&^Q— ^a-^^L/ 
 
THE 
 
 AMERICAN DEBATER: 
 
 BEING 
 
 A PLAIN EXPOSITION OF THE PRINCIPLES AND 
 PRACTICE OF PUBLIC DEBATE : 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 A COMPREHENSIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE LA v7 AND PRACTICE 
 OF PARLIAMENTARY ASSEMBLIES, DEBATES IN FULL, AND IN 
 OUTLINE, ON VARIOUS INTERESTING TOPICS. NUMEROUS 
 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION, FORM OF A CONSTI- 
 TUTION FOR LITERARY CLUBS OR DEBATING 
 
 SOCIETIES, ETC., ETC., ETC. 
 i 
 
 By JAMES K McELLIGOTT, LL.D., 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE ANALYTICAL MANUAL," "YOUNG ANALYZER," ETC. 
 
 "Here is a thing -wherein I would willingly have yon agree, that is, to dispute 
 and not to quarrel; for friends dispute between themselves for their better in- 
 struction, and enemies quarrel to destroy one another. M — Plato. 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. 
 
 CHICAGO : 
 
 S. C. GRIGGS & CO., 39 & 41 L.IKE STREET. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 IYISON, PKLNNEY & CO., 48 & 50 WALKER sf. 
 
 1863. 
 
 
 / 
 
^ 
 
 ** 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■N* X 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Entered, according to A&t cf Congress, in the year 1855, by 
 
 JAMES N. McELLIGOTT, 
 
 In the Clark's Office of the District Conn oi the Southern District of 
 
 New York. 
 
 8 X 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE aim of this work is not novelty, but utility. Its merit, 
 therefore, if any it has, consists not in the development 
 of new ideas and principles, but rather in working into shape, 
 convenient for teaching and for reference, materials which, 
 in some form or other, every one should have who aspires 
 to be a good debater. 
 
 Accordingly, after some preliminary observations, the 
 question is raised, — "What is a good debater?" and, by 
 way of answer, the special province of deliberative eloquence 
 is carefully marked out, and the chief qualifications for an 
 able deliberative orator given in detail. 
 
 But, as among the qualifications set down as necessary to 
 success in debating, extemporaneous speaking is particu- 
 larly specified, because it is of the highest importance, the 
 Section next in order is devoted exclusively to that subject. 
 
 Then follows a Section on Debating Societies, in which 
 the capabilities of these associations, as a means of educa- 
 tional discipline, are set forth at considerable length. 
 
 Under the caption, u Management of a Question," the 
 student will find, in Section V., such suggestions, it is hoped, 
 as will prove of the highest practical importance in preparing 
 for the discussion of any particular subject. 
 
 However well prepared in other respects, one may, never- 
 theless, be seriously embarrassed by a want of acquaintance 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 with those Rules of Order which are in general use in delib- 
 erative assemblies. Hence, several consecutive Sections are 
 occupied with a course of instruction, in the form of question 
 and answer, designed to render familiar what is aptly called 
 
 THE COMMON CODE OF PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 To gratify those who might expect to find in the book the 
 form of a debate in FULL, two questions have been proposed 
 and formally discussed. This has been done, moreover, under 
 the impression that some idea of the modes of attack and 
 defense, usual in debate, might be conveyed in this way 
 better than in any other. 
 
 The full debates are followed by a series of skeleton or 
 outline debates ; that is, questions with a summary of argu- 
 ments, or rather considerations on both sides, designed merely 
 to intimate certain lines of thought, that may be varied and 
 extended by the reader's own reflection. 
 
 Next, in order, fellows a series of questions with refer- 
 ences under each to authorities or sources of information on 
 the matters concerning which they challenge dispute. 
 
 After these comes a long list of debatable questions 
 {over a thousand), in respect to which the reader is left to 
 act as an independent reasoner : thinking and consulting as 
 his judgment and intelligence may direct. 
 
 To serve the convenience of those who may, perhaps, for 
 the first time, be appointed to draft Rules and Regulations 
 for a Debating or Literary Society, the last Section of the 
 work is devoted to the presentation of two different forms of 
 a Constitution and By-Laws, suitable for such an association. 
 
 With this brief glance at the scope and manner of the 
 work, this new edition, enlarged and improved, goes forth 
 to the world, under the hope, now strengthened by some 
 years of trial, that it may prove a serviceable, because a re- 
 liable guide in the matters whereof it undertakes to speak. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Introductory Observations 7 
 
 SECTION II. 
 What is a good Debater ? 13 
 
 SECTION III. 
 Extemporaneous Speaking 29 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 Debating Societies 42 
 
 SECTION V, 
 Management of a Question 69 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 Rules op Order in Deliberative Assemblies 83 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 Privileged Questions 119 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Order of Business 155 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 Order of Debate 165 
 
 SECTION X. 
 Debates in Full 173 
 
 SECTION XL 
 Debates in Outline 216 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 Questions with References 236 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 Debatable Questions 24.1 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 Forms of a Constitution and By-Laws suitable for a Lit- 
 erary or Debating Society 289 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Declaration of Independence 301 
 
 Constitution of the United States 31*7 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution 341 
 
 General Index 347 
 
SECTION I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 rilHE end of debate is to establish truth. Its method 
 -*- is well denoted by its name ; for to debate is to 
 beat off, that is, to beat off error. It is often, indeed, 
 turned aside from its proper aim, but never from its 
 proper profession ; since the avowal of any purpose 
 other than that of maintaining truth would alone be 
 sufficient to render it perfectly powerless. 
 
 But whatever the motives engaged in the contro- 
 versy, truth can suffer no great disadvantage, so long 
 as the contest is fairly conducted. M Though all the 
 winds of doctrine," says Milton, " were let loose upon 
 the earth, so Truth be in the field, we injure her to 
 misdoubt her strength. Let her and Falsehood grap- 
 ple : who ever knew Truth put to the worse in a free 
 and open encounter ?" 
 
 The ultimate triumph of Truth is, indeed, beyond 
 all perad venture. Yet who has not witnessed her oc- 
 casional defeat, however temporary it may have been, 
 from mere ignorance or awkwardness in the exhibition 
 of her forces ? It is the appropriate office of debate 
 to bring these forces into due requisition. What 
 
8 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 mountains of prejudice, what barriers of interest, what 
 shades of ignorance, what sloughs of apathy, have 
 often and suddenly been swept out of the pathway of 
 Truth by prompt and opportune displays of contro- 
 versial power ! 
 
 s And for the exercise of this power who can count 
 the occasions? They spring up in every quarter. 
 The world is flooded with pretentious doctrines, theo- 
 ries, and systems ; and not only pretentious, but per- 
 nicious, some of them, to the last degree. They are 
 the prolific sources of schemes, projects, and enter- 
 prises, affecting, or aiming to affect, every interest of 
 humanity. They appear in politics. They appear in 
 religion. They infest chambers of commerce and halls 
 of legislation. They start up in educational bodies, 
 and seek to sway the decisions of all deliberative as- 
 semblies. Nor do they terminate in mere discussion. 
 
 W ere these questions mooted merely as matters of 
 speculation, without any aim at direct practical results, 
 they might, perhaps, be largely indulged without ap- 
 prehensions of evil effect. But this is not so. Those 
 who agitate them, do so with the distinct and resolute 
 purpose of converting theory into practice. They 
 push their claims with the greatest confidence. Hence 
 the need of immediate resistance. Let them go unan- 
 swered, and they at once assume to be unanswerable. 
 
 Now debate, if efficient, brings all assumption to 
 the test of logic. It asks nothing but a fair field. Its 
 motto is embraced in three short words, — Hear both 
 sides : an ordeal dreaded only by Error ; for Error 
 hates to be seen, except in her own light and in her 
 own chosen positions. Quick to observe the varying 
 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 9 
 
 moods of the crowd, she is quicker still, if possible, to 
 turn them to her interest. She studies their inclina- 
 tions. She knows how they grasp at glittering plaus- 
 ibilities ; how soon they forget their bitterest expe- 
 riences ; how (strange to say !) they even court, or 
 seem to court, the pleasurable dreams of delusive ex- 
 periment. 
 
 In a community thus liable to abuse from the prev- 
 alence and pertinacity of ill-founded opinion, where 
 change, under the name of reform, treats all experience 
 as mere imbecility, and where, on the other hand, 
 blind adherence to things as they are, under the name 
 of wise conservatism, opposes tenaciously every effort 
 at progress, some power of logical analysis seems ne- 
 cessary, at every point, to see, if nothing more, that 
 even real reform and real progress are not fatally ob- 
 structed in the contest. This power finds a ready 
 and flexible application in the person of an accom- 
 plished debater. It is attainable by practice. It is 
 capable of indefinite improvement. It is serviceable 
 in every station. It is fall of benefit to all that use 
 it aright, 
 
 But to him who aspires to distinction in public life, 
 whose hopes are directed toward the great scenes of 
 controversial encounter, and whose ambition is to 
 reach the influence of exalted political place, the power 
 to figure advantageously in a deliberative body is a 
 thing of the last importance. Whatever, therefore, 
 offers aid in the attainment of an object so desirable, 
 is certainly worthy of regard. Under this conviction 
 has this book been written. Designed for no particu- 
 lar class — for the professed student of oratory no more 
 
 1* 
 
10 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 than for the aspiring plowboy — it eschews all forbid- 
 ding technicalities. It deals, indeed, largely in sim- 
 ple statement ; yet no exhaustive details are permitted 
 to come in, and discourage perusal by exorbitant de- 
 mands on the time and patience of the reader. Its 
 scope, nevertheless, is sufficiently ample to embrace 
 whatever the greatest masters, both ancient and modern, 
 have thought it most important to set forth for the 
 guidance of those intent upon the acquisition of skill 
 in deliberative eloquence. 
 
 The work takes, in fact, even a wider range. It 
 assumes, in some sort, the responsible office of the 
 Eoman father whose son was destined to the Senate ; 
 for, says the younger Pliny,* " the father of each 
 youth was his instructor on these occasions, or, if 
 he had none, some person of years and dignity sup- 
 plied the place of a father. Accordingly, they were 
 taught by that surest method of discipline — example, 
 how far the right of proposing any law to the Senate 
 extended ; what privileges a Senator had in delivering 
 his opinion in the House ; the power of the magistrate 
 in that assembly, and the rights of the rest of the 
 members ; where it is proper to yield, and where to 
 insist ; when and how long to speak, and when to be 
 silent ; how to distinguish and separate complicated 
 and inconsistent propositions, and how to improve 
 upon another member's motion ; in a word, they 
 learned, by this means, whatever relates to the conduct 
 of a Senator in the House. "f 
 
 * Book VIII, Letter XIV. 
 
 f What the Roman youth thus learned from his father, that is, the 
 modes of procedure usual in deliberative bodies, with such additions as 
 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 11 
 
 Such, in a general way, is tile service offered in this 
 volume. To make it really effective, however, it must 
 be accepted in that mingled spirit of docility and dis- 
 cretion which wisely appropriates the experience of 
 others. General principles there are, indeed, and gen- 
 eral precepts; but, in the application of these princi- 
 
 experience has shown to be necessary or expedient since, has, at length, 
 come to be quite an elaborate system. The subject is elsewhere largely 
 treated in this volume ; yet a summary of its elements, as given by 
 Cushing, may not be out of place here. " The common parliamentary 
 law of this country," he says, consists of the following elements : — 
 
 1. The law of parliament, or that which belongs to every legislative 
 assemby of English origin, by the mere fact of its creation. The best 
 evidence of this is to be found in the usages of the House of Commons. 
 In this country, it is common for each assembly, besides the common 
 parliamentary law, to be governed by its own rules and orders. 
 
 2. Usages introduced by practice into this country, and which do not 
 depend for their existence upon any rule or order. The most promi- 
 nent, if not the only proceeding of this kind, is the motion to recon- 
 sider. This motion is usually regulated in each assembly by a special 
 rule. 
 
 3. Proceedings which occasionally take place in parliament, but are 
 in frequent use in this country. An appeal from the decision of the 
 presiding officer on a point of order, is of this kind. 
 
 4. Modifications introduced by Constitution. The most common pro- 
 vision of this sort is the requisition that certain questions shall be taken 
 by the yeas and nays of the members. A very frequent provision of 
 the same kind is, that every assembly shall be governed by its own 
 rules and orders. 
 
 5. Proceedings which very commonly prevail, and which depend for 
 their existence upon the rules and orders of each assembly, and which 
 would not exist unless specially provided for by rules and orders for the 
 purpose. Thus, it is generally established, in our legislative assemblies 
 that certain motions shall be decided without debate ; that motions may 
 be withdrawn, modified, or divided, at the pleasure of the mover ; and 
 that amendments shall be in harmony with the proposition to be 
 amended. 
 
12 INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 pies and precepts, lies the true measure of all excellence 
 in debate. He that would rise to superior rank in 
 public deliberation, must study well the foundations 
 of individual success. He must study himself. He 
 is not to be so fixed in admiration of a great example, 
 as to find no satisfaction except in the imitation of a 
 distinguished model. He is not to shape his powers 
 so as to reproduce, if possible, Demosthenes, or Cicero, 
 or Pitt, or Webster ; but to create, for the circle which 
 he fills, an original, if not a great deliberative orator. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATElt? 
 
 fTIO estimate the importance of being a good debater, 
 -*- or ascertain the qualifications essential to that char- 
 acter, it is necessary briefly to consider the aim and 
 scope of deliberative eloquence. 
 
 All public speaking, except that of the pulpit,* con- 
 sidered in reference to its atm, falls under one or other 
 of these three ancient divisions, — Demonstrative+Ju- 
 dicial, or Deliberative. 
 
 The demonstrative has its place where great events 
 or great persons are to be celebrated. It employs, 
 upon occasion, the language of invective, but its par- 
 ticular province is elaborate eulogy. Its appropriate 
 times are the memorable anniversaries, the days of 
 great public solemnity, the extraordinary occasions, 
 
 * Pulpit eloquence is here excepted, because it does not properly 
 fall under any one of these three heads, but, in reality, embraces 
 the leading features of them all. 
 
 f The term demonstrative (from the Latin demonstro, to slioio or 
 point out clearly), is here used, as among the Latin rhetoricians, to 
 signify what is showy, or abounding in show 01 ornament, L e. lauda- 
 tory, glorifying. 
 
14 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 
 
 whatever their name or their nature, whereon men 
 meet to mingle and express their common sympathies. 
 It is expected to display the riches of rhetoric, and to 
 exert every force and every fascination of oratory. 
 Its strong appeal is to the heart. Its purpose is the 
 praise of virtue or the reprobation of vice. 
 
 The judicial is that which is engaged in the litiga- 
 tion of causes, in the adjustment of disputed rights, 
 in the determination of guilt or innocence. Its scene 
 is the court-house. It is, in style, clear, direct, and 
 logical. It deals in law and evidence, sifts and weighs 
 testimony, and labors every way to convince the un- 
 derstanding. In short, its appeal is to the head, its 
 aim the administration of justice. 
 
 The deliberative is that which is employed where 
 propositions, after being duly discussed, are finally to 
 be adopted or rejected, according to the pleasure of 
 the assembly. It differs from the demonstrative and 
 the judicial, both in the end which it seeks, and the 
 means which it employs for the attainment of that 
 end. 
 
 The demonstrative, as before intimated, begins and 
 ends in display. It abounds in ornament ; it awakens 
 emotion ; it delights the imagination ; it exhibits the 
 virtues of its subject, but no less exhibits the resources 
 of rhetoric and the talents of the orator. But here its 
 mission closes. It looks to no definite resulting action 
 in the body addressed. 
 
 The judicial, unlike the demonstrative, avoids every 
 appearance of show, or endeavor. It relies upon facts, 
 evidence, positive statute ; counts little upon appeals 
 to the emotional nature ; but demands a verdict, not 
 
WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 15 
 
 as a favor, but as a right, not as being expedient, but 
 as being nothing more than what is just. 
 
 The deliberative differs from the demonstrative, in 
 laboring to sway the opinions of the audience, and to 
 secure a vote in favor of what it claims to be best. It 
 differs from the judicial, in recognizing in the body 
 addressed a perfect freedom of choice. The demon- 
 strative deals with our affections ; the judicial appeals 
 to our judgment of right and wrong ; the deliberative 
 calls for the exercise of wisdom in relation to what is 
 useful, what is expedient, what is best to be done. 
 
 The occasions for the use of deliberative eloquence 
 are now more numerous and important than they ever 
 have been in any previous age of the world. Wherever 
 the will of the people is the law of the land, wherever 
 republican principles prevail to any considerable extent, 
 there deliberative assemblies must often be convened. 
 
 In our own country, accordingly, they abound in 
 every quarter, and consider every topic of common 
 interest. The Congress of the United States is a de- 
 liberative assembly. The Legislatures of the several 
 States are deliberative assemblies. Every town meet- 
 ing, every county gathering, every State or National 
 Convention, every association of persons, whatever the 
 purposes of the association, constitutes a deliberative 
 assembly. In all these, propositions are submitted for 
 consideration, discussed with freedom, and received, 
 or rejected, according to the will of the body. 
 
 The variety of interests involved in the transactions 
 of bodies of this nature, and the necesshy of preventing 
 party sway and hasty action, render it important for 
 every one to be ready to exert a wholesome influence in 
 
16 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 
 
 their deliberations. Few men, comparatively, ever have 
 opportunity or inclination to exercise their talents in 
 the composition and delivery of set orations or lectures 
 adapted to particular times and occasions. But to 
 speak in a deliberative assembly, to enlighten and 
 sway the minds of men engaged in the consideration 
 of momentous affairs, may be the lot of every one. 
 Hence, every man owes it to the community in which 
 he lives, no less than to his own honor and interest, to 
 fit himself, as far as may be, to discharge this most im- 
 portant duty. 
 
 From this brief survey of the nature and extent of 
 deliberative eloquence, may easily be inferred the 
 qualifications proper to be sought by him who aspires 
 to the character of a good debater. 
 
 In certain general qualities he must, of course, share 
 with the orator in every other field of oratory. He 
 must, for example, be accounted an upright man ; for 
 otherwise his arguments, however forcible, his illustra- 
 tions however clear, his delivery however graceful, 
 will all suffer under the withering influence of a want 
 of confidence. Integrity of character is, indeed, the 
 capital quality — the " wisdom better than rubies ; and 
 all things that may be desired are not to be compared 
 with it." 
 
 He must have the requisite natural gifts, and these 
 must be cultivated with care and assiduity ; for no 
 fertility of genius, no powers of voice, no volubility 
 of tongue, no grace of gesture, can ever atone for the 
 absence of culture and discipline. Labor is the price 
 of eminence in the fields of eloquence, as in every 
 other honorable vocation. 
 
WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 17 
 
 He must have full control of himself, and a becom- 
 ing respect for the feelings of others ; for whatever 
 may be the honesty of his intentions, the discipline of 
 his intellectual powers, the treasures of his mind, or 
 the fascinations of his oratory, if his temper be bad, 
 his manner assuming, or his tone dictatorial, his success, 
 in any and every line of speaking, must be seriously 
 hindered. There is a mysterious charm in good na 
 ture, a certain irresistible attraction in every evidence 
 of modesty, benevolence, and forbearance, which, in a 
 public assembh r , is often found more effective far than 
 the most commanding talents. 
 
 But, in addition to those general qualifications 
 which the good debater has in common with genuine 
 orators of every description, there are others that be- 
 long peculiarly to his position and circumstances. 
 Several of these, being the most important, we shall 
 here specify and commend to the reader's attention. 
 
 1. He must, tJten, first and last, always endeavor to 
 gain the good will of his audience : remembering that 
 persuasion is the only power at his command, and that 
 the will of the assembly is the ultimate tribunal. In 
 orations of the demonstrative kind, the orator may, with 
 no little confidence, put his trust in wit, in humor, in 
 mere novelty, in beauty and sublimity of thought, in fe- 
 licities of diction and in graceful postures and attitudes ; 
 for his hearers are, for the most part, in a mood to be 
 pleased, and are not to be called upon by a decisive 
 vote to determine the merits of his performance. In 
 speeches of the judicial kind, the speaker is fully 
 justified in relying solely upon the making out of his 
 case. If that which is alleged, is fully proved, he is 
 
lb WHAT IS A GOOD IEBATEE? 
 
 entitled to a verdict in favor of his client, and neither 
 judge nor jury have either right or power to deny it. 
 
 But it is not so in deliberative bodies. The delib- 
 erative orator often addresses those who are well, or ill 
 affected towards a cause, because they are well, or ill 
 affected towards him who advocates it. And, since it 
 is altogether optional with them to adopt, or reject 
 what he recommends, it is of the utmost importance, 
 that he should not lose the influence that ever accom- 
 panies a speaker who is regarded with kindness by his 
 auditory. 
 
 2. He should be quick to discern those motives most 
 likely to sway his auditors; otherwise his appeals 
 will be powerless, because misdirected. There is 
 a passage in the dialogue between Cicero and his 
 son, quite pertinent to the present occasion, which, 
 says a great and good man,* " I recommend, as the 
 truly paternal advice of a father to his child." The 
 passage is this : " The discourse must be accommo- 
 dated, not only to the truth, but to the taste of the 
 hearers. Observe, then, first of all, that there are two 
 different descriptions of men ; the one rude and ig- 
 norant, who always set profit before honor; the other 
 polished and civilized, who prefer honor to every- 
 thing. Urge, then, to the latter of these classes con- 
 siderations of praise, of honor, of glory, of fidelity, 
 of justice; in short, of every virtue. To the former 
 present images of gain, of emolument, of thrift ; nay, 
 in addressing this kind of men, you must even allure 
 them with the bait of pleasure. Pleasure, always hos- 
 tile to virtue, always corrupting, by fraudulent imita- 
 
 * John Qumcy Adams. 
 
WHAT 13 A GOOD DEBATER? 19 
 
 tion, the very nature of goodness herself, is yet most 
 eagerly pursued by the worst of men ; and by them 
 often preferred not only to every instigation of honor, 
 but even to the dictates of necessity. Remember, too, 
 that mankind are more anxious to escape evil, than to 
 obtain good ; less eager to acquire honor, than to avoid 
 shame. Who ever sought honor, glory, praise, or 
 fame of any kind, with the same ardor that we fly 
 from those most cruel of afflictions, ignominy, con- 
 tumely, and scorn? Again; there is a class of men, 
 naturally inclined to honorable sentiments, but cor- 
 rupted by evil education and vitiated opinions. Is it 
 your purpose, then, to exhort or persuade, remember 
 that the task before you is that of teaching how to ob- 
 tain good, and eschew evil. Are you speaking to 
 men of liberal education, enlarge upon topics of praise 
 and honor ; insist with the keenest earnestness upon 
 those virtues which contribute to the common safety 
 and advantage of mankind. But, if you are discours- 
 ing to gross, ignorant, untutored minds, to them hold 
 up profit, lucre, money-making, pleasure, and escape 
 from pain. Deter them, also, by the prospect of shame 
 and ignominy; for no man, however insensible to 
 positive glory, is made of such impenetrable stuff, as 
 not to be vehemently moved by the dread of infamy 
 and disgrace." 
 
 To the same end, Quinctilian observes : " Now, there 
 is no difficulty in persuadmg the virtuous to follow 
 virtuous measures. But, if we are to plead for such 
 measures before men of abandoned principles, we are 
 carefully to avoid all appearance of reproaching them 
 for the contrariety that there is between the measures 
 
20 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 
 
 and their character. For we are not then to think of 
 winning their assent by expatiating upon the beauty 
 of virtue, which never comes into the thoughts of such 
 men ; but we are to work upon them by the glory and 
 the popularity that will attend their pursuing such a 
 measure ; and, if they look upon those but as empty 
 sounds, we are then to lay before them the great profit 
 which will thereby arise to themselves, and to mag- 
 nify the dangers which may attend their doing other- 
 wise. For the more worthless man is, the more sus- 
 ceptible he is of fear ; nay, I am not sure whether the 
 generality of mankind are not more influenced by 
 the dread of danger than the hope of advantage ; so 
 much more easily and naturally is mankind in gen- 
 eral struck with the notion of what is mean, than of 
 what is noble.' 7 
 
 With similar sagacity, and with similar design, the 
 Younger Pliny, in a letter to Cornelius Tacitus, thus 
 delivers his experience. " I have ever found," says 
 he, " the judgments of mankind are to be influenced 
 by different modes of application ; and that the slight- 
 est circumstances frequently produce the most impor- 
 tant consequences. There is so~ vast a variety in the 
 dispositions and understandings of men, that they 
 seldom agree in their opinions concerning any one 
 point in debate before them ; or, if they do, it is gen- 
 erally from the movement of different passions. Be- 
 sides, as every man naturally favors his own discov- 
 eries, when he hears an argument urged, which had 
 before occurred to himself, he will certainly embrace 
 it, as extremely convincing. The orator, therefore, 
 should so adapt himself to his audience as to throw 
 
WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 21 
 
 out something which every one of them, in turn, may 
 receive and approve, as conformable to his own par- 
 ticular sentiments," 
 
 In acting upon the advice of these great authorities, 
 it need hardly be said, since the limitation will be ob- 
 vious from the nature of the case, that the young 
 orator is not advised to appeal to the motives of his 
 hearers, whether high or low, in order to urge upon 
 them what is wrong, but that having what he believes 
 to be a good object, he may appeal to any and every 
 suitable motive to influence men to seek that object. 
 
 3. He should he a man of general intelligence. This 
 is true undoubtedly of orators in every line ; but the 
 remark has peculiar force and significance, when made 
 in reference to him who desires to figure well in a 
 deliberative assembly. 
 
 If we consider the multiplicity and diversity of the 
 subjects acted upon in bodies of this kind, we can 
 hardly estimate the importance of wide general infor- 
 mation in a debater. With him no kind, or item of 
 knowledge, is without a practical value. To-day he 
 may be in a village meeting, discussing the expe- 
 diency of making a road or building a bridge ; to- 
 morrow in a convention, arguing the propriety or im- 
 propriety of a change in the Constitution of the State. 
 Now he is busy among the friends of education, as- 
 sembled to consider the ways and means of improving 
 the moral and intellectual condition of the masses ; 
 now he is in some ecclesiastical Synod, or Council, or 
 Convocation, exchanging counsels on matters of high 
 religious concernment ; and now, again, perchance, in 
 Congress, debating questions of law, of tariff, of rev- 
 
22 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 
 
 enue, of treaties, of peace, of war, and I know not 
 what all. 
 
 To him, therefore, what knowledge or learning can 
 be otherwise than exceedingly useful ? To him history 
 is, indeed, " philosophy teaching by examples ;" yield- 
 ing him arguments, facts, and illustrations, always in- 
 teresting and often irresistible. To him not only is 
 that history useful, which is embodied in permanent 
 and well-digested records, but that, also, which is found 
 in the passing events and transactions of the great liv- 
 ing world around him. With him, in a sense singu- 
 larly significant, " knowledge is power." 
 
 4. He should aim at simplicity of style, clearness of 
 logic, and earnestness of manner. He may not discard 
 ornament, when it comes naturally, but he is never 
 to be found in search of it. His task is simply to 
 show that something is to be sought, because it is 
 useful, or that something is to be avoided, because it 
 is deleterious. The debater, therefore, must speak 
 plainly, earnestly, feelingly ; he must argue in the 
 manner of a friend, intent upon guarding his neighbor 
 against coming evil, or anxious to secure to him some 
 blessing within the reach of effort. 
 
 In relation to the thought, he cannot be too careful ; 
 in relation to the mere wording of his thoughts, he 
 must not seem over-anxious. If he is familiar with 
 his theme, he will most probably be fluent in discuss- 
 ing it, and fluency of speech is what especially he 
 needs. But fluency is not finery. 
 
 No one, it is presumed, will infer from this caution 
 against over-anxiety about verbal grace, during the 
 actual course of debate, that we mean to discourage 
 
WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 23 
 
 attention to tilings so important as style and dic- 
 tion. Canning's solicitude about turns of expression, 
 Burke's constant application of the file, and Sheri- 
 dan's elaborate choice and arrangement of words, not 
 to mention others equally diligent and fastidious in 
 this respect, give full attestation to the value of ease, 
 elegance, and variety in the use of language.* 
 
 When the subject and the occasion conspire, as often 
 they will, to render the use of ornate diction and fig- 
 ures of speech appropriate and effective, the delibera- 
 tive orator is at liberty to rise with his topic and soar 
 into the regions of beauty and sublimity. But let him 
 beware of what is called beauty and sublimity of lan- 
 guage, where there is no underlying beauty and sub- 
 limity of thought. 
 
 5. He should endeavor to have his thoughts and feel- 
 ings so absorbed in his theme, as to free his delivery from 
 every appearance of being studied and artificial. He 
 that fully understands and ardently feels the force 
 of what he is saying, will seldom be in danger of 
 employing false tones and emphases, or awkward and 
 inappropriate gestures. In these things, nature is the 
 best guide. 
 
 It will not be understood from this, that we would 
 discourage all attention to vocal modulation, to just- 
 
 * "There are few circumstances more remarkable," says Sir James 
 Macintosh, " than the small number of Butler's [author of the cele- 
 brated Analogy of Religion to the Course of Nature] followers in 
 Ethics ; and it is, perhaps, more observable, that his opinions were not 
 so much rejected as overlooked. It is an instance of the importance 
 of style. No thinker so great was ever so bad a writer." He that can- 
 not see, in this, reason to look weU to the matter of style, is quite 
 beyond the reach of useful suggestion. 
 
24 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 
 
 ness of pronunciation, to proper gesticulation, and 
 whatever else may constitute the requisites of a grace- 
 ful delivery. These are things which, in every con- 
 siderate mind, will always have their due weight. 
 
 But the error against which we would earnestly 
 caution the young speaker, is that of withdrawing his 
 attention, while speaking, from his subject to himself, 
 busying his mind with the probable effect of his tones 
 or his attitudes, when he ought to be dealing heartily 
 with those emotions and sentiments on which, and on 
 which alone, a truly natural delivery depends. 
 
 In this connection, we cannot resist the disposition to 
 introduce an extract from a writer, whose opinion in 
 a matter like this, is entitled to the highest considera- 
 tion. It will serve equally for instruction and for en- 
 couragement. " He," (says Whately, the able and elo- 
 quent Archbishop of Dublin,) " who shall determine to 
 aim at the natural manner, though he will have to 
 contend with considerable difficulties and discourage- 
 ments, will not be without corresponding advantages, 
 in the course he is pursuing. He will be at first, in- 
 deed, repressed to a greater degree than another by 
 emotions of bashfulness ; but it will be more speedily 
 and more completely subdued ; the very system pur- 
 sued, since it forbids all thoughts of selfi striking at the 
 root of the evil. He will, indeed, in the outset, incur 
 censure, not only critical, but moral ; he will be 
 blamed for using a colloquial delivery ; and the cen- 
 sure will very likely be, as far as relates to his earliest 
 efforts, not wholly undeserved ; for his manner will 
 probably at first too much resemble that of conversa- 
 tion, though of serious and earnest conversation ; but, 
 
WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 25 
 
 by perseverance, be may be sure of avoiding deserved, 
 and of mitigating, and ultimately overcoming, unde- 
 served censure. 
 
 " He will, indeed, never be praised for a { very fine 
 delivery;' but bis matter will not lose the approbation 
 it may deserve ; as be will be tbe more sure of being 
 beard and attended to. He will not, indeed, meet 
 with many wbo can be regarded as models of tbe nat- 
 ural manner ; and those be does meet w r itb, be will be 
 precluded, by tbe nature of tbe system, from minutely 
 imitating ; but be will bave tbe advantage of carrying 
 witbin bim an infallible guide, as long as be is careful 
 to follow tbe suggestions of nature ; abstaining from 
 all thougbts respecting bis own utterance, and fixing 
 bis mind intently on tbe business be is engaged in. 
 
 " And tbougb be must not expect to attain perfec- 
 tion at once, be may be assured tbat, w r bile be steadily 
 adberes to tbis plan, be is in tbe right road to it ; in- 
 stead of becoming, as on tbe other plan, more and , 
 more artificial tbe longer be studies. And every ad- 
 vance be makes will produce a proportional effect ; it 
 will give bim more and more of tbat bold on tbe at- 
 tention, tbe understanding, and tbe feelings of tbe au- 
 dience, which no studied modulation can ever attain. 
 Others, indeed, may be more successful in escaping 
 censure, and ensuring admiration ; but be will far more 
 surpass them in respect of the proper object of tbe 
 orator, which i- } to carry his point" 
 
 6. The next special qualification for a good debater, 
 here to be mentioned^ is perfect familiarity with the rules 
 of Parliamentary practice. Tbe necessity of this quali- 
 fication can never become fully apparent, until one 
 
 2 
 
26 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATEB ? 
 
 finds himself a real actor in deliberative assemblies. 
 The applications of Parliamentary Law are sometimes 
 not a little intricate. They give rise to the most 
 spirited debates. Very important interests are not 
 seldom involved in discussions of this nature. The 
 deliberative orator, therefore, cannot afford to be 
 ignorant of the recognized rules and modes of trans- 
 acting business in assemblies, whose opinions, and 
 feelings, and votes, it is his wish, and purpose, and 
 interest to sway. It not unfrequently happens, that 
 greater tact, and power in debate, are shown, and re- 
 quired for the satisfactory adjustment of some point 
 of order, than are needed for the fullest development 
 of the main question in controversy. He, therefore, 
 who is ill-instructed in the law and practice of delib- 
 erative assemblies, is obviously ill-qualified 5 at least 
 in one important respect, for his duties on the floor.* 
 
 7. Last of all, as, indeed, first of all, he must he a 
 good extemporaneous speaker. This, in fact, has all 
 along been implied, and is absolutely essential to the 
 character of a good debater. Let no one, however, 
 on this account be discouraged ; as though nature had 
 thrown in his way obstacles insurmountable. Ex- 
 cellency of speech is no exclusive gift of genius ; but 
 always, more or less, the fruit of practice. 
 
 Macaulay, in some critical observations on the great 
 Earl of Chatham, has so confirmed this remark, and, 
 at the same time, so judiciously pointed out certain 
 prominent defects in that .distinguished debater, as to 
 render the passage not a little pertinent in this place. 
 
 * See more on this subject in Sect. IV, page 63. 
 
WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER ? 27 
 
 " He was," says that able critic, u no speaker of set 
 speeches. His few prepared discourses were complete 
 failures. The elaborate panegyric which he pro- 
 nounced on General Wolfe, was considered as the very 
 worst of all his performances. i No man,' says a critic 
 who had often heard him, ' ever knew so little what 
 he was going to say.' Indeed, his facility amounted 
 to a vice. He was not the master, but the slave of 
 his own speech. So little self-command had he, when 
 once he felt the impulse, that he did not like to take 
 part in a debate, when his mind was full of an impor- 
 tant secret of State. * I must sit still,' he once said to 
 Lord Shelbourne on such an occasion ; l for when once 
 I am up, every thing that is in my mind, comes out.' 
 
 11 Yet he was not a great debater. That he should not 
 have been so, when first he entered the House of Com- 
 mons, is not strange. Scarcely any person had ever 
 become so without long practice and many failures. 
 Indeed, it would be difficult to name any great de- 
 bater, except Mr. Stanley, whose knowledge of the 
 science of parliamentary defense resembles an instinct, 
 who has not made himself a master of his art at the 
 expense of his audience."* 
 
 But, as this art is one which even the ablest men 
 have seldom acquired without long practice, so is it 
 one which men of respectable abilities, with assiduous 
 and intrepid practice, seldom fail to acquire. It is 
 singular that in such an art, Pitt, a man of splendid 
 talents, of great fluency, of great boldness — a man 
 whose life was passed in parliamentary conflict, — 
 
 * For reference to the case of Mr. Fox, to which, also, he alludes, 
 eee page 58 of this volume. 
 
28 WHAT IS A GOOD DEBATER? 
 
 should never have attained to high excellence. He 
 could, indeed, treasure up in his memory some de- 
 tached expression of a hostile orator, and make it the 
 text for sparkling ridicule or burning invective. Some 
 of the most celebrated bursts of his eloquence were 
 called forth by an unguarded word, a laugh or a cheer* 
 But this was the only sort of reply in which he ap- 
 pears to have excelled. His merit was almost en- 
 tirely rhetorical. He did not succeed either in exposi- 
 tion or in refutation; but his speeches abounded with 
 lively illustrations, striking apophthegms, well-told 
 anecdotes, happy allusions, passionate appeals. But 
 that which gave most effect to his declamation, was 
 the air of sincerity, of vehement feeling, of moral ele- 
 vation, which belonged to all that he said." 
 
 How fitting, then, in this place, are the words of 
 Goethe : — 
 
 " If feeling does not prompt, in vain you strive. 
 If from the soul, the language does not come, 
 By its own impulse, to impel the hearts 
 Of hearers with communicated power, 
 In vain you strive, in vain you study earnestly, — 
 Toil on forever, piece together fragments, — 
 Cook up your broken scraps of sentences, 
 And blow, with puffing breath, a struggling light, 
 Glimmering confusedly now, now cold in ashes,— 
 Startle the school-boys with your metaphors,— 
 And if such food may suit your appetite, 
 Win the vain wonder of applauding children I 
 But never hope to stir the hearts of men, 
 And mold the souls of many into one, 
 By words which come not native from the heart." 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 
 
 rjIWO opinions, equally plausible and equally errone- 
 -*- ous, are entertained in relation to extemporaneous 
 speaking. One is, tliat this power, wherever possessed, 
 in any eminent degree, is the peculiar gift of nature, 
 and, therefore, absolutely unattainable, except by a 
 favored few. The other is, that whether natural or 
 acquired, confined to a few, or accessible to all, its fre- 
 quent exercise is not only attended with no adequate 
 benefit, but is, generally speaking, a positive injury ; 
 since it generates in the speaker himself habits unfa- 
 vorable to close thinking and accurate composition. 
 
 The error underlying the first of these opinions seems 
 to be, that of confounding two things essentially dis- 
 tinct — thinking and speaking. He that carefully attends 
 to the operations of his own mind, will not be long in 
 discovering, that when he speaks confusedly and ob- 
 scurely, there is in his thoughts, at the time, a corre- 
 sponding want of order and clearness. 
 
 This confusion and obscurity of thought may be due 
 to a variety of causes. It is not always traceable to 
 ignorance of the subject, to want of premeditation, or 
 
30 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 
 
 to an ill-disciplined mind ; though, these will lie found 
 to be the real causes of almost all abortive attempts at 
 extemporaneous speaking. 
 
 Many a man who has a complete mastery of his sub- 
 ject, and who, in the retirement of his study, would 
 readily clothe his thoughts upon it in appropriate and 
 ven elegant language, finds in the mere presence* of a 
 numerous audience an overpowering cause of derange- 
 ment in his ideas, and a consequent inability to deliver 
 a connected discourse. This result is sometimes expe- 
 rienced from the presence of particular individuals 
 whom we dread as critics, sometimes from a contempt- 
 uous bearing in our opponents,* sometimes from an 
 overweening vanity in the speaker himself, rendering 
 him over-solicitous about the appearance he is making 
 in the assembly, and sometimes from other causes, also, 
 of like accidental nature. Bat further enumeration 
 is unnecessary. It is enough that the sources of 
 
 * A striking instance of this kind is recorded of Lord Erskine. 
 In the commencement of his maiden speech in the House of Com- 
 mons, "Pitt," says Croly in his Life of George IV., " evidently in- 
 tending to reply, sat with pen and paper in his hand, prepared to 
 catch the arguments of his formidable adversary. He wrote a word 
 or two. Erskine proceeded ; but, with every additional sentence, 
 Pitt's attention to the paper relaxed, his look became more careless, 
 and he obviously began to think the orator less and less worthy of 
 his attention. At length, while every eye in the House was fixed 
 upon him, with a contemptuous smile he dashed the pen through the 
 paper, and flung them on the floor. Erskine never recovered from 
 this expression of disdain ; his voice faltered, he struggled through 
 the remainder of his speech, and sank into his seat dispirited." 
 
 Thus Erskine, an orator of pre-eminent ability at the bar, whom 
 talents of the highest order in an opponent would rather have en- 
 couraged than disheartened, was utterly disconcerted by the power 
 of contempt. 
 
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING 31 
 
 failure in all these and similar cases, lie, not in the ab- 
 sence of natural endowment, but in causes quite re- 
 movable by care, study and effort. 
 
 In asserting, however, that the power of extemporiz- 
 ing is the gift, not of the few only, but rather of the race 
 generally, we are, by no means, to be understood as 
 affirming the natural equality of all mankind in this 
 respect. Indeed, the great inequality found among men, 
 in facility of expression, is what gives plausibility to 
 the opinion, that while some few possess it in a high 
 degree, to the many it is altogether denied. 
 
 What we hold is, that all are, by nature, in possess- 
 ion of this faculty ; that it is, nevertheless, more prom 
 inent in some than in others ; but that, like all other 
 faculties, it is capable of indefinite improvement. 
 What a man understands and as he understands, he 
 will be able to express ; whether gracefully or awk- 
 wardly, forcibly or feebly, elegantly or otherwise, de- 
 pends more upon previous culture and discipline than 
 upon any natural endowments whatever. 
 
 The history of eloquence, in all ages and countries, 
 teems with examples in favor of the position, that not 
 only the power of extemporaneous speech, but all the 
 other qualities engaged in the composition of a genu- 
 ine orator, derive their perfection from study and 
 practice. Such was the confidence of the celebrated 
 Grorgias Leontinus in the efficacy of mental training, as 
 the means of forming a fluent speaker, that he did not 
 hesitate to pledge himself to qualify his pupils to speak 
 extemporaneously on any subject whatever. 
 
 Undoubtedly his pretensions were- too high. Doubt- 
 less he deserved much of the ridicule heaped upon 
 
32 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 
 
 him by Plato. But, after all, we must remember, that 
 he was a man of extraordinary ability, that Plato was 
 his rival, and, moreover, that both in Rhetoric, which un- 
 folds the principles, and in Oratory, which displa} r s the 
 practice of speaking well, he was confessedly pre-emi- 
 nent. His testimony, therefore, in the matter under con- 
 sideration, must be regarded as decidedly valuable.* 
 
 The toils and trials of Demosthenes in the effort to 
 overcome the obstacles lying in his way to oratorical 
 eminence, are familiar to every reader of ancient histo- 
 ry. What he did, and what he suffered, and what, 
 finally, he came to be, in consequence of thus doing 
 and suffering, taken all together, serve admirably to 
 show, among other things, the true source of skill in ex- 
 temporaneous speaking. Demosthenes was, indeed, for 
 the most part, laborious in his preparations ; so much 
 so as to elicit from Pytheas, one of his rivals, and frofri 
 others, the taunting remark, th&t " all his arguments 
 smelled of the lamp"\ But, when the occasion demand- 
 
 * None of the early rhetoricians had a wider reputation than Gor- 
 gias. Among his pupils was the celebrated Isocrates ; from whose 
 school, says Cicero, as from the Trojan horse, issued a host of heroes. 
 When sent by his countrymen, the Leontinians, at the head of an 
 embassy, to seek the alliance of Athens against the encroachments of 
 Syracuse, Gorgias so charmed the Athenians by the power of his 
 eloquence, that he found no difficulty in securing the end of his mis- 
 sion. All Greece, it is said, united in erecting a golden statue of 
 him in the temple at Delphi. 
 
 f It is recorded of Demosthenes by his distinguished biographer 
 that he held it to be a duty which he owed to the people, not, as a 
 general thing, to undertake to address them, without duly consider- 
 ing beforehand what he should say. Of Pericles, also, the same wri- 
 ter says, that " such was his solicitude, when he had to speak in pub- 
 lic, that he always first addressed a prayer to the gods, * that not a 
 word might unawares escape him unsuitable to the occasion.' " The 
 
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. S3 
 
 ed, he Lad a habit of mind, derived from the severe disci- 
 pline to which it had been subjected, which enabled him, 
 upon the spur of the moment, "to speak," sa}^s Plu- 
 tarch, "as from a supernatural impulse," and equally to 
 delight and instruct bjhis extemporaneous effusions. 
 
 In modern times, also, numerous cases have occurred 
 in which, after decided failures in the first attempts at 
 extemporaneous discourse, men have, by resolution 
 and perseverance, equally surprised themselves and 
 their friends in the success which has attended their 
 efforts in this direction. It is well known that even 
 Sheridan, from whom so much was expected, on ac- 
 count of the brilliancy of his career in another sphere, 
 came, in his first speech in the House of Commons 
 amazingly short of those anticipations that had been 
 raised in relation to the figure he w r ould make in a 
 deliberative assembly. But his reply to Woodfall, 
 whose opinion he had solicited respecting the merit of 
 this his first attempt, and who frankly told him, "/ 
 donH think this is your line: you had better have stuck to 
 your former pursuits" is one that announces, with pe- 
 culiar force, the truth which we are here anxious to 
 impress. "It ism me," said he, "and it shall come 
 out of me !" And come out of him it did ; for at it he 
 went, with something of Demosthenian spirit, and his 
 perseverance was ultimately crowned with something 
 of Demosthenian success. 
 
 This declaration and resolution of Sheridan, so 
 briefly and so forcibly expressed, should arrest the at- 
 
 conduct of these great men, in this respect, is, or ought to be, not 8 
 little instructive. Especially should it be remembered, that their 
 solicitude was chiefly about the thoughts, not about the words. 
 
 2* 
 
34 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 
 
 tention of every young man, who finds himself vacil- 
 lating between hope and fear in his aspirations after 
 oratorical ability. Let him accept, with unwavering 
 faith, the doctrine taught in the first clause, — " It is in 
 tne ;" let him take with cool deliberation the resolve 
 3xpressed in the second, — a and it shall come out of 
 aae ;" and, thereafter, let neither zeal flag, nor energy 
 fail, nor perseverance yield, till that which is within, 
 shall have shown itself without in the form of a ready 
 and effective debater. 
 
 In relation to the second opinion, cited at the com- 
 mencement of this Section, and there pronounced er- 
 roneous, it should, in the outset, be observed, that 
 whatever influence extemporaneous speaking may be 
 supposed to have in producing habits of indolence, or 
 inaccuracy, it is certain that the practice of writing out 
 discourses beforehand is no necessary safeguard against 
 these unfortunate tendencies. He that is habitually 
 careful and diligent, is not likely to have his habits 
 broken up, but rather strengthened by the exercise of 
 his powers, as an extemporaneous orator ; while he, in 
 whom carelessness and idleness have fixed their abode, 
 has in him two evil spirits, too powerful to be exor- 
 cised by the mere practice of penmanship. 
 
 Written speeches ought, we should say, to give in- 
 fallible evidence always of care and assiduity ; but he 
 is certainly a listless looker-on in any of the various 
 fields of public speaking, who is not often forced to 
 wonder how people who evidently think so loosely 
 and so lazily, can ever prevail upon themselves to 
 undergo the mechanical exertion necessary to write 
 out a speech. Men often write what is not worth writ- 
 
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 35 
 
 ing, just as they often speak what is not worth speak- 
 ing. 
 
 Extemporaneous speaking is not, therefore, to be 
 discouraged, because some persons seem, by the prac- 
 tice of it, to acquire habits of idleness and carelessness 
 in the matter of literary composition. Rather let it 
 be the more earnestly cultivated, in order to the avoid- 
 ance of these very evils ; for, when veil executed, it 
 assuredly argues higher and better culture, and conse- 
 quently, greater industry and accuracy, than belongs, 
 or ever can belong, to the race of literary drones. 
 
 But the opinion which we are here combating, how- 
 ever erroneous, is certainly plausible. Its plausibility, 
 moreover, is due, undoubtedly, to the experienced fact, 
 that those speakers who are in the habit of seeking 
 improvement in the power of expression, by exercising 
 themselves often in written composition, are always 
 found to be the most ready and effective extemporizers. 
 This testimony in favor of the influence of written 
 upon oral exercises in composition, we cheerfully ac- 
 cept, and cannot find language strong enough to com- 
 mend it to those who are ambitious to excel as de- 
 baters ; for we are here only guarding people against 
 the error of supposing that, because writing conduces, 
 in the highest degree, to accuracy in composition, 
 that, therefore, extemporaneous speaking fc to be re- 
 linquished altogether. Indeed, one of the most val- 
 uable precepts for the acquisition of skill in extempo 
 rizing, as we shall presently see, is systematic practice 
 in reducing our thoughts to writing. 
 
 But our object, in this part of the present work, is 
 not so much to consider and refute, objections to the 
 
36 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 
 
 practice of declaiming extemporaneously, as to offer 
 suitable directions for tlie cultivation of that useful art. 
 We hasten, therefore, to direct attention to the follow- 
 ing precepts ; not, however, as embracing every item 
 of instruction applicable to the case, but simply as em- 
 bodying the most prominent and available guidance 
 in this line of intellectual exertion. 
 
 In delivering these instructions, it is of course as- 
 sumed, that the party receiving them has an, earnest 
 desire to become a good extemporaneous speaker, and 
 is, therefore, willing and ready, as far as may be prac- 
 ticable, to follow them out in a spirit of zeal and per- 
 severance. This is an indispensable preliminary to 
 any sort of success in the matter ; for no idle aspira- 
 tions, no lazy wishes, unaccompanied by resolution 
 and industry, can ever achieve a position worth occu- 
 pying in the arena of public debate. 
 
 The first rule which we shall here lay down, as con- 
 ducive, if rightly followed, to skill in the use of ex- 
 temporaneous language, is — Endeavor always to think 
 clearly and methodically. 
 
 Thinking and speaking, as before intimated, are 
 things correlative. They stand in the relation of cause 
 and effect. When, therefore, it is the settled habit of 
 the mind to think in an orderly and perspicuous man- 
 ner, it follows naturally that the tongue, which is under 
 the guidance of the mind, should utter words in a cor- 
 responding style. 
 
 In order to the efficient application of this rule, let 
 the young speaker often assume, as an intellectual 
 gymnastic, some debatable subject for the exercise of 
 his mental powers. Let him then deal with it as with 
 
EXTEMPOKANEOUS SPEAKING. 37 
 
 a thing of reality, a question of real life. Let him ac- 
 quire an interest, an enthusiasm, if possible, in its 
 management. Let him survey it as a whole, study it in 
 detail, detect its deficiencies, bring out its excellencies, 
 and hold it up to the light in all possible aspects. Let 
 him consider in how many ways the point which he 
 wishes to make can be presented and defended, and, 
 among these, which is the most likely to be fully un- 
 derstood, and fairly appreciated. 
 
 When all this is done in the mind, let him try the 
 experiment of putting the whole process into extem- 
 poraneous language. The result will be the measure 
 of his proficiency in the art ; and, if rightly regarded, 
 cannot fail, at every repetition of the exercise, to prove 
 a healthful stimulus to renewed exertion. 
 
 The second rule is — Be in the constant habit of seeking 
 the best possible language for the expression of your ideas, 
 even in ordinary conversation. 
 
 As the best school of practical morals is the society 
 of moral people, so the best exercise in oral expression 
 is conversation with refined and educated persons. 
 The converse of this statement is also painfully true. 
 " Evil communications corrupt good manners," says 
 the Apostle ; and some one has aptly added — " and 
 good language too!" 
 
 He, therefore, who aims to be a good deliberative 
 orator, must be ever equally on the alert to catch what 
 is choice and correct, and to avoid what is vulgar and 
 inaccurate, in his daily intercourse with others. It is 
 not enough to exercise particular care on particular oc- 
 casions. It must be a thing of habit, growing out of a 
 settled purpose to be superior in the power of speech 
 
38 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 
 
 The tliird rule is — Read often and carefully the best 
 specimens of deliberative eloquence. 
 
 An intelligent application of this rule requires that 
 the student should become familiar with many particu- 
 lars bearing upon what he reads. "What is the precise 
 nature of the proposition which the speaker advocates 
 or opposes ? "What are his own personal relations to 
 it? What is the character or constitution of the body 
 whom he addresses? What the time, the place, the 
 circumstances, wherein the speech was delivered ? 
 All these and other kindred inquiries he should make, 
 in order to put himself duly in sympathy with the par- 
 ties originally and really interested in the case. 
 
 Then let him observe accurately the speech itself; 
 its opening, the order and relative force of the several 
 arguments adduced, the skill displayed in evading or 
 obviating objections, the pertinency of the illustrations, 
 the facility and naturalness of the transitions from one 
 topic to another, the closing remarks or peroration, 
 and, throughout the whole, every grace and every ele- 
 gance in the structure of individual sentences or pas- 
 sages. 
 
 The fourth rule is — Exercise your powers often in the 
 practice of written composition. 
 
 " Writing," says Lord Bacon, " makes an accurate 
 man/' and this is the testimony of every scholar. The 
 rule, however, which we are now commending, has 
 several modes of application. If the student is ac- 
 quainted with any language other than his vernacular, 
 one of the easiest applications of the present rule is 
 the translating of passages out of that foreign language 
 into his own. Every sentence thus translated is an ex- 
 
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 39 
 
 ercise, however brief, in English composition ; a fact 
 which accounts for the greater facility in the use of 
 language, which boys who have studied, even for com- 
 paratively short periods of time, the Latin and Greek 
 languages, than is found in the possession of those 
 who are without that advantage. 
 
 He, however, who knows no other than his native 
 tongue, may adopt, with the greatest benefit, a custom, 
 commended and adopted by Cicero and other great 
 speakers, in their youth, — that of reading carefully a 
 passage from some great oration or other literary com- 
 position, getting the substance of it fairly in the mem- 
 ory, and then putting it again into language the best 
 you can command. There is, also, another way of 
 reaching the result contemplated in this exercise, 
 which the author of these observations has often found 
 singularly efficient, in the prosecution of his duties as 
 a practical educator. It is simply to place before the 
 learner a given passage from a writer of established* 
 reputation, and then to require him to express, in 
 words other than those of the author, the same idea ; 
 that is, neither more nor less than what is found in 
 the passage assigned. This is an admirable method 
 of acquiring precision of style, on which depends, in 
 great measure, every other excellence of composition. 
 
 But a higher application of the present rule for the 
 cultivation of skill in speaking, is that which obliges 
 the young orator to engage frequently in the practice 
 of original composition. In this, if he would be pro- 
 ficient, he must study to bring into actual and appro- 
 priate use those essential principles and precepts which, 
 under the imposing names of Grammar and Ehetoric, 
 
40 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 
 
 all terminate at last in justifying that brief definition 
 of a good style, — " proper words in proper places." 
 
 By the due application of this rule, whether in one 
 or in all of the ways above indicated, the mind be- 
 comes habituated to close and accurate thinking, fa- 
 miliar with various forms of expression, and ready, 
 when the occasion demands, to display its resources in 
 fluent and forceful language. 
 
 The fifth and last general rule which we shall here 
 give for acquiring superiority in extemporaneous 
 speaking, is — Be always diligent in the acquisition of 
 knowledge. 
 
 The aim of this rule is especially to reach the case 
 of those who, relying upon a certain natural readiness 
 of utterance, are but too apt to fall into the deplorable 
 habit of undertaking to speak without having any- 
 thing in particular to say. He that fails from this 
 cause, deserves to fail ; for he equally deceives him- 
 self and his audience ; mistaking sound for sense, and 
 raising expectations which he is not able to satisfy. 
 A glib tongue in an empty head is no common calam- 
 ity. 
 
 There is no kind of knowledge, as before intimated, 
 which may not be useful to the deliberative speaker. 
 Such is the variety of the questions which he may 
 find it necessary or desirable to discuss, that no mental 
 treasures, however extensive or diversified, can exceed 
 the limits of his actual wants. 
 
 It was no mere fancy that led the ancients to adopt 
 the principle, that the genuine orator should be com 
 petently acquainted with every department of knowl- 
 edge. Not that, even in their day, the orator could be 
 
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING. 41 
 
 expected to be a man of universal knowledge, in any 
 such sense as includes and necessitates a minute and 
 profound acquaintance with all the various and com- 
 plicated branches of human learning. This, if not 
 then, certainly now, would be quite out of human 
 power ; but there is an important sense in which this 
 theory of universal culture is unquestionably true. 
 Let the standard be high, whatever may be our defi- 
 ciencies in reaching it. 
 
 The perfect orator is, indeed, the rarest of human 
 characters. It is seldom, in the lapse of ages, that all 
 those qualities that must conspire to produce this 
 character are found to unite in a single individual. In 
 voice, in person, in genius, in knowledge, in fluency, 
 in everything that can influence the eye, the ear, the 
 heart, or the head, he must be pre-eminent. 
 
 Few, therefore, very few, can ever hope to attain to 
 the glory of being perfect orators ; but all, or nearly 
 all, it cannot be too often repeated, may, by persever- 
 ing and judicious practice, become ready and effective 
 speakers. 
 
 " Wherefore let every young man," (glad am I to 
 be able to give this word of encouragement in the 
 language of so great a master as Quintilian,) "nay, 
 let us, of every age, — for it is never too late to do 
 well, — apply ourselves with all our minds in this 
 direction, in this laboriously make effort. Who knows 
 but success may crown our endeavors ? For, if nature 
 hinders not one man from being virtuous, and another 
 from being eloquent, why may not one man attain 
 unto both ? And why may not every individual hope 
 to be just that man ?" 
 
SECTION 1Y. 
 
 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 THVERY age and country, blessed with, any tincture 
 ■M of literary culture or philosophical spirit, has had 
 its meetings or conferences, under some name or other, 
 for free discussion. Oral discussions were among the 
 earliest and most effective means of eliciting truth and 
 diffusing knowledge. In all the schools of all the 
 various philosophical sects of antiquity, open dispu- 
 tation was the favorite method of testing the sound- 
 ness of theory, and detecting the disguises of error. 
 What mighty changes, social, civil and religious, not 
 only in ancient, but in modern times as well, have 
 grown out of these apparently transient conflicts of 
 opinion. How many master minds have, in this way, 
 and in this way alone, first felt a real consciousness 
 of that strength, which afterwards made them illus- 
 trious. 
 
 Debating is decidedly one of the best means of edu- 
 cational discipline. And debating societies, it may be 
 added, are among the best fields for its exercise. This 
 may seem an extravagant statement ; for the history 
 of societies of this sort frequently presents little be- 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 43 
 
 yond a record of desultory doings, devoid of serious 
 or elevated purpose, unsupported by proper prepara- 
 tion, and, in short, without any aim, study, process or 
 result beyond the requirements of an ordinary pas- 
 time. With such associations, therefore, as a general 
 thing, we connect the idea of amusement, often that 
 of dissipation, rarely that of improvement. 
 
 It is no part of wisdom, however, to look upon 
 them with an eye of discouragement or disappro- 
 bation. They are capable of splendid service in the 
 cause of education ; and not only splendid, but pecu- 
 liar, — a service, in fact, for which there is no sufficient 
 substitute. We find, indeed, for them no fixed posi- 
 tion in the ordinary routine of scholastic training. 
 Yet they spring up spontaneously, as it were, and 
 cling around our higher institutions of learning : en- 
 couraged, it maybe, but not enjoined, — guarded rather 
 than governed by those in authority. 
 
 There are thousands of such societies, however, far 
 removed from any seat of learning. These, with few 
 exceptions, owe their origin to a laudable ambition. 
 Those composing them desire to excel, or, at least, to 
 acquire passable skill in the art of debating. Societies, 
 so formed, immediately become educational establish- 
 ments; for they are, in fact, schools for mutual in- 
 struction. They should elicit the warmest sympathy, 
 because they deserve it. 
 
 Consisting, for the most part, of persons who have 
 either wanted or wasted opportunities of early educa- 
 tion, and who, under the stimulus of noble aspiration, 
 long to make the present atone for the past, who are 
 anxious, in a word, to be something more than mere 
 
44 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 "hewers of wood, and drawers of water," they have a 
 claim to cordial encouragement too clear to require 
 advocacy. 
 
 Many things, no doubt, are said and done in these 
 societies, which are offensive to good sense and good 
 taste. The exhibitions of ignorance, conceit and fri- 
 volity, there often witnessed, shake the confidence of 
 spectators, and provoke the prayer, — 
 
 " wad some power tne giftie gie us 
 To see oursels as ithers see us ! 
 It wad frae monie a blunder free us, 
 An' foolish notion." 
 
 Yet, whatever their faults, they are as nothing, com- 
 pared with their capabilities of usefulness. Many 
 considerations induce this belief, of which these four 
 are the most prominent, — 
 
 First: — they are, when rightly managed, the best 
 schools of Logical Disputation : 
 
 Secondly: — they furnish the best opportunities for 
 the practice of Deliberative Oratory : 
 
 Thirdly ; — they necessitate the acquisition of a great 
 Variety of useful Knowledge : 
 
 Fourthly : — they lead to familiar acquaintance with 
 the practice of Parliamentary Law. 
 
 The first of these four considerations is founded on 
 the assumption, that logical disputation is, or ought to 
 be, among the branches essential to a complete educa- 
 tion. By this, however, we mean not, as some might 
 suppose, that sort of disputation, which begets a cap- 
 tious rather than a critical spirit, and, therefore, pro- 
 duces ready wranglers, instead of ripe debaters. The 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 45 
 
 thing here intended, is logical disputation ; — disputa- 
 tion begun, continued and ended in the spirit that 
 befits the sober investigation of truth, — disputation 
 which courts the guidance of reason, which ignores the 
 dominion of pride, passion and prejudice, — disputation 
 which diligently seeks the real, which ever underlies 
 the merely phenomenal, — disputation which limits its 
 efforts only by the discovery of fundamental principles, 
 or by those barriers beyond which human intellect is 
 found unable to make its way. T7e certainly mean 
 not to encourage captious caviling, which is an abuse 
 of reason ; nor idle logomachy, which is an abuse of 
 words; nor angry altercation, which is an abuse of 
 feeling. What we commend, is a free, fair and vigor- 
 ous exercise of those rational powers, whereby the race 
 is so remarkably distinguished, and which, being capa- 
 ble of indefinite improvement, we are bound in duty 
 to cultivate to the utmost. 
 
 Thus understood, logical disputation is a noble art. 
 It is the very touchstone of truth — the safeguard of 
 the mind. By it we are led to sift, to weigh, to com- 
 pare, to analyze. By it we are taught to avoid partial 
 views and hasty conclusions ; to measure with others, 
 and, under the force of active competition, our own 
 strength, and so to find the level that forbids an over- 
 weening confidence. By it w r e are guarded equally 
 against the snares of sophistry and the assaults of dog- 
 matism. By it, in brief, we acquire the invaluable 
 habit of "proving all things, and holding fast that 
 which is good." 
 
 But logical disputation, like every other art, derives 
 its perfection from culture. It rests upon the basis of 
 
46 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 a science, which deals deeply with the fundamental 
 laws of thought, and discloses the nature of that mental 
 process, according to which all reasoning appears to 
 be conducted. Yet, happily, no one has need to des- 
 pair of attaining skill in the art of logical disputation, 
 merely because he is little versed in the abstrusites of 
 logical science. Nothing is more common than profi- 
 ciency in practice coupled with deficiency in theory. 
 Men reasoned, and often reasoned well, long before the 
 time of the illustrious Stagirite. Not the least, indeed, 
 among the many proofs of beneficent design in the 
 all- wise Maker of man, is the remarkable fact, that He 
 has made superiority in art possible even to those who 
 have no claim whatever to profundity in science. 
 
 " Considered merely as an intellectual feat," says 
 Macaulay, " the Organum of Aristotle can scarcely be 
 admired too highly. But the more we compare indi- 
 vidual with individual, school with school, nation with 
 nation, generation with generation, the more do we 
 lean to the opinion, that the knowledge of the theory 
 of Logic has no tendency whatever to make men good 
 reasoners." 
 
 We cannot resist the temptation to add to this testi- 
 mony of Macaulay, that of Dr. Whewell, who in a 
 Lecture on Intellectual Education, thus speaks : — 
 "The study of Logic is of great value, as fixing atten- 
 tion upon the conditions of deductive proof, and giving 
 a systematic and technical view of the forms which 
 such proofs may assume. But, by doing for all sub- 
 jects alike, it produces the impression that there is a 
 close likeness in the process of investigation of truth 
 in different subjects ; closer than there really is. The 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 47 
 
 examples of reasoning given in books of Logic are 
 generally so trifling as to seem a mockery of truth - 
 seeking, and so monotonous as to seem idle variations 
 of the same theme." 
 
 We shall be quite misunderstood, in the drift of 
 these observations, should any one thence get the im- 
 pression, that they are intended to discourage the study 
 of Logic, as a science. He that aspires to the charac- 
 ter of an accomplished disputant, if not utterly devoid 
 of all natural qualifications, will not fail to perceive, in 
 the study of systematic Logic, many important uses. 
 It would certainly be great folly to let slip the oppor- 
 tunity ; if afforded, of becoming familiar with the re- 
 sources of that science. But greater folly still would 
 it be, where the opportunity is wanting, to sink down 
 under the weight of that deficiency, and so give up all 
 hope of useful or honorable attainment. 
 
 But the importance of the art being fully conceded, 
 it may still be inquired whether debating societies 
 offer the best facilities for acquiring skill in the use of 
 it. Disputation, to be useful, must be orderly. Where 
 each person is at liberty to take his own course, subject, 
 that is, to no restraint not self-imposed, extraordinary, 
 indeed, must be the moderation of that company of 
 youth, in which debate, if at all earnest, would not be 
 more likely to become the source of strife than the 
 channel of truth. 
 
 For this reason, among others, we have less confi- 
 dence than many, in what is called the Socratic method 
 of reasoning. That method, as is well known, de- 
 rives its name from the illustrious person who habit- 
 ually adopted it in his philosophical discussions. It 
 
48 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 consists in propounding to your opponent a series of 
 questions, wherebj^, through the adroitness of the 
 querist, he is unexpectedly bound fast by his own 
 concessions, to some previously denied position or 
 conclusion. 
 
 It is claimed for this mode of reasoning, that it is 
 superior to all others, because it has all the ease and 
 sprightliness of common conversation, — because it 
 quickens attention, and keeps up a certain vital inter- 
 est, — because it is free from the restrictions of formal 
 debate, and because it leads one into correct conclu- 
 sions, while, at the same time, compelling him to a 
 severe exercise of his intellectual powers. There is, 
 doubtless, considerable force in these suggestions. 
 Where, especially, you have a wily, wordy opponent 
 to deal with — one of those slippery spirits, to find 
 whose real position is, — 
 
 " Like tracing life through, creatures you dissect, 
 You lose it in the moment you detect," — 
 
 this closely-cornering process of question and answer 
 is a most excellent contrivance. 
 
 But, after all, good as it is for particular purposes, 
 it appears to us not a little objectionable, as a means 
 of discipline, and even as a means of producing con- 
 viction. If you would convince the understanding, 
 you must offer no violence to the feelings. But how . 
 could you more effectually do this than by surprising 
 your opponent into the toils of a wily logic ? In so 
 doing, you do, indeed, gain a temporary triumph ; you 
 do, indeed, it may be, silence for a moment, the tongue 
 of sophistry or conceit. But you do more than that; 
 you generate a brood of antipathies ; you shut up the 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 49 
 
 avenues of truth to the soul of your adversary, and 
 make him (possibly many who sympathize with him) 
 reject truth, because he rejects you as the medium 
 of it. 
 
 Even in the most judicious hands, this method is 
 liable to ultimate in dissension. The dispute between 
 Socrates and Protagoras, recorded by Plato, is a case in 
 point. Socrates, in the midst of a highly respectable 
 company, was plying with singular felicity his famous 
 process of interrogation. He had already gained ad- 
 mission after admission, till, at length, the subtle sophist 
 was forced into a position diametrically opposite to that 
 which he had occupied in the outset of the discussion. 
 
 Protagoras sought refuge in diffuseness. Socrates 
 insisted upon brevity. The former became impatient 
 of what he thought to be improper dictation ; the latter, 
 professing to be unable to follow long speeches, refused 
 to proceed unless his demand should be complied with. 
 Then, suiting the action to the word, Socrates rose ab- 
 ruptly to depart. 
 
 Hereupon, the master of the mansion, a wealthy 
 Athenian, who w T as deeply interested in the discussion, 
 eagerly seizes him by the hand, and finally prevails 
 upon him to remain. The altercation, however, pro- 
 ceeds. Several of the company undertake to mediate. 
 One urges the distinguished disputants not to quarrel, 
 but to argue. Another, who is called " Hippias, the 
 Wise," after alluding to the disgrace that must certainly 
 attach to an angry altercation between two such per- 
 sons, on such an occasion, and in such a place, offers a 
 suggestion which, whether he was wise in other respects 
 or not, indicates a fair appreciation of the difficulties 
 
 8 
 
50 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 of an unregulated debate. " Be persuaded," said he, 
 11 by me to choose a Moderator, President, or Prytanis, 
 who will oblige you to keep within moderate bounds 
 on either side." 
 
 It is substantially this advice which we are here la- 
 boring to impress. Not that we would disparage the 
 Socratio method as such. That method, as before inti- 
 mated, has its appropriate place and its appropriate 
 uses. In those ancient philosophical conferences, for 
 example, where one leading mind conducted, as it were, 
 the reasonings of the rest, it had a certain fitness, a 
 sort of class-room brevity and directness, which belongs 
 rather to schools under the authority of a master 
 than to assemblies of equals engaged in public and 
 formal discussion. It was good at Tusculum, but ill 
 suited the Senate. 
 
 The opinion, therefore, entertained by some, that a 
 far better exercise of the reasoning powers may be se- 
 cured from conversational discussions, in which the 
 method of Socrates is predominant, than from any dis- 
 puting societies, however organized or managed, is one 
 in which we find ourselves quite unable to concur. 
 For such young men, generally, as most need and seek 
 this kind of improvement, it would, we are assured, 
 work unfortunately in many ways. It would, as we 
 have already seen, even in the best hands, often be 
 fatal to that freedom from angry excitement which is 
 so essential to the right exercise of intellectual force. 
 It would, in some, beget insuperable timidity and aver- 
 sion, because of its operating like a trap to the under- 
 standing, and subjecting one to the mortifying neces- 
 sity of convicting himself. In others, it would be apt 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 51 
 
 to create the idle and pernicious habit of dealing (to 
 use the language of Boyle) in " those dialectical sub- 
 tleties which are wont much more to declare the wit 
 of him that uses them, than to increase the knowledge 
 or remove the doubts of sober lovers of truth.' 7 In 
 others, again, — the lookers on — its effect would be, not 
 unfrequently, to breed a love of the process, as a sort 
 of literary sport : affording pleasure for the same 
 reason, and of much the same nature, as that which 
 gives birth and zest to pugilistic encounters. 
 
 Very different, though not altogether free from 
 abuse, as we know, is the practice of oral discussion 
 under the forms and rules of an organized body, where 
 each speaker has the right and the opportunity to pre- 
 sent, explain, enforce, and defend his own views in his 
 own way. Law is there, however, as well as liberty. 
 In a well-ordered debating society, as in a well-ordered 
 political community, the liberty of the whole is secured 
 by the partial restraint of each individual. There 
 error is, indeed, left perfectly free to choose her posi- 
 tions, and to employ her weapons, whatever they may 
 be, unfettered by modes of warfare dictated by her 
 antagonist ; but there, too, truth is permitted to appear 
 on the same equal terms, the only vantage-ground 
 which she ever asks or needs. 
 
 This union of law and liberty, which can be rightly 
 realized in such an organization only, is, morever, 
 highly conducive to habits of close and orderly think- 
 ing — the indispensable element of all worthy attain- 
 ment in the art of disputing. It presents an arena in 
 which all may have practice with fair hope of suc- 
 cess, but in which eminence is never gained but by 
 
52 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 severe intellectual exertion. One's sense of responsi- 
 bility is fully awakened for the character of the 
 thoughts which he utters. If they be obscure, super- 
 ficial, incoherent, or irrelevant; if they be clear, pro- 
 found, consistent, or pertinent; if they be — aye, what- 
 ever they be, his intellectual standing is fixed in the 
 minds of his auditors. Here is something to excite to 
 generous ambition, and that ambition fails not to excite 
 care, caution, and diligence. Here is a company of 
 critics in critical conference. They come not to discuss 
 the merits of parties without, but to canvass freely the 
 claims of one another. Here is an intelligent, at least, 
 an inquisitive, public opinion to be met, and he is ca- 
 pable of no exalted station in the world of eloquence, 
 who is wholly insensible to its influence. 
 
 In circumstances like these, a young man of any 
 promise soon comes to discern the value of profound 
 and patient thought, close investigaion, rigid analysis, 
 and careful deduction. These come to be indissolubly 
 connected with the idea of a good debater ; while mere 
 words, tones, gestures, however fluently uttered, how- 
 ever gracefully managed, fail utterly to secure solid 
 and enduring reputation. If his aspirations be at all 
 worthy, and his genius at all worthy of his aspirations, 
 he will be driven irresistibly into the habit of disdain- 
 ing the aids of sophistry, of idle rhetoric, and theatri- 
 cal effect. He may not, and he should not, shun the 
 natural graces of speech and action ; but his reliance 
 for success will, after all, be, where alone it should be, 
 on a manly logic, which is the only possible parent 
 of a manly eloquence. 
 
 2. Our second leading consideration in favor of de- 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 53 
 
 bating societies, as disciplinary agents, is that they 
 furnish the fittest opportunities for the practice of de- 
 liberative oratory. This might be inferred from the 
 very nature of the case ; for what is deliberative ora- 
 tory but that which is employed in deliberative assem- 
 blies ? and what is a debating association but a delib- 
 erative assembly, at least, in miniature ? We take it 
 for granted that no one questions the importance of 
 seeking skill in this kind of oratory. It requires but 
 a very slight survey of the various scenes and objects 
 of its exercise to make this point abundantly clear. 
 Its province is almost unlimited. In Congress, in the 
 State Legislatures, in City Councils, in Town Meetings, 
 in Conventions of the Church, in Synods, in Presby- 
 teries, in organized bodies of every description, civil 
 and religious, literary and scientific, commercial, me- 
 chanical, agricultural, — wherever, in a word, questions 
 are to be discussed, and decided according to the will 
 of a majority, there is the appropriate field for delibe- 
 rative oratory. 
 
 How vast, then, how varied, how complicated the 
 interests which it involves, and sways, and determines! 
 Alternately the medium of knowledge, the lever oi 
 reason, the magic wand of passion and persuasion, 
 its power over a popular assembly is often past all 
 description. Decrees and dogmas, affecting the inter 
 ests, temporal and spiritual, of whole classes or com- 
 munities, — war and peace, spreading gloom or gladness 
 over populous nations, — authoritative decisions, reach- 
 ing down to the very details of social and domestic 
 life, are often suspended on the tongue of the deliber- 
 ative orator. 
 
54 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 Surely, then, debating societies, if they offer any 
 peculiar facilities for the acquisition of skill in this po- 
 tent art, are to be set down among the most useful of 
 educational appliances. But are they equal to this? 
 We have not a doubt of it. They do not, indeed, nor 
 can they supply the lack of academical learning and 
 training. They do not offer themselves as substitutes 
 for study and observation. They promise no exemp- 
 tion from toil, no easy access to oratorical eminence. 
 Nor, on the other hand, do they justify the conclusions 
 of those who seem to think a knowledge of Grammar 
 and Rhetoric, coupled with the customary routine of 
 exercises in Composition and Elocution, quite sufficient 
 to secure, at once, the highest attainable position in the 
 world of oratory. They merely promise to each, ac- 
 cording to his previous culture and mental habits, 
 according to his previous character, in a word, a meas- 
 ure of skill derivable, perhaps, from no other kind of 
 practice. They, therefore, by no means despise or dis- 
 parage the advantages to be secured from books and 
 schools, but verify the observation, often made, that ora- 
 tory from books and schools exclusively, is like many 
 things else from books and schools exclusively ; Medi- 
 cine, for example. It is rather experiment than experi- 
 ence. Think of a man prescribing medicines which he 
 knows only from description, for the cure of diseases 
 which he knows only in the same way, and you have no 
 bad illustration of the course of an unpracticed debater. 
 
 Debating societies are, indeed, to students of delibe- 
 rative oratory what clinical lectures are to students of 
 Medicine — the sources of actual experience. There is 
 no question proper to be discussed in any deliberative 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 55 
 
 body, whatever its object or its character, that may not, 
 with equal propriety, be discussed, as an exercise, in 
 such an association. There all the motives that com- 
 monly prevail in assemblies devoted to the transaction 
 of the real business of life, can be brought to bear 
 with equal effect. There every argument, every sug- 
 gestion, every felicity of diction, ever\ r grace of action, 
 every persuasive of every kind, can be as fully tested, 
 as if the society were the Senate of the whole country, 
 or any other great and dignified assemblage. The scene 
 is favorable, in the highest degree, to the development 
 of every order and every diversity of talent. Is logic 
 your sole reliance ? Then reason soundly ; see that 
 every link in the chain of your argument is strong and 
 sure; for they are present, w r ho are eager to find the 
 least flaw, because well they know that from the chain 
 of logic, as from the chain of nature, 
 
 " whatever link you strike, 
 
 Tenth, or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike." 
 
 Is your appeal to hidden motives discernible, as you 
 think, in the character of your audience ? See that 
 it is such an appeal as does no dishonor to the speaker 
 himself, nor condemns, by implication, those to whom 
 it is directed ; for he that ventures to employ unworthy 
 means, however excellent the end, is most likely to 
 find, in a company of debaters, as everywhere else, if 
 not more than anywhere else, that u honesty is the best 
 policy." Do you put your trust in wit, and irony, and 
 sarcasm ? Be cautious in the use of these dangerous 
 weapons: remembering that often, in such cases, the 
 recoil is far more dreadful than the discharge. Are 
 
56 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 courtesy and forbearance the means most to your taste ? 
 Let them be the off-spring of genuine kindness ; for 
 counterfeits in speech and manner, like all other coun- 
 terfeits, are apt to be detected, and if so, bring irrepara- 
 ble defeat upon the counterfeiter. Are you tempted to 
 trust entirely, or mainly, to the efficacy of graceful 
 gestures, expressive tones, pointed emphasis, and other 
 similar aids? Be sure that an orator, without some 
 strong foundation of sense and reason, like a Christian, 
 without some strong foundation of genuine charity, 
 is ever " as sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal." 
 
 Another important advantage in the exercises of a 
 society of this kind is, that there people soon find their 
 proper level. Temerity takes lessons from caution, 
 timidity learns self-reliance, presumption abates under 
 the check of prudence, and many other features of 
 character exercise a friendly, formative influence one 
 upon another. This wholesome discipline has often 
 been acknowledged by men of the most illustrious 
 rank. It is, especially, the experience, and, therefore, 
 the testimony, of those who, in early life, while yet 
 
 " Chill penury repressed their noble rage," 
 
 found, in these bumble organizations, a fostering 
 mother to that genius which, in after years, was able 
 
 u The applause of listening Senates to command." 
 
 It would be easy, therefore, to multiply testimonies 
 on this point. Indeed, it would be hard to find a man 
 who has ever achieved a reputation in the field of elo- 
 quence, who is not under obligation, more or less heavy, 
 to the exercises of some debating association. Nor has 
 this obligation been confined to those only, who have 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 57 
 
 been denied the advantages of regular scholastic edu- 
 cation. The most educated, and the least educated, 
 each in appropriate measure, have experienced the 
 benefit. "We cite few instances, because few are really 
 needed. 
 
 The celebrated Lord Mansfield, after a full course at 
 Oxford, and even after his entrance upon legal studies, 
 sought improvement in a debating club. Herein were 
 discussed some profound legal questions, questions in- 
 volving many intricate points of law. He entered into 
 these discussions with all the earnestness of real life. 
 He was careful, copious, and thorough every way, in 
 his preparations ; so much so, indeed, that they were 
 found not only adequate to the wants of the occasion, 
 but served, in a high degree, to render him ultimately 
 one of the first jurists of the age. 
 
 Curran is another signal example. Every thing 
 seemed to be against his cherished aspirations. Awk- 
 ward and ungainly in gesture, hasty and inarticulate 
 in utterance, with a voice naturally bad, he early pro- 
 voked the name of "Stuttering Jack." Since the days 
 of Demosthenes had no man apparently had such ob- 
 stacles to contend with. After completing his college 
 course, and, like Mansfield, entering upon Professional 
 studies, he still persevered in the endeavor to overcome 
 the difficulties lying in his way to success as a public 
 speaker. He, too, sought aid in debating societies. He 
 patiently withstood the ridicule awakened by his ludi- 
 crous, unprepossessing manners. He bore failure with 
 fortitude. He turned air criticism to good account ; 
 and, at length, came to be one of the most effective 
 orators of which any age or country can boast. 
 
 3* 
 
58 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 Fox, distinguished alike for the good and the bad 
 that marked his strange career, gave a powerful, though 
 unconscious, testimony to the value of debating asso- 
 ciations, when he confessed, as he did, that he had 
 acquired skill, as a debater, " at the expense of the 
 House of Commons." He had made it a point, during 
 the whole session, to speak on every question, impor- 
 tant or not, merely to improve himself in the art of 
 debating ; that is, he had deliberately turned the Brit- 
 ish House of Commons into a sort of debating society 
 for his own personal convenience. What success he 
 ultimately reached, as a deliberative orator, may be 
 learned from a witness no less competent than the cele- 
 brated Edmund Burke, who declared that Fox came, 
 " by slow degrees, to be the most brilliant and accom- 
 plished debater the world ever saw." 
 
 We take one example more, and that from our own 
 country ; not because we have not many to give, but 
 because he is the type and representative of them all. 
 We refer to Henry Clay, — a name that awakens at 
 once the thought of every thing that is fascinating and 
 forceful in deliberative eloquence. Without wealth, 
 without patronage, without academical discipline, with- 
 out every thing, it would seem, essential to the formation 
 of such a character, he rose, by dint of unyielding per- 
 severance, to be among the princes of eloquence, in a 
 land abounding in the most gifted orators. Henry 
 Clay owned frankly and always his obligations to the 
 exercises of a debating society. 
 
 3. But our limits, in the present place, admonish us 
 to pass to the next general consideration which we 
 have named, in favor of associations of this description; 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 59 
 
 namely, the great amount and variety of knowledge 
 which they induce young persons to be at the pains 
 to acquire. Various are the motives engaged in the 
 production of this result. Pride, vanity, envy, ambi- 
 tion, and many other feelings that usually figure most 
 largely in the service of folly, are here sometimes 
 strangely beguiled into the service of wisdom. Many 
 a soul that never awoke under the discipline of school 
 or college, has suddenly shown, under the spur of de- 
 bate, signs indubitable of the most extraordinary men- 
 tal capacity. Patrick Henry, fomenting disputes among 
 the customers that sometimes met in his store, and, 
 amid these contests, watching with eager interest the 
 play of the passions and the language of emotion, is 
 no solitary example of a mind, naturally indolent, 
 allured into keen and vigorous exercise by the strong 
 stimulus of oral discussion. What matters it, that he 
 had no other motive, or purpose, than the gratification 
 of the passing hour? The effect of the exercise, far 
 from being momentary, reached out into the future, 
 and largely aided in giving him that wonderful com- 
 mand over a popular assembly, which few of all the 
 great speakers, whether ancient or modern, have ever 
 found it possible to acquire. 
 
 The knowledge thus gained by Patrick Henry was 
 knowledge of human nature — knowledge of those se- 
 cret springs of action, whereby the heart is most easily 
 and profoundly moved, and the will most surely and 
 permanently influenced. Others, under the same stim- 
 ulus, are often urged to extraordinary intellectual ex- 
 ertion in other directions. How many, many hours 
 of patient, persevering toil have been spent in the in- 
 
60 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 vestigation of a single point in History, in Law, in 
 Medicine, in Theology, in every department of human 
 knowledge, by persons who, without the motives that 
 ordinarily prevail in spirited contests of opinion, could 
 never have been induced, for a moment scarcely, to 
 sacrifice the ease of indolence to the advantages of 
 learning. 
 
 But, not to dwell upon the acquisitions necessarily 
 made in the course of elaborate preparations for debate, 
 nor upon the effect of disputation in eliciting latent 
 intellectual power, we have only to consider the infor- 
 mation that must be incidentally given and received, 
 in the progress of a discussion, in order to be satisfied 
 of the utility of these associations as the means of im- 
 parting knowledge. Even those debates which so fre- 
 quently spring up respecting the Cons:itution and By- 
 Laws* of such societies, though often deemed irksome 
 and profitless, are not without a special advantage. 
 Discussions of this kind serve to induce thought respect- 
 ing the nature of those fundamental laws and powers 
 in a community, under which, and in conformity to 
 which, all other laws and powers whatever must be 
 made and exercised. They serve 3S ecially to dispel 
 
 ° The relation of By-laws to the Constitution is well indicated in the 
 derivation of the term. The term by-law or bye-law is made up c 
 word law, and the Danish by or bye, which means a town : the combi- 
 nation meaning, literally, a to.. - . Hence it signifies, generally, a 
 aaJ, or particular law, made by a corporation or other assoc: 
 ■.- = ulate such of their affairs as are not provided for by the general, 
 or constitutional law of the land. By-laws, therefore, confer no new 
 :s, but rather regulate the exercise of those already in existence. 
 For the form of a Constitution and By-Laws for a Debating Society, see 
 Section XIV. 
 
DKRAxmg societies. : 
 
 that vagueness, which, in so many minds, alw iya - 
 taehes to the idea of a Constitution. They lead 
 careful, often to a critical, consideration of those various 
 i actions and functions indicated, when we speak of 
 Constitutional, Legislative, Judicial, and Executive 
 powers. Many a man, profound!" versed in these 
 things, has been able to trace the first step toward 
 their acquisition to some casual controversy in a de- 
 bjr.iig s: .-irty. 
 
 Another sort of incidental information often im- 
 parted in the transactions of these societies, is that 
 which grows out of the necessity, so frequently arising, 
 of preparing, in written form, Resolutions, Hep 
 and other documents, which require ability, derivable 
 only from practice, for their prompt and proper execu- 
 tion. It is a mortifying thing, when asked to reduce 
 your Resolution to writing, or, as Chairman of a Com- 
 mittee, to bring in a written report, or, as Secretary of 
 a meeting, to produce a record of its transactions, to 
 be found tardy, awkward, blundering, or altogether 
 inadequate to that service. To those, in particular, 
 whose early education has been neglected, which is prob- 
 ably the :rh the great majority of persons com- 
 posing debating clubs, or literary societies, this highly 
 practical feature of their character ought to be specially 
 interesting. Not, as we havr I :-: : re said or intim:.: 
 that, in the transactions or Zr ases of thes : 
 tions, there will be found a fall and perfect sal ::ute 
 for academical training ; but that, with or without that 
 advantage, they offer such opportunities for the ac- 
 quisition of skill, in this regai san not well be 
 otherwise obtained. This kind of skill is sometimes 
 
62 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 invaluable. One can not lielp deploring the figure 
 made in the old Continental Congress, at its first ses- 
 sion, in 1774, even by such men as Kichard Henry 
 Lee, and Patrick Henry, one of whom has been pro- 
 nounced by high authority the Cicero, and the other 
 the Demosthenes, of America. M On the floor of the 
 house, and during the first days of the session, while 
 general grievances were the topic, they took the undis- 
 puted lead in the assembly, and were, confessedly, 
 primi inter pares. But, when called down from the 
 heights of declamation, to that severer test of intel- 
 lectual excellence, the details of business, they found 
 themselves in a body of cool-headed, reflecting, and 
 most able men, by whom they were, in their turn, 
 completely thrown into the shade. 
 
 61 A Petition to the king, an Address to the people 
 of Great Britain, and a Memorial to the people of 
 British America, w r ere agreed to be drawn. Mr. Lee, 
 Mr. Henry, and others, were appointed lor the first; 
 Mr. Lee, Mr. Livingston, and Mr. Jay, for the two 
 last. The splendor of their debut occasioned Mr. Hen- 
 ry to be designated by his committee to draw the pe- 
 tition to the king, with which they were charged ; and 
 Mr. Lee was charged with the address to the people of 
 England. The last was first reported. On reading it, 
 great disappointment was expressed on every counte- 
 nance, and a dead silence ensued for several minutes. 
 At length, it was laid on the table, for perusal and 
 consideration, till the next day ; when first one mem- 
 ber, and then another arose, and, paying some faint 
 compliment to the composition, observed that there 
 were still certain considerations not expressed, which 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 63 
 
 should properly find a place in it. The address was, 
 therefore, committed for amendment, and one prepared 
 by Mr. Jay, and offered by Governor Livingston, was 
 reported and adopted with scarcely an alteration. Mr. 
 Henry's draft of a petition to the king was equally 
 unsuccessful, and was recommitted for amendment. 
 Mr. John Dickinson (the author of the Farmer's Let- 
 ters) was added to the committee, and a new draft, 
 prepared by him, was adopted."* Surely the failure 
 of such men, under such circumstances, ought to be 
 instructive. It ought to impress upon every young 
 man that aims at eminence, however fair his talents as 
 a speaker, the necessity of laying a foundation, deep 
 and strong, in those qualifications which secured to 
 Jay and to Dickinson a glory offered in vain to men 
 who excelled them far in oratorical power. 
 
 4. Our fourth and last general consideration in favor 
 of debating associations, as a means of educational dis- 
 cipline, is, that they lead to a familiar acquaintance 
 with Parliamentary Law. This is a kind of education, 
 so to speak, far more valuable than many would ima- 
 gine. It fits one for usefulness, where, without such 
 fitting, all other qualifications are often comparatively 
 useless. It is a source of influence, where influence is 
 every thing ; a defense of the right, where often the 
 right has no other defense. It is a guarantee of order, 
 of decency, of dispatch, of free speech, and of fair de- 
 cisions. 
 
 The importance of this kind of knowledge will fur- 
 ther appear, if we duly regard the scene of its exercise. 
 There is not upon earth, perhaps, a more interesting 
 
 * Wirt's Life of Patrick Henry, sect. iv. 
 
64 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 spectacle than a dignified deliberative assembly. As 
 Homer's gods never appear more majestic than, 
 
 u "When Jove convened the Senate of the skies," 
 
 so men never seem in a sphere more elevated, than 
 when assembled, under the call of duty, for grave 
 and important consultation. They are then in the 
 formal exercise of those high moral and intellectual 
 faculties which are the peculiar endowment of the 
 race, and which form distinctly the lines of likeness 
 between man and his Maker. Not then, like the 
 beasts of the field, are they following the mere instincts 
 and appetites of physical nature; not then, regardless 
 of man's responsibility for man, are they wholly ab- 
 sorbed in schemes of personal advantage; not-then, a 
 frantic mob, are they acting in concert only to appall 
 the hearts of men with a sense of danger, but rather a 
 "multitude of counselors, in which there is safety." 
 Their proceedings, ever regarded with especial interest, 
 because they are the representatives of others, acquire, 
 at times, an overwhelming importance. If the subject 
 before them be great, if the occasion be inspiring, if 
 life, for example, if liberty, be suspended on the deci- 
 sion of the hour, if power, if peril, if clamor from 
 without, combine to stifle the voice of truth and justice, 
 if, in the face of all these, there appear a cool, unquail- 
 ing spirit of right, a fearless, forceful assertion of prin- 
 ciples, there arises at once a scene of moral sublimity, 
 not only awakening elevated emotion, but nerving the 
 arm for heroic achievement, and putting soul in sym- 
 pathy with soul for every good and every great under- 
 taking. 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 65 
 
 But to form a deliberative assembly, answering at 
 all to the model here indicated, or to any model likely 
 to find favor with wise and good men, the essential 
 element is order. Law that guides the heavenly bodies 
 in their courses, — law that shapes and directs the end- 
 less forms of being upon earth, — law that governs na- 
 tions, and churches, and families,— law whose "seat is 
 the bosom of God, her voice the harmony of the world," 
 is here, as everywhere else, the indispensable condition 
 of safety and success. Every member may be endowed 
 with the finest talents, furnished with every force and 
 with every facility of logic, supplied with ample stores 
 of general knowledge, skilled in all the graces of action 
 and utterance, in short, be the very beau ideal of the 
 perfect orator, and yet, if the body itself be not under the 
 guidance of some known and recognized rules of order, 
 they are, after all, like a ship at sea without chart, 
 compass, or rudder, a melancholy prey to the vicissi- 
 tudes of chance. It is not sufficient merely to have 
 rules. They must be known and observed ; not by 
 a few only, but by all. It will not do in a deliberative 
 assembly, as in the community at large, to leave the 
 knowledge and practice of the law to a particular class 
 of men only. Here, every man is, and must be, his 
 own lawyer. The law with which he deals, like all 
 other laws, has its advantages and its penalties ; and, 
 if he would secure the one, or avoid the other, he must 
 be familiar with its operation. It is not enough to 
 study the theory in Parliamentary Manuals, or to pon- 
 der precedents in particular cases. He must work him- 
 self into the practice. Then, when the exigency arises, 
 he will know how to avail himself of rules and usages, 
 
66 DEBATING- SOCIETIES. 
 
 and to parry the thrusts of quibbling opponents. Then, 
 when his personal rights and privileges are invaded, 
 when exposed to the assaults of indecorous opposition, 
 when partiality, caprice, or assumption of power not 
 granted, appears in the person of a presiding officer, 
 when tyrannical majorities overleap the limits of right, 
 when lawlessness, in any way whatever, dares to show 
 itself, he has at command every protection that can be 
 afforded by the law r s and usages appropriate to the 
 time, the place, and the circumstances. "Who that has 
 had experience in this direction, has not frequently felt 
 the want of such knowledge ? How often is the ablest 
 logician, the most eloquent speaker, through ignorance 
 of parliamentary tactics, quite thwarted and discon- 
 certed bv some wretched Thersites whose whole ambi- 
 tion is to find fault with his betters, or some scheming 
 tactician whose highest hope is to escape defeat, or se- 
 cure advantage, through dexterous resort to rules and 
 usages ! How often have the most important interests, 
 in legislative and other councils, been put in jeopardy, 
 ruinously delayed, or altogether cut off by want of skill 
 in parliamentary proceedings, where every member, 
 perhaps, intended nothing beyond the most open, 
 prompt, and honest performance of duty! 
 
 Every consideration, therefore, whether you regard 
 the dignity of the entire assembly, the rights and pri- 
 vilges of individual members, or the vast variety and 
 importance of the interests involved in their doings, 
 points plainly to the utility of a practical acquaintance 
 with those rules of order, that commonly prevail in de- 
 liberative bodies. Nor is it less a matter of duty than 
 a matter of utility. If this be so, if interest and duty 
 
DEBATING SOCIETIES. 67 
 
 really unite in urging it upon us, where shall we turn 
 for practice in this important line of action, if not to 
 some well-ordered debating association? In such a 
 body, may easily be learned, and many times repeated, 
 almost every form of proceeding within the wide range 
 of parliamentary usage. Here may be acquired, not 
 only that general expertness in the application of 
 known rules and customs, which is everywhere re- 
 quired for the easy, satisfactory transaction of business, 
 but even that tact and adroitness in the use of expe- 
 dients which is the fruit of long and various experience. 
 To secure this result it is only necessary to adopt some 
 recognized code of parliamentary law, to follow rigidly 
 its various provisions, and give them the widest possi- 
 ble range of application. Time will do the rest. 
 
 Such, in general, are the advantages promised by 
 well-conducted debating associations. One objection 
 only can be urged against them — their liability to 
 abuse.* Against this, where they are purely voluntary, 
 the surest guarantee must be found in the character of 
 those composing them. If they meet as a company of 
 carping, caviling critics, doubting and disputing, be- 
 cause they delight in doubting and disputing, and eager 
 
 ° "Where debating is recognized and required as one of the regular 
 exercises in a school, even this objection vanishes; for there the pres- 
 ence of the teacher secures it against abuse. In this case, instead of a 
 Debating Society, you have a Debating Class; the teacher, as a general 
 thing, acting as President. 
 
 It is strange that the capabilities of such a means of discipline should 
 so seldom be tested in our schools, seeing that inquiry is ever on tip- 
 toe, in these days, for new and more efficient modes of developing the 
 human intellect. The very fact that debate necessitates distinctness of 
 aim, and is always prosecuted with lively attention, ought to give it 
 prominence as an educational force. 
 
68 DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 to enjoy the pleasures of conquest, whether truth or 
 error prevail in the contest, the result will be answer- 
 able to the design. A spirit vain, conceited, skeptical, 
 and full of sophistry, must be the consequence. If they 
 meet with no higher purpose than that of beguiling a 
 weary hour, or courting the pleasure of controversial 
 excitement, the time, though it might be worse spent 
 elsewhere, is still lost, and worse than lost ; for it is 
 occupied ija forming pernicious mental habits. 
 
 But should a different spirit prevail, should they be 
 so fortunate as to perceive the rare possible advantage 
 of being thus associated, should they be so wise as to 
 pursue that advantage with becoming diligence, how 
 various, how valuable the rewards that must follow ! 
 What sharpening and strengthening of the mental 
 powers, what facility in speaking, what various infor- 
 mation, what improvement every way, may not rea- 
 sonably be expected?* 
 
 * The spirit here commended has sometimes, indeed, found splen- 
 did advantage, even where there was no club, and when the orator's 
 only auditors were " the horse and the ox " in open field. " I owe my 
 success in life," says Henry Clay, " to one single fact, namely, that, at 
 an early age, I commenced and continued for some years, the practice 
 of daily reading and speaking the contents of some historical or scien- 
 tific book. These off-hand efforts were sometimes made in a cornfield ; 
 at others, in the forest ; and not unfrequently in some distant barn, 
 with the horse and ox for my only auditors. It is to this early practice 
 of the art of all arts that I am indebted for the primary and leading im- 
 pulses that stimulated my progress, and have shaped and molded my 
 entire destiny." 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 1T7HEN" you come into the arena of discussion,* you 
 ' ' are presumed to know precisely the point in dis- 
 pute, the grounds of reasoning on both sides, and the 
 arguments deemed essential to a right decision. This 
 pre-supposes adequate preparation. 
 
 It presupposes such care in the wording of the 
 question, as to prevent any misconception of its mean- 
 ing ; since nothing is more prolific of vague and idle 
 disputation than imprecision in the use of language. 
 
 It presupposes such thoroughness, in the investiga- 
 tion of the subject, as to insure a fair estimate of all 
 the claims mooted in the contest, and such satisfac- 
 tion, in your own mind, as to justify you in asking 
 others to accept your conclusions. 
 
 It presupposes a careful survey of whatever, in your 
 
 * The derivation of this word points vividly to the process which 
 it is employed to indicate. The direct Latin form is Discussio ; which 
 (through discussum, Supine of discutio), is derived from dis, apart, and 
 quatio, to shake ; implying such a shaking, or sifting of a subject, as 
 best discloses its real character and relations. 
 
70 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 own defenses, appears to be weak or untenable; so 
 that you may be ready to ward off assault, and 
 strengthen your positions, as occasion may require. 
 
 It presupposes diligence in the endeavor to discern 
 beforehand all such sophistical objections as are likely 
 to be used against you: it being well known, that 
 sophistries unanswered, or lamely answered, have, with 
 many minds, all the effect due to the best of arguments. 
 
 It presupposes, in the event of your resorting to 
 authorities', such as history, geography, statistics, or 
 what not, the most scrupulous exactness in citation; 
 since any uncertainty or inaccuracy, in this regard, is 
 wholly incompatible with the idea of suitable prepara- 
 tion ; being likely, in fact, to endanger your cause, by 
 exposing you to the imputation of being apt to blun- 
 der, or disposed to deceive. 
 
 After a preparation such as that indicated in the 
 preceding paragraphs, you may venture with some 
 confidence to make the transition from the sphere of 
 Logic, of which the appropriate office is to aid you in 
 the discovery of truth, into that of Ehetoric, which is 
 chiefly occupied with the means of conveying it forcibly 
 to others. 
 
 Here the first step is to adapt yourself to your audi- 
 ence. They may be ignorant of the matter in dispute, 
 and so require to be instructed. They may be in 
 doubt, and, therefore, need additional light. They 
 may be sufficiently enlightened, but, after all, entertain 
 just the opposite opinion. In the first case, always, and 
 in the second, for the most part, there is obvious need 
 of proper Exposition. This should be clear, concise, 
 candid, and methodical. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 71 
 
 Clear exposition often gets ahead of logical deduc- 
 tion, and makes it comparatively needless. The dis- 
 putant thus virtually secures his point before he actu- 
 ally goes into the argument. Webster's clear, consist- 
 ent, truth-like statement of a case, often passed for ar- 
 gument in the minds of his hearers ; its very plainness 
 amounting to conviction. Such is the power of mere 
 perspicuity. 
 
 Conciseness, in exposition, is opposed to every kind 
 of superfluous statement. Exclude, therefore, every 
 thing not directly in the line of your argument, every 
 thing that does not serve to reveal its force and bearing, 
 in a way easily apparent to the common apprehension. 
 Even Burke, whose "arguments, in most instances," 
 says Prof. Goodrich, " consisted of the amplest enume- 
 ration, and the clearest display, of all the facts and 
 principles, the analogies, relations or tendencies, which 
 were applicable to the case," had, nevertheless, in the 
 judgment of the same high authority, this '-chief fault" 
 namely, " that of overloading his sentences with second- 
 ary thoughts, which weakened the blow by dividing 
 it." There are many things worthy of imitation in 
 that great man, but this is not one of them. 
 
 Candor, in the exposition of a case, not unfrequently 
 wields the force of actual demonstration. Open, frank, 
 ingenuous statement implies strength and confidence 
 in your positions. It operates insensibly upon the 
 hearer, putting him in sympathy with what appears to 
 be fair and honest, and so winning conviction by way 
 of faith. Make every concession, therefore, that facts 
 will allow, and always seem to be sincere. But, in 
 order to seem sincere, you must actually be so. Even 
 
72 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 the suspicion of insincerity is prejudicial, in the high- 
 est degree, if not absolutely fatal, to the influence of a 
 public speaker. 
 
 Method in statement, also, is a capital virtue. " What 
 is that," says Coleridge, " which first strikes us, and 
 strikes us at once, in a man of education ? and which, 
 among educated men, so distinguishes the man of su- 
 perior mind ? Not the weight or novelty of his re- 
 marks ; not any unusual interest of facts communicated 
 by him ; for we may suppose both the one and the 
 other precluded by the shortness of our intercourse, 
 and the triviality of the subjects. Still less will it 
 arise from any peculiarity in his words and phrases. 
 For, if he be, as we now assume, a weZZ-educated man, 
 as well as a man of superior powers, he will not fail to 
 follow the golden rule of Julius Caesar — Insolens verb- 
 wm, tanquam scopulum, evitare (avoid an unusual word 
 as a rock). There remains but one other point of dis- 
 tinction possible ; and this must be, and, in fact, is, the 
 true cause of the impression made on us. It is the 
 unpremeditated and evidently habitual arrangement of 
 his words, grounded on the habit of foreseeing, in each 
 integral part, or (more plainly) in every sentence, the 
 whole that he then intends to communicate. However 
 irregular and desultory his talk, there is method in the 
 fragments." 
 
 Now, what is here observed of the practice of an 
 educated man, in the construction of his sentences, 
 namely, his habit of foreseeing, in every sentence, just 
 how each word and clause is to be introduced so as to 
 secure a clear and orderly succession, is precisely what 
 should be observable in the component parts of every 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 73 
 
 argumentative statement. Having a definite purpose, 
 have likewise a definite plan. In otter words, have 
 Method ; which, says the same acute thinker, in another 
 place, " supposes a principle of Unity with a progression? 
 
 But, in every controversy, whatever may be done 
 by exposition, towards removing difficulties, there will 
 always remain, or must be presumed to remain, doubts 
 to be cleared away, and opposition to be satisfied, or, 
 at least, to be silenced. Hence the necessity of a 
 formal exhibition of proofs. 
 
 One preliminary there is, however, not a little impor- 
 tant, namely, the determining at the outset where lies 
 what is called the burden of proof Young debaters not 
 seldom miss very important advantages by not attend- 
 ing to this. "According to the most correct use of the 
 term," says Whately, "a presumption in favor of a 
 supposition, means, not (as has been erroneously im- 
 agined) a preponderance of antecedent probability in 
 its favor, but such a pre-occupation of the ground, as 
 implies that it must stand good till some sufficient 
 reason is adduced against it ; in short, that the burden 
 of proof lies on the side of him who w r ould dispute it." 
 
 The principle here involved is strictly conservative. 
 It presumes that what exists or prevails, that is, what 
 already occupies the ground, ought still to maintain 
 possession, till it is shown, by satisfactory evidence, 
 to be without right or title, or good claim of some 
 kind, to hold its place. He, therefore, that makes 
 allegation against anything which already exists under 
 the sanction of custom or opinion, is bound to make 
 good his charge by appeal to argument. Thus, the 
 veracity of a witness, the innocence of a prisoner, or 
 
 4 
 
74 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 the soundness of a system is, and of right ought to be, 
 assumed till the contrary is proved. To anticipate 
 assault, by undertaking to establish by proof, what 
 no one has undertaken to overthrow, is to own distrust, 
 and invite suspicion. It will often, indeed, greatly 
 abridge the labor of argument, to settle, at the start, 
 the side whereto belongs the burden of proof. 
 
 This point being duly settled, next comes the im- 
 portant matter of arranging your arguments to the 
 best advantage. This must be determined by a regard 
 to circumstances, and no little care should be taken 
 in so doing ; for the least reflection will show, what 
 has been well observed by a writer already quoted, 
 Ci that, with an equalitj 7 of forces, in numbers, courage, 
 and every other point, the manner in which they are 
 drawn up, so as either to afford mutual support, or, 
 on the other hand, even to impede and annoy each 
 other, may make the difference of victory or defeat." 
 
 A very common direction for the arrangement of 
 arguments, is to imitate Nestor in the arrangement of 
 his troops, whose plan was to put some of the best 
 first and last, and to place the rest in the middle. The 
 object of this, of course, is to begin and end with a 
 strong imoression. 
 
 Another direction is to begin with the weakest, then 
 take the next in the order of force, and close with the 
 strongest. This arrangement is thought to be best 
 suited to an audience disposed to. accept your conclu- 
 sions, but lacking the requisite measure of confirma- 
 tory evidence. 
 
 Another direction is to set out with an exhibition 
 of your best and strongest proofs, and bring in what 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 75 
 
 others you have, in the order of their relative force. 
 This is designed to meet the case of a class of hearers 
 strongly opposed to you. The effort is to command 
 assent at the outset. If it be thought necessary or 
 desirable to make a strong impression at the close, it 
 may be done by repeating your arguments in the 
 reverse order. 
 
 All the directions hitherto given, have respect to the 
 state of mind found, or supposed, in your audience. 
 But there is another principle of arrangement, which 
 cannot be overlooked without the most serious disad- 
 vantage. It is that which requires the arguments to 
 be arranged in the order of their dependence one upon 
 another. Sometimes an argument of great force de- 
 pends, for its full effect, upon something w T hich has 
 come out in the presentation of some previous proof. 
 Without the light of such previous explanation, it 
 would be almost powerless. The aim must be to find 
 the right place for every proof and every illustration, 
 so that the}' may each and all mutually aid in the 
 production of the desired result. 
 
 A direction for the arrangement of arguments, some- 
 times quite emphatically given, is to place them in the 
 most obvious and natural order. Now, the most ob- 
 vious and natural order is just that last suggested ; for 
 the order most obvious and natural, to a thinking 
 mind, would certainly seem to be that which best 
 preserves the dependence and connection of the sev- 
 eral parts. These two principles of arrangement, how- 
 ever, — that which regards the state of mind addressed, 
 and that which, respects the natural order of depend- 
 ence, — may often be judiciously combined. Where 
 
76 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 this is possible, it is, of course, preferable ; when it is 
 not, the latter method ought to prevail. 
 
 But whatever be the order adopted in the exhibition 
 of proofs, there will always be counter arguments to 
 be met and repelled. This gives rise to the necessity 
 of Refutation, an office often demanding in the debater, 
 the greatest possible readiness and address. We there- 
 fore introduce, at this point, some observations that 
 may serve as a guide to the youthful disputant, in the 
 detection and overthrow of fallacious objections. 
 
 Sometimes the whole force of an objection lies in 
 some misconception or mis-statement of facts. To point 
 out the error, in such case, is not only to work the 
 overthrow of the objection, but to weaken confidence 
 in the objector. This lends to what you say, there- 
 after, the charm of reliability, — no mean advantage in 
 addressing a popular assembly. 
 
 A fallacy very frequently encountered in the field 
 of controversy, is that which passes under the techni- 
 cal name of begging the question (petitio principii). It 
 consists in quietly assuming the very proposition to be 
 proved, as a premise in the argument which is offered 
 to prove it. Thus, to say that man is mortal, because 
 he is subject to death, is only to say that man is mor- 
 tal, because he is mortal : the proof, and the thing to 
 be proved, being here really identical. So a person 
 is represented as asking why opium induces sleep, 
 and as receiving for answer, because it is soporific. 
 Now, since soporific means sleep-producing, the answer, 
 in substance, stands thus : — Opium is sleep-producing, 
 because it is sleep-producing. In instances such as 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 77 
 
 these, the fallacy is easily detected ; but it sometimes 
 assumes forms far more likely to deceive. 
 
 Near akin to this is another fallacious mode of 
 arguing, called arguing in a circle, or the vicious circle. 
 Thus, — " These facts," says one, "are authentic, since 
 they are found in the narrative, and, therefore, is the 
 narrative itself authentic." Here the facts are declared 
 authentic, because recorded in the narrative, and the 
 narrative authentic, because it records the facts. The 
 vice of the reasoning consists in making two proposi- 
 tions reciprocally prove each other. When the circle 
 is large, so that many propositions or statements inter- 
 vene between the two things thus reciprocally proved, 
 there is often no little difficulty in detecting and ex- 
 posing the fallacy. Thus, one proceeds to prove A 
 by B, and then B by C, and C by D, and closes, per- 
 haps, by proving D by A. 
 
 Another kind of fallacy, not uncommon, is that 
 which grows out of a misapprehension of the question 
 in dispute, or a purposed departure from it. Thus, if 
 one should undertake to prove that a man must be 
 learned, because he founds a college, or must be pious, 
 because he builds a church, he would proceed upon a 
 total misapprehension of the point to be proved, or a 
 clear design to alter it ; for what necessary connection 
 is there between founding a college, and being a 
 scholar, or between building a church, and being a 
 Christian ? The remedy against this kind of sophis- 
 try, is to restate the point, and fix the mind of the 
 hearer steadily upon it. Mr. "Webster, in his famous 
 reply to Hayne, adopts this course in the very outset 
 of his speech. The passage runs thus : — 
 
78 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 "Mr. President: — When the mariner lias been 
 tossed for many days in thick weather, and on an un- 
 known sea, he naturally avails himself of the first 
 pause in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to 
 take his latitude, and ascertain how far the elements 
 have driven him from his true course. Let us imitate 
 this prudence, and before we float farther on the 
 waves of this debate, refer to the point from which 
 we departed, that we may at least be able to conjec- 
 ture where we now are. I ask for the reading of the 
 Resolution." 
 
 Another sort of sophistry, frequently met with, 
 consists in undertaking to determine the general na- 
 ture or character of a thing ; from some accidental 
 circumstance connected with it, or arising from it. 
 Thus, for instance, religion has sometimes been con- 
 demned, because it has sometimes been made a cloak 
 for fraud. This is arguing against a thing, because 
 of some abuse of it ; a very common fallacy among 
 ignorant people. 
 
 Another form of fallacy in argument, is found in 
 the act of assigning, as the cause of an event, or trans- 
 action, something which has, in reality, no perceivable 
 influence upon it, or connection with it whatever. 
 This was the fallacy under which labored the friends 
 of Job, who took it for granted that his calamities 
 were the result of some secret wickedness in him. It 
 is the fallacy of those who undertake to impose on the 
 world, by pretending to some supernatural power, or 
 intercourse with supernatural beings. 
 
 Fallacies often escape detection, because they are 
 buried in a heap of words : the very purpose of the 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 79 
 
 disputant being to prolong discussion, or the form of 
 discussion, in order to conceal the underlying sophism. 
 Not un frequently is sophistry made to pass undetected 
 through the medium of some equivocal word, or 
 phrase, and even to achieve its full purpose in sway- 
 ing the decisions of an assembly, before the artifice is 
 discovered. The only safeguard against these, as 
 against all shapes and phases of sophistical reasoning, 
 is to be habitually on the look out for the stealthy 
 approaches of error. 
 
 In respect to the proper place for refutation, it is 
 obvious that this, like the question of arrangement in 
 the presentation of arguments, must be decided by 
 reference to the circumstances of the case. If very 
 strong objections have been urged by }~our adversary, 
 and these are found to have weight, at the time, with 
 your audience, it is plainly best to begin by answering 
 them ; for, unless this is done, your own arguments 
 will be likely to be heard with prejudice throughout, 
 and, perhaps, with the impression that you purposely 
 overlook them, because they are too much for your 
 strength. If a full refutation of an objection cannot 
 be given till after some argument or exposition, which 
 you propose subsequently to present, announce this 
 fact, and promise to meet it in the proper place." In- 
 deed, unless, as before observed, some strong objec- 
 
 * The passing over of an objection, with the promise to refute it, at 
 some later point in the course of the discussion, is sometimes most 
 unworthily resorted to, as an expedient to delay, and, finally, to avoid 
 altogether, the answer to a well-founded objection. It is presumed, 
 in the direction in the text, that the debater, being an honest disputant, 
 will not fail, either to fulfil his promise, or confess his inability. 
 
80 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 tions are weighing upon the minds of your hearers, 
 and so preventing you from a fair hearing, it will, in 
 general, be best to bring up and refute objections 
 in the midst of other arguments. If, however, to- 
 wards the close, you anticipate certain objections 
 likely to spring up, it may be wise and politic to state 
 and confute them, before you resume your seat. 
 
 Here it seems proper to add, that there is no better 
 test of character, in a debater, than that which is 
 afforded by the effort at refutation. The chivalrous 
 knight, in feudal times, was no less distinguished for 
 honor towards his foe, than for valor. Even to the 
 vanquished, he showed the most delicate attentions. 
 The same spirit animates and ennobles the good de- 
 bater. He scorns the meanness, that substitutes per- 
 sonalities for arguments. He scorns the artifice, that 
 secures a temporary triumph, by perverting the senti- 
 ments of an adversary. No vain ambition tempts him 
 to take advantage of opportunities to suppress, to 
 mutilate, obscure, or otherwise misrepresent another 
 in debate. He is above the refinement of cruelty, that 
 indulges in expressions of wonder that an opponent, 
 already conquered, should ever have been so silly, or 
 so ignorant, as to hold the opinions overthrown. He 
 affects not to disdain objections which he has no power 
 to answer ; nor does he treat with contempt, even those 
 clearly within his. ability to refute. In short, he is a 
 gentleman. 
 
 When, therefore, you meet an honorable man in 
 debate, count it cause of gratitude, and join issue with 
 him in a spirit like his own. If you challenge discus- 
 sion, do it in the sincere desire to elicit truth, and let 
 
MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 81 
 
 this, your desire, be obvious from your manner. Hear 
 opposition without impatience. Give ample scope for 
 explanation. Lose sight of yourself, — lose sight of 
 your opponent, in the earnest pursuit of your subject. 
 Notice what he says, not what he is. The conquest 
 which you seek, is not over your neighbor, but over 
 his error. Lay your arguments side by side with his, 
 so fairly, so patiently, so courteously, that truth may 
 appear from the comparison, without bringing pain to 
 the feelings, but rather the pleasure that comes of 
 error revealed and repelled. Such a course will, at 
 least, engage every one in your favor, as a man, what- 
 ever may be thought of the weight and conclusiveness 
 of your arguments. 
 
 Having touched upon most other things that are 
 required for the judicious conduct of a public discus- 
 sion, some notice ought to be taken, it would seem, 
 of what is called the Exordium, and the Peroration. 
 Yet of these it is difficult to say anything likely to be 
 very advantageous ; since circumstances alone can 
 determine, in any given case, what would be appro- 
 priate, either for an introduction, or a close. Here, 
 the speaker, if well prepared in other respects, is best 
 left to his own judgment, and taste, and tact. 
 
 It may, indeed, be suggested in a general way, that 
 the opening should aim to make clear the path of dis- 
 cussion, by removing obstacles, in the shape of igno- 
 rance, prejudice, or indifference; and that it should 
 be adapted to conciliate the favor of the audience, and 
 so win for the speaker a willing attention. In like 
 manner, we may suggest the propriety of judicious 
 
 recapitulation at the close, so as to revive, if necessary, 
 
 4* 
 
82 MANAGEMENT OF A QUESTION. 
 
 the trains of reasoning chiefly relied upon for a de- 
 cision ; as also the occasional expediency of resorting 
 to pathos, in order to second the efforts of reason, by 
 timely appeals to the emotional nature. All this, and 
 more than this, we might urge, or commend ; but all 
 this, and more than this, will occur, at once, to every- 
 one otherwise fitted to figure well in open and formal 
 controversy.* 
 
 * It may serve further to impress the counsels contained in a part of this chap- 
 ter, to quote here Mr. Wirt's fine retort upon Wickham, in the famous trial of 
 Aaron Burr : — 
 
 " I will," says Mr. Wirt, " endeavor to meet the gentleman's propositions in 
 their full force, and to answer them fairly. I will not, as I am advancing towards 
 them, with my mind's eye, measure the hight, hreadth, and power of the proposi- 
 tion ; if I find it beyond my strength, halve it ; if still beyond my strength, quar- 
 ter it; if still necessary, subdivide it into eighths ; and when, by this process, I 
 have reduced it to the proper standard, take one of these sections and toss it with 
 an air of elephantine strength and superiority. If I find myself capable of con- 
 ducting, by a fair course of reasoning, any one of his propositions to an absurd 
 conclusion, I will not begin by stating that absurd conclusion as the proposition 
 itself which I am going to encounter. 
 
 " I will not, in commenting on the gentleman's authorities, thank the gentleman, 
 with sarcastic politeness, for introducing them, declare that they conclude directly 
 against him, readjust so much of the authority as serves the purpose of that de- 
 claration, omitting that which contains the true point of the case, which makes 
 against me ; nor, if forced by a direct call, to read that part, also, will I content 
 myself by running over it as rapidly and inarticulately as I can, throw down the 
 book with a theatrical air, and exclaim, — ' Just as I said I' when I know it is just 
 as I had not said. 
 
 " I know that, by adopting these arts, I might raise a laugh at the gentleman's 
 expense ; but I should be very little pleased with myself, if I were capable of en- 
 joying a laugh procured by such means. I know, too, that by adopting such arts, 
 there will always be those standing around us, who have not comprehended the 
 whole merits of the legal discussion, with whom I might shake the character of 
 the gentleman's science and judgment, as a lawyer. I hope I shall never be capa- 
 ble of such a wish ; and I had hoped that the gentleman himself felt so strongly 
 that proud, that high, aspiring, and ennobling magnanimity, which I had been told 
 conscious talents rarely fail to inspire, that he would have disdained a poor and 
 fleeting triumph, gained by means like these." 
 
SECTION VI. 
 
 RULES OF ORDER m DELIBERATIVE ASSEMBLIES* 
 
 PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 1. WJiat is a deliberative assembly ? 
 
 A deliberative assembly is an organized meeting of 
 persons convened to discuss, and decide upon, ques- 
 tions or propositions submitted to their consideration. 
 
 2. What is meant by an organized meeting ? 
 
 To organize is to form, or supply with, the proper 
 organs, — that is, with the proper means or instruments 
 of action. When applied to an assemblage of persons 
 brought together for deliberation, it signifies to provide 
 
 * In this part of the subject, we have adopted the mode of question 
 and answer. This has been done, partly, because it seemed more likely 
 to elicit attention, and, partly, because, where the work is employed 
 as a text-book, such an arrangement can hardly fail to prove highly 
 convenient and useful. 
 
 Those who may wish merely to refer to particular points, in this or 
 any other part of the book, will be able readily to reach their object, 
 by means of the Index at the end, which has been made, expressly for 
 that purpose, very full and minute. 
 
84 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 with suitable officers, and otherwise so to arrange as to 
 give each member a fair opportunity to take due part 
 in the proceedings. 
 
 3. What officers are necessary for a deliberative as- 
 sembly ? 
 
 The officers necessary for a deliberative body are a 
 Presiding Officer* and a Secretary or Clerk; but others 
 may be appointed, according to the exigencies of the 
 occasion, or the special nature of the organization. 
 Thus, there may be one or more Vice-Presidents, one 
 or more additional Secretaries, a Corresponding Secre- 
 tary and a Treasurer. 
 
 4. Are the proceedings, in a deliberative assembly, con- 
 ducted in accordance with any particular rules ? 
 
 All business in deliberative bodies is transacted in 
 conformity with certain rules and regulations, which 
 experience has shown to be fit and necessary for that 
 purpose. These are called Eules of Order. 
 
 5. What is the particular advantage of rules of order? 
 
 The object of a meeting for deliberation is, of course, 
 to obtain a free expression of opinion, and a fair de- 
 cision of the questions discussed. Without rules of 
 
 * The presiding officer in a deliberative body is variously denomi- 
 nated. In the Senate of the United States, he is the President ; in 
 the House of Representatives, he is the Speaker; in certain ecclesiasti- 
 cal organizations, he is the Moderator ; in ordinary meetings, resulting 
 from a published call, he is styled the Chairman. President is the 
 name most comprehensive, and the one most commonly employed in 
 literary and other societies, in Boards of Managers, and in other simi- 
 lar organizations. 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 85 
 
 order, this object would, in most cases, be utterly de- 
 feated ; for there would be no uniformity in the modes 
 of proceeding, no restraint upon indecorous or disor- 
 derly conduct, no protection to the rights and privi- 
 leges of members, no guarantee against the caprices 
 and usurpations of a presiding officer, no safeguard 
 against tyrannical majorities, nor any suitable regard 
 to the rights of a minority. 
 
 6. Are the rules of order alike in all deliberative as- 
 semblies t 
 
 The rules of order in our National Congress are es- 
 sentially the same as those in force in the British Par- 
 liament; being, in fact, mainly derived from that 
 source. There are, however, important differences; 
 growing chiefly out of differences in government and 
 institutions. 
 
 The rules of order in our State Legislatures are sub- 
 stantially the same as those adopted in the National 
 Congress ; being, indeed, founded thereupon. But, as 
 the rules in use in Congress differ, in some respects, 
 from those established in Parliament, so those in the 
 several State Legislatures differ, in some particulars, 
 from those adopted in Congress. 
 
 And again, as the rules in the several State Legis- 
 latures differ, in some points, from those in Congress, 
 on which they were founded, so do they differ not 
 ^infrequently from one another; though in all the 
 essentials of the common code, they are quite in har- 
 mony. 
 
 The rules of order in most other deliberative bodies 
 in this country, are, in the main, the same with those 
 
86 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 in the National Congress or in the State Legislatures ; 
 so that, in almost all fundamental points, there is great 
 uniformity of practice. Hence, in allusion to the origin 
 of the code of rules and regulations, thus generally 
 established, it is often called the common code of 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 7. Is it customary , in deliberative bodies, to adopt rules 
 other than those embraced in this common code ? 
 
 It is not unusual for deliberative bodies of every 
 kind, especially permanent organizations, to adopt, in 
 addition to the common code, a series of special rules. 
 These special rules, if, in any particular, they conflict 
 with the ordinary parliamentary laws, always, so far as 
 the body that adopts them is concerned, take the pre- 
 cedence. Where there is no special rule, there, of 
 course, the common law is to be enforced. 
 
 8. In what form are the acts of a deliberative assembly 
 usually expressed ? 
 
 The decisions or resolves of a deliberative assembly, 
 which properly constitute their acts, are usually em- 
 bodied and affirmed in formal declarations, called 
 Resolutions. 
 
 These Resolutions are, on motion, duly seconded, and 
 stated from the chair, first freely discussed, and then 
 decided affirmatively or negatively by the meeting. 
 
 9. What is meant by the phrase ll on motion, duly 
 seconded n f 
 
 "Whenever a member wishes to get the sense, or judg- 
 ment of the body on any given proposition, and, for 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 87 
 
 that purpose, moves, or proposes its adoption, lie is 
 said to make a motion. 
 
 To move a resolution, therefore, is simply to offer it 
 for consideration. But it can never be entertained by 
 the meeting, unless it so far finds favor, that some 
 member other than the proposer gives it his sanction, 
 by becoming his second. 
 
 To second a motion, then, is to join with the pro- 
 poser thereof, as his aid or second, in offering it to the 
 consideration of the meeting. The party moving the 
 resolution introduces it, with or without previous re- 
 marks, by saying : " Mr. President, I beg leave to offer 
 the following Resolution ;" which, he then reads aloud. 
 The party seconding simply says: "I second the 
 motion." 
 
 10. Are not the words "motion" and "resolution" often 
 convertible terms ? 
 
 Motion, literally means the act of moving ; resolution, 
 the act of resolving ; but these words, like all others of 
 the same formation, may signify, respectively, either 
 the act of moving or that which is moved, the act of 
 resolving or that which is resolved. Hence, since that 
 which is moved, or proposed, in a deliberative body, 
 ofcen proves identical with that which is resolved, the 
 two words, Motion and Resolution, are often employed 
 as convertible terms. 
 
 A motion, therefore, in strictness, is a mere proposal 
 to the body, that something be done, or ordered to be 
 done. Every matter of business, in a deliberative as- 
 sembly, should be introduced by means of a motion. 
 When adopted by the body, it becomes an order, or 
 
88 RULES OF OKDEE. 
 
 resolution, or law, or whatever else may be its appro- 
 priate name, 
 
 11. In what way or ways are decisions commonly made 
 in a deliberative assembly? 
 
 The decisions in a deliberative assembly are com- 
 monly made by open vote ; often, also, by ballot. 
 
 There is also another mode of taking the question, 
 which is called, taking the question by yeas and nays. 
 
 12. What is the difference between a vote and a ballot? 
 
 Vote, literally means a vow, wish or will. It is, 
 therefore, properly used to signify the choice, or pref- 
 erence, which one may have along with others, in re- 
 lation to matters submitted for decision, or persons pro- 
 posed for office. This choice, or preference may be 
 signified in different ways. It may be made viva voce 
 (with the living voice) ; it may be made by raising the 
 hand ; and, besides various other ways, by ballot. 
 
 Ballot, primarily, signifies a little ball; and to vote 
 by ballot is, property, to signify one's choice by throw- 
 ing into a box, urn, or other receptacle, a ball so colored, 
 or otherwise marked, as to indicate an affirmative or 
 negative vote. Instead of ballots, however, tickets, as 
 being more convenient, are now generally used, though 
 the process is still called by the same name. 
 
 13. What proportion of the votes given in any case, is 
 necessary to determine a question ? 
 
 The number of votes necessary to determine a ques- 
 tion, where there is no special rule to the contrary, is 
 always a majority. But, in certain cases, other pro- 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 89 
 
 portions are required, as two-thirds or three-fourths ; 
 or, as is sometimes the case, a mere plurality. 
 
 14. What difference, in speaking of the result of a 
 vote or election, is there betiveen the terms majority and 
 plurality f 
 
 The greater of two unequal portions of any total is 
 called the majority. But the word is sometimes em- 
 ployed to denote the greatest of any number of unequal 
 parts into which the whole may be divided : the term 
 being still accurately employed, since the comparison, 
 in that case, really lies between two parts only, namely, 
 the highest number and the next to the highest. 
 
 For the sake of ready distinction, however, the 
 greater only of two unequal divisions of any total is 
 called a majority ; while the greatest of any number 
 more than two, of such divisions, is termed & plurality. 
 Thus, if 20 be divided into the two unequal parts, 15 
 and 5, 15 will be the majority. Divide the same num- 
 ber into the three parts, 10, 7, and 3, and 10 will be a 
 plurality. 
 
 (a.) In the election of persons to office, which principle 
 of decision is adopted, that of a majority, or that of plu- 
 rality? 
 
 Sometimes the one, and sometimes the other. Where 
 the principle of plurality is adopted, the candidate 
 having the highest number of votes is, of course, 
 elected. And where several persons are to be chosen 
 at the same time, for the same office, those having 
 respectively the highest number of votes, are duly 
 elected. Thus, if three individuals are to be elected 
 
90 EULES OF ORDER. 
 
 Trustees of a Corporation, and five candidates in the 
 field receive respectively 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 votes, 
 the last three are held to be elected. Where the prin- 
 ciple of a majority is employed, the successful candi- 
 date must have a majority of all the votes cast, that is, 
 he must have more votes than all the rest of the can- 
 didates put together. 
 
 (b) Suppose, under the plurality principle, two or more 
 candidates for the same office have not only the highest 
 number of votes, in respect to the rest of the candidates, 
 but an equal number in respect to each other? 
 
 When two or more persons have an equal number 
 of votes for the same office, where one person only is 
 to be elected, there is no election, and a new trial must 
 be had. This is the rule, unless, as is provided in 
 some places, the returning officers, or some other tri- 
 bunal, is empowered to decide between the rival can- 
 didates. * 
 
 (c.) Suppose, under the 'majority principle, the total of 
 votes cast is an even number, what is to be done ? 
 
 Every person, elected under the majority princi- 
 ple, must receive, as before said, a number of votes 
 equal to the greater of the two nearest unequal num- 
 bers into which the total can be divided. But, if the 
 
 * " In connection with this subject," says Cushing, "it may be ob- 
 served, that, where there are but two sides to a question, — as, for ex- 
 ample, where a proposition is made in a deliberative assembly, and 
 the members vote for or against it,— or where a particular person is 
 nominated for office, and the electors vote for or against him, — or where 
 an election of one out of two given persons is to be made, — in all these 
 cases, the majority and plurality are one and the same thing." 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 91 
 
 total is an even number, its half increased by one, is 
 the number necessary to a choice. Thus, if the whole 
 number be 15, the number that elects, is 8 ; if the 
 whole number be 16, the number that elects, is 8 in- 
 creased by 1, that is, 9. 
 
 15. Must a motion submitted for tlic decision of a delib- 
 erative assembly, be oral or written ? 
 
 Every motion calling for special care and delibera- 
 tion, that is, all important motions, should be in writ- 
 ing ; but motions merely affecting the order of busi- 
 ness, or other subordinate matters, are usually oral. 
 
 16. What differences in meaning or application, if any, 
 are found to obtain among the words " Voted" " Ordered" 
 and " Resolved" when placed at the beginning of proposi- 
 tions adopted by deliberate assemblies ? 
 
 Whatever proposition has been duly adopted by a 
 deliberative assembly, thereby becomes the vote, order, 
 or resolution of that assembly. The terms " Voted," 
 " Ordered," and " Resolved," therefore, are in so far 
 synonymous, as they all properly indicate what has 
 been done or decided upon. 
 
 " Resolved," however, is the term most generally 
 used : " Voted" being employed, it is said, chiefly in 
 the Eastern States, while " Ordered" is confined main- 
 ly to religious organizations.* 
 
 * Hatsell (quoted in Jefferson's Manual, section xxi.) says • — 
 When the House commands, it is " an order." But facts, princi- 
 ples, their own opinions and purposes, are expressed in the form of 
 resolutions. 
 
92 BULES OF ORDER. 
 
 17. Why and when is a proposition before a deliberative 
 body called a question ? 
 
 When, after due deliberation, a motion comes to bo 
 put to vote, that is, when the question of its acceptance 
 or rejection is directly submitted to the assembly, it is, 
 then and for that reason, called the question. 
 
 18. What form is observed in submitting a question ? 
 
 "When the debate, or deliberation upon a subject ap- 
 pears to be at a close, the presiding officer simply 
 asks : " Is the assembly ready for the question ?" 
 
 If no one signifies a desire further to discuss or con- 
 sider the subject, he then proceeds to submit the ques- 
 tion thus : "As many as are in favor of the adoption of 
 the Resolution, will signify it by saying { Aye P n Then, 
 pausing a moment to hear the response, he adds : 
 " Those of the contrary opinion will say L No P " 
 
 The answer on both sides being duly given, the 
 President announces the result; saying, " The ayes have 
 it" or " The noes have it" according as he finds the one 
 or the other side in the majority. 
 
 Should there seem to be any doubt about the result, 
 the President should say : " The ayes appear to have 
 it." If then no dissatisfaction is manifested, or no di- 
 vision called for, he adds : " The ayes have it." 
 
 19. Suppose, after the vote is given, the president is un- 
 able to decide, or after he has announced the result, his de* 
 cision is questioned, what should be done ? 
 
 Should the president, after putting the question, (if 
 necessary a second time,) still be unable to decide, oi 
 should his decision, when announced, he brought into 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 93 
 
 question by a member rising in his place, and calling 
 for a division of the house, his duty is immediately to 
 so divide, or arrange the assembly as to allow the 
 votes on each side to be accurately counted. 
 
 This may be done by directing the ayes and the 
 noes respectively to take different sides of the room ; 
 or by first requesting the ayes to stand up in their 
 places long enough to be numbered, and then calling 
 upon the noes to do the same thing ; or by asking the 
 ayes each to raise the right hand, and as soon as those 
 have been counted, inviting the noes to signify their 
 will in the like manner. 
 
 Whatever method be adopted, the President is to 
 count, or appoint tellers to count, the votes on each 
 side respectively, and announce the true result to the 
 assembly. 
 
 20. Suppose the members are equally divided, what fol- 
 lows ? 
 
 If, on any question, the members are equally divid- 
 ed, the President must give the casting, or determining 
 vote. 
 
 21. Has any member a right to refrain from voting f 
 Every member present at the time when a question 
 
 is duly submitted to the assembly for decision, is 
 bound to give his vote for, or against the pending 
 proposition.* 
 
 22. What is meant by taking a question by the yeas 
 and nays t 
 
 It is sometimes thought proper to record the names 
 
 * In some deliberative bodies, members are excused at their own 
 request from voting ; but this is clearly against duty in the case. 
 
94 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 of members in connection with the votes they give for 
 or against a proposition. In order to this, the ques 
 tion is thus stated : " As many as are in favor of the res 
 olution (or whatever it is) will, as their names are called, 
 answer { Yes ;' and as many as are opposed to it, will an- 
 swer l No* " 
 
 The roll is then called by the Clerk, or Secretary, and 
 as each member answers yes, or no, the answer is noted 
 or marked opposite his name ; and, to afford opportu- 
 nity for the correction of mistakes, if any, the names 
 of the voters on each side are again read over, and 
 then the result is formally declared by the President. 
 This is what is called taking a vote by yeas and 
 nays.* 
 
 * The method of taking the yeas and nays in the House of Rep- 
 resentatives in the State of Massachusetts, as described by Mr. Crush- 
 ing, is so simple and so satisfactory, as to commend itself to every one. 
 " The names of the members," says he, " being printed on a sheet, 
 the clerk calls them in their order ; and, as each one answers, the 
 clerk (responding to the member at the same time) places a figure 
 in pencil, expressing the number of the answer, at the left or right 
 of the name, according as the answer is yes or no ; so that the last 
 figure or number, on each side, shows the number of the answers on 
 that side ; and the two last numbers or figures represent the re- 
 spective numbers of the affirmatives and negatives on the division. 
 Thus, at the left hand of the name of the member who first answers 
 yes, the clerk places a figure 1 ; at the right hand of the first mem- 
 ber who answers no, he also places a figure 1 ; the second member 
 that answers yes is marked 2 ; and so on to the end of the list ; the 
 side of the name, on which the figure is placed, denoting whether 
 the answer is yes or no, and the figure denoting the number of the 
 answer on that side. The affirmatives and negatives are then read 
 separately, if necessary, though this is usually omitted, and the 
 clerk is then prepared, by means of the last figure on each side, 
 to give the numbers to the Speaker to be announced to the 
 House." 
 
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 95 
 
 28. Is it in order to re-open the discussion after the wt- 
 ing upon it has been commenced ? 
 
 A debatable question is always open for discussion 
 in the assembly, both in the negative and the affirma- 
 tive. And unless, therefore, the vote is taken by the 
 yeas and nays, in which case both side? of the ques- 
 tion are voted upon simultaneously, it is always in or- 
 der, even after the affirmative has been put, to renew 
 the debate. 
 
 24. How can it affect the result to renew the discussion, 
 seeing that one side has already voted ? 
 
 In case of a renewal of the debate after the affirma- 
 tive has been put, the question, when again submitted, 
 must be put both in the affirmative and the negative ; 
 for the new discussion may have brought new light, 
 and, besides, members not present before may have 
 since entered, and so long as the question remains un- 
 der debate, every one has a right to a vote one way or 
 the other, as he pleases. 
 
 25. Suppose a difficulty arises during a division on 
 some point of order \ as, for example, whether a member 
 has a right to vote, how is the matter to be disposed of? 
 
 Should any difficulty on a point of order arise dur- 
 ing a division, the President is to dispose of it by a 
 peremptory decision ; such decision, if improper, be- 
 ing afterwards subject to censure or correction.* 
 
 * He sometimes, however, in such cases, avails himself of the ad- 
 vice of experienced members ; they keeping their seats to avoid 
 the appearance of debate. But all this is at the pleasure of the 
 President ; otherwise the decision might be protracted beyond all 
 reasonable bounds. See Jef. Manual, sec. xii., and Cushing, p. 131. 
 
96 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 26. ^? white a decision is going on, the number vf mem- 
 bers present falls belovj that required for a quorum, does 
 that hinder the decision of the question ? 
 
 If, on a division, the result of the count shows that 
 the whole number of votes is not equal to that requir- 
 ed for a quorum, no decision can be had. In that 
 event the matter to be decided, remains just as it was 
 before the decision was ordered or undertaken, and 
 when resumed must be continued from that point, or 
 stage of progress. 
 
 MODE OF ORGANIZING. 
 
 27. What is the proper mode of organizing a meeting? 
 
 The usual mode of organizing a meeting is for some 
 one,* at the time appointed, to request the attention 
 of the assembly present, and after suggesting the pro- 
 priety of appointing a president, solicit nominations 
 for that office. The nominations being made, he moves 
 that the person first nominated be requested to preside 
 over the deliberations of the meeting. If that be sec- 
 onded, he says : " Those in favor of this motion wiH 
 please signify it by saying l Aye V " The response to 
 this being given, he adds: " Those opposed to the motion 
 will please say l No V " 
 
 If the question be decided in the affirmative, f the 
 
 * If the meeting has been convened by a public call, or advertise 
 ment, it seems most proper that one of the persons signing the call 
 should commence business by either nominating a person to preside, 
 or soliciting nominations from the assembly. A call for a public 
 meeting should always state clearly the object had in view, and be 
 signed by the parties most prominent in originating it. 
 
 \ If, however, the question be negative I, another nomination is, 
 
MODE OF ORGANIZING. 97 
 
 person so elected immediately takes the chair, and pro- 
 ceeds to complete the organization, by requesting the 
 members to nominate a suitable person for the office of 
 Secretary, as also persons for such other offices as may 
 be deemed necessary or expedient. 
 
 28. Would it be in order to organize temporarily, for 
 the purpose of effecting a permanent organization? 
 
 It would not only be in order, but it is also some- 
 times very desirable to effect a temporary organiza- 
 tion, for the express purpose of obtaining a judicious 
 selection of officers. This is especially the case where 
 the meeting is composed of persons from different and 
 distant parts of the country, and who may not, conse- 
 quently, be personally known to one another. 
 
 The mode of appointing a chairman and other offi- 
 cers pro tern. j is the same as that described (in answer to 
 question 27) for the appointment of permanent officers. 
 
 29 In what way does the meeting, thus temporarily 
 organized, proceed to select suitable officers ? 
 
 It is customary, and, perhaps, always best, to refer 
 the matter to a committee. The committee, in such 
 case, should retire immediately, examine the claims of 
 the several persons apparently suitable for the places 
 to be filled, and, with all convenient dispatch, report a 
 list of candidates to the meeting.* 
 
 30. Suppose it should be the will of a meeting, called for 
 
 of course, requested, and acted upon as before; and this process is 
 repeated, if necessary, til a president is chosen. 
 
 * For the mode of presenting and receiving the Report of a Com- 
 mittee, see page 160. 
 
 5 
 
98 EULES OF OKDER. 
 
 a temporary purpose, to form itself into a regular society, 
 
 what form should he observed in so doing ? 
 
 A meeting, or convention convoked for a temporary 
 object, may be converted into a permanent organiza- 
 tion, by passing a resolution to that effect, and provid- 
 ing, also, by resolution, for the appointment of a com- 
 mittee to draft and report a constitution for the pro- 
 posed society. The constitution, when duly accepted 
 and adopted, should be signed by all the persons adopt- 
 ing it, and should fix the conditions, on which other 
 persons might afterwards be admitted to membership. 
 
 DUTIES OF OFFICERS AXD MEMBERS. 
 
 31. What are the duties of the President f 
 The ordinary duties of the President are the following: 
 (1.) To preside impartially over the deliberations of 
 the assembly, — to enforce the rules of order in the 
 transaction of business, — to be kind and courteous 
 himself, and to maintain due decorum among the 
 members, — to give information, when necessary, on 
 points of order, and, in cases of dispute, to decide 
 upon questions of Parliamentary practice : 
 
 (2.) To receive and duly announce all messages and 
 communications for the assembly, — to insist upon a 
 strict observance of the order of business, — to submit, 
 in an orderly way, all proper motions, propositions or 
 petitions made by members, — to see that each member 
 has his just rights and privileges in debate, — to put to 
 vote all questions that have been properly brought for- 
 ward for discussion and decision, and officially make 
 known the result. 
 
DUTIES OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS. 99 
 
 (S.) To appoint by name, when so directed or re- 
 quired, the members that are to serve on committees, — 
 to take measures, as far as may be, that such commit- 
 tees discharge efficiently the duties incumbent upon 
 them ; and at all meetings, whether stated or special, 
 to call for their Keports, if due, and see that these are, 
 in proper form, presented to the meeting : 
 
 (4.) To see, that the several other officers properly 
 discharge the duties assigned to them, — that the requi- 
 sitions of the Constitution and By-Laws be fully com- 
 plied with, — that the instructions of the society on 
 every occasion be rightly carried out, — that its acts 
 and proceedings, when necessary, be duly authenti- 
 cated by his signature; and, in short, that the true 
 aims of the organization never be frustrated, either by 
 his own, or the negligence of others. 
 
 32. What is the duty of a Vice-President? 
 
 The duty of the Vice-President is, in the absence of 
 the President, to assume and transact all such business 
 as properly falls within the province of the presidential 
 office. 
 
 33. What are the duties of the Recording Secretary? 
 The duties of the Eecording Secretary are, in general, 
 
 these : 
 
 To call the roll at the opening of a meeting, and 
 note the names of the members absent, — to record 
 faithfully the doings of the society, — to read aloud such 
 papers as may be ordered to be read,— to call the 
 roll when the vote is taken by yeas and nays, and re- 
 cord the answer of each member, — to notify commit- 
 
100 KULES OF ORDER. 
 
 tee 3 of their appointment and of the matters committed 
 to them, — to authenti 3ate, when necessary, by his sig- 
 nature, the acts and proceedings of the body, and to 
 take in charge all papers and documents belonging 
 thereto. 
 
 34. What is the duty of a Corresponding Secretary ? 
 
 The duty of the Corresponding Secretary is to con- 
 duct, under the instructions of the society, all corre- 
 spondence with other societies or individuals. 
 
 35. What is the duty of the Treasurer ? 
 
 The duty of the Treasurer is to receive, and under 
 specified regulations, to disburse all moneys belonging 
 to the society, — to keep an accurate account of all pecu- 
 niary matters pertaining thereto, — and when required, 
 to give a clear and correct statement of its financial 
 condition. 
 
 36. What are the rights of the members? 
 
 Every member has an equal right with every other 
 member, to offer in the proper way, any motion, or res- 
 olution which he may deem expedient, — to enter, in 
 the way of explanation and discussion, upon the mer- 
 its of his proposition, and to have it duly weighed and 
 decided upon by the assembly. He has, also, in com- 
 mon with the rest, various other rights and privileges, 
 which will come up more properly under other heads 
 
 37. What are the duties of the members ? 
 
 The duty of every member is to follow strictly the 
 7 ales of order, — to abstain from all personalities in de- 
 
MODE OF COMMENCING BUSINESS. 101 
 
 bate, — never designedly or heedlessly to interrupt an- 
 other member while speaking, — never to create dis- 
 turbance in the assembly, or any part thereof, by whis- 
 pering, hissing, or any other act of indecency, — and, 
 finally, in all respects to observe the decorum and 
 propriety of deportment proper to a gentleman. 
 
 MODE OF COMMENCING BUSINESS. 
 
 88. What is the first step after the organization of a 
 meeting ? 
 
 The first step after organizing is for the President 
 officially to announce, that the meeting being duly or- 
 ganized, is now ready for the transaction of business. 
 
 It is quite customary, moreover, for the President, 
 upon taking his place as the presiding officer of a meet- 
 ing, to make a short address suitable to the occasion. 
 If the meeting be the result of a published call, he 
 •should read the call aloud, or himself state, in few 
 words, the objects proposed by those who have made it. 
 
 39. When the assembly is thus duly organized, and 
 ready for business, how is it to be introduced? 
 
 Business may be introduced in a deliberative assem- 
 bly either by the presentation of petitions, memorials, 
 or other papers, emanating from persons not belonging 
 to the body, or by offering resolutions, or by calling 
 for the Reports of Committees. 
 
 If the meeting has been called for some specific ob 
 ject, the proper course is for some one to rise and 
 move that a Committee be appointed to draft Resolu- 
 tions expressive of the sense of the assembly. 
 
102 RULES OF OKDEK. 
 
 While the Committee are out, engaged in this duty, 
 it is usual to call on some suitable person to address 
 the meeting. As soon as he has closed his remarks, 
 the Committee, if ready, immediately present their Ee- 
 port in the manner described on page 112. 
 
 In case Kesolutions have been prepared beforehand, 
 as sometimes happens, they are, of course, presented 
 to the meeting in due form, without the intervention 
 of a committee. 
 
 40. How is business commenced at a meeting of a So- 
 ciety, or other permanent organization ? 
 
 The presiding officer, on taking his place, first re- 
 quests the members to come to order. Then, either 
 by counting himself, or directing the Secretary to call 
 the roll, he proceeds to ascertain whether there is a 
 quorum present. 
 
 If there be a quorum, he then requests the Secretary 
 to read the minutes of the last meeting ;* if not, busi- 
 ness is, of course, suspended till the next regular 
 meeting. 
 
 41. What is meant by a quorum ? 
 
 A quorum is such a number of members as may, by 
 
 rule, or statute, be required to be present at a meeting 
 
 in order to render the transactions of the body legal, 
 
 or valid. Thus, by the Constitution of the United 
 
 States, it is provided, that a majority of each House 
 
 of Congress shall be necessary to form a quorum to 
 
 transact business, f 
 
 * For the mode of approving of the minutes, (fee., <fcc., see page 
 110. 
 f The term quorum (literally, of whom) is one of the words used, 
 
COMMITTEES. 103 
 
 COMMITTEES. 
 
 42. Wliat is a committee ? 
 
 It is often convenient, if not necessary, for a delib- 
 erative body to commit, or entrust, to one or more of 
 its members such matters as require a more extended 
 examination, or a more free discussion, or a more elab- 
 orate preparation for action, than is compatible with 
 the formalities essential to the government of large as- 
 semblies. The party or parties to whom such matters 
 are committed, is called a committee. 
 
 43. Is a matter referred to a committee for no other pur- 
 pose than for those just specified? 
 
 A matter may be referred to a committee merely as 
 a suitable means of collecting information concerning 
 it. Not unfrequently the reference to a committee is 
 only a convenient mode of postponing the considera- 
 tion of a subject. 
 
 44. May a part only of a subject he referred to a com- 
 mittee ? 
 
 A subject may be referred to a committee, in part 
 
 in England, in the Latin form of the commission to justices of the 
 peace. The part of the document wherein the word occurs, runs thus: 
 " We have also assigned you, and every two or more of you, quorum 
 unum, A B vel C D vel E F, <fec., esse volumus, that is, of whom we 
 will that A B or C D or E F, &c, shall be one." This made it 
 necessary that certain individuals, who, in the language of the 
 commission, were said to be of the " quorum" should be present dur- 
 ing the transaction of business. 
 
 Hence, in legislative and other deliberative bodies, has arisen the 
 application of the term to such a number of the members as may be 
 declared necessary to gi^e validity to any business prxje^ding. 
 
104 KULES OF ORDEK. 
 
 or ill whole, at the pleasure of the assembly; or dif- 
 ferent parts of the same subject may be leferred to 
 different committees. 
 
 45. What is the difference between a Select and a 
 Standing Committee ? 
 
 In most deliberative assemblies, it is found advan- 
 tageous to have several permanent committees, to each 
 of which a particular subject, or class of subjects is in 
 general referred. Such committees are called Standing 
 Committees. 
 
 Now and then, however, there arises a subject not 
 properly referable to any one of the standing commit- 
 tees, or, for some cause, or other, more proper to be 
 entrusted to a committee chosen expressly for the oc- 
 casion. Such a committee is called a Select Committee. 
 
 46. Are committees bound by particular instructions, or 
 left to act according to their own discretion ? 
 
 The office of a committee is essentially that of an 
 agent, or factor ; and as an agent is bound always to 
 obey the instructions of his principal, or if under no 
 special instructions, he is to do what best he can to 
 promote the interest committed to his charge, so a 
 committee is bound at all times to follow out strictly 
 the directions given by the assembly, or if left to their 
 own discretion, their duty is to exercise their best 
 judgment in carrying out the will of the body for 
 wh:>m they act.* 
 
 * The assembly may, at any time during the progress of their de- 
 liberations, revoke instructions previously given, impose new ones 
 producing an entirely different aspect or direction of affairs, or 
 leave them altogether to their own discretion. 
 
COMMITTEES. 105 
 
 47. How is the number of which a committee shall con- 
 sist, decided upon ? 
 
 If, in the motion to appoint a committee, whether 
 select or standing, the number of persons of which it 
 shall consist, is not specified, it is customary for mem- 
 bers, without resort to a motion, to propose different 
 numbers, as each may prefer. The President, then 
 following the rule observed in the case of filling 
 blanks,* puts to vote the question on each number, be- 
 ginning with the highest, till he comes to that on which 
 the assembly can agree. 
 
 48. After the number is fixed, of which a committee 
 shall be composed, what is the mode of selecting the mem- 
 bers of it? 
 
 The members of a committee may be appointed by 
 the presiding officer, either in virtue of some standing 
 rule, or in accordance with a motion made for the oc- 
 casion ; or they may be elected by ballot, provided a 
 resolution is passed to that effect ; or, lastly, they may 
 be chosen by an open nomination and vote of the 
 assembly. 
 
 49. In the choice of members to serve on a committee, is 
 regard to be had, to their previously known, or expressed 
 opinions on the matters to be referred to them ? 
 
 The general rule is, that he who is known to be ut- 
 terly opposed to a proposition, should not be appointed 
 on a committee, charged merely with the amendment 
 or modification of that proposition; since his aim 
 would not be to amend, but to destroy. 
 
 * See page 98. 
 5* 
 
106 EULES OF ORDEE. 
 
 If, therefore, the design of the commitment is amend- 
 ment, which is here taken for granted, those only 
 ought to be members of the committee, who, though 
 friendly to the measure, or proposition, in the main, 
 still desire to amend, or alter it in certain particulars. 
 
 This rule, however, is rather discretionary than im- 
 perative; since the appointing power, whether the 
 President or the assembly, is under no positive obliga- 
 tion to observe it* 
 
 50. Is a committee free to organize in its own way, or 
 must it be organized under special instructions from the 
 assembly ? 
 
 Every committee has the right to organize in its own 
 way ; that is, is perfectly free to appoint its own offi- 
 cers.f But, as in the assembly, it is usually consid- 
 ered polite and proper to place on the committee 
 both the mover and the seconder of the motion to 
 raise such committee, so in the committee itself, it is, 
 as a matter of courtesy, so customary as to amount al- 
 most to a rule, to appoint the member first named, or 
 selected, to act as its chairman, and to report its pro- 
 ceedings to the body at large.;}: 
 
 * It is the duty of the Secretary, when a committee has been 
 appointed, to make out a list of the members, and send it, together 
 with a copy of the instructions under which they are to act, to the 
 person first named on the list. 
 
 f See, however, the answer to question 68, and the note. 
 
 % The person first named on a committee always acts as chair- 
 man pro. tern, till the permanent Chairman is appointed. It is his 
 duty, accordingly, to call a meeting of his colleagues at the earliest 
 eonvenience, and so open the way to business. 
 
COMMITTEES. 107 
 
 51. Is a committee at liberty to fix its own time and 
 place of meeting ? 
 
 In respect to the time and place of meeting, as in 
 respect to the disposition of the matters entrusted to 
 it, a committee is always subject to the direction of 
 the assembly ; and if, when ordered to meet at a par- 
 ticular time, it fails of that time, it is not at liberty to 
 enter upon duty, till again directed to sit by the as- 
 sembly. 
 
 But, if left without special direction in this regard, 
 the committee has power, as a matter of course, to 
 choose such time and place as may be deemed expedi- 
 ent; provided always, the time be not that during 
 which the assembly itself is in session. 
 
 52. May the members of a committee transact the busi- 
 ness referred to them, by separate consultation, and without 
 the formality of a regular meeting ? 
 
 Nothing is the act of a committee, which is not done 
 or agreed to, in the committee duly assembled, as such, 
 There can, therefore, be no such thing as the report 
 of a committee, made by separate consultation, and 
 without the formality of a regular meeting of its mem- 
 bers. 
 
 53. Are committees never allowed to sit in deliberation, 
 while the assembly itself is in session ? 
 
 If the business is such as to require immediate at- 
 tention, or the assembly is anxious for despatch, a 
 committee may be ordered to sit, while the body itself 
 is in session. But, unless so ordered, it is contrary to 
 
108 KULES OF ORDER. 
 
 a rile founded on obvious propriety, for a committee 
 to sit while the assembly is sitting.* 
 
 If, therefore, the body itself, after an adjournment, 
 is found to be in session, while the committee is yet 
 engaged in its deliberations, it is the duty of the com- 
 mittee forthwith to rise and attend the assembly. 
 
 54. Is it necessary in order to the transaction of busi- 
 ness in committee, that all the members of the committee 
 should be present ? 
 
 The number of members necessary to form a quo- 
 rum for the transaction of business in a committee, is 
 sometimes fixed by a vote, or by a standing rule of 
 the assembly. Where, however, this is not the case, 
 a majority is, in this country, commonly considered 
 requisite to constitute a quorum, or else whatever 
 other proportion may be necessary to a quorum in the 
 assembly itself. 
 
 55. What subjects are usually referred to committees, 
 and what is the ordinary mode of proceeding in them f 
 
 To committees, as before observed,f are usually re- 
 
 * The rule that committees are not to sit during the session of 
 the assembly, is founded upon the principle, that the presence of the 
 members constituting the committee, as well as that of all others, 
 is necessary to full and efficient service in the body. The absence 
 of a single member is often a great disadvantage. 
 
 The meetings of the assembly itself are, on this account, not un- 
 frequently so appointed as to time, as to allow full opportunity for 
 the discharge of duty in committees. Thus, it is well known tha 
 in Congress the daily sessions do not commence till twelve o'clock, 
 mainly out of regard to the immense amount of labor devolving 
 upcn committe3s in preparing and digesting business for action in 
 the two Houses. 
 
 f See answer to question 42. 
 
COMMITTEES. 1C9 
 
 ferred such papers, propositions, or other matters, as 
 require to be digested, amended, or examined with a 
 minuteness of detail very inconvenient, if not quite 
 impracticable, in the full assembly. Accordingly, 
 they are often obliged to make many personal inquir- 
 ies, to examine lengthy documents bearing upon the 
 subject confided to them, to examine witnesses, and 
 otherwise to pursue protracted investigations. 
 
 In regard to the mode of proceeding in committee, 
 the order, in most respects, is the same with that ob- 
 served in the assembly itself. Thus, nothing is con- 
 sidered as an act of the committee, which has not been 
 done in a meeting regularly convened ; wherein busi- 
 ness must be transacted by motions duly made, sec- 
 onded and passed, as in the assembly. 
 
 56. Is it necessary for a committee to append to their 
 report a resolution respecting the subject of their delibera- 
 tions, and to recommend its adoption by the assembly ? 
 
 The very object of a committee is to prepare busi- 
 ness for the action of the assembly. It is, therefore, 
 settled by an almost universal usage, that every report 
 of a committee should conclude with a resolution.* 
 
 57. What course is adopted in the case of breaches of 
 order, or disorderly words in a committee? 
 
 A breach of order in committee is not punishable 
 by the committee itself; neither are disorderly words. 
 
 * If the committee has been raised merely to gather information, 
 or if they should think proper to render a verbal report, declaring 
 the matter of no sufficient interest or importance to require action, 
 the report should close with a resolution to discharge the committee 
 from the further consideration of the subject. 
 
110 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 Both must be reported to the assembly ; the disorderly 
 words being written down as when occurring in the 
 assembly itself.* 
 
 58. When a subject is referred to a committee, is it left 
 with them to treat it as they please ? 
 
 A committee may be instructed, or directed in rela- 
 tion to the subject committed to their charge, or not, at 
 the pleasure of the assembly. But, if left without in- 
 structions as to the duties assigned them, they have 
 the right to treat the matter entirely according to their 
 own judgment, and to report to the assembly upon it 
 in whatever manner they deem expedient. 
 
 59. What is the course pursued in relation to papeiz 
 before a committee ? 
 
 The course pursued in relation to papers is, in gen- 
 eral, the same as that adopted in the assembly. The 
 paper is first read through by the Secretary or the 
 Chairman ; then it is again read by the Chairman, by 
 paragraphs or sections ; he pausing, at proper inter- 
 vals, to hear and put to the vote the amendments, if 
 any, that may be offered by members. This being 
 done, if the paper is one that has originated with the 
 committee, the question is then taken upon the whole 
 document, as amended or unamended. 
 
 If, however, the paper is not original with the com- 
 mittee, but is one that has been merely submitted for 
 amendment, the question upon the adoption, or rejec- 
 tion of the whole is not, of course, to be taken ; for 
 that, as well as the amendment proposed by the com- 
 mittee, belongs ultimately to the assembly itself. 
 
 * See page 124. 
 
COMMITTEES. Ill 
 
 60. Sup>pos6 the committee should be opposed to the pa- 
 per* altogether, what is to be done f 
 
 In the event of a committee being entirely opposed 
 to a paper submitted for amendment, their course is to 
 report it back to the assembly unamended, with the 
 reasons therefor, if thought desirable, and then, not as 
 members of the committee, but as members of the 
 body at large, make what opposition to it they see fit. 
 
 61. Is a committee at liberty to alter, by way of amend- 
 ment, or otherwise, the subject-matter under consideration ? 
 
 No committee is allowed to alter the subject under 
 deliberation, their duty being confined strictly to a 
 consideration of its nature and bearings. 
 
 When the subject is referred with instructions, the 
 instructions must, of course, be strictly obeyed. 
 
 62. Is a committee at liberty to erase, interline, or other* 
 ■wise mark over a paper under their consideration ? 
 
 A committee is, of course, at liberty to erase, inter- 
 line, or otherwise mark any paper originating with 
 themselves. 
 
 But, in the case of a paper submitted by the assem- 
 bly, thejr have no right to mark, or deface it in any way, 
 or for any purpose whatever. If they agree to propose 
 amendments or alterations, these must be put on a sep- 
 arate piece of paper, and the places where it is pro- 
 posed to insert them, designated by the proper line, 
 page, paragraph, or section of the original document. 
 
 The committee may, however, if they please, report 
 their amendment in the form of a new draft of the 
 
112 RULES OF OKDER. 
 
 original paper, with the amendments duly made and 
 inserted. This, in fact, where the alterations are mi- 
 nute or numerous, is decidedly the best way. 
 
 63. Supposing a difference of opinion to exist among 
 the members of a committee, have the minority a right to 
 bring in a counter report ? 
 
 The reception of a report from the minority of a 
 committee is conceded rather as a favor than as a right 
 This is done, though not strictly in order, partly out 
 of courtesy, and partly for the sake of a more full de- 
 velopment of the matter in dispute.* 
 
 * On the subject of Minority Reports, Mr. Cushing very justly 
 says : — " The report of a committee being the conclusion which is 
 agreed to by a majority of the members, the dissenting, or not-agree- 
 ing members, according to strict parliamentary practice, would 
 have no other mode of bringing their views before the assembly 
 than as individual members. Inasmuch, however, as such members 
 may be supposed to have given the subject equal consideration with 
 the other members of the committee, and may, therefore, be in pos- 
 session of views and opinions equally worthy of the attention of 
 the assembly, the practice has become general in the legislative as- 
 semblies of this country, to allow members in the minority to pre- 
 sent their views and conclusions in the parliamentary form of a re- 
 port, which is accordingly known by the somewhat incongruous ap- 
 pellation of a minority report. Any two, or more of the members 
 may unite in such a report, or each one of them may express his 
 views in a separate document. 
 
 "A minority report is not recognized as a report of the committee, 
 or acted upon as such; it is received by courtesy, and allowed to 
 accompany the report, as representing the opinions of the minority ; 
 and, in order to its being adopted by the assembly, it must be mov- 
 ed £la an amendment to the report, when that comes to be consid» 
 ered." 
 
 For more on this subject, see page 116. 
 
COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE. 113 
 
 COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE. 
 
 64. What is a committee of the whole ? 
 
 A committee may consist, according to the pleasure 
 of the assembly, of one member only, of a number of 
 members, or of the entire body. A committee em- 
 bracing the entire body, is called a committee of th 
 whole. 
 
 65. What is the use of a committee of the whole ? 
 
 There are times when it is best for the whole assem- 
 bly, unfettered by certain parliamentary restraints, to 
 deal with a subject after the manner adopted in ordi- 
 nary committees. In such cases, it is usual for the 
 body to resolve itself into a committee of the whole. 
 
 66. What is the form employed in resolving an assem- 
 bly into a committee of the whole ? 
 
 The form employed in resolving an assembly into a 
 committee of the whole, is this : A member ri^es in his 
 place, and moves, " that the assembly do now resolve itself 
 into a committee of the whole, to take under consideration 
 the subject" (whatever it is) ; and this being seconded, the 
 question is put to vote by the presiding officer. 
 
 If decided in the affirmative, the President, after an- 
 nouncing the result, resigns ihe chair to whomsoever 
 is named, or appointed to act as chairman of the com- 
 mittee, and then takes part, like other members, in the 
 matters under deliberation. 
 
 67. How is the Chairman of the committee of the whole 
 appointed? 
 
 Immediately after the passage of a resolution to go 
 
114 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 into a committee of the whole, it is usual for the Pres- 
 ide! t of the assembly to name, or designate a member 
 to act as chairman of the committee. 
 
 This he does either in virtue of some special rule or 
 in accordance with established custom : if in virtue of 
 a rule, the person so named, or designated is thereby 
 appointed : if merely in compliance with custom, the 
 appointment may, or may not be acquiesced in accord- 
 ing to the will of the members. 
 
 If, therefore, on going into a committee of the whole, 
 the presiding officer, in conformity with usage, but 
 without the authority of a special rule, assigns to a 
 member the chairmanship of the committee, if no one 
 objects all is right, and the appointment is valid ; but if 
 objection be made, a chairman must be appointed by a 
 regular vote. 
 
 68. Is the election, in such case, to be made by a vote of 
 the members acting in the capacity of a committee, or in 
 that of the assembly proper ? 
 
 If, as supposed in the preceding answer, the appoint- 
 ment of a chairman by vote becomes necessary, it must 
 be by a vote of the assembly as such : the presiding 
 officer resuming the chair in order to put the question.* 
 
 * Jefferson, in his Manual (Section xii.), says, that, where the ap- 
 pointment is to be made by vote, committees of the whole " have 
 a right to elect one ; some member, by consent, putting the ques- 
 tion." On this, Mr. Cushing (p. 175) says : — " The statement that* 
 where a Chairman is to be appointed by vote, the question is to be 
 put by som ) member in the committee, though laid down by Mr 
 Jefferson, on the authority of an old writer on parliamentary pro- 
 ceedings, is not sanctioned by Hatsell, or borne out by the modern 
 practice in the British parliament." 
 
COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE. 115 
 
 69. What number of members constitutes a q^ogum in 
 a committee of the luhole? 
 
 Whatever number constitutes a quorum in the as- 
 sembly itself, constitutes a quorum in a committee of 
 the whole. 
 
 70. What course is taken when no quorum is present ? 
 
 When the number present in a committee of the 
 whole becomes less than that required to form a quorum, 
 the committee, upon motion to that effect, must rise ; 
 in which case, the presiding officer of the assembly, 
 whose duty is always to be present in the committee, 
 and ready, when necessary, to resume the chair, takes 
 his proper place, and the committee of the whole is ac- 
 cordingly dissolved. 
 
 71. How is a Secretary appointed in committee of the 
 whole ? 
 
 In committee of the whole, the Clerk or Secretary of 
 of the assembly, or his assistant, if he has one, acts as 
 secretary. 
 
 72. Does he record the proceedings of the committee on 
 the journal, or minute-booh of the assembly? 
 
 The report of the committee, that is, whatever they 
 conclude to lay before the assembly, as the result 
 of their deliberation, the Clerk, or Secretary at the 
 proper time enters, of course, upon his record ; but the 
 proceedings in committee are not recorded in his jour- 
 nal. 
 
116 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 73. Are the proceedings in a committee of the whole dif- 
 ferent from those in the assembly itself? 
 
 The mode of proceeding and the rules of order in a 
 committee of the whole are not essentially different 
 from those observed in the body itself. But, as the 
 only object of a committee is to secure a release from 
 certain embarrasments, necessarily existent in the con- 
 duct of the assembly proper, it follows, as a m atter of 
 course, that some differences must be made in the or- 
 der of proceeding. 
 
 74. What are the principal points in which the order 
 of proceeding in a committee of the whole, differs from that 
 pursued in the assembly itself? 
 
 In the assembly, a member cannot speak more than 
 once or twice on the same subject ; in committee of 
 the whole, he may speak as often as he pleases. In 
 the assembly, all discussions may be suddenly arrested 
 by the use of the previous question ; in committee of 
 the whole, the previous question can never be intro- 
 duced. In the assembly, the yeas and nays may be 
 called for, and an appeal be made from the decisions 
 of the chair ; in committee of the whole, neither a 
 call for the yeas and nays nor an appeal from the 
 chair is allowable. In the assembly, committees of 
 their own number may be raised at any time ; in com- 
 mittee of the whole, a committee of their own number, 
 that is, a sub-committee, is inadmissible. In the assem- 
 bly, any breach of order may be punished ; in commit- 
 tee of the whole, as in other committees, the matter 
 must be referred to the assembly. In the assembly, a 
 motion may be made and carried to adjourn to another 
 
OOMMTTTEE OF THE WHOLE. 117 
 
 time and place ; in committee of the whole, if, for any 
 reason, it is thought proper to discontinue their delib- 
 erations for a time, it is necessary for some one to 
 move that the committee rise, report progress, and ask 
 leave to sit again. 
 
 Besides all this, greater freedom every way is allow- 
 ed in committee of the whole than would be admis- 
 sible in the assembly ; and, moreover, the proceedings 
 in the committee, which, though leading to results 
 however useful, are themselves often tedious and in- 
 formal, are not required to be placed upon the record, 
 as would be the case were they the transactions of the 
 assembly as such. 
 
 75. What form is observed, when the committee rise and 
 report ? 
 
 If the motion to rise is carried, the Chairman of the 
 committee immediately yields the chair to the Presi- 
 dent of the assembly. Then, taking his proper place 
 among the members, he rises and informs the presi- 
 dent that the committee of the whole have, in obedi- 
 ence to the order of the assembly, had the subject of 
 (whatever it may be) under consideration ; that some 
 progress had been made in the disposition of it ; and 
 that, for want of time (or whatever other cause), hav- 
 ing been obliged to discontinue their deliberations, 
 they had instructed him to ask leave for the committee 
 to sit again. 
 
 76. If leave be granted for the committee to sit again, is 
 it necessary for the assembly, at the time appointed. 
 
118 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 again formally to resolve itself into a committee of the 
 whole ? 
 
 If the motion to grant the request of the committee 
 for another sitting be decided in the affirmative, the 
 assembly must then also, by motion, name the time 
 for that sitting, and, when that time arrives, it is nec- 
 essary to go again regularly through the formality 
 of resolving the assembly into a committee of the 
 whole. 
 
 77. What course is taken in committee of the whole, 
 when the business referred to them, is finished? 
 
 When the business referred to the committee of the 
 whole, is finished, some one moves that the committee 
 do now rise and report. This motion being passed, 
 the President of the assembly resumes the chair, and 
 the Chairman of the committee rising in his place 
 among the members, states that the committee of the 
 whole, having finished the business entrusted to them, 
 have directed him to present a report, which is ready, 
 whenever it is the pleasure of the assembly to re- 
 ceive it. 
 
 The proper way then, is to fix by motion the time 
 for receiving the report. But often, in the matter of 
 receiving a report, a formal motion is omitted : the as- 
 sembly, if that be their pleasure, crying out, "Now I 
 Now I" or if another time, " Monday 1 Tuesday I" or 
 whatever other day they choose. 
 
SECTION VII. 
 
 PRIVILEGED QUESTIONS. 
 
 78. What are privileged questions ? 
 
 The general rule, in deliberative bodies, is, that the 
 questiua first moved and seconded, shall first be put to 
 the vo*e. Circumstances, however, sometimes require 
 a departure from this rule. 
 
 There are, accordingly, certain motions, or questions 
 which are allowed to supersede a proposition already 
 under debate, and which, for that reason, are denomi- 
 nated privileged questions. The question superseded, 
 in such case, is called the main, or principal question. 
 
 79. What are the particular circumstances that call for 
 the use of privileged questions ? 
 
 The circumstances requiring resort to the use of 
 privileged questions, are various. Thus, the assembly, 
 exhausted by long-continued attention to duty, may 
 desire to adjourn ; hence the motion to adjourn is a 
 privileged one. They may be willing longer to enter 
 tain a proposition, but not at the present time ; thence 
 arises the necessity of a motion to lie on the table. 
 They may deem it expedient to suppress further de- 
 bate on a subject; for which purpose recourse is had 
 
120 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 to what is called the previous question. They may 
 want time for reflection, or to gather information ; 
 this creates the occasion for a motion to postpone to a 
 certain day. They may wish to have the proposition 
 modified or altered, or the subject investigated, to an 
 extent or in a manner incompatible with the formali 
 ties proper to the proceedings of the full assembly ; 
 thence comes the need of a motion to commit, that is, 
 to refer the matter to a committee. They may be fa- 
 vorable to a proposition in the main, but dissatisfied 
 with certain particulars, capable of easy alteration in 
 the assembly ; that gives rise to a motion to amend. 
 They may be anxious to get rid of a proposition alto- 
 gether, and yet not to do so in a rude or indelicate 
 manner ; that is accomplished by the use of a motion 
 to postpone indefinitely. They may have previously 
 ordered, or appointed certain business for certain times, 
 and the hour having arrived for such business, there 
 may be need of a motion to proceed to the orders of the 
 day. They may have already decided a question, and, 
 upon further reflection, concluded to retrace their steps, 
 and bring the matter again under deliberation ; in 
 which event, there is need of a motion to reconsider. 
 
 But there are other motions still, which circum 
 stances require to take precedence over a question al- 
 ready before the assembly. These are such as arise 
 incidentally, and, being incidental to motions of every 
 kind, they are allowed, for the time being, to supersede 
 the proposition under discussion, whether it be a priv- 
 ileged one or not. The incidental questions are such 
 as respect the privilege of the members of the assem- 
 bly, or of the whole assembly taken collectively ; such 
 
PRIVILEGED QUESTIONS. 121 
 
 as have regard to questions of order, to the reading of 
 papers relating to the matter under debate, to the with- 
 drawal of motions, to the suspension of rules, and the 
 amendment of amendments. 
 
 The following is a list of all the above-mentioned 
 questions, or motions, being here included under the 
 general head of 
 
 PRIVILEGED QUESTIONS.* 
 
 1. Motions to adjourn. 
 
 2. Motions to lie on the table. 
 
 3. Motions for the previous question. 
 
 4. Motions to postpone to a day certain. 
 
 5. Motions to commit. 
 
 6. Motions to amend. 
 
 7. Motions to postpone indefinitely. 
 
 8. Motions for the orders of the day. 
 
 9. Motions concerning questions of privilege. 
 
 10. Motions concerning questions of order. 
 
 11. Motions for the reading of papers. 
 
 12. Motions for the withdrawal of motions. 
 
 13. Motions for the suspension of rules. 
 
 14. Motions to reconsider. 
 
 * The questions included in the list above, excepting the last, 
 are divided by Mr. Cushing into three classes, and arranged thus : 
 
 Privileged Questions: — Adjournment, Questions of Privilege and 
 Orders of the Day. 
 
 Incidental Questions: — Questions of Order, Heading of Papers, 
 Withdrawal of a Motion, Suspension of a Rule and Amendment of 
 Amendments. 
 
 Subsidiary Questions : — Lie on the Table, Previous Question % Post 
 ponerrenty Commitment and Amendment. 
 
122 KULES OF ORDER. 
 
 80. Have these privileged questions any privilege among 
 themselves ? 
 
 The questions which, thus have a right to take pre- 
 cedence of the main, or principal question, have, also, 
 a certain order of precedence among themselves. In 
 some deliberative bodies, that order is settled by a for- 
 mal rule. Thus, in the 11th Eule of the United States 
 Senate, we read : 
 
 " When a question is under debate, no motion shall 
 be received but to adjourn, to lie on the table, to postpone 
 indefinitely, to postpone to a day certain, to commit, or to 
 amend ; which several motions shall have precedence 
 in the order they stand arranged, and the motion for 
 adjournment shall always be in order, and be decided 
 without debate." 
 
 The order prescribed in the 46th Eule of the House 
 of Representatives, is the following : 
 
 " When a question is under debate, no # motion shall 
 be received, but to adjourn, to lie on the table, for the pre- 
 vious question, to postpone to a day certain, to commit or 
 amend, to postpone indefinitely ; which several motions 
 shall have precedence in the order in which they are 
 arranged ; and no motion to postpone to a day certain,, 
 to commit, or to postpone indefinitely, being decided, 
 shall be again allowed on the same day, and at the 
 same stage of the bill or proposition. A motion to 
 strike out the enacting words of a bill shall have pre- 
 cedence of a motion to amend, and, if carried, shall be 
 considered equivalent to its rejection."* 
 
 * The order prescribed in the above Rule of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, is that which prevails to the greatest extent in this country, 
 and is, therefore, most entitled to precedence. 
 
THE MOTION TO ADJOUBN. 123 
 
 THE MOTION TO ADJOUM. 
 
 81. When is the motion to adjourn in order? 
 
 The motion to adjourn is always in order. It, 
 therefore, takes precedence of any pending question. 
 
 82. Must the motion to adjourn, then, he always enter* 
 tained, without respect to time or circumstances? 
 
 In a general sense, amotion to adjourn may be said 
 to be always in order. But this must be taken with 
 some limitations. Thus, it can not be received while 
 a member is speaking, unless tie consents to give way 
 for that purpose ; it can not be entertained while a 
 vote, or the process of calling the yeas and nays, is 
 in progress ; it can not, after being once negatived, 
 be renewed previous to the intervention of some other 
 business ; and, lastly, it must be a motion to adjourn 
 simply, without specification of any kind; that is, 
 merely that the assembly " do now adjourn" 
 
 83. Why should a motion to adjourn thus prevail over 
 all others ? 
 
 Because otherwise the assembly might be kept in 
 session against its own will, and that for an indefinite 
 period of time. 
 
 (a.) Is a motion to adjourn debatable ? 
 
 A motion simply to adjourn is not debatable. 
 
 84. Is a motion to adjourn amendable? 
 
 The motion to adjourn, as a privileged question, 
 that is, as being entitled to supersede any pending 
 question, can not be amended. It must, therefore, be 
 
124 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 put in the form, — " that the assembly do now adjourn" 
 If put in any other way, — for example, so as to fix a 
 particular time or place, — it then has no privilege over 
 a pending question; for it introduces new business, 
 and seeks some object other than mere adjournment. 
 
 The object sought in such amendment is sometimes 
 gained by making the motion to adjourn to a particu- 
 lar time or place take the form of an amendment to, 
 or substitute for, the main question before the house. 
 
 If the motion to adjourn is made when there is no 
 other question before the assembly, it can, of course, 
 be amended like any other motion. 
 
 85. If the motion to adjourn must be made without 
 specification of time, how is the assembly to be governed 
 as to the time of the next meeting ? 
 
 When a motion simply to adjourn is decided in the 
 affirmative, the body is thereby adjourned to the next 
 regular time of sitting ; or to such time, if any, as has 
 been appointed by previous resolution. 
 
 86. What difference, if any, is there between a motion 
 simply to adjourn, and a motion to adjourn sine die ? 
 
 Sine die means without day ; that is, without a day 
 appointed for another meeting. In reality, therefore, 
 a motion simply to adjourn, and a motion to adjourn 
 sine die, are things identical. But the form to adjourn 
 sine die is mainly employed in relation to bodies 
 whereof no reassembling is contemplated. 
 
 87. What formality, on the part of the presiding officer ', 
 is necessary to give efficacy to a motion to adjourn ? 
 
 Though a resolution to adjourn has been duly passed, 
 
THE MOTION TO LAY ON THE TABLE. 125 
 
 there is properly no adjournment, until the President 
 has officially announced the same from the chair. 
 
 88. What becomes of a proposition which has been ar- 
 rested, while under debate ; by a vote to adjourn ? 
 
 "When a proposition has been interrupted in its 
 course by a motion to adjourn, it is thereby removed 
 from the body, and, if again brought up, must be in- 
 troduced in the usual way. 
 
 To avoid the effects of this, however, it is sometimes 
 moved that " the house do now adjourn" and that " the 
 debate be now adjourned" This gives the pending ques- 
 tion, which is ei£ off by the motion to adjourn, a title 
 to come up, as unfinished business, at the next sitting. 
 
 In some bodies, there is a standing Eule that all un- 
 finished business, intercepted by a motion to adjourn, 
 shall take precedence at the next sitting. 
 
 THE M0TI03" TO LAY OX THE TABLE. 
 
 89. When is a motion to lay on the table employed ? 
 
 It sometimes happens that while a matter is under 
 deliberation, it is deemed expedient, for the time being, 
 to discontinue the discussion, with a view to take up 
 the subject at a more convenient season. In such 
 case a motion is made to lay the subject on the table. 
 
 90. What rank does it hold among privileged questions? 
 A motion to lay on the table usually takes precedence 
 
 of all motions, except the motion to adjourn, a question 
 of privilege, and a motion for the orders of the day.* 
 
 * In Congress, the motion to lay on the table supersedes all motions 
 except a motion to adjourn. See Rules of the Senate and House, 
 page 122. 
 
126 KULES OF ORDER. 
 
 91. Is the motion to lie on the table debatable ? 
 
 The motion to lie on the table can neither be deba- 
 ted nor amended. It is, therefore, often employed to 
 get rid of a question altogether. ^ ; 
 
 92 What is the effect of this motion, if decided affirm 
 atively f 
 
 The effect of a motion to lie on the table, if decided 
 in the affirmative, is to withdraw from the assembly 
 the main question, together with all other secondary, 
 or incidental questions relating thereto, until, by mo- 
 tion duly made and passed, it be the pleasure of the 
 body to resume the consideration thereof. 
 
 93. What if it be decided negatively ? 
 
 A motion to lie on the table, when decided by a 
 negative vote, leaves the pending question wholly un- 
 touched, and its discussion is, therefore, immediately 
 resumed, and continued just as though no interrup- 
 tion had taken place. 
 
 THE PREVIOUS QUESTION. 
 
 94. What is the previous question ? 
 
 Whenever it is thought desirable suddenly to arrest 
 discussion, and test immediately the sense of an assem- 
 bly, in respect to a subject under debate, there is a mo- 
 tion, or question expressly for this purpose, which is 
 denominated "the previous question." 
 
 95. What was the origin and design of this motion t 
 This motion was introduced, in 1604, by Sir Harry 
 
THE PREVIOUS QUESTION. 127 
 
 Vane, in the British House of Commons, and was de- 
 signed to suppress motions which, if publicly discussed, 
 might bring censure upon the government, or upon in- 
 dividuals occup} T ing high official station. 
 
 * 
 96. What was its form and effect? 
 
 The original form of the previous question was, — 
 "Shall the main question be put?''' 1 This was simply 
 asking whether, after the debate was over, however 
 long or earnest it might be, the main question should 
 ultimately be put to the vote. If decided in the af- 
 firmative, of course, the discussion might be resumed, 
 and continued, till the subject was regularly and final 
 ly disposed of. 
 
 In the event of a negative decision, however, which 
 was precisely the object sought by the mover, all dis- 
 cussion of the main question was at an end, and more 
 than that, the whole subject was taken from before the 
 House for the remainder of the session. This was a 
 natural result ; for what would be the use of continu- 
 ing to discuss a question which the House had already 
 determined, should not (after all) be put to the vote ? 
 
 When afterwards the form of the previous question 
 was changed to that which it now has, which is. 
 "Shall the main question he now put?'' 1 an affirmative 
 decision entirely precluded ail further debate on the 
 main, or principal question, and brought the subject 
 immediately to the test of a vote ; while a negative de- 
 cision, though operating still in the suppression of de- 
 bate, did not necessarily remove the main question 
 from before the House for the whole session, but for 
 the rest of the day only ; so that it might be renewed, 
 
128 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 if thought desirable, on the next, or on some succeed- 
 ing day. This is the present operation of the previous 
 question in the British Parliament. 
 
 In this country, an affirmative decision of the pre- 
 vious question has the same effect precisely, as it has in 
 England, that is, it brings the main question, without 
 further delay or debate, directly to a vote. And in such 
 case, the pending amendments, if any, are first, in their 
 order, put to vote, and then, of course, forthwith the 
 main question.' 55 " But a negative decision of it operates 
 differently ; for that assumes, that, if the main question 
 is not now to be put, (which is what a negative de- 
 cision declares,) then that question is still subject to 
 debate, just as it would have been, had the previous 
 question never been demanded or applied. 
 
 97. Is this the effect of a negative decision in all delib- 
 erative bodies ? 
 
 In the House of Eepresentatives of the United States 
 its effect is to suppress the main question for the rest 
 of the day only, just as in the British Parliament. In 
 the House of Representatives of Massachusetts, and in 
 the House of Assembly of New York, the effect of a 
 negative decision of the previous question is to leave 
 the main question with all pending amendments just 
 where it was ; that is, under debate, till disposed of in 
 
 * Formerly in the House of Representatives, the previous ques- 
 tion, if decided in the affirmative, brought the House immediately 
 to a vote on the main question, to the exclusion of all amendments 
 and incidental motions. This was changed (Jan. 14, 1840,) and the 
 present order, namely, that indicated in the text above, was estab* 
 lished. 
 
THE PREVIOUS QUESTION, 129 
 
 the usual way. And, in all deliberative assemblies in 
 this country, it is usually taken for granted, unless 
 otherwise ordered by a special rule, that a negative de- 
 cision of the previous question leaves the main ques- 
 tion and all amendments thereto, under deliberation 
 just as it found them. 
 
 98. Why is this motion sometimes called the "gag- 
 law" ? 
 
 Since the effect of an affirmative decision of the pre- 
 vious question is to preclude all further debate, and 
 bring the main question directly to a vote, it is in this 
 country employed almost exclusively for the purpose 
 of arresting unprofitable discussion, and so hastening 
 a decision. 
 
 It is easy, however, to make an abusive application 
 of the previous question, by rendering it subservient 
 to the purpose of cutting off the most wholesome and 
 necessary discussions, and so compelling members to 
 be silent, who ought for the sake of truth and justice 
 to be heard. Hence Mr. Jefferson has said: "There- 
 fore, it ought not to be favored, but restricted within as 
 narrow limits as possible." This unjust use of the 
 previous question is what has often secured to it the 
 appellation of the "gag-law" 
 
 99. Can a motion so important as this, and so liable 
 to be abused, be entertained upon its being offered by one 
 member only, and seconded by another, as is the case with 
 most other questions ? 
 
 In the British Parliament any member may move 
 the previous question, and, if seconded by another, it 
 
 6* 
 
130 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 is thereby put into requisition. This is done also, in 
 many assemblies in this country. 
 
 In the House of Eepresentatives, however, it can 
 only be admitted, when demanded by a majority of 
 the members present.* When first recognized by the 
 House, (April 7th, 1789) it could be introduced by a 
 call from five members. It was afterwards (Dec. 23d, 
 1811) resolved, as in the case of a call for the yeas and 
 nays, that one-fifth of the members present, should be 
 necessary to a call for the previous question. This 
 continued to be the Eule till February 24th, 1840. 
 At that time a change was made, by which, as stated 
 above, the previous question can be admitted, only 
 when demanded by a majority of the members pres- 
 ent.! 
 
 100. How does the previous question rank among priv- 
 ileged questions ? 
 
 The previous question has the same rank as the mo- 
 tion to postpone, the motion to commit, and the motion 
 to amend. It cannot, therefore, if first put, be super- 
 seded by any one of these. 
 
 It yields the precedence, however, to a motion to 
 adjourn, to lie on the table, to a motion respecting the 
 rights and privileges of the members, or of the assem- 
 bly at large, or to a motion for the orders of the day. 
 
 * That the use of the previous question ought to be under some 
 limitation greater than that which is customary in the case of other 
 motions, seems very obvious. In all deliberative bodies, therefore, 
 the number, at whose call it may be admitted, ought to be fixed by 
 a special rule. 
 
 f See Rules of Order for the House of Representatives, No. 60. 
 
THE MOTION TO POSTPONE. 131 
 
 101. Is a motion for the previous question debatable? 
 
 No debate is allowable on a motion for the previous 
 question. Neither is it susceptible of amendment. 
 All questions of order, moreover, arising incidentally 
 thereon, must be decided without discussion, whether 
 appeal be had from the chair or not. 
 
 THE MOTION TO POSTPONE. 
 
 102. What is the object of a motion to postpone f 
 
 The object of a motion to postpone is, either to defer 
 the consideration of a pending proposition till a more 
 convenient season, or to get rid of it altogether without 
 coming directly to a vote upon it. The motion to post- 
 pone, therefore, is. according to the aim of the mover, 
 either for a specified time, or for a period indefinite. 
 
 103. What rank among privileged questions does a mo- 
 tion to postpone hold ? 
 
 The motion to postpone holds the same rank with 
 the previous question, the motion to commit, and the 
 motion to amend, and cannot by any of these be super* 
 seded. If, however, the motion to postpone be put, 
 and lost, the pending proposition is nevertheless sub- 
 ject to the application of the co-ordinate motions; 
 that is, the previous question, the motion to commit, 
 and the motion to amend. 
 
 104. What becomes of a proposition which has been in* 
 terrupted by the passage of a motion to postpone ? 
 
 A proposition thus interrupted by the motion to 
 
132 KULES OF ORDER. 
 
 postpone is thereby removed from before the assembly, 
 together with all matters pertaining to it. 
 
 105. Can a motion to postpone he amended? 
 
 If a motion is offered to postpone to a day certain, 
 that is, to a specified time, it may be amended by sub- 
 stituting a different time. The time, in such case, how 
 ever, may be regarded as a blank, to be filled in th 
 manner described on page $§ following. 
 
 106. What is the aim of a motion for indefinite post- 
 ponement ? 
 
 The aim of a motion to postpone indefinitely, is to 
 get rid of a proposition altogether without coming di- 
 rectly to a vote upon it ; for, when decided affirmative- 
 ly, the effect is to quash the proposition entirely. 
 
 107. Can a motion to postpone indefinitely he debated, 
 or amended ? 
 
 A motion for the indefinite postponement of a sub- 
 ject is generally held to be incapable, either of debate, 
 or amendment.* 
 
 108. What is the effect upon the pending proposition, if 
 a motion to postpone is decided in the negative ? 
 
 A negative decision of a motion to postpone has no 
 
 * Cushing (Manual, page 96) however, says, — "If a motion is made 
 /or an indefinite postponement, it may be moved to amend the mo- 
 tion, by making it to a day certain. If any other day is desired, it 
 may be moved as an amendment to the amendment; or it may be 
 moved as an independent motion, when the amendment has been 
 rejected." 
 
THE MOTION TO COMMIT. 133 
 
 effect whatever upon the pending proposition ; which 
 is then to be treated in all respects as if no such mo- 
 tion had been made. 
 
 THE MOTION TO COMMIT. 
 
 109. When is a motion to commit employed? 
 
 When the matter of a proposition is such, in general, 
 as the assembly can approve, while the form, in which 
 it comes, is so objectionable, that it would be incon- 
 venient to give it the required shape in the assembly 
 itself, it is usual to refer the subject to a committee. 
 
 If there be a standing committee within whose prov- 
 ince the subject would properly fall, the matter goes 
 properly to that committee ; if not, a select committee 
 is raised for that purpose. 
 
 110. In the event of there being such a standing com- 
 mittee, must the matter be referred to that committee? 
 
 The assembly may, if for any reason it be thought 
 best, raise a select committee for any given subject, 
 though there be, already existing, a standing com- 
 mittee, to whom the subject should otherwise be re- 
 ferred. 
 
 But, if it be doubtful whether a particular standing 
 committee is the one that ought to have charge of the 
 matter, and some members are found proposing a ref- 
 erence to the standing, while others prefer to give the 
 subject to a select committee, the motion to refer to the 
 standing committee should be first submitted to a vote 
 of the assembly. 
 
134 EULES OF ORDER. 
 
 111. Is a motion to commit subject to amendment? * a ',- 
 A motion to commit maybe amended variously. It 
 
 may be amended by substituting one committee, or 
 kind of committee for another ; by increasing, or less- 
 ening the number of members proposed ; or by adding 
 directions, or instructions in regard to the subject com- 
 mitted. The motion to commit is, also, debatable. 
 
 112. What, among privileged questions, is the rank of 
 a motion to commit ? 
 
 The motion to commit is in the same rank as the 
 previous question and the motion to postpone, and can- 
 not, therefore, be superseded by either of them. 4 
 
 It, however, has the precedence over a motion to 
 amend. \ 
 
 113. What is the effect of an affirmative decision of a 
 motion to commit f 
 
 An affirmative decision of a motion to commit takes 
 the subject of course from before the assembly; if de- 
 cided negatively, however, the subject remains before 
 the assembly, and may then, if desirable, be subjected 
 to the operation of the previous question, the motion 
 to postpone, or to amend. 
 
 MOTIONS TO AMEND. 
 
 114. What is a motion to amend ? 
 
 When a proposition is in substance agreeable to the 
 wishes of an assembly, but in form, or in some of its 
 details objectionable, it is customary, by motions to 
 
MOTIONS TO AMEND. 135 
 
 that effect, to correct, curtail, enlarge, or otherwise 
 modify it according to the will of the body. Motions 
 for this purpose are called motions to amend. 
 
 115. Is it within the province of a deliberative body thus 
 to alter the character of a proposition submitted for their 
 decision ? 
 
 The primary and legitimate use of a motion to 
 amende as the term implies, is so to correct, or improve 
 the form, or statement of a proposition, as to aid it in 
 reaching the object which it aims to accomplish. A 
 motion to amend, therefore, is properly an act friendly 
 to the proposition to be amended. 
 
 But a proposition once moved, seconded, and stated 
 from the chair, is then the property of the assembly, 
 and there is nothing to hinder the introduction of mo- 
 tions to alter it in any way whatever. 
 
 It is, therefore, perfectly competent for the assembly 
 whenever they think proper, either so to amend a 
 proposition, as to make it more truly answerable to its 
 object, or altogether to turn it away from its original 
 purpose, and render it subservient to objects entirely 
 different and adverse. Accordingly, a proposition is 
 not unfrequently so altered by what are called motions 
 to amend, that its original friends and movers are com- 
 pelled finally to vote against it in its amended shape. 
 Thus, motions to amend are sometimes made to work 
 the defeat of a proposition, and are, in fact, often em- 
 ployed for this express purpose. 
 
 So entire is the change often effected under color of 
 amendment, that, where no special rule exists to the 
 contrary, matters utterly incompatible with the propo- 
 
136 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 sition under consideration, are engrossed upon it, and, 
 in some cases, everything of the original motion, after 
 the initiatory words, " Resolved that" is struck out, and 
 a proposition entirely different added. 
 
 116. May an assembly then fix, by special rule, the 
 limits within which an amendment shall be allowed to 
 operate? 
 
 In order to prevent the improper use of motions to 
 amend, some deliberative bodies have established rules 
 on the subject. Thus, the rule in the United States 
 House of Eepresentatives is, that " no motion, or prop- 
 osition on a subject different from that under consid- 
 eration shall be admitted under color of an amend- 
 ment. No bill, or resolution shall at any time be 
 amended by annexing thereto, or incorporating there- 
 with, any other bill or resolution pending before the 
 House* 
 
 This, or some similar restriction, seems highly need- 
 ful, and ought everywhere to be adopted as a rule. 
 
 117. In what way are amendments usually made ? 
 Amendments, whether applied to original motions, 
 
 or to other amendments, are usually effected in one of 
 these three ways : (1) by the insertion or addition of 
 words or sentences ; (2) by the removal or striking out 
 of words and sentences ; or (3) by the striking out of 
 some words or sentences, and the insertion of others 
 in their stead. 
 
 * See J offers on's Manual, page 145 ; also, Cushing's Manual, page 
 824. 
 
MOTIONS TO AMEND. 137 
 
 118. What is the proper order of proceeding in making 
 amendments in these several ways ? 
 
 When a proposition consists of several parts, para- 
 graphs, or sections, or is expressed in a series of resolu- 
 tions, the proper order of proceeding is to begin with 
 the first, and amend, if necessary, each of the parts, 
 paragraphs, sections, or resolutions in order. 
 
 119. Is it in order to make amendments to amendments, 
 and, if so , to what extent can this process he carried 1 ? 
 
 It is quite in ordei to amend an amendment ; but 
 here the process must terminate, an amendment of an 
 amendment to an amendment being wholly inadmiss- 
 ible. 
 
 120. Why is such an amendment not allowed? 
 
 "Were amendments heaped upon amendments in this 
 Yay, the result would be not a facilitating of the busi- 
 ness of the assembly, but a very serious embarrass- 
 ment. Hence, by a well settled usage, the process of 
 amending is forbidden to go beyond an amendment to 
 an amendment, 
 
 121. But suppose the object sought in amotion to amend 
 an amendment to an amendment, be a desirable one, hoio, 
 since such a motion is inadmissible, can that object be 
 reached by the assembly ? 
 
 Whenever an amendment to an amendment seems 
 itself to require amendment, since this is not allowed 
 to be done by a regular motion to that effect, the ob- 
 ject desired can, nevertheless, be easily obtained, by 
 
133 EULES OF OEDER. 
 
 first rejecting the amendment to the amendment, and 
 then, after amending it in the manner required, offer- 
 ing it again in its altered form as an amendment to the 
 first amendment, which is, of course, entirely in order.* 
 
 122. Is it in order to alter, or amend what has already 
 been agreed to by the assembly ? 
 
 If the assembly has already, by vote, agreed, either 
 to receive, or to reject a proposed amendment, that 
 which has thus been agreed to, cannot be altered, or 
 amended. Thus, if it has been voted to receive as an 
 amendment a given clause, or paragraph, it is not in 
 order thereafter to amend this amendment ; and, if it 
 has been agreed in the like manner, not to strike ou1 
 certain words, those words cannot afterwards be amend- 
 ed : the vote not to strike out being in effect a vote to 
 retain them, as they stand. 
 
 Neither can that which has once been disapproved 
 by a vote of the body, be again moved in that form 
 as an amendment. 
 
 123. Is there, then, no way of removing, or inserting, 
 as the case may be, words or paragraphs which it has 
 once been decided by vote to retain, or reject ? 
 
 If an amendment which proposes to strike out apar- 
 
 * "Thus," says Cushing, in illustration of this, "if a proposition 
 consist of A B, and it is proposed to amend by inserting C D, it may 
 be moved to amend the amendment by inserting EF, but it cannot 
 be moved to amend this amendment, as for example, by inserting G. 
 The only mode by which this can be reached, is to reject the amend- 
 ment in the form in which it is presented, namely, to insert E F, and 
 to move it in the form in which it is desired to be amended, namely 
 to insert E G F." 
 
MOTIONS TO AMEND. 139 
 
 ticular clause, or paragraph is onco rejected, a motion 
 simply to strike out the same words, or part of them, 
 is not in order ; but a motion to strike out the same 
 words, or a part of them, in connection with other words 
 is in order: " provided always, the coherence to be 
 struck out be so substantial, as to make this effectually 
 a different proposition."* 
 
 If, on the other hand, an amendment which proposes 
 to strike out, be agreed to, it is not allowable to move 
 to insert the same words, or part of them ; but it is 
 quite in order to move to insert the same, or part of the 
 same words in connection with others ; provided, as 
 before, the coherence to be inserted form, in effect, a 
 different proposition. 
 
 124. When it is proposed to amend by striking out cer- 
 tain words, and inserting others in their stead, would it 
 be in order to move for the striking out and the insertion 
 separately ? 
 
 The motion to strike out one thing, and insert another 
 in its place, is in reality a. double motion. It may, 
 therefore, at the pleasure of the assembly, or even at 
 the call of a single member, be divided. In that case 
 the question is first taken on the striking out, and (that 
 being decided in the affirmative) it is then taken on 
 the insertion. In the event of a negative decision of 
 the motion to strike out, the motion to insert does not 
 of course follow. 
 
 125. When the motion to amend by striking out one 
 thing, and inserting another in its place, is once put and 
 
 * Jefferson's Manual, see. 35. 
 
140 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 lost in the undivided, or double form., can the same motion 
 be renewed ? 
 
 No motion to amend, whether to strike out, to insert, 
 or to strike out and insert, when once lost, can again 
 be moved in the same form.* 
 
 126. Is it in order to propose an amendment which is 
 inconsistent with an amendment already adopted ? 
 
 An amendment which is in conflict with one al- 
 ready accepted, is certainly out of order, and ought at 
 once to be rejected. 
 
 127. Is it not the duty of the presiding officer in such 
 case to reject, or suppress, such an amendment, if proposed? 
 
 Though an amendment that is incompatible with 
 one already approved by the assembly, offers, by that 
 very circumstance, a fit ground for its rejection by the 
 assembly, it is not competent for the presiding officer 
 to suppress it, as being contrary to order ; for, were he 
 allowed to bring questions of consistency like this 
 within the circle of the rules of order, he might often 
 usurp a negative on important modifications, and defeat 
 instead of subserving the will of the assembly. 
 
 128. What is the proper mode of stating a motion to 
 amend ? 
 
 The proper mode of stating a proposition to amend, 
 is first to read the whole passage to be amended, — then 
 the words proposed to be struck out, or the words pro 
 
 * See answers to questions 122 and 123. 
 
MOTIONS TO AMEjSTD. 141 
 
 posed to be inserted, or the words proposed to be 
 struck out and those offered as a substitute, as the case 
 may be, — and, last of all, the whole passage as it will 
 stand when amended. 
 
 129. In what 'particular order, if any, must amend- 
 ments be put to the vote ? 
 
 An amendment must, of course, come to the vote be- 
 fore the main question, and, in like manner, an amend- 
 ment to an amendment must take the precedence. 
 But, in the event of there being several proposed 
 amendments to an amendment, they should be put to 
 the vote in the order in which they are moved ; not 
 however, because of any established order of prec- 
 edence, but in view of the fitness, or propriety of the 
 thing. 
 
 130. What is the proper form of the question on a mo- 
 tion to strike out f 
 
 The form in Parliament always is, — shall the words 
 proposed to be struck out stand as part of the princi- 
 pal question : the question being not, Shall they be struck 
 out, but Shall they stand f 
 
 But in this country, the form of the question always 
 is, — Shall the words be stricken out f* 
 
 131. What rank among privileged questions is held by 
 a motion to amend f 
 
 A motion to amend holds the same rank with the 
 previous question, and indefinite postponement ; con* 
 sequently, that which is first moved must be first put 
 
 * See JeflVson's Manual, sec. 35, and Cushing, p. 67. 
 
142 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 132. By what motions is the motion to amend liable to 
 be superseded? 
 
 The motion to amend is liable to be superseded by 
 a motion to postpone to a day certain, that is, to a par- 
 ticular time ; so that amendment and postponement 
 being in competition, the motion to postpone takes 
 precedence. 
 
 A motion to amend may also be superseded by a 
 motion to commit ; so that the latter motion being 
 offered while an amendment is under discussion, it 
 must be put to the vote first. 
 
 DIVISION OF A QUESTION, 
 
 133. What other changes, if any, in the nature of 
 amendments, can be wrought, by motion, upon propositions 
 before a deliberative assembly ? 
 
 There are several other changes which may be com- 
 prehended under the general name of amendments, to 
 which a proposition under discussion may be subjected. 
 Thus, it may be expedient to divide a question, or to 
 effect an addition, or union of several propositions, or 
 to transpose the different parts of a proposition, or to 
 fill up blanks designedly left for the action of the as- 
 sembly. 
 
 134. What do you mean by dividing a question ? 
 When a motion embraces several parts, each of which 
 
 forms substantially a separate proposition, the resolu- 
 tion of it into distinct motions, or questions is called 
 dividing the question. 
 
DIVISION OF A QUESTION". 143 
 
 135. What advantage is there in such a division of the 
 question, and how is it effected? 
 
 A motion may, in the form of a single proposition, 
 comprehend in reality two or more propositions, one or 
 more of which alone might be acceptable to the assem 
 bly, while the rest might be decidedly objectionable. 
 
 The advantage, therefore, of a division of the ques- 
 tion is, that it affords the assembly an opportunity to 
 receive, or to reject what part it thinks proper, and that, 
 without embarrassment. The division of a question is 
 effected by an order of the assembly, obtained upon 
 motion introduced in the usual way ; and when divided, 
 the several divisions, or proposition, into which it has 
 been resolved, must be voted upon and decided in the 
 order in which they stand. 
 
 136. What should he the character of a motion to divide 
 a question ? 
 
 A motion to divide a question should state particularly 
 the manner, in which it proposed to make the division. 
 
 137. Is a motion for a division of the question, itself ca- 
 pable of alteration, or amendment? 
 
 A motion to divide is subject to precisely the same 
 rules of amendment as any other. 
 
 138. Is it competent for any member that thinks proper 
 to require a division of the question ? 
 
 It is not unfrequentlv claimed that any member has 
 a right to demand the division of a question, and that 
 without a vote of the assembly. But for this claim 
 there is no good foundation, unless, as is sometimes the 
 case, there is a standing rule in the body to that effect. 
 "The fact is," (Jef. Man., Sect, xxxvi.) "that the only 
 
144 KULES OF OEDEK. 
 
 mode of separating a complicated question is by mov- 
 ing amendments to it ;" or by an order of the assem- 
 bly obtained, as before said, upon motion introduced, 
 and carried in the usual way. 
 
 139. Under what circumstances is an addition, or union 
 of the parts of a question, expedient? 
 
 Whenever, as often occurs, a motion embraces in 
 form two propositions, while in substance there really 
 exists but one, it is usually thought expedient to add 
 or unite the separate propositions, so as to present the 
 whole matter to the assembly as a single question. 
 
 140. What is the mode of proceeding in order to effect 
 such addition fir union ? 
 
 The addition, or union maybe effected, either by voting 
 down one of the propositions, and then incorporating 
 its substance with the other, or by referring the whole 
 matter to a committee, with instructions to put the two 
 propositions in the form of a single question, or motion. 
 
 141. What is the process in the case of transposition ? 
 Whenever it is deemed expedient to transpose a 
 
 clause, paragraph, or section, there should be a motion 
 to remove it from the place where it is, and another to 
 insert it in the place preferred. 
 
 THE FILLING OF BLANKS. 
 
 142. What is the order, or process observed in filling 
 blanks f 
 
 When blanks' for the insertion of particular times 
 or numbers are designedly left in a proposition to be 
 filled by a vote of the asssembly, the motions to fill 
 such, blanks are dealt with, not as amendments, but as 
 
ORDERS OF THE DAY. 145 
 
 original motions, and must be decided upon before put- 
 ting the main question. 
 
 In the event of there being several different propo- 
 sitions respecting the times or numbers proper to fill 
 the blanks, the general rule is, to put the question first 
 on the longest time and the largest sum. In the British. 
 House of Commons, however the rule is that the ques- 
 tion shall be put first on the smallest sum, and the long- 
 est time.* 
 
 ORDERS OF THE DAY. 
 
 143. What is meant by the orders of the day ? 
 
 It is often expedient to order, by resolution, a partic- 
 ular subject to be brought up for consideration on a par- 
 ticular day. Subjects thus ordered, or appointed for a 
 specified time, are called the orders of the day for that 
 particular day. 
 
 * The rule laid down in Jefferson's Manual, and that which gen- 
 erally prevails where there is no special rule to the contrary, is thus 
 expressed (in Section xxxiii): "In all cases of time or number, we 
 must consider whether the larger comprehends the lesser, as in a 
 question to what day a postponement shall be, the number of a com- 
 mittee, amount of a fine, term of an imprisonment, term of irre- 
 deemability of a loan, or the terminus in quern {limit to which) in any 
 other case. Then the question must begin d maxima (from the great- 
 est). Or whether the lesser includes the greater, as in questions on 
 the limitation of the rate of interest, on what day the session shall 
 be closed by adjournment, on what day the next shall commence, 
 when an act shall commence, or the terminus d quo (the limit from 
 which) in any other case, where the question must begin a minimc 
 (from the least). The object being not to begin at that extreme 
 which and more being within every man's wish, no one could nega- 
 tive it, and yet if we should vote in the affirmative, every question 
 for more would be precluded; but at that extreme which would 
 unite few, and then advance or recede till you get to a number 
 which will unite a bare majority." 
 
 7 
 
146 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 144. When a question is thus assigned for a given day % 
 is it necessary to specify the "particular hour of the day? . 
 
 If no particular hour of the day is specified, the or- 
 der, or subject appointed, may claim, and is entitled 
 to the entire clay. If, however, a particular time of 
 the day is named, the order of the day cannot be made 
 a privileged questicm; that is, cannot supersede any 
 pending question, till the appointed hour arrrives. 
 
 145. What is the rank of a motion for the orders of 
 the day f 
 
 A motion for the orders of the day commonly takes 
 precedence of all other business, except a motion to 
 adjourn, or a question of privilege. 
 
 146. Supposing several orders, or subjects to have been 
 assigned for the same day, can the motion for the orders of 
 the day be used to call up one of them in particular to the 
 exclusion of the rest ? 
 
 It cannot ; the motions must be for the orders of the 
 day collectively. 
 
 147. How, then, in case of dispute, can it be decided 
 which shall be acted upon first? 
 
 The rule established by custom is, that they shall 
 be taken up in the order, in which they stand on the 
 record. 
 
 148. Suppose, of several orders appointed for the same 
 day, one only is assigned for a particular hour, can the 
 rest, in the event of their being time sufficient, be acted upon 
 before that hour ? 
 
 If, among several orders of the day, one is named for 
 
ORDERS OF THE DAY. 147 
 
 a particular hour, the rest may be acted on in due suc- 
 cession, as they stand upon the record, till that hour 
 arrives ; when the subject appropriate to it must come 
 up next in order. 
 
 149. Suppose that none of the orders are taken up before 
 the hour fixed upon far that particular one, what course is 
 then pursued? 
 
 The order for that particular hour is first considered, 
 and the rest follow as they stand on the record. 
 
 150. Suppose the motion for the orders of the day he de- 
 cided in the negative, what then is the course to be taken ? 
 
 In the event of a motion for the orders of the day 
 being decided in the negative, the pending question is 
 thereby entitled to be first considered, and decided 
 upon. 
 
 151. Can a motion fbr the orders of the day be made, 
 while a member is speaking ? 
 
 A motion for the ore lers of the day cannot be made, 
 while a member is speaking, because it is a breach of 
 order to interrupt him, while speaking, unless by a call 
 to order. 
 
 152. What becomes of a question, or proposition which 
 has been superseded by a motion for the orders of the 
 day? 
 
 A question superseded by a motion for the orders of 
 the day, is removed entirely from before the assembly, 
 and, if renewed, must be brought up de novo in the or- 
 dinary way. 
 
148 KTJLES OF ORDER. 
 
 153. In the event of an omission to act upon the orders 
 of the day on the day appointed, what becomes of them ? 
 
 Orders of the day, if not acted upon on the day ap- 
 pointed for them, are thereby made of no effect ; that 
 is, they cannot, unless renewed for some other day, be 
 regarded in the light of privileged questions. 
 
 But, in case of a special rule or by-law to that ef- 
 fect, orders for a given day, when not disposed of on 
 the day appointed, may have precedence on every day 
 thereafter, till finally decided upon. 
 
 154. Can orders of the day, when once made and ap- 
 pointed, be discharged? 
 
 Orders of the day may be discharged at any time, 
 and a new order made for a different day. 
 
 QUESTIONS OF PRIVILEGE. 
 
 155. What are questions of privilege ? 
 
 Questions of privilege are those that involve the 
 rights and privileges of individual members, or of the 
 whole body taken collectively : as where a dispute 
 arises respecting the presence of persons not belonging 
 to the body, or where a quarrel takes place between 
 members themselves. 
 
 156. What rank does a question of privilege hold among 
 privileged questions ? 
 
 A question of privilege prevails for the time, over 
 all other propositions, except a motion to adjourn. 
 
QUESTIONS OF ORDER. 149 
 
 157. What "becomes of a proposition that has been super- 
 seded by a question of privilege ? 
 
 A proposition superseded by a question of privilege, 
 is regarded as still pending, and must be taken up 
 again just where it was left off. 
 
 QUESTIONS OF ORDER. 
 
 158. What are questions of order ? 
 
 It is the right and the duty of every member of a 
 deliberative assembly to see, as far as may be, that the 
 rules of order, in every proceeding, be duly observed. 
 He may, therefore, and should in all cases of a breach 
 of the rules, rise to the point of order, and insist upon 
 its being duly enforced. 
 
 But, if in a case of this kind, a difference of opinion 
 exists, as to whether a rule has been violated or not, 
 the question, which is thence called a question of or- 
 der, must be determined before the application of the 
 rule can be insisted upon. 
 
 159. But how is it to be determined? 
 
 A question of order is usually settled by the decision 
 of the chair and without debate. If, however, the de- 
 cision of the president be deemed unsatisfactory, it is 
 competent for any member to appeal from that decision, 
 and demand a vote of the house on the matter. 
 
 On an appeal, the question is stated by the presiding 
 officer, and usually in this form : " Shall the decision of 
 the chair be sustained V or, " Shall the decision of the chair 
 stand as the decision of the assembly P 
 
150 RULES OF CKDER. 
 
 160. Is a motion on an appeal, like this, debatable? 
 
 A motion on an appeal from the decision of the chair 
 is to be debated, and in all respects treated like any 
 other question ; and, what is altogether against order 
 in other cases, the presiding officer is permitted to par 
 ticipate in the debate. 
 
 161. What effect, if any, beyond the mere delay, is pro* 
 duced upon a pending proposition by the introduction of a 
 question of order ? 
 
 It sometimes happens, that the decision of a question 
 of order disposes of the question out of which it arose ; 
 but, with this exception, a pending proposition remains 
 wholly unaffected by the introduction and decision of 
 a question of order, and the consideration of it is to 
 be resumed just at the point, where it was interrupted. 
 
 MOTIONS FOR THE READING OF PAPERS. 
 
 162. When, if not always, is it necessary to introduce 
 a motion for the reading of papers ? 
 
 When papers, or documents of any kind are laid be- 
 fore a deliberative assembly, every member has a right 
 to have them read once before he can be required to 
 vote upon them. 
 
 Accordingly, when the reading of a paper which has- 
 immediate reference to the matter under discussion is 
 called for, the paper is of course read by the clerk, or 
 secretary, without the formality of a vote to that 
 effect. 
 
MOTIONS FOR THE READING OF PAPERS. 151 
 
 163. Has, then, any member, the right at any time, to 
 call for the reading of any paper that he may deem perti- 
 nent to the matter under debate ? 
 
 No member has a right to read or have read any 
 book, paper, or other document, which is not obviously 
 essential to a right understanding of the question 
 before the house. This is manifestly a very proper 
 limitation ; for without it, such delay and embarrass- 
 ment would often ensue as to prevent the transaction 
 of the most important business. 
 
 When, therefore, a member desires to read or have 
 lead a paper that seems to transcend the limits within 
 which such reading ought to be confined, even though 
 it should be his own previously prepared speech on 
 the subject, he must, for this purpose, if any one 
 objects, obtain permission so to do by a vote of the 
 assembly. 
 
 164. Is the reading of a paper ordinarily objected to in 
 an assembly ? 
 
 That depends upon its apparent aim, or obvious 
 tendency. If the aim clearly is to shed light upon the 
 subject, and so conduce to a more intelligent disposi- 
 tion of it, the paper is ordinarily read, under the direc- 
 tion of the presiding officer, without the least objec- 
 tion. But, when the purpose of the proposed reading 
 is obviously to create delay, or where, for any reason, 
 it seems likely to operate as an abuse of the time and 
 patience of the assembly, it is generally met with a 
 most decided negative. 
 
152 EULES OF ORDEK. 
 
 MOTIONS FOE THE WITHDRAWAL OF MOTION. 
 
 165. When is it necessary to offer a motion for the 
 withdrawal of a motion ? 
 
 When a motion is once moved, seconded, and stated 
 from tlie chair, it is thereafter the property of the 
 house, and cannot be withdrawn by the mover.* 
 
 If, however, the mover, either for the purpose of 
 modifying it, or substituting another in its place, or for 
 any other purpose, desires to withdraw it from the 
 House, he is not at liberty so to do, without leave ob- 
 tained by a motion to that effect, regularly made and 
 passed in the usual way. If the motion for a with- 
 drawal is negatived, the matter must be treated just as 
 if no motion to withdraw had been proposed. 
 
 MOTIONS FOR THE SUSPENSION OF RULES. 
 
 166. When is a motion for the suspension of a rule 
 necessary ? 
 
 When anything is proposed which is forbidden by a 
 special rule, but which is deemed to be of such import- 
 ance as to warrant a suspension of that rule, it is nec- 
 essary to make a motion to that effect. Of course, the 
 motion to suspend precedes the original motion. 
 
 * This is the rule in Parliament, and the general rule in the Leg- 
 islative bodies of this country. There are, however, exceptions to it ; 
 as in the state Legislature of Pennsylvania ; where a motion, or 
 resolution may be withdrawn by the mover at any time previous to 
 an amendment, or a final decision. 
 
MOTION TO RECONSIDER. 153 
 
 167. Can a motion to suspend the operation of a special 
 rule, be carried by the will of a bare majority ? 
 
 If there be no standing-rule, or by-law to the con- 
 trary, a motion to suspend, like any other motion, is 
 carried by a vote of the majority. But, in most delib- 
 erative assemblies, there is an established rule on the 
 subject, y\ r hereby a motion to suspend, in order to be 
 successful, must have a fixed number of votes ; as two- 
 thirds, or three-fourths, for example. 
 
 MOTIOX TO RECOXSIDER. 
 
 168. What is a motion to reconsider ? 
 
 As the members of an assembly are individually 
 liable to mistakes, so, in their collective capacity, they 
 sometimes find themselves in error. The result is, 
 that in Parliament, where a vote once given is ac- 
 counted unchangeable, great inconvenience ensues, 
 when^it is found, as must occasionally happen, that 
 such vote grew out of, error or misconception. 
 
 The embarrassments resulting from a rigid adher- 
 ence to this rule have been avoided, in this country, 
 by the introduction of what is called the motion to 
 reconsider ; whereby a decision found to be erro- 
 neous may be reviewed and revised. 
 
 169. Under what restrictions, if any, must the motion 
 to reconsider be made ? 
 
 The time within which, and the parties by whom, a 
 motion to reconsider shall be made, are, in many cases, 
 fixed by a special rule. Thus, in Congress, a motion 
 to reconsider mast be made, either on the same day, 
 
154 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 or on the day after the passage of the resolution to 
 which it relates. 
 
 In respect to the parties by whom a motion to re- 
 consider shall be made, it is a general rule that the 
 proposition must emanate from some member who 
 voted with the majority. 
 
 170. In ivhat condition does a motion to reconsider, if 
 decided in the affirmative, place the pending subject ? 
 
 Should a motion to reconsider prevail, the position 
 of the subject, to which it refers, is exactly what it was 
 before the decision which made the reconsideration 
 necessary. It may, therefore, be resumed at that 
 point, and disposed of according to the pleasure of the 
 assembly. 
 
 171. Is the motion to reconsider a privileged one ? 
 
 A motion to reconsider, in the House of Kepresent- 
 atives, takes precedence of all other motions, except 
 the motion to adjourn ; and, wherever the time within 
 which a motion to reconsider is fixed by special rule, 
 it ought thus to have the precedence. 
 
 But, where no limitation of time is fixed by rule, 
 that motion has no privilege over a pending question, 
 and is liable itself to be superseded by a privileged 
 motion. 
 
 (a.) Is the motion to reconsider debatable ? 
 
 The motion to reconsider is debatable, though it is 
 not allowable, in such debate, to go into the merits of 
 the main question. The frequent disregard of this im- 
 portant distinction has led many to hold that the mo- 
 tion to reconsider is itself undebatable. 
 
SECTION VIII. 
 
 ORDER OF BUSINESS. 
 
 172. When a variety of subjects offer themselves for the 
 consideration of a deliberative body, what particular order \ 
 if any, is observed in taking them up ? 
 
 In almost all permanently organized bodies, there is 
 a particular order of business established by a special 
 rule, or by-law. But, where no such rule exists, the 
 President, unless the matter is, for the time, otherwise 
 ordered by a vote of the assembly, introduces business 
 according to Iris pleasure, or sense of propriety in the 
 case. 
 
 173. What advantage, if any, results from a standing 
 rule fixing the order of business f 
 
 A standing rule, or order of business affords several 
 important advantages. It saves time ; it secures to each 
 topic its proper place ; and, therefore, prevents disputes 
 about precedency, and so facilitates the transaction of 
 business. 
 
 174. Must the standing-rule, or order of business, where 
 there is one, always be adhered to ? 
 
 A rule fixing the order of business, like any other 
 rule, may, upon proper occasion, of course, be suspended. 
 
156 KULES OF OKDER. 
 
 175. In cases whce the minutes of a previous meeting 
 are read, is it necessary to approve them by a formal motion ? 
 
 It is quite customary, after the reading of the min- 
 utes, for a formal motion of approval to be made and 
 submitted ; but such formal action does not appear to 
 be necessary. 
 
 For, as they must, if correct, be approved, no mo- 
 tion is needed, unless some error is detected in them. 
 Ordinarily, therefore, where no mistake is discovered, 
 it is quite sufficient for the President to say in sub- 
 stance: — " What is the pleasure of the meeting in regard 
 to the minutes which have just been read? If there be no 
 objection, they will be considered as approved." In the 
 event of there being no objection, he simply adds : " The 
 minutes, then, stand approved." 
 
 176. Suppose an error is detected, what then is done ? 
 
 In case of the existence of an error in the minutes, 
 a motion is made to correct, and the correction being 
 made, the President, in submitting the question, says : 
 " Shall the minutes, as corrected, be approved?" If de- 
 cided affirmatively, he simply announces the result, 
 and thus the matter ends.* 
 
 177. What is the next step after the approval of the 
 minutes ? 
 
 Immediately after the approval of the minutes, the 
 President announces the first business, in order, accord- 
 
 * The minutes, strictly speaking, should contain an account of noth- 
 ing beyond the acts of the body, — what they do, in the appointed 
 method, that is, by motions, orders, or resolutions". 
 
ORDER OF BUSINESS. 157 
 
 ing to the special rule, if there be one, or if not, what- 
 ever he deems appropriate first to introduce. 
 
 178. Suppose the first business in order to he the presen- 
 tation of petitions, memorials, or other communications, in 
 what way are they to be introduced ? 
 
 Any member charged with the presentation of a pe- 
 tition, or other communication, should, when the proper 
 time arrives, rise in his place, with the paper in his 
 hand, and announce that he has been commissioned to 
 present such a paper. He then briefly describes the 
 character of the document, and unless anticipated in 
 so doing by another member, moves that it be received. 
 
 179. Is the member who presents such petition, or other 
 communication, responsible, in any wise, for the character 
 of its contents ? 
 
 The member that presents a petition or any other 
 communication, should be prepared beforehand to give, 
 if required, a summary of its contents, and to vouch 
 for the decency and respectfulness of its language and 
 sentiments. 
 
 180. Is it in order for parties who are not members of 
 the body, to appear therein, and introduce communications? 
 
 A petition or other communication should always be 
 presented by a member, specially entrusted with that 
 service by the parties from whom it emanates, or by 
 others immediately interested in its contents. But 
 letters and other ordinary communications are usually 
 handed to the President, and b}^ him or by the secre- 
 tary read without further formality. 
 
158 KULES OF OKDER. 
 
 181. If received, what further action is taken upon it? 
 If the document be received, it is then handed to 
 
 the secretary to be read. This being done, the Pres- 
 ident asks what order shall be taken upon it : where- 
 upon, a motion for that purpose being made, it is either 
 acted upon immediately by the assembly, or set down 
 for a particular time, or referred to a committee, or 
 else postponed indefinitely. 
 
 182. Supposing the next thing in order to be reports 
 from committees, in what way are they to be introduced ? 
 
 The time being come for reports from committees, 
 the President, commencing with the first on his list, 
 asks aloud : " Is the committee on (naming the subject) 
 ready to report?" 
 
 The chairman of that committee, if present, or in 
 the event of his being absent, some other member of it, 
 then rises, and, if prepared to report, says: " The com- 
 mittee, Mr. President, to whom was referred the subject 
 (naming it) have had the matter under consideration, and 
 have instructed me to deliver a report, which is ready to be 
 presented whenever the assembly is pleased to receive it."* 
 
 183. Is a motion to receive such report necessary? 
 
 No motion to receive the report is necessary, or is 
 generally made, unless some objection to receiving it 
 is raised, or it is deemed expedient to fix some other 
 
 * If not prepared to report, he may simply announce, that the 
 committee is not prepared to report at this time, or he may report 
 progress, or make any statement, or explanation respecting the mat- 
 ter which may appear proper or expedient. 
 
ORDER OF BUSINESS. 159 
 
 time for receiving it. In either case, a motion must be 
 made, and submitted, in the usual way, either by the 
 chairman of the committee himself, or by some other 
 member of the body. 
 
 184. If it he decided to receive the report, what is the 
 ).ext step in the process ? 
 
 The report is then, by direction of the President, 
 read,* either by the chairman of the committee in his 
 place, or by the secretary. It is then, together with all 
 other papers connected with it, put in charge of the 
 secretary. 
 
 This being done, the President asks : " What order 
 shall he taken on the report which has just heen read? 
 
 185. In what way is it proper to respond to this ques- 
 tion, or what action does it call forth ? 
 
 As an assembly can dispose of a report of a com- 
 mittee just as they can of any other matter proposed 
 for their consideration, the question, " What order shall 
 be taken on the report ?" elicits, of course, from mem- 
 bers motions, either to accept, or adopt, to amend, f to 
 recommit, or to make any other regular disposition of 
 it whatever. 
 
 * Where reports are ordered to be printed before being acted 
 upon, as in legislative assemblies, the reading is rendered unnec- 
 essary. 
 
 j- It is, however, a disputed point, whether the report of a commit- 
 tee can be amended by the assembly. The best usage seems to be 
 against it. Still, according to high authority, a report may be 
 amended just as well as a resolution. Perhaps, the more courteous 
 way is to re-commit with instructions. 
 
160 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 186. What is the effect of a motion to accept, or adopt, 
 if carried in the affirmative f 
 
 A paper accepted, or adopted by a formal vote of a 
 deliberative assembly, thereby becomes the statement, 
 or sentiment of the assembly itself; for the acts and 
 judgments of the committee, when once adopted in 
 due form, are, by that circumstance, made the acts and 
 judgments of the body, under whose orders they un- 
 dertook the consideration of the subject. 
 
 187. Would it be out of order to move the acceptance of 
 a report, and the adoption of the resolutions thereto ap- 
 pended, separately. 
 
 It is not only not out of order, but, in fact, the better 
 way, first, to accept the report by a regular motion 
 to that effect, and then adopt the resolutions, if satis- 
 factory, by a separate vote ; for, in the resolutions, or 
 recommendations of a committee, indeed, we have a 
 direct expression of the conclusions to which they have 
 been led, and therefore a distinct motion to adopt these, 
 as the conclusions of the body at large seems highly 
 proper, if not essential. 
 
 188. What difference of import is there, in this connec- 
 tion, between the terms "accept" and " adopt?" 
 
 Accept and adopt, when applied generally to a report, 
 or other document submitted to a deliberative body, 
 are usually understood to denote the same thing ; but 
 a more discriminating usage confines the term "adopt" 
 to that act by which the assembly directly and dis- 
 tinctly take, and treat as their own the resolutions, or 
 
ORDER OF BUSINESS. 161 
 
 recommendations of a report, or other like document ; 
 while the term "accept" is employed in relation to pa- 
 pers containing statements of fact, arguments, or rea- 
 sonings, out of which conclusions are to be educed. 
 
 189. When the report of a committee consists of a paper 
 referred to them for alteration, or amendment, what is the 
 order of proceeding ? 
 
 When the report of a committee embraces merely a 
 paper with amendments, the chairman of the commit- 
 tee reads the amendments with the coherence or proper 
 connections, explains the reasons of the alterations, if 
 necessarj", and so exhibits, in order throughout, all the 
 changes proposed. The report is then, of course, put 
 in charge of the clerk, or secretary. 
 
 When taken up for consideration by the assembly 
 the amendments only are read by the clerk, or secre- 
 tary. The President then reads each in course, and sub- 
 mits them successively to a vote of the assembly. 
 
 190. Is it not allowable, during this process, for mem- 
 bers to offer other amendments ? 
 
 While the assembly is engaged in disposing of amend- 
 ments proposed by the committee, it is not in order to 
 receive any other amendment, except, of course, an 
 amendment to an amendment, which must then be 
 made, or not made at all. 
 
 191. What opportunity, if any, is allowed for amend- 
 ments by the assembly ? 
 
 The amendments suggested by the committee being 
 decided upon, the President before putting the question 
 
162 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 on the whole paper, as amended, or not, as the case may 
 stand, waits a moment to hear, if any, other amend- 
 ments from the assembly, which, are then in order. 
 
 192. May a subject on which a report has once been 
 made and presented, be re-committed ? 
 
 A subject may be re-committed as often as the as- 
 sembly please, either to the same, or to a different 
 committee. 
 
 193. When, if ever, is the proper time to hear a report 
 from the minority of a committee ? 
 
 The motion to hear the report of the minority should 
 follow immediately the reading of that from the ma- 
 jority. Thereafter, both reports being the property of 
 the house, they may be disposed of according to the 
 pleasure of the assembly.* 
 
 194. If for any cause, a committee find it inexpedient, 
 
 * On the mode of proceeding respecting a minority report, 
 Mathias (page 38) has the following: — 
 
 " Should a committee not be unanimous in opinion, and those in 
 the minority be desirous of placing their views before the meeting, 
 the matter should be introduced immediately after the majority re- 
 port has been read. A member will then move that 'the report 
 and resolution thereto attached be postponed for the present, for 
 the purpose of enabling the minority to present their report/ If 
 this motion prevails, as is almost always the case, the minority re- 
 port will be immediately presented, received and read. It is then 
 in order, on motion, to take up for consideration the resolution at- 
 tached to either of the reports. 
 
 " If the minority are not prepared to report, a motion may be made 
 to postpone the majority report until the next meeting, in order to 
 enable the minority to get their report ready." — See answer to 
 question 63, p. 66. 
 
ORDER OF BUSINESS. 163 
 
 or impracticable, to render a report, what course is taken 
 in relation to such a committee? 
 
 When, for s.nj cause, a committee deem it inexpe- 
 dient to make a report, the chairman, or some other 
 member of that committee should, when the report is 
 called for, rise in his place, and, after making a state- 
 ment of the case, move that the committee be dis- 
 charged from the further consideration of the subject. 
 
 195. Supposing a paper consisting of several distinct 
 propositions, or of a series of resolutions, to be laid before 
 an assembly, what order is observed in taking them up? 
 
 In considering a document embracing several prop- 
 ositions, or resolutions, the entire paper should first 
 be read by the secretary. This enables the members to 
 get a general and connected view of the whole matter. 
 
 Then, in order the more closely to consider, and, if 
 necessary, to amend each part in detail, the natural 
 order is to begin at the beginning, and go regularly 
 through by paragraphs or resolutions : the President 
 reading each in its turn, and pausing at the end of 
 each to receive and put, if need be, any amendments 
 offered.* 
 
 When all this is done, the President submits the 
 whole paper, amended, or unamended, as the case may 
 be, to a vote of the assembly on its final adoption. 
 
 * This order is so rigidly adhered to in Parliament that, when 
 the latter part of a paper has been amended, it is not allowable to 
 go back and make alterations in the previous sections, or paragraphs. 
 In the Senate of the United States, however, it is not forbidden to 
 recur to a former part of a paper, under deliberation, for the pur- 
 pose of amending it. 
 
164 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 196. In the case of a series of resolutions, is it not usual 
 to consider and adopt them separately ? 
 
 It is quite common, indeed it is the general custom, • 
 in case of a series of resolutions being laid before a 
 deliberative body, to put the question on each, resolu- 
 tion separately : the preamble, if any, being reserved, 
 and acted upon last of all. 
 
 197. Why should the preamble he reserved to the last? 
 The preamble should be reserved till the resolutions 
 
 have been disposed of, because in the event of their 
 being amended, it might require alteration to render it 
 appropriate, or should the resolutions be negatived, it 
 would, of course, fall to the ground altogether. 
 
 198. Can more than one subject be under consideration 
 at the same time ? 
 
 There can be but one main, or principal subject un- 
 der consideration in a deliberative assembly at once, 
 but there may be pending at the same time, a number 
 of incidental, or subsidiary questions, all which have 
 been explained already in the answers to questions un- 
 der the head of Privileged Questions. 
 
 199. When the business of a meeting seems to be fin- 
 ished, what course is taken by the President ? 
 
 Whenever a pause or cessation occurs in the pro- 
 ceedings, the President simply says : " There is no busi- 
 ness before the meeting.'''' This either brings ap new' 
 business, or a motion to adjourn. 
 
SECTION IX, 
 
 - 
 
 ORDEB OF DEBATE. 
 
 200. Wher. is it in order to rise and speak on a motion, 
 or proposition % 
 
 As a motion, or proposition is not fairly before a de- 
 liberative assembly, until moved, seconded, and stated 
 from the chair, it is never in order to rise and speak 
 on it, until it lias thus formally been introduced. 
 
 201. May the President engage in the delate ? 
 
 It being plainly incompatible with a due discharge 
 of his appropriate duties for the President, as a gen- 
 eral thing, to take part in the debates, he is not al- 
 lowed to do so, except in cases growing out of, or nat- 
 urally belonging to his official position. Thus, he may, 
 and ought, when desirable, to explain points of order ; 
 he may give information of facts bearing upon the busi- 
 ness under deliberation ; and, in the event of an appeal 
 from his decision on questions of order, he is free to 
 engage in any debate thereupon. 
 
 When, however, the presiding officer does rise to 
 speak, he is entitled to be heard even before a mem- 
 ber who may be already on the floor. In such case. 
 
166 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 the member standing should take his seat, till the 
 President has finished. 
 
 202. Can a member once fairly in possession of the 
 floor, be refused a hearing ? 
 
 He that fairly gets the floor, is fully entitled to be 
 heard. He cannot be interrupted by a call for adjourn- 
 ment, or for the orders of the day, or for the ques- 
 tion ; for this is not making a regular motion. " Such 
 calls are themselves," says Jefferson, " breaches of 
 order." 
 
 203. In case of a dispute, or of conflicting claims to the 
 floor, who is to decide ? 
 
 If several members rise and address the chair at 
 once, or nearly at once, the President is to grant the pre- 
 cedence to him whose voice is first heard. But it is 
 competent for any member to question this decision, 
 and to ask a vote of the assembly thereupon. In case 
 of a vote, the question is first taken on the claim 
 of the member, in whose favor the President has 
 decided. 
 
 204. Is it ever in order to interrupt a member when 
 speaking on a subject before the house ? 
 
 It is never in order, as a general rule, to interrupt a 
 member while addressing the house, except by a call 
 to order ;* that is, he cannot rightfully be interrupted 
 in his speech by a member rising and proposing to 
 
 * It is, in some assemblies, allowable for a member to interrupt a 
 speaker in order to make an explanation. 
 
ORDER OF DEBATE. 167 
 
 adjourn, or making any other like privileged mo- 
 tion." 35. 
 
 Yet this rule is not to be so construed or interpreted 
 as to preclude all possible cases or contingences, for 
 such a construction of it would sometimes work great- 
 er mischief than that which it is intended to prevent. 
 Thus, cases may arise, in which it may be of the high- 
 est moment to interrupt a speaker, in order to announce 
 facts or information of immediate and pressing interest 
 or necessity. 
 
 The whole aim of the rule is to secure a member 
 who has the floor, and is speaking, from all wanton or 
 abusive interruption, as long as he himself observes 
 the rules of order and the decencies of debate. 
 
 205. Does a call to order prevent a speaker from 
 finishing his speech ? 
 
 When the question raised by a call to order has been 
 decided, the speaker is still in possession of his right 
 to proceed ; nor can he be arrested, as before said, even 
 by a motion to adjourn. His right is to a full hearing. 
 
 There are some deliberative bodies, in which a rule 
 is laid down, fixing the limits in respect to time, within 
 which every speaker is to be confined. But, even 
 where no such rule exists, a tedious or offensive speak- 
 er, though his right to proceed is not questioned, is gen- 
 erally made, by certain indications of impatience in the 
 audience, to see the propriety of closing his speech. 
 
 * Sometimes, in order to hasten the decision of a question some 
 member will call out — Question I Question ! even while a speaker is 
 on the floor. This is usually regarded as the greatest rudeness ; 
 though often resorted to in order to get rid of a tiresome speaker. 
 
168 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 206. Is a speaker who, for some special purpose, volun- 
 tarily yields the floor, in favor af another, entitled as soon 
 as the object of the interruption is gained, to go on with his 
 speech ? 
 
 As a matter of favor, or concession, but not as a mat- 
 ter of right, a speaker who temporarily yields the floor 
 in favor of another, is generally permitted, immediately 
 after the interruption, to resume his remarks. If the 
 privilege be denied, he cannot claim it as a right. 
 
 207. Does a person speaking in a deliberative assembly, 
 address himself formally to the assembly, or to the presid- 
 ing officer? 
 
 Whenever a member of a deliberative assembly pro- 
 poses to speak upon a matter in debate, he is expected 
 to rise in his place, with head uncovered, and address 
 himself, inform, directly to the presiding officer: say- 
 ing, " Mr. President, Mr. Chairman,'''' or whatever else 
 may be his title in the body. Thereupon the President 
 addresses the speaker by name, and so introduces 
 and commends him to the attention of the meet- 
 ing. 
 
 208. When a member is speaking, is it in order to des- 
 ignate other members to whom he wishes to refer, by their 
 names ? 
 
 It is not in order, neither is it considered in good 
 taste, in debate, for a speaker to designate other mem- 
 bers by their names : the modes of expression for this 
 purpose being, — " The gentleman who has just taken his 
 seat," or, " The member on the other side of the house,' 1 '' or, 
 " The last speaker but one,'' or some other like indication. 
 
ORDER OF DEBATE. 169 
 
 209. Wliat restriction, if any, is a speaker under in re- 
 gard to the mode of discussing a subject? 
 
 Every speaker is bound to confine himself to the 
 question. This is the common and necessary rule. 
 But it must be liberally interpreted, and never, under 
 color of cutting off digressions, be made to hinder a 
 full and free expression of sentiment. 
 
 210. Under what restrictions, if any, is a speaker, in 
 relation to his mode of treating other members engaged in 
 the debate ? 
 
 Every speaker is bound to avoid personalities ; that 
 is, he is not to use harsh, reviling, or unmannerly 
 words of any kind in relation to others engaged in the 
 debate ; but to exercise, in all respects, a courteous 
 and gentlemanly deportment : principles and meas- 
 ures, not the character and motives of those who advo- 
 cate them, being the proper subject of animadversion 
 and reprobation. 
 
 211. Under what restriction, if any, is a speaker in 
 respect to his mode of treating the resolves, or other proceed- 
 ings of the assembly ? 
 
 Every speaker is bound to refrain from the use of 
 reproachful or indecent language in regard to the pre- 
 vious acts, or decisions of the assembly, or any of its 
 committees. He may, however, offer and support a 
 motion to rescind any act or resolution of the body, 
 and in so doing, indulge in the language of invective 
 or reprobation, so long as he violates not the rules of 
 debate. 
 
 8 
 
170 EULES OF OEDEE. 
 
 212. Is it in order for a member to be present, when the 
 assembly art deliberating upon matters, in which he is per- 
 sonally concerned f 
 
 It is neither in order, nor in decency for a member 
 to be present in the assembly, when lie is personally 
 interested in the matter under debate. 
 
 213. What, if anything, is done, when a member m 
 addressing the assembly, makes use of language that is in- 
 sidting to another member, or to the body at large ? 
 
 When a member in speaking, indulges in language 
 abusive or insulting to other members, or to the body 
 generally, he is usually interrupted in his speech by 
 members calling him to order. In that case, the party 
 aggrieved, or objecting to the language, is requested by 
 the President, or proceeds of his own accord, either to 
 repeat, or reduce to writing the exact words complained 
 of, so that they may be recorded by the clerk, or sec- 
 retary. 
 
 214. Must the words be so recorded? 
 
 The words, upon being repeated, may be, or appear 
 to be, less offensive, or insulting than had been sup- 
 posed. In that event, the President may hesitate, and 
 unless forced by calls to that effect from the assembly, 
 or by a resolution duly passed, he may, in his discre- 
 tion, allow the affair to pass over by not directing the 
 clerk to take the words down. If that, however, be 
 the clear wish of the assembly, however expressed, the 
 words must be recorded, and the matter in due form 
 settled. 
 
ORDEIl OF DEBATE. 171 
 
 215. Supposing the objectionable words to be taken doivn 
 by order of the President, or that of the assembly, what 
 follows ? 
 
 The words being recorded by the clerk, or secretary, 
 are to be read to the member who is charged with 
 using them ; and, if he denies them to be the words 
 which he used, the judgment, or testimony of the as- 
 sembly is taken by a vote on the question whether the 
 words recorded b} r the clerk, and imputed to him, be 
 really liis, or not. Before taking the question, how- 
 ever, it is competent for the assembly so to amend, or 
 alter the words taken down, as to bring them, if pos- 
 sible, nearer to what, in their judgment, the offending 
 member actually did say. 
 
 216. What if the member does not deny the words? 
 
 If the words imputed be not denied, or if the assem- 
 bly decides them to be truly reported, the member is at 
 liberty either to justify them, or to show that, as he 
 used them, they are not liable to the charge of being 
 disorderly, or finally, to make such apology as is due 
 under the circumstances. If the justification, or ex- 
 planation, be deemed satisfactory, or the apology, if he 
 make one, acceptable, there the matter terminates ; 
 and he is permitted to resume, and go on with his 
 speech. 
 
 217. How is it ascertained whether, or not the assembly 
 is satisfied with the justification, or explanation, or apol- 
 ogy, whichever it may be ? 
 
 Whether, in such case, the assembly is satisfied, or 
 
172 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 not, is known by their silent acquiescence: the pre- 
 sumption being, that where none object, all agree. 
 
 But should any two members insist, that the sense 
 of the body should be taken on the character of the 
 words, or on the guilt or innocence of the person using 
 them, the member must withdraw before that question 
 is stated. After his withdrawal, the question is to be 
 taken, and the penalty, if any, fixed by a vote of the 
 assembly. 
 
 218. Must the complaint against a member for using 
 offensive language, be entered immediately ? 
 
 A complaint against a member for using disorderly, 
 or offensive words, must be entered, if at all, at the time 
 the offense is given.* This is a most necessary rule, for 
 if the words be not written down immediatelv, mistakes 
 will occur, and no security will be afforded to any one 
 against mistaken or malicious charges of disorder. 
 
 If, therefore, the speech of another member, or any 
 other business, be allowed to intervene between the 
 time of using the words alleged to be disorderly, and 
 that of making the complaint, such complaint is not to 
 be entertained. 
 
 219. Suppose the presiding officer finds it impossible 
 to restrain a disorderly member, what is his last resort ? 
 
 In case of persistent disorder, it is the duty of the 
 presiding officer to designate by name the offender. 
 After a statement of the nature of the offense from 
 the President, the assembly should decide upon the 
 punishment, if any, due to the transgression. 
 
 * Compare, however, Jefferson and Cushing on this point. 
 
SECTION X. 
 
 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 TJNDER this head we here insert a couple of debates, 
 ^ for the purpose of affording a sort of practical il- 
 lustration of the mode of conducting a public discuss- 
 ion. They are, however, in no sense set up as mod- 
 els, in respect to style, expression, or logic. Theirs is 
 an humbler, though a useful aim. They are designed 
 simply to impart, or indicate something of the form and 
 spirit of those real transactions which almost daily oc- 
 cur in deliberative assemblies. They are merely sug- 
 gestive. 
 
 These debates may be used as exercises in declama- 
 tion, each speaker being represented by a different per- 
 son. In such case, moreover, the speakers might be 
 encouraged to add to, or amplify the arguments and 
 illustrations in their several parts, and so give a sort of 
 original interest to the exercise. Especial care should 
 be taken to preserve the formalities and the decorum 
 proper to the occasion ; for these are things that be- 
 come familiar only by practice. 
 
174 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 DEBATE. 
 
 WHICH IS THE MORE PERNICIOUS CHARACTER, THE 
 SLANDERER OR THE FLATTERER? 
 
 FIRST SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — It will not, 1 hope, be thought cap 
 tious in me, if I venture to intimate my doubts about 
 the wisdom of proposing such a question, as that which 
 is to form the topic of this discussion. If, in so doing, 
 I should be considered as intentionally impugning the 
 judgment, or wounding the feelings of those whose 
 province it is to furnish us with subjects of debate, I 
 should be sadly misinterpreted. I beg leave, therefore, 
 irt the outset, to disclaim any and every purpose of dis- 
 paragement, that might be inferred from the position 
 which I take on the present occasion. 
 
 Evil speaking, sir, which is the Bible expression for 
 slander, is a crime of the darkest character ; so much 
 more heinous than flattery, that it seems almost like 
 sharing in the guilt of slander to assume, as this ques- 
 tion does, that the two things differ from each other so 
 slightly, as to make it difficult to determine their com- 
 parative iniquity and enormity. 
 
 Slander, Mr. President, is among the most cruel, as 
 it certainly is among the most criminal things in the 
 world. It justly ranks, in the common estimation, with 
 theft and with murder ; and often, therefore, in meta- 
 phor, does it bear these odious names. Nothing, ac- 
 cordingly, is more common, even in prose, to say no- 
 thing of poetry, than such expressions as, " to rob one 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 175 
 
 of his good name," "to stab one's reputation :" steal- 
 ing, stabbing and slandering being, it would seem, 
 closely allied in guilt, and naturally associated in the 
 mind. 
 
 Though these, sir, are my views of slander, I would 
 not, on that account, have you imagine, that I stand 
 here as the apologist of flattery. On the contrary, I 
 am prepared, on every proper occasion, to condemn 
 this latter vice in terms quite as severe as the most 
 rigid moralist could either wish, or require. 
 
 Still, sir, that would not prove the justice of the 
 comparison here instituted. Flattery is bad ; slander 
 is bad ; but are they equally bad, or so nearly alike in 
 power for mischief, as to warrant serious doubts about 
 their comparative malignity ? Certainly not. 
 
 In the flatterer, generally, you find no evil intent 
 His conduct exhibits weakness, rather than wickedness ; 
 weakness deplorable, indeed, but not altogether unami- 
 able. In- the slanderer, on the contrary, you may 
 always detect the presence of malignant principle, — the 
 pointed, premeditated purpose to work the ruin of 
 character. Like the race whose wickedness brought 
 destruction by the flood, " every imagination of the 
 thoughts of his heart is only evil continually.'** 
 
 Even in their mildest developments, these two char- 
 acters differ immeasurably. There is a flattery, mov- 
 ing gently, and only by implication ; there is a slander, 
 moving secretly, and onbr by insinuation. The former 
 is delicate, not venturing to appear in words. The 
 latter is cunning, not daring to deal in direct accusa- 
 
 * Genesis, ch. vi., v. 5. 
 
176 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 tion. The one is cheerful, and hopes to van by the 
 appearance of admiration. The other is grave, and 
 calculates to succeed by an air of mystery. In the 
 one, you see the semblance of deference and candor ; 
 in the other, you observe the look of shrewdness and 
 watchful suspicion. The one bows, it may be, with 
 simulated reverence; the other shrugs the shoulder, 
 and labors to act out the villany which he has not the 
 courage to utter. 
 
 But, sir, I feel that, in pursuing this comparison, I 
 am, as it were, doing violence to reason : undertaking 
 to force the application of a standard which is obviously 
 illiberal and unjust. To me, the question seems not 
 only far-fetched, but absurd. It is comparing moun- 
 tains with mole-hills. It is asking whether the bite 
 of a flea is more fatal than that of a mad dog ; whether 
 the mosquito infuses a poison more subtle and deadly 
 than that of the rattlesnake ; whether flakes of fleecy 
 snow, gently falling on the traveller's head, are more 
 terribly destructive than the weight and might of the 
 irresistible avalanche. 
 
 It may be, sir, that I am mistaken in this view of 
 the case. If so, I hope soon to be enlightened. But, 
 with my present convictions, right or wrong, I can 
 see nothing to dispute about. There is no debatable 
 ground in the question ; at least, so it seems to me, 
 and, for that reason, I shall take my seat, and wait, as 
 befits me, the issue of that light, whencesoever it may 
 come, that is destined to confirm, or overthrow the 
 conclusion I have reached. 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 177 
 
 SECOND SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — The gentleman to whom we have 
 just listened, finds, it seems, no sufficient ground of 
 comparison between slander and flattery. He won- 
 ders, why such a question should ever have been in- 
 troduced, and seems really afraid, lest, by the formal 
 discussion of it, our reputation, if not for sanity, at 
 least for soundness of judgment, may be seriously im- 
 paired. 
 
 I do not, sir, I must say, share with him in his 
 amiable solicitude, and, therefore, hope sincerely that 
 this debate, which he so much deprecates, may, at 
 least, prove equal to the task of removing all his pain- 
 ful forebodings. 
 
 I am far, sir, from thinking with him, that slander 
 and flattery are divided by such immeasurable dissim- 
 ilarity. With him, flattery wears many objectionable 
 features ; but, after all, she is not utterly vile. There 
 is, he appears to think, something of fascination in her 
 air, something of sweetness in her tones and modula- 
 tions, nay, something even of benevolence in her dis- 
 position, which wonderfully atones for all her defects 
 and delinquencies. 
 
 In slander, however, he finds nothing but evil, un- 
 mixed and unmitigated. It ij to him what Polyphemus 
 was to the terrified Trojans, — 
 
 "Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens."* 
 
 Now, sir, I am inclined to regard this view of the 
 
 * A monster terrible, deformed, and hnge. 
 8* 
 
178 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 case, as hasty ; founded rather in first impressions and 
 particular prejudices, than in any careful and profound 
 analysis of the things themselves. Flattery seems, so 
 to speak, to have struck his fancy. He, accordingly, 
 views her only in the distance, and, as here, as else, 
 where, " distance lends enchantment to the view," he 
 is captivated with the semblance of excellence, or, at 
 least, softened by the smiling, but deceptive aspect of 
 truth and candor, which she wears. 
 
 But, sir, be not deceived. Bring this fair creature 
 into nearer view. Take off her smooth disguises, and 
 resolve all her plausibilities into plain matter of fact ; 
 then place her side by side with slander, and you will 
 be astonished to find in these two characters, not only 
 similarity, but absolute identity. Both originate in 
 the spirit of deception. Alike in essence and in aim, 
 they go forth, differing only in outward accidents and 
 circumstances, deceiving, and to deceive continually. 
 
 It is idle, then, sir, to dwell upon the pleasing as- 
 pects of flattery, as constituting higher claims to 
 innocence than those that may be urged in favor of 
 slander. These seductive charms, rightly interpreted, 
 are only so many withering blasts of testimony against 
 her. Is the poison which is sweet less fatal than that 
 which is bitter ? Was the bite of the asp, though it 
 worked by slow degrees, and gentle stupefaction, less 
 fatal to Cleopatra, than would have been that of the 
 more malignant adder, which advances by rapid steps 
 and violent convulsions ? 
 
 But again, sir, I say, be not deceived. If flattery is 
 to be excused, or palliated on the ground of extei nal 
 appearances, I am for extending the same favoi to 
 
THE SLANDERER A^ T D THE FLATTERER. 179 
 
 plander. It, also, has its fair side, its ingenuous air, 
 its agreeable professions. 
 
 The slanderer is no novice in the arts of pretension. 
 He covers his iniquity in the most judicious and skill- 
 ful manner. If there be merit in a mask, he is fully 
 equal to the flatterer in the ease and dexterity, with 
 which he assumes and wears that article. He has the 
 show of public virtue. He affects to believe what he 
 affirms, and for the sake of others, he seems ready to 
 risk the perils that ever belong to the exposer of vicious 
 persons. His position is that of a friend w r arning us 
 against danger. He often leads us to regard him as 
 the best friend of virtue, because he appears to be the 
 most fearless denouncer of vice, In short, he plays 
 the hypocrite. But this is exactly what the flatterer is 
 doing all the while ; and, in this, if he excels the slan- 
 derer, he thereby only proves, that, for all the purposes 
 of mischief, he is more facile and fertile in expedients. 
 
 I have thus, sir, I hope, shown you, that slander and. 
 flattery, so far from being utterly unlike, are really 
 identical in essence, and alike, also, in some of their 
 more important manifestations. If this be so, then is 
 the question before us not liable to the critical objec- 
 tions, which have been started against it, — then may 
 we proceed, in the discussion, without sdrious appre- 
 hension about the safety of our reputation for judg- 
 ment and discrimination. 
 
 Having disposed of the gentleman's cavils and argu- 
 ments, as best I could, I beg leave to close my remarks 
 by directing your attention to one peculiar trait of the 
 flatterer, wherein he seems to me to surpass incompar- 
 ably every degree of enormity, of which the most will- 
 
180 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 ful slanderer is capable. It is this : the slanderer at 
 tacks, perhaps ruins, your reputation ; but the flatterer 
 assaults, and is most certain to destroy your character. 
 Character, you know, sir, is what we are ; reputation 
 what we seem, or are said to be. 
 
 The slanderer seeks to injure us in the estimation 
 of others. He often succeeds in his purpose ; but, if 
 we are guiltless of his charges, if we are really pure in 
 heart and pure in hand, though our reputation may be 
 injured, our character is still unhurt. We have the 
 mens conscia recti, the mind conscious of the right, 
 which enables us to rejoice even in the midst of suf- 
 fering. Aristides was driven from his native country 
 by a successful assault upon his reputation, and Soc- 
 rates drank the fatal hemlock, because of similarly foul 
 aspersions ; but both being pure in character, and strong 
 in conscious virtue, the one only prayed, that his coun 
 try might never be in circumstances to need his return 
 while the other, instead of quailing under the near ap 
 proach of death, calmly assured his infatuated judges 
 " that an honest man needs to fear no evil, either in this, 
 or the future life" 
 
 But, sir, the flatterer aims at a nearer and a dearer 
 object. He studies out "the soft approaches of the 
 heart," watches its weaker inclinations, and gently in- 
 sinuates the baneful seeds of vanity. By this subtle 
 process, the understanding is gradually darkened, the 
 judgment is warpecl, conceit is taken for actual attain- 
 ment, and all the foundations of solid worth are effect- 
 ually undermined. Thence comes the custom, and 
 out of that the habit, of seeking in pretension a sub- 
 stitute for possession, accepting the praise, without 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 181 
 
 having the reality of merit, and, in a word, relying for 
 success and for satisfaction on a reputation unsupport- 
 ed by correspondent character, — the shadow, instead 
 of the substance, of virtue. 
 
 This, sir, is the legitimate consequence of successful 
 flattery. If slander tarnish our good name, we may 
 hope to brighten it again by dint of good living ; but 
 if, by the hand of flattery, however fair, however deli- 
 cate, the fountains of good living be themselves roiled 
 and poisoned, w^hence, whence, shall the deluded 
 soul look for the means of retrievement ? 
 
 THIRD SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — I listened with pleasure to the mem- 
 ber who has just addressed us ; but not with the pleas- 
 ure that results from satisfaction with a sound course 
 of argument. If clearness of diction were always sy- 
 nonymous with soundness of logic, I should doubtless be 
 tempted, by the seemingly transparent view of the case, 
 which he has presented, to yield the position which he 
 claims in this discussion. 
 
 He assumes, without a shadow of proof, that all 
 flattery is designed to do mischief. It is by this as- 
 sumption, in great measure, that he is enabled to com- 
 plete his view of the absolute identity of slander and 
 flattery. But for this, the parallel would not hold out. 
 
 Now, sir, here I must take issue withhim. I deny, 
 that flattery uniformly aims at mischief to the party 
 flattered. On the contrary, nothing can be more certain, 
 than that, in most cases, as intimated by the opening 
 speaker, the motive of the flatterer is a kind, a benev- 
 
182 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 olent one. I do not say, — I do not mean to say, that 
 this is the best, or even a good way, of exercising kindly 
 feeling. I merely note the fact. 
 
 If this be so, and I see not how it can be reasonably 
 controverted, then, sir, the argument derived from it 
 remains jet unanswered. And that argument seems 
 to me quite irresistible ; for the notion of kindly in- 
 tention is altogether incompatible with the idea of 
 slander. In a thousand ways, may flattery be employ- 
 ed, with comparative innocence, if not with positive ad- 
 vantage ; in not one is it possible to conceive of slander 
 without guilt of the deepest dye. 
 
 The mother, watching with fond anxiety the first 
 efforts of her child to walk, to sing, to read, to do any- 
 thing yet unlearned or unattempted, may innocently, 
 we should think, encourage hope and stimulate exer- 
 tion by the use of flattering words. The teacher whose 
 task is to study all those arts, by which the youthful 
 mind is roused to energy and perseverance in the pur- 
 suit of knowledge, can hardly be denied the agency ol 
 flattering expressions of approbation in the prosecution 
 of his arduous duties. Shall the generous }^outh, am- 
 bitious of high civil or military distinction, no longei 
 find encouragement in the song of grateful adulation, 
 or the speech that deals in lofty panegyric ? Shall all 
 the agreeable courtesies of society be forever relin- 
 quished, because they are denounced as the offspring 
 of flattery? 
 
 It is not, then, sir, too much to assume, that flattery 
 is frequently found not a little beneficial in its opera 
 tion. It may, it is true, be employed for wicked pur- 
 poses; but that, sir, may be affirmed of almost every 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 183 
 
 thing. We do not surely require to be reminded, that 
 the abuse of a thing is not to be taken as an argument 
 against the legitimate use of it. That which, rightly 
 used, is known to be a wholesome food or an efficacious 
 remedy, is often equally well known to be, in rash or 
 ignorant hands, a most deadly poison. 
 
 The gentleman dwells upon the seductive arts of 
 flattery, the engaging manner which she assumes, in 
 order to accomplish her purposes. Well, in that he 
 is certainly right. She is doubtless fair in form, and 
 in possession of many attractive graces. But is not 
 this an odd sort of objection ? Without these arts and 
 graces, would she be flattery at all? If his objection, 
 therefore, be resolved into its ultimate essence, it will 
 be, that he objects to flattery, because it is flattery. 
 So do we all ; but what has that to do with the imme- 
 diate question before us ? 
 
 But his design evidently is to gain something, in this 
 argument, by lingering upon the false, though fair, fea- 
 tures of flattery, as though slander were a creature of 
 honest countenance, and manly bearing, and altogether 
 above petty deceptions. But what, sir, is the reality 
 of the case ? Does the gentleman require again to be 
 informed, that slander is quite as plausible as flattery? 
 
 When Iago proceeds to awaken the cruel suspicions 
 of Othello, what guise does he assume but that of 
 friendship ? The odious mask of friendship, vso well pre- 
 served in the character of Iago, is scarcely less revoking 
 to our better feelings, than the foul aspersions which he 
 breathes, or insinuates against the guiltless Desdemona. 
 This scene, in the great Dramatist, is realized every 
 day in the actual drama of life. " What God hath 
 
184 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 joined together, let no man put asunder," is the sol- 
 emn injunction of Holy Writ ; but here is a creature, 
 in form, a man, in fact, a demon, who, regardless alike 
 of the laws of earth, and the prohibitions of Heaven, 
 takes the guise of disinterested friendship, and, under 
 that guise, works, by the excitation of rage and jeal- 
 ousy, the utter dissolution of the marriage bond, and 
 the utter destruction of helpless innocence. 
 
 Yet, the gentleman talks about the fair, but decep- 
 tive forms of flattery. What form, sir, more fair, or 
 more deceptive, can the flatterer assume, than that of 
 the viperous Iago, when he worked upon the suspicions 
 of the jealous Moor? 
 
 But, sir, I see the slanderer in other scenes. Here 
 is a youth, high in promise, elate in spirits, breathing 
 all the fullness and freshness of early hope. He is 
 honest, active, intelligent, industrious, competent every 
 way. He has ventured to establish a business of his 
 own. He has labored long and assiduously, for one so 
 young, to deserve the confidence of his fellow-men. 
 This only he needs to secure success in his new under- 
 taking. But he has competitors. These, if only the 
 rivalry were generous, might serve rather to energize 
 than to enfeeble his efforts. 
 
 But there is one who is determined to defeat him. 
 All at once, in a quarter vital to his prosperity, some 
 adverse influence begins to operate. What can it be, 
 that thus secretly affects his credit ? What oversight 
 in trade, what imprudence in expenditure, what ap- 
 pearance of extravagance, has been discovered, or im- 
 agined ? Why, why are the former facilities so sud- 
 denly, so absolutely, cut off? These questions start 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 185 
 
 up in the doubting, disappointed soul. They harass 
 by day ; they make sleepless his night ; they wound 
 his pride ; they crush ambition ; they generate all 
 gloomy imaginings; and when, perchance, the hour 
 of reparation is forever past, all at once he learns, that 
 what eluded his search, though it ruined his business, 
 was nothing more nor less than the poisonous breath 
 of the secret slanderer. 
 
 In this latter case, as in the former, sir, the slanderer 
 is supposed to operate successfully, only because of 
 an ingenious mask. He would guard a friend against 
 the snares of an unworthy debtor ; he had no secret 
 grudge, or evil motive of any kind ; not he. It was 
 pure, disinterested friendship. This was the pretense, 
 the smooth outside, which the treacherous transaction 
 was made to assume. 
 
 Now, sir, since this matter of appearances has been 
 so prominently urged, I insist upon your comparing 
 these disguises of slander with those attributed to the 
 flatterer. Are those of the former less ingenious, less 
 imposing, less effective any way, than those of the 
 latter? I leave your own judgment, your own con- 
 science, to answer. 
 _ I might, Mr. President, proceed to give other illus- 
 trations of this point ; but I feel it to be unnecessary. 
 I am satisfied that you will, and must, agree with me 
 in the conclusion, that whatever covering they may 
 put on, whatever air they may assume, whatever lan- 
 guage they may adopt, these two odious characters 
 differ from each other most widely, in this, that the 
 slanderer far outstrips the flatterer in the production 
 of deep and lasting detriment. 
 
188 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 FOURTH SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr President, — The considerations offered by the 
 last speaker certainly seem somewhat forcible. Their 
 force is, however, I think, mainly apparent. It grows 
 rather out of a certain ingenuity of statement, than out 
 of any real power in the argumentation itself. 
 
 Does not all that he has urged, amount just to this ? 
 There is nothing good in slander ; there is something 
 good in flattery ; ergo, slander is worse than flattery. 
 
 This short syllogism comprehends the burden of his 
 speech ; on this he seems fully to rely, as the lawyers 
 say, for a verdict in his favor. The syllogism, too, 
 looks like a valid one. It has, indeed, somewhat the 
 air of that flattery which he here advocates. Yet, sir, 
 its validity, after all, is merely apparent, as I hope to 
 show you. 
 
 In all reasoning, direct or indirect, in order to ren- 
 der a conclusion satisfactory, there must be no uncer- 
 tainty about the premises. But are the premises, in 
 the present instance, perfectly clear and satisfactory ? 
 
 It has already been shown by a previous speaker, 
 that slander and flattery both equally and essentially 
 originate in the spirit of deception. To call things by 
 their right names, they are only different phases of 
 lying. Every slander is a lie, — every flattery is a lie. 
 This may seem strange language in this place ; it may 
 sound harsh, and even coarse, to ears polite. But, sir, 
 is it not true ? 
 
 Assuming this to be true, — for I see not how it can 
 be otherwise considered, — how, I ask, can it be shown, 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 187 
 
 that falsehood, when it appears in the shape of slander, 
 has no good in it, but the moment it takes the guise of 
 flatteiy, it has some good in it ? Will it not be necessa- 
 ry, in order to give validity to the gentleman's argu- 
 ment, to prove, beyond the shadow of a doubt, that 
 good is sometimes found in lying? And, for that 
 purpose, will it not further be necessary to demonstrate, 
 and that in the very face of Holy Scripture, that "a 
 lying tongue " is not one of the six things hated of the 
 Lord ?* For, surely, sir, God cannot hate good in any 
 form. 
 
 The fact is, Mr. President, flattery is falsehood, and 
 slander is falsehood, and there is no good in either. 
 Take, therefore, out of the gentleman's syllogism the 
 words slander and flattery, and insert in each place the 
 word lying, which is the proper equivalent, and its fal- 
 lacy will immediately appear. It will then stand, thus : 
 There is no good in lying ; but there is some good in 
 lying ; ergo, lying is worse than lying ! — 
 
 Surely, sir, the gentleman does not hope to convince 
 by reasoning like this. He must, on the contrary, 
 consent to bring the two characters, named in the ques- 
 tion, into fair comparison. They are both deceivers, 
 both entitled to high distinction for works of wi( ked- 
 ness. Yet they differ widely in their power, and ten- 
 dency to evil. Let us, therefore, adhere to the real 
 point in dispute. That point is simply— which of these 
 two confessedly pernicious characters, is the more per 
 nicious ? 
 
 Now, I maintain, that the arts, or means employed 
 by the flatterer, enable him to do greater mischief, and 
 * Proverbs, ch. vi., ver. 16, 17, 18. 
 
188 DEBATES IN FILL. 
 
 that, in general, he does do greater mischief; than the 
 slanderer ever can do by any possibility whatever. 
 The world is full of the memorials of flattery's ruinous 
 agency. 
 
 When Milton sang 
 
 " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world, and all our woe," 
 
 he sang of the terrible consequences of flattery. Alas ! 
 poor Eve, though in thy disobedience we recognize the 
 source of all human calamity, we cannot but sympa- 
 thize with thee, when wavering under the tempting 
 tongue of the flatterer. Who, who might have with- 
 stood that subtle and seductive strain ? Even as it 
 appears in the fancy of the poet, there is a charm about 
 it that makes us lend a willing ear, and even forget for a 
 moment, that we are listening to the voice of the 
 Devil: 
 
 " Fairest resemblance of thy Maker fair I 
 Thee all things living gaze on, all things thine 
 By gift, and thy celestial beauty adore 
 With ravishment beheld ! there best beheld 
 Where universally admired; but here 
 In this inelosure wild, these beasts among, 
 Beholders rude, and shallow to discern 
 Half what in thee is fair, one man except, 
 Who sees thee? (and what is one ?) who should'st be seen 
 A Goddess among Gods, adored and served 
 By angels numberless, thy daily train." 
 
 " So glozed* the Tempter," adds the inimitable poet. 
 
 * Gloze is formed from gloss, just as glaze is formed from glass. 
 Gloss, in Greek yXooo-a, the tongue, is used to signify a note, com 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 189 
 
 M So glozed the Tempter I" What word, in all the lan- 
 guages of earth, could so well describe this diabolical 
 transaction ? "So glozed the Tempter !" It was by 
 ghzing, that is, by flattering with the tongue, that the 
 foul fiend contrived, in the person of Eve, to achieve 
 the ruin of the race. How many, many thousands of 
 her fair descendants have since been rained by the 
 same hellish agency, what tribunal, save that of the 
 final judgment, can ever, ever disclose ? 
 
 The cup of Circe and the song of the Sirens, in the 
 old mythology, both admirably symbolize the com- 
 bined fairness and foulness of flattery. It is delightful 
 to the taste, but brutalizing to the taster ; it is enchant- 
 ment to the ear, but death to the hearer. Virtue often 
 derives vigor from the assaults of slander, but where 
 is the vigilance which flattery may not surprise, or 
 where is the firmness which flattery may not under- 
 mine ? How many kings, statesmen, heroes and ce- 
 lebrities of every name, whom neither the might of 
 armies, nor the money of a Croesus could ever subdue, 
 or purchase, have yielded themselves willing captives 
 to the power of a delusive tongue ? How many com- 
 munities, whom no threat of tyranny, no promise of 
 bounty, could, for one instant, induce to tolerate the 
 exercise of despotic rule, have, by the influence of 
 cajoling demagogues, been subjected to a despotism 
 more odious than that of Dionysius, more infamous 
 than that of the Caesars ? 
 
 ment, or explanation ; thence, also, a specious, or artful interpretation, 
 and, by easy transition, brightness, or superficial lustre. Qloze, 
 therefore, is literally to tongue over anything, that is, to invest it 
 with a smooth and £air outside ; to delude by flattery. 
 
190 DEBATES DT FULL. 
 
 Sir, a life of virtue is the death of slander. He that 
 is upright in principle, and circumspect in walk and 
 conversation, is generally beyond the reach of per- 
 manent injury from the touch of slander. But what 
 discourages and defeats the purposes of slander, often 
 invites the stealthy approach of flattery. 
 
 The slanderer stands at a distance, and endeavors 
 to bring ruin upon us from abroad. The policy of 
 flattery is to make us work out our own destruction. 
 It deals in traps, pitfalls, and snares of every descrip- 
 tion. It is a sort of moral chloroform, that steals 
 away the senses, and disarms the soul. 
 
 " Faithful are the wounds of a friend," says Solomon, 
 " but the hisses of an enemy are deceitful ;" and, sir, 
 compared with flattery, slander is a friend, — one that, 
 at least, keeps us on our guard, making us watchful, 
 however undesignedly, against whatever act, or indul- 
 gence might justly expose us to the tongue of animad- 
 version. 
 
 But, sir, I will not longer trespass upon your pa* 
 tience. The matter in dispute is too clear to need fur- 
 ther explanation, and its decision will, I hope, serve 
 to show, that you fully concur with me in the opinion, 
 that whatever be the magnitude of the slanderer's guilt, 
 that of the flatterer is greater still. 
 
 FIFTH SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — I am little versed in metaphysical 
 speculations. In truth, I have very little taste in that 
 direction. You will not, therefore, expect me to lin- 
 ger long, either on the lines of essential distinction, if 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 191 
 
 an v there be, between slander and flattery, or upon the 
 proofs of their original and generic identity, supposing 
 that view of the case to be the true one. 
 
 11 Well," exclaims some one, "but what disposition 
 will you make of the argument founded upon the con- 
 sideration, that they are both essentially deceivers. Are 
 they not alike in guilt, as they are alike in nature? 
 "Will it not be indispensable to go somewhat into what 
 you call { metaphysical speculation,' in order to satisfy 
 the demands of the discussion?" 
 
 To all this I answer, — suppose I accept, as I really 
 do, the doctrine that the slanderer and the flatterer 
 both spring from the same parents, that is, both have 
 their origin in a lying spirit. What will that prove ? 
 It is only by operating upon the principle, that he that 
 oftendeth in one point, is guilty of the whole, a decla- 
 ration that respects the perfect law of God, and which 
 makes all sin equally an infringement of the Divine 
 commandments, that you can derive anything like an 
 argument from the assumed identity of slander and 
 flattery. 
 
 Still, let us apply that standard. What is the re- 
 sult? Why, since every sin is, according to the hy- 
 pothesis, equal to every other sin, it follows, that the 
 inherent guilt of these two things is precisely equal. 
 But granting them to be equal, in this respect, what do 
 you gain by the disclosure? The question is not, 
 which is the more wicked character by nature, but which, 
 by the exercise of that wickedness, produces the greater 
 mischief. 
 
 Well, now it does seem to me, that a lie that is 
 merely complimentary, cannot be so deleterious as one 
 
Ili2 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 that is abusive and malicious. There are many people 
 who, without the least evil intent, nay, with the best 
 intentions possible, are always seeking to say kind 
 things, though they may be somewhat exaggerated. 
 They are, indeed, lavish sometimes in the use of com- 
 plimentary terms. But we never, on that account, think 
 of dealing harshly with them. We regard the inten- 
 tion, and look with indulgence, if not with approbation, 
 upon the motive that governs their conduct. 
 
 But how is it, in the case of him who puts forth the 
 language of calumny? What mitigation comes, or 
 can come, from considering Ails motive? What kindly 
 impulse, what benevolent end, throws, or ever can 
 throw, over his vicious career the mantle of all-bearing, 
 all-believing, all-hoping Charity? We can have no 
 conception of slight slander, or inoffensive defamation. 
 It would be a solecism in terms, to speak of such a 
 thing. Slander is never slight, never inoffensive, be- 
 cause were it so, it would no longer be slander. The 
 poison which it discharges, is always of the most fatal 
 character. 
 
 How differently do slander and flattery appear in 
 the eyes of the Legislator I We often hear of suits and 
 trials for slander ; but who has ever heard of suits and 
 trials for flattery ? There is an argument in this fact. 
 Were flattery equally deleterious with slander, it cer- 
 tainly would have been ranked among penal offenses 
 in the Statute Book. Instead of that, it takes ground 
 with those numerous vices which, being considered too 
 slight, or too subtle to be reached by the arm of the Leg 
 islator, are necessarily handed over to the pen of the 
 Satirist, that is, to the potent voice of public Opinion 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 193 
 
 The law, in tins particular, no doubt, as in all others, 
 is governed somewhat by the quo animo, the secret 
 purpose, the motive. It compares the hearts of these 
 two characters, as well as the outward workings and 
 consequences of their action. On this ground, undoubt- 
 edly, in great measure, it punishes the one with ex- 
 emplary damages, while it dismisses the other, not as 
 altogether guiltless, but as properly belonging to a 
 more indulgent tribunal. 
 
 This interior view of the slanderer's character, Mr. 
 President, may, perhaps, help more than anything else 
 to bring us to a just decision of the point in dispute. 
 
 Take a faint picture of the slanderer's head and heart, 
 — the secret chambers of his soul, when he proceeds to 
 operate in his appropriate sphere. See Memory, Sea- 
 son, Judgment, Imagination, Hope, Fear, Envy, Malice, 
 Hatred, Pride, Vanity, Selfishness, all the powers and 
 passions assembled in secret conclave against virtue 
 and innocence. See Memory furnishing facts and cir- 
 cumstances ; see Eeason and Judgment, the distinguish- 
 ing attributes of our common humanity, forced into 
 the debasing office of constructing false and sophist- 
 ical arguments ; see Imagination busily engaged in 
 moulding the vilest fancies into the forms of reality ; 
 see Hope, even Hope, that should ever be the sweet 
 solace of misery and misfortune, smiling complacently 
 and promising success to the foulest conspiracy ; see 
 Fear whispering caution, Envy exulting in the prospec- 
 tive calamity of a neighbor, Malice joining hand with 
 Hatred to infuse the bitter poison of antipathy ; while 
 Pride, Vanity, and Selfishness, creatures one in spirit, 
 and different only in their modes of manifestation, 
 
194 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 combine their energies for the encouragement and 
 consummation of the diabolical enterprise. 
 
 But, sir, I would not seek further to depict this 
 " Stj^gian Council," — this perfect Pandemonium of the 
 soul. But what, what, I ask, must be the measure of 
 that iniquity, that can combine for the execution of 
 its purposes, forces, moral and intellectual, so opposite 
 and incongruous as these ? 
 
 One more thought, Mr. President, and I will bring 
 my observations to a close. That thought is, that a 
 very reliable argument in favor of the side which I 
 here advocate, might be drawn from the testimony of 
 the wise and good of all ages and countries. 
 
 I have not the testimony at hand, of course ; and, 
 if I had, it would be altogether too voluminous to 
 offer in detail, as you know. But I venture to affirm, 
 that could this be done, their views would confirm mine, 
 with scarcely a dissentient voice. One example only 
 I can now recall from among the ancients ; but that in- 
 dicates, I doubt not, the spirit that pervades them all. 
 Diogenes, the famous old Cynic, being asked, on a cer- 
 tain occasion, of which beast the bite was the most 
 dangerous, immediately answered, " If you mean wild 
 beasts, it is the slanderer's ; if tame, the flatterer's !" 
 
 In this answer of Diogenes, I recognize the fair, un- 
 biassed judgment of mankind. With him, the slan- 
 derer instantly takes the features, traits, characteristics, 
 or what not, that belong peculiarly to the wild, fero- 
 cious beast of prey, compared with which, the flat- 
 ter jr is a creature tame, gentle, and harmless. 
 
 Do not, sir, misunderstand me. I am not advocating 
 the claims of flattery to moral purity ; for it has none. 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 195 
 
 On the contrary, I see clearly and regret deeply its 
 sad delinquency. But, if asked whether it exceeded, 
 in my opinion, the measure of wrong-doing that be- 
 longs to slander, I could, with a clear conscience, and 
 with a firm voice, adopt for answer the words of the 
 immortal Shakspeare : 
 
 " No ; 'tis slander, 
 Whose edge is sharper than the sword, whose tongue 
 Outvenoms all the worms of Nile ; whose breath 
 Rides on the posting winds, and doth belie 
 All corners of the world : kings, queens, and states, 
 Maids, matrons, nay, the secrets of the grave, 
 This viperous slander enters." 
 
 SIXTH SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — The labor of our opponents, in this 
 debate, has thus far been directed, it would seem, to 
 the purpose of giving to flattery the aspect of a very 
 venial offense. This has been attempted in two ways ; 
 first, by dwelling upon the deformities of slander, and 
 so filling the mind with a sense of its enormity, as ef- 
 fectually to exclude, for the time, the idea of equal 
 wickedness in flattery ; secondly, by painting flattery 
 in colors calculated to conceal, rather than display her 
 real character : presenting her in the form of a maiden, 
 fair, fascinating, full of smiles, compliments, and all 
 sorts of winning ways, overflowing, moreover, with 
 benevolence, and, therefore, prodigal to a fault in the 
 language of praise. Nothing could be more fallacious 
 than this mode of dealing with our question. 
 
 No, sir; flattery is far from being confined to slight 
 
196 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 exaggeration, and innocent hyperbole, It is, in truth, 
 a gigantic evil. It is interwoven with the whole frame- 
 work of society, and encrusts it everywhere with the 
 smooth shell of hypocrisy. Not only is the tongue en- 
 listed in its service ; but all features of the face, all mo- 
 tions of the body, are carefully trained to do its bid- 
 ding. It is confined to no class ; it is restricted to no 
 country ; it works always, and works stealthily ; and, 
 if unrestrained, would soon make us see, in a sense dif- 
 ferent from that intended by Shakspeare, that 
 
 "All the world 's a stage, 
 And all the men and women merely players." 
 
 Now, sir, in this fact, in this universal presence of 
 flattery, I find an argument. The power of the flat- 
 terer for mischief, nay, sir, the necessary result of his 
 action, is greater far than that of the slanderer, because 
 he has a wider field of operation. The slanderer must 
 work cautiously ; he must balance, with skill, the prob - 
 abilities of the case ; he must, as the last speaker has 
 observed, summon in council the faculties of the mind, 
 before he can venture to act at all. He knows that 
 detection will not only be fatal to his plot, but, also, 
 fatal to him. 
 
 But the flatterer, confident of success, because he is 
 confident of a pleasant reception, and because, more- 
 over, he has, generally, no apprehension of personal 
 danger, proceeds to his task without delay or impedi- 
 ment. If he succeed, his joy is complete; if he fail, 
 he has suffered nothing but slight repulse, — a look of 
 pity, or a smile of contempt. 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 197 
 
 The necessity of caution and the dread of conse- 
 quences, you see, sir, seriously impede, and greatly 
 circumscribe the operations of slander. Still further 
 are they limited by the comparative fewness of the 
 objects, upon which it can be made to operate at all. 
 If appearances be not decidedly against the party slan- 
 dered, or the ear of the listener be not strongly predis- 
 posed, the voice of the slanderer is heard usually with 
 something of distrust. The semblance of truth must 
 be carefully preserved in every particular ; for the 
 least improbability is sure 
 
 " To cast 
 Ominous conjecture on the whole success." 
 
 Flattery, on the other hand, courses, unchecked, 
 over the whole field of human existence. It clothes 
 the maiden with imaginary charms, and satisfies her 
 soul with empty professions ; it diverts the manly 
 youth from sober pursuits, makes him impatient of 
 salutary restraints, and absorbs his time in enervating 
 pleasures ; it dims the vision, and weakens the arm 
 of parental discipline ; it urges folly to claim the honor 
 due only to wisdom ; it induces cowardice to be per- 
 fectly content with the mere uniform of courage ; in 
 short, it encourages all the vices and defects of the race, 
 to hide their native deformity, even from themselves, 
 under the forms and coverings peculiar to the virtues 
 and perfections opposite to each respectively. 
 
 If you ask for particular examples, they start up in 
 every direction. Look at yonder rich man's table. 
 Who is he, with servile look and mock delight, that 
 sells his birth-right of independence for a mess of pot- 
 
198 DEBATES W FULL. 
 
 tage? It is the parasite, — a name that contains the 
 best history of the man.* 
 
 Who are these finely dressed, but anxious looking 
 people, craving admission into the circles of the so- 
 called aristocracy ? They are those mistaken children of 
 fashion, in whom flattery has contrived to extinguish 
 all proper self-respect, and implanted, in its stead, a 
 vain desire to be considered the elite ; who, flattered by 
 the condescensions of those whom they suppose to be 
 above them, mistake sufferance for civility, and the 
 form for the fact of high social standing. 
 
 But who is this? He is all graciousness, — "all 
 things to all men," not, however, that he "may by all 
 means, save some," but that he may, by any means, in- 
 veigle many. With what hearty grasp he seizes the 
 hand of the sturdy smith ! How eagerly he inquires 
 after his family; how ready his joke, how loud his 
 laugh ! Was ever man so social ? Who is he ? The 
 politician, — the keen pursuer of place and power. He 
 is now a candidate for some lucrative office, and these 
 people, among whom he is so freely dispensing bows, 
 smiles and compliments, are the voters. What are his 
 claims to preferment ? His skill in the use of flattery. 
 
 What palace is this ? It is the abode of the courtier 
 — the professional flatterer. Let us enter. Who are 
 these, with eager look and anxious brow, that await his 
 coming in the spacious hall ? It is the crowd of ex- 
 pectants, whom his reputed kindness and affluence have 
 
 * Parasite, (from the Greek napd, near, or beside, and cItoc, food 
 means, literally, one who takes food with another; thence it came 
 to be applied to one who assents to, fawns upon, or servilely flatters 
 another for the sake of food, or any other personal advantage. 
 
THE SLANDERER AND THE FLATTERER. 199 
 
 attracted to his door. How graciously, at length, lie 
 enters the apartment ! His smile, his nod, his whole 
 demeanor, how inspiring to the heart of needy, hoping 
 humanity ! But heavy is the disappointment destined 
 to succeed. There is no truth in him. It is the habit 
 of his life. — the irresistible second nature that has fasten- 
 ed upon him, alternately to create and to destroy th 
 hopes of his fellow men. 
 
 But yonder comes the conquering hero, heralded by 
 the trumpet of fame, — that ingenious mouth-piece of 
 flatter}-. How sweet to him is the sound of that trum- 
 pet ! It drowns the groan of the dying, the wail of 
 the widow, the maiden's lament and the orphan's cry. 
 It stirs ambition, it fires the soul, and hides in romantic 
 interest the horrors of the battle field. It tells of power, 
 it tells of glory, not only to the present, but to future 
 generations. How sweet is the sound of that trumpet ! 
 Alas ! too often sweet, only because it feeds an insatiate 
 and remorseless vanity. 
 
 But, Mr. President, I will not trouble you with fur- 
 ther instances. Whichever way I look, I see the 
 workings, or the sad results of the workings, of flattery ; 
 and whichever way I survey her movements, she ap- 
 pears as a two-edged sword, cutting keenly in both di- 
 rections — the flatterer and the flattered. He that gives 
 and he that takes this dangerous draught, are often 
 equally and hopelessly wounded. 
 
 Much, much may we dread the tooth of Slander, 
 but is not the tongue of Flattery still more dreadful? 
 
200 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 SECOND DEBATE. 
 
 WHICH IS PREFERABLE, CITY OR COUNTRY LIFE? 
 
 FIEST SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — The question which, we are now 
 about to discuss, — " Which is preferable, city or country 
 lifef 1 — though apparently simple, is far from being 
 devoid of difficulties. I have no hesitation, however, 
 in declaring my preference for the country ; though I 
 deeply regret, that the limits to which I am here con- 
 fined, utterly forbid any attempt to assign all, or any 
 considerable part of my reasons for that preference. 
 I must, indeed, content myself, for the present, with 
 the statement of a single argument. It will be found, 
 I hope, so impressive, because so truthful, that convic- 
 tion must follow in its train. 
 
 I refer here to the argument derived from what I 
 shall venture to call the moral influence of rural scenes. 
 The country, sir, is the natural abode of man. There 
 he is in constant communion with nature. There, un- 
 distracted by the tumults of trade, unenslaved by the 
 tyranny of fashion, unpolluted by the vices of a 
 promiscuous populace, he walks and works from 
 day to day, amid mountains and valleys, meadows 
 green, and cultivated fields, and all else that can 
 inspire gratitude and devotion to the great Giver of 
 all good. 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 201 
 
 There man has frequent opportunities, nay, invita- 
 tions, so to speak, to look into his own heart, — to com- 
 mune with his own spirit, — to develop and strengthen 
 his native powers; in short, to train and discipline 
 his whole physical, moral, and intellectual nature. 
 If you would allow a man, unfettered, to become 
 what he is capable of becoming, you must not 
 throw him into the turmoil and bustle of towns and 
 cities. 
 
 There he will, perchance, become what is called a 
 " business man;" there he may become a millionare ; 
 there he may circulate freely in the gay assemblies of 
 fashion ; but there he cannot easily realize the true 
 dignity of manhood. There is something in the very 
 quiet and solitude of the country, which wonderfully 
 elicits thought, develops character, and makes the man. 
 "Well has the poet said : — 
 
 " Where is the wise, or the learned, or the good that sought not 
 
 solitude for thinking, 
 And from seclusion's secret vale brought forth his precious fruits? 
 Forests of Aricia, your deep shade mellowed Xuma's wisdom ; 
 Peaceful gardens of Vaucluse, ye nourished Petrarch's love ; 
 Solitude made a Cincinnatus, ripening the hero and the patriot; 
 And taught De Stael self-knowledge, even in the damp Bastile ; 
 It fostered the piety of Jerome, matured the labors of Augustine ; 
 And gave imperial Charles religion for ambition ; 
 That which Scipio praised, that which Alfred practiced, 
 Which fired Demosthenes to eloquence, and fed the mind of Milton, 
 Which quickened zeal, nurtured genius, found out the secret things 
 
 of science, 
 Helped repentance, shamed folly, and comforted the good with 
 
 peace, 
 By all men just and wise, by all things pure and perfect, 
 How truly, Solitude, art thou the fostering nurse of greatness l" 
 
202 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 SECOND SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr President, — The speech just delivered, (I mean 
 no discourtesy,) is certainly not without merit, if con- 
 sidered merely as a picture of fancy. But, sir, fancy is 
 not fact; and is, therefore, a very unfit material out 
 of which to construct an argument. He says, that the 
 dweller in the country is "in constant communion 
 with nature" : discerning, as it seems to me, no differ- 
 ence between contact and communion. 
 
 Country people are, indeed, in perpetual contact 
 with those natural objects, which often awaken thought 
 and foster devotion ; but to infer from this, that they 
 are actually always in sweet and sober comwMnion with 
 the beauties and sublimities of the scenery, amid which 
 they dwell, is fanciful in the highest degree. 
 
 In reflecting upon rural life, we are very apt to fix 
 our thoughts exclusively on grand and imposing fea- 
 tures in nature, — on what is fair and beautiful, and 
 fitted to excite pleasurable emotions, and to shut our 
 eyes against its sterner and more repulsive aspects. 
 Our imagination draws lively landscapes, and peoples 
 them with souls of almost superhuman purity and in- 
 nocence. It withdraws from the scene the digging 
 and the delving, the bogs, the marshes, and all the 
 nameless annoyances and hardships that constitute 
 the stern realities of country life. 
 
 It calls into beings shepherds and shepherdesses, 
 nay, rustics of every name and occupation, air gentle, 
 all lovely, all kind, all uncontaminated by contact 
 with vicious associations, and breathing a perfectly 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 203 
 
 pure and healthy moral atmosphere. It, moreover, 
 endows these people with peculiar tendencies to con- 
 templation, makes them specially susceptible to the 
 impressions of grand and noble scenes, and almost al- 
 together free from the common propensities and way- 
 wardness of humanity. 
 
 Mr. President, such views of country life may befit 
 those who supply the world with what is called, Pas- 
 toral Poetry ; they may do to beguile a leisure hour, 
 or feed a morbid imagination ; but depend upon it, 
 they have no real existence. Let any man mingle 
 freely with country people ; let him examine their 
 habits, manners, their common, every- day life and 
 conversation ; and he will not be long in discovering, 
 that the argument of the gentleman is wholly falla- 
 cious. 
 
 Allowing what vou will for the influence of sublime 
 and beautiful objects on the heart, it must be recol- 
 lected that familiarity itself begets indifference and 
 that men soon come to walk among the Alps as among 
 common hills, to sail over ocean billows as over the 
 ripples of a quiet lake, and in short, to look, with com- 
 parative unconcern, upon things familiar, though they 
 be the most thrilling and wonderful works of Creation 
 
 The argument, therefore, which the gentleman has 
 selected, with such apparent confidence in its force, 
 is not, in my judgment, a conclusive one. It shows, 
 it is true, that the country offers many features well 
 fitted to awaken emotion and improve the heart ; but 
 it does not prove that these objects always produce 
 that effect. I may, therefore, conclude by informing 
 him, that his argument is just as true when applied 
 
204 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 to the city. The city, also, has many objects admirably 
 adapted to arouse our better nature, and promote our 
 spiritual well-being ; but, alas, they ar£ seldom, ay, 
 very seldom, duly regarded. 
 
 THIED SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — Instead of stopping to examine and 
 refute what seems objectionable in the views expressed 
 by the last speaker, I propose to introduce some two, or 
 three new arguments, or considerations in favor of ru- 
 ral life. It will hardly be denied, that contact with vice 
 has a corrupting influence, even by those who deny 
 that contact with country scenes and objects, has no 
 necessary imjxroving power; for, " Evil communica- 
 tions," says an inspired writer, " corrupt good manners ;" 
 and this I hold to be true, whether in the city, or the 
 country. 
 
 The only question is, which yields the greater amount 
 of evil. Now, will any one deny this bad distinction 
 to the city ? And, if this be not denied, manifestly the 
 country, on the score of morals, is the better, because 
 the safer place. 
 
 But, again, sir, the country has a most decided ad- 
 vantage over the city, as a place for intellectuul culture. 
 
 It gives freedom from tumult, noise, and distracting 
 excitements. It guaranties exemption from a thousand 
 intrusions and interruptions, inseparable from city life ; 
 favors abstraction and concentration of the mental pow- 
 ers, and so secures to the student the best results of in- 
 tellectual labor. 
 
 In proof of this, which is so clear in theory, I might 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 205 
 
 cite the testimony of experience — the experience of 
 poets, orators, writers, and thinkers of every name and 
 grade, and of almost every age and clime. But why 
 dwell on a point so evident ? 
 
 Again, the country favors not only mental and mor- 
 al culture, but is eminently adapted to the development 
 of the physical constitution. Every one knows, that city 
 life, for the most part, is a thing altogether artificial, 
 It cramps the feet with tight shoes, it compresses the 
 waist with tight dresses ; it invites and fosters colds, 
 coughs, and consumptions, through the agency of thin 
 stockings, light clothing, late hours, and many other 
 similar requirements of fashion, which time would fail 
 me to specify. 
 
 Nor is this all. The resident of the city not always 
 enjoys the fresh products of the country, though he 
 be ever so willing to pay for them. He must often be 
 content with stale butter, stale milk, stale everything ; 
 while the happy farmer partakes of all these things in 
 their freshness and purity. May we not, sir, in view 
 of these and other kindred advantages connected with 
 a residence in the country, may we not ask your decis- 
 ion in our favor ? 
 
 FOURTH SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — From the observations of the gentle- 
 man who has just taken his seat, one might, without an 
 appeal to facts, naturally infer, that all good, is confined 
 to the country, and all evil centered in the city. In the 
 life of a citizen, he finds a sort of Siberian destitution ; 
 so that whether he walks, or talks, or studies, or eats, 
 
2wo DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 or drinks, or exercises, lie is equally the victim of ty- 
 rannical custom. 
 
 Well, sir, to this doleful catalogue of imaginary ills, 
 which must surely be regarded as the offspring of a 
 distempered fancy, I can only append that old, familiar 
 caption of certain newspaper paragraphs, — " Important, 
 if truer 
 
 Why, sir, who ever heard, till this hour, that study 
 was a thing to be done to the best advantage only " out 
 in the country ?" There only, it seems, we can get clear 
 of noise and nuisance enough to enable us to think ; 
 as if people of studious habits, living in the city, were 
 obliged by some unrelenting fatality to choose for a 
 study just that spot in a town, where most " do con- 
 gregate " carts, wagons, stages, and wheel-barrows, and 
 where the din and clatter of commercial transactions 
 are the most unceasing, and the most annoying; or, as 
 if all parts of a city, and at all times of the day, were 
 equally and hopelessly given up to clamor, uproar, and 
 confusion. 
 
 Talk about opportunities for study? Where can 
 they be letter, where can they be as good&s in the city ? 
 Here are capital schools, capital teachers, capital appar- 
 atus, capital libraries, capital courses of lectures, capi- 
 tal chances for literary conversation; in fact, capital 
 chances for every thing that can enlarge, store, train, 
 and liberalize the mind. 
 
 If we adopt the oft-reiterated sentiment, that 
 
 " The proper study of mankind is man" 
 
 and, for the prosecution of this study, seek the society 
 of shade, and stream, and forest, and valley, where 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 207 
 
 men are (bund few in numbers, and free from the ex- 
 citements and conflicts, the competitions and vicissi- 
 tudes that force out motive, and so determine the char- 
 acter of actions, we shall soon discover that our means 
 of improvement, are sadly deficient. The city, sir, 
 whatever our first impressions might suggest, is, with- 
 out doubt, the best school for the study of the human 
 heart ; so that, if, indeed, il the proper study of mankind 
 is man," the proper place for that study is the crowded 
 city. " Glorious, indeed," says Longfellow, "is the 
 world of God around us, but more glorious the world 
 of God within us !" That " world of God within us," 
 sir, which is destined to survive "the world of God 
 around us," and which, for that reason, is the more de- 
 serving of our careful regard, is there best explored, 
 where men, in masses, meet, jostle, rival and mutually 
 stimulate one another. 
 
 But the gentleman dreads the vicious associations of 
 the city. If that argument had any strength, it ought 
 to drive him quite out of the world; for vicious peo- 
 ple are, by no means, peculiar to cities. It ought, at 
 least, to render him a hermit, — to force him into the 
 most absolute asceticism ; for nothing can be more ob- 
 vious than, that vicious people are not the peculiar her- 
 itage and burden of cities. 
 
 Evil thrives, with more or less vigor and virulence, 
 everywhere. We can not run entirely away from it, 
 though we need not, and should not run heedlessly or 
 designedly into it. Our positive duty is to oppose it, 
 whether in ourselves or in others. " Eesist the devil," 
 says the apostle James, " and he will flee from you." 
 
208 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 Surely, Sir, this Scriptural instruction differs toto cceb 
 from that which counsels us not to resist, but to run. 
 
 The truth, is, Mr. President, there is often a positive 
 advantage in being near to the wicked and the degraded, 
 provided we have the heart to seek to do them good. 
 Christ himself affords, by his practice in this regard, as 
 in all others, the best possible example. He was found 
 among the wicked, the outcast, the wretched : saying 
 in answer to the question, " Why eateth your master 
 with publicans and sinners?" "They that be whole 
 need not a physician, but they that are sick." By fol- 
 lowing this divine example, sir, we may derive the 
 highest benefit to ourselves, while we are seeking to 
 alleviate the woes of others. 
 
 The spirit of true Christianity is no anchoretic spirit. 
 It goes out among men, because evil is among men, 
 and seeks, like its blessed Founder, " to save that which 
 is lost." That wicked men, in numbers, dwell in cities, 
 is therefore no argument to induce good men to flee to 
 the country. It is rather a reason to make them court 
 that trial of virtue, by which they may become at once 
 the teachers and the taught in the ways and the works 
 of God. 
 
 FIFTH SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — If I wished to give a distinct notion 
 of the difference in signification, between the words 
 ingenious and ingenuous, I think I might safely say, 
 that, in this discussion, thus far the arguments for 
 the country have been ingenuous, while the answers to 
 them have been ingenious. 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 209 
 
 The country, says the first speaker, in substance, 
 abounds in scenes and objects fitted to awaken admi- 
 ration, and turn the thoughts of men toward their 
 Creator. It differs from the city, in being the natui al, 
 instead of the artificial dwelling-place of man, and is, 
 therefore, better adapted to the development of his 
 mental and moral character. 
 
 Now, this is a plain and ingenuous statement of 
 truth ; powerful, indeed, but only powerful, because it 
 is true. But how is it answered ? " Oh," says the next 
 speaker, " that's sill fancy ! Men soon become indiffer- 
 ent to the impressions of external grandeur. These 
 things may be fitted to excite sublime sentiments and 
 holy affections, but they seldom do ; for men are apt 
 to pass them by unheeded." 
 
 Then the whole argument is dismissed with a fine 
 flourish of words about people walking among the 
 Alps, as they would among common hills, and riding 
 on the waves of the ocean as thoughtlessly as they 
 would on the gently ruffled surface of a tranquil lake. 
 In all this, the real point, on which the argument was 
 obviously meant to turn, viz. : the comparative influence 
 of city and country scenes and objects on man's moral 
 nature, is quite overlooked. Now, sir, this may be 
 considered ingenious, but it is far from being ingenuous. 
 
 Again ; it was argued that the quiet and seclusion 
 of rural life, afforded better opportunities for study and 
 reflection than can be realized in the city ; where there 
 must be much of bustle and uproar, — the necessary 
 concomitants of trade and commerce. In reply to 
 this, we are rather tauntingly told, that people in the 
 city, who are inclined to study, do not, for that pur- 
 
210 DEBATES m FULL. 
 
 poje, seek those parts of the town most beset with the 
 noise of carts, and the clamor of commerce. 
 
 And, as if to draw the mind entirely away from the 
 point in debate, that is, from a simple comparison of 
 advantages, where both places are admitted to have, at 
 least some claims to the thing in dispute, we are boast- 
 fully reminded, that in cities there are capital schools, 
 capital lectures, and capital everything ! Surely, sir, 
 this is somewhat ingenious in the way of logic ; but is 
 it candid? Is it ingenuous? 
 
 It was further argued, that the country is compara- 
 tively free from the vicious associations that are always 
 collected in large cities ; and forthwith a gentleman 
 tells us that evil exists everywhere, and then quotes 
 Scripture to show what nobody denies, namely, that we 
 must " resist the devil." This is another specimen of 
 logical ingenuity ; but it wants the very life and soul 
 of logic, that is, the open and ingenuous spirit, that be- 
 fits the investigation of truth. 
 
 Such, sir, is the reasoning, which has here been 
 employed, in the attempt to invalidate the claims of 
 the country to superior regard, as a place of residence. 
 Vain attempt ! " God made the country," some one 
 has well observed, "but man made the city;" and 
 there is here, as in all tilings else, the same measureless 
 distance between the works of divinity and the works 
 of humanity. 
 
 The city, sir, is a contrivance of trade, — trade that 
 fosters " the love of money, w r hich is the root of ail 
 evil," — trade, that enslaves all the powers of the mind, 
 and lashes them into the degrading service of Mam- 
 mon,— -trade, that tempts men to trickery and false- 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 211 
 
 hood. — trade, that makes tliem hasten to be rich, and 
 so "pierce themselves through with many sorrows." 
 
 The city, sir, is the convenience and theatre of 
 fashion, — fashion that engenders fops and fools who 
 delight in simulation and ^simulation; anxiously 
 laboring to seem to be what they are not, and not to be 
 what they are, — fashion, that forms and fosters hollow 
 and deceitful friendships and alliances, makes happi- 
 ness dependent upon the cut of a coat, the shape of a 
 hat, the fit of a boot, or the length of a moustache, and 
 resolves all gentility into a slavish conformity with 
 modes of dress and address, often absurd and. ridicu- 
 lous, and rarely convenient to nature. 
 
 The city is the nursery of social vice ; — that vice, I 
 mean, that can thrive only in the midst of multitudes ; 
 that shelters itself under the concealments of trade, and 
 fashion, and politics, and whatever else may yield a 
 fair outside, and so saps, unseen, the very foundations 
 of virtue. 
 
 Why is it, sir, that people worn out, or disgusted 
 with the toil and turmoil of trade, or with the empty 
 and wearisome round of fashionable dissipation, or 
 with the sorrowful vicissitudes of political ambition, 
 fly away to the enchanting embrace of rural life, and 
 seek in nature's path w r hat was vainly, though eagerly, 
 pursued amid the artificial arrangements and conven- 
 tional restraints of city life? It is because the coun- 
 try, being agreeable to nature, furnishes just those 
 means and modes of enjoyment, which are the most 
 effective and permanent, because they are the most 
 reliable. 
 
 There healthful labor brings its natural reward, — 
 
212 DEBATES IN FULL. 
 
 " a sound mind in a sound body? There the eye is 
 gratified with scenes of beauty and sublimity; there 
 the ear is delighted \\ith the song of birds and all 
 the melody of nature ; and there, if we will, we may, 
 in truth, — 
 
 " Look through nature up to Nature's God !" 
 
 SIXTH SPEAKER. 
 
 Mr. President, — I have no disposition to imitate the 
 example of the last speaker, in complaining of the 
 course taken by others in the debate ; but I cannot 
 resist the conviction, that the real point in dispute has 
 not yet been fully brought out and discussed. I do 
 not flatter myself, that i" shall be* able to do it, as it 
 ought to be done. Yet, something in this way, I shall 
 attempt. 
 
 The statement of the case, seems to be this. Two 
 individuals, early in life, equal in health, fortune, and 
 in social position, propose to themselves the question : 
 "Which is preferable, city or country life ?" It is not 
 which would be preferable, supposing a man to be 
 eager after wealth, or fashion, or some other specific 
 object, which cities alone can confidently promise, be- 
 cause of the number and variety of the people in 
 them ; neither is it, which would be preferable, sup- 
 posing a man to be in quest of health, or disgusted 
 with the tedious and trifling ways of fashion, or worn 
 out with the cares of business, or dejected and dis- 
 heartened by the disappointments of ambition, or 
 bent upon nothing but sober, profound, and protracted 
 studies. 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 213 
 
 The question respects exclusively neither of these 
 supposed conditions or characters ; for, if it did, its de- 
 cision would be easy. The claims of the city, for the 
 one party, would be so absolute and overpowering, as 
 to be quite irresistible ; while the claims of the coun- 
 try, for the other party, would be no less cogent and 
 convincing. 
 
 Now, with this, the true aspect of the case, that is 
 other things being equal, " which is preferable, town or 
 country ?" I think I may assume a position in favor 
 of the former, that cannot easily be controverted. I 
 set out with the observation, that the town affords 
 several advantages which cannot be had, nor compen- 
 sated for, b} 7 - a resort to the country. There is a cer- 
 tain polish and refinement acquired in city circles, or 
 by the gentle attrition of city associations, whether 
 for pleasure or business, which nothing in ordinary 
 rural life, can either produce or atone for. 
 
 This has been experienced always and everj^where. 
 The very words civility, from civis, in Latin, a citizen ; 
 urbanity, from urbs, a city, in the same language ; and, 
 as has been affirmed by some, 'polite, from the Greek 
 polls, a city ; these very words, I say, all expressive of 
 that suavity and polish of manners that are essential 
 to the true gentleman, show what has been the judg- 
 ment of mankind for centuries, respecting the influence 
 of cities upon human character. 
 
 A second peculiar advantage of living in a city, 
 arises from the multiplicity and proximity of its 
 means and appliances for comfort and convenience. 
 Whoever has experienced the annoyances growing 
 out of the privations of country life, in this respect, 
 
214 DEBATES IN FULL 
 
 will need no lengthy argument to make him feel its 
 force. In the country, days and even weeks of delay 
 and consequent discomfort, spring from the want of 
 things that every corner, in a city, offers in perpetual 
 abundance. 
 
 In the country, with but few intervals of relief, 
 a walk in the roads is but a weary wading through 
 mud, or snow, or a ceaseless contact with clouds of 
 dust. In the city, except under a weak and inefficient 
 administration of the laws, well-paved streets and 
 walks, and withal, well cleaned and sprinkled,. invite 
 the pedestrian to out-door business or exercise. Even 
 at night, when the country is everywhere shrouded 
 in robes of darkness, the city, all brilliant with lamps, 
 along the streets, and in the countless shops and saloons, 
 offers both pleasure and safety in walking abroad. 
 
 In the country, such is the temptation to imper- 
 tinent curiosit}^, that everybody's business seems to 
 be every other body's business, and all and each, like 
 the Athenians of old, seem "to suend their time in 
 nothing else, but either to tell, or to hear some new 
 thing." In the city, every man has enough, and 
 sometimes more than enough of his own business to 
 attend to ; and so it comes to pass, that whether one 
 eats or drinks, whether he rides or walks, marries or 
 is given in marriage, buys or sells, or whatsoever he 
 does, that is legal and proper, arrests no special atten- 
 tion, and calls for no general talk or silly wonder- 
 ment. 
 
 A third peculiar benefit, in city life^is impressively 
 known and felt only when we are taken dangerously ill, 
 or suddenly meet with some bodily calamity. In the 
 
TOWN AND COUNTRY. 215 
 
 country where the population is sparse, a single phy- 
 sician is all that can ordinarily be supported, in a 
 widely-extended district. 
 
 It results, especially in cases of sudden and danger- 
 ous emergency, that the greatest delay and difficulty 
 are experienced in securing timely medical aid and at- 
 tendance. In the city, on the contrary, physicians 
 and surgeons of all grades, are ever at hand, because, 
 in cities alone, can they, in such numbers, be supported 
 and encouraged. None can fail at once to see the 
 singular superiority, in this respect, of the city over the 
 country. 
 
 But, sir, I will pursue the subject no farther. I will 
 not even claim the privilege, so freely accorded to 
 others, that of calling to my aid the sweet voice of 
 song. Bather let my arguments, whether worthy or 
 worthless, stand all alone ; unaffected by the magic in- 
 fluence of metre, the felicities of rhyme, or the airy 
 forms of imagination. 
 
 I will only remind you, in conclusion, that the ques- 
 tion should be decided on general grounds ; that the 
 respective claims of town and country are to be made 
 upon those who are in a condition to choose, without 
 the bias or necessity resulting from particular aims or 
 personal and peculiar habits or infirmities. 
 
 And, judging in this, the only fair and philosophical 
 manner, I claim for the city — that splendid result of 
 human progress — that glorious achievement of asso- 
 ciated labor and enterprise — that matchless medium of 
 trade and commerce — that incomparable nursery of 
 the suavities and amenities of life, a triumphant de- 
 cision in our favor. 
 
SECTION X. 
 
 DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 
 
 "\T7"HAT are here called Debates in Outline, aie not. 
 nor are they designed to be, elaborate synopses 
 of all the arguments pro and con, that may be adduced 
 in discussing the several questions proposed. They 
 are to serve merely as hints and suggestions, as thoughts 
 likely to beget thoughts. 
 
 He, therefore, that consults these outlines with any 
 view to improvement, should consider their design, 
 and act upon it. He should regard them not so much 
 as arguments, as the sources of arguments : keeping 
 always in mind, that what we ourselves excogitate, 
 however humble, and however often thought of by 
 others, is, for all the purposes of mental training, a 
 thousand times more valuable than the best and the 
 most brilliant arguments, if merely borrowed from 
 other people. 
 
 Yet, reading and conversation are not, therefore, to 
 be despised or neglected, as useless or injurious. The 
 error to be avoided, is that of substituting reading 
 and talking for the weightier mater rs of thinking and 
 reasoning. 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 217 
 
 Can we reasonably indulge the hope of Universal Peace? 
 
 First Speaker. {Affirmative). — That war is unnec- 
 essary, and, therefore, unjustifiable, is a conviction 
 which reflecting men will find it difficult to resist, 
 Every fresh experience serves only to weaken our 
 confidence in the arbitration of the sword, and 
 strengthen that which we have in the decisions of 
 reason. This renders the hope of universal peace 
 quite a rational one. 
 
 Second Speaker. (Negative) — Wars generally 
 originate in causes inseparable from the character of 
 human nature, — ambition and selfishness. As long as 
 these last, there will be war and bloodshed. You 
 must change the radfcal nature of man, therefore, be- 
 fore you can hope for universal peace. 
 
 Third Speaker. {Affirmative.) — It is the glory of 
 Christianity, that it changes the heart of man; im- 
 planting therein, in place of the evil passions which, we 
 by nature inherit, or, by practice, too readily acquire, 
 those qualities of heart and mind, which cannot, for a 
 moment, tolerate the presence of war. 
 
 Fourth Speaker. {Negative.) — Experience shows 
 that Christians do not scruple to go to war. Some of 
 the fiercest and foulest contests have been carried on by 
 Christians, and that, too, under the name of Chris- 
 tianity. Witness the Crusades. 
 
 Fifth Speaker. {Affirmative?) — What are often 
 called Christian nations, said an acute and pious 
 
 10 
 
218 DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 
 
 clergyman of New England, should rather be called 
 christened nations. It is not the name and profession 
 of Christ merely, that is to eradicate evil from the 
 world, but the true spirit of his religion. That re- 
 ligion certainly promises the reign of universal peace. 
 It is, therefore, reasonable to expect it. 
 
 Ought Emulation in Schools to he encouraged ? 
 
 Fiest Speaker. {Affirmative) — People never put 
 forth their best efforts without the stimulus of rivalry. 
 There must be something to be gained, as also some- 
 thing to be lost, or all energy will be paralyzed. This 
 is the experience of mankind, and it ought to have 
 weight in our decision. 
 
 Second Speaker. {Negative) — Emulation is the 
 parent of antipathy. Its presence in schools is fraught 
 with mischief. It defeats all attempts at cultivating 
 the spirit of brotherhood, because it virtually sets one 
 against another. 
 
 Third Speaker. {Affirmative) — Eivalry, in a 
 school, is not necessarily bitter and vindictive. It 
 must be generous. It must be regarded and used as 
 a healthful incentive. It may be perverted, but this 
 should not lead to its entire disuse. 
 
 Fourth Speaker. {Negative) — All rivalry presup- 
 poses, that some must be beaten. Few only can be 
 rewarded as victors ; the many must suffer, however 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 219 
 
 diligent, or utherwise deserving, the mortifications cf 
 open defeat. 
 
 Fifth Speaker- {Affirmative) — The chances of suc- 
 cess are equal, and, therefore, the unsuccessful have 
 no right to complain. In the great world without, 
 to which schools ought to be preparatory, rewards are 
 perpetually made dependent upon the same conditions, 
 and no one complains, or has a right to complain. 
 
 Sixth Speaker {Negative) — The chances of suc- 
 cess are not equal, because there is no necessary equality 
 of talent or genius in the competitors. The whole is 
 arranged, as though eveiy thing depended upon the 
 industry and perseverance of the rival candidates ; 
 whereas the most laborious and persistent effort is often 
 the least successful, because nature has denied the requi- 
 site measure of ability. The rivalry thus becomes the 
 source of injustice, of bitter heartburnings and rancor- 
 ous hostility. 
 
 Is Party Spirit productive of more Good than Evil ? 
 
 First Speaker (Affirmative) — Experience has 
 shown, that all men act better under close supervision, 
 than when left to themselves. Party spirit generates 
 watchfulness on both sides, and so keeps both sides 
 close to the path of duty. 
 
 Second Speaker. (Negative) — Party spirit with- 
 draws the mind and heart from our common country and 
 her best interests to place them on a particular party. 
 
220 DEBATES m OUTLINED 
 
 It makes us eager to carry personal and private meas- 
 ures, and forgetful of, or unjust to, the general well* 
 being. It makes the chief concern to be, not how shall 
 the whole country prosper, but how shall a party tri- 
 umph? 
 
 Third Speaker. (Affirmative.)— -It is well known, 
 that, men long in power are apt to become haughty and 
 oppressive, and that, un watched, they will fall into many 
 wrong practices. Party spirit, in such case, acts as a 
 corrective. It takes unfit men out of office, and sup- 
 plies their places with others more suitable. It thus 
 operates, also as a warning to those who, in official sta- 
 tion, are prone to oppression or injustice. 
 
 Fourth Speaker. (Negative.) — Party spirit begets 
 such rancor, as ought never to exist in one man's heart 
 towards another. Under this influence, men will quar- 
 rel, fight and even kill one another, though citizens of 
 the same city, and professedly loving the same country, 
 and the same civil institutions. 
 
 Fifth Speaker. (Affirmative.) — Party spirit may be 
 rancorous, but that is true of the spirit that operates 
 even in religious disputes. Shall all discussions in poli- 
 tics and religion, all parties and denominations cease, 
 because men will sometimes quarrel about these things ? 
 Are not the disputes occasioned by party spirit, the 
 means of turning men's minds upon political rights 
 and privileges, which might otherwise be overlooked 
 and lost? 
 
 Sixth Speaker. (Negative) — The spirit of party is 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 221 
 
 not to be confounded with, and mistaken for, the spirit 
 of patriotism. It is strictly a selfish, not a benevolent 
 spirit. It is an -unscrupulous spirit. It is not ashamed 
 to resort to falsehood to accomplish its ends. It is the 
 spirit that results in urging men to slander their neigh- 
 bors, in producing riots, in civil war and bloodshed. 
 
 Seventh Speaker. {Affirmative) — Party spirit en- 
 ables the poor, but honest man to get office, as well as 
 the rich. It brings associated effort and means to 
 bear, in such case, and so prevents that odious aris- 
 tocracy of money, which is ever ready to show its 
 haughty airs and oppressive domination. 
 
 Eighth Speaker. {Negative) — Party spirit, instead 
 of being the friend and supporter of the poor, but 
 honest man, is, in general, the sadly misdirected agent 
 of the worst men and the worst measures. It arrays 
 citizen against citizen, and deters good men from be- 
 coming candidates for office, by the certain doom of 
 being exposed, in their private characters, to every 
 outrage and indignity which slander and malignity can 
 conceive or execute. Many countries have already 
 been ruined by this execrable spirit ; and, in our own, 
 its destructive tendencies are every day becoming 
 more and more apparent. 
 
 Are Debating Societies more beneficial than injurious? 
 
 First Speaker. {Affirmative) — Whatever tends to 
 unfold truth and explode error, is doubtless useful. 
 
222 DEBATES IN OUTLIKE. 
 
 Debating societies, well managed, do this, and, there- 
 fore, justly claim to be always far more beneficial than 
 injurious. 
 
 Second Speaker. (Negative.) — Debating Societies 
 are usually composed of young persons, who are 
 apt to treat the gravest and profoundest subjects in a 
 light and superficial manner. In this way, minds not 
 yet formed by study and reflection, are more likely to 
 injure than to benefit one another. 
 
 Third Speaker. (Affirmative.) — There is no such 
 thing as unmixed good in the world. If, therefore, 
 you reject Debating Societies on the ground of their 
 being liable to abuse, you may as well reject hundreds 
 of other good things for the same reason. They in* 
 vote thought, lead to useful comparisons of ideas 5 
 and so strengthen the mind. 
 
 --o" 
 
 Fourth Speaker. (Negative.) — They beget a dis- 
 putatious spirit ; making people delight not so much 
 in the acquisition of knowledge and the discovery of 
 truth, as in captious criticism, and in the pride of 
 victory. 
 
 Fifth Speaker. (Affirmative.) — Debating Societies 
 encourage the disposition to reading and study, afford 
 excellent opportunities for practice in extempora- 
 neous speaking, place us in the way of wholesome 
 criticism, and furnish the mind with a wide circle of 
 ideas. 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 223 
 
 Have the Crusades proved more "beneficial than injurious 
 to mankind? 
 
 First Speaker. {Affirmative.) — The first result of 
 the Crusades was to break the chains of bondage, 
 moral, mental, and political, which held in abject 
 slavery, as it were, the nations of Europe. This they 
 did, by discovering to the down-trodden and ignorant 
 masses the secret of their own strength, and enriching 
 their minds with knowledge, previously and other- 
 wise inaccessible. 
 
 Second Speaker. {Negative) — What we call the 
 Crusades were nothing but those ferocious wars, waged 
 in the name of religion, and often carried on in a 
 spirit befitting savage marauders rather than the friends 
 of the Cross. The ill effect of the Crusades upon the 
 Christian religion itself, was incalculable: destroying 
 confidence in the truth and purity of a faith, in the 
 cause of which, professedly, such immoralities and bar- 
 barities were committed. 
 
 Third Speaker. {Affirmative.) — The origin or se* 
 cret motive of the Crusades is not here in dispute. 
 The spirit in which they were conducted, it is not our 
 present business to consider or characterize. Bad or 
 good, these belong not properly to the matter in hand. 
 Have the Crusades resulted well, not had they a pure 
 origin, is the question. They certainly revolutionized 
 the institutions and customs of the day, disseminated 
 information, gave unity of purpose to masses hitherto 
 
224 DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 
 
 divided by distance and by fends, and planted the 
 seeds of civil liberty, which have come np in the shape 
 of well- ordered and free states, and otherwise variously 
 improved the condition of the world. 
 
 Fourth Speaker. {Negative.) — The spirit of perse 
 cution generated or fostered by those wicked expedi 
 tions, which has since, in so many instances, displayed 
 its terrible rage, is among the results of the crusades. 
 If, therefore, we look exclusively at results, this one 
 bad, horribly bad, consequence of them, ought to out- 
 weigh a score of those advantages commonly said to 
 have come from them. 
 
 Fifth Speaker. (Affirmative.) — No extensive refor- 
 mation was ever made in any age, or country, that did 
 carry with it the necessity of strong measures, and 
 exhibit from the blindness and weakness of even 
 good men, certain excesses deeply to be deplored. 
 The career of Cromwell, though ultimately produc- 
 tive of inestimable benefits, was often marked by 
 acts t that his best friends must forever, and deeply 
 regret. 
 
 Sixth Speaker. (Negative) — It is taken for grant- 
 ed, generally, that numberless benefits, moral, social 
 and political, flowed from the Crusades, which can- 
 not be shown to have had this origin. Besides, all 
 these benefits might, could, and in due time, would, 
 have been realized from the exercise of truly Christian 
 virtues, without resort to barbarous wars. 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 225 
 
 Is there more of real than of imaginary evil in the world? 
 
 First Speaker. Affirmative,) — All evil is real, what- 
 ever its source. But of that kind which is meant in 
 this question, that is to say, evil created by causes 
 really existent, and not merely imaginary, the amount 
 is vastly greater than that which is the offspring of 
 fancy. Hunger, cold, disease and the like realities, 
 leave no parallel in the list of fancied adversities. 
 
 Second Speaker. {Negative) — The terrors of imagi- 
 nary calamity beset us from childhood to old age. Who 
 can estimate the mental agonies of childhood, suffer- 
 ing under the absurd impression of ghosts hovering 
 around a neighboring tomb, or graveyard or dwelling ? 
 What chilling terrors often shake the frames of older 
 folks under the same delusive apprehensions ? 
 
 Third Speaker. {Affirmative) — The cases even of 
 children, to say nothing of older people, affected by fear 
 of spectres, are comparatively few. But the real sources 
 of misery, those which reason cannot dispel, are le- 
 gion. 
 
 Fourth Speaker. {Negative) — Apprehended evils 
 are, perhaps, quite as numerous as any real ones. They 
 are, moreover, all the more severe, as they are aggra- 
 vated indefinitely by the same fertile faculty, that orig- 
 inates them. Fancy, unrestrained by reason, is the 
 mother of endless despondent day-dreams, the prolific 
 source of hypochondriac or maniacal hallucination ; 
 often the cause of incurable madness. What evil is 
 comparable to the loss of reason ? 
 
 10* 
 
226 DEBATES IN" OUTLIKE. 
 
 Is a lie ever justifiable? 
 
 First Speaker. {Affirmative.) — A lie is a story told 
 with tlie intention to deceive. The question, therefore, 
 may be resolved into this, — Is there any such thing as 
 innocent deception? It is innocent, when practiced 
 merely for sport, or for the benefit of the party deceiv- 
 ed ; as, where a sick child that dreads medicine, is as- 
 sured, that it is not medicine, but something else, or 
 when a robber is diverted from his purpose, by a time- 
 ly and ingenious falsehood. 
 
 Second Speaker. (Negative.) — There is no such 
 thing as a " timely falsehood 11 : all lying is untimely, be- 
 cause it is always, directly or indirectly, the fruitful 
 source of mischief and misery. Telling lies, in order 
 to induce children to perforin a duty, is only teaching 
 them indirectly to sacrifice truth to expediency. They 
 will follow your example, and apply it to cases other 
 than those of seeming necessity. You may sometimes 
 ward off present evil, perhaps, by resort to falsehood ; 
 but the injury done to truth, in all such cases, is great- 
 er than that avoided by its violation. 
 
 Third Speaker. (Affirmative.) — May I not save my 
 life, which is endangered by the assaultof a madman, 
 by practicing a deception upon him ? May I not cheer 
 and solace a despondent patient, by exciting false, but 
 flattering hopes ? Shall I deny my correspondent the 
 courtesy implied in the usual close of a letter — " Your 
 Obt. Servant* &c., dec." merely because it is strictly a de- 
 parture from truth ? May not a general practice false* 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 227 
 
 hood to deceive and embarrass his enemy ? May not 
 one who has fallen into the hands of savages, save him- 
 self from their ferocity, if necessary, by lying ? 
 
 Fourth Speaker. (Xegative.) — It is easy to multiply 
 cases, wherein lying would seem to be innocent, be 
 cause it procures a benefit. But all such argumenta- 
 tion falls instantly to the ground, when you remember, 
 that, whatever may be our ideas of expediency and in- 
 expediency, of right and of wrong, the rule which God 
 has established, in the case, is one that admits of no 
 exceptions. There is no license to lie ; for we may not 
 do evil even that good may come. 
 
 Which is the more detrimental, to be too credulous or 
 too suspicious? 
 
 First Speaker. Credulity is the parent of serious 
 evils in every department of life. It invites imposi- 
 tion, and brings the greater pain, because it is ever at- 
 tended with the consciousness, that we are deceived by 
 our own folly. 
 
 Second Speaker. Perpetual suspicion is perpetual 
 terror. It were better to be often deceived by false ap- 
 pearances and promises, than to suffer the evil of fre- 
 quently rejecting what is true and reliable, under the 
 impression that deception lurks in everything. 
 
 Third Speaker. Suspicion saves a man of business 
 from being ruined in his dealings. It throws continual 
 
228 DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 
 
 safeguards around his transactions, while credulity ex- 
 poses him at every turn to the wiles of sharpers. 
 
 Foueth Speaker. Suspicion may often save a man 
 from the wiles of sharpers, but just as often cuts him 
 off from the intercourse and sympathy of honest 
 men. It begets in the soul foul opinions of mankind, 
 and is apt to make the man that harbors it, just what 
 he deems other men to be. Credulity, on the other 
 hand, takes kind and liberal views of humanity. It 
 is one of the phases of charity — the spirit that " think- 
 eth no evil." 
 
 Fifth Speaker. Credulity is the greatest of all 
 cheats. It cheats a man out of his understanding. It 
 makes him see all things in the wrong light. It believes 
 what is false, as readily as it receives what is true. It 
 swallows the lie that is ruinous to a friend, as quickly 
 as it takes in the truest statements against a malicious 
 enemy. It confounds all the ordinary distinctions be- 
 tween what is probable and improbable. It ignores all 
 just and safe discrimination. 
 
 Sixth Speaker. Suspicion shuts out of the heart 
 all that gives confidence. Now, confidence between 
 man and man is the very foundation of society, the in- 
 dispensable element of the social compact. Whatever 
 weakens and disturbs this feeling, wars against the best 
 interests of mankind. It divides friends, it excites an- 
 tipathies, it deranges business, it dissolves the most ten- 
 der and the most sacred connections and associations 
 of every kind. 
 
DEBATES IK OUTLINE. 229 
 
 Is the miser more injurious to society than the 
 spendthrift f 
 
 First Speaker. {Affirmative) — Miser means miser- 
 able, wretched. The application of this name to a per- 
 son of covetous disposition, sufficiently evinces the 
 judgment of mankind respecting the influence of 
 avarice. It makes a man mean and miserable. It 
 is hardly possible, by any stretch of prodigality, to 
 injure one's own moral nature to the extent created by 
 the habitual exercise of covetous practices. " Covet- 
 ousness is idolatry." This is Bible testimony. It has 
 no god but money. 
 
 Second Speaker. {Negative) — Does not the spend- 
 thrift, also, bring irreparable mischief on himself? 
 "When exhausted of his means, he is doubly poor ; not 
 only without money, but without the habits necessary 
 to get and keep it. What must be his remorse, too, 
 in such case, knowing that his wastefulness has brought 
 him to want, when, had he been frugal, he would 
 have had enough, and something, perchance, to spare, 
 to relieve the necessities of others. 
 
 Third Speaker. {Affirmative) — The miser is a 
 voluntary pauper. He der es himself and his family 
 the comforts of life, while ne has money in abundance. 
 He denies his children thorough educational training, 
 and, by his example, inspires others with the love 
 of money, which is " the root of all evil." 
 
 Fourth Speaker. {Negative) — If the miser denies 
 bread to his children by his penurious habits, the 
 
230 DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 
 
 spendthrift does precisely the same thing by his ex- 
 travagance. The doom of poverty settles equally on 
 both. He not only dissipates his own private means, 
 to an extent that cripples all proper business energy, 
 but is among those who, by squandering capital, pre- 
 vent those extensive commercial enterprises that tend 
 so much to elevate and enrich a nation. 
 
 Fifth Speaker. {Affirmative) —The miser, in order 
 to hoard, withdraws large sums from the circulation 
 of a country. He thus prevents money from doing its 
 appropriate work, and so diminishes the prosperity of 
 a community. 
 
 Sixth Speaker. {Negative) — The tendency of the 
 course of a spendthrift is evil in the extreme ; because 
 it seduces young people into habits of expense and 
 recklessness, and is wholly at war with the spirit of 
 industry and economy. It is all the more pernicious, 
 because it disguises its wickedness under the name of 
 generosity ; and, under that plea, is not unfrequently 
 guilty of the grossest injustice. 
 
 Seventh Speaker. {Affirmative) — The habit of 
 regarding money as the chief good, and as, in itself, a 
 thing greatly to be sought after, is apt to generate a 
 spirit of dishonesty. It not only makes men mean, 
 but it makes them unjust. But, if it had no other ill 
 effect, its tendency to make a few immensely rich 
 while the many are distressedly poor, renders it more 
 dangerous to society than extravagance ever can be. 
 
 Eighth Speaker. {Negative) — Nothing can be 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 231 
 
 made out of the argument, that avarice generates dis- 
 honesty, for prodigality is well known to do the same 
 thing, only in a higher degree. How many persons, 
 young and old, have been utterly ruined by yielding 
 to the temptations to dishonesty, inspired by habits 
 of extravagance ! Both of these characters are worthy 
 of all condemnation, but that of the spendthrift is the 
 more injurious to society, because it wastes the rewards 
 of industry, and offers a greater number and variety 
 of temptations to the young and the thoughtless. 
 
 Are Theatres more beneficial than injurious? 
 
 First Speaker. {Affirmative) — "Whatever exposes 
 vice, and commends virtue, is undeniably a public 
 benefit. This is the special office of the drama. It 
 discovers the secret springs of wicked deeds, brings 
 virtue out, at last, always triumphant, and so gives 
 wholesome and impressive warning to those disposed 
 to evil. It is, in short, a sort of school of morals. 
 
 Second Speaker. {Negative) — If the office of the 
 drama is to expose vice and commend virtue, it cer- 
 tainly has not been very true to its obligations. Plays, 
 for the most part, abound in obscenities and pro- 
 fanities. They represent vicious characters, in colors 
 so fascinating, that unreflecting people rather admire 
 than condemn them. 
 
 If the theatre be considered a school of morality, 
 the devil, as Dr. Dwight has observed, must have 
 
232 DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 
 
 turned schoolmaster. The moral instructions of the 
 stage, even when unexceptionable, both in principle 
 and in language, fail of their effect, because not given 
 in the right time, the right place, and under the right 
 circumstances. 
 
 Third Speaker. {Affirmative) — Whatever excep- 
 tions may be found or imagined, the general rule is, 
 that the drama is decidedly in favor of sound morals. 
 If the moral teachings of the theatre fail of their ob- 
 ject, the fault lies not in the teaching, but in the dull- 
 ness or perverseness of the pupil's. We might as well 
 take exception to the teachings of the pulpit, because 
 so many turn a deaf ear to the voice of the preacher* 
 It should be considered a great advantage in the 
 theatre, that it attracts and teaches classes of people, 
 whom the appointed agencies of the church seldom 
 reach or affect. 
 
 Fourth Speaker. {Negative.)— It is idle to talk 
 of the moral tendencies of the stage ; when it is quite 
 notorious, that actors and actresses themselves, to say 
 nothing whatever of the auditors, are, with few excep- 
 tions, not a little profligate in character. The plays, 
 whether you regard the language, the sentiment, the 
 dress, or other kindred circumstances, are often highly 
 objectionable in point of delicacy and refinement. 
 What must be the character and tendency of that 
 teaching, which attracts and delights the vicious, and 
 which exercises no corrective influence, either upon 
 the players themselves, or those who habitually attend 
 upon their performances ? 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 233 
 
 Fifth Speaker. {Affirmative) — The stage is con- 
 fessedly beneficial in a literary point of view, whatever 
 we say about its moral bearings. For justness of pro- 
 nunciation, for true emphasis, for appropriate gestures, 
 for all the graces of oratory, it stands pre-eminent. 
 11 Why is it," said a distinguished clergyman once to a 
 great actor, u that you players are able to excel our 
 profession in awakening and prolonging attention?" 
 " It is," said the actor, " because we represent fiction 
 as if it were truth, while you represent truth as if it 
 were fiction !" The theatre is a school of oratory, and 
 the excellence of its instructions is well attested by 
 the fact, that extracts from plays are universally em- 
 ployed in schools and colleges, as the best exercises in 
 elocution. 
 
 Sixth Speaker. (Negative) — It is not true that the 
 pronunciation of the player is always in accordance 
 with the most approved standards. In the matter of 
 emphasis, gesture, and whatever else may be used to 
 aid in giving the true effect to a piece, it is not denied, 
 that great actors take great pains. But, in general, it 
 may be affirmed with entire truth, that the theatre af- 
 fords very imperfect exhibitions of character. If 
 Shakspeare's plays be excepted, few others will be 
 found, which do not frequently represent vice and 
 virtue in strange, improbable, and often impossible 
 situations. In the acting, moreover, there is little, 01 
 nothing, true to our every-day experience. 
 
 Seventh Speaker. {Affirmative) — Theatres are 
 excellent means of amusement. They mingle what is 
 
234 DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 
 
 useful, with, what is entertaining, and, as people must 
 have entertainment, the theatre becomes a great public 
 benefit by affording it. In all countries some public 
 entertainments have been found necessary. The 
 Olympic and other games, &c, &c, sufficiently at- 
 test this. 
 
 Eighth Speaker. {Negative) — A man's character 
 may often be determined, in some measure, by the 
 character of his amusements. Now, what are the 
 amusements at the theatre ? Are they such as good 
 men, — such as people of the best and purest morals, 
 can fully approve and patronize ? Are they not no- 
 toriously, such in general, as bring together and enter- 
 tain the vile, the ignorant, the abandoned ? 
 
 Ninth Speaker. {Affirmative) — The just objects 
 and character of the legitimate drama are not to be 
 confounded with everything in that form, presented 
 on the stage. The theatre, properly managed, is 
 everything that has been claimed for it in this debate, 
 and more. It is, then, emphatically a good school ; the 
 players being good men and women, the plays being 
 works of genius, abounding in all that is fitted to mend 
 the heart, to improve the taste, to please the imagina- 
 tion, and to delight the eye and the ear, w r hile the 
 ^audience, refined, cultivated, or at least moral and 
 respectable, meet and part, not only without injury, 
 but with positive benefit. Can any one doubt the 
 utility of such a theatre ? 
 
 Tenth Speaker. {Negative) — The point to be set- 
 tled in this controversy is not what theatres might be, 
 
DEBATES IN OUTLINE. 235 
 
 but what they are. As they now exist, and are man 
 aged, and must continue to be managed, in all like- 
 lihood, they are the sources of evil in many forms. 
 What with the ill tendencies of the plays themselves, 
 what with the ill influence on the players and their 
 hearers, what with the late hours and feverish ex- 
 citement which they necessitate, what with the bad 
 associations they throw in the way of the young and 
 the innocent, what with the drinking shops, the gam- 
 ing tables, and other nameless snares and abominations 
 therein and thereabout abounding, the theatre seems 
 really incapable of producing any good result what- 
 ever. 
 
SECTION XI. 
 
 QUESTIONS WITH EEFERENCES. 
 
 ITEEE we introduce a series of questions, with refer- 
 •*■■*• ences under each to authorities or sources of 
 information. We have not thought it desirable to 
 make these references numerous: the object being 
 rather to afford data for the exercise of mind than to 
 throw open volumes exhausting the subjects in dis- 
 pute. 
 
 L 
 
 OUGHT THE PRESS TO BE WITHOUT LEGAL RESTRICTION ? 
 
 Encyclopaedia Americana, — Article, " Books, Censorship of." 
 Milton on the Liberty of the Press. 
 Hume's Essay on the Liberty of the Press. 
 Coleridge, — The Friend. Essay XXI. 
 D wight's Decisions. 
 
 II. 
 
 ARE FICTITIOUS WRITINGS MORE BENEFICIAL THAN INJURIOUS? 
 
 Dunlop's History of Fiction, from the earliest Greek Romances to the 
 
 Novels of the Present Day. 
 "Walter Scott's Criticism on Novels and Romances. 
 Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination. 
 Goldsmith's Citizen of the World, — Letter LIIL 
 Murray's Morality of Fiction, or an Inquiry into the Tendency of 
 
 Fictitious Narratives. 
 
QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 237 
 
 III. 
 
 DO SPECTRES, OR GHOSTS APPEAR? 
 
 Penny Cyclopaedia, — Article, " Apparition." 
 Walter Scott's Demonology and Witchcraft. 
 Hibbert's Philosophy of Apparitions. 
 Dwight's Decisions. 
 
 Tha cher's Essay on Dernonology, Apparitions, and Popular Super- 
 stitions. 
 Uphaats Lectures on Salem Witchcraft. 
 Nbwhham's Essay on Superstition. 
 Defoe's History of Apparitions. 
 
 iv; 
 
 WAS THE BANISHMENT OF NAPOLEON TO ST. HELENA JUSTIFIABLE? 
 
 Alison's History of Europe. 
 
 Thiers' History of the French Empire. 
 
 O'aLeara's Xapoleon in Exile. 
 
 Scott's Life of Xapoleon. 
 
 Abbott's Life of Xapoleon. 
 
 Hazlitt's Life of Xapoleon. 
 
 Moxtholox's History of the Captivity of Xapoleon at St. Helena. 
 
 Bourrlenne's Memoirs of Xapoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 €*& 
 
 is war justifiable? 
 
 A 
 
 Chalmers on the Hatefulness of War. 
 
 Channlng on War. 
 
 Jay's War and Peace. 
 
 War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ, (New York 1815.) 
 
 D wight's Decisions. 
 
 YI. 
 
 ought classical studies to be encouraged? 
 Locke's Thoughts on Education. 
 Robert Hall on Classical Learning. 
 Whe well's University Education. 
 Sears. Edwards and Felton on Classical Studies. 
 Donaldson's Xew Cratylus, — Introductory Chapter. 
 Dwight's Decisions. 
 Arnold's Miscellaneous Writings, — Article, " Rugby School." 
 
238 QUESTIONS WITH KEFEKENCES. 
 
 VII. 
 
 DOES GEOLOGY CONFIRM THE MOSAIC ACCOUNT OF THE CREATION? 
 
 L yell's Principles of Geology. 
 
 Hitchcock's Eeligion of Geology. 
 
 Buckland's Geology and Mineralogy. 
 
 Wood's Mosaic History of the Creation, illustrated from the Present 
 State of Science. 
 
 Tayler Lewis' Six Days of Creation. 
 
 Ira Hill's Theory of the Formation of the Earth. 
 
 " The Two Kecords— -The Mosaic and the Geological ;" a Lec- 
 ture delivered before the Young Men's Christian Association, in 
 Exeter Hall, London. 
 
 VIII. 
 IS the study of mythology more advantageous than hurtful? 
 Keightley's Mythology. 
 D wight's Grecian and Eoman Mythology. 
 Bryant's Analysis of Ancient Mythology. 
 Sir William Jones on the Gods of Greece, Italy and India. 
 
 IX: 
 
 WAS THE FEUDAL SYSTEM BENEFICIAL? 
 
 Penny Cyclopedia; also, Brande's Encyclopedia of Science, 
 
 Literature, and Arts, — Article, " Feudal System." 
 Hallam's State of Europe during the Middle Ages. 
 Berington's Literary History of the Middle Ages. 
 
 X. 
 
 IS THE SENTIMENT — 
 
 " For forms of government let fools contest ; 
 What 's best administered, is best" — 
 
 JUSTIFIABLE? 
 
 Encyclopedia Americana, — Article, " Natural Law." 
 Algernon Sidney's Discourses on Government. 
 Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws. 
 Carlyle's Chartism. 
 
 Adams' Defense of the Constitution of the United States, 
 De Tocqueville's Democracy in America. 
 
 Austin's Constitutional Kepublicanism in Opposition to Fallacious 
 Federalism. 
 
QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 239 
 
 XL 
 
 ARE CRITICAL REVIEWS ADVANTAGEOUS TO SCIENCE AND LITERATURE ? 
 
 Encyclopedia Americana, — Article, " Reviews." 
 Coleridge's Biog. Lileraria, — Chap. XXI. 
 Byron's British Bards and Scotch Reviewers. 
 Dwight's Decisions. 
 Margaret S. Fuller's Short Essay on Critics. 
 
 XII. 
 
 IS phrenology entitled to the rank of a true SCIENCE? 
 
 Spurzheim's Examination of Objections to Phrenology. 
 
 Combe's Elements of Phrenology. 
 
 Journal of the London Phrenological Society. 
 
 American Phrenological Journal. 
 
 Reese's Phrenology known by its Fruits. 
 
 Caldwell's Phrenology Vindicated, and Anti-Phrenology Unmasked. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 IS THE MAXIM, " A POET IS BORN SUCH, NOT MADE," TRUE? 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica, — Article, " Poetry." 
 Robert Hall on Poetic Genius. 
 
 Macaulay's Essay on Milton. — Modern British Essayists, Yol. I. 
 Johnson's Rasselas, — Chap. 
 
 Ieffrey's Review of Campbell's Specimens of British Poets. — 
 Modern British Essayists, Yol. VI. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 CAN THE EXISTENCE AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE SUPREME BEING BE 
 DEDF*jED FROM THE LIGHT OF NATURE ? 
 
 Cud worth's Intellectual System of the Universe. 
 Paley's Natural Theology. 
 Beidgewater Treatises. 
 
 Sturm's Reflections on the Being and Attributes of G-od. 
 Plato against the Atheists ; or the Tenth Book of the Dialogue on 
 Laws. By Tayler Lewis, LL.D. 
 
240 QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 
 
 XV: 
 
 IS CAPITAL PUNISHMENT JUSTIFIABLE? 
 
 Encyclopedia Americana, — Article, " Death, Punishment of." 
 
 Spear's Essays on the Punishment of Death. 
 
 Edinburgh Review, Yol. XXXY., p. 320. 
 
 Dwig-ht's Decisions. 
 
 Cheever's Defense of Capital Punishment, and Lewis 1 Essay on the 
 Ground and Reason of Punishment. 
 
 Bradford's Inquiry on the Punishment of Death in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Sullivan's Report to the Legislature of New York on Capital Punish- 
 ment. 
 
 XYI. 
 
 WAS THE EXECUTION OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS JUSTIFIABLE? 
 
 Robertson's History of Scotland. 
 
 Hume's History of England. 
 
 Bell's Life of Mary. 
 
 Abbott's Life of Mary Queen of Scots. 
 
 Tytler's Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Evidence produced 
 
 against Mary Queen of Scots. 
 Whitaker's Yindication of Mary Queen of Scots. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 IS THERE A STANDARD OF TASTE? 
 
 Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric. 
 
 Kames' Elements of Criticism. 
 
 Alison on the Nature and Principles of Taste. 
 
 Mackenzie's Theory of Taste. 
 
 M'Dermott's Dissertation on Taste. 
 
 Gerard's Essay on Taste. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 IS THERE MORE TO APPROVE THAN CONDEMN IN THE CHARACTER OF 
 OLIVER CROMWELL? * ■ 
 
 Carlyle's Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell 
 Southey's Life of Cromwell. 
 Hume's History of England. 
 Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. 
 Noble's Memoirs of the Cromwell Family. 
 Walter Scott's Tales of a Grandfather. 
 Godwin's History of the Commonwealth of England. 
 
QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 241 
 
 XIX. 
 
 WHICH WAfl THE GREATER POET, HOMER OR MILTON? 
 
 Addison's Papers on the Paradise Lost, in the Spectator. 
 
 Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric. 
 
 Coleridge on the Study of the Greek Poets. 
 
 Thirwall's History of Greece, Yol. I. 
 
 Pope's Preface to his Translation of the Iliad. 
 
 XX. 
 
 ARE THE MENTAL FACULTIES OP THE SEXES EQUAL? 
 
 Walker's Woman Physiologically Considered, as to Mind, Morals, &c. 
 Rey. Sidney Smith's Essay on Female Education — Modern British 
 
 Essayists, Yol. III. 
 Mrs. Jameson's Characteristics of Women, Moral, Poetical, Historical 
 Alme' Martin's Education of Mothers ; Translated by Edwin Lee. 
 Foreign Quarterly Reyiew, No. XXXIII, — Article II. 
 Westminster Reyiew, No. LXYHI, — Article II. 
 Dwight's Decisions. 
 
 Margaret S. Fuller's Woman in the Nineteenth Century. 
 Maria Child's History of Women. 
 Starling's Noble Deeds of Women, or Examples of Female Courage 
 
 and Yirtue. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 IS THE PREY AILING SYSTEM OF EDUCATION FOR FEMALES WORTHY OP 
 ENCOURAGEMENT ? 
 
 Hannah More's Accomplished Lady, or Strictures on the Modern 
 
 System of Female Education. 
 Rey. Sidney Smith's Essay on Female Education. — Modern British 
 
 Essayists. Yol. III. 
 Fenelon on the Education of a Daughter. 
 Mrs. Sigourney's Letters to Young Ladies. 
 Miss Sedgwick's Means and Ends, or Self-Training. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 is there sufficient reason for a belief in the national res- 
 toration OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Millman's History of the Jews. 
 
 Cunningham's Letters and Essays on Subjects connected with the 
 
 ConYersion and Restoration of the Jews. 
 Bichejno's Restoration of the Jews, the Crisis of all Nations. 
 
 11 
 
242 QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 
 
 XXIII: 
 
 OUGHT SECRET SOCIETIES TO BE TOLERATED ? 
 
 Robinson's Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and 
 
 Governments of Europe, carried on by Free Masons, IUuminati, 
 
 and Reading Societies. 
 Arnold's Philosophical History of Free Masonry, and other Secret 
 
 Societies. 
 Encyclopedia Americana, — Articles, " Jesuits, or Society of 
 
 Jesus," and " Jesuits, written by a Jesuit." 
 Stone's Letters on Masonry and Anti-Masonry. 
 Lawrie's History of Free Masonry. 
 Secret Societies of the Middle Ages ; (in the Library of Entertaining 
 
 Knowledge.) 
 
 XXIY. 
 
 ARE BANKS MORE USEFUL THAN INJURIOUS TO A COMMUNITY? 
 
 Tucker's Theory of Money and Banks Investigated 
 
 Gilbert's History and Principles of Banking. 
 
 Logan's Popular Exposition of the Practice of Banking in Scotland. 
 
 Lawsox's History of Banking. Revised, with numerous additions, by 
 
 J. Smith Homans. 
 Francis' History of the Bank of England. 
 Clarke's History of the Bank of the United States. 
 Westminster Review, No. LXVIII, — Article IV. 
 
 XXV 
 
 OUGHT THE PROTECTIVE POLICY OR FREE TRADE PRINCIPLES TO 
 PREVAIL ? 
 
 Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. 
 
 Foreign Quarterly Review, No. XXIX,— Article I. 
 
 Bastiat's Sophisms of the Protective Policy. 
 
 Raguet's Principles of Free Trade. 
 
 London Quarterly Review, No. CXXXV,— Article TIL 
 
 Rae's New Principles of Political Economy in Refutation of Adam 
 
 Smith's Wealth of Nations. 
 Blackwood's Magazine, No. CCCX.LI, for March, 1844,— Article, 
 
 11 Corn Laws." 
 Ricardo's Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. 
 Wayland's Elements of Political Economy. 
 
QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 2 i3 
 
 XXYI. 
 
 IS THERE A POSSIBILITY OF REACHING THE NORTH POLE? 
 1W€TCL0PJEDIA AMERICANA, — Article, " NOETH POLAR EXPEDITIONS." 
 
 BakBOW's Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions, 
 from the Earliest Period to Captain Ross' First Voyage. 
 
 Ross' Arctic Voyages. 
 
 Barrington's Possibility of Approaching the North Pole Asserted, 
 with papers on the Northwest Passage, by Col. Beaufoy. 
 
 Parry's Three Voyages for the Discovery of the North- West Passage 
 
 Sir John Franklin's Arctic Ex^e-litions. 
 
 Kane's Arctic Expedition. 
 
 Arctic Regions, being an account of the Exploring Expeditions of 
 Ross, Franklin, Parry, Back, M'Clure, and others, with the English 
 and American Expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin (pub- 
 lished by Miller, Orton, and Mulligan). 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 IS EMULATION A WHOLESOME STIMULANT IN EDUCATION? 
 
 Hobbes on Envy and Emulation. 
 
 Cowper's Tirocinium. 
 
 Dwight's Decisions. 
 
 Edge worth's Practical Education. 
 
 Godwin's Reflections on Education, Manners, and Literature. 
 
 XXVIII: 
 
 WAS THE EXECUTION OF MAJOR ANDRE JUSTIFIABLE? 
 
 Encyclopedia Americana, — Article, " Benedict Arnold." 
 
 Benson's Vindication of the Captors of Major Andre. 
 
 Smith's Authentic Narrative of the Causes which led to the Death of 
 
 Ma^or Andre. 
 Miss Seward's Monody on the Death of Major Andre. 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 HAS THE AUTHOR OF JUNIUS EVER BEEN IDENTIFIED ? 
 
 Encyclopedia Americana,— Article, " Junius." 
 Britton's Authorship of the Letters of Junius Elucidated. 
 Junius Identified with a Distinguished Living Character, (N, T., 1818.) 
 Junius Unmasked, or Lord Sackville proved to be the Author of 
 Junius, (Boston, 1828.) 
 
244 QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 
 
 WOULD THE UNIVERSAL PREVALENCE OF SOCIALISM ADVANCE THE 
 INTERESTS OF HUMANITY? 
 
 Rousseau's Inquiry into the Social Contract. 
 Fisher's Examination of Owen's New System of Society. 
 Considerations of some Recent Social Theories (Boston, 1853). 
 London Quarterly Review, No. CXXX, — Article YI. (On Socialism). 
 Blackwood's Magazine, No. CCCXLLX., for November, 1844,— 
 Article, " French Socialists." 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 are the moderns superior to the ancients in rhetorical 
 
 SCIENCE ? 
 
 Aristotle's Rhetoric, translated by Gtllies. 
 
 Cicero De Oratore, translated by Guthrie. 
 
 Quinctilian's Institutes of Eloquence, translated by Guthrie. 
 
 Longinus on the Sublime, translated by W. Smith. 
 
 Dialogue on Eloquence, attributed to^TACiTUS, translated by Muepi r 
 
 Horace De Arte Poetica, translated by P. Francis. 
 
 Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. 
 
 Kames' Elements of Criticism. 
 
 Whately's Rhetoric. 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 is genius innate? 
 Brown's Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind 
 Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind. 
 Locke on the Human Understanding. 
 Sharpe's Dissertation on Genius. 
 "Whipple's Lecture on Genius. 
 Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric. 
 
 XXXIII. 
 
 IS THE STORY OF THE TROJAN WAR CREDIBLE? 
 
 Thirwall's History of Greece. 
 
 Le Chevalier's Description of the Plain of Troy. 
 
 Bryant's Dissertation concerning the War of Troy. 
 
 Chandler's History of Ilium, or Troy. 
 
 Gell's Topography of Troy. 
 
 Wood's Essay on the Genius and Writings of Homer. 
 
QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 245 
 
 XXXIY. 
 
 ARE NEGROES INFERIOR TO WHITE PEOPLE IN MENTAL 
 CAPACITY? 
 
 Penny Cyclopedia, — Article, "Man." 
 
 Gregoike's Inquiry Concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties 
 
 of Negroes. 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art,— Article, 
 
 " Negroes." 
 Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. 
 Lawrence's Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy, Zoology, and the 
 
 Natural History of Man. 
 Combe's Constitution of Man Considered. 
 Encyclopedia Americana, — Article, " Africa." 
 
 XXXY: 
 
 IS THE CHARACTER OF QUEEN ELIZABETH WORTHY TO BE 
 ADMIRED ? 
 
 Hume's History of England 
 
 Agnes Strickland's Queens of England. 
 
 Sharon Turner's History of England during the Reign of Edward 
 
 YI., Mary, and Elizabeth. 
 Lucy Aikin's Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth. 
 Abbott's Life of Elizabeth. 
 
 XXXYI. 
 
 IS THE STATEMENT, — " EVERY MAN IS THE ARCHITECT OF HIS OWN 
 FORTUNE," TRUE? 
 
 Davenport's Lives of Individuals who have raised themselves from 
 
 Poverty to Eminence and Fortune. 
 Edwards' Biography of Self-Taught Men. 
 Middleton's Life of Cicero. 
 Hugh Miller's My Schools and Schoolmasters. 
 Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties, (published by the Harpers.) 
 Boyhood of Great Men; also, Footprints of Famous Men, (published 
 
 by the Harpers.) 
 Parton's Life of Horace Greeley. 
 Carlyle's Review of Heeren's Life of Heyne, — Foreign Review, No. 
 
 IV., 1828. 
 
246 QUESTIONS WITH REFERENCES. 
 
 XXXVTL 
 
 WAS THE HARTFORD CONVENTION JUSTIFIABLE? 
 
 Dwight's History of the Hartford Convention. 
 Otis' Letters in Defense of the Hartford Convention. 
 
 XXXYIII. 
 
 ARE NOT THE VIRTUES OF THE PURITANS GENERALLY OVER-ESTIMATED ? 
 
 Neal's History of the Puritans. 
 
 Grey's Examination of Neal on the Puritans. 
 
 Madox's Vindication of the Church of England against Neal's History 
 
 of the Puritans. 
 Stoughton's Heroes of Puritan Times, with an Introductory Letter 
 
 by Joel Hawes, D.D. 
 Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers. 
 
 xxxix: 
 
 WAS THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES THE FIRST JUSTIFIABLE? 
 
 Hume's History of England. 
 
 Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. 
 
 Guizot's History of the English Revolution in 1640, from the Acces- 
 sion of Charles I. to his Death; translated by W. Hazlitt. 
 
 Hallam's Constitutional History of England ; also, Macaulay's Re- 
 view of the same (in Modern British Essayists, Yol. I.) 
 
 Abbott's History of Charles I. 
 
 Lucy Aikin's Memoirs of the Court of King Charles I. 
 
 Court and Times of Charles I. (London, 1848). 
 
 Westminster Review, No XLIII, — Article II. 
 
 XL. 
 
 IS THE EARLY LEGEND OF ROMULUS AND THE FOUNDATION OF ROMR 
 ENTITLED TO CREDENCE? 
 
 Plutarch's Life of Romulus. 
 Penny Cyclopedia, — Article, " Romulus." 
 
 Anthon's Classical- Dictionary, — Articles, " Roma" and A Rom- 
 ulus.'' 
 Abbott's Life of Romulus. 
 Kiebuhr's History of Rome. 
 Arnold's History of Rome. 
 
SECTION XIII. 
 
 DEBATABLE QUESTIONS. 
 
 rpHE principal aim in this list is to secure abundance 
 -*- and variety. No particular order of topics is ob- 
 served, because none seemed to be needed. In respect 
 to the wording of the questions, it is hardly necessary 
 to say, that that is open to any and every alteration 
 required or suggested by circumstances. 
 
 1. Ought the State to provide for the free education of all children 
 (within lis borders? 
 
 2. Is a life of celibacy preferable to that of the married state ? 
 
 ■■ught old Bachelors to be subjected to civil disabilities ? 
 <*****- 4. - ould monopolies in trade ever be allowed ? 
 
 • 5. Which yields the greater pleasure, anticipation or possession? 
 6. Is the maxim, "A poet is born such, not made" strictly true? 
 t. Ought ministers of the gospel to engage in party politics? 
 
 8. Which life is subjected to the greater hardship, the soldier's oi 
 that of the sailor? 
 
 9. Are the ancient Seres identical with the modern Chinese ? 
 
 10. Ought there to be a law of international copyright ? 
 
 11. Which contributes the more to eloquence, art or nature ? 
 
 42. Ought the Protective Policy or Tree-Trade Principles to pre- 
 vail ? 
 
 13. "Which yields the higher entertainment, poetrj r or history? 
 
 - 14. Is it expedient to form colonies of convicts ? 
 ^_ 15. Is universal suffrage expedient ? 
 
 16. Is the doctrine of human perfectibility true? 
 
248 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 IT. Can the immortality of the soul be proved from the light of 
 jature alone? 
 
 18. Can a man who has been unjustly condemned to death, in- 
 nocently withdraw himself from the hands of the law ? 
 
 1 9. Ought gambling to be suppressed by law ? 
 
 * 20. Do men suffer more, in this life, from real than from imaginary 
 jvils? 
 
 21. Ought a breach of promise of marriage to be punished merely by 
 pecuniary fines ? 
 
 22. Which abounds the more in sublimity, ancient or modern 
 poetry ? 
 
 23. Which exercises the greater influence upon mankind, hope or 
 fear? 
 
 vA. Which is the more serviceable to mankind, gold or iron ? 
 
 25. Which is better for the development of character, poverty or 
 riches ? 
 
 26. Which is the better source of knowledge, reading or observa- 
 tion? 
 
 27. Ought the blacks of the free States to have the privilege of 
 voting ? 
 
 28. Is Roman Catholicism compatible with free institutions? 
 
 29. Would a repeal of the union between Ireland and England bo 
 beneficial to the former ? 
 
 ^30. Would a large standing army be conducive to our country's 
 prosperity ? 
 
 31. Would a Congress of nations be practical or beneficial? 
 
 32. Were the Puritans justified in their treatment of the North 
 American Indians ? 
 
 v 33. Ought the liberty of the press to be restricted? 
 
 34. Was the Mexican war justifiable ? 
 
 35. Has the Negro more ground for complaint than the Indian ? 
 
 36. Was the banishment of Roger Williams justifiable ? 
 
 37. Was Governor Dorr's imprisonment justifiable ? 
 
 38. Was the war between England and China justifiable on the 
 part of England ? 
 
 39. Is England likely ever to become a republic? 
 
 40. Is the Wilmot proviso constitutional ? 
 
 41. Ought our government to favor the building of a Pacific railroad ? 
 
 42. Was the intervention of the Erench at Rome just and ex- 
 pedient ? 
 
'. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 249 
 
 43. Ought imprisonment for debt to be abolished ? 
 
 44. Ought any foreign power to interfere in the affairs of Poland ? 
 
 45. Ought religious institutions to be supported by law ? 
 
 46. "Were the Allied Powers justifiable in interfering in the affairs of 
 Greece ? 
 
 47. Was the field of eloquence among the ancients superior to that 
 among the moderns? 
 
 Da Infidelity on the increase? 
 4i->. Is too high regard paid to antiquity ? 
 
 50. Is there any limit to the progress of social improvement? 
 
 51. Ought the support of the poor to be provided for by the govern- 
 ment? 
 
 52. Has the introduction of Christianity been unfavorable to poetry? 
 
 53. Ought the general government, or any state government, to 
 compel all or any of the free blacks to remove to Liberia ? 
 
 54. Are fictitious writings more beneficial than injurious ? 
 
 55. Is assassination of tyrants justifiable ? 
 
 56. Ought general governments to be invested with more authority? 
 
 57. Have European commotions a tendency to promote liberty 
 
 58. Ought Free-Masonry to be suppressed by law ? 
 
 59. Is a public preferable to a private education? 
 
 60. Was the Hartford Convention justifiable ? 
 
 61. Should the United States government have assisted in the 
 emancipation of the Greeks? 
 
 62. Ought privateering to be allowed? 
 
 63. Ought lotteries to be tolerated? 
 
 64. Ought the Chief Magistrate of the Union to have the power to 
 pardon criminals? 
 
 65. Ought infidel publications to be prohibited by law? 
 
 66. Are public executions preferable to private ? 
 
 67. Ought a student to pursue professional studies, while in col- 
 lege? 
 
 68. Is rotation in office politic ? 
 
 69. Do ghosts or spectres appear ? 
 
 70. Is it politic for Universities in the United States to import their 
 professors ? 
 
 71. Ought the United States to encourage the Indians, now within 
 their own limits, to emigrate further west ? 
 
 72. Has the British Government in India been beneficial to the 
 natives ? 
 
 11* 
 
250 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 73. Have men of thought been more beneficial to the world than 
 men of action ? 
 
 74. Does the prevailing system of popular lectures in the principal 
 cities of the country deserve our support ? 
 
 75. Is the power of England beneficial to the world? 
 
 16. Are the principles of the Peace Society worthy of our support? 
 11. Which was the greatest historian, Hume, Gibbon, or Niebuhr? 
 IS. Should the course of study in academies and colleges be the 
 same for all the pupils ? 
 
 79. Is it expedient to unite manual with mental labor in an educa- 
 tional establishment ? 
 
 80. Are all mankind descended from one pair ? 
 
 81. Is asceticism favorable to the development of Christian character ? 
 
 82. Is it expedient to abolish the system of college commons? 
 
 83. Is not the production of such a poem as the Iliad incompatible 
 with the idea of the suoposed general ignorance prevalent in Homer's 
 time? 
 
 84. "Which is preferable, a sanguine, or a phlegmatic temperament ? 
 
 85. Is childhood the happiest period of human life ? 
 
 86. Were the Pelasgi and the Hellenes one in language and in 
 origin ? 
 
 87. Is not undue importance attached to precedents in our courts of 
 law? 
 
 88. Has history been improved by the rejection of fictitious ora- 
 tions ? 
 
 89. Which are the more praiseworthy, the Greek or the Roman 
 historians? 
 
 90. Which was the greater poet, Milton or Homer ? 
 
 91. Is poetical genius greatly benefited by extensive reading? 
 
 92. Is it unimportant what one's doctrines may be, so long as his 
 life is in the right ? 
 
 93 Are critical reviews advantageous to science and literature ? 
 
 94. Which affords the better field for eloquence, the pulpit or the 
 bar? 
 
 95. Is it judicious to read on a given theme before we write upon it 
 in full? 
 
 96. Which exercises the greater influence on tbe character of the 
 young, the teacher or the preacher ? 
 
 dl. Are the inequalities of rank and condition in society favorable to 
 the advancement of learning? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS 251 
 
 93. Should can author rest his fame on few or on many books? 
 
 >i*— 99. Ought public opinion to be regarded as the standard of right? 
 
 100. "Was Bonaparte greater in the field than in the cabinet? 
 
 101. Is the savage state preferable to the civilized? 
 
 102. Are lawyers beneficial ? 
 
 103. Ought the Judiciary to be independent? 
 
 104 Does temptation lessen the baseness of crime? 
 
 105. Can the existence and attributes of the Deity be proved by 
 the light of nature ? 
 
 106. Are Negroes inferior to white people in mental capacity? 
 
 10*7. Is a promise to a highwayman, not to take measures for his de- 
 tection on the condition of sparing one's life, binding ? 
 
 108. Are women more revengeful than men? 
 
 109. Is a mind of acute sensibility, on the whole, desirable? 
 
 ■110. Which is the more conducive to the best interests of the State, 
 commerce or agriculture ? 
 
 111. Ought persons differing in religious sentiment to be united in 
 marriage ? 
 
 112. Ought a Christian to unite in marriage with an unbeliever? 
 
 113. Is immersion essential to the validity of Christian baptism ? 
 
 114. Is the maxim, "No church without a biskop" true? 
 
 115. Are the moderns superior to the ancients in poetry and 
 eloquence ? 
 
 116. Ought theological seminaries to be encouraged? 
 
 11 T. Is the assertion in the Declaration of Independence, " that all 
 men are created equal" true ? 
 
 118. Has the moral influence of the United States, on the whole, 
 been salutary to the world ? 
 
 119. Ought a man to pledge himself to total abstinence? 
 
 120. Has a man a right to kill another in self-defense ? 
 
 121. Was the fate of Sir Walter Raleigh a deserved one? 
 
 122. Is the sentiment, — 
 
 " For forms of government let fools contest ; 
 What *s best administered, is best," — 
 
 justifiable. 
 
 123. Which exhibits the greater wonders, the land or the sea? 
 
 124. Ought human physiology to be a regular study in our com- 
 mon schools? 
 
 125 Is the doctrine of original sin taught in the Bible ? 
 
■f. 
 
 252 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 126. Has tho Sinithsonian Fund been employed in a manner accord- 
 ant with the intention of the donor ? 
 
 " 127. Yfould the universal prevalence of Socialism advance the in* 
 terests of humanity ? 
 
 128. Is morality separable from religion? 
 
 129= Ought normal schools to be supported by the State? 
 
 130. Is there Scripture authority for a belief in the Second Advent, 
 and personal reign of Christ on the earth ? 
 
 131. Ought not a bank of the United States to be reestablished? 
 
 132. Is not the practice of auricular confession enjoined in Scripture, 
 and conducive to morality ? 
 
 133. "Was the execution of the Due D'Enghien justifiable? 
 
 134. What were the origin and nature of the Eleusinian mysteries? 
 
 135. Has any State of this Union a right of secession? 
 
 136. Is intervention by one nation in the affairs of another ex- 
 pedient ? 
 
 13*7. Ought a parent, who can avoid it, ever to intrust the education 
 of his child to persons not directly responsible to himself? 
 
 138. Does morality keep pace with the progress of civilization? 
 
 139. Is sporting justifiable? 
 
 140. Ought the United States Government to establish a national 
 system of education? 
 
 141. Is genius innate ? 
 
 142. "Which has done the greater service to the cause of truth, 
 philosophy or poetry ? 
 
 143. Is there ground to believe that the atrocity of Richard III. has 
 been greatly overstated ? 
 
 144. Which was superior, Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, 
 or Katharine, wife of Henry VIII. ? 
 
 145. Are the confessions made by the Earl of Bothwell immediately 
 before his death, relative to Lord Darnley's death, to be regarded as 
 true? 
 
 146. What country at the present time is under the best govern- 
 ment? 
 
 - -147. Was the execution of the Earl of Essex justifiable? 
 
 148. Which is the greater discovery, that of the magnetic needle or 
 the electric telegraph ? 
 
 149. Did the writings of Junius exercise a beneficial influence 
 upon the political condition of England ? 
 
 150. Did the reign of Oeorge IV. prove beneficial to England? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 253 
 
 151. Ought the celebration of the birthdays of great men to be en- 
 encouraged ? 
 
 152. Which was the greater man, considered as a reformer, Peter, 
 the Great, of Russia, or Henry Till, of England ? 
 
 153. Which is the most civilized and enlightened country of the 
 present time ? 
 
 154. Were the American Indians the aborigines of this continent? 
 
 155. Is Mnemotechny beneficial ? 
 
 156. Is the story of the Trojan war credible? 
 
 157. Is the cultivation of the Pine Arts always conducive to virtuous 
 principle ? 
 
 153. Have savages a full right to the soil? 
 
 tl59. Are political improvements better effected by rulers than by the 
 people ? 
 
 1G0. Is the character of a nation affected by its climate? 
 nJ 161. Ought representatives to be bound by the will of their con* 
 * Btituents ? 
 
 -462. Is crime prevented or produced by our present system of 
 prison discipline? 
 
 163. Which is the superior historian, Thucydides or Tacitus ? 
 
 164. Ought witnesses to be held as prisoners? 
 
 165. Ought any portion of the earnings of a prisoner, during his con- 
 finement, to be allowed him upon his release ? 
 
 166. Ought jurors to be paid? 
 
 167. Ought the sale of ardent spirits, for use as a beverage, to be 
 prohibited by law ? 
 
 168. Was the action of the United States government in affording 
 protection to Martin Koszta justifiable and expedient ? 
 
 169. Is it not equally the interest of the poor and the rich to prevent 
 exorbitant taxation ? 
 
 170. Who is the hero of Paradise Lost? 
 
 171. Is card-playing a safe and justifiable amusement? 
 
 172. Ought suicide to be taken as evidence of courage, or of 
 cowardice ? 
 
 173. Was the execution of Major Andre justifiable ? 
 
 174. Which is the better guaranty of success in the world, tact or 
 talent? 
 
 175. Has more good than evil resulted to the world from the life 
 -and religion ot Mahomet ? 
 
 176. Which is the more advantageous to a country, coal mines or 
 gold mines ? 
 
254 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 111. Has the favor shown to great statesmen in this country been 
 such as to encourage young men of talent to qualify themselves 
 thoroughly for high political position ? 
 
 IV 8. Has sectarianism done more to advance than to retard the 
 interests of Christianity? 
 
 179. Which is the more useful in society, the farmer or the mechanic ? 
 
 180. Are the masses governed more by fashion than by reason? 
 
 181. Is the sentiment, " Whatever is, is right" a just one? 
 
 182. Will the Know Nothings exert a favorable influence upon the 
 institutions of our country ? 
 
 183. Is it a wise policy to deal with our friends as though 'they 
 might become our enemies ? 
 
 184. Is there such a quality as disinterestedness? 
 
 -4-- 185. Is the maxim, " Our country, right or wrong," a justifiable 
 one? 
 
 188. Do present appearances indicate the overthrow of the British 
 empire? 
 
 18T. Ought not flagrant ingratitude to be a penal offense ? 
 
 188. Ought Patent-Rights to be granted ? 
 
 189. Does the present state of society in Europe portend the 
 establishment of republican forms of government? 
 
 190. Ought parochial schools to be encouraged? 
 
 191. Does virtue always insure happiness ? 
 
 192. Is the assertion, "A little learning is a dangerous thing," true? 
 ] 93. Which do men naturally prefer, truth or error ? 
 
 194. Was the last war of the United States with England justifiable ? 
 
 195. Which does society most injury, the slanderer, the robber, or 
 the murderer? 
 
 196. Did the career of Napoleon Bonaparte produce more good than 
 jvil results ? 
 
 197. Is it ever advisable to act from policy rather than from principle t 
 
 198. Does wealth exert more influence than knowledge? 
 
 199. Ought circumstantial evidence to be admitted in criminal cases? 
 
 200. Is a Republican form of government favorable to the cultivation 
 af literature and science ? 
 
 201. Which yields the higher mental enjoyment, fact or fiction? 
 
 202. Is the English language likely ever to be universally prevalent ? 
 ^y 203. Ought there to be a property qualification to entitle one to hold 
 / a political office 9 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 255 
 
 i 204, Ought the right of suffrage to be dependent upon i ny property 
 /qualification ? 
 
 5 May an oath, taken under circumstances of stress cr deception, 
 be yioiated without guilt? 
 
 206. Ought man to be confined to an exclusively vegetable diet? 
 
 207. Does the Bible prohibit judicial oaths? 
 
 208. Is pride commendable ? 
 
 209. Ought the Missouri Compromise to have been abrogated? 
 U0. Which is worse, a had education, or no education? 
 
 211. Is any government as important and sacred as the principles 
 which it is established to protect ? 
 
 212. Are banks more beneficial than injurious to a community? 
 
 213. "Which is preferable, genius without application, or application 
 without genius? 
 
 214. Ought military schools to be encouraged ? 
 
 _^ 215. Does not a written political constitution serve rather to hinder 
 than to aid in securing the objects contemplated in its formation? 
 
 216. Have Byron's works an immoral tendency ? 
 
 217. Did the French Revolution aid the cause of liberty in Europe ? 
 
 218. Ought the private property of stockholders to be holden for the 
 debts of a bank ? 
 
 219. Would the peaceful cession of the Canadas to the United States 
 be mutually beneficial to our own government and Great Britain ? 
 
 220. Ought a judge to be influenced by the former character of a 
 criminal ? 
 
 221. Has Spain received any material benefit from her colonies? 
 
 222. Were the Olympic and other ancient games beneficial? 
 
 223. Ought public men, on retiring from ofiice, in this country, to be 
 pensioned ? 
 
 224. Is the present general mode of celebrating the Fourth of July 
 beneficial to the country ? 
 
 225. Are different grades, or classes in society, inseparable from the 
 present social system ? 
 
 -y 226. Would it be a wise policy for the United States to establish 
 large and powerful navy ? 
 
 227. Should Universities be under the control of the State? 
 
 228. .Is English aristocracy of birth likely to continue a poliJeal force 
 
 229. Are rents the causes of the high price of produce ? 
 
 230. Must the price of agricultural products rise with increase of 
 Vrealth and population ? 
 
256 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 231. Can there be a general over-production of commodities? 
 
 232. Is there any real danger of over-population ? 
 
 233. Do our institutions demand profound statesmen? 
 
 234. Can any government be kept from oppression? 
 
 235. Ought the man who kills his antagonist in a duel to be pun« 
 ished as a murderer ? 
 
 236. Can a knowledge of human nature, in general, and of individ- 
 ual character in particular, be best derived from the study of history ? 
 
 237. Are the United States under deeper obligations to her warriors 
 than to her statesmen ? 
 
 238. Is prosperity favorable to the morals of a nation? 
 
 239. Which afford the better opportunities for personal advancement, 
 politics or literature ? 
 
 240. Which has proved the more useful to mankind, the invention 
 of the mariner's compass or the application of steam to navigation ? 
 
 241. Which is the most powerful stimulant to exertion, emulation, 
 patronage, or personal necessity ? 
 
 242. Would a division of the Union be beneficial ? 
 
 243. Is labor a blessing or a curse ? 
 
 244. Ought anonymous publications to be suppressed by law ? 
 
 245. Ought the surplus revenues to be distributed by Congress for 
 the prosecution of internal improvements ? 
 
 246. Were the revolutions which took place in France, between the 
 execution of Louis XYI. and the final restoration of Louis XYIIL, 
 beneficial to that country ? 
 
 24*7. Do the signs of the times indicate a subversion of our govern- 
 ment? 
 
 248. Ought a military spirit to be encouraged in a country ? 
 
 249. Were the principles of the Jeffersonian administration bene* 
 ficial to the country ? 
 
 250. Ought the rate of interest on money to be regulated by law? 
 
 251. Are national celebrations beneficial? 
 
 252. Ought there to be in this country an order of men devoted ex 
 clasively to literature ? 
 
 253. Are voluntary associations for the promotion of moral principles 
 beneficial ? ^ 
 
 254. Is a State Legislature justifiable in violating its contracts ? 
 
 255. Have the administrations of our country pursued a correct 
 policy in relation to the Indians ? 
 
 256. Is man accountable for his opinions?' 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 257 
 
 257. Ought a militiary chieftain to be the chief civil magistrate of a 
 free people? 
 
 258.- Ought infidels to be admitted to public office ? 
 
 259. Is direct taxation preferable to indirect ? 
 
 260. Ought Parliament to interfere with the revenues of the Eng- 
 lish Church? 
 
 261. Which was the more acute and profound thinker, John C. Cal- 
 houn or Daniel Webster ? 
 
 262. Ought juries to be judges of the law as well as of the fact ? 
 
 263. Ought clergymen to be excluded from civil offices by law ? 
 
 264. Is the system of paper currency safe ? 
 
 265. Ought a President of the United States to be eligible a second 
 time to office ? 
 
 266. Is difference of talent owing chiefly to nature or circumstances? 
 
 267. Are the rights of women duly regarded in the present consti- 
 tution of society? 
 
 268. Is expediency the foundation of right? 
 
 269. "Which has the greater influence in the foundation of national 
 character, physical or moral causes ? 
 
 270. Ought government to indemnify individuals for damages done 
 by mobs ? 
 
 271. Ought an infidel to be allowed to testify in a court of justice ? „ 
 
 272. Ought a horse, or other beast of burden, when unable, by age 
 or otherwise, to labor, to be killed, or turned out to die ? 
 
 273. Is the maxim, " Better that ten guilty persons should escape than 
 that one innocent man should suffer" on the whole just and true? 
 
 274. Is there more of happiness than misery in human life? 
 
 275. Are tea and coffee, as beverages, injurious? 
 
 276. Ought the reading of the Bible, as a religious exercise, to be 
 forbidden or neglected in our common schools ? 
 
 277. Which is the more desirable, a state of liberty without prop- 
 erty, or a state of property without liberty ? 
 
 278. Is not the giving of military command to persons who hfve 
 never seen service, a discouragement to the army ? 
 
 -4- 279. Is the law of primogeniture just and expedient? 
 280. . »Is mere refinement of manners conducive to virtue? 
 
 281. Which is the more likely to procure general estimation, the 
 reality of virtue or the appearance of it ? 
 
 282. Ought foreign emigration to be encouraged ? 
 283 Does the mind always think ? 
 
258 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 284. Is the glory of a victory, as a general thing, due more to the 
 skill of the commander than to the bravery of the soldiers ? 
 
 285. [s a lie ever justifiable ? 
 
 286. Is animal magnetism altogether supernatural in its nature and 
 operation, or is it a science founded upon natural laws ? 
 
 28*7. Ought religious tests to be required of civil officers? 
 
 288. Ought the education of males and females to be similar in de- 
 gree and kind ? 
 
 289. Ought females to learn and practice the art of public speak- 
 ing? 
 
 290. Ought the Bible to be employed as an ordinary reading book 
 in schools ? 
 
 291. Had the celebrated apologue, entitled " Reynard, the Fox," 
 an exclusively political aim.* 
 
 292. "Were the ancient oracles due to supernatural agency? 
 
 293. Is homeopathy worthy of confidence? 
 
 294. Ought eloquence to be studied as an art? 
 
 295. Is the doctrine of non-resistance sound ? 
 
 296. "Would the extinction of the Ottoman empire result in benefit 
 to Europe? > 
 
 297. Was the Roman conquest beneficial to Britain ? 
 
 298. Were the institutions of chivalry beneficial to mankind ? 
 
 299. Were the first settlers of this country justifiable in taking forc- 
 ible possession of the country ? 
 
 300. Which furnishes the most interesting subjects of investigation, 
 the mineral, the animal, or the vegetable kingdom ? 
 
 301. Are differences of character attributable more to physical than 
 to moral causes ? 
 
 302. Is the preservation of the balance of power in Europe a justi- 
 aable cause of war ? 
 
 303. Does the present aspect of affairs in Europe give pledge or 
 prospect of the speedy establishment of genuine liberty in that quarter 
 of the world? 
 
 304. Is the charge of ingratitude, so often brought against Republics, 
 founded in truth ? 
 
 305. Which did the greater service to mankind, Columbus or Sir 
 Isaac Newton ? 
 
 306. Would a general European war be beneficial to the interests 
 of this country ? 
 
 * See, on this question, the "Foreign Quarterly Eeview," No. XXXIV., Art IIL 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 259 
 
 307. Has the restoration of Greece to political independence been 
 on the whole beneficial ? 
 
 308. Has the introduction of machinery been, on the whole, bene- 
 ficial to the laboring classes ? 
 
 309. Is transportation a justifiable mode of punishment ? 
 
 310. Was the ostracism, practiced in ancient Athens, justifiable? 
 
 311. Which is the more pernicious character, the slanderer or the 
 flatterer ? 
 
 312. Is the system of hydropathy, or water-cure, entitled to confidence? 
 
 313. Is the attention paid to politics by all classes favorable to 
 patriotism ? 
 
 314. Is not refinement, according to the notions of the present day, 
 ■mfavorable to happiness ? 
 
 315. Does nature teach the doctrine or notion of a plurality of 
 Deities? 
 
 316. Does the existence of different religious denominations tend to 
 advance or to retard the cause of Christ ? 
 
 317. Should a man ever praise his own work? 
 
 318. Is the doctrine of innate ideas founded in truth? 
 
 319. Should the truth always be spoken ? 
 
 320. Which gives the better insight into human nature, reading or 
 observation ? 
 
 321. Which afford the better field for the display of originality, the 
 Fine or the Useful Arts ? 
 
 322. Which is the more interesting and instructive, G-recan or 
 Roman history ? 
 
 323. Which is the more valuable, physical or moral courage ? 
 324 Ought secret societies to be tolerated? 
 
 325. Would any further extension of the Union be politic? 
 
 326. Has Christianity been a temporal as well as a spiritual blessing 
 to the world ? 
 
 327. Is the temporal essential to the spiritual jurisdiction of the Pope ? 
 
 328. Ought a man to marry his deceased wife's sister ? 
 
 329. Can the immortality of the soul be proved from the light of 
 mature ? 
 
 330. Ought a representative always to be an inhabitant of the town 
 vr district represented ? 
 
 331. Which is preferable, city or country life ? 
 
 332. Is resistance to the constituted authorities in the State ever 
 justifiable ? 
 
260 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 333. Ought emulation in schools to be encouraged? 
 
 334. "Which is the more conducive to the cultivation of literature, a 
 monarchical or a republican form of government ? 
 
 335. Has a man a right to expatriate himself? 
 
 336. Is teaching a profession in the same sense, that law, medicine 
 and theology are professions ? 
 
 33*7. Is Madison more deserving our estimation than Hamilton? 
 I 338. Ts dueling ever justifiable ? 
 
 339. Ought theatres to be abolished ? 
 
 340. Which is preferable, anarchy or despotism ? 
 
 341. Is the American Colonization Society worthy of national support ? 
 
 342. Can the North Pole be reached by navigation ? 
 
 343. Would the acquisition of Cuba by the United States be bene- 
 ficial to the latter ? 
 
 344. Is it possible to determine the true nature and origin of meteors ? 
 
 345. Is the natural state of man, as asserted by Hobbes, a state of 
 war? 
 
 346. Was Cicero greater as an orator than as a philosopher ? 
 
 34*7. Is the habitual use of tobacco for chewing and smoking injuri- 
 ous to health ? 
 
 348. Is the doctrine of endless punishment taught in the Bible ? 
 
 349. Has Junius ever been identified ? 
 
 350. Have we anything to fear from the spread of Popery ? 
 
 351. Was the Atlantis of the ancients identical with the continent- 
 of America ? 
 
 352. Is corporal punishment necessary in the schools ? 
 
 353. Should a boy be taught those things only which he is likely to 
 need in practical life when a man ? 
 
 354. Ought not Sunday-schools, in which the Bible is taught without 
 reference to sectarian differences, to be supported by the public funds ? 
 
 355. Are the ideas of the mind separate from the mind itself? 
 
 356. Is it wise in a parent to labor to amass money in order to leave 
 a rich inheritance to his children ? 
 
 357. Is there sufficient ground for the belief, that the career of Joan 
 of Arc was due to supernatural agency? 
 
 358. Is the character of Aaron Burr justly estimated ? 
 
 359. Can utility be considered as a safe moral guide ? 
 
 360. Do modern biographies generally give a fair insight into human 
 character ? 
 
 361. Was Warren Hastings' conduct in India justifiable ? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 261 
 
 362. Are shoit terms of political office desirable? 
 
 363. Which is the most prolific source of crime, poverty, wealth, or 
 tg Qorance ? 
 
 364. Which is superior, as an intellectual gymnastic, a classical or a 
 ematical education ? 
 
 365. Is capital punishment justifiable? 
 
 366. Should the main end of punishment be the reformation of the 
 criminal or the prevention of crime ? 
 
 367. Which furnishes the better safeguard against crime, the jail or 
 the school ? 
 
 368. Which is the better government, a limited monarchy or a re* 
 public ? 
 
 369. Is true eloquence the gift of nature or of art ? 
 
 370. Which is the more extensively useful, fire or water? 
 
 371. Is it ever right to marry for money ? 
 
 372. Ought our country to establish and endow a national um 
 versity ? 
 
 373. Is it expedient to wear mourning apparel? 
 
 374. Which is the stronger inducement to the study of history, the 
 love of truth, or mere curiosity ? 
 
 375. Has the study of mythology an immoral tendency ? 
 
 376. Which did the greater mischief. Mahomet or Constantine? 
 
 377. Is there any necessary connection between genius and eccen- 
 tricity ? 
 
 378. Have not the defenses of Christianity been rather strengthened 
 than weakened by the assaults of infidelity ? 
 
 379. Ought a man to be influenced in respect to the fashion of his 
 apparel by a regard to the opinions or practice of others ? 
 
 380. Would the public morals be injured by the non-observance of 
 the Christian Sabbath? 
 
 381. Ought truth ever to be withheld on the ground, that the world 
 is not prepared to receive it ? 
 
 382. Is it expedient to make authorship a business or profession ? 
 
 383. Is the judgment of conscience always correct ? 
 
 384. Which is the more disadvantageous, credulity or skepticism ? 
 
 385. Which gives the more clear and forcible ideas of scenes and 
 actions, the poet or the painter ? 
 
 386. Which is the more selfish person, the miser or the profligate ? 
 
 387. Ought one ever to advocate or defend what he believes to be false ? 
 
 388. Ought persons of foreign birth to be allowed the right of suffrage ? 
 
262 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 389. Ought government officers to be confined exclusively to native 
 jitizer s ? 
 
 390. Have bir Walter Scott's writings been beneficial in their in- 
 fluence ? 
 
 391. Is the system of American slavery more odious and unjust 
 than Russian serfdom? 
 
 392. Which offers the better field for the cultivation of eloquence, 
 the bar or the pulpit ? 
 
 393. Is the law an honorable profession? 
 
 394. Ought public school-money to be appropriated exclusively t 
 common schools ? 
 
 395. Does proselytism favor the cause of truth? 
 
 39G. Should military achievements influence the election of Presi- 
 dent of the United States of America? 
 
 397. Would the suppression of civil and religious liberty in Europe 
 have -a tendency to destroy our own? 
 
 . 398. Is the maxim, "Every man is the architect of his own fortune" 
 true? 
 
 399. Is war ever justifiable ? 
 
 400. Should letters of marque and reprisal be granted? 
 
 401. Is the advancement of civil liberty indebted more to intellect- 
 ual culture than to physical suffering? 
 
 402. Is nature alone sufficient to teach man his duty to G-od ? 
 
 403. Which has caused more evil, ambition or intemperance ? 
 
 404. Does not the persecution of any principle or party tend more to 
 its advancement than the works of its own supporters ? 
 
 405. Are any of the so-called spiritual manifestations of the present 
 day properly referable to the agency of departed spirits ? 
 
 406. Is the supply of coal from the mines likely always to be equal 
 to the wants of the world ? 
 
 407. Ought the aim of education to be the harmonious development 
 of all its powers, or the special training of individual faculties ? 
 
 408. Has popular superstition a favorable influence on the literature 
 of a nation ? 
 
 409. In the present European struggle has the true spirit of huma 
 freedoir. been manifested ? 
 
 410. Was the political career of Oliver Cromwell beneficial to G-rea 
 Britain ? 
 
 411. Is our country in more danger from external factions than from 
 internal foe 3 ? 
 
/■■ 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 263 
 
 4.12. TFas the claim of Texas upon New Mexico invalid ? 
 
 \ Is the inebriate accountable to God for the crimes he commits 
 intoxicated? 
 
 414 Which is the more effective in government, force or persuasion ? 
 
 •ilS. Have false systems of religion caused more misery than false 
 systems of government ? 
 
 *i b. Would an intuitive knowledge of all we are capable of com- 
 prenenumg, contribute to increase our happiness beyond that of our 
 present state ? 
 
 41 T. Would an equalization of property conduce to the happiness 
 of society ? 
 
 418. is not the rank neld by women in a community the best test 
 of the morals uf that community ? 
 
 419. Is tne Union likely to be perpetual ? 
 
 420. Wltf iepnblicanism eventually supersede all other forms of 
 government V 
 
 421. Has the enthronement of Napoleon III. benefited France ? 
 
 422. Ougnt tne French and English to have joined the Turks against 
 Russia ? 
 
 423. Have we reason to conclude that other planets than our own 
 are inhabited ? 
 
 424. Are the Indians generally capable of being civilized? 
 
 425. "Will African slavery be perpetual in the United States? 
 
 426. Ought Free-Masonry to be responsible for the murder of 
 Morgan ? 
 
 427. Is a Reciprocity Treaty between the United States and Canada 
 desirable ? 
 
 428. Is the popularity of a literary production a sure test of its merit ? 
 
 429. Is human life capable of any essential prolongation by human 
 means ? 
 
 430. Is the literature of a nation affected by its form of government ? 
 
 431. Is the system of internal improvements politic? 
 
 432. Is the reasoning indicated in the famous aphorism of Descartes, 
 Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I exist,) conclusive? 
 
 433. Is there evidence sufficient, apart from the Bible, to prove the 
 existence, at some former period, of a universal deluge ? 
 
 434. Was the execution of Charles I. justifiable ? 
 
 435. Should the United States undertake to control the political 
 movements of this continent ? 
 
 436. Is modern equal to ancient patriotism? 
 
264 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 43*7. Which is preferable, moral or physical courage ? 
 
 438. Are debating societies beneficial ? 
 
 439. Ought the Lancasterian system of teaching to be encouraged ? 
 
 440. Ought the President of the United States to be invested with 
 the veto power ? 
 
 441. Are the educated classes more virtuous, on the whole, than the 
 ignorant? 
 
 442. Are there any signs of decay in poetry and art ? 
 
 443. Does the eighteenth century deserve the eulogium pronounced 
 upon it by Ouizot ? 
 
 444. Is there any great advantage in indirect elections ? 
 
 445. Is language a human invention ? 
 
 446. Ought the quantity of land held by one person to be limited? 
 
 447. Is the literary inferiority of the American nation owing to its 
 infancy ? 
 
 448. Ought unanimity to be required that the verdict of a jury may 
 have force? 
 
 449. Could England maintain her present superiority without an 
 aristocratic class ? 
 
 450. Ought civilization to be propagated by force ? 
 
 451. Is the United States in danger from an aristocratic class? 
 
 452. Can republican forms of government exist without public virtue ? 
 
 453. Ought Congress to prohibit carrying and distributing the mail 
 on Sunday ? 
 
 454. Was the American revolution justifiable on moral grounds ? 
 
 455. Are the crimes among barbarians more numerous or more 
 heinous, as a general thing, than those among civilized men ? 
 
 456. Is a lawyer justifiable in defending a person whom he knows 
 to be guilty? 
 
 457. Was Brutus justifiable in taking part with the conspirators 
 against Caesar? 
 
 458. Ought a republican government to tolerate all religious denomi- 
 nations ? 
 
 459. Were O'Connel and those indicted with him justly convicted? 
 
 460. Ought a student in college to direct his studies with reference 
 to a particular profession ? 
 
 461. Was Swedenborg mistaken in the belief, that he vas admitted 
 into intercourse with the invisible world ? 
 
 462. Should monuments be erected to the illustrious dead? 
 
 463. Is liberty one of man's rights ? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 265 
 
 464. Have pride and ambition caused more evil than ignorance and 
 superstition ? 
 
 465. Are American churches the bulwark of liberty ? 
 46G. Does spirituous liquor cause more evil than money ? 
 
 467. Is man governed more by moral than by civil laws ? 
 
 468. Would a universal language be desirable ? 
 
 469. Has light reading or social intercourse the better effect in pre 
 paring one for usefulness ? 
 
 470. Which is the more prolific source of enjoyment, memory of 
 imagination ? 
 
 471. Which have conferred the higher benefit on their country, the 
 poets or prose waiters of England ? 
 
 472. Is the doctrine of ministerial parity fairly deducible from the 
 Bible ? 
 
 473. Are the poetical parts of the Bible, considered merely as literary 
 productions, inferior to the poems of Homer or Milton ? 
 
 474. Is poverty oftener the result of misfortune than of mismanage- 
 ment ? 
 
 475. Which exerts the greater influence on the happiness of man- 
 kind, the male or the female mind ? 
 
 476. Have the lost tribes of Israel ever been discovered? 
 
 477. Ought mixed schools* to be encouraged? 
 
 478. Has not fashion a tendency to pervert the judgment? 
 
 479. Should parties be compelled to give evidence in civil cases? 
 
 480. Ought the robbery of the grave to be punished as felony ? 
 
 481. Was the reign of Henry VIII. advantageous to the liberties of 
 England? 
 
 482. Was the death of Caesar beneficial to Rome ? 
 
 ■ 483. Ought Coriolanus to have made war against his country ? 
 
 484. Was the feudal system beneficial ? 
 
 485. Is alcohol, considered in respect to all its various uses, more in- 
 jurious than beneficial to mankind ? 
 
 486. Was the Roman conquest beneficial to Britain ? i l odl +f 
 
 487. Was the monastic system beneficial to the interests of science? 
 
 488. Were the institutions of chivalry beneficial to mankind? 
 
 489. Would Regulus have been justified in not returning to Car- 
 thage? 
 
 490. Does civilization tend to abolish military ambition? 
 
 * That is, schools whersin males and females are taught together in the same 
 classes. 
 
 12 
 
266 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 491. Are the present facilities of intercourse between Europe and 
 the United States favorable to the latter ? 
 
 492. Which is the greater deprivation, loss of sight or loss of hearing? 
 
 493. Is the designation, ' Trriidbile genus"* so often applied to au- 
 thors, just. 
 
 494. Is there any authoritative standard of taste? 
 
 495. Do modern discoveries in geological science serve to confirm 
 or weaken our faith in the Mosaic account of the creation ? 
 
 496. Was the execution of Mary Queen of Scots justifiable? 
 
 497. Can there be a virtuous ambition? 
 
 498. Ought children be compelled to attend school, at certain hours, 
 by force of law ? 
 
 499. Ought street beggary to be tolerated ? 
 
 500. Which is the more useful member of the community, the lawyer 
 cr the clergyman? 
 
 501. Which is the most serviceable to mankind, the farmer, the me- 
 chanic, or the merchant ? 
 
 502. Ought a teacher of youth to be himself a parent? 
 . 503. Are brutes endowed with reason ? 
 
 504. Is the spendthrift more injurious to society than the miser? 
 
 505. Has the invention of gunpowder proved more useful than hurt- 
 ful to mankind ? 
 
 506. Which is the meaner cha/acter, the liar or the hypocrite ? 
 
 507. Which was the greatest general, Alexander, Hannibal, or 
 Napoleon ? 
 
 508. Ought the colonization of the African race to be encouraged? 
 
 509. Ought the election of President and Yice-President to be taken 
 entirely from the Senate and House ? 
 
 510. Ought the national government to make appropriations for in- 
 ternal improvements ? 
 
 511. Are the moderns superior to the ancients in rhetorical science ? 
 
 512. Would the peaceable accession of the Canadas be beneficial to 
 the United States ? 
 
 513. .Had the allied powers a right to place a king over Greece ? 
 
 514. Which is the more serviceable to his country, the statesman or , 
 tn.e warrior ? 
 
 51 5. Does morality advance equally with civilization ? 
 51G. Is universal peace probable ? 
 
 517. Which was the greater orator, Demosthenes or Cicero? 
 * An irascible race. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 267 
 
 518. Is military glory a just object of ambition? 
 
 519. "Which was the more powerful agency in producing the French 
 revolution, the tyranny of the government or the excesses of the priests 
 and n >bles ? 
 
 520. Are not popular superstitions favorable to the growth of poetry ? 
 
 521. Is there sufficient ground for a belief in the alleged deteriora- 
 tion of animals and vegetables in America? 
 
 522. Are not the public, in this country, generally deprived of the 
 official services of our best men, by the reckless abuse of the press 
 during election times ? 
 
 523. Ought the Catholics to have a separate school fund? 
 
 524. Was Cromwell a patriot ? 
 
 525. Was Xapoleon's banishment to St. Helena justifiable ? 
 
 526. Ought a representative to be bound by the will of his con- 
 stituents ? 
 
 527. Should government prohibit private mails? 
 
 528. Is it probable a republican government will be the prevailing 
 one in the world ? 
 
 529. Were circumstances in past ages as favorable to the growth of 
 literature as they are at present ? 
 
 530. Should the present popularity of a literary work be taken as 
 an index of its real merits ? 
 
 5i31. Ought a college or university to be located in the city or in the 
 country ? 
 
 532. Ought a man to propose himself for a public office and advo- 
 cate his own claims to preferment ? 
 
 533. Is Puseyism compatible with Protestantism? 
 
 534. Is man a free moral agent? 
 
 535. Has the love of money more influence upon mankind than edu- 
 cation? 
 
 536. Should the laws of justice ever be turned aside to favor the 
 cause of humanity ? 
 
 537. Was the late United-States Japan expedition a just one ? 
 
 538. Does not a multiplicity of books rather clog than deepen the 
 channels of learning ? 
 
 539. Is the character of Jefferson worthy of admiration? 
 
 540. Was the execution of Lady Jane Grey justifiable ? 
 
 541. Was it not the purpose of Shakspeare to delineate, in the con- 
 duct of Desdemona, a character really indelicate and even unnatural, 
 though apparently noble, refined, and every way commendable ? 
 
268 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 542. Was there a greater field for eloquence in ancient than in 
 modern times ? 
 ^1 543. Was the bankrupt law justifiable ? 
 
 544. Are our liberties more endangered by aristocracy than de- 
 mocracy ? 
 
 545. Were the crusades beneficial ? 
 
 546. Is party spirit beneficial to a country ? 
 
 54Y. Is a fugitive slave justified in taking the property of others to 
 aid his escape ? 
 
 548. Is offensive war justifiable in any case ? 
 
 549. Has the discovery of the New World benefited mankind ? 
 
 550. Are newspapers beneficial to the community at large? 
 
 551. Does the turpitude of a crime consist wholly in the intention? 
 
 552. Are populous cities beneficial to a country? 
 
 553. Is there reason to believe that the sages and philosophers of 
 antiquity secretly discredited the popular religious systems of their day ? 
 
 554. Is Pope's " Essay on Man " justly chargeable with an infidel 
 tendency ? 
 
 555. Ought universal suffrage to be allowed ? 
 
 556. Ought ambition to be used as a motive for educating youth ? 
 55V. Was the conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella justi- 
 fiable? 
 
 558. Is Hogarth's theory, respecting the fundamental source, or 
 principle of beauty, correct ? 
 
 559. Was Kossuth justifiable in resigning his post as governor of 
 Hungary into the hands of Oorgy, and in fleeing his country ? 
 
 560. Is the practice, of reciting the speeches of others, as an exer- 
 cise in elocution, on the whole, beneficial ? 
 
 561. Is it really a measure of prudence to issue what are termed 
 "expurgated editions of the classics f " 
 
 562. Does universal suffrage lead men to value electoral rights ? 
 
 563. Which is the more useful to society, intellectual or physical 
 labor? 
 
 564. Can we profit more by the excellences than by the defects of 
 others ? 
 
 565. Is the character of Archbishop Laud, generally, justly esti- 
 mated ? 
 
 566. Which is the more effective external means of securing favor, 
 dress or address ? 
 
 667. Which is the more destructive element, fire or water? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 269 
 
 568. Can any process of reasoning take place in the mind, without 
 the aid of language, orally or mentally? 
 
 569. Had the ancients more virtue than the moderns? 
 
 570. Is prejudice a sin ? 
 
 571. Is there more to approve than condemn in the character of 
 Oliver Cromwell? 
 
 572. Which has been the more serviceable to mankind, the printing- 
 press or the steam-engine ? 
 
 573. Is the maxim, " Where there's a wiU, there's a way," always 
 true ? 
 
 574. Would it be of advantage to fix the rate of wages by law ? 
 
 575. Is there an absolute standard of honor, as of right ? 
 
 576. Is the maxim, that " Men should surrender some of their rights" 
 safe and just ? 
 
 577. Do democratic institutions promote a desirable form of manners 
 and character ? 
 
 573. Are there more worlds than one ? 
 
 579. Are early marriages conducive to the well-being of society ? 
 5 SO. Is it a wise policy for Americans to send their children into 
 foreign countries to be educated ? 
 
 581. Ought the right of chinch property to be vested exclusively in 
 Bishops or any other ecclesiastical dignitaries? 
 
 582. Which of the lc wer animals is the most useful to mankind ? 
 
 583. Are inorganic forces likely to supersede human slavery? 
 
 584. "Were the Etruscans of Lydian origin? 
 
 5S5. Is the possession of a lively imagination a benefit or a misfor- 
 tune? 
 
 586. Can the success of the Allied Forces, against Napoleon, at "Wa- 
 terloo, be fairly attributed to any superiority of generalship displayed 
 on that occasion ? 
 
 587. Can a man become great by imitation? 
 
 588. Do we grow more happy, as we grow more learned? 
 
 589. Is Poetry included in the province of Rhetoric ? 
 
 590. Are any two words, in any language, strictly synonymous, in 
 all their applications ? 
 
 591. Is the keeping of the Sabbath necessary, or expedient, on any 
 grounds other than those of a religious nature ? 
 
 592. Which is the more effective in promoting advancement in life, 
 personal merit, or powerful friends ? 
 
 593. Is dissatisfaction inseparable from every condition of life? 
 
270 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 594. Is unjustifiable pride a certain result of superior talent, position, 
 or wealth ? 
 
 595. Is a life of leisure desirable ? 
 
 596. Is there a demand in this community for daily religious newspa- 
 pers ? 
 
 597. Ought the title, Doctor of Divinity, to be conferred on any per- 
 son, who is not a minister of religion ? 
 
 598. Which is more difficult (even to the most sincere and earnest), 
 introspection, or circumspection ? 
 
 599. Is there not more of pride than humility, in refusing to accept a 
 College Degree? 
 
 600. Is oral teaching preferable to that which is given in text-books? 
 
 601. Is selfishness a necessary product of the long pursuit of gain? 
 
 602. Is the Sunday-school a substitute for parental teaching, in mat- 
 ters of religion ? 
 
 603. Ought any book, except the Bible, to be employed as a text- 
 book in Sunday-schools? . 
 
 60 1. Ought Horse-Racing to be encouraged ? 
 
 605. Which is more culpable, to recommend bad men, or bad goods? 
 
 606. Is independence of character possible in a civilized commu- 
 nity? 
 
 607. Ought Sunday-school pic-nics to be encouraged? 
 
 608. Have the British conquests and rule in India, on the whole, been 
 an aid, or a hindrance, to the cause of religion ? 
 
 609. Does the history of the Republics in South America justify the 
 hope that civil and religious liberty will soon be there understood, and 
 established as fully as in the United States ? 
 
 610. Ought non-professors of religion to be employed as teachers in 
 Sunday-schools ? 
 
 611. Ought Normal schools, for Sunday-school teachers, to be estab- 
 lished ? 
 
 612. Was the Norman conquest more injurious than beneficial to 
 England? 
 
 613. Ought Sunday-schools, like day-schools, to have summer vaca- 
 tions ? 
 
 614. Is genuine politeness possible, without genuine religion? 
 
 615. Is the assertion of Xenophon (Memorabilia, Book I., Chap. 2), 
 that no intellectual training, or instruction, can be derived from a 
 teacher that the pupil does not like, true ? 
 
 616. Ought Sunday-schools to have but one session a day? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 271 
 
 617. Shall we in the next world be able to recognize those we have 
 known in this? 
 
 618. Ought Sunday-school instruction to be always free from merely 
 sectarian bias? 
 
 GI9. Do we take yellow fever by contagion, or by atmospheric influ- 
 
 620. Is the character of Archbishop Cranmer a laudable one? 
 
 621. Which was the more enterprising, Marco Polo or Captain 
 Cook? 
 
 622. Which is the more pernicious, a bad book or a bad companion? 
 
 623. Which has been the more serviceable to the cause of civil liberty, 
 Garibaldi or Louis Napoleon ? 
 
 024;. Is the centralization of political power expedient? 
 
 625. Is a debtor justifiable in waiting to be dunned by his creditor, 
 when he is prepared to meet his debt ? 
 
 626. Was Perkin Warbec really an impostor? 
 
 627. Which of the metals is most useful to man? 
 
 628. Which yields the greater delight, Hope or Memory? 
 
 629. Is Bancroft entitled to the first rank among historians? 
 
 630. Which is preferable, as an intellectual gymnastic, Greek or 
 Sanscrit? 
 
 631. Is " Grey's Elegy " properly a pastoral poem? 
 
 632. What are the just limits of sacerdotal authority? 
 
 633. Which is the better condition for the enjoyment of life, man or 
 woman ? 
 
 634. Which is preferable as a pastime, skating or dancing ? 
 
 635. Which exercises the most powerful influence on the morals of a 
 people, the pulpit, the press, or the school ? 
 
 03G. Was the expulsion of the kings from Rome, on the whole, ben- 
 eficial to the people? 
 
 637. Have quarantines secured the objects for which they were in- 
 tend ed ? 
 
 G'^S. Ought the officers of a Sunday-school to be appointed by the 
 pastor, or by the officers of the church, or be elected by a vote of the 
 teachers? 
 
 639. Did true civilization receive any decided advance from the cele- 
 bration of the Grecian games? 
 
 640. Are the hopes of patriots, in respect to the perpetuity of Repub- 
 lican governments, likely to be realized? 
 
 611. Which is worse, Stoicism or Fanaticism? 
 
272 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 642. Did the Lutheran Reformation give impulse to intellectual pro- 
 gress in Europe ? 
 
 . 643. Ought the classes in Sunday-schools to be smaller than those 
 usually found in day-schools, having the same total numbers ? 
 
 644. Ought the present generation to create a debt for the next ? 
 
 645. "Was the destruction of Carthage a wise policy in the Romans? 
 
 646. Is beauty the object of a peculiar sense, or faculty? 
 
 647. Ought ridicule to be employed as a test of truth, or as a means 
 of reformation ? 
 
 648. Ought the memorizing of passages from the Bible to be a. more 
 prominent object in the Sunday-school than the exposition of doctrine? 
 
 649. Ought the superintendent of a Sunday-school, connected with a 
 church, to be independent of the pastor ? 
 
 650. Ought mission Sunday-schools to be objects of more interest 
 than those connected with a church ? 
 
 651. Are not perilous feats, such as those performed by Blondin, at 
 Niagara, calculated to exercise an injurious influence on the commu- 
 nity? 
 
 652. "Would it, as a general thing, be more beneficial than injurious 
 for clerks to have a larger control of their time in the evenings than 
 they now have ? 
 
 653. Is envy curable ? 
 
 654. Is the assuring of one's life a wise and justifiable means of pro- 
 viding for one's family, after death ? 
 
 655. "What reforms are required to make quarantine more efficient, 
 and less burdensome ? 
 
 656. Is pulmonary consumption likely ever to be brought under the 
 control of medical agents ? 
 
 657. Do the learned professions offer better opportunities of success, 
 to young men, than business pursuits ? 
 
 658. Is the example of the United States, according to present ap- 
 "It^pearances, likely to increase, or to diminish, the favor of mankind 
 
 towards republican governments ? 
 
 659. Do parents exercise a greater influence, in forming the character 
 of the young, than teachers ? 
 
 660. Is a cultivated mind necessary, to render retirement from busi- 
 ness pursuits endurable or agreeable ? 
 
 661. Are colleges and universities indispensable to the highest forms 
 of educational training ? 
 
 662. Is every one owning property morally bound to make a will? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 273 
 
 663. Were the Danish invasions, on the whole, a benefit or an in- 
 jury to England ? 
 
 664. Is a bad brother, in distress, to be helped equally with a good 
 one? 
 
 "■. Which abounds the most in natural curiosities, Europe, Asia, 
 Africa, or America? 
 
 £66. Of what convenience, or luxury, would we now be destitute, 
 had the mariner's compass never been discovered ? 
 
 667. What art, trade, profession, or pursuit of any name, is most 
 beneficial to mankind ? 
 
 663. Is pride separable from vanity in actual character ? 
 
 669. Will the history of Rome, as Alison has asserted, remain, to 
 the latest ages of the world, the most attractive, the most useful, and 
 most elevating subject of human contemplation? 
 
 6T0. To which of the two is science the more indebted, Lord Bacon 
 or Sir Isaac Xewton? 
 
 671. Is truth ever barren or unproductive? 
 , 672. Is education a forced condition of the mental powers? 
 
 673. Ought students to be compelled to report the misconduct of 
 their yfellow-stu dents ? 
 
 674. Do great crises produce great men, or great men great crises? 
 
 675. Did the great Athenian school of sculpture, of which Phidias 
 was the head, take its rise at the commencement of the Persian wars 
 or after the settlement of Greece, subsequent to those wars ? 
 
 676. Is it expedient to make calisthenics and gymnastics a part of 
 common-school training ? 
 
 677. Are anonymous letters ever justifiable? 
 
 673. Does England, on the whole, owe more to the Reformation than 
 she does to the Roman Catholic system ? 
 
 679. Should Sunday School scholars be rewarded for committing 
 verses to memory ? 
 
 6 SO. On whom rests the greater blame, in allowing the execution of 
 Joan of Arc, her professed friends, or her open enemies ? 
 
 • 6S1. Which have done the greater service for their fellow-men, the 
 unmarried and childless, or those married and having children ? 
 
 6S2. Do manners affect dress more than dress affects manners? 
 
 683. Is the observation of Bacon, that "the care of posterity is most 
 in them that have no posterity," true? 
 
 684. Which is worse, ingratitude or avarice ? 
 
 685. Which is the more productive of evil, the culture of the intellect 
 
 12* 
 
274 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 to the neglect of the moral powers, or the culture of the moral powers 
 to the neglect of the intellect ? 
 
 . 686. Is good government compatible with the idea of frequent popu- 
 lar-elections ? 
 
 687. Is good government possible, where party politicians are numer- 
 ous? 
 
 688. Ought one to make politics a permanent business or pursuit ? 
 
 689. Ought the emoluments of office in a republican government, 
 ever. to be so large as to tempt able and enterprising men from private 
 pursuits ? 
 
 690. Which is productive of the greater mischief, credulity or sus- 
 picion ? 
 
 691. Which has been the more beneficial to this country, railroads, 
 or steamboats ? 
 
 692. Is perpetual motion possible ? 
 
 693. Which is the most valuable fruit produced in the United 
 States ? 
 
 694. Are the most important grains and vegetables indigenous to 
 America or exotic ? 
 
 695. Is the multiplication of works of fiction favorable to the forma- 
 tion of a permanent literature ? 
 
 696. Did the soul of man always exist? 
 
 697. What is the most striking event in American History? 
 
 698. Which is in greater need of true friends, the prosperous or the 
 unfortunate man ? 
 
 699. Which yields the higher enjoyments, intellectual or physical 
 life? 
 
 700. Is the pugilistic art more useful than pernicious ? 
 
 701. Ought parents to choose vocations for their children without 
 regard to what appears to be their natural tastes and inclinations ? 
 
 702. Was Thomas a Becket a hypocrite in religion ? 
 
 703. Is Hume's account of the Stuarts impartial? 
 
 704. Is the Giants' Causeway entirely a work of nature? 
 
 705. Was not the spiritual supremacy of the Pope in the dark ages, 
 a blessing rather than a curse ? 
 
 706. Did William, Duke of Normandy, fairly earn the title of " Con- 
 queror ?" 
 
 707. Which is the more flagrant crime, slander or theft ? 
 
 708. From which class has the world derived the greater benefactors, 
 the printers or the shoemakers ? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 275 
 
 709. Is slave-holding condemned, as a sin, in the Bible ? 
 
 710. Do revolutions advance or impede the cause of civilization ? 
 Til. Ought Charles I. of England, to be regarded as a Christian 
 
 martyr ? 
 
 712. Which exercised the more pernicious influence, Laud, or Straf- 
 ford? 
 
 713. Is Macaulay entitled to the rank of a first-rate historian ? 
 
 714. Waa Lord Chesterfield a true gentleman, even according to the 
 standard of his own times ? 
 
 715. Is true friendship possible between persons widely different in 
 social position ? 
 
 716. Which is the more pernicious to society, the political or the 
 clerical demagogue ? 
 
 717. Does phrenology give a tendency to infidelity? 
 
 718. Is it true as asserted by the poet, — 
 
 "Honor and Shame from no condition rise ; 
 Act well your part ; there all the honor lies." ? 
 
 719. Is the scientific world more indebted to Bacon than to Aristotle ? 
 
 720. Does history justify Pope in calling Bacon "the meanest of 
 mankind ?" 
 
 721. "Which is more beneficial to a community, free lectures or free 
 libraries ? 
 
 722. Did Robespierre advance or impede the cause of civil liberty? 
 
 723. Did Mary of England, justly deserve the epithet " Bloody f n 
 
 724. Which did the most toward unsettling the foundations of the 
 Christian faith, Gibbon, Yoltaire, Hume or Paine ? 
 
 725. Which was the wiser philanthrophist, Howard or Wilberforce ? 
 
 726. Has not the multiplication of newspapers in this country come 
 to be a great evil ? 
 
 727. Ought Cranmer to be ranked among Christian martyrs? 
 
 728. Were the charges preferred against the Earl of Strafford fairly 
 prov-n on his trial ? 
 
 729. Was Laud a traitor within the meaning of English statutes then 
 existing? 
 
 730. Was Cromwell superior to Napoleon in the general spirit and 
 character of his administration ? 
 
 731. Has the improvement in medical science kept pace with the 
 increase of disease, during the last three hundred years ? 
 
 732. Is Macaulay's estimate (Ed. Review, 1831,) of Johnson just ? 
 
 733. Is theology, properly so called, a progressive science? 
 
276 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 734. Ought the propagation of religious truth to be made one of the 
 principal ends of civil governments ? 
 
 735. Is the right of tithe justly derivable by argument from the Leviti- 
 cal law ? 
 
 136. Is the love of approbation a stronger motive than the love of 
 wealth ? 
 
 737. Is war likely to be arrested by the progress of intelligence and 
 . civilization ? 
 
 738. Is regular education unfavorable to vigor or originality of. mind ? 
 
 739. Is it true that those who are the most alert in discovering the 
 faults of a work of genius, are the least touched with its beauties ? 
 
 740. Which has been the more effective for good or evil, courage or 
 rashness ? 
 
 741. Which had the more fertile genius, Shakspeare or Sir Walter 
 Scott ? 
 
 742. In great national struggles, has one a right to be neutral ? 
 
 743. Is it unlawful according to the spirit of Christianity, to engage 
 in the profession of arms ? 
 
 744. Ought snow-balling to be prohibitted by law ? 
 
 745. Was Charles I. the author of the Elkcov Ba<7£/U/C7?? 
 
 746. Was Struensee guilty of the political offenses laid to his charge ? 
 
 747. Is Machiavelli's " Prince" to be regarded as a course of conduct 
 commended by the author, or merely as an exposition of immoral 
 policy ? 
 
 748. Is the voyage of Columbus likely ever to become the subject of 
 a great epic poem ? 
 
 749. Which is the more dangerous to the stability of governments, 
 concession or resistance ? 
 
 750. Is true taste found exclusively in what are called the higher 
 circles of society ? 
 
 751. Can miracles alone work conviction ? 
 
 752. Which is the more useful character, the wise conservator or the 
 wise innovator ? 
 
 753. Is man by nature insubordinate and prone to rebellion ? 
 
 754. Was Sir Walter Scott a great man ? 
 
 755. Are the ordinary courses of study in schools and colleges suffi- 
 ciently practical ? 
 
 756. Ought the authors of the best novels and romances to be set 
 down among the benefactors of mankind ? 
 
 757. Is the art of criticism necessary to the development of genius? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 277 
 
 758. Is genius gradually declining? 
 
 759. Is it true that those who live by ministering to the amusement 
 of others, are themselves always correspondingly amused? 
 
 TOO. Is the past equally effective with the future, in determining the 
 present ? 
 
 761. Is it true that religious men are more subject to enthusiasm, 
 whether healthy or morbid, than other people ? 
 
 762. Is mirth allowable in preaching? 
 
 5. Is it true that England under the sway of Cromwell, witnessed 
 a diffusion of the purest influence of religious principles ever known in 
 that country before that time ? 
 
 764. Are the notes or songs of birds innate or artificial ? 
 
 765. Is connubial felicity possible in those cases where there is equal- 
 ity of mental power and attainment ? 
 
 766. Should hired singers be employed in Christian churches? 
 
 767. Is congrational singing practicable? 
 
 768. Are the poems of Ossian authentic? 
 
 769. Is it the true policy of the government to give land to actual set- 
 tlers? 
 
 770. Is alms-giving a proof of benevolence ? 
 
 771. Was the United States government justifiable in removing the 
 Indians from their homes ? 
 
 7 72. Are our liberties endangered by the presence of "foreign influ- 
 " ence ?" 
 
 773. Are meteoric stones of earthly origin? 
 7 74 Is poetry an imitative art? 
 
 7 75. "Which is the greater incentive to exertion, the hope of reward 
 or the fear of punishment ? 
 
 776. What country of Europe has suffered the greatest wrongs ? 
 
 777. Which was the more unscrupulous in the use of satire and ridi- 
 cule. Yoltaire or Dean Swift ? 
 
 778. Did Jepthah really and literally sacrifice his daughter? 
 
 779. ITad the people in the general assemblies, in ancient Greece, the 
 to speak and vote on the questions discussed? 
 
 7 SO. Is teaching properly a science ? 
 
 7 SI. Is the ancient pronunciation of Latin recoverable? 
 
 782. Does a college course unfit a person for entering with due spirit 
 and energy on business pursuits? 
 
 783. Is truth more prevalent than falsehood, in professedly moral 
 circles ? 
 
■s/ 
 
 27$ MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 t84 Was General Lee, of Revolutionary memory, a traitor? 
 
 785. Is the doctrine of the pre-existence of souls in some former state, 
 fairly deducible from reason and from Revelation ? 
 
 736. Ought the supremacy of the Church in temporal concerns to be 
 recognized ? or ought the control of the Church to be confined to things 
 spiritual ? 
 
 787. Does the pecuniary or mercantile prosperity of a nation depend 
 upon its intelligence ? 
 
 788. Are civilized nations justified in seizing and occupying countries 
 inhabited by savages? 
 
 789. Is extension of territory favorable to the strength of a govern- 
 ment? 
 
 790. Should early marriages be encouraged? 
 
 791. Ought children to be permitted to read fairy tales? 
 
 792. Which has been more beneficial to the world, religion or learn- 
 ing? 
 
 793. Is it probable that any powerful natural agent like steam, re- 
 mains yet to be discovered ? 
 
 794. Is it ever right to do wrong? 
 
 795. Is it ever wrong to do right? 
 
 796. Was Jefferson or Jackson the better president ? 
 
 797. Is a submarine telegraph to Europe practicable? 
 
 798. Has the true cause of the Aurora Borealis been discovered? 
 
 799. Which is the most agreeable season of the year ? 
 
 800. Will the heathen perish eternally without the gospel ? 
 
 801. Would absolute freedom of opinion be a blessing? 
 
 802. Whioh is the higher source of pleasure to the human race, 
 music or poetry ? 
 
 803. Is the number of metallic substances probably indefinite? 
 
 804. Which is the more useful study, Geography or Physiology? 
 
 805. Who is the greatest genius that has yet appeared in America ? 
 
 806. Is it probable that the decimal system will finally supersede all 
 others ? 
 
 807. How was America originally peopled? 
 
 808. Should we encourage the study of Geography from outline 
 maps alone ? 
 
 809. Which are the more pleasing objects of contemplation, birds or 
 flowers ? 
 
 810. Which is the most useful implement? 
 
 811. Is absolute silence possible? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 270 
 
 812. Which musical instrument has the most power in Exciting 
 emotion ? 
 
 813. What causes the saltness of the sea? 
 
 SI 4. Which is the more important invention, the Sewing Machine or 
 the Reaper? 
 
 815. Js Phonography likely to prevail universally? 
 
 81G. Is aerial navigation practicable? 
 
 817. In case of a serious accident, should a man save his wife or his 
 mother, (supposing it impossible to save both) ? 
 
 . SIS. Have the most important discoveries been the result of scientific 
 pursuit, or of accidental circumstances? 
 
 819. "Which is the most useful vegetable? 
 
 S20. Which is the most valuable tree? 
 
 821. Is " the resurrection of the body" taught in Scripture ? 
 
 822. Which of the minerals is the most important? 
 
 823. What degree of latitude, if any, is most favorable to the highest 
 development of the human race? 
 
 824. Which has produced the greater results, silence or noise ? 
 
 825. Does the profession of teaching operate as a disqualification for 
 the office of a good wife ? 
 
 826. Is increase of wealth favorable to refined morality ? 
 
 82 T. Can more than two political parties in a free country be long 
 sustained ? 
 
 828. Is minute distribution of labor favorable to social progress? 
 
 829. Is the world advancing in morality? 
 
 830. Is moral or physical violence — holding up to contempt, or bind- 
 ing to the stake — more unchristian ? 
 
 831. Should naval schools be supported by government ? 
 
 832. Which of the learned professions gives largest promise of suc- 
 cess ? 
 
 S3 3. Has architecture, poetry, or music been most serviceable to reli- 
 gion ? 
 
 834. Are the dictates of a man's conscience of higher authority than 
 human law ? 
 
 835. Does civilization owe more to science or to art? 
 
 836. Is there satisfactory evidence that a more civilized race occupied 
 this continent before the Indian tribes ? 
 
 837. Were the miracles wrought by the Egyptian magicians real? 
 
 838. Do fables furnish a proper medium for conveying instruction to 
 the minds of the young ? 
 
280 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 839. Is obligation commensurate with ability? 
 
 840. Has an innocent convict a right to escape from punishment? 
 
 841. Ought the state to enforce the education of all children within 
 its jurisdiction ? 
 
 842. Is the location of a literary institution in the country preferable 
 to one in the city ? 
 
 843. Are the heavenly bodies inhabited ? 
 
 844. Is American literature likely to be more benifited or injured by 
 the mixture of races in the United States ? 
 
 845. Has the spirit of loyalty degenerated or only changed its form 
 of expression in modern times ? 
 
 846. Are holy affections necessary to a right understanding of Divine 
 truth? 
 
 847. Should theological students be required to complete a professional 
 course of study before receiving a license to preach ? 
 
 848. Do public amusements benefit society ? 
 
 849. Is intellectual improvement favorable to works of imagina- 
 tion? 
 
 850. Have the results of Arctic expeditions justified their cost? 
 
 851. Is light material ? 
 
 852. Has Greece or Rome contributed more to the advancement of 
 civilization ? 
 
 853. Has Great Britain or the United States been more successful in 
 conducting modern missions? 
 
 854. What convenience or comfort has the art of making glass con- 
 ferred upon us, not attainable in some other way ? 
 
 855. Is mental arithmetic sufficiently prominent in our present courses 
 of public instruction ? 
 
 856. Which is the more offensive in society, egotism or pedantry? 
 
 857. Is the cause of our disgust at egotism ascertainable ? 
 
 858. Is the theory of the identity of all fevers founded on fact? 
 **J 859. Ought judges to be elected by the people ? 
 
 860. Was the greater military skill displayed in the assault or de- 
 fense of Sevastopol ? 
 
 861. Is the custom of erecting monuments to the illustrious dead 
 beneficial to the living? 
 
 862. Ought not evening schools to be considered essential to the 
 complete success of a system of public instruction ? 
 
 863. Is etymological analysis necessary to a thorough knowledge of 
 the English language ? 
 
X 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 281 
 
 864. Are conventional rules of etiquette favorable to the exercise of 
 true courtesy ? 
 
 865. Which is the meaner character, the sycophant or the coquette? 
 
 866. Which has secured the greater blessings to mankind, fortitude 
 or courage? 
 
 867. Which is the better authority in orthography and definition, 
 Webster or Worcester? 
 
 S6S. Was the voyage of the Argonauts a piratical expedition ? 
 
 869. Is ambition a vice or a virtue? 
 
 870. Is it true that " whatever is, is right?" 
 
 S71. Was the deposition of Louis XYI. of France justifiable ? 
 
 872. Was the Sabbath kept before the time of Moses? 
 
 873. Is it true that " where ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise?" 
 
 874. Should a man be content with a competency? 
 
 875. Who contributed most to American liberty, Franklin or La- 
 fayette ? 
 
 876. Have the most valuable inventions of the last half century been 
 made by Americans or foreigners ? 
 
 877. Have the most important discoveries of the nineteenth century 
 been made by Americans or others ? 
 
 878. Is it true thafevery one who can read, can learn to sing? 
 
 879. Does the keeping of pets tend to effeminacy of character? 
 
 880. Who was the hero of the Mexican war ? 
 
 881. Have the most successful novels of the last twenty-five year3 
 been produced by men or women ? 
 
 SS2. Was Macaulay's plan for a History of England practicable? 
 
 883. Does the mind ever entirely lose an idea it has once possessed ? 
 
 884. Is taste a proper guide for the appetite? 
 
 885. Has a clergyman a right to perform the marriage ceremony for 
 himself? 
 
 886. Is a minister justifiable in performing the marriage ceremony for 
 minors without the consent of their parents ? 
 
 8S7. Is the participle properly a separate part of speech ? 
 
 888. Is a knowledge of the dead languages necessary to good schol- 
 ar-hip ? 
 
 889. Do the Scriptures predict a millennium? 
 
 8S0. Will the Jews, as a nation, be gathered to the Holy Land before 
 the close of the world's history ? 
 
 891. Which has the stronger claim upon the American Church, Foreign 
 or Home Missions ? 
 
282 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 892. Did the Asteroids originally form a single body? 
 
 ^/ 893. Is it advisable for the general government to surrender the 
 
 j" carrying of the mails to private enterprise ? 
 _ 894. Is the utility of comets discoverable by science? 
 
 893. Is the true cause of the Zodiacal Light known? 
 896. Are school exhibitions beneficial ? 
 
 >C ^' ^ s ^ ^ e ^ rue P°l' ic y °f a re P u blic to mantain a standing army 
 in time of peace ? 
 
 898. Can a person commit sin without knowing it? 
 
 899. Are modern geologists justified in assigning a greater age to the 
 globe than that which is given in Bible chronology ? 
 
 900. Should gymnastic exercises form an essential part of the course 
 in high schools and colleges ? 
 
 901. Ought the atomic theory to be accepted, as a fact or merely as 
 a convenient scientific hypothesis ? 
 
 902. Is electricity a material substance ? 
 
 903. Are we justified in regarding light and heat as material fluids ? 
 
 904. Is hydrogen a metal? 
 
 905. Does the study of the physical sciences conduce to mental de- 
 velopment as much as the classics ? 
 
 906. Is the course of classical study pursued in our colleges condu- 
 cive to the highest interest of the student? 
 
 907. Have species and genera a real existence in nature? 
 
 908. Is there evidence sufficient to warrant the belief that the so 
 called elementary bodies are really undecomposable ? 
 
 909. Is the existence of such an animal as the sea serpent worthy of 
 credence ? 
 
 910. Is there, evidence sufficient to warrant a belief in the existence 
 of an unfrozen ocean about the north pole ? 
 
 911. What was the chief source of Summerfield's success in preach- 
 ing? 
 
 912. "What difference, if any, is there between the language of imag- 
 ination and the language of passion ? 
 
 913. Does experience justify the 'hope of happiness usually antici- 
 pated in retirement from active life ? 
 
 914. Has the precise locality of Golgotha ever been determined? 
 
 915. Is their Scripture warrant for observing the first day of the 
 week, instead of the seventh, as a Sabbath ? 
 
 916. Was the land of Gush in Africa ? 
 
 91*7. Is it possible to ascertain the exact locality of the ancient Ophir ? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 283 
 
 918. "What is the most fatal temptation to young men ? 
 
 919. What is the essential difference between gambling and trad- 
 ing? 
 
 920. What should be the chief aim in education? 
 
 921. Does ''practice make perfect?" 
 
 922. Are the historical writings of Josephus entitled to belief? 
 
 923. Which is the more valuable in a commercial point of view, corn 
 or cotton ? 
 
 924. Is the congregational form of church government most in ac- 
 cordance with Scripture ? 
 
 925. Which is the more reliable safeguard, a good dog or a good 
 gun? 
 
 926. Is truth ever stranger than fiction ? 
 
 927. Is it probable that science will ever develop the true functions 
 of the liver ? 
 
 928. Which is the most useful to mankind the Microscope or the Tel- 
 escope ? 
 
 929. Is there sufficient reason to believe that the poems attributed 
 to Homer, are really the productions of several different minds ? 
 
 930. Is a Christian justifiable in the use of hair dye? 
 
 931. Is genius always conscious of its powers? 
 
 932. Are tea and coffee, used moderately, injurious ? 
 
 933. Which is the more useful invention, the Street Sweeping Ma- 
 chine or the Steam Eire Engine ? 
 
 934. Does the moon exert any other influence on the things of earth 
 than that upon tides ? 
 
 935. Are Fireworks more beneficial than injurious? 
 
 936. Do lightning-rods really furnish protection to buildings ? 
 
 937. Is the King-bird a destroyer of bees ? 
 
 938. Should children in common schools be thoroughly instructed in 
 the nature of our constitutional duties and obligations ? ■ 
 
 939. Is true patriotism declining ? 
 
 940. Which is better for a city, a paid or a volunteer Fire Department ? 
 
 941. Is the common practice of preaching from isolated texts the 
 most beneficial ? 
 
 942. Which are better calculated to affect the minds and hearts of 
 men religiously, written or extemporaneous discourses ? 
 
 943. Is infirmity a necessary concomitant of genius ? 
 
 944. Ought national and state mottoes to be expressed in foreign lan- 
 guages? 
 
284 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 945. Which is most rare, a sound mind, a sound body, or the union 
 of both ? 
 
 946. When did the latter half of the nineteenth century begin ? 
 
 947. Is the doctrine of total depravity taught in the bible ? 
 
 948. Is it proper to say of ||he dew that it falls ? 
 
 949. Is the Old Testamen&prohibition to abstain from blood, as an 
 article of food, still binding ? 
 
 950. Which produces the greater mischief in the world, the knaves 
 or the fools ? 
 
 951. Is there good reason to believe that the rainbow ever appeared 
 before the Flood ; that is, till it became the visible sign or pledge of 
 the covenant with Noah ? 
 
 952. Is truth a means or an end ? 
 
 953. Did the Chaldeans ever exist as a nation proper ? 
 
 954. Is a fool better known by his questions than by his answers? 
 
 955. Would a man be made better or worse for knowing just what 
 every one said or thought of him ? 
 
 956. Would the world be better or worse by the banishment of all 
 forms of hypocrisy? 
 
 951. Is the multiplication of large cities an evil to a country? 
 
 958. Is it advisable to confer the title of Doctor of Divinity upon 
 persons who are not ministers of religion ? 
 
 959. Ought any but Lawyers to be elected to form a legislative 
 body? 
 
 960. Which would be preferable, to work every day for one dollar a 
 day, or every other day for two dollars a day ? 
 
 961. Is political corruption the necessary result of republican gov- 
 ernment ? 
 
 962. Do Encyclopedias encourage superficial scholarship? 
 
 963. Are republican institutions favorable to the highest order of 
 statesmanship ? 
 
 964. Is adversity necessary to the development of a great character? 
 
 965. Are studious habits necessarily unfavorable to long life ? 
 
 966. Which is best entitled to the praise of genuine humor, — Sterne, 
 Rabelais, or Cervantes ? 
 
 967. Which are the more interesting, explorations by sea or by land? 
 
 968. Was the first Napoleon superior to Louis Napoleon as a states- 
 man ? 
 
 969. Which is the higher proof of merit, to have many enemies or 
 many friends ? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 285 
 
 970. Is a revealer of secrets any less criminal than one who violates 
 pecuniary trusts ? 
 
 971. Is all envy proportionate to desire ? 
 
 972. Is affectation less vile than hypocrisy? 
 
 973. Are splendid achievements the surest signs of true greatness? 
 97-4. Is it true that every government is perpetually degenerating 
 
 toward corruption ? 
 
 975. Is there any crime more heinous than the violation of truth ? 
 
 976. Which is preferable, private life or public station? 
 
 977. Do the moderns surpass the ancients in power and delicacy of 
 satire ? 
 
 978. Is the study of dress, in fashionable circles, more diligently pur- 
 sued by women than by men ? 
 
 979. Which, at a theatrical representation, affords the more instruc- 
 tive spectacle, the audience, or the performances on the stage ? 
 
 980. Which is the greater evil, in this country, hasty legislation, or 
 rash and unprincipled journalism ? 
 
 981. Is not the doctrine of rotation in office, as practiced in this 
 country, more baneful to society than any system of lotteries ? 
 
 982. Is not the present dearth of great statesmen in this country, 
 due directly to the conviction that not the great, but the politically 
 " available' 1 candidate alone can hope to succeed at the polls? 
 
 ^ 983. Ought not the practice of " buying on time" to be indictable 
 ' under the law against gambling ? 
 
 984. Are Indians and Negroes ever likely to be generally received, 
 on equal terms, in American society ? 
 
 985. Is a knowledge of the Hebrew and Greek languages necessary 
 to the highest success in the Christian ministry ? 
 
 986. Was the divorce of the Empress Josephine justifiable ? 
 
 987. Is animal food necessary for the perfect health and development 
 of mankind ? 
 
 988. Which contributed more to the permanent glory and prosperity 
 of France, Louis XIY., or Napoleon Bonaparte? 
 
 989. Is the United States destined to be a great military power ? 
 
 990. Will wars ever cease ? 
 
 991. Ought any permanent support to be provided for the poor? 
 
 992. Has fashion accomplished more good or evil in society ? 
 
 993. Ought there to be an established religion ? 
 
 994. Is it possible to secure the "greatest good of the greatest num- 
 ber" in human governments ? 
 
286 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 995. Was attainder and corrupton of blood ever a proper punish- 
 ment ? 
 
 996. Ought public expenses to be defrayed by levying the amount di- 
 rectly upon the people, or is it expedient to contract a national debt 
 or the purpose ? 
 
 997. Has the mere belief in a future state been of advantage to 
 mankind ? 
 
 998. Is there any real ground for the distinction, commonly assumed, 
 between moral and physical courage ? 
 
 099. Should a military spirit be encouraged in common schools ? 
 
 1000. Should the elective franchise be extended to women? 
 
 1001. Ought any political question to be discussed in the pulpit? 
 
 1002. Is a reform desirable in the present system of female educa- 
 tion ? 
 
 1003. Ought every person of unsound mind to be exempted from all 
 legal responsibility for his actions ? 
 
 1004. Is phrenology worthy of attention from the student of mental 
 science ? 
 
 1005. Is an exclusively vegetable diet advantageous? 
 
 1006. Was Mahomet an enthusiast, or an impostor? 
 
 1007. Are political parties productive of more harm than good ? 
 
 1008. Is it probable that England will long retain her present com- 
 manding position ? 
 
 1009. Is the elevation and encouragement of the drama a proper ob- 
 ect of effort ? 
 
 1010. Should foreign emigration be restricted ? 
 
 1011. Is the death of Cato UJticensis worthy of admiration? 
 
 1012. Is it expedient for the United States to support Military 
 Academies ? 
 
 1013. Can the existing evils of society be essentially relieved by any 
 social organization ? 
 
 1014. Is trial by judges preferable to trial by jury? 
 
 1015. Ought the mails to be carried on Sunday? 
 
 1016. Is the diversity of language on the whole an evil? 
 
 1017. Is national character influenced more by physical or moral 
 causes ? 
 
 1018. Does the poet or the statesman do the more for civilization? 
 
 1019. Is the character of the Puritans over-estimated by their de- 
 scendants ? 
 
 1020. Is " Lynch law" ever justifiable? 
 
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 287 
 
 1021. TTas civil liberty in Europe promoted by the career of Napoleon? 
 
 1022. Of two objectionable candidates, one of whom will certainly 
 .vted. is it right to risk the election of the worse, by voting for 
 hird candidate ? 
 
 1023. Does the progress of civilization diminish the love of martial 
 glory? 
 
 1024. Do legal or clerical studies better develop the intellect ? 
 
 1025. Would Ireland be benifited by an immediate secession? 
 
 1026. Are the most practical nations the most likely to perpetuate 
 names and institutions ? 
 
 ] 027. Is satire a proper instrument for the reformation of evil ? 
 1C2S. Do Peace Societies exert any efficient influence in diminishing 
 the number of wars or mitigating their barbarity ? 
 
 1029. Is an aristocracy of wealth to be preferred to an aristocracy 
 of birth ? 
 
 1030. In times of political agitation, is it the duty of every citizen to 
 declare his political sentiments, and attach himself to some party? 
 
 1031. Do the learned professions offer as promising an opening, for 
 a young man, as mercantile life ? 
 
 1032. Do inventions have a tendency to improve the conditions of 
 the laboring classes ? 
 
 1033. Did Mahomet believe in himself? 
 
 1034. Which is the more useful, drawing or music ? 
 
 1035. Should moral instruction be given as a stated exercise, or only 
 incidentally ? 
 
 1036. Is it right or expedient to put down quackery by law? 
 
 1037. How can pupils best be taught good manners ? 
 
 I" ; 38. Has surgery or medicine tended more to the alleviation of 
 human suffering? 
 
 1039. Should vocal music be regularly taught in common schools? 
 
 1040. Has the art of healing kept pace with the other arts and 
 sciences ? 
 
 1041. What methods of instruction will most successfully lead 
 pupils to original investigation ? 
 
 ^2. Does a man that really deserves fame, ever seek it? 
 
 1043. Should text-books be in the form of question and answer ? 
 
 1044. Ought Anglo-Saxon to be among the regular studies in colleges 
 and high schools ? 
 
 1045. What kind of physical education is best adapted for introduc- 
 tion into the school-room ? 
 
288 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 1046. Is it wise in any community to buy wholly or mainly of those 
 who are already enormously rich ? 
 
 1047. "What is the natural order of mental development ? 
 
 1048. Ought the plea of political necessity ever to be admitted as an 
 excuse or palliation for violating the Constitution or the laws ? 
 
 1049. Does the material prosperity of a nation depend upon its in- 
 telligence ? 
 
 1050. Is the principle of " object teaching" philosophical and 
 worthy of universal attention ? 
 
 1051. Is national wealth incompatible with national virtue? 
 
 1052. Are Christians justified in going to law with one another ? 
 
 1053. Should object-teaching be reduced to a system, or left to the 
 direction of circumstances ? 
 
 1054. Are wit and humor essential to the highest success in teach- 
 ing? 
 
 1055. Is there any medicinal or curative virtue in laughing ? 
 
SECTION XIV. 
 
 FORM OF A CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS SUITABLE 
 FOR A LITERARY OR DEBATING SOCIETY. 
 
 TT being one of the first duties, upon the formation 
 -*- of a Literary or Debating Society, to provide a sys- 
 tem of rules and regulations, whereby the objects of 
 the society may be more certainly secured, it is cus- 
 tomary, for that purpose, to appoint a committee to 
 draft a suitable constitution, as also such by-laws as 
 may seem expedient. 
 
 In so doing, it is convenient and useful to have at 
 hand forms which have already been submitted to the 
 test of experience ; for these serve as guides in ascer- 
 taining what has elsewhere, under the like circum- 
 stances, been fo :nd necessary or desirable. 
 
 And, although every essential aid, perhaps, in cases 
 of this kind, might be found in that part of the present 
 work* which treats of the Eules of Order in Delibera- 
 tive Assemblies, still, that nothing in this regard may 
 be wanting, we present, in this Section, a literal copy 
 of the constitution and by-laws of a society now in 
 successful operation. Of course, this is not given 
 as a model to be implicitly followed, but as a, form to 
 be altered, modified, and adapted to circumstances. It is 
 wisdom to avail ourselves of the experience of others, 
 
 * Section VI. 
 13 
 
CONSTITUTION, 
 Bfi-Ccuos, emir finlss of (Drber 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ADDISONIAN SOCIETY 
 
 OF THE CITY OF NEW YC PwK. 
 * 
 
 Jprecnnble. 
 
 We, the undersigned, do declare ourselves an Asso- 
 ciation for mutual improvement in Elocution, Compo- 
 sition and Debate, and for enlarging our fund of gen- 
 eral intelligence: in the pursuit of which objects we 
 desire to exhibit a due consideration for the opinions 
 and feelings of others, to maintain a perfect command 
 of temper in all our intercourse, to seek for truth in 
 all our exercises — and have adopted ibr our govern- 
 ment the following Constitution, By-Lavjs, and Rules 
 of Order. 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Article I. — Name. 
 
 This Association shall be known by the name of 
 the " Addisonian Society. ; 
 
FORMS OF A CONSTITUTION, 291 
 
 Article II. — Officers. 
 
 The Officers of the Association shall consist of a 
 President, a Vice President, Recording Secretary, Cor- 
 responding Secretary, and Treasurer, who shall con- 
 stitute a Board of Directors : also two Tellers and an 
 Editor. 
 
 Article HI. — Officers' Duties. 
 
 Sec. 1. — It shall be the duty of the President to pre- 
 side at all meetings of the Society, to enforce a due 
 observance of the Constitution. By-Laws, and Bules 
 of Order ; to decide all questions of order, offer for 
 consideration all motions regularly made, apportion 
 duties two weeks in advance, call all special meetings, 
 appoint all cornmiitees not otherwise provided for, 
 and perform such other duties as his office may require. 
 He shall make no motion or amendment, nor vote on 
 any question or motion, unless the Society be equally 
 divided, when he shall give the casting vote. 
 
 See* 2. — In the absence of the President, the Vice 
 President shall perform the duties of that officer, and 
 shall be Chairman of the Board of Directors, 
 
 Sec. 3. — The Recording Secretary shall keep in a 
 book, provided for the purpose, a record of the pro- 
 ceedings of the Societv; also a record of the name 
 and residence of each member, showing, when he was 
 admitted, and when he died, resigned, or was expelled; 
 keep a record of the subjects debated, the disputants 
 and the decisions of the Society in a separate book, 
 and shall have charge of all books, documents and 
 papers belonging to the Society, 
 
292 FORMS OF A CONSTITUTION 
 
 Sec. 4. The -Corresponding Secretary shall notify 
 absent members of their duties for the two succeeding 
 meetings, also each person elected a member, of such 
 election, and shall write all communications. 
 
 • Sec. 5. The Treasurer shall receive all moneys be- 
 longing to the Society ; keep an account of all dues 
 and fines, and of all receipts and expenditures ; notify 
 each member monthly of his dues and fines, and collect 
 the same; and shall call the Boll at the opening and 
 close of each meeting. He shall report the state of 
 the Treasury whenever required by a resolution of the 
 Society, and shall make no payments without a written 
 order from the President, and countersigned by the 
 Becording Secretary. 
 
 Sec. 6. The Editor shall copy, in a book provided 
 for the purpose, all communications received by him, 
 excluding such as may contain personal or improper 
 remarks, and shall read th6 same at every alternate 
 meeting of the Society. He shall maintain secresy 
 concerning the authorship of all communications, and 
 insert them without addition or alteration. Such 
 periodical shall be called the " Addisonian Beview." 
 
 Sec. 7. The Tellers shall canvass the votes cast at 
 all elections ; shall immediately make known the re- 
 sult of same, and render a true written report at the 
 meeting following such election. 
 
 Sec. 8. The Board of Directors shall be a Standing 
 Committee to manage the affairs of the Societ} 7 , hold- 
 ing meetings at least once a month. They shall de- 
 cide upon all questions of debate offered in the Society f 
 and shall examine and inquire into the standing of all 
 persons proposed for membership, and at the next 
 
FOR A LITERARY OR DEBATING SOCIETY. 293 
 
 regular meeting, report the result to the Society, who 
 shall determine upon their admission. 
 f Sec. 9. The Board of Directors and Treasurer shall 
 present to, and read before the Society, reports at the 
 expiration of their terms of office. 
 
 Article IV. — Election of Officers. 
 
 Sec. 1. All Elections for Officers shall be held at 
 the last regular meetings in June and January. The 
 term of each shall commence at the meeting following 
 his election. In case of a vacancy occurring in any 
 office, the Society shall go into an immediate election 
 to fill the same, and the officer elect shall take his seat 
 immediately after such election. 
 
 : Sec. 2. All elections for officers shall be made by 
 ballot, and shall be determined by two thirds of the 
 votes cast. 
 
 Article V. — Membership. 
 
 Sec. 1. Any member may propose a person for 
 membership at a regular meeting, by giving his name, 
 residence and occupation, and after being reported 
 upon by the Board of Directors, the Society shall de- 
 termine his admission by a three-fourth vote of the 
 members present. 
 
 Sec. 2. Any person may be elected an Honorary 
 Member of the Societj^, by a unanimous vote at a 
 regular meeting. He shall oe entitled to all the privi- 
 leges of a member, except holding office or voting 
 upon any question or motion, and shall not be fined 
 for abser ce, nor called upon for the initiation fee or 
 dues. 
 
294 FOKMS OF A CONSTITUTION 
 
 Article VI. — Amendments to Constitution, &c. 
 
 Every proposed alteration, amendment or additioc 
 to this ConstitutiDn, By-Laws and Kules of Order 
 hereunto annexed, must be handed to the President in 
 writing, who shall publish the same to the Society, and 
 at the next regular meeting, it shall be adopted by a 
 two-third vote of the members present. 
 
 Article VII. — Order of Business. 
 
 A motion to change the Order of Business, or to 
 postpone the performance of the regular duties, shall 
 require, for its adoption, a vote of two thirds of the 
 members present. 
 
 Article VIII. — Suspension of By-Laws. 
 
 A By-Law or Bule of Order may be suspended in 
 case of an emergency, by a two-third vote of the 
 members present, but only for a single evening. 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 Article I. — Meetings. 
 
 Sec. 1. This Society shall hold its meetings, unless 
 otherwise ordered, on Saturday evening of each week ; 
 the hour of meeting during the months of October, 
 November, December and January, shall be at 7| 
 P. M., and at 8 o'clock daring the rest of the year ; the 
 meetings to stand adjourned at 10J. 
 
FOR A LITERACY OR DEBATING SOCIETY. 295 
 
 Sec. 2. Six. members shall be necessary to consti- 
 tute a quorum. 
 
 Sec. 8. At the request of six members the Presi- 
 dent shall call a special meeting of the Society. In 
 case of absence from any special meeting, a member 
 shall be fined in accordance with Article 5th, Section 
 1st, of these By-Laws. 
 
 Article II. — Inauguration of Officers. 
 
 At the inauguration of each Officer, he shall be re« 
 quired to make the following affirmation : 
 
 "I do hereby solemnly promise, that I will faithfully 
 discharge the duties of my office to the best of my 
 knowledge and ability.'" 
 
 Article III. — Initiation of Members. 
 
 The following affirmation shall be required of each 
 person becoming a member : 
 
 11 1 do hereb} r solemnly promise, that I will observe 
 and strictly obey all the laws, rules and regulations 
 set down in the Constitution of this Society, and do 
 further declare, that I entertain no ill-will toward any 
 member." 
 
 Article IV. — Debates, Essays, Regit ations, &c. 
 
 Sec. 1. The two Orders of Business hereunto pre- 
 fixed, shall occupy alternate meetings of the Society. 
 On the Debating evening, there shall be a general de- 
 bate, which shall be opened on either side, by a mem 
 ber previously appointed. On the Miscellaneous 
 evening, half of the members shall alternately perform 
 
296 FORMS OF A CONSTITUTION 
 
 duties, either in Essay or Recitation, as the President 
 may have previously designated. 
 
 Sec. 2. The following questions, or such part as 
 time will permit, shall be asked at every Miscellaneous 
 meeting of the Society, commencing where they were 
 left off at the previous meeting : 
 
 1st. Have you lately met with any thing calculated 
 to interest or improve the Society, either in History, 
 Travels, Sciences, the Arts, or other branches of use 
 ful knowledge ? 
 
 2d. Do you know of any amusing story proper to 
 relate in conversation ? 
 
 3d. Have you any questions for debate to submit 
 for the consideration of this Board ? 
 
 Sec. 3. The leaders in debate shall be allowed to 
 speak fifteen minutes each time ; all others shall be 
 limited to ten minuses. 
 
 Sec. 4. All communications intended for insertion 
 in the " Addisonian Re vie TV," must be original, and 
 written by members of the "Society, and handed to the 
 Editor at least three days before publication. 
 
 Article V. — Dues, Fines, &c. 
 
 Sec. 1. The Fines shall be as follows, viz. : for late 
 attendance, non-performance of duty, disorderly con- 
 duct, and for calling to order without substantiating 
 the point, each, five cents ; for absence, (except of 
 leaders on debate, which shall be fifteen cents,) ten 
 cents ; and for leaving the room without permission 
 of the President, twenty-five cents. 
 
 Sec. 2. Every person on taking his seat, as a mem- 
 
FOR A LITERARY OR DEBATING SOCIETY. 297 
 
 ber, shall pay to the Treasurer an initiation fee of fifty 
 cents. The monthly dues shall be thirty cents, pay- 
 able in advance. 
 
 Sec. 3. In case any officer neglects a duty, he shall, 
 upon motion of a member, and with the consent of 
 the Society, be fined ten cents ; and should he still 
 persist in neglecting such duty, he may be removed 
 from his office by a two-third vote of the members 
 present. 
 
 Sec. 4. If any member calls another to order and 
 fails to substantiate his point, he shall be lined in ac- 
 cordance with Section first of this Article. 
 
 Sec. 5. Any member who shall make use of im- 
 proper language, or refuse to obey when called to 
 order, shall be fined in accordance with Section first 
 of this Article ; and, if he repeat the offense, he may 
 be expelled from the Association, by a two-third vote 
 of the members present. 
 
 Sec. 6. If any member neglects to pay his fines or 
 dues within two weeks after becoming payable, he 
 shall be notified thereof by the Treasurer, and, if he 
 still neglects payment, he shall, at the next regular 
 meeting after receiving said notice, be suspended for 
 two weeks ; and if then in arrears, shall be considered 
 as no longer a member. 
 
 Article VI. — Appeals, &c. 
 
 Sec. 1. An Appeal may, in all cases, be made from 
 any decision of the President; a two-third vote of the 
 members present shall be necessary to sustain the ap- 
 peal. 
 
 Sec. 2. Any member having made an appeal from 
 13* 
 
298 FOKMS OF A CONSTITUTION 
 
 a decision of the President, may sustain such appeal, 
 and the President may give his reasons for his decision, 
 before the question is put, which being passed upon, 
 the matter shall be considered as settled. 
 
 Article VII. — Committees. 
 All Committees shall make their reports in writing. 
 
 RULES OF ORDER. 
 
 1. The President, or in his absence the Yice Pres- 
 ident, shall take the Chair at the hour named in Arti- 
 cle I., Section 1, of the By-Laws. In the absence of 
 those officers, a President pro tern, shall be chosen by 
 the Society. 
 
 2. The President shall be privileged to debate 
 upon all subjects, on calling the Vice President, or any 
 other member willing, to the Chair. 
 
 3. After the meeting has been called to order, each 
 member shall take a seat, which he shall be required 
 to occupy during the evening, and shall not interrupt 
 the proceedings by reading or conversation, without 
 permission of the President. 
 
 4. No member shall speak on any motion (except 
 the mover thereof) more than twice, nor more than 
 once until all wishing to speak have spoken ; neither 
 shall he make or debate an amendment, having spoken 
 twice on the original motion, without permission of 
 the Society. 
 
FOR A LITERARY OH DEBATING SOCIETY. 299 
 
 5. When two or more members rise at the same 
 time, the President shall name the person to speak. 
 
 6. When a member shall be called to order by the 
 President or any member, he shall at once take his 
 seat, and every question of order shall be decided by 
 the President without debate. 
 
 7. No motion shall be debatable until seconded. 
 
 - 8. Appeals, and motions to reconsider or adjourn, 
 are not debatable. 
 
 9. When a question is under debate, no motion 
 shall be received but to lay on the table, to postpone, 
 to commit, or to amend. 
 
 10. No member shall interrupt another while 
 speaking, except in accordance with Rule of Order, 
 No. 6. 
 
 11. A motion to adjourn shall always be in order, 
 except when another motion is before the Society. 
 
 12. When a motion or amendment shall be made 
 and seconded, the mover thereof may be called upon 
 by the President or any member to reduce the same to 
 writing, and hand it in at the table, from which it shall 
 be read before open to the Society for debate. 
 
 13. The mover of a motion shall be at liberty to 
 accept any amendment thereto ; but if an amendment 
 be offered and not accepted, yet duly seconded, the 
 Association shall pass upon it before voting upon the 
 original motion. 
 
 14. Any member may criticise Essays or Recita- 
 tions delivered before the Society, provided he do r.ot ' 
 occupy more than five minutes. 
 
 15. Before taking the vote on any question, the 
 President shall ask : "Are you ready for the ques- 
 
300 FORMS OF A CONSTITUTION. 
 
 tion ?" Should no one offer to speak, the President 
 shall rise to put the question, and after he has risen, 
 no member shall speak upon it without permission of 
 the Society. 
 
 16. When a motion to adjourn is carried, no mem- 
 ber shall leave his seat, until the President have left 
 his chair. 
 
 17. When a motion has been made and decided, it 
 shall be. in order for any member (but such as have 
 voted in the minority), to move the re-consideration 
 thereof, if done within three weeks after being voted 
 upon. 
 
 18. Every officer, on leaving his office, shall give 
 to his successor all papers, documents, books and 
 money belonging to the Society. 
 
 19. No smoking, and no refreshments, except 
 water, shall be allowed in the Society's rooms. 
 
APPENDIX, 
 
 TJEEE we introduce, for convenience of reference, 
 -*--*- and as belonging peculiarly, as it were, to a work 
 of this kind, a copy of the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence ; also, a copy (carefully made from the Manual 
 prepared for the use of the United States House of 
 Representatives) of the Constitution of the United 
 States, the Amendments thereto, and several accom- 
 panying documents. 
 
 The Notes, here accompanying the Declaration of 
 Independence, are from the pen of Benson J. Lossing, 
 Esq., and are, by his permission, taken from his Pic- 
 torial History of the United States, a work which, for 
 clearness of narrative, interesting style, elegant picto- 
 rial illustrations, and fine general adaptation to the 
 purposes of teaching, is without a superior, if not 
 without an equal, in the long list of text-books on 
 American History. 
 
 We have, in another part of this work (see p. 70), 
 especially commended accuracy in citation from au- 
 thorities ; and, in aid of this design, so far as these 
 documents are concerned, have sought to furnish ex- 
 amples of the most scrupulous exactness in following 
 the originals. The notes appended to the Declaration 
 will be found particularly useful and valuable as mat- 
 ters of reference. 
 
802 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 The following preamble and specifications, ° known 
 as the Declaration of Independence, accompanied the 
 resolution of Eichard Henry Lee, which was adopted 
 by Congress on the 2d day of July, 1776. This dec- 
 laration was agreed to on the 4th, and the transaction 
 is thus recorded in the Journal for that day : 
 
 " Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress 
 resolved itself into a committee of the whole, to take 
 into their further consideration the Declaration ; and, 
 after some time, the president resumed the chair, and 
 Mr. Harrison reported that the committee have agreed 
 to a declaration, which they desired him to report. 
 The declaration being read, was agreed to as follows :" 
 
 A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEM- 
 BLED. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes 
 necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands 
 which have connected them with another, and to as- 
 sume, among the powers of the earth, the separate 
 and equal station, to which the laws of nature, and of 
 natiire's God entitle them, a decent respect to the 
 
 * It must be remembered that these specific charges made against 
 the king of Great Britain, include, in their denunciations, the govern- 
 ment of which he was the head. Personally, George the Third was 
 not a tyrant, but as the representative of a government, he was so. 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 303 
 
 opinions of mankind requires that they should declare 
 the causes which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all 
 men are created equal; that they are endowed by 
 their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that 
 among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- 
 ness. That, to secure these rights, governments are 
 instituted among men, deriving their just powers from 
 the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form 
 of government becomes destructive of these ends, it 
 is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to 
 institute a new government, laying its foundations on 
 such principles, and organizing its powers in such 
 form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 
 safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate 
 that governments long established should not be 
 changed for light and transient causes ; and, accord- 
 ingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are 
 more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than 
 to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which 
 they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
 and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
 evinces a design to reduce them under absolute des- 
 potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off 
 such government, and to provide new guards for their 
 future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
 of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which 
 constrains them to alter their former systems of gov- 
 ernment. The historj' of the present king of Great 
 Britain, is a history of repeated injuries and usurpa- 
 tions, all having in direct object the establishment of 
 
S04 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, 
 let facts be submitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most whole- 
 some and necessary for the public good.* 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of im- 
 mediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in 
 their operations till his assent should be obtained ; 
 and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to 
 attend to them.f 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accomoda- 
 
 * The colonial assemblies, from time to time, made enactments 
 touching their commercial operations, the emission of a colonial cur- 
 rency, and concerning representatives in the imperial parliament, but 
 the assent of the sovereign to these laws was withheld. After the 
 Stamp Act excitements, Secretary Conway informed the Americans 
 that the tumults should be overlooked, provided the Assemblies would 
 make provision for full compensation for all public property which had 
 been destroyed. In complying with this demand, the Assembly of 
 Massachusetts thought it would be "wholesome and necessary for the 
 public good," to grant free pardon to all who had been engaged in the 
 disturbances, and passed an act accordingly. It would have produced 
 quiet and good feeling, but the royal assent was refused. 
 
 f In 1^764, the Assembly of New York took measures to conciliate 
 the Six Nations, and other Indian tribes. The motives of the Assem- 
 bly were misconstrued, representations having been made to the king 
 that the colonies wished to make allies of the Indians, so as to increase 
 their physical power and proportionate independence of the British 
 crown. The monarch sent instructions to all his governors to desist 
 from such alliances, or to suspend their operations until his assent 
 should be giveu. He then "utterly neglected to attend to them." The 
 Massachusetts Assembly passed a law in lT'K), for taxing officers of 
 the British government in that colony. The governor was ordered to 
 withhold his assent to such tax-bill. This was in violation of the co- 
 lonial charter, and the people justly complained. The Assembly was 
 prorogued from time to time, and laws of great importance were " ut- 
 terly neglected." 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 305 
 
 tion of large districts of people, unless those people 
 would relinquish, the right of representation in the 
 Legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formid- 
 able to tyrants only. * 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places 
 unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the reposito- 
 ry of their public records, for the sole purpose of fa- 
 tiguing them into compliance with his measures. f 
 
 * A law was passed by parliament in the spring of 1774, by which 
 the popular representative system in the province of Quebec (Canada) 
 was annulled, and officers appointed by the crown had all power as 
 legislators, except that of levying taxes. The Canadians being Roman 
 Catholics, were easily pacified under the new order of things, by hav- 
 ing their religious system declared the established religion of the pro- 
 vince. But " large districts of people " bordering on Nova Scotia, felt 
 tliis deprivation to be a great grievance. Their humble petitions con- 
 cerning commercial regulations were unheeded, because they remon- 
 strated against the new order of things, and Governor Carleton plainly 
 told them that they must cease their clamor about representatives, be- 
 fore they should have any new commercial laws. A bill for " better 
 regulating the government in the province of Massachusetts Bay," 
 passed that year, provided for the abridgment of the privileges of pop- 
 ular elections, to take the government out of the hands of the people, 
 and to vest the nomination of judges, magistrates, and even sheriffs, in 
 the crown. When thus deprived of " free representation in the Legis- 
 lature," and the governor refused to issue warrants for the election of 
 members of the Assembly, they called a convention of the freemen, and 
 asked for the passage of " laws for the accomodation of large districts 
 of people." These requests were disregarded, and they were told 
 that no laws should be passed until they should quietly " relinquish 
 the right of representation in the Legislature — a right inestimable to 
 them, and formidable to tyrants only." 
 
 f In consequence of the destruction of tea in Boston harbor in 1773, 
 the inhabitants of that town became the special objects of royal dis- 
 pleasure. The Boston Port Bill was passed as a punishment, The 
 custom house, courts, and other public operations were removed to 
 
306 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, 
 for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the 
 rights of the people.* 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolu- 
 tions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legis- 
 lative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned 
 to the people at large for their exercise ; the State re- 
 maining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers 
 of invasion from without, and convulsions within, f 
 
 Salem, while the public records were kept in Boston, and so well 
 guarded by two regiments of soldiers, that the patriotic members of 
 the colonial Assembly could not have referred to them. Although 
 compelled to meet at a place "distant from the repository of the public 
 records," and in a place extremely u uncomfortable," they were not 
 fatigued into compliance, but in spite of the efforts of the governor, 
 they elected delegates to a general Congress, and adopted other meas- 
 ures for the public good. 
 
 * "When the British government became informed of the fact that 
 the Assembly of Massachusetts in 1768, had issued a circular to other 
 Assemblies, inviting their cooperation in asserting the principle that 
 Great Britain had no right to tax the colonists without their consent, 
 Lord Hillsborough, the Secretary for Foreign Affairs, was directed to 
 order the governor of Massachusetts to require the Assembly of that 
 province to rescind its obnoxious resolutions expressed in the circular. 
 In case of their refusal to do so, the governor was ordered to dissolve 
 them immediately. Other assemblies were warned not to imitate that 
 of Massachusetts, and when they refused to accede to the wishes of 
 the king, as expressed by the several royal governors, they were re- 
 peatedly dissolved. The Assemblies of Virginia and North Carolina 
 were dissolved for denying the right of the king to tax the colonies, 
 or to remove offenders out of the country, for trial. In 1774, when 
 the several Assemblies entertained the proposition to elect delegates 
 to a general Congress, nearly all of them were dissolved. 
 
 f When the Assembly of New York, in 1760, refused to comply 
 with the provisions of the Mutiny Act, its legislative functions were 
 suspended by royal authority, and for several months the State re- 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 307 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of 
 these States ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for 
 the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass 
 others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
 the conditions of new appropriations of lands.* 91 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by* 
 refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary 
 powers.f 
 
 mained u exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and con- 
 vulsions within." The Assembly of Massachusetts, after its dissolution 
 in July, 1768, was not permitted to meet again until the last Wednes- 
 day of May, 1769, and then they found the place of meeting surrounded 
 by a military guard, with cannon pointed directly at their place of 
 meeting. They refused to act under such tyrannical restraint, and 
 their legislative powers "returned to the people." 
 
 * Secret agents were sent to America soon after the accession of 
 George the Third to the throne of England, to spy out the condition 
 of the colonists. A large influx of liberty -loving German emigrants 
 was observed, and the king was advised to discourage these immigra- 
 tions. Obstacles, in the way of procuring lands, and otherw Ise, were 
 put in the way of all emigrants, except from England, and the tenden- 
 cy of French Roman Catholics to settle in Maryland, was also discour- 
 aged. The British government was jealous of the increasing power 
 of the colonies, and the danger of having that power controlled by 
 democratic ideas, caused the employment of restrictive measures. The 
 easy conditions upon winch actual settlers might obtain lands on the 
 Western frontier, after the peace of 1763, were so changed, that toward 
 the dawning of the Revolution, the vast solitudes west of the Alleghanies 
 were seldom penetrated by any but the hunter from the seaboard 
 provinces. When the War for Independence broke out, immigration had 
 almost ceased. The king conjectured wisely, for almost the entire Ger- 
 man population in the colonies, were on the side of the patriots. 
 
 f By an act of parliament in 1774, the judiciary was taken from the 
 people of Massachusetts. The judges were appointed by the king, 
 were dependent on him for their salaries, and were subject to his will. 
 Their salaries were paid from moneys drawn from the people by the 
 
308 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone for 
 the tenure of their offices, and the amount and pay- 
 ment of their salaries.* 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent 
 hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat 
 out their substance.f 
 
 commissioners of customs, in the form of duties. The same act de- 
 prived them, in most cases, of the benefit of trial by jury, and the 
 " administration of justice " was effectually obstructed. The rights 
 for which Englishmen so manfully contended in 1688 were trampled 
 under foot. Similar grievances concerning the courts of law, existed 
 in other colonies, and throughout the Anglo-American domain, there 
 was but a semblance of justice left. The people met in conventions, 
 when Assemblies were dissolved, and endeavored to establish "judi- 
 ciary powers," but in vain, and were finally driven to rebellion. 
 
 * Judges were made independent of the people, and royal govern- 
 ors were placed in the same position. Instead of checking their ten- 
 dency to petty tyranny, by having them depend upon the Colonial As- 
 semblies for their salaries, these were paid out of the national treasury. 
 Independent of the people, they had no sympathies with the people, 
 and thus became fit instruments of oppression, and ready at all times 
 to do the bidding of the king and his ministers. The Colonial Assem- 
 blies protested against the measure, and out of the excitement which 
 it produced, grew that power of the Revolution, the committees of 
 correspondence. When, in 1774, chief justice Oliver, of Massachusetts, 
 declared it to be his intention to receive his salary from the crown, the 
 Assembly proceeded to impeach him, and petitioned the governor for 
 his removal. The governor refused compliance, and great irritation 
 ensued. 
 
 f After the passage of the Stamp Act, stamp distributors were ap- 
 pointed in every considerable town. In 1766 and 1767, acts for the 
 collection of duties created " swarms of officers," all of whom received 
 high salaries; and when, in 1768, admiralty and vice-admiralty courts 
 were established on a new basis, an increase in the number of officers 
 was made. The high salaries and extensive perquisites of all of these, 
 were paid with the people's money, and thus "swarms of officers" "eat 
 out their substance." 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 309 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing 
 armies, without the consent of our Legislatures.* 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent 
 of, and superior to, the civil power, f 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a ju- 
 risdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowl- 
 edged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of 
 pretended legislation : £ 
 
 * After the treaty of peace with France, in 17 63, Great Britain left 
 quite a large number of troops in America, and required the colonists 
 to contribute to their support There was no use for this standing 
 army, except to repress the growing spirit of democracy amoog the 
 colonists, and to enforce compliance with taxation laws. The presence 
 of troops was always a cause of complaint, and when, finally, the col- 
 onists boldly opposed the unjust measures of the British government, 
 armies were sent hither to awe the people into submission. It was 
 one of those "standing armies" kept here "'without the consent of the 
 Legislature," against which the patriots at Lexington, and Concord, and 
 Bunker Hill so manfully battled in 1775. 
 
 f General Gage, commander-in-chief of the British forces in America, 
 was appoiuted governor of Massachusetts, in 1774, and to put the 
 measures of the Boston Port Bill into execution, he encamped several 
 regiments of soldiers upon Boston Common. The military there, and 
 also in New York, was made independent of, and superior to, the civil 
 power, and this, too, in a time of peace, before the minute men were 
 organized.. 
 
 \ The establishment of a Board of Trade, to act independent of col- 
 onial legislation, through its creatures (resident commissioners of cus- 
 toms), in the enforcement of revenue laws, was altogether foreign to 
 the constitution of any of the colonies, and produced great indignation. 
 The establishment of this power, and the remodeling of the admiralty 
 courts, so as to exclude trial by jury therein, in most cases, rendered 
 the government fully obnoxious to the charge in the text. The people 
 felt their degradation under such petty tyranny, and resolved to spurn 
 it. It was effectually done in Boston, as we have seen, and the gov- 
 ernment, after all its bluster, was obliged to recede. In 1774, the 
 
810 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among 
 us;* 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punish- 
 ment for any murders which they should commit on 
 the inhabitants of these States ;f 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ;£ 
 
 members of the council of Massachusetts (answering to our Senate), 
 were, by a parliamentary enactment, chosen by the king, to hold the 
 office during his pleasure. Almost unlimited power was also given to 
 the governors, and the people were indeed subjected to " a jurisdiction 
 foreign to their constitutions," by these creatures of royalty. 
 
 * In 1114:, seven hundred troops were landed in Boston, under 
 cover of the cannons of British armed ships in the harbor ; and 
 early the following year, parliament voted ten thousand men for the 
 American service, for it saw the wave of rebellion rising high under 
 the gale of indignation which unrighteous acts had spread over the 
 land. The tragedies at Lexington and Concord soon followed, and at 
 Bunker Hill the War for Independence was opened in earnest. 
 
 t In 1768, two citizens of Annapolis, in Maryland, were murdered 
 by some marines belonging to a British armed ship. The trial was a 
 mockery of justice, and in the face of clear evidence against them, they 
 were acquitted. In the difficulties with the Regulators in North Car- 
 olina, in 1111, some of the soldiers who had shot down citizens, when 
 standing up in defense of their rights, were tried for murder and ac- 
 quitted, while Governor Tryon mercilessly hung six prisoners, who 
 were certainly entitled to the benefits of the laws of war, if his own 
 soldiers were. 
 
 \ The navigation laws were always oppressive in character ; and in 
 1764, the British naval commanders having been clothed with the au- 
 thority of custom-house officers, completely broke up a profitable trade 
 which the colonists had long enjoyed with the Spanish and French 
 West Indies, notwithstanding it was in violation of the old Navigation 
 Act of 1G60. which had been almost ineffectual. Finally, Lord North 
 concluded to punish the refractory colonists of New England, by crip- 
 pling their commerce with Great Britain, Ireland, and the West Indies. 
 Fishing on the Banks of Newfoundland was also prohibited, and thus 
 as far as parliamentary enactments could accomplish it, their " trade 
 with all parts of the world " was cut off. 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 311 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent ;* 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of 
 trial by jury ;f 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pre- 
 tended offenses ;^ 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a 
 neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary 
 government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to 
 render it at once an example and fit instrument for in- 
 troducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ;§ 
 
 * In addition to the revenue taxes imposed from time to time, and 
 attempted to be collected by means of writs of assistance, the Stamp 
 Act was passed, and duties upon paper, painters' colors, glass, tea, &c, 
 were levied. This was the great bone of contention between the col- 
 onists and the imperial government. It was contention on the one 
 hand for the great political truth that taxation and representation are 
 inseparable, and a lust for power and the means for replenishing an 
 exhausted treasury, on the other. The climax of the contention was 
 the Revolution. 
 
 f This was especially the case when commissioners of customs were 
 concerned in the suit. After these functionaries were driven from Bos- 
 ton, in 1768, an act was passed which placed violations of the revenue 
 laws under the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts, where the offend- 
 ers were tried by a creature of the crown, and were deprived " of the 
 benefits of trial by jury." 
 
 \ A law of 1774 provided that any person in the province of Mas- 
 sachusetts who should be accused of riot, resistance of magistrates or 
 the officers of customs, murder, " or any other capital offense," might, 
 at the option of the governor, be taken for trial to another colonv, or 
 transported to Great Britain for the purpose. The minister pretended 
 that impartial justice could not be administered in Massachusetts, but 
 the faets of Captain Preston's case refuted Lis arguments in that direc- 
 tion. The bill was violently opposed in parliament, yet it became a 
 law. It was decreed that Americans might be " transported beyond 
 the seas, to be tried for pretended offenses," or real crimes. 
 
 § This charge is embodied in an earlier one, considered in the fir 
 note on page 305. The British ministry thought it prudent to 
 
312 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most 
 valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms 
 of our governments ;'* 
 
 For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring 
 themselves invested with power to legislate for us in 
 all cases whatsoever ;f 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by declaring us 
 out of his protection, and waging war against us 4 
 
 early steps to secure a footing in America, so near the scene of inev- 
 itable rebellion, as to allow them to breast, successfully, the gathering 
 storm. The investing of a legislative council in Canada, with all powers 
 except levying of taxes, was a great stride toward that absolute mil- 
 itary rule which bore sway there within eighteen months afterward. 
 Giving up their political rights for doubtful religious privileges, made 
 them willing slaves, and Canada remained a part of the British empire, 
 when its sister colonies rejoiced in freedom. 
 
 * This is a reiteration of the charge considered in the last note on 
 page 307, and refers to the alteration of the Massachusetts charter, so 
 as to make judges and other officers independent of the people, and sub- 
 servient to the crown. The governor was empowered to remove and 
 appoint all inferior judges, the attorney-general, provosts, marshals, 
 and justices of the peace, and to appoint sheriffs independent of the 
 council. As the sheriffs chose jurors, trial by jury might easily be 
 made a mere mockery. The people had hitherto been allowed, by 
 their charter, to select jurors ; now, the whole matter was placed in 
 the hands of the creatures of government. 
 
 f This, too, is another phase of the charge just considered. We 
 have noticed the suppression of the Legislature of New York, in the 
 note beginning at the bottom of page 306, and in several cases, the 
 governors, after dissolving colonial Assemblies, assumed the right to 
 make proclamations stand in the place of statute law. Lord Dunmore 
 assumed this right in 1775, and so did Sir James Wright, of Georgia, 
 and Lord William Campbell, of South Carolina. They were driven 
 from the country, in consequence. 
 
 J In his message to parliament, early in 1775, the king declared the 
 colonists to be in a state of open rebellion, and by sending armies hither 
 to make war upon them, he really " abdicated government," by thus 
 declaring them " out of his protection." He sanctioned the acts of gov- 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 313 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, 
 burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our peo- 
 ple.* 
 
 He is at this time transporting large armies of for- 
 eign mercenaries, to complete the work of death, deso- 
 lation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances 
 of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most 
 barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a 
 civilized nation. f 
 
 He has constrained our fellow citizens, taken captive 
 on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, 
 to become the executioners of their friends and 
 brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.:]: 
 
 ernors in employing Indians against his subjects (see first note on page 
 314), and himself bargained for the employment of German hirelings* 
 And when, yielding to the pressure of popular will, his representatives 
 (the royal governors) fled before the indignant people, he certainly 
 " abdicated government." 
 
 * When naval commanders "were clothed with the powers of custom- 
 house officers (third note on page 310), they seized many American 
 vessels ; and after the affairs at Lexington and Bunker Hill, British 
 ships of war " plundered our seas " whenever an American vessel could 
 be found. They also "ravaged our coasts, and burnt our towns." 
 Charles town. Falmouth (now Portland, in Maine)., and Norfolk were 
 burnt, and Dunmore and others " ravaged our coasts," and "destroyed 
 the lives of our people." And at the very time when this declaration 
 was being read to the assembled Congress, the shattered fleet of Sir 
 Peter Parker was sailing northward, after an attack upon Charleston, 
 South Carolina. 
 
 f This charge refers to the infamous employment of German troops, 
 known here as Hessians. 
 
 % An act of parliament passed toward the close of December, 1*775, 
 authorized the capture of all American vessels, and also directed the 
 treatment of the crews of armed vessels to be as slaves, and not as 
 prisoners of war. They were to be enrolled for " the service of his 
 majesty," and were thus compelled to fight for the crown, even against 
 
 14 
 
314 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and 
 lias endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our 
 frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known 
 rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all 
 ages, sexes, and conditions.* 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions we have peti- 
 tioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our re- 
 peated petitions have been answered only by repeated 
 injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by 
 every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
 ruler of a free people. f 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our 
 British brethren. £ We have warned them, from time 
 
 their own friends and countrymen. This act was loudly condemned on 
 the floor of parliament, as unworthy of a Christian people, and ' : a re- 
 finement of cruelty unknown among savage nations." 
 
 * This was done in several instances. Dunmore was charged with 
 a design to employ the Indians against the Virginians, as early as 17*74; 
 and while ravaging the Virginia coast in 1715 and 1776, he endeavored 
 to excite the slaves against their masters. He was also concerned 
 with Governor Gage and others, under instructions from the British 
 ministry, in exciting the Shawnees, and other savages of the Ohio 
 country, against the white people. Emissaries were also sent among 
 the Cherokees and Creeks, for the same purpose, and all of the tribes 
 of the Six Nations except the Oneidas, were found in arms with the 
 British when war began. Thus excited, dreadful massacres occurred 
 on the borders of the several colonies. 
 
 «(• For ten long years the colonies petitioned for redress of grievances 
 "in the most humble terms/' and loyal manner. It was done by the 
 Colonial Congress of 1765, and also by the Ccntinental Congresses of 
 1774 and 1775. But their petitions were almost always "answered 
 only by repeated injuries." 
 
 J From the beginning, the colonists appealed, in the most affection- 
 ate terms, to " their British brethren." The first address put forth by 
 the Congress of 1774 was " To the People of Great Britain ;" and the 
 Congress of 1775 sent an affectionate appeal to the people of Ireland. 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 315 
 
 to time, of attempts by their legislature, to extend an 
 arrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
 them of the circumstances of our emigration and set- 
 tlement here. "We have appealed to their native justice 
 and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the 
 ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpa- 
 tions, which would inevitably interrupt our connections 
 and correspondence, They, too, have been deaf to 
 the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, 
 therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces 
 our separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of 
 mankind — enemies in war — in peace, friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of the United 
 States of America, in general Congress assembled, 
 appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the 
 rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
 authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly 
 publish and declare that these united colonies are, and 
 of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that 
 they are absolved from all allegiance to the British 
 crown, and that all political connection between them 
 and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, to- 
 tally dissolved, and that, as free and independent 
 States, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
 peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do 
 all other acts and things which independent States 
 may of right do. And for the support of this Dec- 
 laration, with a firm reliance on the protection of 
 Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other 
 our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 
 
816 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 The following is a list of the members of the Con- 
 tinental Congress, who signed the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendenca, with the places and dates of their birth, and 
 the time of their respective deaths. 
 
 NAMES OF SIGNERS. 
 
 BORN AT 
 
 DELEGATE FROM 
 
 DIED 
 
 Adams, John 
 
 Braintree, Mass., Oct. 19, 1735 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 July 4, 1826 
 
 Adams, Samuel . 
 
 Boston, " Sept. 22, 1722 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Oct. 2, 18 )3 
 
 Bartlett, Josiah . 
 
 Amesbury, " in Nov. 1729 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 May 19, 1793 
 
 Braxton, Carter . 
 
 Newington, Va., Sept. 10, 1736 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Oct. 10, 1797 
 
 Carroll, Chs. of Car'llton 
 
 Annapolis, Md., Sept. 20, 1737 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Nov. 14, 1832 
 
 Chase, Samuel . 
 
 Somerset co., Md,, Apiil 17, 1741 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 June 19, 1811 
 
 Clark, Abraham 
 
 Elizabethan, N.J., Feb. 15, 1726 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 June — , 1794 
 
 Clymer, George . 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., in 1739 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Jan. 24, 1813 
 
 Ellery, William . 
 
 Newport, R. L, Dec. 22, 1727 
 
 R.L&Prov.PL, 
 
 Feb. 15, 1820 
 
 Floyd, William . 
 
 Suffolk co., N. Y., Dec. 17, 1734 
 
 New York, 
 
 Aug. 4, 1821 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin . 
 
 Boston, Mass., Jan. 17, 1706 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 April 17,1780 
 
 Gerry, Elbridge . 
 
 Marblehead, Mass., July 17, 1744 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Nov. 23, 1814 
 
 Gwinnet, Button 
 
 England, in 1732 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 May 27, 1777 
 
 Hall, Lyman 
 
 Connecticut, in 1731 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Feb.— 1790 
 
 Hancock, John . 
 
 Braintree, Mass., in 1737 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Oct. 8, 1793 
 
 Harrison, Benjamin . 
 
 Berkely, Virginia, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 April — , 1791 
 
 Hart, John . 
 
 Hopewell, N. J. about 1715 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 , 1780 
 
 Hey ward, Thomas, jr. 
 Hewes, Joseph . 
 
 St, Luke's, S. C. in 1746 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Mar. — , 1803 
 
 Kingston, N. J., in 1730 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Nov. 10, 1779 
 
 Hooper, William . 
 
 Boston, Mass., June 17, 1742 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Oct. — , 179J 
 
 Hopkins, Stephen 
 
 Scituate, " Mar. 7, 1707 
 
 R.I. & Pro v. PI., 
 
 Jnlyl9, 1785 
 
 Hopkinson, Francis . 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., in 1737 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 May 9, 17 90 
 
 Huntington, Samuel . 
 
 Windham, Ct, July 3, 1732 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Jan. 5, 1793 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas 
 
 Shadwell, Va., April 13, 1743 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 July 4, 1826 
 
 Lee, Francis Lightfoot 
 
 Stratford, " Oct. 14, 1724 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 April—, 1797 
 
 Lee, Richard Henry . 
 
 Stratford, " Jan. 20, 1732 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 June 19, 1794 
 
 Lewis, Francis . 
 
 Laiidaff, Wales, in March 1713 
 
 New York, 
 
 Dec. 30, It 03 
 
 Livingston, Philip 
 
 Albany, N. Y., Jan. 15, 1718 
 
 New York, 
 
 June 12, 1778 
 
 Lynch, Thomas, jr. . 
 M'Kean, Thomas 
 
 St. George's, S.C., Aug. 5, 1^9 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 l'statseal/79 
 
 Chester co., Pa., March 19, 1734 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 June 24, 1817 
 
 Middleton, Arthur 
 
 Middleton Place, S.C., in 1743 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Jan. 1, 1787 
 
 Moi'iis, Lewis 
 
 Morrisania, N Y., in 1726 
 
 New York, 
 
 Jan. 22, 1798 
 
 Morris, Robert . 
 
 Lancashire, England, Jan. 1783 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 May 8, 1S06 
 
 Morton, John 
 
 Ridley, Pa., ' in 1724 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 April — , 1777 
 
 Nelson, Thomas, jr. . 
 
 York, Virginia, Dec. 26, 1728 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Jan. 4, 1789 
 
 Paca, William . 
 
 Wye-Hill, Md., Oct. 31, 1740 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 , 17t9 
 
 Paine, Robert Treat . 
 
 Boston, Mass., in 1721 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 May 11, 1814 
 
 Penn, John . 
 
 Caroline co.. Va., May 17, 1741 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Sept. — , 1788 
 
 Read, George 
 
 Cecil co., Md., in 1734 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 , 1798 
 
 Rodney, Caesar . 
 
 Dover, Delaware, in 1720 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 , 1783 
 
 Ross, George 
 
 New Castle, Del., in 1730 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 July — , 1779 
 
 Rush, Benjamin, M.D. 
 Rutledge, Edward 
 Sherman, Roger . 
 
 Byberry, Pa.. Dec. 24, 1745 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 April 19, 1813 
 
 Charleston, S.'C, in Nov. 1749 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Jan. 23, 1800 
 
 Newton, Mass., April 19, 1721 
 
 Connecticutt, 
 
 July 23, 1795 
 
 Smith, James 
 
 Ireland, — — 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 July 11, 1806 
 
 Stockton, Richard 
 
 Princeton, N. J., Oct. 1, 1730 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Feb. 28, 1781 
 
 Stone, Thomas . 
 
 Charles co., Md., in 1742 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Oct. 5, 1787 
 
 Taylor, George . 
 
 Ireland, in 1716 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Feb. 23, 1781 
 
 Thornton, Matthew . 
 
 Ireland, in 1714 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 June 24, 1803 
 
 Walton, George . 
 
 Frederick co., Va., in 17:0 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Feb. 2, 1804 
 
 Whipple, William 
 
 Kittery, Maine, in 1720 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 Nov. 28, 1785 
 
 Williams, William 
 
 Lebanon, Ct., April 8, 1731 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Aug. 2, 1811 
 
 Wilson, James . 
 
 Scotland, about 1742 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Aug. 28, 1798 
 
 Witherspoon, John . 
 Wolcott, Oliver . 
 
 Yester, Scotland, Feb. 5, 1722 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Nov. 15, 1794 
 
 Windsor, Ct. Nov. 26, 1726 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Dec. 1, 1797 
 
 Wythe, George . 
 
 Elizabeth city co., Va., 1726 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 June 8, 1806 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 We, the People of the United States, in Preamble, 
 order to form a more perfect Union, es- 
 tablish justice, insure domestic tran- 
 quillity, provide for the common de 
 fense, promote the general welfare, and 
 secure the blessings of liberty to our- 
 selves and our posterity, do ordain and 
 establish this Constitution for the United 
 States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 All legislative powers herein granted congress, 
 shall be vested in a Congress of the United 
 
318 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
 House of Eepresentatives. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Eepresentatives, 
 bow chosen. 
 
 Qualification of 
 Eepresentatives. 
 
 Apportionment of 
 Representatives, 
 and direct taxes. 
 
 The House of Eepresentatives shall be 
 composed of members chosen every second 
 year by the people of the several States, and 
 the electors in each State shall have the qual- 
 ifications requisite for electors of the most 
 numerous branch of the State legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a Representative who 
 shall not have attained the age of twenty- 
 five years, and have been seven years a 
 citizen of the United States, and who shall 
 not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
 State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Eepresentatives and direct taxes shall be 
 apportioned among the several States which 
 may be included within this Union, accord- 
 ing to their respective numbers, which shall 
 be determined by adding to the whole num- 
 ber of free persons, including those bound 
 to service for a term of years, and exclud- 
 ing Indians not taxed, three fifths of all 
 other persons. The actual enumeration 
 shall be made within three years after the 
 first meeting of the Congress of the United 
 States, and within every subsequent term 
 census every ten of ten years, in such manner as they shal] 
 by law direct. The number of Represent- 
 atives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
 thousand, but each State shall have at least 
 
 years. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 31 j 
 
 one representative ; and until such, enum- 
 eration shall be made, the State of New 
 Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, 
 Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi- 
 dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New 
 York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania 
 eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Vir- 
 . fjinia ten, North Carolina five, South Car- 
 olina five, and Georgia three. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the repre- Vacancies, how 
 sentation from any State, the executive 
 authority thereof shall issue writs of elec- 
 tion to fill such vacancies. 
 
 The House of Representatives shall representatives 
 choose their Speaker and other officers; bring inipeacb- 
 
 . . ments. 
 
 and shall have the sole power of impeach- 
 ment. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 The Senate of the United States shall senate, how 
 
 chosen. 
 
 be composed of two Senators from each 
 State, chosen by the legislature thereof, 
 for six years ; and each Senator shall have 
 one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assem- senators classed 
 bled in consequence of the first election, 
 they shall be divided as equally as may 
 be into three classes. The seats of the 
 Senators of the first class shall be vacated 
 at the expiration of the second year; of 
 the second class, at the expiration of the 
 fourth year; and of the third class, at 
 tiie expiration of the sixth year ; so that 
 
320 CONSTITUTION 
 
 one third may be chosen every second 
 Vacancies, how year : and if vacancies happen by resigna- 
 tion or otherwise during the recess of the 
 legislature of any State, the executive 
 thereof may make temporary appoint- 
 ments until the next meeting of the legis- 
 lature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
 Qualifications of No person shall be a Senator who shall 
 not have attained to the age of thirty 
 years, and been nine years a citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when 
 elected, be an inhabitant of that State for 
 which he shall be chosen. 
 Vice President to The Vice President of the United States 
 presi e. shall be President of the Senate, but shall 
 
 have no vote unless they be equally di- 
 vided. 
 Officers of Senate. The Senate shall choose their other offi- 
 cers, and also a President pro tempore in the 
 absence of the Yice President, or when he 
 shall exercise the office of President of the 
 United States. 
 Trial of impeach- The Senate shall have the sole power to 
 try all impeachments. When sitting for 
 that purpose, they shall be on oath or 
 affirmation. When the President of the 
 United States is tried, the Chief Justice 
 shall preside : and no person shall be con- 
 victed without the concurrence of two 
 thirds of the members present, 
 judgment in im- Judgment in cases of impeachment shall 
 peachments. ^ extend further than to removal from 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 321 
 
 office and disqualification to hold and en- 
 joy any office of honor, trust, or profit Effect at 
 under the United States; but the party- 
 convicted shall nevertheless be liable and 
 subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and 
 punishment, according to law. 
 
 SECTION rv. 
 
 The times, places, and manner of hold- 
 in 2: elections for Senators and Eepresenta- Elections, when 
 
 • 1 -1-1 i -IT* to. i and now held, 
 
 tives shall be prescribed in each State by 
 the legislature thereof; but the Congress 
 may at any time, by law, make or alter 
 such regulations, except as to the places 
 of choosing Senators. 
 
 The Congress shall assemble at least 
 once in every year, and such meeting shal- Congress assemble 
 be on the first Monday in December, un- 
 less they shall by law appoint a different 
 day. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Each house shall be the "judge of the Elections, how 
 
 Indeed. 
 
 elections, returns and qualifications of its 
 own members, and a majority of each shall O^ore^ 
 constitute a quorum to do business ; but a 
 smaller number may adjourn from day to 
 day, and may be authorized to compel 
 the attendance of absent members, in such Abauu 
 manner, and under such penalties, as each 
 house may provide. 
 
 Each house may determine the rules of suies. 
 its proceedings, punish its members for . 
 
 14 
 
322 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 Expulsion. 
 
 Journals to be kept 
 and published. 
 
 Teas and naya 
 
 Adjournments. 
 
 disorderly behavior, and with, the con- 
 currence of two thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each house shall keep a journal of its 
 proceedings, and from time to time publish 
 the same, excepting such parts as may in 
 their judgment require secresy; and the 
 yeas and nays of the members of either 
 house on any question shall, at the desire 
 of one fifth of those present, be entered 
 on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the session of 
 Congress, shall, without the consent of 
 the other, adjourn for more than three 
 days, nor to any other place than that in 
 which the two houses shall be sitting. 
 
 Compensation, 
 
 Privilege. 
 
 Members not ap- 
 pointed to office. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 The Senators and Eepresentatives shall 
 receive a compensation for their services, 
 to be ascertained by law, and paid out of 
 the Treasury of the United States. They 
 shall in all cases, except treason, felony, 
 and breach of the peace, be privileged 
 from arrest during their attendance at the 
 session of their respective houses, and in 
 going to and returning from the same ; 
 and for any speech or debate in either 
 house, they shall not be questioned in any 
 other place. 
 
 No Senator or Eepresentative shall, 
 during the time for which he was elected, 
 be appointed to any civil office under the 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 323 
 
 authority of the United States which shall 
 have been created, or the emoluments 
 whereof shall have been increased, during Officers of gown, 
 
 t , i i -i • men 1 - can not be 
 
 sucn time ; and no person holding any members. 
 office under the United States, sliall be a 
 member of either house during his con- 
 tinuance in office. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 All bills for raising revenue shall origi- Eevenue bux 
 nate in the House of Representatives ; but 
 the Senate may propose or concur with 
 amendments as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the Bins to be pre 
 House of Representatives and the Senate, President, 
 shall, before it become a law, be presented 
 to the President of the United States ; if His powers orei 
 he approve he shall sign it; but if not, he 
 shall return it, with his objections, to that 
 house in which it shall have originated, 
 who shall enter the objections at large on 
 their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. Proceedings on 
 If after such reconsideration two-thirds of 
 
 that house shall agree to pass the bill, it 
 shall be sent, together with the objections, 
 to the other house, by which it shall like- 
 wise be reconsidered, and if approved by 
 two-thirds of that house, it shall become a 
 law. But in all such cases the votes of both 
 houses shall be determined by yeas and 
 nays, and the names of the persons voting 
 for and against the bill shall be entered on 
 
324 CONSTITUTION 
 
 Bills to be laws if the journal of eacli house respectively. 
 
 Dot returned in ten _ 
 
 day*. If any bill shall not be returned by the 
 
 President within ten days (Sundays ex- 
 cepted) after it shall have been presented 
 to him, the same shall be a law, in like 
 manner as if he had signed it, unless the 
 Congress by their adjournment prevent its 
 return, in which case it shall not be a 
 law. 
 
 joint orders or res- Every order, resolution, or vote, to 
 
 olutions to be ap- , . , 1 « -i n t 
 
 proved by the which the concurrence of the Senate and 
 
 President. . 
 
 House of Representatives may be neces- 
 sary, (except on a question of adjourn- 
 ment,) shall be presented to the President 
 of the United States ; and before the same 
 shall take effect, shall be approved by 
 him, or, being disapproved by him, shall 
 be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate 
 and House of Eepresentatives, according 
 to the rules and limitations prescribed in 
 the case of a bill. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 Powers of congress The Congress shall have power to lay 
 
 d°ebtsT axes— pay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and ex- 
 cises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
 
 General welfare, common defense and general welfare of 
 the United States ; but all duties, imposts 
 
 Duties uniform, and excises, shall be uniform throughout 
 the United States ; 
 
 Borrow money. To borrow money on the credit of the 
 United States ; 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 325 
 
 To regulate commerce with, foreign na- commerce, 
 tions, and among the several States, and 
 with the Indian tribes ; 
 
 To establish a uniform rule of natural- Naturalization, 
 ization, and uniform laws on the subject 
 of bankruptcies throughout the United Bankruptcy. 
 States ; 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value Coin money, 
 thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the 
 standard of weights and measures ; measures*** 1 
 
 To provide for the punishment of couii- Counterfeiting, 
 terfeiting the securities and current coin 
 of the United States ; 
 
 To establish post offices and post Post roads, 
 roads ; 
 
 To promote the progress of science and Promote arts wad 
 
 1 . . science. 
 
 useful arts, by securing, for limited times, 
 to authors and inventors the exclusive 
 right to their respective writings and dis- 
 coveries ; 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the inferior courts. 
 Supreme Court ; 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felo- Piracies, &c 
 nies committed on the high seas, and of- 
 fenses against the law of nations ; 
 
 To declare w r ar, grant letters of marque Declare war ana 
 
 , . .. , .. .. . make captures. 
 
 and reprisal, and make rules concerning 
 captures on land and water ; 
 
 To raise and support a/mies; but no Raise armie*. 
 appropriation of money to that use shall 
 be for a longer term than two years ; 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy ; Navy. 
 
326 CONSTITUTION 
 
 Rules and articles To make rules for the government and 
 regulation of the land and naval forces ; 
 
 Can out militia. To provide for calling forth the militia 
 to execute the laws of the Union, suppress 
 insurrections, and repel invasions ; 
 
 Organize and gov- To provide for organizing, arming and 
 disciplining the militia, and for governing 
 such part of them as may be employed in 
 the service of the United States, reserving 
 to the States, respectively, the appointment 
 of the officers, and the authority of train* 
 
 Officers of mmtia. ing the militia according to the discipline 
 prescribed by Congress ; 
 
 Exclusive legisia- To exercise exclusive legislation in all 
 
 tion over seat of it*/ 
 
 government. cases whatsoever, over such district (not 
 exceeding ten miles square) as may by 
 cession of particular States, and the ac- 
 ceptance of Congress, become the seat of 
 the government of the United States, and 
 to exercise like authority over all places 
 purchased bj^ the consent of the legisla- 
 ture of the State in which the same shall 
 
 And over forts, ar- be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
 
 Bcnas, doc-s, c * arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful 
 buildings; and 
 
 To make all laws which shall be neces- 
 
 To make general sary and proper for carrying into execution 
 
 laws to carry pov- ■■ - x . ^ 
 
 en into effect, the ioregomg powers, and all other powers 
 vested by this Constitution m the Govern- 
 ment of the United States, or in any de- 
 partment or officer thereof, 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 327 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 The migration or importation of such importation of 
 
 n i o • • slaves allowed 
 
 persons as any of the btates now existing tmisus. 
 shall think proper to admit, shall not be 
 prohibited by the Congress prior to the 
 year one thousand eight hundred and 
 eight ; but a tax or duty may be imposed 
 on such importation, not exceeding ten 
 dollars for each person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas cor- Habeas corpus. 
 pus shall not be suspended, unless when 
 in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
 safety may require it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law Attainder and ex 
 
 x post facto la wi 
 
 shall be passed. 
 
 No capitation or other direct tax shall Direct taxes, 
 be laid unless in proportion to the census 
 or enumeration herein before directed to 
 be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles No exportation 
 exported from any State. 
 
 No preference shall be given by any commerce 
 
 t . . n , between th* 
 
 regulation of commerce or revenue to the states. 
 ports of one State over those of another ; 
 nor shall vessels bound to or from one 
 State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
 duties in another. 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the Money, how 
 
 ■ -, .. . n . drawn from the 
 
 treasury, but m consequence of appropri- treasury, 
 ations made by law ; and a regular state- 
 ment and account of the receipts and ex- 
 
328 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 To be published, penditures of all public money shall be 
 published from time to time. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted by 
 the United States : and no person holding 
 any office of profit or trust under them, 
 shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
 accept of any present, emolument, office 
 or title, of any kind whatever, from any 
 king, prince, or foreign state. 
 
 No nobility. 
 
 Foreign presents 
 and titles. 
 
 Powers denied tc 
 the States. 
 
 Other powers de- 
 nied to States. 
 
 Further denial of 
 T>owers to States. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 No State shall enter into any treaty, 
 alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of 
 marque and reprisal; coin money; emit 
 bills of credit ; make any thing but gold 
 and silver coin a tender in payment of 
 debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post 
 facto law, or law impairing the obligation 
 of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 No State shall, without the consent of 
 the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on 
 imports or exports, except what may be 
 absolutely necessary for executing its in- 
 spection laws ; and the net produce of all 
 duties and imposts, laid by any State on 
 imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
 the Treasury of the United States; and 
 all such laws shall be subject to the re- 
 vision and control of the Congress. 
 
 No State shall, without the consent of 
 Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep 
 troops or ships of war in time of peace, 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 329 
 
 enter into any agreement or compact with 
 another State, or with a foreign power, or 
 engage in war, unless actually invaded, 
 or in such imminent danger as will not 
 admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The Executive power shall be vested President of the 
 in a President of the United States of 
 America. He shall hold his office during 
 the term of four years, and together with 
 the Vice President, chosen for the same 
 term, be elected as follows : 
 
 Each State shall appoint, in such man- Electors, how 
 ner as the legislature thereof may direct, appom 
 a number of electors, equal to the whole 
 number of Senators and Eepresentatives 
 to which the State may be entitled in the 
 Congress ; but no Senator or Eepresenta- 
 tive, or person holding an office af trust 
 or profit under the United States, shall be 
 appointed an elector. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respect- Electors to meet 
 ive States, and vote by ballot for two per- sident -md yica 
 
 Presic^t. 
 
 sons, of whom one at least shall not be 
 a,n inhabitant of the same State with them- 
 selves. And they shall make a list of all 
 the persons voted for, and of the number 
 of votes for each ; which list they shall 
 sign and certify, and transmit sealed to 
 the seat of the government of the United 
 
330 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 States, directed to the President of the 
 Their? otas count- Senate. The President of the Senate shall, 
 
 ed in Congress. . 
 
 m the presence of the Senate and House 
 of Representatives, open all the certificates, 
 and the votes shall then be counted. The 
 person having the greatest number of votes 
 shall be the President, if such number be 
 a majority of the whole number of elect 
 ors appointed ; and if there be more than 
 one who have such majority, and have an 
 Ea >resentatives to equal number of votes, then the House of 
 
 ch< ose, if electors * . . 
 
 fan Kepresentatives shall immediately choose, 
 
 by ballot, one of them for President ; and 
 if no person have a majority, then from 
 the five highest on the list the said House 
 shall in like manner choose the President. 
 
 Votes by states. But in choosing the President, the votes 
 shall be taken by States, the representa- 
 tion from each State having one vote ; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a 
 member or members from two-thirds of 
 the States, and a majority of all the States 
 
 vice President, shall be necessary to a choice. In every 
 case, after the choice of a President, the 
 person having the greatest number of 
 votes of the electors shall be the Vice 
 President. But if there should remain 
 two or more who have equal votes, the 
 Senate shall choose from them by ballot 
 the Vice President.* 
 
 * This clause of the Constitution has been amended. 
 See twelfth article of the amendments, page 2 9 ft. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 331 
 
 The Congress may determine the time Election and meet- 
 of choosing the electors, and the day on 
 which they shall give their votes ; which 
 day shall be the same throughout the 
 United States. 
 
 No person except a natural -born citizen, Qualification of 
 
 President. 
 
 or a citizen of the United States at the 
 time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
 shall be eligible to the office of President ; 
 neither shall any person be eligible to 
 that office who shall not have attained to 
 the age of thirty-five years, and been 
 fourteen years a resident within the United 
 States. 
 
 In case of the removal of the President Removal, death, 
 
 n nr o i • i 1 1 • ■ • **h of President 
 
 from omce, or of his death, resignation, or 
 inability to discharge the powers and du- 
 ties of the said office, the same shall de- 
 volve on the Vice President, and the Con- 
 gress may by law provide for the case of 
 removal, death, resignation, or inability, 
 both of the President and Vice President, 
 declaring what officer shall act as Presi- 
 dent, and such officer shall act accordingly, 
 until the disability be removed or a Presi- 
 dent shall be elected. 
 
 The President shall, at stated times, compensation of 
 receive for his services a compensation 
 which shall neither be increased nor 
 diminished during the period for which 
 he shall have been elected, and he shall 
 kot receive within that period any other 
 
 President. 
 
332 CONSTITUTION 
 
 emolument from the United States, or any 
 of them. 
 
 Before lie enter on the execution of iris 
 office, lie shall take the following oath or 
 affirmation : 
 
 Oath. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
 
 will faithfully execute the office of Presi- 
 dent of the United States; and will, to 
 the best of my ability, preserve, protect, 
 and defend the Constitution of the United 
 States." 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Powers and duties The President shall be commander-in- 
 chief of the army and navy of the United 
 States, and of the militia of the several 
 States when called into the actual service 
 of the United States ; he may require the 
 opinion, in writing, of the principal officer 
 in each of the executive departments, upon 
 any subject relating to the duties of their 
 respective offices ; and he shall have power 
 to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses 
 against the United States, except in cases 
 of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate, to make 
 treaties, provided two -thirds of the Sena- 
 tors present concur ; and he shall nomi- 
 nate, and, by and with the advice and 
 
 Appointment of consent of the Senate, shall appoint am- 
 
 public officers. .. 1 tl 1 n . . . ■, 
 
 bassadors, other public ministers and con* 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 333 
 
 suls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all 
 other officers of the United States whose 
 appointments are not herein otherwise 
 provided for, and which shall be estab- 
 lished by law ; but the Congress may by 
 law vest the appointment of such inferior 
 officers as they think proper, in the Presi- 
 dent alone, in the courts of law, or in the 
 heads of departments. 
 
 The President shall have power to fill Vacancies in 
 up all vacancies that may happen during 
 the recess of the Senate, by granting 
 commissions which shall expire at the 
 end of their next session, 
 
 section in. 
 
 He shall from time to time give to the Further po^°,rs 
 Congress information of the state of the PrUdeil 
 Union, and recommend to their considera- 
 tion such measures as he shall judge 
 necessary and expedient; he may, on 
 extraordinary occasions, convene both 
 houses, or either of them, and in case of 
 disagreement between them with respect 
 to the time of adjournment, he may ad- 
 journ them to such time as he shall think 
 proper; he shall receive ambassadors and 
 other public ministers ; he shall take care 
 that the laws be faithfully executed, and 
 shall commission all the officers of the 
 United States, 
 
334 
 
 COKSTITUTION 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 impcarhment The President, Yice President, and all 
 
 civil officers of the United States, shall be 
 removed from office on impeachment for 
 and conviction of treason, bribery, or other 
 high, crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 Judiciary and ten 
 ura of judges. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States 
 shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and 
 in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
 from time to time ordain and establish. 
 The judges, both of the supreme and 
 inferior courts, shall hold their offices 
 during good behavior, and shall, at stated 
 times, receive for their services a compen- 
 sation, which shall not be diminished 
 during their coatinuance in office. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Powers of the 
 judiciary 
 
 The judicial power shall extend to all 
 cases, in law and equity, arising under this 
 Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
 and treaties made, or which shall be made, 
 under their authority ; to all cases affect- 
 ing ambassadors, other public ministers 
 and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and 
 maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to 
 w T hich the United States shall be a party ; to 
 controversies between two or more States ; 
 between a State and citizens of another 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 335 
 
 State ; between citizens of different States; 
 between citizens of the same State claiming 
 lands under grants of different States ; and 
 between a State, or the citizens thereof, 
 and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other Jurisdiction oftiw 
 
 , n . . . , K " , , , . Supreme Court 
 
 public ministers, and consuls, and those m 
 which a State shall be a part}', the Supreme 
 Court shall have original jurisdiction. In 
 all the other cases before mentioned, the 
 Supreme Court shall have appellate juris- 
 diction, both as to law and fact, with such 
 executions and under such regulations as 
 the Congress shall make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases Trials by jury, 
 of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and 
 such trial shall be held in the State where And where held, 
 the said crimes shall have been commit- 
 ted ; but when not committed within any 
 State, the trial shall be at such place or 
 places as the Congress may by law have 
 directed. 
 
 SECTIOX III. 
 
 Treason against the United States shall Treason, 
 consist only in levying war against them, 
 or in adhering to their enemies, giving 
 them aid and comfort. No person shall 
 be convicted of treason unless on the tes- 
 timony of two witnesses to the same overt 
 act, or on confession in open court. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to de- 
 clare the punishment of treason ; but no 
 
336 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 No corruption of attainder of treason shall work corruption 
 of blood or forfeiture, except during the 
 life of the person attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Acts of States 
 accredited. 
 
 Full faith and credit shall he given m 
 each State to the public acts, records, and 
 judicial proceeding of every other State. 
 And the Congress may, by general laws, 
 prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
 records, and proceedings shall be proved, 
 and the effect thereof. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Privileges of citi- 
 zenship. 
 
 Fugitives from 
 iustice to be de- 
 livered up. 
 
 Fugitive slaves to 
 be delivered up. 
 
 The citizens of each State shall be en- 
 titled to all privileges and immunities of 
 citizens in the several States. 
 
 A person charged in any State with 
 treason, felony, or other crime, who shall 
 flee from justice, and be found in another 
 State, shall, on demand of the Executive 
 authority of the State from which he 
 fled, be delivered up, to be removed to 
 the State having jurisdiction of the 
 crime. 
 
 No person held to service or labor in 
 one State, under the laws thereof, escaping 
 into another, shall, in consequence of any 
 law or regulation therein, be discharged 
 from such service or labor, but shall be 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 337 
 
 delivered up on claim of the party to 
 whom such service or labor may be due. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 New States may be admitted by the New state* 
 Congress into this Union; but no new 
 State shall be formed or erected within 
 the j urisdiction of any other State ; nor any 
 State be formed by the junction of two or 
 more States, or parts of States, without 
 the consent of the legislatures of the 
 States concerned, as well as of the Con- 
 gress. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to dis- Territory and 
 pose of and make all needful rules and the united states, 
 regulations respecting the territory or 
 other property belonging to the United 
 States; and nothing in this Constitution 
 shall be so construed as to prejudice any 
 claims of the United States, or of any 
 particular State. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 The United States shall guaranty to Republican form 
 
 . . ° * of government 
 
 every State m this Union a republican 
 form of government, and shall protect Protection of 
 each of them against invasion, and, on 
 application of the legislature, or of the 
 Executive (when the legislature can not be 
 convened), against domestic violence. 
 
 15 
 
338 
 
 CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 Amendments of 
 this Constitution. 
 
 The Congress, whenever two-thirds of 
 both houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
 propose amendments to this Constitution, 
 or, on the application of the legislatures 
 of two-thirds of the several States, shall 
 call a convention for proposing amend- 
 ments, which, in either case, shall be valid 
 to all intents and purposes, as part of this 
 Constitution, when ratified by the legis- 
 latures of three-fourths of the several 
 States, or by conventions in three-fourths 
 thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
 ratification may be proposed by the Con- 
 gress ; provided that no amendment which 
 may be made prior to the year one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and eight, shall in any 
 manner affect the first and fourth clauses 
 in the ninth section of the first article; 
 and that no State, without its consent 
 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
 in the Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 Debts of former 
 government rec- 
 ognized. 
 
 All debts contracted and engagements 
 entered into before the adoption of -tlrs 
 Constitution, shall be as valid against the 
 United States under this Constitution, as 
 under the confederation. 
 
OF THE DOTTED STATES. 339 
 
 This Constitution, and the laws of the what constitutes 
 
 7 . the bupi erne law. 
 
 United States which shall be made in pur- 
 suance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
 which shall he made, under the authority 
 of the United States, shall be the supreme 
 law of the land; and the judges in every 
 State shall be bound thereb} T , any thing 
 in the Constitution or laws of any State 
 to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 The Senators and Representatives before Oath of public 
 
 1 o Ulcers. 
 
 mentioned, and the members of the sev- 
 eral State legislatures, and all executive 
 and judicial officers, both of the United 
 States and of the several States, shall be 
 bound by oath or affirmation to support 
 this Constitution; but no religious test No religious to* 
 shall ever be required as a qualification 
 to any office or public trust under the 
 United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of BctmcatiaiL 
 nine States, shall be sufficient for the 
 establishment of this Constitution between 
 the States so ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in convention, by the unanimous 
 consent of the States present, the sev- 
 enteenth day of September, in the year 
 of our Lord one thousand seven hun- 
 dred and eighty-seven, and of the In 
 
340 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 dependence of the United States of 
 America the twelfth. In witness where- 
 of, we have hereunto subscribed our 
 names. 
 
 GEO: WASHINGTON, 
 
 President, and Deputy from Virginia. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Johr. Langdon, 
 Nicholas Gilman. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Nathaniel Gorham, 
 Rufus King. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 GTeorge Read, 
 Gunning Bedford, jun., 
 John Dickinson, 
 Richard Bassett, 
 Jacob Broom. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 "William Samuel Johnson, James McHenry, 
 
 Roger Sherman. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 "William Livingston, 
 David Brearley, 
 "William Paterson, 
 Jonathan Dayton. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 B. Franklin, 
 Thomas Mifflin, 
 Robert Morris, 
 George Glymer, 
 Thomas Fitzsimons, 
 Jared Ingersoll, 
 James Wilson, 
 Gouv. Morris. 
 
 Dan of St. Thomas Jenifer, 
 Daniel Carroll. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 John Blair, 
 
 James Madison, jun. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 "William Blount, 
 Rich'd Dobbs Spaight, 
 Hu. Williamson. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 J. Rutledge, 
 
 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 
 
 Charles Pinckney, 
 
 Pierce Butler. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 William Few, 
 Abr. Baldwin. 
 
 Attest- "WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary* 
 
ARTICLES ADDITIONAL TO, AM) A3IEXDATORY OF. THE 
 
 coxsirrrnox of the dited states. 
 
 The fifth article of the original Constitution of the 
 United States runs thus : 
 
 •• The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses 
 shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to 
 this constitution, or. on the application of the Legis- 
 latures of two thirds of the several States, shall call 
 a convention for proposing amendments, which, in 
 either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, 
 as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legis- 
 latures of three fourths of the several States, or by 
 conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the 
 other mode of ratification may be proposed by the 
 Congress; provided that no amendment which may 
 be made prior to the year one thousand eight hun- 
 dred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first 
 and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first 
 article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall 
 be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate." 
 
 Pursuant to the provisions of this fifth article, the 
 following amendments, after being duly proposed by 
 Congress, and ratified by the requisite number of the 
 Legislatures of the several States, became a part of the 
 Constitution of the United Statea Of the twelve 
 articles thus added, the first ten were finally adopted 
 in the year 1791, the eleventh in 1798, and the twelfth 
 in 1804. 
 
AMENDMENTS. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- 
 ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
 thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the 
 press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assem- 
 ble, and to petition the government for a redress of 
 grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 A well regulated militia being necessary to the 
 security of a free State, the right of the people to 
 keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in 
 any house without the consent of the owner, nor in 
 time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their per- 
 sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable 
 searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no 
 warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup 
 
AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 343 
 
 ported bj r oath or affirmation, and particularly describ- 
 ing the place to be searched, and the persons or things 
 to be seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or 
 otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or 
 indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in 
 the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in 
 actual service in time of war or public danger; nor 
 shall any j erson be subject for the same offense to be 
 twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be 
 compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against 
 himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, 
 without due process of law ; nor shall private property 
 be taken for public use without just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy 
 the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial 
 jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall 
 have been committed, which district shall have been 
 previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of 
 the nature and cause of the accusation; to be con* 
 fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have com- 
 pulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 In suits at common law, where the value in contro 
 versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by 
 jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jurv 
 
344 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the 
 United States, than according to the rules of the com- 
 mon law. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive 
 fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments in- 
 flicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain 
 rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage 
 others retained by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by 
 the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are 
 reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not 
 be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, 
 commenced or prosecuted against one of the United 
 States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or 
 subjects of any foreign State. 
 
 ARTICLE XII. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, 
 and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, 
 one of whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
 same State with themselves ; they shall name in their 
 ballots the person voted for as President, and in dis- 
 
AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 345 
 
 tiiict ballots the person voted for as Vice President ; 
 and tb'ey shall make distinct lists of all persons voted 
 for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice 
 President, and of the number of votes for each ; which 
 lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to 
 the seat of the government of the United States, 
 directed to the President of the Senate. The Presi- 
 dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate 
 and House of Eepresentatives, open all the certificates, 
 and the votes shall then be counted ; the person hav- 
 ing the greatest number of votes for President shall be 
 the President, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person 
 have such majority, then from the persons having the 
 highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of 
 those voted for as President, the House of Eepresenta- 
 tives shall choose immediately by ballot the Presi- 
 dent. But in choosing the President, the votes shall 
 be taken by States, the representation from each State 
 having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall con- 
 sist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
 States, and a majority of all the States shall be neces- 
 sary to a choice. And if the House of Eepresentatives 
 shall not choose a President, whenever the right of 
 choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day 
 of March next following, then the Vice President shall 
 act as President, as in the case of the death, or other 
 constitutional disability of the President. 
 
 The person having the greatest number of votes as 
 Vice President shall be the Vice President, if such 
 number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
 appointed; and if no person have a majority, then 
 
 15* 
 
346 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate 
 shall choose the Vice President; a quorum for the 
 purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole num- 
 ber of Senators, and a majority of the whole number 
 shall be necessary to a choice. But no person consti- 
 tutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
 eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acts of a deliberative assembly, what properly constitutes the. . S6 
 Adapts, John Qaiocy, his commendation of Cicero's advice to his 
 
 SOD 18 
 
 Addition, or union of propositions, how effected.. 144 
 
 Adjournment, motions for, almost always in order 123 
 
 wheD. however, not so 123 
 
 motion for, takes precedence of all other motions. . 123 
 
 when susceptible of amendment 124 
 
 sine die, difference between, and a motion simply 
 
 to adjourn , 124 
 
 must be formally declare! by the president 124 
 
 its effect on a pending- proposition 125 
 
 Am of the present work, rath ; '-• 5 
 
 Amendment of a propositi on. in what ways usually made 136 
 
 of an amendment to an amendment ins Le.... 136 
 
 to what has already been agreed toj not allowable. . 137 
 may be made by adding, separating, or transposing 
 
 propositions 142. 143 
 
 inconsistent with those already agreed to, not admis- 
 sible 140 
 
 deemed inconsistent, not. however, to be suppressed 
 
 by the presidei , 140 
 
 motion for, what is the proper object of 135 
 
 may be so made as U alter or pervert a proposition 
 
 entirely . . ^. 135 
 
 rules to prevent the improper use of motions for.. . . 136 
 
 motions for, proper form of 14), 141 
 
 motion for. its rank among privileged questions 141 
 
 motions for. order in which they must be put 136 
 
 proposed in the report of a committee, how treated. 161 
 
348 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ancients, as compared with the moderns, question concerning, 
 
 with references 244 
 
 Andre, Major, questions concerning, with references 243 
 
 Appeal from the decision of the chair, how made 149 
 
 motions on, debatable 150 
 
 Architect, every man the, of his own fortune, question about, with 
 
 references 245 
 
 Arguments, how to be arranged 74, 75 
 
 Aristotle, Macaulay's estimate of his Organum 46 
 
 Assembly, a deliberative, what is 83 
 
 importance of knowing how to figure in. ... .15, 16, 65, 66 
 variety of interests involved in the transactions of.. .15, 83 
 
 officers necessary in 83 
 
 a dignified spectacle 64 
 
 disorderly member of, how to be treated 272 
 
 Ballot, what is a 88 
 
 Banks, question concerning, with references 242 
 
 Begging the question, what it is 76 
 
 Being, the Supreme, questions concerning, with references 239 
 
 Blanks, mode of filling 144, 145 
 
 rule in Jefferson's Manual concerning 145 
 
 Book, this, assumes the office of the Roman father 10 
 
 Burden of proof, what it is 73 
 
 Burke, Edmund, his opinion of Fox, as a debater 58 
 
 his constant attention to style 23 
 
 his failure sometimes in conciseness 71 
 
 Business, mode of commencing in a deliberative body 101, 102 
 
 order of, often fixed by rule, and the use of such order. 155 
 
 when all finished, what is to be done by the president. 164 
 
 By-Laws, meaning and derivation of the term 60 
 
 Call for a public meeting should state clearly its objects 96 
 
 Canning, his solicitude about expression 23 
 
 Chairman, what is a 84 
 
 Charles the First, question concerning, with references 246, 
 
 Cicero, his directions for suiting the tastes of an audience 18 
 
 his mode of practicing the art of composition 39 
 
 Circle, arguing in a, what it is 77 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 349 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Classical Studies, question of, with references 237 
 
 Clay, Henry, sought improvement in a Debating Society 58 
 
 his own account of his practice in speaking 68 
 
 Coleridge, his view of method in statement 72 
 
 Commit, motion to, when employed 133 
 
 may be amended variously 134 
 
 its rank among privileged questions 134 
 
 effect of an affirmative decision of 134 
 
 Committee, what is a, and its advantages 103 
 
 select and standing, difference between 104 
 
 what persons should not be on a 104, 105 
 
 mode of fixing the number to serve on a, and of select- 
 ing them 105 
 
 how notified of their appointment 106 
 
 may organize in their own way 106 
 
 member first named for, usually made chairman 106 
 
 duty of the person first named on a 106 
 
 their time and place of meeting subject to the direc- 
 tion of the assembly 107 
 
 can not act by separate consultation 107 
 
 reason why they should not sit during the session of 
 
 the assembly 106, 107 
 
 number of members necessary to form a quorum in. . 108 
 
 subjects usually referred to 108 
 
 subjects, either in whole or in part, may be referred 
 
 to a 103- 
 
 must follow strictly the instructions of the assembly. . . 1 04 
 
 papers, how treated in a 110 
 
 can not alter the subject referred to them Ill 
 
 when wholly opposed to a paper referred to them, 
 
 must report it back to the assembly ." Ill 
 
 can not interline or mark over a paper not originating 
 
 with themselves Ill 
 
 disorderly words in, how treated 109 
 
 their report, mode of presenting 158 
 
 report of a, should conclude with a resolution 109 
 
 report of a minority of a 112 
 
 Committee of the Whole, what is a, and the advantages of 113 
 
 mode of resolving the assembly into. . 113 
 
350 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Committee of the Whole, chairman of, how appointed 113, 114 
 
 clerk, or secretary of, how appointed. 115 
 number necessary to form a quorum in 13 5 
 president of the assembly should al- 
 ways be present in 115 
 
 course to be pursued when there is not 
 
 a quorum present in 115 
 
 modes of proceeding in, not essentially 
 
 unlike those in the assembly itself. 116 
 mode of proceeding when it is necessary 
 
 to have more than one session 117 
 
 proceedings in, not recorded in the 
 
 journal 115 
 
 difference between a, and the assembly 
 
 itself 117, 118 
 
 course pursued by, when the business 
 
 is finished ; 117 
 
 form observed when they rise and re- 
 port 117, 118 
 
 Communications, how introduced into a deliberative body 157 
 
 Complaint against a member for using disorderly words, when to 
 
 be made 170 
 
 Congress, one of the reasons why their sessions commence so late 
 
 in the day -. ? 108 
 
 Constitution and by-laws, discussion concerning, useful 60, 61 
 
 form of a 289 
 
 of the United States , 317 
 
 Convention, the Hartford, question concerning, with references . . 246 
 
 Country and city life, debate concerning 200 
 
 Credulity and suspicion, debate in outline concerning 227 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver, question concerning, with references 240 
 
 Crusades, debate in outline concerning ... 223 
 
 Curran, awkwardness of his first attempts at oratory 57 
 
 his extraordinary success as a debater 57 
 
 CusniNG, L. S., his summary of the elements of parliamentary law 1 1 
 
 Debate, proper meaning of the word 7 
 
 brings all assumption to the test of logic 8 
 
 order of . 165, &c 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 351 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Debate, when the president may take part in 165 
 
 members eDgaged in, must address the presiding officer. 168 
 members engaged in, not to designate one another by name 1 68 
 digressions from the subject of, not to be indulged in. . . 169 
 
 courtesies required in 169 
 
 members personally concerned in the subject of, not to be 
 
 present during 169 
 
 disorderly or abusive words in, how to be treated, 169, 170,- &c. 
 
 Debater, what is a good. 13 
 
 importance of becoming a good 15, 16 
 
 should be accounted an upright man 16 
 
 should have natural gifts, but well cultivated 16 
 
 must have full control of himself 17 
 
 must seek the good-will of his audience 17 
 
 should be quick to discern the character of his audience 18 
 
 should be a man of very general intelligence 20 
 
 should aim at simplicity, clearness, and earnestness. . . 22 
 
 should be free from what is studied and artificial 23 
 
 should not be solicitous about mere manner and gesture 22, 23 
 
 should be familiar with parliamentary rules.. . . , 25 
 
 should be a good extemporaneous speaker 26 
 
 should not be a servile imitator 12 
 
 Debates, in full. . , 174, 200 
 
 in outline 216 
 
 Debating, art of, ought to be a branch of scholastic education... . 67 
 
 Debating Societies, debate in outline concerning 42, 221 
 
 Decisions of a deliberative body, how expressed 86 
 
 of a presiding officer, on questions of order, when ques- 
 tioned, how settled 92 
 
 Deliberative eloquence, what is 13, 14, 15 
 
 occasions for the use of 14, 53 
 
 assemblies, number and variety in this country. . . 14, 53 
 
 Demonstrative eloquence, what is 13 
 
 Demosthenes, his careful preparations and the taunt of Ins rival, 
 
 Pythias 32 
 
 his power as an extemporaneous speaker 32, 33 
 
 Dickinson, John, his draft of a petition to the king 63 
 
 Discussion, derivation and full meaning of the word 69 
 
352 GENEKAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGS 
 
 Discussion, its advantages under the forms and rules of an organ- 
 ized society 51, 52 
 
 may be renewed on a question, even after the voting 
 
 upon it has been commenced 95 
 
 Disorder in a deliberative body, how to be treated 172 
 
 Disputation, logical, a noble art 45 
 
 rests on a scientific basis 46 
 
 Division of the house, when and how made 93 
 
 in case of a difficulty during, what is to be done 95 
 
 of a question, what is meant by 142 
 
 . of a question, advantages of 143 
 
 of a question, subject to the same rules as a motion to 
 
 amend 143 
 
 of a question, can not be demanded by individual mem- 
 bers as a right 143 
 
 Education, female, question of, with references 241 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen, question concerning, with references 245 
 
 Emulation in schools, debate in outline concerning 218 
 
 Error, her shifts and expedients 9 
 
 Erskine, Lord, his first speech in the House of Commons 30 
 
 Evil, real and imaginary, debate in outline concerning 225 
 
 Exordium, what it should be 81 
 
 Exposition in debate, should be clear, concise, and methodical. . . 70 
 Extemporaneous speaking, two errors concerning 29 
 
 causes of failure in 30, 31 
 
 power of, possessed in greater or less degree by 
 all 32 
 
 not to be discouraged, because some persons 
 make an ill use of it 32, 33 
 
 precepts for acquiring skill in 36, 37, cfec. 
 
 Feudal System, question concerning, with references 2S8 
 
 Flatterer and the Slanderer, debate concerning 174 
 
 Floor, when a speaker has the, he can not be refused a hearing.. 166 
 
 when disputed, mode of deciding the matter 166 
 
 when yielded voluntarily, can not be claimed again, as a right 168 
 a member in possession of, not to be interupted, except by 
 
 a call to order 166 
 
GENERAL IXDEX. 353 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Forms of Government, question concerning, with references 238 
 
 Fox, Charles, his custom in the House of Commons 58 
 
 Genius, question concerning, with references 244 
 
 Geology, question concerning, with references. 238 
 
 Gloze, derivation of the word 188 
 
 Goethe, his view of the source of true eloquence 28 
 
 Gorgias Leontinus, his confidence in training, as a means of pro- 
 ducing fluent speakers 32 
 
 honor conferred upon him by all Greece. ... 33 
 
 Henry, Patrick, his early fondness for debate 59 
 
 his deficiency, when called upon to reduce his views to 
 
 writing 62 
 
 Hiptias the Wise, his proposal to Socrates and Protagoras 49 
 
 Homer and Milton, question concerning, with references 241 
 
 Independence, Declaration of 300 
 
 Introducing business, mode of 101, 102 
 
 petitions, or other communications, mode of. lot 
 
 Jay, Mr., his address to the people of Great Britain 63 
 
 Jews, restoration of, question concerning, with references 241 
 
 Journal and other records, by whom to be kept 99, 100 
 
 Judicial eloquence, what is 13, 14 
 
 Junius, question concerning, with references 243 
 
 Law, parliamentary, what is, and the use of 84, 85 
 
 Lee, Richard Henry, his failure in the details of business 62 
 
 Lie on the Table, motion to, when employed 125 
 
 motion to, its rank among privileged questions 125 
 motion to, can neither be debated nor amended 126 
 effect of a motion to, when carried, on a pend- 
 ing proposition 126 
 
 Logic, as a science, not to be neglected 47 
 
 Lying, debate in outline concerning 226 
 
 Macaulay, his estimate of Chatham as a debater 26 
 
 his estimate of the Organum of Aristotle 46 
 
354 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mackintosh, Sir James, his remark on the style of Butler's Anal- 
 ogy- 23 
 
 Main, or principal question, what is the 119 
 
 Majority and plurality, difference between 89, 90 
 
 Mansfield, Lord, his obligations to a debating society 57 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots, question of her execution, with references 210 
 
 Member, rights and duties of a . 100 
 
 not to be interrupted, when speaking, except by a call 
 
 to order 186 
 
 can not be refused a hearing, when fairly in possession 
 
 of the floor 166 
 
 when using disorderly words, how to be treated 1*72 
 
 should address the presiding officer, when speaking. . . . 168 
 
 when it is in order for him to speak on a question 165 
 
 Milton, his estimate of the power of truth 7 
 
 Minority, report of 112 
 
 Minutes of a meeting need not, if correct, be approved by a for- 
 mal vote 156 
 
 mode of correcting, when in error 156 
 
 Miser and the spendthrift, debate in outline concerning 229 
 
 Moderator of a meeting, what is the 84 
 
 Motion and resolution, difference between 87, 88 
 
 why and when called a question 92 
 
 when necessary to be in writing 91 
 
 when duly seconded and stated from the chair, becomes 
 
 the property of the assembly 135, 152 
 
 to second, what is meant by 86 
 
 when it is in order to speak on 165 
 
 once before an assembly, can not be superseded, except 
 
 by a privileged question 
 
 Mythology, question concerning, with references 238 
 
 Name, member alluded to, not to be addressed by, in debate 168 
 
 of a member rising to speak to be called by the president. 168 
 
 Napoleon, question of his banishment, with references 237 
 
 Negroes, question concerning, with references 2-15 
 
 Observations, introductory 7 
 
 Officer, the presiding, various titles of 84 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 355 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Officers, necessary in a deliberative assembly 84 
 
 mode of selecting 97 
 
 their several duties 98, 99, <fcc. 
 
 Opinion, ill-founded, its prevalence 8,9 
 
 Orator, the deliberative, qualifications of , . 15, 16, cfcc. 
 
 the perfect, the rarest of characters 41 
 
 Order, rules of, all business to be transacted according to a 84 
 
 special advantages of 84, 85 
 
 essentially the same in all deliberative bodies 85, 86 
 
 special and general 86 
 
 questions of, what are, and how determined 149 
 
 a call to, does not necessarily hinder a member from finish- 
 ing his speech 16 7 
 
 decisions of questions of, by the chair, may be appealed 
 
 from 1 49 
 
 motions on questions of, their effect 150 
 
 Orders of the Day, what is meant by 115 
 
 course pursued, when no particular hour is 
 
 named for them 146 
 
 course pursued, when several orders are ap- 
 pointed for the same day 146 
 
 course pursued, when the motion for is nega- 
 tived 147 
 
 rank of a motion for, among privileged ques- i 
 
 tions 146 
 
 motion for, not to be made while a member 
 
 is speaking 147 
 
 fate of a proposition superseded by a motion 
 
 for the 147 
 
 when not acted upon at the appointed time, 
 
 what becomes of them .-. 148 
 
 may be formally discharged 148 
 
 Ordered, voted and resolved, how used , 91 
 
 Organized meeting, what is an 83 
 
 Organizing a meeting, mode of 96 
 
 temporarily, mode of 97 
 
 Papers, or communications, how introduced into a deliberative as- 
 sembly 157 
 
356 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Papers, member introducing, must be responsible for propriety of 157 
 not to be presented by persons not belonging to the as- 
 sembly 157 
 
 motions for the reading, when necessary 150 
 
 disposition to be made of them, when received 158 
 
 and other documents, by whom to be kept 100 
 
 when consisting of several propositions, how disposed of 
 
 in the assembly 165 
 
 Parasite, derivation of the word 198 
 
 Parliamentary Law, common code of, what is the 84 
 
 Party spirit, debate in outline concerning 219 
 
 Peace, universal, debate in outline concerning 217 
 
 Pericles, his anxiety about his public speeches 32 
 
 Peroration, what it should be 81 
 
 Petitio Principii, what is a 76 
 
 Phrenology, question concerning, with references 239 
 
 Pliny the Younger, his account of the way the young Romans 
 
 learned how to conduct in the Senate 10 
 
 his views respecting the means of influencing the judgments 
 
 of men 20 
 
 Plurality and majority, difference between 89, 90 
 
 Poets, question concerning, with references , 239 
 
 Pole, North, question concerning, with references 243 
 
 PosTroNE, motion to, object of 131 
 
 how it may be amended 132 
 
 its rank among privileged questions 131 
 
 effect on a pending proposition 131, 132 
 
 Postpone Indefinitely, motion to, its aim. 132 
 
 generally held to be incapable of debate 
 
 or amendment , 132 
 
 effect on a pending proposition 132 
 
 Preamble, when proper to be acted upon 164 
 
 form of a, for a society 290 
 
 Presiding Officer, various titles of 84 
 
 his duties 98 
 
 entitled to be first heard on questions of order 165 
 
 when he may take part in debate 165 
 
 can not of himself suppress an amendment on 
 the ground of inconsistency 140 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 357 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Presiding Officer, what is to be done when his decisions are 
 
 questioned 92 
 
 must give the casting vote 93 
 
 Press, question concerning, with references 236 
 
 Previous Question, what is the 126 
 
 origin and design of the 126 
 
 original form and effect 127 
 
 present form and effect in England 127, 128 
 
 effect of an affirmative decision of the, in this 
 
 countiy 12S 
 
 effect of a negative decision of it, in this countiy 128 
 
 why often called the " gag-law " 129 
 
 can be used in the U. S. H. of Representatives 
 
 only when demanded by a majority ISO 
 
 ought to be under some restriction 130 
 
 its rank among privileged questions 130 
 
 can neither be amended nor debated 131 
 
 can not be used in committee of the whole. . 116 
 
 Privilege, questions of, what are 148 
 
 rank of, among privileged questions 148 
 
 fate of propositions superseded by 149 
 
 Privileged Questions, what are 119 
 
 uses of 119, 120 
 
 list of 121 
 
 have certain privileges among themselves 122 
 
 rules of Congress concerning 123 
 
 Proof, burden of 73 
 
 Protagoras, his dispute with Socrates 49 
 
 Punishment, capital, question of, with references 240 
 
 Puritans, question concerning, with references 246 
 
 Question, due management of a, what it presupposes.. , 69, 70 
 
 general directions for the discussion of 71, 72, £c. 
 
 Questions, propositions, why and when so called 92 
 
 form observed in submitting 92 
 
 mode of taking, by yeas and nays 93 
 
 always open to discussion, until taken both in the af- 
 firmative and the negative 95 
 
 privileged, what are 119 
 
35S GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Questions, with references to authorities 236 
 
 miscellaneous, for discussion 247 
 
 Quinctilian, his direction for suiting the tastes of an audience. . . 19 
 his opinions of the value of practice in speaking. ... 41 
 
 Quorum, origin and meaning of the term 102 
 
 effect of a want of, in deliberative bodies 96 
 
 what constitutes a, in committees 108 
 
 in committee of the whole 115 
 
 Reading of papers, when to be called for 151 
 
 not generally objected to in deliberative bodies 151 
 
 Reconsider, motion to, what is, and why necessary 153 
 
 how restricted 154 
 
 effect of an affirmative decision of 154 
 
 is a privileged question 154 
 
 is debatable 154 
 
 Refutation, observations and directions concerning 76 
 
 place for 79 
 
 Report of a committee, how introduced 157 
 
 motion to receive not necessary, unless objection is made 157 
 
 when received, how disposed of 157 
 
 effect of a motion to accept or adopt, when carried 159 
 
 accepting and adopting, difference between 159 
 
 mode of proceeding with, in the assembly 160, 161 
 
 mode of proceeding, when one is not made 162 
 
 subject of a, may be re-committed 161 
 
 of a minority, how to be regarded 112 
 
 of a minority, proper time for presenting 161 
 
 time and mode of calling for 157 
 
 whether it may be amended by the assembly 158 
 
 the reading of, rendered unnecessary by printing 158 
 
 Resolutions and motions, difference between 87 
 
 in case of a series of, how disposed of in the assembly 166 
 
 Reviews, critical, question concerning, with references 239 
 
 Romulus, question concerning, with references 246 
 
 Roman father, how he taught his son the rules of order in the Sen- 
 ate 10 
 
 Rules, suspension of ... . . 106> 107 
 
GENERAL IXDEX. 359 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Second a motion, what is meant by 87 
 
 Secretary, recording, duties of 99 
 
 corresponding, duties of 100 
 
 Sexes, the, question concerning, with references 241 
 
 Sheridan, his first speech in the House of Commons 33 
 
 his resolution to succeed, as a debater 33 
 
 his example worthy of imitation 33, 34 
 
 his choice and arrangement of words 23 
 
 Socialism:, question concerning, with references. 244 
 
 Societies, secret, question concerning, with references 242 
 
 debating, their utility 42 
 
 debate in outline concerning 221 
 
 Socrates, his dispute with Protagoras 49 
 
 Socratic Method of reasoning, what it is 48 
 
 its advantages 48,50 
 
 not the best, as a discipline 48. 49 
 
 its evils 50, 51 
 
 Slanderer and the Flatterer, debate concerning 179 
 
 Sine Die, adjourning, what is meant by 124 
 
 Speaker of the House 84 
 
 SrEAKiNG, all public, divisible into three kinds 13 
 
 extemporaneous, two errors concerning 29 
 
 extemporaneous, precepts for the practice of 36-41 
 
 Spectres, question of. with references 237 
 
 Spendthrift and the miser, debate in outline concerning 229 
 
 Style, importance of. 23 
 
 Subjects, one only at a time to be under deliberation in an assem- 
 bly 166 
 
 Suspension of rules, motion for, when necessary 152 
 
 number of votes necessary to authorize a 153 
 
 Suspicion and credulity, debate in outline concerning 227 
 
 Theatre, debate in outline concerning 231 
 
 Town and country, debate concerning 200 
 
 Trade, free, question concerning, with references 24 2 
 
 Transposition of the parts of a proposition 144 
 
 Treasurer, duties of 100 
 
 Trojan war, question concerning, with references 244 
 
360 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vice-President, duties of 99 
 
 Vote and ballot, difference between 88 
 
 the casting, when to be given 93 
 
 every member should give his 93 
 
 Voting, members in some assemblies, excused from 93 
 
 War, question of, with references 237 
 
 Webster, Daniel, his mode of recalling the question in dispute.. . 18 
 
 his clearness in exposition 71 
 
 Whatelt, Archbishop, his views on delivery 24 
 
 Whewell, his views on the study of Logic 46 
 
 Whole, committee of the, what is a 113 
 
 Wirt, William, his fine retort upon Wickham 82 
 
 Withdrawal of motions, motions for, when to be made 152 
 
 Woodfall, his opinion of Sheridan's first effort in the House of 
 
 Commons S3 
 
 Wo^ds, unusual, to be avoided 72 
 
 Writing, makes an accurate man 35 
 
 not, however, always the sign of accuracy 34, 35 
 
 fictitious, question concerning, with references 236 
 
 Yeas and Nays, taking the question by, what is meant by 93 
 
 modes of taking the 94