Class S^45^hor gitin, shallozi' disli, tuiiiblers, niarbies, fine seeds, sugar, hot and cold zvater. DIRECTIONS 1. Dissolve a bit of camphor gum in a small bot- tle of alcohol ; pour a small part of this solution into a shallow dish and leave initil the alcohol has evap- orated. Observe that the camphor remains in the dish. We say the camphor has been dissolved, and explain this by supposing" the camphor has been sep- arated into particles too small to be seen, and that these tiny particles fit in between the particles of al- cohol. Illustrate this by filling" a glass with marbles ; then pour small shot or fine seeds into the spaces between the marbles. By this .we may understand also that water is porous. 2. Use two glasses ; put some hot water into one, and cold water into the other. Into each glass put the^same amount of sugar, stir rapidly, and notice that the sugar disappears first in the hot water. In the hot water the particles are farther apart, hence it has more pore space and can take up the sugar faster. Evaporate the water in one of the glasses to dryness and recover the dissolved sugar. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 21 3. You will observe that a teakettle in which water is boiled usually becomes coated inside with a whitish or brownish deposit. Water contains cer- tain amounts of mineral matter in solution, and when the water is evaporated from the kettle the mineral matter remains behind just as in the experi- ment with the camphor and sugar. Facts. — Plants, unlike animals, cannot use solid food ; it must be dissolved. Water dissolves plant food from the soil grains and carries it in solution to the various parts of the plant. This mineral mat- ter in solution which is taken from the soil consti- tutes the ash of plants. EXERCISE 13 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF AIR UPON PLANT GROWTH time: from APRIL UNTIL OCTOBER Object: To find how decreasing the amount of air by excessive amounts of water affects the growth of plants. Material needed: Five tumblers, seeds, soil, scales. DIRECTIONS Fill five tumblers almost full of rich soil and plant the same number of seeds in each. To the first add one-half teaspoonful of water each day; double the amount for each succeeding tumbler. After three Aveeks there should be a vast difiference in the ap- pearance of the yoimg plants. Which plant seems to have done the best? Did the plant receiving the least amount of water suffer? If so, why? W^eigh the soil which seemed to have the right amount of water, dry thoroughly in a stove and weigh the dry soil. Calculate the per cent, of water. Saturate with water the same soil used above ; weigh, dry in a stove, and weigh again. Calculate the per cent, of water in the saturated soil. Com- pare the water-holding capacity of the soil with amount of water for best jrrowth. EXERCISE 14 PLANTS RESISTANT TO DROUTH time: during warm weather Object: To find some plants little affected by drouth. Material needed: Potted cactus, hoxiselcek, begonia, squash or cucumber. DIRECTIONS 1. For this exercise select the following plants: Prickly pear cactus. Houseleek. Begonia. Squash or cucumber. 2. Let the plants be growing in pots and well rooted. ^Vater the four plants and set them in a warm, sunny place. Observe every 24 hours, and when any plant begins to wilt, water and remove it. Keep a record of the time required for each plant to begin to wilt. QUESTIONS 1. Why do some plants wilt sooner than others? 2. Do you think this is due in any way to the structure of the leaves? 3. What kind of soil or exposure is natural to each of the plants used in this exercise? EXERCISE 15 THE EFFECT OF COLD ON PLANTS time: during freezing weather Object: To determine the effect of cold on plants. Material needed: Plant in pot, snozv, potatoes, can. DIRECTIONS 1. Place a pot plant in a cool place and apply snow to the soil in the pot for two or three days ; use care so as not to allow the plant to freeze. Let the pot stand in a pan to catch the water formed by the melting of the snow. Why do the leaves wilt? 2. Expose some potatoes to the cold until they are frozen ; divide in two lots, and place one lot in a can of water chilled by ice. Keep them in the can tmtil the water reaches the temperature of the room. This should take several hours. Place the second kit near the fire so the potatoes may thaw quickly. Observe any dififercnces in the appearance of the two lots. 3. Sprinkle some frosted plants with cold water and cover to protect them from the rays of the sim. Later, compare the treated with the untreated plants. Facts. — In freezing, the cells are ruptured and the sap oozes out into the tissues ; when the plant is thawed out slowly, the cells have time to re-absorb the sap. If the plant is thawed quickly, the sap can- RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 25 not be taken np and the plant will die ; then, too, if the thawing is done qnickly the disorganized proto- jilasni cannot readjust itself. Cold prevents the formation of chlorophyll or green coloring matter in the leaves, checks respira- tion, or the breathing process of plants, ruptures the cells, and produces chemical changes in the proto- plasm of the cells. The most familiar change is the conversion of starch into sugar. EXERCISE 16 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC iMATTER time: during the winter Object: To show that hay contains both organic and inorganic matter. Material needed: Dry hay, shovel, piece of wire. DIRECTIONS Place some very dry hay in a shovel and heat on top of a good bed of coals. After a few minutes, if the contents are still black, break up the pieces with a wire and continue to heat until the charred re- mains become gray. The organic matter has now passed into the air, while the inorganic matter is left behind in the form of ash. The ash is mineral mat- ter which the plant has taken from the soil. The ash of plants contains the following ingredi- ents : potash 2 to 8 per cent. ; phosphoric acid i to 2 per cent. ; and lime 30 to 35 per cent. EXERCISE 17 MODES OF DISSEMINATING SEEDS time: fall or spring term Object: To classify plants according to their mode of disseminating seeds. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS Make a list of plants and place them in the col- umns below according to their means of disseminat- inof their seed. Water Mechanical Contrivances Artificial Means EXERCISE 18 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS time: whenever convenient Object: To classify plants of your section according to De CandoUe's classification. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS De Candolle classifies the species of plants as shown below, also giving number of each. Find the number of plants of each group in your community and fill in the blanks in the following table : y^, ./- .. c c ■ No. in No. in your Classification of Species ^^^,j ^^^^.^^ Cultivated for the underground parts ^2 Cultivated for the stems or leaves 65 Cultivated for the flowers or iheir envel- opes 4 Cultivated for their fruits 77 Cultivated for their seeds 64 Cryptogam cultivated for whole plant i Write a list of each class. EXERCISE 19 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS AS ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS time: whenever convenient Object: To classify plants with respect to their duration of life. Material needed : Paper and pencil. Annuals are herbs which spring from seed, blossom, mature their fruit and seed, and then die, root and all, the first season. They are fibrous rooted. Biennials grow the first season without blos- soming, usually store up food in their roots, blossom and seed the following season, and then die com- pletely. Perennials live and blossom year after year. DIRECTIONS From a list of plants furnished by the instructor, fill in blank columns below according to duration of life. Annuals Perennials EXERCISE 20 NATURE'S PLANTING OF SEEDS time: when germination begins in the spring Object: To determine Nature's depth and rate of plant- ing seeds. Material needed : Fk'e shallow pans or boxes. DIRECTIONS 1. Select a spot of ground which has not been dis- turbed for one season. Mark off a space 12 inches square and from this remove a layer of soil, i inch deep, and place in a shallow pan or box. Repeat the process until \^ou have removed six layers of soil to a depth of 6 inches. Care must be taken so that the surrounding- soil shall not fall into the excavation while the soil is being removed. 2. Label the pans and put in a warm place. Keep moist and wait for the seeds to germinate. As the seedlings appear above the ground, pull them up and keep a record of the number. 3. Mark off another square by the side of the first one, and count the number of seedlings that appear. Watch from time to time and count the number that die. QUESTIONS I. Which layer of soil contained the greatest num- ber of seedlings? RURAL SCHOOL AORTCULTURE 3I 2. Why did a minil)er of seedlings die? 3. How many of the young plants could you identify? 4. Go into a forest and note all evidences of a struggle for existence among the trees and plants growing there. 5. Is the struggle greatest between plants of the same kind, or between those of different kinds? EXERCISE 21 NUMBER OF SKICDS TRODUCED BY PLANTS time: WIIKNKVER CONVENIENT Object: To study the productiveness of plants. Material luwiai: Paf^cr atid pencil. DIRECTIONS 1. The followino- (lata are given in Kerner's Nat- ural History of I'Uvits: a. An average hedge mnstani i^lant (Sisyinhritiin sopliia) yields 730.000 seeds. b. Meahane (l:rii:;croii caiiadciisc) yields T20,ooo seeds. c. Shepherd's purse {Capsclla biirsa-pastoris) yields ()4,ooo seeds. (/. Plantain (Plaiifai:;o iiiajor) yields 14.000 seeds. c. Henhane {Hyoscyaunis "'.i^t''') yielils 10,000 seeds. 2. Starting- with one plant of each of the species mentioned, and supposing each seed to ripen and grow, how many seeds would be produced each year up to and including the fifth? Allowing 40 jilants to the scpiare yard, at this rate of j^roduction how k»ng woukl it take each species to cover the State? EXERCISE 22 VALUE OF BIRDS TO THE FARMER time: whenever convenient Object: To learn whether it pays to protect the birds. Material iwi'dcd: Paper and pencil. Facts. — Insects feed on the yonnt:^ and tender foli- ag'c of growin,!^ plants, l)ut no i)art of the plant is entirely free from them — some insects attack the seed, others the fniit, stem, or roots, liirds prey largely npon injurious insects. Not only do they de- stroy great numbers of insects, but they eat great quantities of weed-seeds as well. The State of Illinois loses annually $20,000,000 by the ravages of insects. This means about 56 cents an acre. DIRECTIONS Suppose the damage done b\' insects in your State is 50 cents an acre, what would be the damage for the entire State? Sup])ose tliere are four birds to the acre, how many would there be in the State? If each l)ir(l eats 20 insects a day (a fair estimate), how niain' insects would be destroyed during the months of June, Jul}-, and .\ugust? Su])pose one half of the birds in the State should eat one fourth of an ounce of seed each day for three months, how many ])ounds of wced-seetls would be destroyed? EXERCISE 23 ROTATION OF CROPS time: whenever convenient Object: To learn the best system of rotation for your section, and compare this system with the one practiced on the farm at home. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS The system of rotation given below is the one practiced by the North Carolina Agricultural Col- lege. Study it carefully and give reasons for each crop's position in the table. Construct a table show- ing the system of rotation as practiced on your home farm, and let it be discussed before the class. Con- trast your system with the one given below. \\' hat farmer in vour comnuinitv has the best svstem? First Year Second Year Third Year Summer Winter Siinuner Winter Summer Winter Corn Crimson clover Cotton Uheai Co%v peas Rye /or pasture QUESTIONS I. What crops might be substituted in the system abov? ? RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 35 2. What crops are nitrogen gatherers? 3. What crops furnish forage for live stock? 4. What crops on account of their tillage bring about weed destruction? 5. What crops would be considered ready-money crops ? EXERCISE 24 FIELD STUDY OF CEREALS time: summkr and fall Object: To make a comparison of the five great cereals. Material iiccdcil: J'iclds. paf'cr and pcitcil. DIRECTIONS Sliul}- in llio field a number of stalks each of corn, wheat, oats. rye. and barley and tabulate your re- sults as follows : is 1- O u on :2;S d J; 5- d = < « u ^ 1^ o o Corn Wheal Oats Rye Barley EXERCISE 25 STAND OF CLOVER time: spring term Object: To find why some farmers fail to get a good "catch" of clover. Material needed: Garden rake, clover seed, scythe. DIRECTIONS Lay out two small plots on a piece of ground which has l)een previously seeded to wheat or oats. Durinc^ the latter part of March seed each plot to clover. When the oats are just heading', cut them from one plot, and leave the other plot unmolested. The second plot may be harvested when the grain is ripe. Observe late in the fall to see which plot of clover has withstood the dry weather better. Facts. — The majority of farmers sow clover in fields which have already been seeded to wheat or oats. The result is, if there is a drought during the following summer, a great number of young clover plants die for lack of water. The large amount of water needed to ripen the grain depletes the water in the soil, so that the young plants suffer. It takes about 325 pounds of water to ripen one pound of grain, so in cutting the oats before they ripen, we help the clover plants through the summer. EXERCISE 26 SEEDING ALFALFA time: fall or spring term Object: To learn how to seed alfalfa. Material needed: Flozv, liarrozv. subsoil plow, alfalfa seed, manure, inoculating material. DIRECTIONS 1. Select a well drained loam soil on the home farm. It should have a good subsoil. Turn, sub- soil, and harrow until the soil is thoroughly pulver- ized. Much depends upon getting a good seed bed. 2. Apply a good coating of stable manure and har- row until it is well incorporated with the soil. You cannot succeed with alfalfa if your soil is acid. Ex- ercise 59 gives instructions for testing the acidity of soils. If you find the soil is acid, you can neutral- ize it by an application of lime. 3. You may sow the seed either in the fall or in the spring. Fall seeding is better, provided it is done early enough for the young plants to get a good start before freezing weather. Being bothered with troublesome weeds is the greatest objection to seed- ing in the spring. 4. If seeded in the fall, sow about the first week in October in the South ; in September in the north- ern States. Sow at the rate of 20 pounds an acre. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 39 5. On most soils of the South inoculation is neces- sary. Find if it is necessary in your section. Write to the United States Department of Agriculture for inoculating material. Instructions are sent with each package. Another method of inoculating is to secure soil from a field where alfalfa thrives well and broad- cast it over the field, either before or after it is seeded. From one to three bushels of soil is sufficient. EXERCISE 27 HARROWS time: fall or spring term Object: To find the number of harrows in the com- munity, the kind of harrows, and the purpose for which they are used. Material needed: Paper and pencil. FIG. 4 — COMMON HARROW FIG. 5 — SPRING-TOOTH HARROW RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 4I FIG. 6 — DISK HARROW EXPLANATION There are three classes of harrows : T. Those that press or fine the soil — common har- rows or drags. 2. Those that lift and tear the soil — spring-tooth harrows. 3. Those that slice the soil in action — disk har- rows. DIRECTIONS Make a list of all the farmers in your community who possess harrows, and name the class to which each harrow belongs. Let each student write an essay on the use of the harrow. EXERCISE 28 CUTTING POTATOES FOR PLANTING time: march or april Object: To learn whether the number of eyes or the size of the pieces affects the yield of potatoes. Material needed: Hoe, knife, potatoes. DIRECTIONS In the school garden, or at home, lay out six rows of equal length and equal distance apart. Use one row only for each size. The following sizes or meth- ods of cutting may be used : 1. Whole potatoes. 2. Halves. 3. Quarters. 4. Two eyes. 5. One eye. 6. Peelings. Harvest the potatoes, weigh, note the number of large potatoes and tabulate the results as follows : Whole Potatoes H.->lves Quarters Two Eyes One Eye Peelings P3 !; ►J S 1- 6j= rt 0-^ PQ a (a V rt ►J s 1^ '^ 3 03 MS « ^1 V « 2 1- EXERCISE 29 HILLING POTATOES time: spring and summer Object: To determine whether ridge cultivation or level culture should be practiced in growing potatoes. Material needed: Potatoes, hoe, plozv. DIRECTIONS Ask the students to plant the potatoes at home. Divide the patch into two parts. Cultivate one part level just as corn is cultivated, but hill up the other half. At digging time note any difference in the yield. QUESTIONS 1. Which gives the greater yield? 2. How do you account for the difference? 3. Which method requires more labor? 4. Which part loses more moisture? Why? EXERCISE 30 A COMPARISON OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF YOUR STATE WITH THOSE OF OTHER STATES time: fall or spring term Object: To learn whether the products of farms of this State compare favorably with the products of other States. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS Take your data from the Year-book of the United States Department of Agriculture (1905) and con- struct graphic charts, using chart below as a model. Compare the following products : 1. Corn : acreage, production, and value of crop. 2. Cotton: acreage, production, and value of crop. 3. Wheat: acreage, production, and value of crop. 4. Oats : acreage, production, and value of crop. 5. Hay: acreage, production, and value of crop. 1. Horses: number, value, and average price per head. 2. Mules : number, value, and average price per head. 3. Milch cows : number, value, and average price per head. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 45 4. Sheep : nunil^er, value, and average price per head. 5. Hogs : number, value, and average price per head. YIELD OF CORN PER ACRE Iowa Illinois Virginia Alabama South Atlantic States. . ig.2 12.8 EXERCISE 31 CROP SUMMARY time: fall and spring terms Object: To teach students how to keep a complete record of crops and the management of fields. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS Use the form g-iven below, and let each student keep a complete record of one or more fields on the farm at home. Make an effort to secure the coopera- tion of the patrons in this work. This should l)e a means of inducing the farmers to keep, year by year, a record of the production of each field. Impress upon students the importance of being exact in keep- ing records. Name County District P. O. Crop Season. . . .Previous Crop. . . .Kind of Soil. . . .No. of Acres. SOIL PREPARATION Date of plowing. Implement used. Depth plowed. . . Cost of plowing. Date of cultivation Implement used Cost of preparing seed bed. Condition of land when seeded RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CROP SEEDING AND CULTIVATION HARVEST AND YIELD 47 Date of seeding Cost of fertilizer Rate of seeding Cost of seed Date of germination Dates of cultivation Kind of fertilizer Implement used Cost of cultivation Am't of fertilizer an acre. . . . Date of harvest Time from seeding to har- vest Cost of harvest ... Total cost of crop Total cost an acre Drilled or not drilled Rust Smut Quality of grain ( Grain Yield \ ( Fodder ( Grain Yield an acre -j ( Fodder If cotton, pounds an acre. Stand of crop Height of crop EXERCISE 32 AN INVENTORY time: whenever convenient Object: To learn how to make an inventory of property on the home farm. Material needed: Paper and pencil . DIRECTIONS I. Let each student make a list of the real and personal property, with values, owned by his parents. Use the following as a model : INVENTORY OF MAPLE GROVE FARM. JANUARY I, I907 Assets 300 acres land, with buildings $6,000 5 head of horses 750 12 cows 360 15 steers 45° 20 sheep 50 25 hogs 150 Poultry 50 Farm machinery 600 Oats, 200 bushels 80 Wheat, 300 bushels 240 Corn, 500 bushels 250 Cotton, 10 bales 500 Corn stover 175 Household furniture 275 Hay, 25 tons 120 $10,050 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 49 Liabilities Mortgage on farm $1,500 Personal accounts 250 Outstanding notes 350 $2,100 Net capital $7,950 2. Have students make another inventory one year hence for comparison. EXERCISE 33 MEANS OF STUDYING ROOT GROWTH timk: DURiNc (;k()vvin(; weather Object: To learn a method by which we may study the growth of roots. Material needed: Nail ke}:^ or barrel, graz'cl, seeds, knife, box with glass side. DIRECTIONS 1. In an ordinary nail kci; bore four or fiv^c holes in the hottoni to provide j^ood drainaj^e. Next i)Ut in a ^^^-inch layer of L;ra\el and sink the ke.i;- almost to the top in the ground. I'"ill with rieh soil mixed with sand, i'lant seeds and lea\e for li\'e or six weeks nn(k'r held eonditions. Remoxe the barrel, tear away the sta\es and wash all the soil from the roots. ( )bserve how the roots are distributed through the soil. Separate all the roots, both lar<:^c and small, and lind the total leni^th of the roots. 2. Construct a box with one side of i^^lass ; fill with sand and plant seeds down by the side of the t^^lass. Kee[) the qlass covered so as to have darkness, and keep the sand moist. Examine the growth of the roots daily. 3. riant seeds at various depths and notice their behavior. EXERCISE 34 FORMS OF ROOTS time: fall ok spring term Object: To study the different forms of roots. Material needed: Paper and pencil. FIG. 7 FIG. 9 TAP ROOT OF FIG. 8 — FIBROUS ROOT OF RASPBERRY FLESHY ROOT OF ALFALFA PARSNIP 52 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE FIG. 10 — AIR ROOTS OF POISON IVY RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 53 FIG. 1 1 — BRACE ROOTS OF CORN 54 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE DIRECTIONS 1. Yon will observe by the cuts in this exercise that plants have various kinds of roots. Study these forms carefully and see if you can think of any ad- vantages in each particular kind. 2. Make a list of plants and group them in the fol- lowing table, according to their form of root system : Tap Roots Fibrous Roots Brace Roots Air Roots Fleshy Roots QUESTIONS 1. Do air roots take in plant food? 2. What difference do you notice in the appear- ance of the roots of trees which have long been ex- posed to the air by the soil having been washed away ? 3. VVhv do some plants send their roots deep into the soil while others keep them near the surface? 4. Does the amount of plant food or moisture af- fect the depth to which plants send their roots in the soil? EXERCISE 35 DIRECTION OF GROWTH OF ROOTS time: when weather is vWarm Object: To learn the direction of root growth and the things which influence this direction. Material needed: Peas, soil, tumbler, small dish, three clothes-pins, mercury, zvooden box (12 x 10 x j inches), wire netting, sawdust, blotting paper. DIRECTIONS I. Place some peas which have germinated upon moist soil with the radicles (roots) pointing in differ- ent directions. Cover with a glass to prevent evap- ;;;"! I'!:ii;i:' FIG. 12 — SPROUTING BEANS oration and watch closely. Do the root-tips point downward? Do you think the tips of the roots drop downward by their own weight? 56 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 2. Fasten three clothes-pins to the side of a small dish, and pour into it some mercury. To each of the clothes-pins pin germinating peas and allow the tips of the roots to rest on the surface of the mercury. Pour on enough water partly to submerge the seeds. What direction do the tips of the roots take? Do they bend by their own weight? 3. Does light, moisture, air, warmth, or food in- fluence the direction of growth? Let us carry the experiment further. In a small box, not over 3 inches deep, having a bottom of wire netting and filled with damp sawdust to one half its depth, place some seeds which have just started to germinate and fill the box with sawdust of equal moisture with that in the bottom of the box. Now cover with blot- ting paper or cloth and keep moist. Hang up the box so the bottom can be observed. You will observe: (i) that air, light, and warmth, come mostly from below; (2) moisture is about equally abundant above and below ; (3) and the same amount of sawdust is above and under the seed. Now, why does the root grow downward? EXERCISE 36 ARTIFICIAL ROOT-HAIR time: fall or spring term Object: To represent by artificial means the manner in which root-hairs take in plant food. Material needed: Egg, vinegar, glass tube, sugar, tum- bler, thread. DIRECTIONS 1. Break a small hole in one end of an o^gg and pour out the contents ; soak the shell in weak acid or vinegar until the shell is dissolved. Insert a small glass tube into the membrane and tie firmly. 2. Now pour into the tube a thick sirup, made of sugar and water, until it rises a short distance above the membrane. Mark the height to which the sirup stands and submerge the membrane in a tumbler of water. What happens to the liquid in the tube? 3. Make a stronger sirup and submerge the mem- brane in it and note what happens to the fluid in the tube. Facts. — Root-hairs act in the same way as the membrane. This passage of water into the root- hairs or through the membrane is called osmosis. Strong solutions of salts as found in salt marshes, alkali soils, and peat l)ogs interfere with the absorp- tion of moisture by the root-hairs, and in some cases the water is even taken from the roots. 58 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE FIG. 13 DIAGRAM OF CORN STALK, SHOWING LOSS OF MOISTURE THROUGH LEAVES EXERCISE 37 TRANSPIRATION OF WATER BY PLANTS time: when corn is tasseling Object: To learn that plants absorb water and plant food through the stem, and lose water through the leaves. Material needed: Three zvide-nwuthed bottles, corn plants, red ink, zvhite iiowers. DIRECTIONS 1. Fill two wide-mouthed bottles with water and put two freshly cut corn plants of equal size in them. .With a sharp knife or pair of scissors cut off one half of the leaves of one stalk ; set aside and note the difference in the loss of water from the two bottles. 2. Prepare a third bottle in the same way, but have the water colored with red ink. What hap- pens to the stalk ? Try white flowers also and note what occurs. QUESTIONS 1. Do plants absorb moisture through the leaves? 2. Carry out an experiment which will demon- strate the answer to the first question. 3. Do plants use food in a solid state? 4. Why does the amount of water in streams and in wxlls someti^mes increase in the fall, even when there has not been rain? 5. Do you know of any means by which plants reduce transpiration? EXERCISE 38 SUNLIGHT AND LEAVES time: whex leaves are green Object: To determine the effect of sunlight on the green coloring matter of plants. Material needed: Board, cork, pins, plant in pot. DIRECTIONS Place a board on the green grass and let it re- main for ten days, then notice if a change has taken FIG. 14 — effect ok light OX GREEX LEAF place. How do you account for this change? Ex- amine the same spot again in a few days, the board having been left ofif. AMiat do you notice at this time ? RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 6l Fasten two thin, flat pieces of cork to a leaf, as shown in Fig. 14, and examine after a few days. How do you account for what you see then? Try the same experiment by pinning the cork to a leaf of a pot plant ; keep the plant in the dark. Do you get the same result in this case ? The green color of leaves is due to chlorophyll. Facts about Chlorophyll. — Chlorophyll is made up of tiny green grains whose work is to manufacture starch. These green grains can perform their work only while the sun is shining. It is for this reason that potato shoots grown in a dark cellar are always white. Chlorophyll, in the presence of sunlight, acts upon the absorbed carbon dioxide, thus producing a chemical change ; the carbon dioxide is broken up, the carbon is united with water, forming starch, while the oxygen in the carbon dioxide is given back to the air. EXERCISE 39 DECOMPOSITION OF CARBON DIOXIDE BY LEAVES time: during growing weather Object: To determine whether leaves decompose car- bon dioxide. Material needed: Cork, candle, shalloiv vessel, fruit- jars. DIRECTIONS Fasten a lighted candle to a flat piece of cork so it will float ; set it in a shallow vessel of water and invert a fruit-jar over it. If after a while the candle goes out, it indicates that some of the oxygen in the air above the water has been converted into water and carbon dioxide. FIG. 15 — experiment WITH OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE AIR RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 63 Withdraw the caiulle and cork l)y means of a string which must be attached to the cork before the jar is inverted over it. Make a hole through an- other piece of cork and slip the stalk of a green leaf through it. Lift the bottom of the inverted jar nearly to the surface of the water and introduce the leaf under the jar, using care so as not to admit any air. Remove the vessel containing the jar and water to a place in the sunshine. Leave in the sun for two days, and remove the leaf. Carefully lift the jar slightly above the surface of the water and introduce the lighted candle as before. If the can- dle does not immediately go out, it is a proof that some of the carbon dioxide has been decomposed, thus liberating some of the oxygen which supports combustion. EXERCISE 40 ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES time: spring term Object: To study the formation of rings in trees. Material needed: Knife, piece of fin, zvax. DIRECTIONS 1. Examine the end of a log which has been smoothly cut in two. Count from the center out- ward in three directions. Do you find the same number of rings in each count? Can you trace each ring all the way around the log? Find a knot on a small log or a large limb ; saw the log in two at the knot. Can you trace the rings all the way around? Where does the knot originate ? Are knots ever beneficial in lumber? Suppose the growth of trees is almost checked by a drouth during the summer and later the coming of rains causes them to begin growth again, would there be two rings formed that season? What would be the efifect upon the rings if the leaves are destroyed by insects and new leaves are put forth during the summer? Can we always tell the age of trees by the annual rings? 2. Select a stem i inch in diameter and cut through the bark three quarters the way around ; pull each end of the severed bark from the wood for the distance of i inch. Carefully lift the unsevered bark RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 65 from the wood and under it place a thin piece of tin, 2 inches wide, and long enough to reach com- pletely around the stem. When the tin is in place, put the bark down over it, tie firmly and cover with grafting wax so as to exclude the air. After 40 days the twine may be re- moved. In December cut away the bark cov- ering the tin. Do you find any wood between the tin and the bark ? 3. Make a list of plants which form annual rings. Is there any relation between those plants form- ing annual rings and either class of plants in Exer- cise 19? FIG. 16 CROSS-SECTION OF HARDWOOD LOG EXERCISE 41 GROWTH OF STEMS time: late in the spring Object: To learn the manner in which stems grow. Materia! needed: Apple brancJi, pots for growing twin- ing plants. DIRECTIONS I. Take from an apple tree a limb having- several branches, and find the ring-s which show the annual growths. These rings are clusters of bud scale scars formed by the terminal bud. What is the object of the terminal bud? Suppose you plant a tree having its fork 3 feet from the ground, how high will the fork be in 10 years? Which way do stems grow — b}' a stretching process or by the addition of material at the end? 2. Make a study of twining stems and ob- ser\e that some turn clockwise, while others turn counter-ck^kwise. Grow a number of twining plants in pots ; use sticks for support. 1'urn one pot over on its side so the plant will be in a horizontal position. Does this affect the twining? Use supports of different sizes and note the effect. Place a glass rod in one pot for a support, and observe whether a plant j,,j^, J- can twine as well on a smooth support as on BUDS a rough one. Place one plant in the dark and p^j^^jj observe wdiether light affects the twining. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 67 3. Make a drawing- of an (Kik which you have seen growing' in a forest ; the same of one which has been growing in an open fickl for a long time. If you note a difference in form, how do you account for it? Is there such a thing as natural pruning? Would you top a timber tree? FIG. 18 — TWINING stems: MORNING-GLORY (lEFT) ; HOI' (RIGHT) 68 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 4. Select a young brier shoot or some rapidly growing plant ; make a mark a few inches from the tip early in the morning, measure late in the afternoon, and note 4he growth during the day ; find the growth during the night. Is the growth more rapid during the daytime or the night? EXERCISE 42 FORlAIS OF TREES time: fall or spring term Object: To study the two forms of trees. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS I. vStiidy the forms of trees in Fig. 19. Trees whose main stems are carried on in a direct line through their whole growth are called excurrent. This form is due to the development year after year FIG. ig — FORMS OF TREES. DIAGRAM OF SPRUCE (eXCURRENT) AT left; and peach (deliquescent) at right 70 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE of a terminal bud. The main shaft is never con- founded with the branches which proceed from it. Pines and firs arc good examples of this form. Those trees in which the terminal bud fails to take the lead regularly and whose trunks are lost in their branches are called deliquescent. The American elm is a good example of this type. 2. Make a list of each type of trees. QUESTIONS 1. Which type is cut for lumber? 2. To which form do most of our fruit trees be- long? 3. Which type is best for shade trees? EXERCISE 43 PARTS OF A FLOWER time: when flowers can ce obtained Object: To learn all the parts of a flower. Material needed: Floivers. DIRECTIONS Take for study a plnm, peach, or apple blossom. Remove the calyx or whorl of green leaves at the base of the flower. How many of these leaves did you remove? Each of these leaves is called a sepal. FIG. 20 — cross-section OF CHERRY FLOWER : a, SEPAL ; b, STAMEN ; C, PISTIL 72 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE There is a whorl of colored leaves just above the calyx ; call this the corolla, and each separate leaf a petal. Look just inside the petals for a number of thread-like parts with a knob at the top; these are the stamens. Now ex- amine one stamen closely (Fig. 21). The knob at the end is the anther, which bears the pollen. Open one of the anthers and observe the small yellow grains of pollen. The stalk of the stamen is the fila- ment. In the center of the flower is a stalk with an enlarged base. This is the pistil. Let us study the pistil separately (Fig. 22). You will observe it is made up of three parts : the enlargement at the top is the stigma, which receives the pollen from the anthers ; the middle portion is the style ; and the base is the ovary. Study a number of flowers of difTerent kinds with reference to the number of parts they contain, and tabulate your results as follows : FIG. 21 — TYPICAL STAMENS : a, anther; b, showing mode OF attachment; c, filament RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 73 Name of Flower No. Sepals No. Petals No. Stamens No. I'istils a d kig. 22 — various forms of pistils: a, cherry; h, wild geranium; c, st. john's-wort (compound pistil); d, ST. john's-wort EXERCISE 44 USES OF THE PARTS OF A FLOWER time: when flowers are blooming Object: To learn the uses of the parts of a flower. Material needed: Flowers in yard or Held. i DIRECTIONS I. 'To find the use of the calyx: For this experi- ment select large flowers, such as poppy, rose, etc. Begin when the buds are small and remove the calyx, taking care not to injure other parts of the flower. Treat about half a dozen buds and label them. Label some untreated buds to serve as a control. llow do the treated flowers develop? Since the calyx is green, does it perform the func- tion of a true leaf? 2. To find the use of the corolla: Cut away the corollas of flowers frequented by insects, and observe whether the insects cease their visits. Notice that small flowers are usually grouped in clusters; does this help to attract insects? h'ind some flowers with bright, showy colors, and watch for visits by insects. Are they frequent? 3. To find the use of stamens and pistils: Stamens of the corn plant are borne on the tassels, and the pistils arc the silks, l-'ind an isolated stalk lUTRAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 75 somewhere and remove the tassel just as it appears; examine when the silk is dead. Are there any kernels!^ Suppose you find a few scattered kernels on the cob, what does this prove? Tie a paper bag over an ear before the silk appears, so as to exclude all pollen, and examine later. What effects do you notice on the silks and the kernels? EXERCISE 45 FURTHER STUDY OF FLOWERS IN THEIR RELATION TO INSECTS time: WMKN Kl.OWKKS ARE lil.OOMINC. Object: To discover the part insects play in plant life. Material iwcdi'd: J 'lowers in the Held. DIRECTIONS 1. SUuly the llowcr of the wheat plant. Has it the same kinds of parts as other llcnvers? Are these llowers \isitiMl hy inseels? \\ ho ean find just the hour in whieh the wheat tlovver opens? 2. l^escrihe tlie llowers of ])ines, oaks, and net- tles. \\ hy do tliey produce an ahinulanee of pollen? Does corn produce more or less pollen relati\ely than wheat, and wliy? .V Are the llowers of t^rape and X'ir^inia creeper visited hy insects? Are the llowers conspicuous? Do they have an attractive odor? Draw some con- clusions from these ol)ser\ations. 4. C'oUect i?e\'eral kinds of lU)wers and endeavor to find the nectar, or honey. In what part of the ilower do v(M1 lind tlu> nectar?' \)o all llowers ha\e nectar? I)t)es the nectar henelit the llower? KDKAL SCHOOL ACiKICIJLTIJRR 'J'J QUESTIONS 1. Why arc the flowers hlooniinj^ late in the fall usually (lull in color? 2. Why (Iocs the honey-bee visit white clover, and the bumble bee red cUwer? 3. Would it be well to use the first cuttini^ iA clf^vcr f(jr seed? EXERCISE 46 PERFECT AND IxAIPERFECT STRAWBERRY BLOSSOMS time: when strawberries are in bloom Object: To learn how to distinguish between perfect and imperfect blossoms, and what variety will produce fruit without the aid of another variety. Material needed : Strazeberry blossoms, seed catalogue. DIRECTIONS Collect some strawberry blossoms for study. Try to find both perfect and imperfect flowers. The per- fect flowers bear both pistils and stamens ; the pis- tils are grouped in the center of the flower, while the stamens are located around these at the base of the petals. The pistils are pointed, but the stamens have a knol) on top. The imperfect flowers bear pistils only, and cannot produce fruit unless they are planted near a variety which has perfect flowers. It would be safe to set out a variety bearing im- perfect flowers, pro\'ided you set the third or fourth row each time with some variety bearing perfect flowers. Suppose you wish to know what varieties are perfect or imperfect, when getting' ready to order plants. Look in the catalogue where the varieties RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 79 are described, and you will see the letters "P" and "S." "P" means the variety has imperfect flowers; FIG. 23 — STRAWBERRY BLOSSOMS: 0, PERFECT OR STAMINATE; b, IMPERFECT OR PISTILLATE pistils but no stamens. "S" means staminate ; the variety bears perfect fiowers. EXERCISE 47 ROSE CUTTINGS time: fall term, just before frost Object: To learn how to make rose cuttings, and have rose bushes for the home or school grounds. Material needed: Knife, rose cuttings, spade, iviiidozv pane. DIRECTIONS I. Take a number of cuttings from rose bushes, using stems of one year's growth. Cut the stems into pieces of about 6 inches long, and remove at least half the leaves on each cutting. Make a slant- ing cut, y2 inch long, at the base of each, so there will be more surface for the roots to form. 2. The size of the excava- tion for these cuttings will depend upon the number to be started, and the size of the glass with which it must be covered. Suppose the glass is I2xi6 inches, then dig the hole just large enough to be barely covered by the glass. Let the hole be i8 inches deep. Put into ROSE CUTTING TAKING root ^li^ ^lols a layer of soil, 6 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 8l inches deep ; over this put a layer of 5 inches of sand. 3. Set the cutting* 3 inches deep in the sand, and press the sand firmly about them. Put the glass in place, press down firmly and cover the edges of the glass with soil so as to exclude the air. Make a small trench around it to turn the water away. 4, Why do florists keep bulbs, after potting them, the cuttings and pot them, or set them in the soil. EXERCISE 48 LIGHT AND GERMINATION time: spring term Object: To determine whether light affects germination. Material needed: Gerniinatioii boxes or plates of sand, corn. DIRECTIONS 1. Take two germination boxes, two flower pots, or two plates of sand. In each plant loo kernels of corn ; place tips downward. 2. Place one box in the dark ; one in the li^"ht. Let the temperature be as nearly alike as possible. Examine daily and record your results as follows : - =1 ^1 =1 In light In dark QUESTIONS 1. Does light affect germination? 2. Name all the conditions for germination. 3. We have dormant buds. Are there dormant seeds? 4. Why do florists keep bulbs, after potting them, in the dark for several weeks before bringing them into the light? EXERCISE 49 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS AFFECT GERMINATION time: during growing weather Object: To determine the effect of soils upon germina- tion, and to observe the effect of working soils when too wet. Material needed: Three plates, clay soil, humus, sand, seeds. DIRECTIONS 1. Fill a plate with some clay soil ; apply water, and puddle. Attempt to do this with a plate con- taining humus and another containing sand. What differences do you see? 2. Plant the same number of seeds in each plate and notice the results. 3. Add sand to the clay and attempt to puddle; plant seeds and note the results. These experi- ments illustrate why soils should not be worked when too wet. EXERCISE 50 AGE AFFECTS GERMINATION time: wiiknkvf.u convenient Object: To determine whether old seed should be planted. Material needed: Geruiimition boxes, old seeds. DIRECTIONS Let the pupils bring- some very old seeds of dif- ferent kinds from their homes. Make germination tests and compare with a germination test of new seed. Study table given below : NUMBER OF YEARS THAT SEEDS RETAIN THEIR POWER TO GERMINATE I Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years 5 Years 6 Years lo Years Chervil Sea Kale Soy Bean Mop Corn Onion I.eek Parsley Pea Rhubarb Strawl)erry Carrot Lentils Mustard Tomato Muskmelon Kale Asparagus Cabbage Lettuce Turnip Spi.iach Bean Eggplant Watermelon Pumpkin Squash Cucumber Wheat Oats Flax Buckwheat Barley EXERCISE 51 GERMINATHJN TEST OF SEEDS time; kaij, ok si'ring term Object: To find the percentage of germination of vari- ous seeds, and make a comparison with the germination "standards." Material needed: Genninalion boxes, variety of seeds. DIRECTIONS 1. Make a germination test of different seeds, and place the percentage of germination in the blank column in the table below, so that a comparison can be made with the standards, which are also given in the same table. 2. For small seeds take sample with spoon here and there through the mass and mix thoroughly. In testing large seeds, use lOo ; small seeds, 200 to 300. 3. Allow from 10 to 20 days for the germination of grass seed ; and from 2 to 7 for cereals, clovers, ])eas, and vetches. The best temperature is from 65° to 75^ GERMINATION TABI.K Name of Seeds Beans Corn Alsike clover. . Orchard grass. Sunflower Tobacco liiickwhcat. . . . Red clover.... Millet Standard ^Germ. Name of Seed Oats Peas Sorghum 'I'urnip White clover. . Ky. blue grass. Pumpkin Timothy Wheat Standard 95 90 'JS 8S Sf 92 95 % Germ. 86 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Allowing for seed that will not germinate, how much to the acre of the tested seed should be used? Let the instructor give the usual rate of seeding an acre of the various seeds. EXERCISE 52 DEPTH AFFECTS GERMINATION time: whenever convenient Object: To show the effect of depth of planting upon germination and stand of crop. Material needed: Box and seeds. DIRECTIONS 1. Fill a box 8 inches deep, and 12 or more inches square, with good soil. Mark off rows in which to plant the seed. In the first row plant 12 seeds, i inch deep; in the second row, 12 seeds, 2 inches deep ; in the third row, 12 seeds, 4 inches deep ; in the fourth row, 12 seeds, 6 inches deep. 2. Use large, medium, and small seeds and keep results in table below. Kind of Seeds -0 H =1 =1 ^1 it ^1 =1 >> a rt = Q 2 Corn Wheat Mustard QUESTIONS 1. How does depth of planting affect germination? 2. Is there any relation between the depth of planting and the size of seeds? 3. Can the farmer always regulate the depth of planting? 4. How deep should corn be planted? Name some conditions which might cause us to vary the depth of planting. EXERCISE 53 CARBON DIOXIDE FORMED BY GERMINATING SEEDS time: whenever convenient Object: To determine whether the germinating seeds give back anything into the atmosphere. Material needed: Glass jar, com, lime ivatcr, two tum- blers, glass tube. DIRECTIONS Fill a fruit jar one-third full of sprouting' corn and place in it a small glass filled with lime water. Place another glass of lime water in a second jar and set beside the first. Cover both jars tightly. Leave for several hours and observe the difference in the appearance of the li([uid in the two glasses. Breathe into another glass of fresh lime water and note any change in its appearance. It w^ould be well to use a quill for this purpose. Lime water may l)e ])repared by stirring a small amount of fresh lime in clear water. Let stand until all the undissolved lime has settled to the bottom of the vessel, then pour off the clear liquid. Facts. — In the two cases above, the carbon dio.xide from the germinating seed and from the lungs unites with the calcium in the water, thus forming calcium carbonate, which gives the water its milky appear- ance. Ordinary limestone is calcium carbonate, and RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 89 when we burn it in making lime, wc simply drive off the carbon dioxide into the air. Animals in breathing give off carbon dioxide, while plants take it in through their leaves and use the carbon in the formation of starch. Carbon dioxide is often called carbonic acid gas. EXERCISE 54 THE RELATIVE VALUE OF LARGE AND SMALL SEED time: during growing weather Object: To find whether large or small seed should be planted. Material needed: Germination boxes, large and small seeds. DIRECTIONS Fill two flower pots or two boxes with rich soil. Plant 25 lar<^e seeds in one, and 25 small seeds in the other. Note any variation in the per cent, of ^germination. Examine from time to time, and record any differences you may observe. Be sure to have the two lots under like conditions. When watering', always apply the ^ame amount of water to each lot. At the end of three weeks make a record of the height of plants, size of stems, number of leaves, etc. QUESTIONS I. Does it make any difTerence in the health and vigor of a plant wdiether it is grown from a large and well developed seed or from a weak and puny one? RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 9I 2. Would you consider a farmer wise who mar- kets all his best grain and keeps only the inferior for seed? 3. What would be the ultimate result of repeated plantings made from the worst seed? Of repeated plantings of the best and most vigorous? EXERCISE 55 THE EFFECT OF FREEZING UPON THE GER- MINATION OF SEEDS time: during freezing weather Object: To determine whether moist or dry seeds are injured most by freezing. Material needed: Geriiii)iation box, seeds. DIRECTIONS 1. Soak two dozen seeds in water for two hours; remove from water, and when the surface of the seeds is dry, place one dozen out of doors for 24 hours, so that they may freeze.* Keep the other dozen indoors. 2. Soak another two dozen seeds for six hours, and treat as above. Germinate the four lots of seed separately and note the percentage of germination. Treatment 1. Soaked two hours, exposed. . 2. Soaked two hours, unexposed . 3. Soaked six hours, exposed. . . . 4. Soaked six hours, unexposed. Per cent, of Germination ♦This experiment could be performed during warm weather by placing seeds in a water-tight vessel, then packing chips of ice around the vessel. EXERCISE 56 FOOD FOR YOUNG PLANTS time: fall or spring term Object: To ascertain whether the germinating seed acquires new material from its surroundings from the beginning. Material needed: Germination boxes, seeds, scales. DIRECTIONS 1. Take about half a pound of dry corn, beans or peas ; divide into four lots and weigh each lot sep- arately- Arrange the lots for germination, using care to have them under the same conditions. 2. After 48 hours remove all the seeds from the first lot ; dry, weigh and compare weight with the original weight. 3. When the end of the germ first makes its ap- pearance in the second lot, remove, dry thoroughly and weigh. Compare weight with original weight. 4. Later, as the seeds sprout in the third lot, dry, and weigh as before. 5. Wait until the first leaves appear in the fourth lot, dry and weigh. QUESTIONS I. At what stage is the weight permanently in- creased ? 94 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 2. From what source does the plant obtain its first food ? 3. What is tlie per cent, of increase in weight in each stage? 4. When does the plant first begin to take food from the soil? From the air? EXERCISE 57 TYPES OF SOIL time: fall or spring term Object: To learn the different types of soils. Material needed: field zvork. DIRECTIONS Study the definitions of the types given below and go into the fields and collect small samples of each type. 1. Sandy soils contain large amounts of sand. 2. Clay soils include all those containing large amounts of clay, and may be known by their sticky character. A mixture of sand and clay forms loam. 3. Sandy loams contain considerably more sand than clay. 4. Clay loams contain considerably more clay than sand. 5. Humus soils contain large amounts of decaying organic matter. QUESTIONS 1. Which type of soil is the commonest in your locality? 2. Name some crops specially adapted to each class. 3. What type should you prefer to cultivate? Why ? EXERCISE 58 SAND, SILT, AND CLAY time: fall or spring term Object: To separate the sand, silt, and clay in soils. Material needed: Three fruit jars, clay soil. DIRECTIONS Fill a fruit jar three-fourths full of water and place in the water about two tablespoonfuls of pul- verized soil. Replace the cover and shake vigor- ousl}^ for several minutes. Let stand for a minute, and pour the muddy water into a second jar. The sediment remaining- in the first jar is composed al- most entirely of sand. Examine it carefully. Does it look more like sand than the original soil? When the second jar has been standing five min- utes, pour off the muddy water again into a third jar. Add more water to the sediment in the second jar, shake vigorously and let stand five minutes, then pour ofif the water as before. The sediment now remaining is largely silt, whose particles are finer than sand. Let the water in the third jar stand two hours or longer, then pour off the water. Now you have clay remaining. Note how fine the particles are. Facts. — It takes 23,000 grains of fine clay or 23 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 97 grains of fine gravel to span i inch. There are about 327,000 grains of coarse sand in a pound of earth, and 100 times as many grains of very fine sand. Soils that have the largest number of small soil grains generally possess the largest pore space. EXERCISE 59 ACIDITY OF SOILS time: string term Object: To show whether soils are acid, alkaline, or neutral. Material needed: Litmus paper, vinegar, soil. DIRECTIONS 1. Dip a piece of blue litmus ])aper in vinegar and' note the change of color. Moisten a piece of red lit- mus paper and press against some ashes and observe the color change. Dip both red and blue litmus paper in fresh water, and what is the result? Substances that turn blue litmus paper red are acid. Substances that turn red litnuis paper blue are alkaline. Substances that do not change the color of cither are neutral. 2. Moisten some ordinary soil and test with litmus paper. If the color does not change, it is neutral. Facts. — Soils should be neutral or slightly alka- line. Turning under large crops of green material has a tendency to make soils acid. Acid soils may be neutralized by the application of lime. EXERCISE 60 EFFECT OF ROLLING AND EXCESSIVE EVAP- ORATION ON SOIL TEMPERATURE time: spring term Object: To determine the effect of rolling and rapid evaporation on the temperature of the soil. Material needed: Bucket, roller, thermometer. DIRECTIONS 1. For this exercise select three small plots in a cultivated field, free from vegetation. Leave the first plot untreated; apply water to the second until it is thoroughly saturated ; roll the third plot. 2. Record the temperature for four days and tab- ulate the data as in Exercise 6i. QUESTIONS 1. Which of the three plots has the highest tem- perature for the different depths? 2. Did rolling affect the temperature of the soil? 3. Does rolling in any way affect the evaporation from the rolled surface? 4. How many farmers in your community use a roller? For what purpose do they use it? EXERCISE 61 CULTIVATrON AFFECTS THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL time: APRIL OR MAY Object: To show that deep cultivation, under most con- ditions, renders the soil cooler, and shallow cultivation warmer, than the uncultivated soil. Material needed: Tlieruiuiiicter, hoe or rake. DIRECTIONS 1. Prepare three adjoiniiiq- plots of ground; leave the first uneiiltixated ; cultivate the second to a depth oi lYi inches, and the third to a depth of 4 inches. 2. Take the temperature of each |)lot i]/>, 3, and 6 inches below the surface ; take air tenii)erature at the same time; repeat the readings for three days and tabulate the data as follows : u 3 Plot No. I Plot No. 2 Plot No. 3 Q 1.5 ill- 3 in. 6 in. i.S ill. 3 in. 6 in. 1.5 ill. 3 ill. 6 in . EXERCISE 62 INFLUENCE OF COLOR ON SOIL TEMPERATURE time: Al'RIL OR MAY Object: To learn whether the color of soils affects soil temperature. Material needed: Hoe, soot or pozvdercd charcoal, lime, therinoineter. DIRECTIONS Select tlirce cultivated ])l()ts, free from vegetation; leave the first untreated ; a]:»ply soot, charcoal, or some black material to the second until the surface is thorouj^-hly blackened ; cover the third plot with a drcssin<^ of lime. I'he plots need not be over 3 or 4 feet scjuare. Take hourly readings for lo hours, both on a clear and on a cloudy day, and tab- ulate the data as in Exercise 6i. QUESTIONS 1. How do the plots vary in temperature on a clear day? On a cloudy day? 2. To what is the color of the soils due? 3. Will organic matter in the soil affect its tem- perature ? EXERCISE 63 KINDS OF MOISTURE IN THE SOIL time: fall or spring term Object: To learn the three kinds of moisture in the soil. Material needed: Flozver pot, soil, pan, scales. DIRECTIONS 1. Nearly fill a flower pot with soil and apply water slowly until it trickles through the pot. Set the pot in a pan so as to catch the water that passes through it. This water passes through by the force of gravity and is called gravitational or free water. 2. When the water ceases to drip from the pot, transfer the soil to a wide, previously weighed pan; weigh and spread out thinly. Leave for several days where it will not be molested. When you think the soil is "air-dry" weigh again ; the loss in weight represents the weight of the second kind of mois- ture. This is called capillary moisture. Capillary moisture is held in the capillary spaces or pores of the soil and is not influenced by gravity, but may move in any direction, usually upward, or toward the drier soil. 3. The "air-dry" soil above contains the third kind of moisture. This we call hygroscopic mois- ture. It consists of a very thin film of moisture sur- RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE IO3 rounding each soil grain. It is not free to move about like capillary moisture, and can be removed only by heating the soil to the boiling point of water (212° F.), when it passes off as steam. QUESTIONS 1. What becomes of the water which falls upon the ground? 2. Can the farmer control the three kinds of mois- ture? 3. \Vhich kind would be affected by deep plow- ing? EXERCISE 64 SOIL WATER HOLDS PLANT FOOD timp:: whenevkk convkniknt Object: To show that well water holds plant food in solution, and rain water does not. Material needed: Rain water, zvell ivater, cotton, tzvo tumblers, seeds. DIRECTIONS 1. l)oil one lialf i^alloii each of rain water and well water until the volume is reduced one half. The rain water is boiled to drive off the gases absorbed from the air, and the well water to make stronger the mineral matter which it contains. 2. l*our a ])art of the rain water in a glass or a small, wide-mouthed bottle. Place upon the water a thin layer of cotton, and upon the cotton place six seeds which have already been germinated. Do like- wise with the well water. Place in the light in a warm room. QUESTIONS 1. Which shows the most vigorous growth? 2. Why is there no plant food in the rain water? 3. In what form do plants use their food? 4. Why shotdd the water in the bottles l)e changed cverv few davs? EXERCISE 65 THE KFFFXT OF A MULCH IN PREVENTING THE LOSS OF MOISTURE I',Y EVAPORATION time: during growing weathkr Object: To determine whether a mulch prevents the loss of moisture from the soil by checking evaporation. Material needed: Tivo boxes, seeds, potatoes, straiv or leaves, hoe. DIRECTIONS 1. Fill two flower pots, or two boxes of equal size, with rich soil and j)lant seeds in earth. Saturate each ])ot witii water and cover the soil in one pot with a layer of fine leaves, or other ort^anic matter. When the youn.j^ i)lants come up, thin out to an e(|Mal number. Kec]) the two pots under like con- ditions of temperature, but do not water either pot. Which ])ot keeps the plants in a j^rowinj:^ condition longer? 2. Repeat this experiment under field conditions. Plant two small plots of equal fertility in potatoes ; cover one with a mulch of wheat straw and cultivate the other one in the usual way. Which produces the better yield? In case there is a wet season, would you expect much difference in the yield of the two plots? EXERCISE 66 AWi IN SOILS time: may or june Object: To observe how plants suffer for want of air. Material needed : Tii'o /lower [>ots, seeds. DIRECTIONS ImII two llowcr pots with rich soil and phint seeds ill racli ; w hoii the phints arc 3 inches hij^h, keep the S(»il in one soaked with water all the time and ap])ly water to the oilier ])ot only as it is needed. In a few days ohserxe carefnlly the dilTerence in the ap- pearance of the two plants. QUESTIONS 1. Which plant i^rows the faster? J. W hat dilVerciuH' do noii ohserxe in the color of the two plants 'f 3. Do you think there is an\' dilTerence in the teni- l)erature of the two pots? 4. How does water affect the amount of air in the soil? 5. Why are nndi-ained fields unprofitable? EXERCISE 67 WATER CAPACITY OF SOILS time: whenever convenient Object: To determine the water capacity of soils. Material needed: Three lamp ehiiiineys, cheese cloth, scales. DIRECTIONS Tic a piece of cheese cloth over the large end of each of three lamp chimneys, and weigh each sep- arately. Place samples of clay, loam, and sand near the stove for 24 hours or until they are dry. Fill one chimney with clay, one with loam, and one with sand ; hold over a vessel and saturate the contents of the chimneys with water. Let stand until the water ceases to drip, then weigh and tabulate the data as follows: Kind of Soil C!.iy Loam Sand Weiglit of Cliiinney Weight of Soil Weight of Water Absorljed Per cent, of Water Absorbed EXERCISE 68 THE EFFECT OF ORGANIC MATTER AND SAND ON BAKING OF CLAY SOILS time: fall or si-king term Object: To show the degree to which organic matter and sand prevent the baking of clay soils. Material needed: Five flozver pots or boxes, sand, clay, humus. DIRECTIONS 1. Secure five one-gallon flower pots or jars, pro- vided with drainage outlets ; fill them to within i inch of the top as follows : No. I— Clay. No. 2 — Clay thoroughly nii.xed with 20 per cent, of hunuis. No. 3 — Clay thoroughly nii.xed with 30 per cent, of sand. No. 4 — Clay thoroughly mixed with 20 per cent, of sand. No. 5 — Clay thoroughly mixed with 30 i)cr cent, of humus. 2. Use the same amount of water in each case and thoroughly saturate the soil. Place the pots in the direct rays of the sun until the soil is baked. Note the ease with which the different soils can be pulverized by the fingers. RURAr, SCHOOL AGRICULTURK IO9 QUESTIONS 1. How do sand and luinnis alTfct the soil? 2. What i)lanls would ha\c the t^rcatcst difficulty in coming up in a baked cla}^ soil ? 3. Can the farmer do anything' to prevent the baking of the soil? EXERCISE 69 FIXATION Ul' IM.ANT FOOD BY SOILS time: fall ok si-uini; term Object: To learn whether soils have the power to "fix" plant food. Material needed: Lamp eliiiitiiey, cheese clotli, aiiiiiioiia li'ater, potash, litiiiits paper. DIRECTIONS Tie a piece of cheese cloth over one end of a himp chimney ; fill the chimney with clay soil or j^arden loam, and jiack firmly. Set the chimney in a vessel and pour in the top some ammonia water. Do you detect any odor of ammonia in the water which has passed through the soil? Repeat the experiment with coarse sand, and note what residts. Repeat the ex])eriment by pourin*;' over the soil li(|uid manure and water containing' potash in solu- tion. What efifect has the soil on the licpiid? Test the potash solution with litnms paper. How is it alCected? Facts. — C^ay, which contains alumina and silica condiined, lime, maj^nesia, and iron are good fixing agents. These fixing agents prevent the loss of plant food by leaching. Many farmers make the mis- take of applying immediately available ingredients of plant food, as nitrate of soda, before the crop is RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE III ready to use it. Rock phosphate and bone meal are ingredients which may be applied a considerable time before plants are ready for their use. We should not fail to state that the "fixing" agents men- tioned above are inorganic substances, and that humus is of equal importance as a "fixing" agent. The amount of plant food in the soil depends largely upon three things: (i) The kind of rock from which the soil is formed ; (2) the kind and quantity of plants grown thereon ; (3) and the "fix- ing" power of the soil. i:xi:rcise to COI.I.I'.CI'ION Ol' I'NI'I'.S ()!'■ SOILS I'IMl-; SI'NINC IIUM Object: To make a collection of ail the types of soil in the coinniimily; classify them; study their characteristic j;rowth; ami Imd avrIa^;<• price an acre. Miilnial ihu-(liul: Idiiiins ly/ws (if soil. DIKMOCTIONS ll;i\i' f;icli sliuli'iil liiiiiL', lioiii llu- Iioiiic fai'iii as iii.iiiN l\ iu"S t)l" soil as III' rail I'iihI, siuli as rla\ , saiul, |(iaiii, rla\ hiaiii, saiuU l()aiii, L;ra\t'll\' soil ami Iral mold. ( "lussify ami lalmla I r \ oiii' ii'siills as follows: Cullr, I,. kiiul ,.| S.iil \VIht<- l''..un.l Cli.n.i. iciisli. I'liir nl Soil I ii.iwlli pel At re QUESTIONS I. \\'li\ air si>im' soils luoii- \aluaI>K' lliaii olliors? J. 1 >o iHM'laiii crops iM'ow luthT on soiiu- soils Ihan on oilii IS ? W liN' ? FXERCISE 71 son. VVASIIINC AND ITS I'R F.VF.NTTON riMK: KM. I. OK Sril ami record as lollovvs: Numlirr \Vru;lil lliislirls I'rr I riill 1)V Wriitli. I ,;[VK'' c'lrs Mciliimi c.irs SiIImII (MIS 2. Usi> ihc same coin and make other divisions named lie|( i\v : Niiml.i-i IV[- ( fill. Iiy Niimlirr I ,(iiin .slim f.irs Short slim c.us Siiiirt tliicU c.-ir.s idc.d (MIS Niiiuliri IVr i.rul. liy Nimilirr ryliinhiial cars 'r.iixM'iiiR cars Well tilled hiitts Well filled tips KUKAi, s :: RURAF. SCHOOL ACRICULTURE 137 •^ y^^ i^'^M BFwk, -^ -^—'^H tv "^^ '^^^^fl Hfeb^^jHl Hk^ .v^liS ■^L^yfl ^■££^^1 Hk|£9flB| ^Ko^H inc. T,] — VARIOUS HUTTS 28— well rnuiuled ; 29— moderately rounded ; 30 — shallow rounded ^E^H Bh "" '^'^'^■IH^^^H KU;. 32 — EAR TIPS 32— well lilleil; 33 partly filled ; 34— poorly tilled T3« RURAL RCTTOOr, AORTCULTURR o I Y- E 'A i' w 2 RURAi. sfTfOf)!, A(;i ^ y a I40 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE FIG. 37 — SIZE OF COB 35 — too large ; 36 — proper size ; 37 — too small Rl^RAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 141 FIG. 38 — FORMS OF KERNELS Pairs 4 and 15 have the best form FIG. 39 — LAR(,i; \,\li SMALL GERMS 142 RURAL SCITOOr, AGRICULTURE ^^^^mmMmm^M(?^^ fflf Bn« rrmMuSll^^ '^^m^imm fmm^^jjj/g^ EXERCISE 86 COMPARISON OF KERNELS OF VARIETIES OF CORN time: spring term Object: To study the variation in the kernels of varie- ties of corn. Material needed: Tape line, varieties of corn, scales. DIRECTIONS Study carefully the variation in the kernels of four varieties of corn, and tabulate your data as follows: VARIATION IN KERNELS Names of Varieties No. of kernels in i pound Average weight of kernel (deci- mally) Average length of kernels in inches Average width in inches Average thickness in inches EXERCISE 87 COMPARISON OF EART.Y, LATE, AND MEDIUM STALKS OF THE SAME VARIETY time: when corn is eloweking Object: To compare early, late, and medium stalks of the same variety. Material needed: Corn field, paper tas^s. bai^s, twine. DIRECTIONS 1. Label 40 stalks with ])aper ta^'s marked "Early stalks,'' just as the tassels begin to appear. When you think about one half the tassels have appeared, label 40 other stalks; let the labels be marked "Medium stalks." Ai^ain when the last tassels are appearing-, label 40 stalks with tags marked "Late stalks." When the corn is mature, harvest and com- pare the yield of each lot. 2. Repeat the same experiment with the silks. Observe closely the degrees of pollination in the dif- ferent cases. QUESTIONS 1. Do you find any variation in the yield of early, medium and late stalks? 2. If so, how do you account iov this variation? 3. What advantage or disadvantage would there be in having a variety of corn whose silking and tasseling period is short? 4. Are ears of corn from replanted hills better or more poorly filled than those of the main planting? EXERCISE 88 TASSELING AND SILKING PERIOD time: when corn is FLOVVERINr, Object: To study the range of the tasseling and silking period. Material needed: Corn field, rule, not e-book. DIRECTIONS 1. For this exercise select a single row of corn ; beginning at one end count off lOO hills. Begin the exercise just as the first tassel appears. At a fixed hour each day pass along the row, and count the number of tassels and silks which have appeared. Keep record in note-book, also the days which have rain or sunshine. Continue your observations until there is no longer an increase in the number of silks and tassels. 2. With the chart below as a model, construct a graphic chart showing the tasseling and silking period. Supposed Data: Total number of tassels to appear each day : I — — 6 — 4 — 15 — 10 — 25 — 16 — 8 — — 5 — Total number of silks to appear each day : . 0—0— 0—3— 5— 3— 5— 23— 40— 28— 16— 5 Observe that the number of silks or tassels which appear each day is represented by the perpendicular 146 RURAL SCHOOL ACVRICULTURE FIG. 42 — CHART OF CURVF.S SHOWINC. RANGE OF TASSELING AND SII K[N(; I'KRIOI) line extending; from the base of the chart to the curve. QUESTIONS 1. What is the Icns^th of the tasseliiiL:^ period? Silking period ? 2. Do you think the number of silks or tassels to appear daily was influenced in any way? If so, by what? 3. Why is there such variation in the time in which silks appear? 4. Which would be of any advantage to the farmer to have, a variety whose silking period is short or long? Why? FXFRCISF 89 IM'.Rini) ()!• |M )|.|,lNA'ri()N Ol' CORN ■I'IMk: wiikn iokn is m,uwki(I nc Object: To determine at what period during the day pollination is most effective. Molcriiil iiccdfil: Corn firlil, rule, iintc haok. DIRECTIONS 1. ('over ;i larijc iiiniihci" <»l' shoots jiisl Ix'foic Mm- silks apiMs'ir, a^- in I'.xcrcisc i)\. I icj^iiinin^ with 4 A.M., (livi'h- lh<- (hiy into ixriofi-, of four hours c.'u li as foHovvs : 1. I'irst period, ,] to T) a.m. 2. SfCO||(| period, (t to S A.M. 3. 'I'liird |H I iod, X to 10 a.m. 4. l''onrtli peiioil, 10 to \j M. 5. I'"ifth |M I io(|, ij to I I'.M. (). .Sixth jMiiod, I to I, I'.M. 7. Scvi'iitii period, ■; to 5 p.m. 8. I''ij.(hlh period, 5 to 7 I'..m. 2. When the silks arc 3 or 4 iiiehes lonj^, remove ihe hai^s fioiii 10 ears and h-avc exposed (hirint; the first period, tlieii rcphn <■ the haj's ;iiid tie. ("ontintic the exposure lhroii,L',hont tiie ciidii periods, hi re- moving; oi- replacing the l)aj.(s, tise care so as not to sliake the pollen frcjiii the stalks. I.ahel ea(li set of exposures, giving date and period. I4(S KiiKAi. SCHOOL ACKicin/n'Ki': 3. When the corn is harvested, ol)serve the anionnt of poHinalion of llie ears (hirini;- the differ- ent periods. QUESTIONS 1. What period is most favorable for fertilization? 2. When does the corn llower open? EXERCISE 90 EFFECT OF WIND ON THE POLLINATION OF CORN TIME : WHEN CORN IS FLOWERING Object: To learn how much the wind affects the pollina- tion of corn. Material needed: Com field, rule, note-book. DIRECTIONS 1. Cover two dozen shoots just before the silks appear, as in Exercise 91. When the silks are in the receptive stage, which can be told by the length, select a time during the day when there is a rather brisk breeze and expose 12 silks a certain number of hours. On another day, when the air is still, ex- pose the other set of 12 the same number of hours. Replace the ])aper bags in each case and label the two sets, giving date, length of exposure, and treatment. 2. When the corn has been harvested note any variation in the degree of pollination of the two sets. EXF:RCISE 91 i\cr u i>v \\\t>rv youtii; shoots jnsi Ix'loic the silks .ippcir. /\|>|''>' |"o!1rii lo llir<'i' ol tlu' shoots just .IS Ihc first silks iml in .-ippcar- ,iiuc ; I ir.il ol her sets ol I hrcc in Ihc same way wiu'ii the silks arc J, .|, and (> inches lon^;. I,ca\i' the lOinlh set lo (la\s alter liic sillss appear heloie ap- p!\ ini; the pollen, hnl keep eo\ cfed all this lime. The p(>llen slionld he applie(| eail\' in the morning;, sa\ helwcen six and eiidil o'eloek. I'hi^ lan he done li\ reminim; llie paper haj.; and shaking o\-er the silk a tassel whiili is slu'ddinL; its polh'n in altnndanee. .Alter this is done, leplaei- the hai; and tie as Ixdore. I'lie licaU'd eai's slionld he watehed ('\('r\' two or lliret' da\s so as lo hiosen the strings in cast.' the\' aic inlerlerin!.; with the L^rowini; ear. I'.aeh stalk slionld hear a lahel showing; the date of pollination and the IciilMIi ol silk when trt-atiMl. J. When the eoi ii has niatiire(l, harxi-st llu> treated i-ais and ohserv e the decree ol pollination uiiuAi. ^.(•||()Ol, Acincdi/niKi'; '5' ill c.'icli set. I)r;i\v a coiiclusioii as to the rcccpl i vc staj^c Mow l'Mi<^- vvcTc the silks in liic iasl set |)oliiiia(c(r-' VVIiy ttc)ii t\)i" a period of five years. If followed carefully, usiii;.; the utuiost care in selec- tion, one shoidd inijirove one's cotton seed wonder- fully, and thus i;reatly increase the yield. It will he ohserxed \vo\u this diagram that a start is made with one plant. Let this plant he strong" and vig-or- ous. and he i^^iven special attention as to the num- ber and size of bolls, length of lint, earliness, and yield. Having selected the best plant, plant all the seed in a small plot the next year. I-'rom this small plot select the best plant, as in the first case, and plant the seed from the other plants in the five-acre plot. This five-acre plot will produce the third year enough seed to plant the general crop the following year. C\>ntinue the selection, as shown by the dia- gram, {or five years or more. ♦Kroiii Ve.-»r Book, U. S. Ucp-irtnieiit of .Agriculture. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 177 Example: a S 1 1 1 V a i a 2 II ■< 1 "^ 1 Qk »j jj ii 8 a. 2 u }, < i i "n — £ S->- H V c V .. 1 8 10 c V rt 'J cu 1 i !l f. a n Select £ a»->- H 5 11 8 fj £ < c elect :1 ^ CO a< iB-^- .H i 8 B ill -" -^ s EXERCISE 108 COxAIPOSITION OF FARM PRODUCTS time: fall or spring term Object: To learn by comparison the relative amounts of the constituents of farm products. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS Having^ been given the composition of various farm products by the instructor, draw a diagram showing the relative amounts of each constituent. DIAGRAM SHOWING COMPOSITION OF CORN Nitrogen-free extract 78-4% Protein ii.6% Fat 5-8% F. Fiber, 2.5% ^- Ash, 1.7% RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 1 79 Example: COMPOSITION OF CORN Nitrogen-free extract 78.4% Protein 1 1.6% Fat 5.8% Fiber 2.5% Ash 1.7% Total 100.0% EXERCISE 109 ff,rtii.izi-:r constituents in American it'leijing stuffs timk: kai.i, ou si'King tkkm Object: To learn the relative amounts of fertilizer con- stituents in 1,000 pounds of American feeding stuffs. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS l'"r<>in tln' l.iMr in tlic appendix draw diaju^rams sliovvinj;- the relative ainoiints of fertilizer constit- uents in 1,000 pounds of feedini; stuffs. lixaniple: FERTIIJZKR CONSTITUKNTS IN 1,000 POUNDS OF CORN Nitmi^ren 1S.2 lbs. JMiospliniic acid 70 Potash 40 "• DIAGRAM S1I(3WIN(; FERTILIZER CONSTITUENTS IN CORN Nitrogen, 18.2 pounds Ph()S|)lioiic acid, 7 |)()uncls Potash, 4 pounds EXERCISE 110 FEEDING HAY TO HORSES time: spring or fall term Object: To determine whether the farmer commonly feeds too much hay to his horses. Material needed: 'fzuo horses at lioiue, hay, grain. DIRECTIONS For this exercise lia\'e j)ii]jils use two horses at their homes. Kecj) in sejjarate stalls and feed one horse all the hay he will eat. Considerably re- duce the anK>unt of hay t^ix-en to the second horse, but feed each horse the usual j^rain ration. Keej) this up for several days and see if the horse which has been i.jiven a smaller amount ni hay does not have as much llesh, appear livelier, and travel better than the other one. Horses when jji'iven large (juantities of hay are ajjt to ha\'e the heaves. EXERCISE 111 CALCULATING RATIONS FOR ANIMALS time: fall ok string tekm Object: To learn how to balance rations so as to keep the animal in good condition and to practice economy in feeding. Material needed: Paper and pencil. Explanations. — Fecdini;- stuffs contain protein, carbohydrates, and fat. 'J'hc j^crcenta^cs of tliesc inf^redients are found in Table V. of the .'\ppendix. ]jy the nutritive ratio is meant the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fat combined. The fol- lowing formula shows the method of ()l)tainin<4- the nutritive ratio: (Fat X 2.4) -\- carbohvdrates ■ =- -. = nutritive ratio i'rotein ]n calculating- the ratio, we multiply the fat by 2.4; for the fat is nearly 2)/^ times as valuable for food as the carbohydrates. DIRECTIONS I^et us find the nutritive ratio of the following ration : Clover hay 15 pounds Oats 6 pounds Cotton-seed meal 3 pounds RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 183 Multiply each ingredient by the per cent, of pro- tein, carbohydrates and fat. Protein Carbohydrates Fat 15 X 7-6 = 1. 140 15 X 38-4 = 5-760 15 X 2.0 = .30 6 X 9.2 = .552 6 X 47-3 = 2.833 6 X 4-2 = .252 3 X 3S.1 = I-I43 3 X 16 - .480 3 X 12.6 = .378 2.835 9-078 .930 2.232 II. 310 .93X2.4=2.232 II. 310 -7- 2.835 = 3.9 Nutritive ratio 1 ; 3.9 EXERCISE 112 CALCULATING RATIONS FOR ANIMALS (Continued) TIME : FALL OR SPRING TERM Object: To learn how to balance rations for different animals under different conditions. Material needed: Paper and pencil. DIRECTIONS Select your own feeds and balance rations for the animals mentioned in the table below. The number of pounds of dry matter and the nutritive ratios are given in the same table. POUNDS OF FOOD REQUIRED A DAY FOR I,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT Kind of Aiiiiu.-il Oxen at rest Oxen at moderate work. Fattening cattle Milch cows Slieep, growing wool. .. Fattening sheep Horses, moderate work. Horses at hard work. . . . Fattening swine Nutritive Ratio 6 5-5 EXERCISE 113 FEED AFFECTING THE FLAVOR OF MILK time: spring term Object: To learn how feeding stuffs affect tlie flavor of milk. Material needed: Rape, eozv, milk. DIRECTIONS Ask some student, on whose father's farm rape is grown, to feed one of the milch cows some rape in the afternoon, and to save a small amount of milk at milking time. Carry the milk to school and see whether the students can detect any change in the flavor due to the rape. QUESTIONS 1. Name some other substances that produce bad flavors in milk. 2. Is milk a direct product of food or the blood? 3. At what time does grass most affect the flavor of milk ? EXERCISE 114 SOURING OF MILK time: i-ai.i. or spkinc term Object: To find a means of preventing the souring of milk. Material needed: Sei^eral small milk bottles, milk, ther- mometer. DIRECTIONS 1. Clean several small bottles and dry them in the sun. Fill the bottles with fresh milk and divide into three lots. Stopper well so as to exclude the air. 2. Boil one lot for a few minutes. This boilin,i^ should kill nearly all the bacteria. 3. Pasteurize the second lot, i.e., place the bottles of milk in water which has been heated to 155° F. Leave 20 minutes and set aside to cool. Leave the third lot untreated. QUESTIONS 1. TTow loui^ docs the milk keep sweet in each lot? 2. Does boiling or pasteurizing- alter the ilavor of milk? EXERCISE 115 A TEST FOR FORMALIN IN MILK time: whenever convenient Object: To determine whether milk has been treated with formalin. Material needed: Milk, fornialin, sulphuric acid. DIRECTIONS Pour a small amount of formalin into a glass of milk and stir. Next pour sulphuric acid into the milk, letting it run down the side of the glass. Do the same with some milk which has no formalin in it. A purple color at the junction of the milk and acid indicates the presence of formalin. Persons liv- ing in the city should occasionally test their milk for formalin, as many milkmen use it to prevent their milk from souring. Pasteurizing is legitimate, but the use of formalin should be condemned. Milk treated with formalin is very harmful to infants. EXERCISE 116 TEMPERATURE FOR CHURNING BUTTER time: during warm weather Object: To determine whether a high or a low tempera- ture is better for churning butter. Material needed: Milk ready for churning, churn, hot zvatcr, cold water, thermoineter. DIRECTIONS Have older pupils at whose homes large quanti- ties of butter are made divide the cream into two parts. Churn one lot at about 58° or 60°, and the other at, say, 80° to 85°. With the aid of a ther- mometer the temperature can be regulated by hot and cold water. \\'hen the two lots have been churned, note any difference in the appearance of the butter. QUESTIONS 1. Which lot was longer in churning? 2. What difference do you notice in the granular structure? 3. Why is cream usually kept in a warm place be- fore churn in 2:? EXERCISE 117 DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE BABCOCK TEST TIME : WHENEVER CONVENIENT Object: To learn the method of testing milk for butter fat by the use of the Babcock test. Material needed: Babcock tester zvith equipment, samples of milk. DIRECTIONS I. Ask students and patrons for funds to purchase a Babcock tester for the school. One can be bought for $5. 2.' Let students bring fresh milk from their homes to be tested. Sam- ples should be taken while the milk is still warm after it has been thoroughly mixed. 3. When the milk has been well mixed meas- ure out with a pipette 17.5 cubic centimeters and put into the bottles. Blow in the upper end of the pipette to expel all the milk. FIG. 48— BOTTLE AND MEASURE 4- Mcasurc out au igO RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE ■equal amount of acid for each 1:)ottle, holding the bottle slantingly ; let the acid run down the side of the bottle so as not to come in contact with the milk too suddenly, lest the milk be acted upon un- evenly. Gently shake the bottles in the hands until the acid and milk are thoroughly mixed. The mix- ture will become hot and change to a dark brown. Care must be taken in handling the acid so as not to get any on the skin or clothing: drop a little on a rag and find out why. 5. Place an even number of bottles in the ma- chine, replace the cover, and rotate about 700 to 1,200 revolutions a minute for six or seven minutes. 6. Add enough hot water to bring the mixture up to the bottom of the neck ; place the bottles back in the ip.achine and rotate again for three minutes. Now add more hot water and bring the fat up in the neck where it can be measured. Suppose the bottom of the fat column stands at the figure 2 and the top at the figure 6, this would show 4 per cent, of fat. Each per cent, means one pound of butter fat in 100 pounds of milk. EXERCISE 118 DECAY IN APPLES time: whenever apples are obtainable Object: To show that apples should not be shaken from the tree if they are to be kept. Material needed: Three ripe apples. DIRECTIONS Select three apples of the same variety and of the same degree of ripeness. Strike one against an ob- ject so as to bruise one side without breaking the skin; strike another so that the skin is just broken, and leave the third uninjured. Place the three apples somewhere in the room where they will not be disturbed, and examine from time to time. QUESTIONS 1. Which decays first? 2. What is the function of the skin of an apple? Select two apples of very nearly the same size ; peel one and weigh both. After 24 hours weigh again. 3. Which has lost the most in weight? Why? EXERCISE 119 DIFFERENT FORMS OF APPLES time: fall term Object: To learn to classify apples according to form. Material needed : Apples of -<'arioiis forjiis. DIRECTIONS Study well the forms of apples as j^iven in Fis^. 57. Practice drawing; these forms until you become KU;. 49 FORMS OF Al'PLES -4, oblate; j5, conical; C, ovate; Z>, obovate; £, oblong; /% acute; G, round-ovate; /^, oblate-conical, i, stem or stalk ; 2, cavity; 3, calyx ; 4, basin ; 5, core ; 6, axis. familiar with them. ]<^Iake a collection of dif- ferent varieties of apples ; let the class learn all. the RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I93 varieties collected, and classify according to the fol- lowinsf table : Name of Variety Form EXERCISE 120 JUDGING APPLES time: fall term Object: To learn how to judge apples by use of the score card. Material needed: Apples, pencil, score card. DIRECTIONS Let four or more students each bring a plate of apples from the home orchard ; set before the class and let each student score the number of points for each entry and compare with the teacher's score. SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING APPLES Owner of Exhibit Date Points Noted Maximum Score Teacher's Score Student's Score Remarks 20 IS Color 15 '' Quality 15 Freedom from blemishes 20 Total 100 Name of Judge When single plates are judged, the first score may be omitted. EXERCISE 121 THINNING FRUIT time: when apples and pears are about the size ok a small crab; peaches and plums after the "june drop" is OVER, and danger FROM THE DEPREDATION OF THE CURCULIO IS PAST Object: To determine whether it pays to thin fruit. Material needed: Heavily loaded apple tree in home orchard. DIRECTIONS In the home orchard select a tree heavily loaded with fruit. On either the east or the west side thin the fruit on one half of the tree, and leave the other half unthinned. Apples, pears, and peaches should be thinned to 6 or 8 inches ; plums to 2 or 3 inches apart. When the fruit is ripe, compare the treated and untreated parts of the tree with reference to : total amount of fruit, number of broken limbs, color and size of fruit, and freeness from disease. SUMMARY OF BENEFITS DERIVED FROM THINNING FRUIT 1. Lessens the production of seed, thus preserv- ing the vitality of the tree. 2. Causes the tree to bear crops more regularly. Few fruit trees can produce large crops and bear fruit buds at the same time. 196 RURAL SCHOOL Af.RICULTURE 3. Will produce larger fruit. 4. Will produce better colored fruit by letting more sunlight into the tree. 5. Preserves the shape of the tree by preventing the breaking of overloaded branches, and lessens the loss occasioned by rot and other fungous dis- eases by eliminating the danger of infection by contact. EXERCISE 122 PROPAGATION OF RED AND BLACK RASP- BERRIES time: fall term Object: To show that the red and the black raspberry are unlike in their methods of propagation, and that the red spreads more rapidly than the black. Material needed: Red and black raspberry plants. DIRECTIONS Go to a garden or field in which both varieties are grown. You will notice that the canes of the black raspberries bend over and the tips take root in the ground. This is tip-rooting, or what some 1)ota- nists call a stolon. If these are difficult to find, let some of the pupils cover the tips of some canes with soil and let them take root. Notice that the red raspberry, instead of jiroduc- ing tip roots, sends up canes at intervals from roots under the ground. In this way a single plant in a few seasons will cover a considerable space of ground. If left undisturbed, the red raspberry will spend most of its time in producing new plants instead of fruit, but this can be prevented by cutting off all the new shoots except two or three for the next year's growth. Arc there any varieties growing in the neighbor- hood that differ in any way from the ones men- tioned? If so, explain how you think they have been produced. EXERCISE 123 GRAFTING WAX time: early spring Object: To learn how to make grafting wax. material needed: Scales, tallozv, beeszvax, resin. DIRECTIONS Weigh out the following ingredients : Tallow, I part. Beeswax, 2 parts. Resin, 4 parts. Melt the tallow and beeswax, add the finely broken resin, and stir till a uniform mixture results. Then pour into cold water, but before the stuff hard- ens pull it like taffy. The hands must be well greased to prevent sticking. When a good "grain," as in pulled taffy, has been produced and when the wax becomes tough, mold it into balls or sticks for use. EXERCISE 124 CLEFT GRAFTING time: before buds begin to swell in the spring Object: To change the variety by top-grafting. Material needed: Apple tree, grafting knife, grafting wax. DIRECTIONS I. Select a branch I or 1^/2 inches in diameter and saw off the branch, usini^- care so the bark may not be loosened from any part of the stub. Split the end of the stub with a broad, thin chisel or FIG. 5o~GRAFTiNG TOOL grafting tool. :?. Prepare the scion, or part to be inserted, by taking cuttings from the variety you desire to prop- agate, using the previous year's growth. Let the scions be long enough to contain two or three buds. Now cut the lower end of the scion wedge-shaped, leaving the outer edge thicker than the other. 3. Insert the scions in the cleft of the stock, being sure that the cambium layer or growing portion of stock and of the scion come in contact. To insure proper connection of the growing tissues set the scion at a slight angle with the stock. It is a good plan to cut the scion so the lower bud will come just at the top of the stub. 200 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 4. When the scions have been placed, cover all the cnt i)ortions with grafting wax. Facts. — This method is popularly employed upon FIG. 51 — CLEFT GRAFTING A, prepared scion ; B, scions in place ; C, graft waxed over. old trees of apple and pear, and is the most feasible way of top-working- an old tree to a new variety. Not more than one-third of the tree should be so treated in any one year, because of the tendency to produce water sprouts when much wood is cut off. EXERCISE 125 WHIP GRAFTING time: during the winter months Object: To show how to produce new apple trees by means of whip grafting. Material needed: Knife, apple roots, apple scions, graft- ing tzvine. DIRECTIONS 1. This method of j^rafting is done by grafting scions on roots and can be done indoors. With a sharp knife make a diagonal cut at one end of the stock, as shown in Fig. 52, a. Let the cut surface be about 1 inch long. Next place the knife about one-third the distance from the end of the cut sur- face and split the stock in the direction of the longer axis. This split should be a little over ^ inch long. 2. Prepare the lower end of the scion in like man- ner (Fig. 52, b). A small difference in the diameter of stock and scion may be disregarded. 3. Force the two parts together as shown in Fig. 52, c. If the cut surface on both stock and scion is straight the two parts will fit neatly. The cam- bium layer must come in contact on one side at least. 4. Wrap the united stock and scion with five or six turns of waxed yarn, prepared by soaking a ball of loosely wound yarn in melted grafting wax. 202 RURAL SCHOOL AORICULTURE Facts. — Sometimes the entire root is used in this method, but usually the roots are cut into pieces from 4 to 6 inches long. Roots are dug and scions FIG. 52 — WHIP GRAFTS a, stock ; b, scion ; c, conipleied graft. The drawing at the left shows two stems about to be united ; those at the middle and right the grafting of a stem on a root. cut in autumn and stored. When the operation is complete, the grafted stock is labeled and stored in moss, sawdust, or sand in a cool cellar until spring, when it is set in the ground deep enough to bring the union of stock and scion below the surface of the ground. This method is very popular in Northern nurseries RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 203 for propagating- young a])ple and pear trees, the former upon roots of seedling apples, grown for the purpose in Missouri and other Western states, and the latter upon pear seedlings mostly imported from France. EXERCISE 126 BUDDING TIMK: junk to KAKI.V SKITICMliKK Object: To show how budding is done. Malt'iiiil needed: )'ouiiii /'<'('<"// //'{ clover make good seed ? 2. Why does the honey hee feed on while cloxer? 3. During what hours of the day are huuiblchces most active? 4. Where do they build their nests? EXERCISE 140 THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY (Okuek Lcpidol>tcra) time: Sl'KING OK FALL Object: To study the characteristics of the cabbage butterfly. Material needed: Same as in preceding exercise. Note. — This butterfly is small, with yellow wings bordered with black, and has a silvery spot on the lower surface of the hind wings. DIRECTIONS I. Collect specimens for use and for preserva- tion. While collecting, study the butterfly's haunts and habits. Observe: 1. The kind of flowers on which they feed. 2. Whether they feed while on the wing", or while resting on the flower. FIG. 74 — CABBAGE BUTTERFLY t^, ^ , 3. The food, which is nectar, the raw material of which honey is made, found at the base of the petals. Can you taste the nectar in the flower? What organ does the butterfly use in collecting the nectar? 2. Liberate a live butterfly on a closed window. 236 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Note the position of its wings when at rest. This position is taken by all true butterflies and enables one to distinguish a butterfly from a moth. Ob- serve the insect's irregular flight and peculiar jerky w^alk. 3. Make careful observation of all parts of the body and record what you see. Examine the scales under a lens. 4. Make a collection of a number of species of butterflies and note differences in shape, size, color, and habits. EXERCISE 141 PREPARATION OF SPRAYING MATERIAL time: just before time for spraying Object: To learn how to prepare Bordeaux mixture, Paris green, kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulphur wash. DIRECTIONS 1. Bordeaux mixture: Prepare the mixture as follows : Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 4 pounds. Quicklime (not slaked), 4 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Hang the copper sulphate in a burlap bag which dips a few inches below the surface of 25 gallons of the water in a barrel. In another barrel slake the lime with a little water and when done add the balance of the water; stir and strain. Pour the two solutions together either through hose or from two pails held near each other and poured from simul- taneously so the two streams mix as they fall and continue to do so in the barrel. If Bordeaux is to be used on peach foliage, add 25 more gallons of water. 2. Paris green : For apples and pears : i pound of Paris green, 2 pounds lime, 150 gallons of water. For plum and cherr}- : i pound of Paris green, 2 pounds lime. 300 gallons of water. 238 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE For potato beetle : i ponnd Paris green, 60 gal- lons of water. Paris green should not be used on peach foliage. Mix the Paris green in a cup with a little water, until it is like paste. If added dry to the water it will float. 3. Kerosene emulsion : For kerosene emulsion use the following ingredients : Kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons. Rain water, i gallon. Soap, vj pound. Dissolve the soap in boiling water; remove from the fire and while hot pour in the kerosene. Churn briskly for five minutes. Before using dilute with six to nine parts of water. 4. Lime-sulphur wash: Lime, 15 pounds. Sulphur, 15 pounds. Water, ^o gallons. Slake the lime with hot water, then add water till it makes a thin whitewash. Blend the sulphur with water into a thin paste ; add to the whitewash and mix thoroughly. Boil one hour, or until the mix- ture is of a brick-red color, stirring frequently to keep it from caking on the side of the vessel. Dilute to 50 gallons and bring to a boil again ; strain it boiling hot through a wire screen and apply as hot as possible. EXERCISE 142 STUDY OF SPRAYING CALENDAR time: whenever convenient Object: To learn how to combat insect pests and plant diseases. DIRECTIONS Study well the table given in this exercise, so that yon may know when, how, and for what to spray. Insect Pest or Disease When to Spray With What to Spray All scale insects Early spring before buds swell Lime-sulphur wash Striped melon beetle When young plants appear above ground Tobacco dust All leaf-eating insects When insects appear Paris green, or other arsenical poison Fruit rot Before blossoms open Bordeaux mixture Codling moth Just after the blossoms fall Paris green Leaf curl Before buds swell Bordeaux mixture Twig blight* Before buds open Lime-sulphur wash Potato «.cab Treat before planting 2 percfnt. solution of formalin All sucking insects, as plant lice When insects appear Kerosene emulsion or miscible oils Mildews and black rot of grape belorc blossoms open When leaves are one-third grown Just after fruit sets, and every two weeks thereafter Bordeaux mixture * Cut affected branches back to sound wood and burn them. Keep tools dis- infected by wiping with cloth saturated with kerosene. EXERCISE 143 PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM SPECIMENS time: spring term Object: To learn how to prepare plants for the herbarium. Material needed: Newspapers, carpet paper, scissors, note-hook. DIRECTIONS 1. In preparing herbarium specimens, use driers made of ordinary carpet paper, cut into sheets 12 by 18 inches. Place each plant in a folder made of newspaper, and alternate with the driers. 2. Place upon the pack a plank of the same size as the driers, and subject the whole to a pressure of 50 to 100 pounds by means of blocks of wood, or stones. 3. The driers nuist be replaced by dry ones daily during the first four or five days, and after that at longer intervals for a week or ten days, until the specimens are dry. In changing the driers simply shift the folders containing the plants from one set of driers to dry ones. 4. When the specimens are dry, fasten them to stifT white paper by means of strips of gummed paper. Place a label bearing the name, place, date of collecting, and collector's name in the lower right- hand corner. 5. Collect all the different weeds of the farm, dry, mount, label, and keep for future reference. GLOSSARY Absorption — The process of taking in substances, as a sponge drinking in water. Acid — A chemical compound sour to the taste, capable of turn- ing blue litmus paper red. Alkaline — Alkaline substances are not sour, have a soapy taste, and turn reddened litmus paper blue. Ammonia — A chemical combination of hydrogen and nitrogen. Ash — The material left after the burning of organic substances. Assimilate — To convert into the tissues of the plant or of the animal. Bacteria — Minute plants frequently present in fermentation, decay, and disease. They thrive in the nodules found on the roots of clover, alfalfa, cow-peas, etc. Balanced ration— A feed containing the proper proportion of pt-otein and carbohydrates. Barren — Not fruitful. Calcium carbonate — Limestone ; a combination of carbonic acid gas and calcium. Calyx — A whorl of green leaves at the base of the flower. Capillary — Applied to very minute tubes or pore spaces through which liquids may move. Carbohydrates — Foods which include starch, the sugars, and cellulose. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbon dioxide — Sometimes called carbonic acid gas ; com- posed of oxygen and carbon. Cereals — Crops which are grown for their grain. Chemical change — A change in which a new substance is formed. Clay — The finest of soil particles ; a combination of silica, alumina, and water. Combustion — The act of burning. Condensation — The process of changing gases or vapors to the liquid state. 242 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Copper sulphate — Bluestone; a combination of copper and sulphuric acid. Corolla — A whorl of leaves just inside the calyx and usually colored other than green. Cryptogam — A low class of flowcrless plants ; example, mush- rooms. CurcuHo — A snouted beetle, very injurious to the plum and apricot. Cuttings — Parts of the stem, root, or leaf used for producing a new plant. De Candolle — A French botanist. Decomposition — The act of breaking up a compound into its elements. Deliquescent — Branched in a manner so that the stem or trunk is lost in the branches. Detasseling — Removing the tassels. Disseminate — To scatter, as s^ed ; to spread. Dormant — Not active ; asleep. Effervescence — The production of innumerable small gas bubbles in a liquid by chemical activity. Evaporation — The changing from a liquid to a gaseous state. Excurrent — The term used when an axis continues throughout the body. Example, the trunk of a pine. Experiment — A trial, proof, or test of anything. Fertility — Fruitfulness, richness, power to produce. Fertilizer — Any material that will enrich the soil and supply plant food. Fiber — Short cells which make up the substance of solid wood. Fibrous — Consisting of fibers. Example, the roots of the wheat plant. Florist — One who cultivates flowering plants. Formaldehyde — A chemical compound used for preventing decay. Function — Office or action of organs in animal or vegetable life. Germinate — To grow. Gluten — A substance in grains containing albumen. It makes wheat dough tenacious and elastic. Graphic — Written, drawn, inscribed. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 243 Gravity — The force which tends to pull bodies to the center of the earth. Heaves — A disease in horses characterized by heavy and labori- ous breathing. Humus — Vegetable mold formed by the decay of plants. Ingredient — One of the substances composing any compound or mixture. Insoluble — Not readily dissolved. Kainit — A potash fertilizer found in large quantities in Ger- many ; contains about 25 per cent, sulphate of potash, mixed with sulphate of magnesia and common salt. Kernel — That which is inclosed in a shell, husk, etc. Lime — Combination of calcium and oxygen, formed by burn- ing limestone. Lime water — A solution made by dissolving lime in water. Litmus paper — A paper used for determining whether sub- stances are acid or alkaline. Loam — Soil containing a mixture of sand and clay. Membrane — A thin tissue that will permit the passage of a liquid through it. Mulch — A layer of vegetable matter or dust on the soil used to check the loss of soil moisture by evaporation. Nectar — A sweet juice found in flowers from which bees make honey. Nitrate — Combination of nitric acid with a metal or salt. The form of nitrogen used by plants. Nitrogen — An element of plant food used chiefly in making stems and leaves. Nitrogen-free extract — Animal or vegetable compounds with no nitrogen in their composition. Nitrogenous matter— Substances containing nitrogen. Nutritive — Having the power of nourishing or building up the body. Oblate — Flattened or shortened. Oblong — Longer than broad. Organic matter — The part that passes into the air in burning substances. Osmosis — The mixing of dissimilar substances through a porous membrane. 244 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Ovary — A hollow case at the base of the pistil containing the egg cell. Pasteurizing — A process by which the fermentation of milk is retarded. Petal — One of the divisions of the corolla. Phosphoric acid — Compound composed of phosphorus and oxygen. Pistil — Part of the flower that receives the pollen. Potash — Composed of potassium and oxygen ; one of the essentials of plant food. Prolificacy — Fruitfulness, great productiveness. Propagate — To generate, to increase, to renew. Protein — An ingredient of foods used in building muscle. Protoplasm — The living matter of a cell. Rape — A plant of the turnip family. Ration — A fixed amount or quantity of food. Resin — A substance that exudes from plants when incisions are made in the stems or branches. Respiration — The act of breathing. Rigidity — The state of being rigid. Saturate — To fill fully, to soak. Sediment — The matter which settles to the bottom from water or any other liquid. Sepal — One of the divisions of the calyx. Silt — Very fine soil particles, just between fine sand and clay in size. Solutions — Product formed by dissolving a gas or a solid in water. Stamen — Parts of the flower which bear the pollen. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 245 APPENDIX OF USEFUL TABLES SCORE CARDS COMPOSITION OF MANURES Table I Nitrogenous Manures Article Pounds in a Hundred Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash 15/4 'o 16 19 to 2ol4 12 to 14 ID to II II to 1254 5 to 6 7 to 9 e'A to 7K Ammonium sulphate Dried blood, high grade Dried blood, low grade 3 t" 5 I to 2 II to 14 6 to 8 I to 2 i to 3 Table II Phosphatic Manures Article South Carolina phosphate rock Florida phosphate rock South Carolina dissolved rock. Florida dissolved rock Ground bone Steamed bone Dissolved bone Pounds in a Hundred Phosphoric Acid Available Insoluble Total 12 to 15 14 to 16 5 to 8 6 to q 13 to 15 26 to 28 33 to 35 I to 3 1 to 4 i.S to 17 1 6 to 20 2 to 3 26 to 28 33 to 35 13 to 16 16 to 20 20 to 25 22 to 2g 15 to 17 Nitrogen 2}4 to 4 I'A to 2 2 to 3 246 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Table III PoTAssic Manures Pounds in a Hundred Article Potash Phosphoric Acid Lime Chlorine 50 48 to 52 12 to 125^ 16 to 20 20 to 30 2 to 8 I to 2 5 to 8 40 to 48 H to iK 30 to 32 42 to 46 7 to 9 I to 2 I to iK 3 to 5 10 30 to 35 35 to 40 3M Table IV Average Composition of Farm Manures Pounds in a Hun died Article Moisture Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash 0.36 0-53 0.67 0.60 0.85 0.63 Lime Cow manure, fresh. . . 8s-3 71-3 64.6 72-4 56.0 75.0 0.38 0-53 0.83 0.45 1.63 0.50 0.16 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.54 0.26 0.31 0.33 0.08 Mixed stable manure,... 0.70 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 247 -* f^. m 006 fO ■* ■* o o 6 6 6 6 >^ a O' O f^ M d 6 moo odd o* o t^oo IN 00 6 6 6 6 6 6 mvO t^CO o d d d d M o moo o < O O fn 6 6 6 O O "O »o O mmmWNOO 00 MMMfrrn (■•O VO O^O ■ ■* O ■* O ^ fO ) O 00 000 VO ro ■♦ ■* fo f vo vo fo m M m ■* N ■*oo r-^ « t^ 1^ ■* e^ o 6^66666 ohmn \0 *0 O O-o r^ -^ O O O o o* O^ t^ o 00 00 00 C30 o I? o .S iJ" ,^ £x L'2'O-a i E u u ■ S ° c ; 322 248 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Table VI Standard Fertilizer Formulas for Corn and Cotton on Old Uplands, Recommended by the Georgia Station* formula no. i For Corn on Old, Worn Uplands 1. Acid phosphate (14 per cent.) 1,000 lbs. 2. Cotton meal (2^ : 7: 1/2) 1,250 lbs. 3. Muriate of potash (50 per cent.) 30 lbs. 4. (or kainit, 120 lbs.) Total 2,280 lbs. Analysis : Ph. Ni. Po. Using I, 2, 3 7.50 3.83 1.48 Using I, 2, 4 7.21 3.70 1.43 FORMULA NO. 2 For Cotton on Old, Worn Uplands 1. Acid phosphate (14 per cent.) 1,000 lbs. 2. Cotton meal (2^ :7:i5-2) 700 lbs. 3. Muriate of potash (50 per cent.) 75 lbs. 4. (or kainit. 300 lbs.) Total 1,775 lbs. Analysis : Ph. Ni. Po. Using I, 2, 3 8.87 2.70 2.70 Using I, 2, 4 7.87 2.45 2.45 On well improved soils, or comparatively new lands, the cottonseed meal may be reduced by one-third to one-half in either of the foregoing formulas. On such soils, when only a very light application is intended to be made, acid phosphate alone may give more profitable results than a complete fer- tilizer. * Bulletin 69 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 249 Table VII Average Composition of Farm Manures F;irm Manures Pounds in a Hundred Nitrogen Total Phos. Acid Potash Lime 0.34 0.58 0.83 0-45 1.63 0.50 0. 16 0.28 0.23 0. ig 1.54 0.26 0.40 0.53 0.67 0.60 0.85 0.63 0.31 0.21 0-33 0.08 0.24 0.70 Horse manure (fresh) Sheep manure (fresh) Hog manure (fresh) Mixed stable manure Table VIII Legal Weights of a Bushel of Produce Articles Pounds Apples Apples, dried . . Beans Buckwheat Corn, ear Corn, shelled .. . Onions Peaches Potatoes, Irish. . Potatoes, Sweet Peas Bluegrass seed. . Timothy Cloverseed Cottonseed Wheat Oats Turnips Barley Rye 24 60 52 70 56 57 38 60 55 60 14 45 60 32 60 32 55 250 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE COTTON SCORE CARD (JOHNSON) 1. Plant Size, medium to large 6 Form, spreading conically 6 With jointed and developed branches 4 Properly shaped and filled head or center 4 2. Prolificacy Number of bolls 10 Trueness, to variety type in arrange- ment of bolls, singly or in clusters. . 5 ..... 3. Bolls Size, large 5 Form, true to type 5 Opening, good, fair, poor 5 4. Total Yield of Seed Cotton 20 5. Per Cent, of Lint to Seed 20 6. Lint Length 2.5 Fineness 2.5 Purity 2.5 Uniformity 2.5 Total 100 Name of scorer Date Place Sample No Rank DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING COTTON* On the score card as suggested the ideal plant is given a rating of 20 points. In judging the exhibits in contests, cuts should be made more severe as the plant departs further from the standard. * From Bulletin No. 44, University of Georgia. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 25 1 I. The Plant For plants departing only slightly from the variety standard as to size, a cut of one to two points should be made. If this departure is very marked, a cut of four points may be made. For less than three or more than four lower long branches cut one point for each unit ot departure. If these branches are defective either in total length or in diameter of the stem, cut from one to three points as the departure may be more or less pronounced. For excessively long joints and poorly placed and developed branches cut a maximum of three points. For slight defects in these respects cut from one-half to two points. For a well opened or vase-shaped head admitting air and light in abundance, allow four points as the perfect score. When the head is full on account of superabundance of long upright branches, cut a maximum of three points ; as these faults are less pronounced reduce the cuts until for slight de- fects on these accounts a maximum cut of one-half point should be given. 2. Prolificacy In considering the fruitfulness of a plant or set of plants the term prolificacy can be used only in a relative sense. The plant possessing the greater number of bolls should be given a rating of ten, or perfect in this respect ; while others should be cut more or less severely as the number of bolls they bear fall below that of the standard. The single or cluster arrange- ment of bolls should vary with the typical habit of the variety — som.e varieties are cluster-bearers, while others are noted for bearing bolls singly. Uniformity in which the bolls are arranged on any exhibit should be made the standard. Give an exhibit absolutely uniform in this respect five points. As others are more or less irregular in this respect cut from one to four points on the score card. 252 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 3. Bolls Next in importance to prolificacy or nnnibor of bolls is their size, shape, and manner of opening. Large bolls yield more cotton to the boll than do small ones. There is also a differ- ence in the average size of the bolls on different plants of any single variety. The preference should be given to the plants bearing the larger bolls, provided, of course, the increase in size fully compensates for the decrease in number. Let the judge of any set of exhibits strike an average in size of the bolls on three of the largest boiled stalks shown and use this as his standard. Now, as plants are judged for size of bolls, where bolls are only slightly below the standard cut from one-half to one point. As this departure becomes more marked the cuts should be more severe, vmtil the maximum cut of four points should be made for a plant whose bolls are less than one-half the standard size. The shape or form should be true to that peculiar to the particular variety shown. Uniformity in shape or form in plants and fruit shows good breeding, and also suggests ability to transmit desirable qualities to the progeny. Consequently, it is of value to the plant breeder. Give the plant whose bolls are all of one form or shape consistent with that of the variety a rating of five points. As the bolls are of different shapes cut from one to four points as the number departing greatly from the variety shape increases. The way in which the mature bolls open is of importance. The opening should be such as to make the cotton easy to pick, but at the same time it should not be such as to cause shed- ding of lint. For the best opening bolls give the plant a rating of five points. If the opening is only fair, make a cut of from one to two, and when it is poor cut from three to four points. 4. Yield of Seed Cotton Yield of seed cotton while depending on the three qualities already discussed, that is, the right kind of plant and a suffi- ciently large number of bolls of good size and shape, should RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 253 have considerable weight in fixing the value or superior rating of any cotton exhibit. After the exhibit has been rated as to prolificacy and size of bolls, select a fixed number, say ten average sized bolls, already opened, pick the seed cotton from these bolls, determine the yield from these bolls, and then with this average calculate the yield from the entire ten plants constituting the exhibit. Give the best-yielding lot a rating of 20 points. Then as others yield less and less give them a maximum of 15 points. 5. Per Cent, of Lint After the total yield has been rated attention must be given to the per cent, of lint produced by the different lots of cotton to be judged. This is given a possible rating of 20 points, which should be assigned only to samples showing not less than 35 per cent, of the lint to seed cotton. For each and every i per cent, below 35 the sample should be given a cut of one point. Thus if a sample should show only 25 per cent, lint, it should receive a cut of 10 points, which deducted from the possible score of 20 points, indicating perfection, leaves only ID points to the credit of the sample. The per cent, of lint should be determined by taking the contents of a few bolls from each sample, placing them in the sun or, better, a dry room for a period sufficiently long to bring the samples to a uniform point of dryness ; after which the lint should be removed from the seed by hand, after which each should be carefully weighed and the percentages calcu- lated. 6. Quality of Lint Quality of lint is assigned a possible rating of ten points on the score card. These are divided up as follows : Length, 2^ points ; fineness, "Z^/z ; purity, 2^ ; uniformity as to length, fine- ness, purity, and freedom from faulty fibers, 2^ points. Of course, these scores are intended only to offer means or stand- ards by which the different exhibits may be compared. There- fore, when there is a point about which there seems to be un- certainty, the most perfect sample can well be given the highest 254 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE OFFICIAL CORN SCORE CARD (After Holden) Name of scorer. Sample No ■ Date Place. Table I. Tiueness to type or breed I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3. Purity of color— a. Grain 5 i. Cob 5 4. Vitality or seed condition 10 5- Tips 5 7. Kernels, a. uniformity of 10 t. Shape of 5 9. Circumference of ear. .. . 5 10. Space — a. Furrows be- tween rows 5 i i. Space between ker- nels at cob 5 11. Proportion of corn to cob 10 REASONS FOR CUTS RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 255 score obtainable for tliat point ; then the others sliould be rated as they approach the standard fixed by this best sample. Thus, for the longest lint give two and a half points, and the same for the finest, also that showing the greatest de- gree of purity, and also for the greatest uniformity. Then as other samples fall short in any one or all these respects, cut accordingly. This score card is not intended as a final and inflexible yard- stick by which the merits of cotton of various types shall be measured throughout years to come, but rather as a temporary one to be used only until a better and more suitable one is suggested. EXPLANATION OF POINTS IN CORN JUDGING 1. Trueness to type or breed characteristics ; 10 points — The ten ears in the sample should possess similar or like character- istics and should be true to the variety which they represent. 2. Shape of ear; 10 points — The shape of the ear should conform to the variety type. Ears should be full and strong in central portion, and not taper too rapidly toward the tip, indicating strong constitution and good yield. 3. Purity of color: (a) Grain; five points — Color of grain should be true to variety and free from mixture. For one or two mixed kernels, a cut of one-fourth point; for four or more mixed kernels, a cut of one-half point should be made. Dif- ferences in shade of color, as light or dark red, white or cream color, must be scored according to variety character- istics, (b) Cob; five points — An ear with white cob in yellow corn or red cob in white corn should be disqualified or marked zero. This mixture reduces the value of the corn for seed purposes, indicates lack of purity, and tends toward a too wide variation in time of maturity, size and shape of kernels, etc. 4. Vitality or seed condition; 10 points — Corn should be in good market condition, show good constitution, being capable of producing strong, vigorous growth and yield. 5. Tips; five points — The form of tip should be regular; kernels near tip should be of regular shape and size. The proportion of tip covered or filled must be considered. Long 256 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE pointed tips, as well as blunt, flattened, or double tips, are ob- jectionable. 6. Butts; five points — The rows of kernels should extend in regular order over the butt, leaving a deep depression when the shank is removed. Open and swelled butts, pressed and flat butts with flattened, glazed kernels, are objectionable and must be cut according to the judgment of the scorer. 7. Kernels: (a) uniformity of, 10 points; (b) shape of, five points — The kernels should be uniform in shape and size'^ making it possible to secure uniformity in dropping with the planter, and consequently a good stand. The kernels should also be not only uniform in individual ear, but uniform with each ear in the sample. They should be uniform in color and true to variety type. The kernels should be so shaped that their edges touch from tip to crown. The tip portion of the kernel is rich in protein and oil, and hence of high feeding value. Kernels with a large germ insure strong, vigorous growth as well as richness in quality of kernel. 8. Length of ear; 10 points — The length of ear varies ac- cording to variety type and the characteristics sought for by the individual breeder. Uniformity in I'ength is to be sought for in a sample, and a sample having even lengths of ears should score higher than one that varies, even if it be within the limits. Usual lengths of ears, 8^^ to 12 inches. Very long ears are objectionable because they usually have poor butts and tips, broad shallow kernels, and hence a low percentage of corn to cob. 9. Circumference of ear ; five points — The points made on length of ear, differing with variety types, hold true also in circumference of ear. The circumference of the ear should be in symmetry with its length. An ear too great in circum- ference for its length is generally slow in maturing, and too frequently results in soft corn. Dimensions should be from 6H to 9 inches in circumference. Measure the circumference at one-third the distance from the butt to the tip of the ear. 10. (a) Furrows between rows; five points — The furrows be- tween the rows of kernels should be of sufficient size to permit the corn to dry out readily, but not so large as to lose pro- portion of corn to cob. (b) Space between tips of kernels at RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 257 cob; five points — This is very objectionable, as it indicates im- maturity, weak constitution, and poor feeding value. II. Proportion of corn to cob; 10 points — The proportion of corn is determined by weight. Depth of kernels, size of cob, maturity, furrows and space at cob, all affect the proportion. In determining the proportion of corn to cob, weigh and shell every alternate ear in exhibit. Weigh the cobs and subtract from weight of ears, giving weight of corn ; divide the weight of corn by total weight of ears, which will give the per cent. of corn. Per cent, of corn should be from 86 to 87. For each per cent, short of standard a cut of 1^/2 points should be made. Each sample should consist of ten ears of corn. 258 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Bureau of Animal Industry Dairy Dh'ision SANITARY INSPECTION OF CITY MILK PLANTS Owner or manager; Trade name: City: Street and No.: State: jMilk Number of w.igons : Gallons sold daily ' <. f Cream, Permit or license No.: Date of inspection: < 190 Score Remarks ' Perfect Allowed MILK ROOM 10 Construction — 10 10 1 \ IS J \ 20 1 |,. Light and ventilation Equipment — A rrangement (3) Durability (2) MILK Storage (8) SALES ROOM WAGONS Total 1 00 Sanitary conditions are — Excellent : Good ; Suggestions by inspector :. Fair; Poor : Sii^td : Inspector, RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 259 WAGONS General Appearance. — If painted and in good repair, allow 2 points; for fair condition, i ; poor, o. Protection of Product. — If product is iced, allow 3 points; well protected but not iced, i ; no protection, o. Cleanliness. — If perfectly clean, allow 5; good, 3; fair, 2; poor, o. DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING FLAVOR If rich, sweet, clean, and pleasant flavor and odor, score perfect (40). De- duct for objectionable flavors and odors according to conditions found. COMPOSITION If 20 per cent, fat or above, score perfect (25). Deduct i point for each Yi per cent, fat below 20. BACTERIA Less than 10,000 per cubic centimeter. 20 (perfect). Over 10,000 anu less than 25,000 per cubic centimeter 19 Over 25,000 and less than 50,000 per cubic centimeter 18 Over 50,000 and less than 75,000 per cubic centimeter 17 Over 75,000 and less than 100,000 per cubic centimeter 16 Deduct I point for each 25,000 above 100,000. When an unusually large number of liquefying bacteria are present, further deduction should be made according to conditions found. ACIDITY If 0.2 per cent, or below, score perfect (5). Deduct i point for each o.oi per cent, above 0.2. (If Mann's test is used, discontinue adding indicator on first appearance of a pink color.) APPEARANCE OF PACKAGE AND CONTENTS If package is clean, free from metal parts, and no foreign matter can be detected in the contents, and physical condition of product is good, score per- fect (10). Make deductions according to conditions. DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING cows Condition. — Allow 2 if in good flesh. Deduct according to conditions. Health. — Allow 2 if apparently healthy. Deduct for indications of disease. Comfort. — Allow 2 for good conditions. Deduct i for poor (t CONGRESS \