162 the percentage of ash calculated. Pure starch should leave on burning only traces of ash. If there is considerable ash left, divide it into three parts, to one add dilute H 3 S 4 , and if effervescence takes place carbonate of lime is present. If the effervescence is not so marked, gypsum or clay may be present. To ascertain whether the former is so, a second portion of the residue is placed upon a filter and washed with cold distilled water. Heat the filtrate and add alcohol. If the fluid turns turbid, gypsum is present ; if, on the other hand, no turbidity is produced, the third portion of the ash is gently heated with concentrated H 2 S0 4 in a platinum dish over a spirit lamp, and, after cooling, the thin pasty fluid is diluted by pouring it into distilled water. Filter and add carbonate of soda solution to the filtrate till no further effervescence takes place. If a precipitate is formed, clay is present. In the foregoing tests the water and chemical reagents must be perfectly pure. Starch is sometimes adulterated with woody fibre, and in order to ascertain whether or not this is present, 20 grammes starch are rubbed down with 200 c.cs. of diluted hydrochloric acid, and boiled a quarter of an hour. The starch is thus con- verted into a soluble combination. The fluid is filtered whilst warm, and the residue in the filter boiled for a short time in a dilute solution of potash lye. The residue is again filtered off, washed with hot water till the washings are free from alkali, and dried at 212° Fah. and weighed. RESIN. Examination of Resin. — Good resin should on breaking show a glistening fracture, and should appear clear and trans- parent when held towards the light. It usually contains 5 per cent, of mechanically mixed impurities, and when it contains turpentine it appears turbid or cloudy. The following process has been recommended as a means of ascertaining its value for paper manufacture. 100 grammes are dissolved in a capacious glass vessel with 25 grammes of carbonate of soda, and water. When effervescence has ceased, the mixture is allowed to cool, and the black or brown lye removed by decantation. Dissolve 25 grammes of ammonia soda in ^th of a litre of water, add to the resin soap, and shake well, heat to boiling, allow to cool, and finally pour off the separated lye. The resin soap is now dissolved in a litre of distilled water, and then decomposed with the addition of dilute sulphuric acid — i.e., the acid is added till the mixture shows a strong acid reaction with blue litmus paper. The precipitated resin sinks to the bottom, pour off the clear liquid, and wash several times by decantation with pure water. The precipitate is then removed, 163 and placed upon a piece of blotting paper to drain, then dried in the air on a porous earthenware tile, and, lastly, weighed. If the fluid remains tarbid or milky after the addition of the dilute sulphuric acid it may be filtered. WATE R. The bodies present in water which have an influence on the operations of papermaking are chiefly lime, sulphuric acid (sulphates), chlorine (chlorides), and iron. The presence of Lime may be detected by adding oxalate of ammonia to a quantity of the water placed in a clean test tube, and if a white precipitate is formed after heating, lime salts are present. Sulphates may be detected by acidifying a small quantity of the water with a drop or two of H CI, and adding barium chloride. A white precipitate indicates the presence of sulphuric acid (sulphates). Chlorides are detected by adding nitrate of silver to the water, acidified with a drop of pure nitric acid. A white precipitate of chloride of silver indicates the presence of chlorides. Iron is usually detected by means of yellow prussiate of potash. This salt forms Prussian blue with iron salts. A test tube, 12 inches long by 1\ inches in diameter, is filled with the sample of water, and a small crystal of yellow prussiate of potash added. Shake, and allow to stand 15 minutes or so. By looking down the tube very small quantities of Prussian blue, due to the presence of iron, can be detected. Lime salts (and magnesia) are almost invariably present in all natural waters, and hence these are more or less "hard." On heating such waters the carbonic acid holding the lime in solution is driven off, and carbonate of lime is precipitated. The sulphates and chlorides remain in solution for the most jDart. The "total hardness" of a natural water is therefore divided into "temporary hardness "and "permanent hardness" — the former representing the bodies (chiefly lime) which are precipitated by boiling the water to, say, ith of its bulk, whilst permanent hardness represents those bodies which remain in solution after such treatment. The hardness of a water is expressed in degrees, each one of which, according to Prank- land's scale, represents 1 grain of calcic carbonate, or its equivalent of any other calcium or magnesium salt, in 100,000 grains of water (=0-01 grm. per litre). On the other hand, one degree of hardness, as indicated by Dr. Clark's soap test, is equivalent to one grain of calcic carbonate per gallon. Dr. 164 Clark's soap test is carried out as follows: — Total hardness. — Place 70 c.cs. of the water in a well-stoppered glass bottle ; and add a standard Clark's soap solution from a burette, little by little at a time, and shaking up well after each addition, until a permanent froth is formed on the surface of the water. The c.cs. soap solution = degrees of total hardness. Permanent hardness. — 70 c.cs. of the water are evaporated to ith of its bulk, filtered through a small filter of Swedish paper, and the filtrate, after being made up to 70 c.cs. with dis- tilled water, treated with the soap solution in the above way. The number of c.cs. consumed represents the degrees of permanent hardness of the water. Temporary hardness is obtained by deducting the number of degrees of permanent hardness from the degrees of " total hardness." EXAMINATION OF COAL. 1. Moisture. — Heat 100 grammes of the sample to 105° C. (not above) for two hours or so in a covered crucible, to prevent free ingress of air. The crucible must be covered to avoid partial oxidation and escape of volatile matter. Towards the end of the drying process the weight should remain constant. Loss of weight =: per cent, of moisture. 2. Fixed Carbon or Residual Coke. — 5 grammes of the sample are placed in a deep, narrow platinum crucible, provided with a tight-fitting cover, and heated to a dull redness over the flame of a Bunsen*s burner until volatile matter ceases to escape. The flame of the burner should be large enough to envelope the crucible and maintain it in a state of uniform redness. The crucible should be supported on a triangle of thin platinum wire. The test is repeated two or three times, and the average weight of coke obtained, multiplied by 20, noted as the true percentage of fixed carbon. 3. Ash. The fixed carbon or coke obtained from the tests in 2, is pulverised in a mortar, dried, and one gramme weighed off, placed in a platinum crucible, and ignited over the flame of the Bunsen burner till all carbon is burnt off. The weight of ash obtained, multiplied by the percentage of fixed carbon, gives the per cent, of ash. The crucible should be supported on a thin platinum triangle, and tilted slightly on one side, to allow freer access of air ; or, better, it is fitted in a hole in an asbestos board, and placed in a slanting position on a tripod stand. The asbestos board serves to separate the air required for oxidation from the gases of the burner, and thus greatly hastens the combustion of the carbon * * * * If the ash in a coal is to be determined, then one gramme of the coal is weighed off and ignited as above, the result being multiplied by 100 to find per cent. 165 4. Volatile Matter. — This is usually obtained by difference ; that is to say, the sum of the percentages of moisture, coke, and ash found above, are deducted from 100, the remainder being noted as volatile matter. CHIMNEY GASES. In these CO„, O, CO, and N (by difference) are most con- veniently estimated by means of the well-known Orsat's apparatus. In this apparatus the C0 2 is estimated by absorb- tion with aqueous solution of caustic potash of specific gravity 1.20 — 1 - 28. The oxygen by absorbtion with thin sticks of phosphorus, -*th inch diameter, kept at a temperature of 18° C. under water, and free from light and tarry matters, &c. The absorbtion is too slow at a less temperature than 18 C. Pyrogallate of potash — pyrogallic acid in aqueous solution of caustic potash — is frequently used for determining the oxygen. Phosphorus is preferable. The carbonic oxide CO, is determined by absorption in cupric chloride dissolved in hydrochloric acid in the presence of metallic copper (10 grammes Cu Cl 3 90 c.cs. of concentrated H CI, 20 c.cs., water and sheet copper sufficient to reduce it, the whole brought together at least 24 hours before using). This solution should be frequently renewed. TEMPERATURE OF FLUES. Up to 300° C. the temperature of flues can be taken by means of long mercurial thermometers, taking care that the bulb of the thermometer is well in the stream of the flowing gases, or towards the centre of the flue. The stem should be long enough that the readings can be taken while the ther- mometer is in place. For temperatures higher than this, Fischers Calorimetric Pyrometer is the most suitable ap- paratus. It consists of (1) a wrought-iron box with lid, welded to the end of a long rod, by means of which it can be thrust into the space whose temperature is required. (2.) A small cylinder of wrought-iron, copper, or platinum, preferably the former, say, 2 c. long by 1 c. diameter, whose weight is accurately known. This cylinder is placed in the iron box, and exposed to the heat of the furnace or flue. (3.) The Calorimeter, a cylindrical vessel made of thin sheet copper, about 6 c. diameter by 15 c. deep. This vessel is enveloped by a wrapping of soft loose wool, fur, or such like 166 substance, and then by a thick wooden jacket. It is provided with a brass cover, having two holes, through one of which a fine stencilled thermometer graduated in tenths of degrees is passed, whilst the other, 2 c. in diameter, is for dropping in the hot cylinder. Through this hole the wire handle of a copper disc, a little less in diameter than the vessel, also passes, which serves as a stirrer. The operation of taking the temperature is performed as follows : — The Calorimeter is filled tAvo-thirds with an accurately weighed or measured quantity of water, and its temperature t°, taken with the thermometer, is read off and noted. Immediately afterwards, the small iron cylinder (2), which should have been exposed in the iron box (1) for at least twenty minutes in the flue or furnace, whose temperature is to be ascertained, is rapidly withdrawn and dropped into the Calorimeter. The cylinder falls upon the disc of the stirrer, which is rapidly moved up and down, the temperature meanwhile being constantly watched. When this is at its maximum it is read off and noted as t 1 . Up — the weight of the metal cylinder, and c — its specific heat (specific heat of copper =: 0094 : of wrought-iron 0*114 ; for platinum 0032, but these increase with the temperature, so that there is here a source of inaccuracy) ; p 1 — the weight of the water within the Calorimeter, added to the water-weight of the 167 copper vessel and stirrer itself (water- weight means the actual weight multiplied by the specific heat, i.e., 0"094 for copper ; the thermometer, if very slender, may be left out of the calcu- lation). The temperature of the hot cylinder T is found by the formula: — T= *i -f-j^C * 1 -Q p c If p x and p are constant, the magnitude — can be converted into a factor, by which the difference of thermometer readings is multiplied, thus at once yielding the temperature sought, after the first temperature t 1 has been added to the product. For practical purposes it is convenient to choose the quantities, so that this factor becomes a simple number. For very high jo 1 temperatures the value — should not be less than 50. For lower ones it will be sufficient if it is 25, but it should not be chosen less than 25. The same factor will, Avith the same apparatus, yield Fahrenheit degrees if a Fahrenheit thermometer is used instead of a Centigrade one. The mean specific heat of iron between o° C. and t° C. is G = 0*1053 + 0-000071 t° (Bede). By means of this value for the mean specific heat of iron, the temperature can be calculated according to the formula : — pi (t 1 - *<>) + pt* (0-1053 + 0-00007U 1 ) \ U-OOOOTlp " + 549822 ) 741 ^ Yt (Akali Maker's Handbook.) PAPER TESTING (Machine Made). (Based on Hertzberg's " Papier Priifung") 1. The absolute strength of a paper is determined by ascertaining the weight necessary to break a strip of standard width, but as the strain which is required to break the strip varies with the thickness of the paper, Hartig expresses the results in so-called "breaking length." This is calculated from the power used to break the strips, and from their weight. Breaking length is defined as that length of paper of any breadth and thickness which when suspended would break by its own weight at the point of suspension. Breadth and thickness have no influence on this value. Machine-made paper is stronger in the direction in which the machine runs than at right angles to it or across the machine, the difference being usually in the proportion of 15 to 12. The expansion also varies, being less in the machine direction than across, the proportions being very nearly the same as those of 16S the strength. The same differences are found in hand-made papers, but in a less degree. To determine the " tensile strength " it is first of all necessary to ascertain the " machine " and " cross " direction of the sheet of paper under examination. In the case of sized papers, cut a disc, three inches diameter, float it on water to thoroughly wet one side only, remove to the palm of the hand, wet side down- wards, until two sides bend and curl inwards. A line drawn through the centre of the sides which have curved upwards is the direction across the machine, and one at right angles to this indicates Ihe " machine" direction. Cut off iivestrips parallel to each direction, 180 cm. long by 15 mm. wide (best done by a machine constructed for the purpose, but, failing this, with an iron ruler, zinc plate, and sharj) knife), and carefully mark each. It is necessary to make five individual tests with the strips cut from the two " directions " in order to average them. The best machine for ascertaining the breaking weight of the strips is that invented by Louis JSchopper. This machine registers automatically the breaking weight in kilogrammes, and the amount of stretch in per cents, and millimetres, which the strip of normal length — : viz., 180 mm. long — undergoes during the trial. It is not necessary to make more than five trials with strips cut from the sample in each direction. The average breaking weight and expansion or stretch is recorded in each case, and the strips torn off from between the clamps of the testing machine should be rolled up and afterwards weighed, the total weight of the five strips and the average being duly recorded. The length between the clamps is exactly 180 mm. These figures may be catalogued as follows: — Machine Direction. Cross Direction. Strip No. Breaking Strains. Kg. Expan- sion. % Weights, grammes. Strip No. Breaking- Strains. Kg-. Expan- sion. X Weights grammes. Total Total .\veiage Average 169 Assuming the average breaking weight expressed in kilo- grammes to be a, and the average weight of the five strips, each 180 mm. long, to be b, and x the breaking length in metres, then, 0-180 _ x 0-180 — 7 „ i nna 5 or x = — 7 — ' X a X 1,000. b a X 1,000 ' o If, for example, a = 2*44 kilogrammes, and b = 0*210 gramme, then x zz • T ^o' x 1 ' 000 x 2 ' U i or 0-180x1,000x2-44 nnnt ^ = 2,091 = x. If x is expressed in kilometres, then this result is 2-091. It is obvious that, 0*180 being a constant and b a variable, a table can be constructed giving the values of the quotient — i — for different values of b, and such has been given by Hertzberg. This table is useful in simplifying the calculations, and Will be found at the end of the late Mr. P. Norman Evans' translation of Hertzberg's work, " Papier- Prufung." It has been observed by Hertzberg and others that a small increase in the percentage of moisture in a paper diminishes its strength, and therefore the humidity and temperature of the air in which the paper has lain for some time should be ascertained with a per cent, hygrometer, and duly recorded. 2. Resistance to folding and crumpling. — This was formerly ascertained empirically by rubbing or " washing " the paper by hand, but a very ingenious machine has recently been invented whereby the resistance to folding and crushing is recorded in figures. This machine is patented and made by L. Schopper, of Leipsic, but is too complicated for description here. 3. Determination of thickness. — The thickness of a paper can be roughly ascertained by placing a known number of sheets one upon another, pressing the pile, and then measuring it. The figure giving the height of the pile divided by the number of sheets gives the thickness. Two handy forms of apparatus are, however, now commonly used for this purpose, viz., Reitz's and ^chopper's micrometers. Schopper's micro- meter is, perhaps, the best and most reliable, as the pressure is always the same. The thickness of the sheet in fractions of a millimetre is read off directly from the scale of the instrument. 4. Determination of the ash. — This is invariably ascertained by incinerating a known weight, say one gramme of the paper in a platinum or porcelain crucible till all carbon has been burnt. The Aveight of the whitish residue, when one gramme is taken for the test, multiplied by 100 gives the per cent, of ash, The ash represents the mineral matter or inorganic 170 compounds contained in the paper, and chiefly consists of some of the well-known mineral loadings, such as china clay, pearl hardening (precipitated sulphate of lime), and gypsum ; " blancjixe " (precipitated barium sulphate), heavy spar (native barium sulphate) ; ochres, umber, asbestine, &c. The com- position of the ash can only be ascertained by an exhaustive chemical analysis. 5. Microscopical investigation. — The object of such an in- vestigation is to ascertain the fibres from which the paper is made, their physical condition, and their relative proportions to one another. It is only possible to do this by studying the physical structure of the most commonly occurring fibres, such as wood cellulose, esparto, straw, jute, cotton, linen, hemp, and mechanical wood, so that these may be recognised with certainty under the microscope. The subject is too large to be treated exhaustively in this book, but the mode of preparing the fibres for such an examination, and the behaviour of the commonly occurring fibres towards well-defined chemical solutions, can be profitably given, as also the main features of the fibres themselves. Hertzberg, in a recent communication to the Konigl. techn. Versuchanst zu Berlin, recommends the following mode of treating the paper preparatory to examination : — Cut small pieces of the paper from different sheets, place them in a porcelain basin and mascerate for a short time in a cold 4 per cent, aqueous solution of soda, add water, and finally heat to boiling. If mechanically ground wood is present, the paper will assume a pea-yellow coloration. Boil for 15 minutes, and throw the whole on to a small sieve of fine wire gauze and thoroughly wash. Remove the pulp to a wide-mouth, glass- stoppered bottle containing a number of glass balls (small garnets are very suitable), add some water, and shake till a thin uniform pulp is produced. Drain the pulp on a fine sieve. In the above treatment any wool present disappears, since it is soluble in caustic soda ; and therefore papers containing wool fibre must be treated with water only. Coloured papers do not, as a rule, require any special treatment. If, however, the colour refuses to disappear, it may be removed by a solvent or reagent such as alcohol, hydrochloric or nitric acids, hypochlorite of lime, &c. A small portion of the prepared pulp is then removed from the sieve by means of a platinum needle with lancet-shaped point, pressed between clean filter paper or on a porous slab of porcelain, and placed upon a microscopical glass slide by a fine platinum needle. The recognition of the fibres is greatly facilitated by the use of certain colouring solutions, of which the two following are recommended, viz. ; — 171 Solution I. — Water, 20 c.cs. ; potassium iodide, 2 grammes; iodine, 1 *15 grammes ; glycerine, 2 c.cs. Solution II. — Prepare first (a) 20 grammes of dry zinc chloride in 10 c.cs. of water; (b) 2*1 grammes of potassium iodide, and O'l gramme of iodine in 5 grammes of water. Mix a and b together, allow the precipitate to settle, and deeant off the clear fluid, finally, add a little iodine. The micro-chemical reaction, or the coloration produced in the different fibres by these solutions, is as follows : — Fibres. Coloration. Solution No. 1. Solution No. 2. Linen, hemp, and cotton Wood cellulose Straw cellulose and jute Esparto Manilla hemp Wood (ground) and raw jute Straw Pale to dark brown . Thin scales almost colourless. Grev to brown. Grey. Part grey and part brown Part grey, part brown, and part yellowish brown. Part yellowish brown and part yellow. Part yellowish brown, part yellow and part grey. Pale to dark wine-red. Blue to reddish-violet. Blue to bluish-violet. Part blue and part wine- red. Blue, bluish-violet, red- dish violet, dirty yellow, greenish-yellow. Lemon yellow to dark yellow. Part yellow, part blue, and part bluish-violet. The prepared fibres on the glass slide are saturated with a drop or two of either of the above solutions, the individual fibres separated from one another by stirring with the platinum needle, and then a glass cover carefully placed over the drop of liquid containing the fibres. The excess of fluid surrounding the glass cover is removed with blotting or filter paper before placing the slide under the microscope. A microscope capable of magnifying from 300 to 550 times will cover all necessary requirements. The following are the main structural characteristics of the fibres commonly used in paper-making : — Linek. — Maximum length of original plant fibres, 4 centi- metres. They are about one-half the thickness of cotton, with tapering ends, and chiefly characterised by the repeated thickening of the cell walls, forming knots at short intervals. The knots are often flattened during the beating process, causing the fibre to break at the point where they occur. 172 Central canal very narrow, frequently appearing as a dark line. Walls of cells are perforated with numerous pores, running from the interior to the exterior, and appearing as dark lines. Hemp. — Closely resembles linen; the central canal is, however, broader, being about a quarter to one-half the diameter of the cell. The membrane of the cell is distinctly marked (striated) in the direction of its length. Cotton. — Fibres have a maximum length of 5 centimetres, and are formed of single tapering cells. The diameter of the cell is about two-thirds of the total diameter, and the walls are flattened and twisted spirally. The treatment in caustic soda and in the beating engine counteracts to a large extent this tendency of the fibre to twist. Mechanical Wood. — (Pinus sylvestris, pinus picea,pinus abies.) — The structure of the fibres is very similar in the whole group of pines, and are distinguished by minute differences in their cells. These cells have their walls characterised by spots or pores, generally appearing as two concentric rings. Spots on cell wall in autumn and spring wood appear more or less elliptical. Note also the cells of the medullary rays, which run from the centre to the outside of the stem in the shape of a star, and are remarkable for their latticed structure. (See chemical tests for mechanical wood in papers, page 174.) Wood Cellulose. — What is true of mechanical wood is also true of pine wood cellulose. This is characterised by the ring-surrounded pores or the dotted wood cells. Frequently, however, these characteristics are destroyed, owing to the chemical treatment to which the wood has been subjected. The cells of the medullary rays are generally absent. Many of the fibres show the same spiral twisting as cotton, and a latticed striping of the cell membrane. Pine cellulose remains colourless, whilst cotton cellulose is turned brown with iodine solution. If the cellulose has been badly prepared, iodine will colour the fibres slightly yellow. Straw Cellulose. — From wheat, rye, barley, and oat straw. Note the characteristic cells of the epidermis, which are thick-walled, more or less silicious, with jagged edges. These cells are joined to one another by their ragged edges, and very occasionally are grouped. They occur in various sizes. The edges are frequently deeply serrated, sometimes only slightly uneven. The most numerous cells, however, are the bast cells — long thin fibres of regular structure, with a small internal canal. At regular intervals the walls thicken, giving the fibre a knotted appearance, and the central canal 173 narrows at these points, broadening out again on either side. Note also numerous pores, which appear as dark lines running from the canal to the exterior. Also the great number of very thin- walled parenchyma cells, rounded at both ends at times, sometimes almost circular, sometimes long, and covered more or less with simple pores. The presence of these cells distinguishes with certainty straw from esparto cellulose. Further, notice the sclerenchyma — very thick-walled silicious cells, somewhat bluish in appearance. Esparto Cellulose. — Structure of cells similar to that of straw cellulose. As a general rule esparto cells are finer and dimensions smaller than in straw. The bast cells are very short, are unevenly built with thick walls, so that frequently the central canal appears only as a line, while the irregularities in the curves of the canal so noticeable in straw are not to be found in esparto. Epidermic cells resemble those of straw cellulose. The large thin-walled parenchyma cells are entirely absent in esparto, but the sclerenchyma cells are found. The presence of small teeth-like bodies, which come from the leaves of the plant serves to prove the presence of esparto cellulose. Jute. — The walls are sometimes very thin and suddenly thicken, narrowing the central canal to a mere line. The fibres are often joined together in bundles, -which prevents the identification of the cell structure. Occasionally they exhibit pores and knots similar to those in linen cellulose, and possessing a yellow-brown colour. Note on the Microscopical Examination or Papers. — No written description of the characteristics of the different varieties of fibres used in the paper manufacture will suffice as a safe guide, and the investigator is recommended to use the numerous charts published, to give him the correct forms. With these charts there is no difficulty in ascertaining the true characteristics of each fibre, and in that way more certainly isolate them in the examination of any individual paper. 6. The chemical examination of papers : — Animal Size. — A small quantity of the paper is macerated in hot water and the liquid filtered. Add a small quantity of tannic acid to the filtrate. The formation of a turbid pre- cipitate or cloudiness indicates the presence of animal size. Hefelmann recommends the following method : — Boil 10 grammes of the paper in pieces, in a porcelain dish, with 120 c.cs. of water till about 25 c.cs. water are left, filter off the liquid into a flask, add 5 grammes of potassium sulphate, and shake well, in order to precipitate the gelatine or glue in a flocculent state. The precipitate is then filtered off, 174 washed to the bottom of the filter, the top part of the latter torn off, and the lower part, with the precipitate, dried by pressing between blotting paper. This is then mixed with soda lime, placed in a small combustion tube, and the latter heated in a furnace or over a long gas flame. The gases issuing from the tube are then tested for ammonia with moistened red litmus paper, or by vapour of HC1 in the usnal way. Resin Size. — Half a sheet of the sample is torn up into small pieces, placed in a beaker, and absolute alcohol poured over it. Place the beaker and contents in hot water for 30 minutes or so. Both resin and resinate of alumina are dissolved by the alcohol, and if the solution be poured into distilled water a milky precipitate (or cloudiness) will be produced if resin is present. Starch. — The presence of starch is best ascertained by immersing a strip of the paper in a very weak solution of iodine (in aqueous potassium iodide). A blue coloration will be formed if this body is present. Free Acid. — " Congo red " is recommended by Hertzberg as a reagent for showing the presence of free acid in papers, alsomethyorange (Dimethylaniline-orange). The latter istrans- formed from bright yellow to purple red by acids, whilst acid salts — e.g., alum and sulphate alumina — effect no such change. Mechanical Wood. — There are many reagents for indicating the presence of mechanical wood in papers, the following being the most important. Sulphate op Aniline. — Paper containing mechanical wood steeped in a hot 5 per cent, aqueous solution of this salt turns a bright yellow, the depth of colour being proportionate to the amount of wood present. Pure cellulose papers are not changed. Esparto papers turn a faint pink. An alcoholic solution of Orcin, to which H CI has been aided, yields a powerful dark red coloration with mechanical wood. Resorcine, dissolved in alcohol containing H CI, colours wood blue-violet. Pure cellulose papers remain unchanged. Phloroglucine (4 grammes in 25 c.cs. alcohol and 5 c.cs. pure concentrated H Clj colours wood an intense red. This is the most delicate test for mechanical wood in papers. 7. Determination op the Strength op the Sizing. — The Leonhardi-Post method consists in placing uniform drops of an aqueous solution of chloride of iron, containing 1 - 531 per cent, of iron, upon samples of the paper, and allowing the iron solution to soak into the sheet for as many seconds as the paper weighs in grammes per square metre. The unabsorbed fluid 175 is then immediately removed with blotting or filter paper, and the water allowed to evaporate. When this has been repeated 4 or 5 times, the paper is reversed and painted with' an aqueous solution of tannic acid, the excess of this fluid being removed with filter paper as formerly. The tannic acid acts upon the chloride of iron which has passed through the paper, causing a black stain, the intensity of which is a measure of the strength of the sizing. A number of tests should be made in each case to obtain an average. WOOD PULPS. Sindall has made exhaustive experiments respecting the methods of sampling, &c, wood pulps, and recommends the following: — The Sample. — Moist Pulp. Two per cent, of the number of bales composing the consignment is considered sufficient, provided the weight of the whole bulk calculated from this 2 per cent, agrees with the gross weight actually found. Five sheets are taken from each bale to be sampled — one from the centre, two on each side midway from centre to outside, and two taken one inch from the outside of the bale. These sheets are then divided by imaginary lines into four rectangular parts, and pieces are cut out from the centre of the four rectangles. These pieces are at once transferred to a light glass bottle which may be previously tared. Dry Pulp. Sheets are selected from different parts of the bale as above described, and small strips, 6 inches long by half an inch wide, cut from a spot near to each of the four corners, and one from the centre. These strips are also at once transferred to a clean, dry bottle. Samples can be taken in duplicate. Testing the samples. — The bottle and its contents should be weighed previous to removing the sample to the water bath for drying, and by deducting the tare of the bottle the correct weight of the moist sample is obtained. The moist sample may also be weighed by itself before drying, as a check on the other weight. The sample is then placed on a shallow tray of wire gauze and transferred to a water bath, where it remains till the weight is constant. The temperature of the bath or water oven should not be less than 212° Fah. An air bath may also be used, whose temperature should never exceed 219° Fah. Schopper's apparatus, consisting of a balance and air bath, permits of the operation of drying and weighing the dried sample without removing it from the air bath, and can be recom- mended for testing all kinds of moist and air-dry pulps. 176 The results are usually expressed in per cents, of air-dry pulp — that is, pulp containing 10 per cent, of moisture (England). Obviously oven-dry weight, multiplied by 100 and divided by 90, gives this air- dry weight. The following table of simple formulae has been constructed with a view to tersely express the various calculations in ascertaining the moisture, &c, in pulps : — Found. Letter A = Required. Formula. % Absolutely dry pulp. % Air- dry pulp. % Total moisture. % Excess moisture. % Excess moisture. % Air- dry pulp. % Absolutely dry pulp. % Air-dry pulp. % Air- dry pulp. % Absolutely dry pulp. 100 A 90 90 A 100 (100— A) 100 90 100— A (100— A) 90 100 The British Wood Pulp Association and the English and Scottish Paper Makers' Association have officially compiled and issued a test certificate form for the use of analysts, of which the following is a copy : — 177 WOOD PULP MOISTURE TEST. ANALYST'S CERTIFICATE. _ Adopted by the British Wood Pulp Association and the English and Scottish Paper Makers' Associations. J9 TLhlS 15 tO Certify that w * have tested for moisture a parcel of pulp, said to consist of bales, marked lying at. The samples were drawn by on k Number of bales sampled Total gross weight of (intact) bales sampled. (For numbers Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. and detailed weights see below) ; : : Weight of parcel calculated from Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. above i : i Percentage of absolutely dry pulp in the sample per cent. Percentage of moisture in the sample per cent Percentage of air dry or moist pulp in the sample, on the basis of — 90=100 (Air-dry) percent 45=100 (Moist) percent Percentage of ex- (Moisture { cess \Fibre... $ percent. Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. Weight of pulp to be invoiced... : ! I £ s. d. Fees ... : : Expenses : : Analyst Date . __ , To. 12 178 CHAPTER VI. LOADING MATERIALS. Loadings are employed to give weight to a sheet of paper, to render it opaque, and to impart a certain smoothness of surface (especially in the case of china clay or kaolin) to make the sheet of paper more absorbent or susceptible to printing inks. Their properties vary somewhat as detailed below. China Clay" is the most important mineral loading used in the manufacture of paper and is essentially a hydrated silicate of alumina of the general formula A1 2 3 2 Si0 2 2H 2 0. According to this formula it should contain 39-72 per cent. A1 3 3 ; 46-36 per cent. Si0 2 and 13-92 per cent, of water, which is substantially the composition of the com- mercial clay when freed from undecomposed rock. Sp. gr. 2-20 to 2-60. It is the product of the natural disintegration of felspar, and occurs in large deposits in Cornwall and Dorset- shire, which counties have provided the main sources of supply in England for many years. To prepare it for industrial purposes, the clay deposits are largely diluted with pure water and the resulting milky fluid passed in succession through a series of settling areas in which the fine clay deposits. By this system of levigation deposits of varying degrees of fineness are obtained. When the areas are full, the surface water is drained off and the clay allowed to dry sufficiently to be handled with a shovel in blocks. The partly-dried clay is then removed and further dried in stacks before shipment. In the air-dried state, china clay is white or nearly so. When moistened with water it assumes a more or less greyish tint, which, however, disappears again on drying at 212 Fan. It loses water on ignition at a red heat, and if iron be present in quantity the ignited clay assumes a yellow colour due to the presence of ferric oxide. China clay may be added direct to the beating engine for most printing and cheap writing papers, but if it be preferred, it may be previously mixed into a thick cream with water in a tank containing an agitator and passed through a fine brass sieve having 70 meshes to the linear inch. The impurities separated by the sieve are grit and jute fibres, the latter derived from the jute bags in which it is frequently packed for export. Some manu- facturers add from 5 to 10 per cent, of starch to the clay prior to or after heating and straining, in order to cause it to adhere more readily to the fibres. In some cases this is advantageous. Rosin size no doubt facilitates the adhesion of the clay to the fibres as well. The peculiarities imparted to the paper by the presence of this loading are opaqueness^ 179 whiteness, and increased softness of surface. It also increases the absorbing power of the paper to printers' ink, thereby allowing a clear impression of the type and illustration to be run off rapidly. The soft greasy character of the clay produces this effect, while its great fineness enables it to be distributed very evenly and intimately throughout the texture of the paper. It has also a certain affinity for aniline dyes that adds to its value in the production of tinted papers. Next to colour, the most important item in the purity of china clay is its freedom from grit and dirt. Of 100 parts of clay added to the beater, from 60 to 75 parts can be obtained direct in the paper, depending upon the amount of mineral matter required as ash in the finished sheet, but if an efficient system of utilising the sedimentary matter in the " back " water from the paper machine be in use, the yield can be increased to 85 or 90 per cent. The following is an analysis of a com- mercial china clay, viz. : — Al 2 O n , 39-37 per cent. ; Si0 o 45-89 per cent. ; CaO 00*35 per cent.; MgO 00*4 per cent."; FeO, 00-23 per cent. ; combined water, 10-80 per cent. ; hygroscopic water, 2-45 per cent. ; alkaline bases, &c, 00-50 per cent. The iron in china clays usually exists in the ferrous state. Sulphate op Lime. — This loading is known in commerce under various names, such as pearl and crystal hardening, terra alba, gypsum, &c. These various kinds although alike in chemical composition, namely. Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 yet differ from one another in physical properties and in the effects they produce. Pearl and crystal hardening are the purest and finest forms of this loading. When dry they correspond in composition to pure sulphate of lime, Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 O, and contain 79-07 per cent, Ca S0 4 , and 20-93 psr cent, of water of crystallisation. Both are prepared artificially by precipitation. For this purpose a solution of saltcake or crude sulphate of soda, previously freed from iron and sedimentary matter by precipitation with lime or soda, is added to a solution of chloride of calcium, whereby hydra ted sulphate of lime is thrown down from the solution thus : — Na 2 S0 4 + CaCl 2 + aqua = Ca S0 4 + 2 H,0 +2 NaCl. The precipitate is washed and finally dried in a hydro extractor. As it occurs in the market it is a pure, soft, white substance, somewhat plastic to the touch, free from grit or large crystals and contains about 13 per cent, of hygroscopic water. An analysis of the commercial article gave Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 =86-8 per cent.; hygroscopic water, 13-2 per cent. It imparts to the paper a greater degree of whiteness than china clay, but does not bulk so well. It has a tendency to stiffen the paper, and papers loaded with it glaze and print well. Owing to its opacity, great whiteness, &c, it is used for the finest 180 grades of writing papers. Terra Alba, Gypsum. — Both of these are sulphate of lime, found in extensive natural deposits in England and Nova Scotia, &c., of greater or less purity. The rock from which terra alba is prepared is colourless, or nearly so, and is practically pure Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 0. The crystalline material is ground to an impalpable powder while perfectly dry, and contains a greater percentage of Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 than pearl hardening. It is also specifically heavier and has a greater tendency to settle out in the sand trap. It imparts somewhat different characteristics to the paper loaded with it, the surface being harder and less absorbent. It does not absorb aniline dyes so readily nor possesses such whitening properties as the artificial loading. As these different forms of sulphate of lime are all soluble to a certain extent in water, there is loss through solution while using them. Artificially piepared pearl hardening passes into solution more readily than the native mineral, terra alba, due to the difference in their physical condition. To minimise this tendency to dissolve, the pearl hardening is mixed with 10 per cent, of its weight of starch and the mixture made into a thick paste with water by boiling. One hundred parts of water (10 galls.) dissolve at the normal temperature 0-224 parts of anhydrous sulphate of lime Ca SO 4 = 0-283 parts (0-283 lbs.) of the crystalline salt, CaS0 4 +2H 2 0. It is more soluble in cold than in hot water between limits. Owing to its solubility it is obvious that as the volume of water used in the beating engine and on the paper machine is nearly constant for similar classes of papers, the less mineral required, the greater is the propor- tionate loss ; or, the more sulphate of lime required in the paper, the greater the proportionate yield on the weight of sulphate used. This loss is greatly lessened by the use of the " back " water in the beating engines and service or mixing box of the paper machine. As hydrated sulphate of lime does not lose its water of hydration when heated to 212 Fah., it follows that the loading retains this water of hydration in the paper after passing over the drying cylinders, and that the ash of the paper obtained by ignition at a red heat repre« sents substantially the loading less its water of hydration. An allowance or addition should therefore be made for the latter. The same holds good for china clay. As one part of anhydrous Ca S0 4 is equivalent to 1-264 parts of Ca S0 4 + 2 H 2 0, the percentage of Ca S0 4 found in the ash multi- plied by 1-264 will give the true percentage of dry loading, whether this be pearl hardening or terra alba, i.e., dry as far as hygroscopic water is concerned. In the case of china clay, since this contains 13-92 per cent, of combined water, one parts of anhydrous clay (such as. is obtained as ash in the 181 paper) corresponds to 1-161 part of dry hydrated clay. Multi- ply, therefore, the percentage of ash by 1-161 to find the true percentage of dry clay used. These facts should not be over- looked when comparing the relative yields of sulphate of lime loadings with china clay. Talc is essentially a silicate of magnesia of the formula 4 MgO 5 Si0 2 H 2 0, and occurs in Nature very widely distributed in masses as the mineral steatite or soap-stone. Its composition according to the formula is Si0 2 = 62-14 per cent. ; MgO = 32-92 per cent. ; water = 4 -94 per cent. As a rule the mineral varies but little from this composition. Occasionally it contains ferric oxide, but these varieties are rejected when the mineral is intended for paper making. Sp. gr. 2-6 to 2-8. It occurs in a great variety of colours, but only the white or nearly white mineral is used as a loading. This is ground by suitable machinery to an impalpable powder and sieved, the sieved portion being alone used. It is, of course, insoluble in water, and when made from the nearly white mineral yields results in point of colour superior to the general run of china clays. It being specifically heavier than china clay and also artificially ground, it has a greater tendency to settle in the sand trap of the machine, but in ordinary cases the yield obtained from it- is as great as that from china clay. Notwithstanding this mineral has a soapy feel when rubbed between the fingers like china clay, it imparts a slightly different property to the paper, but only in degree, not in kind. Asbestine closely resembles talc in properties, and as the name implies, is made from asbestos rock by grinding and sifting. The powder is anhydrous, of a pure white colour, sp. gr. 2*99, and, examined under the microscope, has a somewhat fibrous appearance, in virtue of which it is claimed to possess greater adhesive properties than other loadings. Papers containing it when subjected to great pressure or friction become highly glazed, and owing to its non-hygro- scopic properties it is said the gloss is more lasting than that obtained with other loadings. The surface, however, is hard and unyielding. As a general rule a yield of from 70 to 85 per cent, is obtained with ordinary care in papers containing average quantities of the mineral. Blanc-Fixe and Barytes. — Both of these are sulphate of barium, BaS0 4 , the former artificially prepared, whilst the latter is found native. Barytes is a heavy mineral very abundantly distributed, and when used as a loading is ground to a fine powder. Its sp. gr. is very high, viz. : 4-73, and application in the paper manufacture somewhat limited. Blanc-fixe on the other hand, occurs in commerce as a thick paste, and is thrown down as a pure white, very finely divided 182 precipitate when a soluble sulphate such as sulphate of soda or magnesia is added to an aqueous solution of chloride of barium. The precipitate is allowed to subside, is washed frequently by decantation, and finally dried to the consistency of a thick paste. In this form, mixed frequently with hydrate of alumina, it is used for coating papers, either white or coloured. As a loading it is best produced in the beating engine itself by adding crystallised barium chloride dissolved in hot water and filtered through a linen cloth to the stuff in the beater after sizing. The BaS0 4 thus formed is in a very fine state of division, is pure white and imparts this characteristic to the paper. It is not extensively used in this way, and only then for special papers. Satin White is often employed in place of blanc-fixe in the production of stained and other papers, and according to the Papier Zeitung is essentially a mixture of precipitated carbonates of magnesia or lime and hydrate of alumina. It can be made in three grades as follows : — Grade I is produced by dissolving 100 kilos of magnesium chloride in 200 or 300 litres of hot water and filtering through a linen filter cloth into a large vat. To this solution there is added, while hot, a filtered hot solution of ammonia soda so long as a precipitate of carbonate of magnesia is formed which can readily be ascertained by the fluccose separation of MgC0 3 . In a small vessel dissolve 75 kilos of carbonate of soda in hot water, filter through linen cloth into a larger vat and add to it with, constant stirring a clear solution of 100 kilos of sulphate of alumina free from iron. The aluminium hydrate thus obtained is then washed a few times by decan- tation with hot water, and afterwards the precipitated car- bonate of magnesia is added with constant stirring. Finally, the mixed precipitates are filtered and pressed in linen bags. To obtain the satin white of a good colour it is necessary to use pure water and sulphate of alumina and magnesium chloride free from iron salts. Grade II is obtained by grinding 100 kilos of burnt lime in a wet mill (edge runners), preparing same into a finely- divided milk of lime and washing into a vat through a fine brass sieve. In a smaller receptacle dissolve about 45 kilos of soda ash in hot water, and, after filtration, slowly add this solution to the lime, stirring incessantly. It is essential to dilute as much as possible. In another vessel dissolve 100 kilos pure sulphate of alumina in hot water, filter and add to the contents of the first vat with continued stirring. After stirring for some time, wash with pure hot water, filter and press thoroughly. Grade III is obtained in the same manner as Grade II excepting that 130 or 140 kilos of burnt lime are used. 181 CHAPTER Vli. GENERAL CHEMICAL TABLES. Ammonia. Soda (Carbonate) is almost pure carbonate of soda, having the following composition : — Carbonate of soda, 98 - 94 % ; snlphate of soda, - 34 % ; chloride of sodium, 0-36 % ; moisture, 0*20 % ; insoluble matter, ferric oxide, alumina, &c, - 10 %. This is the purest form of commercial carbonate of soda known. 184 Specific Gravity op Solutions of Sodium Carbonate. @ 60° Fah. = 15 c C. (Lunge). Percentage by 1 cubic foot of solution Specific Gravity. Twaddell. Weight. contains Na 2 0. Na 2 C0 3 Na 2 0. Na 2 CO., 48% Ash. 1-005 1 0-28 047 0-172 0-294 0-358 1-010 9 0.56 0-95 0-350 0-598 0-728 1-015 o 0-84 1-42 0-525 0-888 1-094 1-020 4 l-ll 1-90 0-707 1-209 1-473 1-025 5 1-39 2-38 0-889 1-521 1-853 1-030 6 1-67 2-85 1-070 1-830 2-^30 1-035 7 1-95 3-33 1-257 2-149 2-618 1-040 8 2-22 3-80 1-441 2-464 3-002 1-045 9 2-50 4 28 1-631 2-788 3-397 1-050 10 2-78 4-76 1-852 3-116 3-797 1-055 11 3-06 5-23 2-012 3-440 4-192 1-060 12 3-34 5-71 2-206 3-772 4-596 1-065 13 3-61 6-17 2-396 4-097 4-992 1-070 14 3-88 6-64 2-591 4-430 5-397 1-075 15 4-16 7-10 2-783 4-759 5-799 1-080 16 4-42 7-57 2-981 5-098 6-211 1-085 17 4-70 8-04 3-181 5-439 6-627 1-090 18 4.97 8-51 3-382 5-783 7-046 1-095 19 5-24 8-97 3-582 6-125 7-462 1-100 20 5-52 9-43 3-783 6-468 7-880 1-105 21 5-79 9-90 3-989 6-821 8-311 1-110 22 6-06 10-37 4-197 7-177 8-745 1-115 23 6-33 10-83 4-403 7-529 9-174 1-120 24 6-61 11-30 4-615 7-891 9-613 1.125 25 6-88 11-76 4-825 8-249 10-050 1-130 26 7-15 12-23 5-040 8-617 10-500 1-135 27 7-42 12-70 5-256 8-988 10-951 1-140 28 7-70 13-16 5-465 9-354 11-396 1-145 29 7-97 13-63 5-691 9-731 11-857 1-150 30 8-24 14-09 5-908 10-103 12-310 185 Specific Gravity of Solutions of Caustic Soda @ 60° Fah. = 15° C. (Lunge.) Grammes Grammes Grammes Twadde 1 . per litre Twaddell. per litre Twaddell. per litre Na 2 0. Na 2 O. Na„ O. 1 3-7 2Q 100-5 51 223-4 9 7*5 27 105-0 52 228-9 3 11-3 28 109-6 53 234-4 4 15-1 29 114-1 54 240-0 5 18-8 30 118-6 55 245-5 6 22-6 31 123-2 56 251-0 7 26-4 32 127-7 57 256-6 8 30-2 33 132.2 58 262-1 9 33-9 34 136-8 59 267-6 10 37-7 35 141-3 60 273-2 11 41-6 36 145-8 61 279-3 12 45-5 37 150-4 62 285-4 13 49-4 38 154-9 63 291-5 14 53-2 39 159-4 64 297-7 15 571 40 164-0 65 303-8 16 61 -0 41 169-4 GG 309-9 17 64-9 42 174-7 67 316-0 18 68-8 43 180-1 68 322-2 19 72-7 44 185-5 69 328-3 20 76-5 45 190-9 70 334-4 21 80-4 46 196-3 71 340-8 22 84-3 47 201-7 72 347-2 23 88-2 48 207-0 73 353-6 24 92-1 49 212-4 74 360-1 25 96-0 50 217-8 75 366-5 Note — To find lbs. soda (Na 2 O) per cubic foot divide grammes per litre by 16. 186 TABLE Showing the amount of 70 per cent., 60 per cent , and " Cream " Caustic Sodas, and of Eeal Soda (N a 2 0) in their solutions of different densities. - (Beveridge.) White White Cream Caustic Specific Degrees 70% Caustic. 60% Caustic. 60% Na, O. 100 cc. contain 100 cc. contain 100 cc. contain Gravity at Twaddell at 62° Fah. 62° Fah. Dry r -o% Caustic. Soda (Na„ O). Dry 60% Caustic. Soda (Na 2 O). Dry Cream Caustic. Soda (Na 2 O). grins. grms. grms. grms. grms. grms. 1-005 1 •44 •30 •46 •27 •50 •29 1-010 2 •89 •61 •94 •55 1-00 •59 1-015 3 1-33 •91 1-41 •83 1-51 •89 1-020 4 1-78 l - 22 1-97 1-15 2-02 1-19 1-025 5 2*22 1-53 2-38" 1-41 2-52 1-49 1-030 6 2-67 1-84 2-81 1-66 3-02 1-78 1-035 7 3-12 2-15 3-30 1-95 3-50 2-07 1-040 8 3-61 2-49 3-83 2-26 3-98 2-35 1-045 9 4-11 2-84 4-36 2-58 4-52 2-67 1-050 10 4-61 3-18 4-83 2-88 5-06 2-99 1-055 11 5-10 3-52 5-41 3-20 5-60 3-31 1-060 12 5-60 3-87 5-94 3-51 6-14 3-63 1-065 13 6-10 4-21 6-48 3-83 6-69 3-96 1-070 14 6-60 4-56 7-02 4-15 7-26 4-29 1-075 15 7-16 4-94 7-57 4-48 7-85 4-64 1-080 16 7-73 5-34 8-12 4-80 8-43 4-99 1-085 17 8-29 5-72 8-67 5-13 9-03 5-34 1-090 18 8-86 6-12 9-23 5-46 9-65 5-71 1-095 19 9-43 6-51 9-81 5-80 10-28 6-08 1-100 20 9-99 6-90 10-41 6-16 10-93 6-47 1-105 21 10-56 7-29 11-02 6-52 11-60 6-86 1-110 22 11-12 7-68 11-66 6-90 12-28 7-27 1-115 23 11-69 8-07 12-32 7-29 12-99 7-59 1-120 24 12-26 8-47 13-00 7-69 13-70 8-11 1-125 25 12-82 8-85 13-70 8-11 14-41 8-53 1-130 20 13-40 9-26 14-42 8-53 15-20 8-99 Note. — The ab ove val ues are not abs olute. 187 BLEACHING POWDER AND BLEACH LIQUOR. Bleaching powder should contain at least 35 per cent, of available chlorine. The following analysis shows the com- position of the English-made article — viz., available chlorine, '65-60%; chlorine as calcium chloride, 2*80 % ; chlorine as calcium chlorate, " traces ; '; carbonic acid, 1 40 % ; lime (Ca O) 46 11 %. Water, &c. (by difference), 14-09 %. One cwt. (112 lbs.) of dry bleaching powder, containing 36 to of available chlorine, will yield- 250 gallons of bleach liquor of 5° Twaddell. 208 178^ 156 139 125 6 C 7° 8° 9° 10° The loss in making bleach liquor in paper mills varies from 2^ to 7^ per cent., reckoned on the dry weight used, according to the mode of making and apparatus employed. TABLE showing the available chlorine and dry bleaching powder in bleach liquor of different densities at 15° C. (Founded on Lunge and Beichofen.) Degrees Twaddell. ©15^0. Available Available Dry 35 % Specific Gravity Chlorine, Chlorine, Bleaching @15°C. grammes lbs. Powder, per litre. per irallon. lbs. per gal Ion. a -ooo trace 1-0025 i 1-40 0-0140 0-040 1-0050 1 271 0-0271 0-0774 1-0100 2 5-5S 0-0558 0-1594 1 -0150 3 8-48 0-0848 0-2420 1-020 4 11-41 0-H41 0-3260 1-025 5 14-47 0-1447 0-4134 1-030 6 17-36 0-1736 0-4960 1-035 7 20-44 0-2044 0-5840 1-040 8 23 '75 0-2375 0-6785 1045 9 26-62 0-2662 0-7605 1-050 10 29-41 0-2941 0-8402 1055 11 32-68 0-3268 0-9408 1-060 12 35-81 0-3581 1-0231 1-065 13 39-10 3910 1-1171 1-070 14 42-31 0-4231 1-2089 1-075 15 45-70 0-4570 1-3057 1-080 16 48-96 0-4896 1-3971 1-085 17 52-27 0-5227 1-4914 1-090 18 55-18 0-5518 1-5765 1-095 19 58-33 0-5833 1-6637 1-100 20 61-50 0-6150 1-7571 1-105 21 64-50 0-6450 1-8428 188 Specific Gravity of Solutions of Pure Sulphate of Alumina @ 60° Fah. = 15° C. 100 Litres of the Sulphate of Alumina Solution contain Specific Degrees Al„ O., so.. Sulphate with Gravity. Twaddell. Kilos. Kilos. 13% Al 2 O,, Kilos. 14% Al 2 ;1 Kilos. 15% Al 2 0., Kilos. 1-005 1 0-14 0-33 1-1 1 0-9 1-010 2 0-2S 0-65 2'2 2 1-9 1-016 3-2 0-42 9-98 3-2 3 2-8 1-021 4-2 0-56 1-31 4-3 4 3-7 1-028 5 - 2 0-70 1-63 5-4 5 4-7 1-031 6-2 0-84 1-96 6-5 6 5-6 1-036 7-2 0.98 2-28 7-5 7 6-5 1-040 8-0 1-12 2-61 8-6 8 7-5 1-045 9-0 1-26 2-94 9-7 9 8-4 1-050 10-0 1-40 3*26 10 -s 10 9-3 1-055 11-0 1-54 3-59 11-8 11 10-3 1-059 11-8 1-68 3-91 12-9 12 11-2 1-064 12-8 1-82 4-24 14-0 13 12-1 1-068 13-6 1-96 4-57 15-1 14 13-1 1-073 14-6 2-10 4-89 16-2 15 14-0 1-078 15-6 2-24 5-22 17*2 16 14-9 1-082 16-4 2-38 5 '55 18-3 17 15-9 1-087 17-2 2-58 5-87 19-4 18 16-8 1-092 18-4 2-66 6-20 20-5 19 17-7 1-096 19-2 2-80 6-52 21-5 20 18-7 1-101 20-2 2-94 6-85 22-6 21 19-6 1-105 21-0 3-08 7-18 23-7 22 20-5 1-110 22-0 3-22 7-50 24-8 23 21-5 1-114 22-8 3-36 7-83 25-9 24 22-4 1-119 23-8 3-50 8*16 26-9 25 23-3 1-123 24-6 3-64 8*44 2S-0 26 24-3 1-128 25-6 3-78 8-81 29-1 27 25-2 1-132 26-4 3-92 9-13 30-2 28 26-1 1-137 27-2 4-06 9-46 31-2 29 27-1 1-141 28-2 4-20 9-79 32-3 3) 28-0 1 -145 29-0 4-34 10-11 33-4 31 28-9 1 -150 30-0 4-48 10-44 34-5 32 29-9 1-154 30-8 4-64 10-76 35-5 33 30 -S 1-159 31-8 4-76 11-09 36-6 34 31-7 1-163 32-6 4-90 11-42 37-7 35 32-7 1-168 33-6 5-04 11-74 38-8 36 33-6 1-172 34-4 5-18 12-07 : 39-9 37 34-5 1-176 35-2 5-32 12-40 40-9 3S 35-5 1-181 36'2 5-46 12'72 42-0 39 36-4 1-185 37-0 5-60 13-05 43-1 40 37-3 1-190 38-0 5-74 13-38 44-2 41 38-3 1-194 3S-8 5-88 13-70 45-2 42 39-2 189 Specific Gravity of Solutions of Puke Sulphate of Alumina @ 60° Pah.: = 15° C. 100 Litres of the Sulphate of Alumina Solution contain Specific Degrees Al 2 3 SO 3 Sulphate with Gravity. Twaddell. Kilos. Kilos. 13% AL O n Kilos. 14% AL 3 Kilos. 15% AL 3 Kilos. 1-198 39.6 6-02 14.03 46-3 43 40-1 1-203 40-6 6-16 14-35 47-4 44 41-1 1-207 41-4 6-30 14-68 48-5 45 42-0 1-211 42-2 6-44 15*01 49-5 46 42-9 1-215 43-0 6-58 15-33 50-6 47 43-9 1-220 44-0 6-72 15-66 51-7 48 44-8 1-224 44*8 6-86 15-99 52-8 49 457 1-228 45-6 7-00 16-31 53-9 50 46-7 1-232 46-4 7-14 16-64 54-9 51 47*6 1-236 47-2 7-28 16-96 56-0 52 48-5 1-240 48-0 7-42 17'29 57-1 53 49-5 1-244 48-8 7-56 17-62 58-2 54 50-4 1-248 49-6 7-70 17-94 59-2 55 51-3 1-252 50-4 7-84 18-27 60-3 56 52-3 1-256 51-2 7-98 18-59 61-4 57 53-2 1-261 52"2 8-12 18-92 62-5 58 54-1 1-265 53-0 8-26 19-25 63-5 59 55-1 1-269 53-8 8-40 19-57 64-6 60 56-0 1-273 54 6 8-54. 19-90 65-7 61 56-9 1-277 55-4 8-68 20-23 66-8 62 57-9 1-281 56-2 8-82 20-55 67-9 63 58-8 1-285 57-0 8 96 20-88 68-9 64 59-7 1-289 57-8 9 10 21-20 70-0 65 60-7 1-293 58-6 9-24 21-53 71-1 66 616 1-297 59-4 9-38 21-86 72-2 67 62-5 1-301 60-2 9-52 22-18 73-2 68 63-5 1305 61-0 9-66 22-51 74-3 69 64-4 1-309 61-8 9-80 22 -S4 75 4 70 65-3 1-312 62-4 9 94 23-16 76-5 71 66-3 1316 63-2 10-08 23-49 77 - 5 72 67-2 1-320 64-0 10-22 23-81 78-6 73 68-1 1-324 64-8 10-36 24-14 79-7 74 691 1-328 65-6 10-50 24-47 80-8 75 70'0 1-331 66-2 10-64 24-79 81-8 76 70-9 1-335 67-0 10-78 25-12 82-9 77 71-9 1-339 67-8 10-92 25-45 84-0 7S 72-8 ALUMINOFERRIC. Composition.— 14-00 % soluble Al 2 ;; , - 75 X Fe 2 O ft , 0-50 % Free Acid, 0-15 % insoluble matter. 100 parts by weight of water at 60° Fall. dissolve^ 122 parts by weight of Aluminoferric, forming a satura ;ed solution having a sp. gravity of 1*33, equal to 66° Twaddell. One gallon of this saturated solution at 60 ° Fah. contains 7 -5 lbs. of solid Aluminoferric. 190 PERCENTAGE OF SULPHUROUS ACID (S0 2 ) IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF THE GAS. Specific Gravity at 15° C. Degrees Twaddell. % S0. 2 . 1-0056 1-12 1-0 1-0113 2-65 2-0 1-0221 4-45 3-0 1-0275 5-50 4-0 1-0328 6-56 5-0 1-0377 7-54 6-0 1-0426 8-52 7-0 1-0474 9-48 8-0 1-0520 10-40 9-0 Specific Gravity or the Saturated Solutions op Some Salts and the Percentage or Anhydrous Salt contained in the Solutions at Saturated Point. (Gerlach & Kremer's.) Name of the Salt Tempera- ture Saturated Solution. Specific Gravity. Anhydrous Salt. Chloride of Sodium ... Na CI „ Calcium ... Ca Cl 2 ,, Barium ... BaCl 2 Carbonate of Soda ... Na 2 C0 3 Sulphate of Soda ... Na 2 S0 4 15 15 15 15 15 1 -20433 1-41104 1-28267 1-15350 1-11170 26-395 40-66 25-97 14-354 11-952 191 go ^ fi K CO o 2 5 £ o -° ° w 0*° Q S fe a b r; o co o 2 £ &.° o & a h § O g « fe Ph H O J "^ |J O 7 P 04 a Q o o „ H H £ « O %^ oS§ o § W r H -0 5 Oh 02 -2 s O c. O 3 H N w ir. 70 '. i~- in o o "^ ( x co to co _. J.- © o rCMMifiONOC CM 10 '-0, 1- OOCMMira-QH OOOoOOCHHHrfHnt!frl»KllMIM« O N ir. c- cc © io o co hw* >fl t- ex O O O O © O © r-l O O O O O O O i ^KlWIl 135 OS CO •* (N 00 CO U3 ^lOiOONNNHUJ Ml- O f ffi C; O -t »1 Ol- iCl- « CO (M O C0C0O00iOM(MOe»Mi>l>i>00C»! " o oo o o i LO l~ C. H K I" I- C - 1 i ii oi oi oi co co rHrHCNlCSiCSlC-loqcCCOCOCO-* ■* i^ a co •/) k » c. c h m © CO © V3C0C -* h- OS O r-l J>- CO uo co in m LiONOMOHN HMiONOHMiOOOCHlO OOCOOr-lr-lr-li-iCNIMOl V UJ V r *-. — - -T JJ -V 1^- iij ^ ' — ' lo o - m w io co co w o >o o ffl ^ M CO CO CO CO CO O IT. H 1- t o HSlTjLONOOOHCOinOCOO OOOOOOrHr-lrHrHr-lrHO-l 192 § Id (Nl»i0NC0HMiaQ0OMOC!lN-*a)OM©05 o:-*lOON050H(^^irj©N050'- | OOTH>OCO NSiBtOiOia»OTH->ii-*COWOOiOO»OOiOOOOiraOiOO»OOiOOiOO Q OHH(NlMMCQt-*lOiOfflOI>l>00<»ClCSO QJ eS r- O fti-S < 2n o s j o a> hi HNOO^iOONCOOOHN^rHW-flNCOCSO o O 1 NM(M(NCNN!M(N(NMeOM-*COWWCOMCO'^ H ft ffl J s Qj CD o H(MOON'X31HNOOTCONOiO HWCO^iOONODQOHlN^iOaSOOQOlM .-i t-H .-i .-i i-< tH i— HH(N!N Sm -3 &D H CICj k ^ l-H 3h o 03 135 CD»OTHNnOifliOOOI>COOJOiN50>CMHOH o r _|^ T l T -H THT _|^-, r ( T H T -H r: H T l T Hr r ^ v < T l_^(00 to g§W OHIMC0^lOC0t-0005OHMC0TH'0OI>C03JO T-lr-lrHr-lrHr-lr-ti-I^HrHCN a « dn m 6 o >>o O ^ H H (M I-] CO CO ■* Tf< >fl 'O CO CD N N 00 CO Ci CS O OO9O9O9O9O9OO9O9909OH • CD § OHNOJ^iOWNXOsO^WW^iOONCOOjO H 193 7, o WM^iOCONODCJOHIMCO^iSCONOGOOHNCO 66OOO66OOOO06OO6OOOOOO OMOQOOO^COMlOCOH-fNOWWOHCOlOir M9OOONI>(N0p9QCTHfflTH9ip9i ; '5H9H-TyHCpO"*_ QCOt-H OONffllO-*MMHOCJOO*>OlOT)ii*(MNHOOO© NO^iOON»OSOOHNK-*iOOI>COaO-IH 6666666666666666666666 NlO»HT)(0t)HO00t005OS'*HQSi0e0HCSt» ^t"^c5o666TH^(^(^cb^4Hib>b66t^oooo66 cqcqc^c^cNcocococococococococceocococococcco ON«<*COC005QOlOMC550MCJlONON<*ffIC50 9999M9m9«9(Ni>5 ; i9H9Hip9i i '5 9^ 13 194 P a d a a >0C0t>Q0Cr.Or-iWC0^i0CCN0005OHNKilOC0l> ffi999q59909090999HHHHHHH ©©6©6r^i^fH.HTH.H.H,^THiH.l»THiHiHtHA4rH ^C0»(N{CQNCDOM©OC0)aC0O®l0Ol005C0 P^ t > , r , ^ , ^ T r l '?* H ' : P , 7 H ! H(: ? DT r H) 9 < ?^' : P < ?'?' , i~ < ?"?' ooaciftosocosKNCDOofficacDisatotccoffl THW'O'ONaiOOHIMCO^iocDSOOOOHINCC^ 6000000000006006000060 ^lOWN0005OHC<)M-*>0CCS000JOHWMH*>O C0Q0»a0»CC5)05C30J0505lT.CD0J05OOOOOO iH iH tH iH 1-" iH 195 OS Si 1 £ CO(MfflHMiOO-*OTJHO^HH(XiHQHOKl«i H hNCOuOCONQOOHMtHOMQ^ICOOOO-iO 03 h- 1 ^H -*H -^H rH ■* tH "* >C »Q >C «S ip 1Q »p «p

b- fr- § w a8 M 2 P O (M«OOtHOOO b CD >> o ^3 CM00"*OiOiMO(»N«i>0'fOQ0fflH0S0JNTl' 0! WiOOCOOO^Q^OJHHOiOOOiOlMHMO 1—1 8 o CO {OeOtONNOOOOMffliQOOiOcMNW^lOtDOO II Otfl«flOO©OCDtfi©l>t>NNNNI>NNN 3 "3 t3 OOHlMCO^lOSNODffiOHlMCO^iOtCNa) o iocoooo3iaoaco CO ;> g H CD 1Cqc>qOONXOH(N«itK5©OD050 s p H Ph ^^^1(>'ici<^cnc-t-t~t~t~t-t~t-00CO rH H * M M o soio*rtONot>MO)^oiaooco»>*oc O 09 o SH^NHT(COM10 35(NOOC01>N^N-HIOI» c3 CO coQo:oooOHHH(MiMnneo-*T)(^ioioio fc iOlOOiO©(0'0®tOCOfflOfflOfflO'J!OOtCC S3 Ph 02 O o "3 ooaoHNo:>fia©Nooo30HtMco^mcoi>oo tM«CO«COCOCOCOCOCOCOM^^'^'*^-#^T|-'* 196 WEIGHTS OF ONE CUBIC EOOT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF RAW MATERIALS, &o. Name of Material. Lbs. Pyrites, broken pieces . 156 ,, dust or " smalls " 146£ ,, burnt 95 Salt 43 " Salt cake," or sulphate of soda ... 73i Limestone " small pieces " 87i Soda ash 74-5 Bleaching powder ... ... 45/52 Manganese ore... 138 Coke, lumps, hard burnt 26/33 Flints 100 Mechanical wood pulp, individual bales, 50 % water 59f ,, ,, 5 ? in store, packed close 54/56 Sulphite wood pulp, bale, 10 % water 39 ,, ,, ,, in store 36/37 Aluminous cake 66 Sulphate of alumina, in small pieces, 17 % ground, 17 % 64 Magnesia ... 70 Brimstone ... 92 Coal, steam ... 47/54 ,, slack ... •-. 45/60 ,, anthracite 56/58 Sand for gravity niters 83 Lime Caustic ... 62^/66 197 Comparison of Degrees Baume Specific Gravity and Degrees Twaddell @ 12-5° C. Rules: — Be — Degrees Baume ; Tw = Degrees Twaddell Sp. Gr. = Specific Gravity. 144-3x100) 144 . 3 _ B ^-=:Sp. Gr. When Water =1,000. Sp. Gr.— 1,000 — f— ' = Tw. When Water = 1,000. 5 ' Degrees Baume. Specific Gravity. Degrees Twaddell. Decrees Baumd. Specific Gravity. Degrees Twaddell. 1 1-0069 1-4 37 1-3447 68-94 j 2 ' 1-0140 2-8 38 1-3574 71-48 1 3 1-0212 4-2 39 1-3703 74-06 j 4 1-0285 5-7 40 1-3834 76-68 5 1-0358 7-16 41 1-3968 79-36 j 6 1-0434 8-68 42 14105 82-10 j 7 1-0509 10-18 43 1-4244 84-88 8 1-0587 11-74 44 1-4386 87-72 | 9 1-0665 13-30 45 1-4531 90-62 ! 10 1-0745 14-90 46 1-4678 93-56 ! 11 1-0825 16-50 47 1-4828 96-56 12 1-0907 18-01 48 1-4984 99-68 13 1-0990 19-80 49 1-5141 102-82 14 1-1074 21-48 50 1-5301 106-02 15 1-1160 23-20 51 1-5466 109-32 16 1-1247 24-94 52 1-5633 112-66 17 1-1335 26-70 53 1-5804 116-08 18 1-1425 28-50 54 1-5978 119-56 19 1-1516 30-32 55 1-6158 123-1 20 1-1608 32-16 56 1-6342 126-8 21 1-1702 34*04 57 1-6529 130-6 22 1-1798 35-90 58 1-6720 134-4 23 1-1896 37-92 59 1-6916 . 138-3 24 1-1994 39-88 60 1-7116 142-3 25 1-2095 41-90 - 61 1-7322 146-4 26 1-2198 43-96 62 1-7532 150-6 1 27 1-2301 46-00 63 1-7748 154-9 i 28 1-2407 48-01 ! 64 1-7960 159-2 29 1-2515 50-03 65 1-8195 163-9 30 1-2624 5248 66 1-8428 168-6 31 1-2736 54-72 67 1-859 171-8 32 1-2849 56-98 68 1-864 172-8 33 1-2965 59-30 69 1-885 177-0 34 1-3082 61-64 70 1-909 181-8 35 1-3202 64-04 71 1-935 187-0 36 1-3324 66-48 72 1-960 192-0 Note. — The above is for Baume's hydrometer, generally used on the Continent of Europe. Another scale is in use in America, to which the above table is not applicable. 198 CHA PTER VIII. PAPER MILL MACHINERY. Rag Cutter, consisting of strong cast-iron wheel, with three cast steel knives revolving against a cast steel dead knife; fluted feed rollers, cast-iron stand, shaft, fast and loose pulleys complete, weighs about 25 cwts. ; revolves 1G0 per minute, making 480 cwts, and requires from 2 to 4 h.p., in accordance with material operated upon. NuttaWs Guillotine Rag Cutter. — Large size: Cuts 30 cwts. per hour, and is driven by a pair of fast and loose pulleys 3 feet 10£ inches in diameter X 5|- inches wide; 120 revolu- tions per minute ; weighs 5 tons, and requires 4 h.p. Small size : Cuts 20 ewts. per hour, driven by a pair of fast and loose pulleys 3 feet diameter x 4| inches wide ; 100 revolutions per minute, weighs 3 tons, and requires 3 h.p. Rag Duster. — Drum sieve, 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet long, covered with iron wire gauze ^-inch mesh, 2 feet 9 inches diameter at narrow end and 3 feet 6 inches diameter at wide end. Wooden revolving shaft inside, with pegs, 34 — 40 revolutions per minute. Requires 1 h.p. and dusts 3 cwts. per hour. Sieve enclosed in wooden box. Larger size 4 feet diameter x 14 feet long on slight incline, drum covered with 5-inch mesh wire gauze, 15 revolutions per minute. Grass Duster. — Conical drum placed horizontally, with several rows of spikes passing through spaces of similar rows in the conical cover. Bottom of conical casing is of open wirework, through which dust is sucked by a fan. Grass fed in through hopper at small end of cone. Revolutions of drum 260 per minute. Sphe?'ical Boilers for Rag, Straw, Waste Papers, Sfc. — Shells of wrought-iron or mild steel plates : two manhole covers, taps, safety-valve, pressure gauge, steam and water connec- tions, blow-off cock. Cast-iron stands, with worm gearing and worm wheel attached to trunnion of boiler, shaft fast and loose pulleys. Makes 12 revolutions per hour or ith of a revolution per minute. Rags per Charge. 5 cwts. 8j 5! 14 „ 20 ,, 30 „ 40 „ 53£ „ 70 „ 90 „ 113 „ Esparto Boilers. — Upright cylinders of wrought iron or mild steel, 9 feet diameter by 9 feet high ; butt joints Diameter Capacity in m Feet. Cubic Feet. 5 65 6 113 7 180 8 268 9 381 10 523 11 697 12 905 13 1149 14 1436 Straw per Charge. 4£ CWiS. 7} 11* 16 5> JJ 5 5 22 29 55 37J 48 s 5 60 199 double riveted, capable of withstanding a pressure of 100 lbs. per square inch, and provided with side door and door in dome for filling, vomiting arrangement, run-off cock, safety valve, blow-off valve, pressure gauge, &c. Capacity about 572 cubic feet, will take a charge of 50 cwts. Esparto. Soda Wood Pulp Digesters. — Usually upright cylinders of mild steel plates, cone shaped at top and bottom ; provided with manhole and cover on top cone, run-off valve, blow-off valve at bottom, pressure gauge. .No vomiting pipe, but charge heated direct with injected steam. Shell of digester double riveted with butt joints, and capable of withstanding a working pressure of 140 lbs. per square inch above atmosphere. From 60 to 100 cubic feet of boiler space are required per ton of air-dry soda pulp produced per week, according to quality. Sulphite Pulp Digesters. — Upright cylinders of mild steel plate of unusual thickness, butt joints with the inside rivet- heads countersunk, cone or egg-shaped top and bottom. Top and bottom neck pieces of cast steel, man-lid with bronze blow-off valve, bronze run-off valve to bottom ; steam wheel and check valves ; thermometer tube and testing cock at side, pressure gauge. The following are the sizes of upright digester shells, and then approximate capacity per charge expressed in tons of air-dry pulp : — 10 feet diameter x 30 feet high = 3 tons per charge. 14 ?j ,, X 35 »> 5) = 6 5 J J 14 >» >> X 38 j ? J J = 8 ,, , 14 >> »j X 40 j> 5> = 9 > ' » 14 ?) !? X 45 5J J5 = 10 >5 5 15 y> 5 > X 42 59 JJ = 10 J5 J 15 J» X 45 »' S> = 15 » J 5 Note. — After deducting the thickness of cement and tile lining with which these digesters are usually lined, the net boiler space required per ton of pulp per charge is about 480 cubic feet. The boiler space required per ton of pulp made per week depends upon the system of cooking employed. In the Mitcherlich slow method of cooking there are about 280 cubic feet of space required per ton of air-dry pulp made per week, whilst 50 to 55 cubic feet will suffice for the quickest method of boiling. Kollergang. — Cast-iron pan, 10 feet diameter x 18 inches deep, with granite bedstone 6 feet diameter x about 12 inches thick. Two granite runners 6 feet diameter, one 18 inches wide on face and one 21 inches wide on face. Under driven with bevel gear 90 and 12 cogs, 2 inches pitch, 5 inches wide. Cast-iron stands, shaft, fast and loose pulleys, &c. Speed of stones, 14 revolutions per minute. Speed of shaft = 105 200 revolutions per minute Size of pulley = 42 inches diameter X 7£ inches on face. Weight about 16 tons. 14 to 15 h.p. with full load. Pochers. — Cast-iron trough in parts, with mid-feather or wall 26 feet long x 14 feet 6 inches wide x 3 feet deep ; area = 321 square feet. Total cubic capacity about 900 cubic feet. Wooden paddles in cast-iron arms fixed on wrought-iron shaft. Shaft revolves 33 per minute. Will hold 15 to 20 cwts. air-dry pulp. 4 h.p. Weight about 6^ tons. Drum washer 5 feet x 4 feet 6 inches diameter; makes 6 to 7 revolutions per minute. Breakers. — (Capacity, 10 cwts.) Cast-iron trough in parts, and joints caulked with iron borings 19 feet long x 9 feet 3 inches wide (equal to 157 square feet area) ; 2 feet 6 inches deep at shallow end and 2 feet 11 inches deep at deep end; usual back fall and mid-wall. Recess for washing water 4 feet 9 inches long x 1\ inches wide, 5 inches deep, and covered with brass plate 4,000 holes -^ inch diameter ; 4-inch supply pipe (water). Cast-iron roll 4 feet 6 inches diameter X 4 f est 6 inches wide ; 84 bars in 21 clumps, bars of Bessemer steel If inches projection, 4 feet 6 inches long x 6 inches wide x T 7 s ths thick, and bevelled \\ inches. Pulley on roll shaft 5 feet diameter x 12 inches on face. 110 revolutions per minute. Bed-plate. 22 knives, 4 feet 6 inches x 6 inches x ^ inch; 1 -inch bevel. Two drum washers, 3 feet 3 inches diameter x 3 feet 9 inches wide, covered with honeycombed sheet brass and wire gauze; 12 revolutions per minute. Weight complete, 16 tons. Beating Engines (Capacity, 5 cwts). — Ordinary type of Hollander. Cast-iron trough in one piece, 16 ft. long x 8 ft. broad (equal to 114 sq. ft. area), 2 ft. 4 in. deep at shallow or front end and 2 ft. 7£ in. at deep or back end. Recess in bottom at front of roll for inlet washing water 4 ft. 3 in. long, covered with perforated brass plate, 2,500 holes, -Jg- in. diameter. Bottom of engine dished. Cast-iron roll, 4 ft. diameter x 4 ft. wide ; weight, 3 to 4 tons. 100 bars in 25 clumps of four each. Bars, 4 ft. long x 5| in. broad x § in. thick, bevelled \\ in. Leading bar in each clump of gun-metal, others of cast steel. 150 revolutions per minute. Pulley, in roll shaft, 4 ft. diameter x 12^ in. on face. Bed-plate of cast steel, 24 bars 4 ft. long x 5§ in. broad T \ in. thick. 23 zinc dividers, T ^ in. thick, 4 ft. long x 9 in. broad, placed in cast-iron box. Drum washer, 3 ft. long x 3 ft. diameter, covered with copper honeycombed backing plates and fine wire gauze, 60 meshes to the lineal inch. 1 2 revolutions per minute. Nominal capacity of engine, 525, 540, and 620 lbs. paper. Total weight, 11 tons. The following are approximate dimensions of beating engines of various capacities: — 201 P3 .d .s CO OS o cc co co CO CO © H T3 n XJl < £ -)^> rH rH CI CM CI CM CM CI CO ^ J CO CO Oi OS o © o o o 3 -u •C 0) 1 ft d CM CM CM CI CO CO CO CO CO <*H O c CO 00 o o co CO 05 C5 o 5 * 1—1 !Z5 aft ^J CM CI CM CO CO CO co CO TH ft «H K £) ft o .5 CO CO CO o o o o o © o g co CO CO -H «* TH ■* -* "* |(N H|CS h|cs Hits m £ c 1— 1 —1 o r-i 1—1 1 — 1 1—1 1 — 1 -* * -2-e a 2S d 1— 1 rH - -H - - 1—1 * CM s H Ph Hlc ' 1 h|cs H|(M H|lS H|« i- :i HlC-l w .s CO CO CO CO CO CO CO t* H ft &£ M 35 c ftft ^ cm CM CM CM CI CI CM CI CM CO o CO o CO CO o CO CO o JS 1-3 ^ M £ ^j iO >o lO co co t> t- t- CO Ph 1— 1 o •« ,3 c o o CO o o co o co o h-t "S tf c o 1— 1 ^4 CO CO CO ■* ** CO Ph ft s rQ o <-< on CO -* lO CO t- 00 l — < >>«t-l 68 S U .S '3 re 3 o o o o U3 »Q o o o r- rt,Q ft o >o t- CO L^ Ci IQ o -* gP."d CM CM CM CO CO -* TP io »Q £ * CPU 202 a o © o «o © m -lo a ^i 10 a ■* a • co m co O Oi rH 00 OS m 00 CO ;IN Ttl M ■* eo rH ■* i-. -* oo CO CO C PS s IM s * * a tn 03 'So : § : S : S •" 02 a o o : H : ^ : * ' g • I ' *, -3 &o ° : «- : a : £ 3 £ p _ .:- -a .S 03 O a hi h s 1 o 03 03<*-< fs; o .111 O P4 ■S3 P Eo II *s ^ 03 c3 1> S a>t,_l 43 3 Off o a e_p a+=> a a ■s a -g.p -£ p. 203 Heed's Beating Engine. — Cast-iron trough in pieces 20 feet long x 12 feet wide over all, with roll elevated above level of stuff. Bronze propeller, in pipe 24 inches diameter, at end to elevate stuff to bed-plate ; speed of propeller, 135 to 140 revolutions per minute. Roll 3 feet diameter x 4 feet wide. 150 bars of Bessemer steel, set equidistant from one another, each bar 6 inches wide x t 3 q- in. thick, no bevel, but cut square across; pitch f inch, projection f inch. Speed of roll, 230 revolutions per minute. Pulley on roll shaft 3 feet 6 inches diameter x 8 inches broad. Bed-plate 30 bars, each 5| inches broad x i in. thick except outside one, which is f in. or \ inch ; i in. zinc dividers. Capacity, 670 lbs. dry paper. Weight complete = 10£ tons. The Taylor Patent Beating and Refining Engines are made in sizes of from 400 lbs. capacity to 1,200 lbs. capacity of dry paper with the horizontal trough, and up to 2,000 lbs. or more capacity with vertical tower trough. The rolls are 3 feet, 4 feet, and 5 feet wide on face respectively. The circulation of the pulp in the engine is accomplished by means of Masson Scott & Co.'s Patent Stuff Circulator, which also delivers the pulp into the stuff chests, and empties the engine, and to a level above the level of the beating engines if necessary. The floor space required for the horizontal beating engines is as follows : — ft. For 400 lbs. capacity engine 14 ,, 600 to 700 lbs. engine 14 ,, 900 lbs. capacity engine 15 ,, 1,200 lbs. ,, " ,, 19 The space required for the vertical tower beating engine, to carry about 1,500 lbs. to 2,000 lbs. of dry paper, is 9 feet 8 inches x 9 feet 8 inches. in. ft. in. x 6 8 x 8 3 6 x 9 3 7 x 9 3 204 H|N bn t— *o ** 1—1 o i— i 1— 1 1—1 i-H 1 _l ~' „ p as OS CO o 8 fee •q^PTM ©" '5b tS.Sv s as OS as CO c o o as as N •q^jfuaq CO CO >* CO 02 •4-i £ 1-1 1-1 rH co CO CO CO ' «4-{ •Aannj _c X X X X O CO CO CO «* 6 £ TO ~~ CO =8 M •9^nuijV[ -13(1 o CO o CO o CO o CO ■» co suoi^nioAgg fl o *S3 a •J9^9tU'BI(J .3 o CO o CO o CO CN 1 •SJ^g jo -ok CM CM CM CM H3 •9^ij pag CM ?3 CM CM o3 lO K5 1Q JO © 1— 1 i— 1 © •^Iinj .3 X X X X be lO lO CM CO 0) © 1* TH -* co 9^nuij\[ .i9d suoi^niOA9'a o CM o CM O CM o "JO CM J-l OS ^ "3 •s.i'ea o O O o bC .9 Ph jo "°N CM CM o '% O •mpu\ .3 CM CM CO co lO © •J9^9UTt3I(I .3 CO co CO CO o CO o CO 1 MOOI^ £3 o o o CO i A\opq " H mfoa +i DO co CO CM H "4 •qgdaa .3 as as as as a ,-5 4J lO iO lO ** 05 To 4H o .3 CO CO as CO » H •wpta\ _^ CO CO io x# o «-i ^ g CO CO CO o •iH.S(i9T £ CO 3 © o o o o o uadtjd jo sqq o o o o — A'^iotjcIbo CO CO o CO 205 ^O QO CO o3 13 ai CD 03 is o 1-1 OS CD* .P P CM Heci O O bD a o 3 Cm X c£ CM I"* X co X OJ bo a "p Ph £ «W r-l O 13 o o ft CD .3 2 4a* Ol C5 CO Ol Ol H Oh CD ft " . 1-2 o o C5 ^d CD .2 pi >o o TTI EH g 11 (D CM CO CO CD '5b CO CD o .5 ■* O CM CO CO be g '3 "5b CD O P- X .5 "* X X o o «pj bD © p C s- « o o o +i ^ !-<• Gi CD CD a as H O go CO CO & o o o pi o to o % p=3 PS o CM o o OS CD s Ph o 02 o CO cc OS CC' *iS & SHfeife^'i^h bl *^^ m%*! Z '^^v^ifc'fcFn o ' ",S'. H < H en § X *- . »• : ". * . rif&fiif! -iCv-'*-- ^ •^ 5.. FRONT PERSPECTIVE. Analytical and Technical Laboratories, Aynsome, Grange-over-Sands, Lancs. Messrs. T. J. MARSHALL & CO. Dear Sirs,— Re MINIATURE FOURDRINIER MACHINE. The Workmanship of the Miniature Paper-making Machine which I had from you I consider excellent, and a machine of thistype is absolutely indispensable to anyone who contemplates carrying out investigations and researches for. the paper trade. Believe me to be, dear Sirs, yours very truly, (Signed) J. Stewart Remington..!. ADVERTISEMENTS. W. G. Taylor & Co., Agents for - all Materials used in the Manufacture of Paper. - - LIMITED 126, Queen Victoria Street, LONDON, EC, BRANCH OFFICES at— 5, CROSS STREET, MANCHESTER. AND 29, ST. ANDREW SQ., EDINBUR8H. SODA WOOD PULPS. Bleached and Unbleached. SULPHITE - - WOOD PULPS. Bleached and Unbleached. MECHANICAL - WOOD PULPS. ESPARTO. African and Spanish. STARCH and SIZINGS. CHEMICALS. Sole Agents for the United Kingdom for the Celebrated Original and Improved WANDEL ROTARY STRAINER WANDEL'S MACHINE WIRES. Telegraphic Address: ' FIBRE LONDON/ L >ndon Telephone : Nj, 8109 BANK. ADVERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 1836. Thos. Hardman & Sons, Ltd., :: Fernhill Mills, :: Telegrams : Telephones: "felts, bu R y." BURY, Lancashire. No 41 - BUBY Unbend, London. No. 62, Holborn London Office : FLEET HOUSE, FARRINGDON AVENUE, EC. Manufacturers of . . . MA FELTS Ke^ Also Makers of : Every Description of Cloths Used for Machinery Purposes. Couch Roll Covers, Second Press Felts, Wet and Dry Felts, Bag Flannels, &c, &c. Blankets, Lappings, &c, for Paper Stajnere, Printers and Lithographers, ADVERTISEMENTS. Jas. Milne & Son, Milton House Works, EDINBURGH 4* 4 4 :: MAKERS OF :: LTD. High-speed Paper Machines AND ALL ACCESSORIES. oi . w ex d H D D U < > eOUPER'S PATENT CONCENTRATOR. FOR BLEACHED OR UNBLEACHED HALF-STUFF Supersedes Presse-PSte, makes cleaner Paper, and secures an immense saving in Space, Time, Bleach, and Money, ;: :; Telegrams: "MILNE, EDINBURGH," (ABC, 4th and 5th Editions.) Telephone No. : 4892, ADVERTISEMENTS. Australian Alum Co., Ltd. Works : Runcorn, Cheshire. Telegrams : Telephone : "Alum, Runcorn." No. 38. London Office : 20, Eastcheap, E.G. Manufacturers of the well-known "Special Alltm" for Papermakers and of the Purest Crystal Alum. ADVERTISEMENTS. The Leading Journal in Great Britain for the Paper Trade and Kindred Industries is THE WORLD'S WOOD PULP INDUSTRY, Market Reports on Papermaking Materials, with Current Quotations, Lists of Imports and Exports, Illustrated Descriptions of Mechanical Appliances, Technical Articles by leading Experts, Commercial Intelligence, and all the most up-to-date news relating to the Paper, Pulp, Engineering, and Allied Industries. ITS VALUE TO ADVERTISERS! "This gradual increase of yearly output we attribute largely to inquiries received through the medium of our advt. in your influential and interesting Journal." — The Via Gellia Colour Co., Matlock Bath. TESTIMONY AS TO CIRCULATION! "We have found your Paper at every mill with whom we are doing business, both "here and on the Continent." — M. Relph & Co., Paper Merchants, London. PUBLISHED EVERY FRIDAY. Subscription, £l per annum, post free to any part of the world. Advertisement Rates on application to the Publishers — W. JOHN STONHILL & CO., 58, SHOE LANE, LONDON, E.C ADVERTISEMENTS. Sir James Farmer and Sons, Limited, :: i: established 1852. ENGINEERS and — MA CHIN IS TS . Adelphi Iron Works, Salford, MANCHESTER. Telegrams : Telephone : "AGRICOLA, MANCHESTER." No. 1074 CENTRAL. Code: ABC (5th Edition). MAKERS of — CALENDERS FOR Papermakers, AND OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF CALENDER BOWLS. ADVERTISEMENTS. THE PATENT "EXPRESS" Self -clamp Guillotine IS UNEQUALLED FOR Speed, Holding, and Cutting Power. Holds all kinds of Material without slipping. 3,000 MACHINES SOLD. WRITE FOR LISTS TO- FURNIVAL AUSTELL. THE LARGEST PRODUCERS OF CHINA CLAY FOR Paper-making and Coating OF THE FINEST QUALITIES. Managing Directors: T. M. STOCKER and HENRY STOCKER, ST. AUSTELL. Telegrams: "STOCKER. ST. AUSTELL." Telephone No. 121. DEPOTS:— RUNCORN. WESTON POINT. GARSTON. FLEETWOOD. MANCHESTER. ROCHDALE. LEITH. BO'NESS. GLASGOW. CHATHAM. MANCHESTER OFFICE : Northern Assurance Buildings, Albert Square. Telegraphic Address : " Beamily, Manchester." Telephone No. 2818 Cily, ADVEKTISEMENT. 6 ". xli NOTICE TO PAPER MAKERS. In view of increasingly KEEN COMPETITION, it is MOST IMPORTANT that your Power Plant should be capable of giving MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY with MINIMUM k N N S Dw L oRK:gg COST. Our knowledge of Papermakers' requirements is based on many years' experience, during which we have installed Power Plant, Gearing, and Accessories for numerous Customers ; we therefore feel sure that We can meet your requirements. When in the market for ALTERATIONS or ADDITIONS to your Plant, kindly communicate with us. We supply : BOILERS, SUPERHEATERS, = = ECONOMISERS, STEEL, COPPER, and CAST = IRON PIPE WORK. highest class steam engines fitted with drop, corliss, or piston valves. Condensing plant of any type, also General machinery, including shafting, gearing, pedestals, pullies. Estimates Prepared and Work Executed by : Douglas & Grant, Telephone No.: 105 Kirkcaldy. Telegrams : KIRKCALDY, dotolas SCOTLAND. KIRKCALDY. A.i. ABC, and Engineering- Codes xlii ADVERTISEMENTS. BERNBR & NIELSEN. LONDON : 6I&62,GRACEGHURCHST. Tl M . ' Telegraphic London Telephone : E. C. Addresses ; Central "Berner, London' No. 13830. MANCHESTER : " Berne /- Manchester 17, EXCHANGE BUILDINGS, ST. MARY'S GATE. WOOD PULPS. Telegrams : 'Phone : "ADAPTABLE, LONDON." 1949 TOTTENHAM. ARE YOU USING . . . Trotman'S Patent Interchangeable Dandy Bolls and Moulds Now in use in France, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Austria, Germany, United States, and the majority of the best Mills in the United Kingdom. ALSO SUPPLIED TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND, ENGLISH GOVERNMENT, &c, &c. FOR PARTICULARS, WRITE Works, Meads Road, Wood Green, London, N. ADVERTISEMENTS. W. B. DICK & CO., 33-35, EASTCHEAP, LTD - - - LONDON, E.C. - - Refiners and "Distillers OF Oils, Greases, Turpentines. Telegraphic Address . Telephone Nos. : DICOTTO, LONDON." 6565 and 13826 CENTRAL. BERGER & WIRTH, "CLIFTON BUILDINGS," WORSHIP STREET, LONDON, E.C Makers of every description of high-class PRINTING INKS DRY ROLLER COLOURS COMPOSITION xliv ADVERTISEMENTS. Telegrams— "SONICA, LONDON." Telephone No.— 5420 BANK (Nat.). The Stationery World - - Printing and Allied Trades Keeps its readers fully abreast of the times on all Matters pertaining to the Stationery, Printing and Allied Trades, and also The latest Novelties in the Fancy Goods World. It is well Illustrated, and printed on Art Paper. SUBSCRIPTION PRICE, 5/= PER ANNUM, post free to any part of the world. The Paper Box and Bag Maker, INCLUDING THE BOOK=BINDERS' JOURNAL, is solely devoted to PAPER BOX, BAG MAKING, AND BOOK- BINDING INDUSTRIES, AND ALLIED TRADES, Well Illustrated, and printed on Art Paper. It deals with the latest movements in these Industries, and also with new patents taken out in connection with the same. It is sent to any address, post ;: free, for a year, for 6/= :: Both the above Journals are excellent media for Advertisements. Tariff will be sent on application to Chief Offices, &c. — S. C. PHILLIPS 6 CO., 47, CANNON STREET, LONDON, E.C. ADVERTISEMENTS. xlv Telegrams— " SONICA, LONDON." Telephone No.— 5420 BANK (Nat.). IT WILL PAY YOU TO SUBSCRIBE TO The Paper Maker The, a d j ndnt AND Practical Journal British Paper Trade Journal. Pape ° r r l T e rade Its appearance is eagerly looked forward to each month throughout the world for its UP-TO-DATE NEWS, which is - - - WELL PRINTED ON ART PAPER, and is BEAUTIFULLY AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. THE SUBSCRIPTION PRICE IS 12/6 PER ANNUM, POST FREE, and includes a copy of the Annual Number of the Paper Maker, which is published singly at 2/6 per copy. Each Number contains nearly 200 pages, and it is the largest and most important organ of the Paper Ti-ade in the world. Phillips' Paper Trade Directory OF THE WORLD is an International Publication which Contains lists of the Paper and Pulp Mills in every country of the world, and also Other matters of special interest to everybody engaged in the Paper Trade. PUBLISHED UNDER REGISTERED TITLES IN ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, SPANISH, SWEDISH, AND NORWEGIAN. The new edition is in course of publication, The Subscription Price is 15/6, post free. Advertisers will find this work a most valuable medium for their announcements. Chief Offices:— S. C. PHILLIPS 6 CO., 47, CANNON STREET, LONDON, E,C Xlvi ADVERTISEMENTS. William Makin & Sons, - r G A Attercliffe Steel Works, :: :: ESTABLISHED 1736. 33, DARNALL ROAD, ^9r SHEFFIELD, ENGLAND. National Telephone 782. Telegrams : "Makin, Sheffield." Papermakers' STEEL a BRONZE STEEL and HP 1 1 oois. Illustrated Catalogue & Price Lists, in French & English, on demand. Telephones : 4307 \ r> i Telegrams and Cables : 44|] j-mnk. "MAGASINS, LIVERPOOL." ABC, Engineering, and Lieber Codes. Arthur S. Porter & Co., Manufacturers of all Classes of Cotton Cleaning Waste and Sponge Cloths, FLAGS AND BUNTING, CODE SIGNALS, LETTERED FLAGS, &c. II RITE FOR SAMPLES ■ ■ AND PRICES. Head Office:- 18a, SOUTH CASTLE ST., LIVERPOOL. ADVERTISEMENTS. xlvii ENDELL j, AND SONS, NORFOLK IRONWORKS, Shoreditch, London. MAKERS OF The only Silver Medal and First Class Certificate awarded for Knives. Guillotine Knives, Rotary Knives, Millboard Shears, Shaped Cutters For all Makes of Machines. All kinds of Knives Ground and Sharpened. Write for Price List. Xlviii ADVERTISEMENTS. fi. R. Whitehead & Bros., LIMITED, Royal George Mills, GREENFIELD, Telegraphic Address : Near OLDHAM. Telephone: "Whiteheads, Greenfield, Yorkshire." No. 16; Mossley. Manufacturers of every description of . . PAPERMAKERS' FELTS. PAPER STAINERS' SURFACE SIEVES. Letterpress and Copperplate Printers' :: :: BLANKETS and TAPES. :: :: The Berlin Aniline Co., Ltd. Sole Importers oj the Products of the Actien-Gesellschaft fur Anilin-Fabrikation, Berlin S.O. 36. Manufacturers of all kinds of ANILINE COLOURS FOR Paper, Wool, Silk, Cotton, Linen, Jute, &c. Leather, Furs, Straw, Pigments, Spirit Lacquers, Oils, Grease, Wax, &c. Offices in the United Kingdom MANCHESTER : 26, Princess St. Telegraphic Addrtss: "Aniline. Telephone No. 7903. BRADFORD : Q, Charles Street. Telegraphic Address: "Aniline. Telephone No. 48. LONDON : 20, Eastcheap, E.C. Telegraphic Address: " GreefF." Telephone No. =425 Avenue. GLASGOW : 79, West Nile Street. Telegraphic Address: "Decimal." Telephone Nos. 1058 and 3906. BELFAST : 29, Franklin Street. Telegraphic Address : '' Kirkleigh." Telephone No. 329. LEICESTER : 10, St. Stephens Rd. Telephone No 700. ADVERTISEMENTS. xlix Dick's Original Balata Belting. The Most Powerful Driving Belt in the World. Durability. Efficiency. Reliability. Economy. In General Use in all Countries. True Running. No Stretch. No Slip. Unrivalled in Damp Situations, It is important to note the Trade Mark stamped on each Belt every few feet It is an admitted fact that, by reason of its great durability and general efficiency, DICK'S BALATA BELTING is the most economical and labour-saving Belt manufactured. Testimonials to this effect, Samples, Price Lists, and Addresses of nearest Representa- tives in any part of the World, may be had from the PATENTEES AND MAKERS— R. & J. DICK, Ltd., Greenhead Works, GLASGOW. City Office-46, ST. ENOCH SQUARE, GLASGOW. 46 Watling Street, LONDON, E.C. 10, Corporation Street, MANCHESTER. 8, Dale End, BIRMINGHAM. 8, Neville St., NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. 5, New Station Street. LEEDS. 12, North Bridge, EDINBURGH! 16, Redcliff Street, BRISTOL. 43, Henry Street, DUBLIN. 16, North Street, BELFAST. And at Paris, Vienna, Fiume, Duisburg (Germany), Moscow, Horgen (Switzerland), Milan Brussels,. Rotterdam, Bilbao, Lisbon, Copenhagen, Chrisliania. Gothenburg, Constanc nople, Athens, Smyrna, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Singapore Penang. Bangkok (Siam), Rangoon (Burma), Colombo (Ceylon), Shanghai, Yokohama, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane Fremantle, Adelaide, Dunedin, Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington (N.Z.), Johannes burg, Cape Town, Bulawayo, Salisbury (Rhodesia), Alexandria (Egypt), Montreal, Victoria (B.C.), Mexico City, Progreso (Mexico), Rio de Janeiro, San" Paulo (Brazil), Valparaiso, Lima, Buenos Ayres, Demerara, Trinidad, &c, also at New York and Agencies throughout U.S.A., and at Montreal and Agencies throughout the Dominion. ADVERTISEMENTS. READ, HOLLIDAY, & SONS, Ltd., HUVDERSFIELV, Make a full range of Coal Tar Colours for paper, including — AURAMINE. BRILLIANT GREEN. MAGENTA. SOLUBLE BLUE. METHYLENE BLUE. METHYL VIOLETS. MALACHITE GREEN. SAFFRANINE. METANIL YELLOW Y, ORANGE 2R. A. Edmcston & Sons, Ltd., SPRINGFIELD WORKS, PATRIGROFT, Nr. MANCHESTER. Calenders Patent for Paper. MAKERS OF Friction -r *"^ Clutches Book-Back and Cloth. Couplings -i- FOR fdr Leather Cloth. PAPERMAKERS' Driving Calenders Embossing, &c. CALENDERS. and other Machines. PRICES ON APPLICATION. ADVERTISEMENTS. W. Green, Son & Waite, WATERMARKING OF EVERY KIND. Grand Prix, Gold Medals and Highest Awards at all Exhibitions entered. MACHINE WIRES, MOULDS, &c, &c. 134, ALBANY ROAD, LONDON, S.E. A. B.C. MONEY-SAVING BOOKS OF RAILWAY RATES and C ARRYING CHA RGES. The following Books have already been issued : — RAILWAY RATES (in A.B.C. form) From the following Centres in the United Kingdom to all Stations and Ports in Great Britain and Ireland, and the Continental Ports. Liverpool Bristol Cardiff and Barry Newcastle-on-Tyne Walsall Leeds 30/- 25/- 22/- 25/- 21/- 25/- Birmingham 25/- London ... 30/- Sheffield ... 25/- South Staffordshire and East Worcestershire 42/- Hull, Goole, and Grimsby 30/- Other Books in course of preparation. The Books are printed in clear Roman type and bound in red cloth covers. n checking - Railway Accounts with the aid of these books all overcharges in Railway ] Accounts are detected, thus saving the cost many times over within a short period. An efficient staff of Railway Rate experts are continually engaged in checking Railway Accounts tor Arms desirous of having their accounts checked on commission on savings or fixed sums as agreed. For further particulars apply to THE RAILWAY AND SHIPPING JOURNAL PUBLISHING CO., 12, Cherry St., Birmingham. Read the RAILWAY AND SHIPPING JOURNAL. 2/6 Post Free per Annum. Send on Subscription. lii ADVERTISEMENTS. Kidder Slitter and Rewinder ■ ■ Made in all sizes for all purposes. THE MOST POPULAR l AND MOST RELIABLE . RE-REELING MACHINE IN THE WHOLE WORLD. Takes all kinds of stock from tissue paper to asbestos. ■ ■ John Haddon&Co. Proprietors of the Caxton Type Foundry Salisbury Sq., London, E.G. Advertisements. liii WAGES CALCULATORS. 50 51 52 Hours a Showing results for each Quarter with each Week. Hour at sight without addition, at rates of 2/6 to 45/-, advancing by 6d. Gradations to 40/-, thence by Shillings. Royal 8vo. Price 5/-. By post, 5/3 Do. At rates from 2/- to 50/- per week, advancing by 3d. . Gradations to 8/-, thence by 6d. to 20/-, and by 1/- to 50/-, from 1 hour to 231 hours. Price 2/6. By post, 2/9 X Do. At rates advancing by 6d. From 6d. to 60/-. Royal 2 8vo, Cloth. Price 3/9. By post, 4/- 63^1 Advancing by 1/- Gradations from 4/- to 50/-. Crown 53 >- Do. oblong 4to, Cloth. Price 2/- each. By post. 54J 2/3 55J Do. Showing results from I to 70 hours at rates 2/6, 3/-, 3/6, 4/-, advancing by Shillings to 48/- and 50/- Royal 4to, doth. Price 5/6. By post, 5/10 48> At rates of 5/- to 36/6 per week, advancing by 6d. 54 Gradations, with OVERTIME AT TIME-AND- 60 t, A-QUARTER, OTHER PAY AT TIM E-AND- 63 f Do - HALF. Demy 8vo, Cloth. Price 2/6 each. By 66 I post, 2/8; or bound together in one volume, 7/6. 72j By post, 7/9 Also HOURS AND QUARTER - HOURS CALCULATOR, to 60 hours, and by FARTHINGS to 8d. per hour. Demy 8vo. Price 4/6. By post, 4/9 Also BOOK containing rates at 3d. per hour, advancing by FARTH I NGS to 1/- per hour, and by Quarter-Hours from 1 to 72| hours. Demy 8vo. Price 3/6. By post, 3/9 60 \ Do. At rates from 6/- to 40/- per week, advancing by 1/« 72 / Gradations, also a rate of 1 7/6 per week. Price 2/-. By post, 2/3 53) Wages Cards advancing by Shillings from 5/- to 10/-, 54 >• Do. thence by 6d. to 20/-, and to 36/- by Shilling 60) Gradations, and to 50/- by 2/6 Gradations. Price 1/6 each. By post, 1/9. Size of Cards, 16 J in. x 11 in. M c CORQUODALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.C. liv ADVERTISEMENTS. EXCHANGE TABLES. By A. LECOFPRB. GERMAN to ENGLISH MONEY. At rates from 20.30 to 20.70 Marks per £ Sterling, from 1 Pfennig: to 300,000 Marks, advancing by J of a Pfennig. Price 15s. By post 15s. 4d. FRENCH to ENGLISH MONEY. At rates from 25 to 26 frs. per £ Sterling, advancing by \ of a Centime. Price 21s. By post, 21s. 5d. AUSTRIAN and DUTCH MONEY to and from ENGLISH. Austrian and Dutch Florins (quoted in "\ Kreutzers or Cents) to English Money at I , r,, • rates from Flc.ins 11.90 to 12,40 per £ Sterling, }•/ fon nno advancing by gradations of i of a Kreutzer or of w iW,uw a Cent J Dutch Florins (quoted in Stivers) to English \ Money at rates from Florins 12.0 to Florins (_ » above 12.8 Stivers, advancing by gradations of | of a ( Stiver ) English Money to Dutch Florins (quoted ) -, , in Stivers) at similar rates to above, advancing by > tn x-c'nnn gradations of % of a Stiver ... .- ) lo *°' uw ' Third Edition. Price 15s. By post 15s. 4d. UNITED STATES. Dollars (quoted in Cents) to English Money at rates from $4.75 to $4.95 per £ Sterling ; advancing by I 1 S of a Cent on amount 5 ? from 1 Cent to $300,000. English Money to Dollars (quoted in Cents) at rates as above; advancing by i\ of a Cent on amounts from Id. to £40,000. Dollars to English Money (with rates quoted in pence) at rates from 48 to 50 Pence per $ ; advancing by -J s of a Penny on amounts from 1 Cent to $300,000. English Money to Dollars (with rates quoted in Pence) at rates as above ; advancing by -^ of a Penny on amounts from 1d. to £40,000. This book contains no less than 670 pages of rates. Second Edition. Price 25s. By post 25s. 6d. ENGLISH MONEY to and from EASTERN CURRENCIES. Sterling into Rupees at rates from Is. 3|d. \ Is. to to is. 4|fd. Rates by 1-32nd of a Penny/ £10,000. Rupees into Sterling at rates as above. \1 to 100,000 Rates by 1-32nd of a Penny / Rupees. English Money into Yens, Piastres, and) - , Taels, at rates from Is. 9d. to 3s. 3|§d. [■ "i ™ Rates by 1-16th of a Penny ) ^xu.uuu Yens, Piastres, and Taels into English) , tn -,nnnfxr. Money at rates from Is. 9d. to 3s. 3}gd. } * Jl™£ Rates by 1-16th of a Penny J as a00ve - Price 21 S. By post 21s. 6d. M c C0RQU0DALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.C. ADVERTISEMENTS. Exchange Cards. For C B?rt e 4 in IJi va?Ss FR0M By M. B. COTSWORTH. Kilogrammes and tons, ewts., qrs., lbs., at 1,016 Kilos per ton; also Kilogrammes (Transit) at 1,015 Kilos per ton. Litres and Gallons and gallons, quarts, pints (both on one card). Metres and Yards and yards, feet, inches. Russian Poods and tons, cwts., qrs., lbs. ; and Russian Poods and Pfund and tons, cwts., qrs., lbs. Dollars (at 4.80) and sterling. Reverseof card shows tons, cwts., qrs., lbs. reduced to lbs. EXCHANGE Cards show comparative values of^Foreign Coins in Decimals sterling. Francs and Lire at 25 to 25 - 99 Francs, Milreis, Pesetas, Roubles, Rupees, Taels, Yen, Dollars; also Austrian, Dutch, Scandinavian, and German currency at various rates. Price 1/6 each card. Pood Cards, 2/» Postage 3d. extra. DECIMALS CARD showing Decimals of a Shilling, Foot or other Unit in 12ths and Fractions of 12ths. Reverse of Card shows Equivalent Multipliers for Adjusting the Fluctuations in Exchange Values of Money constants for British and Metric Compound Measures. Price 1/6 By Post, 1/9 Factory Book-Keeping for Paper-Makers. By JOSEPH MACNAUGHTON. A system of book-keeping and costing applicable to the operations of a paper mill, and devised to meet practical requirements. Crown 4to. Price IP/- By Post, 1Q/3 TABLES of WEIGHTS of PAPERS. For the EXPORT and IMPORT Trade. Reducing English paper sizes to and from centimetres. Weight of grammes per square metre from weight of ream of 480 or 500 sheets. Weight of ream of 480 or 500 sheets from weight of grammes per square metre. Title and Contents pages in English, French, and German. Price 2/6 By Post 2/7 TABLES for reducing Measures of Length, Weight, Liquids, and for calculations of Equivalent Prices. s. d. 'j at Francs and Centimes, Kronen 1 yard @ 1 Metre ! and Oere, Dollars and Cents, 1 pound @ do. 1 Kilo f Marks and Pfennigs, Kronen 1 gallon @ do. 1 Litre J and Hellern. Price 3/- By Post, 3/1 Paper Trade Dictionary. _ ENGLISH-FRENCH. — Giving the correct translation of all Technical Words and Terms used in the Paper Trade. Price, post paid, !/■ German Paper Trade Dictionary. ENGLISH-GERMAN". GERMAN-ENGLISH. Giving the correct translation of all Technical "Words and Terms used in the Paper Trade. Price post, 1/- M c C0RQU0DALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.G. M ADVERTISEMENTS. RAILWAY AND COMMERCIAL GAZETTEER OF ENGLAND, SCOT- LAND, AND WALES. Sixteenth Edition. Thoroughly Over- hauled and Revised to date. Containing a complete list, arranged in alphabetical order, of every Town, Village, Parish and Place in Great Britain — over 45,000, including the most obscure hamlet, indicating opposite each the distance from London, and showing also the population, Post Offices, Money Order Offices, Telegraph Offices, wherever they exist, in addition to Line of Railway, Locality, Nearest Station, Distance from Station, with Through Rate Routes. This work is the Standard Work of Reference in all Railway Stations and Carriers' Depots. Royal 8vo, cloth. Price I OS. 6d. By post, I Is. IRISH COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY GAZETTEER. Demy 8vo, cloth. Price 2s. 6d. By post 2s. 9d. RAILWAY STATION MAP OF ENGLAND AND WALES. By John Aieey. Eighth and improved Edition of Airey's Railway Map of England and Wales. Showing all Stations, and distinguishing the Lines of the various Companies in Lithographed Colours. Prices in sheets, 7s. ; Mounted, in book form, |fs. ; Mounted, on rollers, I3s. Also other Railway Maps, particulars on application. OFFICIAL HAND-BOOK OF RAILWAY STATIONS, JUNCTIONS, COLLIERIES, WORKS, SIDINGS, &C, ON THE RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. New and Enlarged Edition, containing upwards of 35,000 entries. Showing Railway on which situated ; County, and exact position alphabetically arranged ; distinguishing Goods and Passenger Stations, and indicating Stations at which accommodation exists for loading and unloading Furniture Vans, Carriages, Portable Engines, Machines on Wheels, Live Stock and Horses, and Maximum Crane Power. By The Railway Clearing House. Post 4to, cloth, 8s. ; Interleaved and specially ruled, both horizontally and longitudinally, for the insertion of Bates, 188. Postage extra. GARDNER'S RAILWAY READY RECKONER AND RAILWAY CHARGES GUIDE. Sixth Edition. Containing Statutory Classifi- cation and Summary of Regulations respecting Goods carried by Goods Trains, showing class in which most articles of merchandise are placed and ways by which money may be saved. Also Railway Charges for Smalls under 3 cwts. at 3s. 4d. to 150s. per ton ; for consignments over 3 cwts. charged as 3 cwts. ; over 3 cwts. at 3s. 4d. to 60s. per ton, rising by 5d. ; over 3 cwts. at 60s. lOd. to 100s. per ton rising by lOd. ; over 3 cwts. at 101s. 8d. to 150s. per ton rising by Is. 8d. ; for Parcels by Passenger Trains (1898 reduced rates) ; for Returned Empties by Goods Trains. With a Ready Reckoner at per cwt., 1 lb. to 1 ton at 2s. 4d. to 145s. per cwt., arranged so that any rate rising by 2d. per cwt. is seen at one opening of the book. And other useful information. Demy 4to, cloth, 4s. ; by post 4s. 4d. RAILWAY AND TRADERS' CALCULATOR. •Third Edition, Series R. and T. As prepared for the Railway Companies. Shows 24 rates at one opening of the book, and contains Scale of Charges for Small Parcels, Direct Calculator for all weights from 1 lb. to 1,000 tons from Id. to 20s. per ton to the nearest penny. The limits of Small Parcels Scales being shown in headlines for each rate. Table for calculating every penny rate to 100s. per ton, and giving the exact results of cwts., qrs. and lbs. together, with tons on the same page ; also a 5d. Grade Calculator, Railway Regulations, and General Information. Crown folio. Price 1 0s. 6d. ; by post 10s. lid. DIRECT CALCULATOR, I.R., same as R. and T., but omitting part of the T a bles Price 7s. ; by post 7s. 5d* _^________ M°C0RQU0DALE & CO., Ltd., 40, Coleman St., London, E.G. INDEX TO ADVERTISERS. Ivii INDEX TO ADVERTISERS. PAGE Alsing & Co., Ltd. viii Australian Alum Co., Ltd. ... xxxiv Barlow, E., Ltd lix Becker & Co., Ltd xxvii Berger&Wirth xliii Berlin Aniline Co., Ltd. .< xlviii Berner & Nielsen xlii Bertrams Ltd i, ii Birch, W. Singleton, & Sons, Ltd xxxvii Dick, R. & J., Ltd. xlix Dick, W. B.,&Co., Ltd xliii Douglas & Grant xli Edmeston, A., & Sons, Ltd 1 Farmer, Sir J., & Sons, Ltd. ... xxxvi Friedlaender, W. , Ltd xxx viii Furnival & Co., Ltd. xxxvii Gompertz, P. , & Co xviii Great Beam Clay Co. , Ltd xl Green, W., Son, & Waite Ii Greig, J., & Sons xxxix Haddon, J., & Co. lii Hardman, T., & Sons, Ltd xxxii Hyland.T., & Co lviii Kellner- Partington Paper Pulp Co., Ltd. ... V Kendell & Sons xlvii LieberCode xi Makin, W., & Sons xlvi Marshall, T. J., & Co., Ltd xxx Mather & Piatt, Ltd xiii McCorquodale & Co., Ltd ... liii, liv, lv, lvi Milne, J., & Son, Ltd xxxiii Railway & Shipping Journal Publishing Co. Ii Read, Holliday & Sons, Ltd 1 Olive Bros., Ltd iii Paper Box and Bagmaker, The xliv Paper Maker, The xlv Paper Trade Review xxxv Payne & Sons (Otley), Ltd. ix Phillips' Paper Trade Directory xlv Pochin, H. D., & Co., Ltd viii Porritt Brothers & Austin, Ltd. xxix Porritt, J., & Sons ... xxxviii Porter, A. S., & Co. xlvi Smith Premier Typewriter Co iv Stationery World xliv Taylor, W. G., & Co., Ltd xxxi Trotman Dandy Co xlii Walmsley, C.,&Co.,Ltd xxviii Whitehead, R. R., & Bros., Ltd xlviii WysMulIer&Co xviii lviii ADVERTISEMENTS. THOS. HYLAND & CO MANUFACTURERS OF Rice Starch, I. C. Starch, Paper Finish, Dextrine, Farina, Sago Flour, &c. Also Manufacturers of FINE PIGMENT COLOURS, fast to [CHROME YELLOWS) A light [PRUSSIAN BLUEj SPECIAL1TY For the Paper Trade. COLOUR WORKS: Philip's Park Road, Bcswick, Manchester. STARCH WORKS: Old Bridge, Ayr. GUM AND DEXTRINE WORKS: 61, Rose Street, Glasgow; AND MA B N E ^^ R 28 6" 90 V ; s- ^ % -.5 ^o 1 ^°* ""V *^rT«* .-*> ,£> o««, «<> *"••• ,,*..*■»•• ^ ^^ M»V ^ *0 * 4^ * ^^ - 1 vC» <•« 'hi' a° ^> 'iii* . $~ - ^** .- *^ v • 1 » ♦ °o <** /.£&>. "* B* A °* *i_ ^ .:W:./V ^*itfte.V >\i ^ -s &s -# % >y^rs » *